Test Bank for Theories of Personality , 11th Edition Duane P. Schultz

TEST BANK

Chapter 1—Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. We research theories of personality to: a. establish one of them as superior amongst all. b. describe their use for real-world problems. c. show how personality theories are superior to any other theories. d. generalize that all people are the same across cultures.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Take a Look at the Word REF: 2 FEEDBACK: We discuss research conducted on these theories of personality to describe their use for real-world problems of diagnosis and therapy. It's important to recognize that personality theorists from the last century rarely considered the importance of ethnic and cultural differences.

2. Which of the following is true about personality? a. Personality is a characteristic exhibited by only a few people. b. Personality can limit or expand the choices one has in life. c. Personality is characterized by most psychologists as either terrific or terrible. d. Personality remains constant in all circumstances.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Take a Look at the Word REF: 2 FEEDBACK: Your personality can limit or expand your options and choices in life, prevent you from sharing certain experiences, or enable you to take full advantage of them. It restricts, constrains, and holds back some people and opens up the world of new opportunities to others.

3. Which of the following statements can be used to sum up personality? a. Personality is how we perceive ourselves and also how others perceive us. b. Personality shows that we are deterministic, mechanical, and do not change throughout our lives. c. Personality is entirely the reflection of fantasies and past recollections of repressed memories. d. Personality is entirely based on how we were treated during our childhood years.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Take a Look at the Word REF: 4 FEEDBACK: One psychologist suggested that we can get a very good idea of the meaning of personality if we examine our intentions—what we mean—whenever we use the word I. Our personality can also be defined in terms of the impression we make on others—that is, what we appear to be.

4. Around 1500, the Latin word persona was used to refer to: a. a person's mechanistic behavior. c. a mask used by actors in a play. b. predictable and automatic responses. d. a robe worn by noblemen.

ANS: C

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Take a Look at the Word REF: 4 FEEDBACK: The word personality goes back to about the year 1500 and derives from the Latin word persona, which refers to a mask used by actors in a play. It's easy to see how persona came to refer to our outward appearance, the public face we display to the people around us.

5. Identify a true statement about an individual's personality. a. It can be stable and predictable. c. It is based on personal traits and behavior. b. It is generally resistant to sudden changes. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Take a Look at the Word REF: 5 FEEDBACK: We assume that personality is relatively stable and predictable. Sometimes our personality can vary with the situation. Yet although it is not rigid, it is generally resistant to sudden changes.

6. The personality of an individual is _____. a. completely based on self-perception b. unstable and unpredictable

c. a unique cluster of characteristics d. determined at birth and stays unchanged

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Take a Look at the Word REF: 6 FEEDBACK: Personality is an enduring and unique cluster of characteristics that may change in response to different situations. We see similarities among people, yet we sense that each of us possesses special properties that distinguish us from all others.

7. Which of the following is true of people using social networking sites, such as Facebook? a. They tend to portray an idealized self-image of themselves. b. They feel they are able to express their true selves. c. They have a tendency to present themselves as much more emotionally stable. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality and the Social Media REF: 6 FEEDBACK: Increasingly, many of us display another face, not in person, but through the Internet on social networking Web sites such as Facebook. Some research suggests that most people are honest about their online faces. A recent large-scale study in Germany found that many people have a tendency to present themselves online as being much more emotionally stable than they really are (Blumer & Doring, 2012).

8. Research that was conducted in diverse countries, such as the Netherlands, Serbia, Hong Kong, and Korea, suggests that those who have a high level of social network use are _____ than those who use it less. a. more introverted b. less irritable c. less anxious d. more emotionally stable

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality and the Social Media REF: 7 FEEDBACK: Psychologists have found that the use of online social networking sites like Facebook can both shape and reflect our personalities. Studies conducted in such diverse countries as the Netherlands, Serbia, Hong Kong, and Korea have demonstrated that those who reported excessive use of social media tend to be more lonely, introverted, and low in self-esteem than those who use it less.

9. Which of the following is true of the personality differences among cell phone users as discovered by research? a. Those who were less conscientious spent more time texting than those who were more conscientious. b. Individuals with a weak sense of self-identity spent much more time making calls than individuals who scored higher on that personality characteristic. c. Those who were shy spent less time texting when compared to those who were extraverted. d. Introverts spent much more time changing their ring tones and wallpapers than extraverts.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality and the Social Media REF: 8 FEEDBACK: Studies found that those who were more neurotic and less conscientious and shy spent more time texting on their phones than those who were less neurotic and more conscientious. Research involving teenagers and adults in Australia found that extraverts and those with a strong sense of self-identity spent much more time making calls and changing their ring tones and wallpaper than those scoring lower on these personality characteristics.

10. In the past, _____ were more likely to be used in research on personality theory. a. White women c. White men b. Latino men d. Black men ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Race and Gender in Shaping Personality REF: 8 FEEDBACK: In the field of personality theory, virtually all the patients and subjects the earlier theories were based on were White. Also, the majority of the patients and subjects were men. Yet, the personality theorists confidently offered theories that were supposed to be valid for all people, regardless of gender, race, or ethnic origin.

11. Which of the following is true of the assumptions made by early personality theorists? a. Personality theories were valid for all people, regardless of gender and race. b. Siblings growing up together had highly identical personality types. c. Social and environmental forces do not have any effect on shaping personality. d. A person's ethnic background largely influences his or her personality.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Race and Gender in Shaping Personality REF: 8 FEEDBACK: The personality theorists confidently offered theories that were supposed to be valid for all people, regardless of gender, race, or ethnic origin. Although the theorists accepted, to some degree, the importance of social and environmental forces in shaping personality, they tended to ignore or

minimize the influence of gender and ethnic background.

12. Girls and boys are usually reared according to: a. the norms of the neighborhood where they were raised. b. the explicit wishes of the grandparents. c. books on parenting. d. traditional stereotypes.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Race and Gender in Shaping Personality REF: 9 FEEDBACK: We know that boys and girls are usually reared according to traditional gender stereotypes, and this upbringing also influences personality in different ways. Research has documented many differences between men and women on specific personality factors.

13. The research conducted by Barrett, Lane, Sechrest, and Schwartz (2000) suggests that: a. men are more concerned with what people think of them than women do. b. women exhibit greater emotional complexity than men. c. women are more resistant to emotional disorders than men. d. men are more likely to suffer from anxiety than women.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Race and Gender in Shaping Personality REF: 9 FEEDBACK: One large-scale study of the intensity of emotional awareness and expression compared male and female college undergraduates at two American universities and male and female students at medical schools in the United States and in Germany. The results showed that women from both countries displayed greater emotional complexity and intensity than did men (Barrett, Lane, Sechrest, & Schwartz, 2000).

14. Which of the following statements is true of research on the effect of culture in shaping personality? a. European Americans displayed a far greater number of negative emotions than did the Asian Americans. b. Recent Chinese immigrants to Canada scored significantly higher in extraversion than those who have been living for past ten or more years. c. Brain wave activity in response to a particular visual stimulus has been found to be the same among people from all cultures. d. In general, people from Western cultures are more optimistic than people from Eastern cultures.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality REF: 9 FEEDBACK: Western people in general, and Americans, in particular, also exhibit greater optimism and view themselves and their future more positively. They even consider their sports teams, cities, and friends to be superior, when compared to those of Asian cultures (Endo, Heine, & Lehman, 2000).

15. The concept of karma: a. may be seen as a deterministic view of human nature by Buddhists. b. emphasizes free choice and action. c. encourages an active, rebellious personality type. d. has shaped the beliefs of many Islamic communities.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality REF: 10 FEEDBACK: The concept of karma has for centuries shaped the outlook of the people of India and other countries that accept Hinduism or Buddhism. It may be seen as a fatalistic and deterministic view of human nature.

16. A person from a collectivist society is more likely to focus on: a. group values. c. competitiveness. b. assertiveness. d. self-enhancement.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality REF: 10 FEEDBACK: In an individualistic society, the focus is on personal freedom, choice, and action. In a collectivist society, the focus is on group norms and values, group role expectations, and other cultural constraints on behavior.

17. Identify a cultural difference between individualism and collectivism. a. The levels of anxiety and depression have been found to be higher in collectivistic cultures than in the individualistic ones. b. Individualism has traditionally been encouraged in Asian cultures. c. Collectivism has traditionally been encouraged in Western cultures. d. The levels of anxiety and depression have been found to be lower in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic ones.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality REF: 10 FEEDBACK: Individual competitiveness and assertiveness are often seen as undesirable and contrary to Asian cultural standards. Western cultures are typically depicted as the opposite. Genetic differences between people in collectivistic versus individualistic cultures have been linked to lower levels of anxiety and depression in collectivistic cultures and higher levels in individualistic cultures.

18. A study on child-rearing practices in different cultures and their effects on personality concluded that: a. restrictive parental practices adversely affected the mental health and emotional well-being of Arab teenagers. b. the effect child-rearing practices have on the development of personality is neutralized by the time an individual reaches adolescence. c. parents in individualistic cultures tended to be noncoercive, democratic, and permissive. d. Chinese mothers living in Canada were found to be less authoritarian in raising their children than non-Chinese mothers in Canada.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality REF: 11 FEEDBACK: In the individualistic culture of the United States, parents tend to be noncoercive, democratic, and permissive in their child-rearing techniques. In collectivist cultures, such as Asian and Arab societies, parental practices tend to be more authoritarian, restrictive, and controlling.

19. Which of the following is true of self-enhancement? a. It is prevalent among Nordic cultures. c. It is defined as the tendency to make one conspicuous. b. It is defined as the process of d. It is genetically induced and determined at administering rewards or punishments to birth. oneself.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality REF: 11 FEEDBACK: Self-enhancement is defined as the tendency to promote oneself aggressively and make one conspicuous. The opposite of that, self-effacement, is considered to be more in agreement with the cultural values of Asian and Nordic societies.

20. Which of the following is a problem limiting the applicability of cross-cultural personality research? a. Much less research has been conducted on c. The majority of the research on personality in English-speaking countries personality has been done on children and than in Latin America. the aged in Latin America. b. Much of the personality research that has d. The majority of the research on been done in other languages have not personality conducted in the been made widely available in English-speaking countries has not been English-language sources. well-documented until very recently.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality REF: 12 FEEDBACK: Much less research has been conducted on personality in African and South American nations than in English-speaking countries, or in many of the countries of Europe and Asia. Also, much of the research that has been conducted among those populations has not been made widely available in English-language sources.

21. A limiting factor in the applicability of cross-cultural research of personality is that subjects: a. demand exorbitantly high amounts to participate in research studies. b. easily conform to how a researcher wants them to respond. c. are mostly American college students. d. are mostly children and adolescents in treatment.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality REF: 12 FEEDBACK: A problem limiting the applicability of cross-cultural personality research is that the majority of studies in personality use American college students as subjects. Much less research has been conducted on personality in African and South American nations than in English-speaking countries, or in many of the countries of Europe and Asia.

22. Which of the following is true of the principle of reliability that is used in personality assessment? a. It involves the consistency of response to an assessment device. b. It is an indicator of the validity of an assessment technique. c. It is an assessment device measuring what it is expected to measure. d. It involves selecting the most accurate score from a group of results.

ANS: A

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 13 FEEDBACK: Reliability involves the consistency of response to an assessment device. It is common to find some slight variation in scores when a test is taken a second time, but if the variation is large, then something is wrong with the test or with the method of scoring it.

23. Which question best clarifies the meaning of validity? a. Has the test been taken by many people? b. Does the student know what is on the test? c. Does the test measure what it is intended to measure? d. Are the results of the test consistent?

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 13 FEEDBACK: Validity refers to whether an assessment device measures what it is intended to measure.

If a test does not measure what it claims to, then it is not valid and its results cannot be used to predict behavior.

24. Which of the following approaches to personality assessment involves asking people to give an account of and answer questions about their behavior and feelings in various situations? a. Behavioral assessment procedures c. Experience sampling procedures b. Projective techniques d. Self-report personality tests ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 14 FEEDBACK: The self-report inventory or test approach involves asking people to report on themselves by answering questions about their behavior and feelings in various situations. These tests include items dealing with symptoms, attitudes, interests, fears, and values.

25. The most widely used self-report personality test is the: a. Rorschach Inkblot Technique. c. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. b. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality d. Thematic Apperception Test.

Inventory.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 14 FEEDBACK: The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) has been translated into more than 140 languages and is the world's most widely used psychological test. The MMPI is a true-false test that consists of 567 statements.

26. In 1992, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-A (MMPI-A) was developed for use with _____. a. adults c. children b. adolescents d. illiterates ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality

REF: 14 FEEDBACK: In 1992, the MMPI-A was developed for use with adolescents. The number of questions was decreased from 567 to 478, to reduce the time and effort needed to administer it.

27. For which of the following is the MMPI is not appropriate? a. For those with lower intelligence c. For children b. For those with lower reading skills d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 15 FEEDBACK: Although there are self-report inventories to assess many facets of personality, the tests are not always appropriate for people whose level of intelligence is below normal, or for those with limited reading skills. Even minor changes in the wording of the questions or the response alternatives on self-report measures can lead to major changes in the results.

28. Self-report measures of personality are advantageous because: a. they are designed to be taken by both children and adults. b. they are designed for people of all ranges of intelligence. c. they are designed and automated to be scored quickly. d. they are designed for people with all ranges of reading ability.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 15 FEEDBACK: Despite the problems involved in self-report inventories, these still remain the most objective approach to personality assessment. Their greatest advantage is that they are designed to be scored objectively and quickly through automated personality assessment programs, providing a complete diagnostic profile of the test-taker's responses.

29. A main reason for administering an online self-report inventory is that: a. it prevents test-takers from looking ahead at questions. b. the scoring is highly subjective. c. it allows test-takers to change answers already given. d. the method is easily understood by children.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 16 FEEDBACK: It has been found that most of us are significantly more likely to reveal sensitive, even potentially embarrassing, information when responding online to self-report inventories than to paper-and-pencil tests given in person by a live test administrator. Understandably, many people feel a greater sense of anonymity and privacy when interacting with a computer and so reveal more personal information.

30. Projective techniques are used to assess personality by: a. having individuals associate personal needs, fears, and values onto an ambiguous stimulus. b. observing the behavior of individuals in a given situation. c. talking to individuals being evaluated and asking relevant questions about problems that led them to seek psychological help. d. recording individuals' thoughts and providing samples over a period of time.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 16 FEEDBACK: The theory underlying projective techniques is that when we are presented with an ambiguous stimulus, like an inkblot or a picture that can be interpreted in more than one way, we will project our innermost needs, fears, and values onto the stimulus when we're asked to describe it.

Because the interpretation of the results of projective tests is so subjective, these tests are not high in reliability or validity.

31. A projective test of personality: a. clearly describes an objective assessment of personality. b. has low inter-scorer reliability and validity. c. was initially based on the behavioral theory of personality. d. is consistent across circumstances and individuals taking the test.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 16 FEEDBACK: Because the interpretation of the results of projective tests is so subjective, these tests are not high in reliability or validity. It is not unusual for different people giving the test to form quite different impressions of the same person, based on the results of a projective test. In such a case, the inter-scorer reliability of the test is low.

32. In research for the Rorschach, conclusions on validity and reliability are _____. a. mixed c. absolute b. highly consistent d. largely positive ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 17 FEEDBACK: There is no universal agreement about the Rorschach's usefulness and validity, even with the Comprehensive System for scoring. Some researchers have concluded that there is no scientific basis for the Rorschach; others insist that the test is as valid as any other personality assessment measure.

33. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective technique that _____. a. is a highly valid and reliable test b. is highly objective and easy to interpret c. consists of 19 ambiguous pictures and 1 blank card d. consists of multiple-choice and true-false questions ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 18 FEEDBACK: Two popular projective tests are the Rorschach Inkblot Technique and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). There are no objective scoring systems for the TAT, and its reliability and validity are low when used for diagnostic purposes.

34. The Rorschach Inkblot Technique: a. was an instant success at the time of its publication. b. is used to objectively interpret the values, needs, and fears of a person.

c. can be used with greater confidence than the MMPI for ethnic minority groups. d. is rated lower than the MMPI in validity research.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 18 FEEDBACK: Overall, validity research is generally more supportive of the MMPI than of the Rorschach. Thus, the MMPI can be used with greater confidence, especially for ethnic minority groups and diverse cultural groups.

35. The Thematic Apperception Test was developed by: a. Sigmund Freud. c. Carl Jung. b. Morgan and Murray. d. John Watson.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 18 FEEDBACK: Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan developed the TAT (Morgan & Murray, 1935).

The test consists of 19 ambiguous pictures, showing one or more persons, and 1 blank card.

36. In thought and experience assessment, _____. a. response words are analyzed for their commonplace or unusual nature b. subjects are asked relevant questions about the problems that led them to seek psychological help c. subjects are presumed to project personal needs, fears, and values onto their interpretation or description of an ambiguous stimulus d. the observer and the person being observed are the same ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 19 FEEDBACK: In thought and experience assessment, the observer and the person being observed are the same. Because thoughts are private experiences and cannot be seen by anyone else, the only person who can make this type of observation is the individual whose thoughts are being studied.

37. In the context of assessment of personality, identify a true statement about research on gender and ethnic issues. a. Girls exhibit higher levels of depression than boys in the same age group. b. Women tend to score lower than men on tests measuring assertiveness. c. Women are more often diagnosed with depression than are men. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 20 FEEDBACK: Whatever the cause, personality test results often show differences between males and females on a number of characteristics and at every age. For example, women tend to score lower than men on tests measuring assertiveness and a study of 474 children, median age 11, reported that girls showed a higher level of depression and a greater concern with what other people thought of them than boys did.

38. In the context of the effect of ethnicity on personality assessment, Asians _____. a. tend to score low on collectivism b. tend to view any form of mental disorder as a shameful condition c. tend to avoid self-effacement and view it negatively d. tend to score low on self-criticism ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 21 FEEDBACK: Asian Americans tend to view any form of mental disorder as a shameful condition that they are embarrassed to admit. As a result, they are less likely to seek treatment from a therapist or counselor for emotional problems.

39. In the context of the ethnic issues that affect personality assessment, Hispanics tend to: a. constantly seek therapy compared to Whites and other minority groups. b. never follow up on their first visit by returning for additional sessions. c. avoid doctors who are from the same ethnic and racial background as themselves. d. keep their distress hidden and only reveal this distress to close family members.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 21, 22 FEEDBACK: Asian Americans tend to view any form of mental disorder as a shameful condition that they are embarrassed to admit. As a result, they are less likely to seek treatment from a therapist or counselor for emotional problems. Among Hispanics who do seek counseling, half never follow up on their first visit by returning for additional sessions (Dingfelder, 2005).

40. Which of the following statements characterizes the Hispanic population with respect to personality assessment? a. Hispanics tend to seek help for their mental condition from personnel of other ethnicities in order to avoid potential embarrassment in their own community. b. Hispanics are highly individualistic and tend to score high on self-enhancement. c. Compared to Blacks, Hispanics score considerably higher on suspicion and lack of trust in other people. d. Compared to Whites, there is a higher rate of PTSD symptoms among Hispanic civilian survivors with physical injuries.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 23 FEEDBACK: A study of civilian survivors with physical injuries also found a higher rate of PTSD symptoms among Hispanics as compared to Whites. The collectivist orientation may help explain the higher rates of PTSD found in a study of Hispanic police officers when compared to Black officers and non-Hispanic White officers.

41. Which of following is true of the problems regarding the cross-cultural application of personality assessment techniques? a. Responding to questions in a true-false format or multiple-choice format, which is natural to American college students, may be an awkward or alien way of answering in other cultures. b. The TAT cannot be used effectively in Nordic cultures because of the Nordic prohibitions against representing humans in pictorial form.

c. Due to the ongoing ethnic tensions in the Arab world, there has been a steady decline in the number of personality tests, developed in America, being successfully translated into Arabic. d. People of European origin may reflect mistrust or interpersonal wariness due to pervasive discrimination and perceived racism.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 24 FEEDBACK: Although some personality tests have been translated for use in other cultures, there are potential problems with their cross-cultural application. Responding to items in a true-false format or multiple-choice format seems natural to American college students, who have been taking these types of tests since childhood. To others, it may be an awkward and alien way of answering questions.

42. In the context of the clinical method used in personality research, a _____ refers to a detailed history of an individual that contains data from a variety of sources. a. primary disclosure document c. consent form b. white paper d. case study ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research in the Study of Personality REF: 24 FEEDBACK: The major methods used in personality research are the clinical method, the experimental method, virtual research, and the correlational method. The primary clinical method is the case study or case history, in which psychologists probe their patients' past and present lives for clues to the source of their emotional problems.

43. In the context of the personality research methods, _____ is a technique for determining the effect of one or more variables on behavior. a. an experiment c. a projective test b. a case study d. a clinical observation ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research in the Study of Personality REF: 25 FEEDBACK: An experiment is a technique for determining the effect of one or more variables or events on behavior. When psychologists want to determine the effect of just one stimulus variable, they arrange an experimental situation in which only that variable is allowed to operate.

44. In experimental research, the _____ variable is the one manipulated by the experimenter. a. independent c. external b. dependent d. internal ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research in the Study of Personality REF: 25 FEEDBACK: There are two kinds of variables in an experiment. One is the independent or stimulus variable, which is the one manipulated by the experimenter. The other is the dependent variable, which is the subjects' behavior in response to that manipulation.

45. Online or virtual research is advantageous because:

a. b. c. d.

there are objective and reliable sources, such as Wikipedia. online samples are almost truly representative of a population as a whole. studies conducted on the Web are cheaper and lead to faster responses. subjects provide honest and accurate answers related to questions about age, race, and income.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research in the Study of Personality REF: 27 FEEDBACK: Virtual research offers advantages over traditional experimental research. Studies conducted on the Web produce faster responses, are less costly, and have the potential to reach a broader range of subjects of different ages, levels of education, employment, income, social class, and ethnic origin.

46. The correlational method of research: a. employs inkblots to assess an individual's psychological makeup. b. involves exposing one of two groups to the stimulus variable. c. requires people to describe ambiguous pictures to understand how they feel and think. d. measures the relationship between two variables.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research in the Study of Personality REF: 27 FEEDBACK: Correlation method is a statistical technique that measures the degree of the relationship between two variables, expressed by the correlation coefficient. Rather than manipulating an independent variable, the experimenters deal with the variable's existing attributes.

47. The primary limitation of the correlation method deals with: a. solving the highly complex results. c. determining cause and effect. b. using statistical analysis. d. analyzing the experimental variables.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research in the Study of Personality REF: 28 FEEDBACK: The primary limitation of the correlational method relates to the matter of cause and effect. Just because two variables show a high correlation with each other, we cannot conclude that one has caused the other.

48. Which of the following is true about the role of theories in the study of personality? a. Theories disrupt the order data brings in, helping to create more possibilities. b. Theories often turn out to be contradictions of reality. c. Theories provide vague, abstract, and speculative ideas. d. Theories help us to understand, predict, and change behavior.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Theory in Personality Theories REF: 30 FEEDBACK: Theories should help us to understand and predict behavior. Those theories that can be tested and can explain, understand, and predict behavior may then be applied to help people change their behaviors, feelings, and emotions from harmful to helpful, from undesirable to desirable.

49. _____ refers to the view that personality is basically fixed in the early years of life and subject to little change thereafter. a. Natural selection c. Attribution theory b. Historical determinism d. Social exchange theory ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature: What Are We Like?

REF: 32 FEEDBACK: According to historical determinism, our personality is mostly fixed by the age of 5 or so and is subject to little change over the rest of our life. The adult personality is determined by the nature of these early experiences.

TRUE/FALSE 1. Personality accounts for the large and small ways in which an individual is different from everybody else.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Take a Look at the Word REF: 1 FEEDBACK: Personality is everything about us that makes us what we are are—unique individuals who are different, in large and small ways, from everybody else. According to a standard dictionary definition, personality is defined as the characteristics and qualities that form a person's distinctive character.

2. Those who feel they are able to express their true selves are more active on Facebook and other social media sites than those who do not feel that way about themselves.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality and the Social Media REF: 6–7 FEEDBACK: It has also been found that those who feel they are able to express their true selves are more active on Facebook and other social media sites than those who do not feel that way about themselves (Seidman, 2014). Increasingly, many of us display another face, not in person, but through the Internet on social networking Web sites such as Facebook.

3. Rearing of girls and boys according to traditional gender stereotypes plays a major role in shaping their personalities in different ways.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Race and Gender in Shaping Personality REF: 9 FEEDBACK: Boys and girls are usually reared according to traditional gender stereotypes, and this upbringing also influences personality in different ways. Research has documented many differences between men and women on specific personality factors.

4. The reliability of assessment techniques is concerned with whether a test measures what it is intended to measure.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 13 FEEDBACK: Reliability involves the consistency of response to an assessment device. Validity refers to whether an assessment device measures what it is intended to measure.

5. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is considered a projective measure of personality assessment.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 14 FEEDBACK: There are a number of self-report personality tests in use today, but one of the most useful is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The MMPI is a true-false test that consists of 567 statements.

6. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is not appropriate for people with limited reading skills.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 15 FEEDBACK: Although there are self-report inventories to assess many facets of personality, the tests are not always appropriate for people whose level of intelligence is below normal, or for those with limited reading skills. Even minor changes in the wording of the questions or the response alternatives on self-report measures can lead to major changes in the results.

7. A test-taker tends to make himself or herself appear acceptable and socially desirable on a self-report inventory.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 15 FEEDBACK: There is the tendency for test-takers to give answers that appear to be more socially desirable or acceptable, particularly when they are taking tests as part of a job application. When a group of college students took a self-report test with instructions to make themselves appear as good, or as socially acceptable, as possible, they were more careful with their answers and took longer to complete the test than students who were not deliberately trying to look good.

8. Self-report inventories remain the most objective approach to personality assessment.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 15 FEEDBACK: Self-report inventories remain the most objective approach to personality assessment.

Their greatest advantage is that they are designed to be scored objectively and quickly through automated personality assessment programs, providing a complete diagnostic profile of the test-taker's responses.

9. Online testing is less expensive and less time-consuming than conventional classroom tests.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 16 FEEDBACK: Online testing is less expensive and less time-consuming than conventional classroom tests for both an applicant and an organization. Many employers prefer that job applicants take tests this way as a prescreening method, rather than taking up time and space at the company's office.

10. Significant differences in responses to most self-report inventories have been found between paper-and-pencil tests and the same tests administered online.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 16 FEEDBACK: No significant differences in responses to most self-report inventories have been found between paper-and-pencil tests and the same tests administered online. It has also been found that most of us are significantly more likely to reveal sensitive, even potentially embarrassing, information when responding online to self-report inventories than to paper-and-pencil tests given in person by a live test administrator.

11. Projective tests are highly accurate and objective in their ability to describe personality.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 16 FEEDBACK: Because the interpretation of the results of projective tests is so subjective, these tests are not high in reliability or validity. It is not unusual for different people giving the test to form quite different impressions of the same person, based on the results of a projective test.

12. Although projective tests have low reliability and low validity, they are still widely used for assessment and diagnostic purposes.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 16 FEEDBACK: It is not unusual for different people giving the projective test to form quite different impressions of the same person, based on the results of a projective test. In such a case, the inter-scorer reliability of the test is low. Nevertheless, these tests are widely used for assessment and diagnostic purposes.

13. The Rorschach Inkblot tests, unlike the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), can be widely used for ethnic minorities.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 18 FEEDBACK: The MMPI can be used with greater confidence, especially for ethnic minority groups

and diverse cultural groups. Overall, validity research is generally more supportive of the MMPI than of the Rorschach.

14. Clinical interviews are more systematic than formal behavioral assessment procedures.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 19 FEEDBACK: In clinical interviews, counselors routinely observe their clients' behavior—considering, for example, facial expressions, nervous gestures, and general appearance—and use that information in formulating their diagnoses. Such observations are less systematic than formal behavioral assessment procedures, but the results can provide valuable insights.

15. Men are more often diagnosed with depression than are women.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 20 FEEDBACK: Women are more often diagnosed with depression, anxiety, and related disorders than are men. There actually may be a higher incidence of these disorders among women, or the differential rate may be related to gender bias or gender stereotyping in interpreting the assessment results.

ESSAY 1. Discuss the various ways in which personality can be defined.

ANS: One psychologist suggested that we can get a very good idea of the meaning of personality if we examine our intentions—what we mean—whenever we use the word I. The word I is what defines an individual, separate from everybody else.

Another way of trying to understand personality is to look to its source. Personality is derived from the Latin word persona, which refers to a mask used by actors in a play. Based on its derivation, then, we might conclude that personality refers to our external and visible characteristics, those aspects of us that other people can see. Our personality would then be defined in terms of the impression we make on others—that is, what we appear.

We may in our use of the word personality refer to enduring characteristics. We assume that personality is relatively stable and predictable. Sometimes our personality can vary with the situation.

Yet although it is not rigid, it is generally resistant to sudden changes.

The definition of personality may also include the idea of human uniqueness. We see similarities among people, yet we sense that each of us possesses special properties that distinguish us from all others. Personality is an enduring and unique cluster of characteristics that may change in response to different situations.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Take a Look at the Word REF: 4–6 2. Discuss the ways in which the use of social media and an individual's personality affect each other.

ANS: Our increasing, almost constant use of the various social media to interact with other people in a virtual reality rather than in person has led to a great deal of recent research which attempts to relate our personalities to the online world in which we now live. The three ways in which the use of social media and our personality have been found to affect each other are as follows:

a. Our virtual depiction: Some research suggests that most people are honest about their online faces.

Studies conducted in the United States and in Germany found that social networking sites do convey accurate images or impressions of the personality profiles we offer. The researchers concluded that depictions of personalities presented online are at least as accurate as those conveyed in face-to-face interactions. Research has found that more women than men send selfies and that excessive use of them can make the sender less likeable and even reduce the intimacy or closeness of friendships. They can even reinforce the idea that how people look is more important than how they actually behave in real life toward their friends. We are not always honest in how we depict ourselves in person either, particularly when we meet new people we want to impress, like a date or an employer. With people we have known for a while, with whom we feel secure, and who represent no threat, we may be less likely to pretend to be something we are not. Perhaps the major difference with social networking sites is that there is a much wider and more instantly reachable audience than in our everyday offline lives. b. Effect of social media on personality: Psychologists have found that the use of online social networking sites like Facebook can both shape and reflect our personalities. One study of adolescents in China aged 13 to 18 found that excessive time spent using the Internet resulted in significant levels of anxiety and depression when compared to teenagers who spent considerably less time online. An online survey of college students in the United States showed that those who spent time talking with their parents on the telephone had more satisfying personal and supportive relationships with them than students who kept in touch with the parents through social networking sites. In addition, college students who communicated with their parents on social networking sites reported greater loneliness, anxiety, and conflict in their relationships with their parents. c. Effect of personality on social media: In addition to affecting our personalities, social networking sites can also reflect them. Studies in both Eastern and Western cultures found that those who were more extraverted and narcissistic (who had an inflated, unrealistic self-concept) were much more likely to use Facebook than those who did not score high on those personality characteristics.

The more narcissistic teenagers were also more likely to update their Facebook status more frequently.

Other studies suggest that those who report high use of social networking sites tend to be more extraverted, more open to new experiences, lower in self-esteem and socialization skills, less conscientious, and lower in emotional stability than those who report lower levels of usage.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality and the Social Media REF: 6–8 3. Discuss the roles of race, gender, and culture in shaping personality.

ANS: Despite their disagreements and divergences, however, all personality theorists share certain defining characteristics in common. All are White, of European or American heritage, and almost all are men. At the time, nearly all of the great advances in the arts, philosophy, literature, and the sciences, including the development of the scientific methods, were propounded and promoted by White men of European or American background. In most fields, educational and professional opportunities for women and people of ethnic minority groups were severely limited. In addition, in the field of personality theory, virtually all the patients and subjects the earlier theories were based on were also White. Even the laboratory rats were white. Also, the majority of the patients and subjects were men. Although the theorists accepted, to some degree, the importance of social and environmental forces in shaping personality, they tended to ignore or minimize the influence of gender and ethnic background.

Individual competitiveness and assertiveness are often seen as undesirable and contrary to Asian cultural standards. Western cultures are typically depicted as the opposite. For example, when college students in Australia were compared with college students in Japan, the Australians were found to emphasize the importance of individuality much more than the Japanese, who were more oriented toward the collective or the group. People in individualistic cultures show greater extraversion, self-esteem, happiness (or subjective well-being), optimism about their future, and a belief in their ability to control and direct it. For example, one massive study of over 400 million people in 63 countries found that the personality trait of individualism was strongly and consistently related to

positive well-being. The impact on behavior and personality of cultural differences in child-rearing practices is also substantial. In the individualistic culture of the United States, parents tend to be noncoercive, democratic, and permissive in their child-rearing techniques. In collectivist cultures, such as Asian and Arab societies, parental practices tend to be more authoritarian, restrictive, and controlling. Nordic cultures such as Norway, Sweden, and Denmark provide another example of cultures encouraging self-effacement. The cultural concept of Janteloven enjoins people not to place their own interests above those of their community and to show humility in the presence of others. A comparison of college students in the United States and Norway found that the Americans rated themselves significantly higher than average on positive personality traits and lower than average on negative traits than the Norwegian students did.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Race and Gender in Shaping Personality, The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality REF: 8–12 4. Define the terms reliability and validity. List the major approaches of personality assessment.

ANS: Reliability can be defined as the consistency of response to a psychological assessment device.

Validity refers to whether an assessment device measures what it is intended to measure. If a test does not measure what it claims to, then it is not valid and its results cannot be used to predict behavior.

The major approaches to personality assessment are as follows: a. Self-report or objective inventories b. Projective techniques c. Clinical interviews d. Behavioral assessment procedures e. Thought and experience sampling procedures PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessing Your Personality REF: 13–14 5. How have personality theories been shaped by the life experiences of the personality theorists?

ANS: Psychologists have long recognized that some personality theories have a subjective component, which may reflect events in the theorist's life as a sort of disguised autobiography. The theorist may draw on these events as a source of data to describe and support his or her theory. No matter how hard scientists try to be impartial and objective, their personal viewpoint is likely to influence their perception to some degree. This should not surprise us. Personality theorists are human too, as we will see, and like most of us they sometimes find it hard to accept ideas that diverge from their own experience. Perhaps it is not the person's life experiences that influence the development of the theory.

Maybe it's the other way around. Perhaps the theory influences what the theorists remember and choose to tell us about their lives. Much of our information about a theorist's life comes from autobiographical recollections. These accounts are usually written late in life, after the person has proposed and defended the theory.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Role of Theory in Personality Theories REF: 30

Chapter 2—Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Sigmund Freud's theory of personality and system of therapy for treating mental disorders is known as _____. a. psychosomatics c. psychoanalysis b. psychomeditation d. psychiatry ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 37 FEEDBACK: Sigmund Freud's theory of personality and system of therapy for treating mental disorders is known as psychoanalysis. This system was the first formal theory of personality and is still the best known.

2. During his childhood, Freud revealed a deep sense of _____ toward his mother. a. hatred c. dependence b. attachment d. anger ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Freud (1856–1939) REF: 38 FEEDBACK: Freud's mother was very attractive and she was extremely protective and loving toward Sigmund, her first son. Freud felt a passionate, even sexual, attachment to her, a relationship that set the stage for his concept of the Oedipus complex.

3. Freud believed _____ to be the primary cause of all neuroses. a. sexual conflicts c. unresolved guilt b. hating one's parents d. frequent illness in childhood ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Freud (1856–1939) REF: 39 FEEDBACK: After several years in clinical practice, Freud was increasingly convinced that sexual conflicts were the primary cause of all neuroses. He claimed that the majority of his women patients reported traumatic sexual experiences from their childhoods.

4. Paradoxical to his own theory, Freud believed that the sex act was _____. a. holy c. uplifting b. degrading d. impressive ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Freud (1856–1939) REF: 40 FEEDBACK: It is a paradox that Freud, who emphasized the importance of sex in emotional life, experienced so many personal sexual conflicts. The sex act was degrading, he wrote, because it contaminated both mind and body.

5. Which of the following statements is true of Freud's opinion of America?

a. He refused to accept any formal recognition from the American psychological community. b. He complained about America's informality, although it helped bring him worldwide fame. c. He founded the American Psychoanalytic Association and the New York Psychoanalytic Society. d. He cherished his visit to the United States and spoke highly of its way of life.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Freud (1856–1939) REF: 42 FEEDBACK: In 1909, Freud received formal recognition from the American psychological community. He was invited to give a series of lectures at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, and to receive an honorary doctoral degree. Although grateful for the honor, Freud did not like the United States, and complained about its informality, bad cooking, and scarcity of bathrooms.

6. According to Freud, _____ are the motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction. a. fantasies c. defense mechanisms b. moral beliefs d. instincts ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 43 FEEDBACK: Freud wrote that instincts were the basic elements of the personality, the motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction. Instincts are a form of energy—transformed physiological energy—that connects the needs of the body with the wishes of the mind.

7. Freud's German term for the motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction is: a. Trieb. c. Mentalität. b. Druck. d. Bedarf.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 43 FEEDBACK: Freud wrote that instincts were the basic elements of the personality, the motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction. Freud's German term for this concept is Trieb, which is a driving force or impulse.

8. Which of the following statements is true of instincts as described by Freud? a. An instinct is a state of physiological c. The aim of an instinct is to satisfy a need excitation or energy. and thereby reduce feelings of tension. b. When the body is in a state of need, a d. It is always possible to escape the pressure person experiences a feeling of calmness. of our physiological needs.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 43 FEEDBACK: When the body is in a state of need, the person experiences a feeling of tension or pressure. The aim of an instinct is to satisfy the need and thereby reduce the tension.

9. On which of the following is Freud's theory as a homeostatic approach based?

a. Balance and equilibrium b. Homosexuality and heterosexuality

c. Sexual fantasies from childhood d. None of these are correct.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 43 FEEDBACK: When the body is in a state of need, a person experiences a feeling of tension or pressure. Freud's theory is therefore a homeostatic approach, meaning that we are motivated to restore and maintain a condition of physiological equilibrium, or balance, to keep the body free of tension.

10. Which of the following is the exclusive source of energy for human behavior? a. Personal opinions c. Instincts b. Ego d. Id ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 43 FEEDBACK: Although the instincts are the exclusive source of energy for human behavior, the resulting energy can be invested in a variety of activities. This helps explain the diversity we see in human behavior.

11. According to Freud, what are the two primary types of instincts? a. Sex and habits c. Food and hunger b. Life and death d. Pleasure and desire ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: Freud grouped the instincts into two categories: life instincts and death instincts. The life instincts serve the purpose of survival of the individual and the species. The death instincts relate to the unconscious drive toward decay, destruction, and aggression.

12. According to Freud, _____ serve the purpose of survival of the individual and the species by seeking to satisfy the needs for food, water, air, and sex. a. peak experiences c. needs for esteem and social recognition b. life instincts d. organismic valuing processes ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: Freud grouped the instincts into two categories: life instincts and death instincts. Life instincts are the drive for ensuring survival of the individual and the species by satisfying the needs for food, water, air, and sex.

13. According to Freud, _____ is the form of psychic energy, manifested by the life instincts, that drives a person toward pleasurable behaviors and thoughts. a. libido c. catharsis b. cathexis d. mood ANS: A PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: The psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido. The libido can be attached to or invested in objects, a concept Freud called cathexis.

14. According to Freud, _____ refers to the investment of psychic energy in an object or person. a. libido c. instinct b. cathexis d. aggressive drive ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: The psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido. The libido can be attached to or invested in objects, a concept Freud called cathexis. Cathexis is an investment of psychic energy in an object or person.

15. Freud regarded _____ as our primary motivation. a. sex c. fear b. reliability d. morality ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: Freud regarded sex as our primary motivation. He suggested that people are predominantly pleasure-seeking beings, and much of his personality theory revolves around the necessity of inhibiting or suppressing our sexual longings.

16. Freud considered _____ as compelling a part of human nature as sex. a. passion c. aggression b. morality d. resistance ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: One component of the death instincts is the aggressive drive, which Freud saw as the wish to die turned against objects other than the self. Freud came to consider aggression as compelling a part of human nature as sex.

17. Later in Freud's life, _____ and _____ affected him deeply and thus became major themes in his theory as well as in his in own life. a. death; aggression c. sex; fantasies b. conflicts; disagreements d. disease; helplessness ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: Freud developed the notion of the death instincts later in his life, as a reflection of his own experiences. As a result, death and aggression became major themes in his theory, and in his own life as well.

18. The _____ includes all the sensations and experiences of which we are aware at any given moment.

a. conscious b. preconscious

c. postconscious d. unconscious

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Levels of Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: The conscious, as Freud defined the term, corresponds to its ordinary everyday meaning. It includes all the sensations and experiences of which we are aware at any given moment.

19. The preconscious: a. describes our dream life. b. is stored in the pre-frontal cortex of the brain. c. describes our values and morals. d. is the storehouse for our memories, thoughts, and perceptions.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Levels of Personality REF: 45 FEEDBACK: Between the two levels of the conscious and the unconscious is the preconscious. This is the storehouse of all our memories, perceptions, and thoughts of which we are not consciously aware at the moment but that we can easily summon into consciousness.

20. In the context of the structure of personality, the preconscious resides within: a. the id. c. the superego. b. the ego. d. both the id and the superego.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Structure of Personality REF: 45 FEEDBACK: The preconscious is the storehouse of all our memories, perceptions, and thoughts of which we are not consciously aware at the moment. A growing child is taught to deal intelligently and rationally with other people and the outside world and to develop the powers of perception, recognition, judgment, and memory. These powers are contained in the ego.

21. Of the three levels of personality, the _____ strives for immediate satisfaction of its needs and does not tolerate delay or postponement of satisfaction for any reason. a. mirror self c. ego b. id d. superego ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Structure of Personality REF: 46 FEEDBACK: The three basic structures in the anatomy of the personality are the id, the ego, and the superego. The id strives for immediate satisfaction of its needs and does not tolerate delay or postponement of satisfaction for any reason. It knows only instant gratification; it drives us to want what we want when we want it, without regard for what anyone else wants.

22. The ego-ideal, which is the second part of the superego, consists of: a. those behaviors for which children are punished. b. good or correct behaviors for which children are praised. c. the reality principle and its strivings for the ideal ego.

d. ideals and principles the ego has rejected.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Structure of Personality REF: 47 FEEDBACK: The superego consists of a set of forces—a powerful and largely unconscious set of dictates or beliefs—that we acquire in childhood: our ideas of right and wrong. The second part of the superego is the ego-ideal, which consists of good, or correct, behaviors for which children have been praised.

23. Freud made _____ an important part of his personality theory, asserting that it is fundamental to the development of all neurotic and psychotic behavior. a. pleasure c. disgust b. guilt d. anxiety ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego REF: 47 FEEDBACK: Freud made anxiety an important part of his personality theory, asserting that it is fundamental to the development of all neurotic and psychotic behavior. He suggested that the prototype of all anxiety is the birth trauma.

24. In children, temper tantrums, manipulating parents, and destructive behaviors are formed in the: a. latency stage. c. oral stage. b. phallic stage. d. anal stage.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development REF: 54 FEEDBACK: In the anal stage, if the toilet training of a child is not going well, the child may react in one of two ways. To Freud, the first reaction was the basis for many forms of hostile and sadistic behavior in adult life, including cruelty, destructiveness, and temper tantrums. The second reaction produces a feeling of erotic pleasure (derived from a full lower intestine, Freud said) and can be a successful technique for manipulating the parents.

25. Which of the following is true in the context of penis envy as described by Freud? a. Woman have underdeveloped sex organs and capacities compared to men. b. Unlike men, women can never be fully developed until they have a female child. c. Girls can have a poorly developed superego due to the female Oedipus complex. d. Boys can have an inferiority complex, more so than girls, as a result of penis envy.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development REF: 56 FEEDBACK: According to Freud, a girl develops penis envy, which is a counterpart to a boy's castration anxiety. This female Oedipus complex, Freud suggested, can never be totally resolved, a situation he believed led to poorly developed superegos in women.

26. The purpose of Freud's techniques of dream analysis and free association: a. is to evaluate, assess, or find the unconscious. b. is to depict humans in gloomy, pessimistic terms.

c. is to eliminate a patient's set of sexual desires and wants. d. is to suppress sexual tensions and frustrations.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Freud's Theory REF: 58 FEEDBACK: The goal of Freud's system of psychoanalysis was to bring the repressed memories, fears, and thoughts in the unconscious back into conscious awareness. To evaluate, assess, or even find this invisible portion of the mind in this dark arena that is otherwise inaccessible to us, Freud developed two methods of assessment: free association and dream analysis.

27. All of the following are associated with Freud's investigation of the unconscious except: a. free association. c. resistances. b. dream analysis. d. questionnaires.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Freud's Theory REF: 58, 59 FEEDBACK: To evaluate, assess, or even find the unconscious, which is the invisible portion of the mind and a dark arena that is otherwise inaccessible to us, Freud developed two methods of assessment: free association and dream analysis. In free association, a resistance is a blockage or refusal to disclose painful memories.

28. Freud's techniques of assessment: a. exclude dreams of a sexual basis. b. rely heavily on self-report inventories.

c. reveal a great deal of repressed material. d. focus on conscious experiences.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Freud's Theory REF: 60 FEEDBACK: The Freudian assessment techniques—free association and dream analysis—reveal to the psychoanalyst a great deal of repressed material, but all of it is in disguised or symbolic form.

29. Freud's research can be criticized for all of the following points except: a. he did not look deeply into the psyche. b. his data was not gathered in a systematic fashion. c. he made very few attempts to verify the accuracy of his patients' reports. d. his sample of subjects was small and unrepresentative of the general population.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 60, 61 FEEDBACK: A fundamental criticism of Freud's case studies involves the nature of his data. It does not rely on objective observation, the data are not gathered in systematic fashion. Freud made few attempts to verify the accuracy of a patient's stories. Another criticism of Freud's research is that it is based on a small and unrepresentative sample of people.

30. Freud used the case study method for his psychological research. One of the disadvantages of this method is that: a. he used a small and unrepresentative sample of those he studied. b. it was impossible to probe into his patients' childhood years.

c. he could not find consistencies and patterns, which were important to develop his theory. d. it could not point out any particular causal factor in neurotic behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 61 FEEDBACK: A criticism of Freud's research is that it is based on a small and unrepresentative sample of people, restricted to himself and those who sought psychoanalysis with him. It is difficult to generalize from this limited sample to the population at large.

31. One problem with Freud's published case histories is that they: a. simply repeat the notes he took during the sessions with patients. b. are based primarily on statements made under hypnosis. c. sometimes differ from the notes he made after each session with a patient. d. are based primarily on dream analyses.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 61 FEEDBACK: There were discrepancies between Freud's notes on his therapy sessions and the case histories he published, which supposedly were based on these notes. The published version of a particular case did not agree with the notes Freud made after his sessions with the patient.

32. Attempts at scientifically validating Freudian concepts indicate that: a. not one of Freud's ideas has scientific support. b. almost all of Freud's ideas have scientific support. c. there is scientific support for only some of Freud's ideas. d. Freudian ideas cannot be investigated scientifically.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 62 FEEDBACK: In the years since Freud's death, many of his ideas have been submitted to experimental testing. An analysis of some 2,500 studies evaluated the scientific credibility of some of Freud's ideas.

In this evaluation, case histories were not considered.

33. Freud's concepts of the ego, id, and libido: a. have a high degree of objectivity. b. have great credibility.

c. are reinforced and supported in research. d. could not be tested experimentally.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 62 FEEDBACK: Researchers found that some Freudian concepts—notably the id, ego, superego, death wish, libido, and anxiety—could not be tested by the experimental method. Every effort was made to restrict the investigation to data thought to have a high degree of objectivity.

34. Much research on the nature of the unconscious involves _____ in which stimuli are presented to people below their level of conscious awareness. a. catharsis c. subliminal perception b. cathectic attachment d. sublimation

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 63 FEEDBACK: Much research on the nature of the unconscious involves subliminal perception in which stimuli are presented to people below their level of conscious awareness. The word subliminal derives from "sub," meaning below, and "limen," meaning threshold.

35. Which of the following Freudian ideas has not been supported by research? a. The personality being subject to little change after age five b. The existence of verbal "Freudian" slips c. The existence of the unconscious d. The defense mechanism of repression ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 71 FEEDBACK: Freud proposed that personality was formed by about the age of 5 and was subject to little change after that. However, although there is no denying that our first 5 years of life affect our personality, it is now obvious that personality continues to develop well beyond that time.

36. An example of a Freudian slip would be: a. "Oops, I forgot to lock the door!" b. "Is my slip showing?" c. "The fact that I lost my wallet came as a sham dock to me!" d. "I thought I brought my car keys with me, but I left them at home."

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 71 FEEDBACK: According to Freud, what appears to be ordinary forgetting or a casual lapse in speech is actually a reflection of unconscious motives or anxieties. This is known as the Freudian slip. An example of this is the mention of "sham dock" instead of "damn shock" as seen in the following statement: "The fact that I lost my wallet came as a sham dock to me!"

37. Childhood sexual abuse: a. can be debilitating through life and, in reality, is more widespread than Freud envisioned. b. is removed out of a person's awareness and later reliably recovered. c. can result from the occurrence of Freudian slips. d. is to be ignored and dismissed as unreal by a therapist counseling a victim.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 73 FEEDBACK: It is important to keep in mind that childhood sexual abuse does occur. It is a haunting reality for many people and far more widespread than Sigmund Freud envisioned in the 19th century.

The effects can be debilitating.

38. Identify a true statement in the context of Loftus's studies concerning false memories. a. A therapist could implant false memories knowingly or unknowingly. b. A person's memories can't always be judged as true.

c. "Repressed" memories of childhood may not be accurate in reality. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 73 FEEDBACK: Elizabeth Loftus concluded that overall, there is little support for the notion that trauma is commonly banished out of awareness and later reliably recovered by processes beyond ordinary forgetting and remembering. There can be no doubt that memories for factually fake as well as impossible, or at least highly improbable, horrific traumatic events were developed or implanted, particularly among persons subjected to suggestive memory recovery procedures.

39. Which of the following statements is true of Anna Freud? a. She rejected Freud's theory of psychoanalysis and developed her own, distinct theory. b. She had a happy childhood and was her mother's favorite child. c. She became the only one of Freud's six children to follow in his path. d. She was held in high regard by her siblings and spent most of her time with them.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Extensions of Freudian Theory REF: 73 FEEDBACK: Anna Freud was an unhappy child who was jealous of the older sister favored by her mother and was ignored by her other siblings. Despite that beginning, she became the only one of Freud's six children to follow in his path.

40. Anna Freud's 4 years of psychoanalysis with her father led one of the historians to call this: a. "an experience of being bored and left c. "odd states of mind not intelligible to alone." consciousness." b. "an impossible and incestuous treatment." d. "collections of marginally neurotic episodes."

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Extensions of Freudian Theory REF: 73 FEEDBACK: At 22, Anna Freud began 4 years of psychoanalysis with her father. One historian called it "an impossible and incestuous treatment . . . an Oedipal acting-in at both ends of the couch."

41. In her analysis with her father, Anna Freud reported dreams of: a. shooting, killing, and dying. c. betraying her father to his enemies. b. intense hate for her father and siblings. d. her longing for other women.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Extensions of Freudian Theory REF: 74 FEEDBACK: At 22, Anna began 4 years of psychoanalysis with her father. In her analysis, Anna Freud reported violent dreams involving shooting, killing, and dying, as well as defending her father from his enemies.

42. When presenting a paper entitled Beating Fantasies and Daydreams, Anna Freud: a. described the experiences of one of her maids. b. spoke of a respectful relationship between a father and his daughter.

c. related her own fantasies of a physical beating. d. questioned Sigmund Freud's role as her father.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Extensions of Freudian Theory REF: 74 FEEDBACK: Anna Freud joined the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, presenting a paper entitled Beating Fantasies and Daydreams. Although she claimed to be describing the experiences of a patient, she was actually relating her own fantasies. She spoke of an incestuous love relationship between father and daughter, a physical beating, and sexual gratification through masturbation.

43. In the series of dreams that Anna Freud had about her father many years after his death, the main role was played by: a. her mother. c. her older sister. b. her love for her teachers. d. her father's longing for her.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Extensions of Freudian Theory REF: 74 FEEDBACK: Several years after her father died, Anna Freud described a series of dreams she had about him. "He is here again. All of these recent dreams have the same character: the main role is played not by my longing for him but rather his longing for me."

44. Anna Freud's analytic work was with: a. children. b. adults.

c. the youth. d. the elderly.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Extensions of Freudian Theory REF: 74 FEEDBACK: Whereas Sigmund Freud had worked only with adults, attempting to reconstruct their childhoods by eliciting their recollections and analyzing their fantasies and dreams, Anna worked only with children.

45. What were Sigmund Freud's views on Anna's work on child analysis? a. He disapproved of her work as it c. He stated that her views were obtained contradicted his theory. from his work on adults. b. He did not share her views on child d. He believed she developed her views out analysis. of her own independent experience.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Extensions of Freudian Theory REF: 74 FEEDBACK: In 1927, Anna Freud published Four Lectures on Child Analysis. Sigmund Freud approved of her work: "Anna's views on child analysis are independent of mine; I share her views, but she has developed them out of her own independent experience."

46. According to Anna Freud, which of the following is true of the ego? a. It tries to compromise between the id and reality. b. It serves as a bridge between the id and primary-process thought. c. It depends on both the primary-process thought and the secondary-process thought.

d. It operates independently of the id.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Extensions of Freudian Theory REF: 74 FEEDBACK: Anna Freud substantially revised orthodox psychoanalysis by greatly expanding the role of the ego, arguing that the ego operates independently of the id. This was a major extension of the Freudian system that involved a fundamental and radical change.

47. Anna Freud is known for her theory of: a. Freudian psychoanalysis. b. id, ego, and superego identity.

c. ego psychology. d. object relations.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Extensions of Freudian Theory REF: 74 FEEDBACK: Anna Freud proposed refinements in The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense, published in 1936, in which she clarified the operation of the defense mechanisms. The book received widespread praise and is considered a basic work on ego psychology. This is only one of her significant contributions to psychoanalytic theory.

48. Which of the following is true of Freud's system of psychoanalytic therapy? a. Freud's system of psychoanalytic therapy remains more influential than his theory of personality. b. Freudian psychoanalysts in China have been offering training programs to a growing number of psychoanalysts in East Asia. c. Psychoanalysis as a therapeutic technique has declined in popularity, particularly in the United States. d. Traditional psychoanalytic sessions over the Internet have experienced a sharp decline.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Freud's Theory REF: 75 FEEDBACK: Freud’s theory of personality remains more influential than his system of psychoanalytic therapy. Although research on Freud's ideas and experimental tests of his concepts continue to be plentiful, psychoanalysis as a therapeutic technique has declined in popularity, particularly in the United States.

49. Which of the following is true of the system of psychotherapy, which was developed by Sigmund Freud? a. In some European countries, traditional face-to-face psychoanalytic sessions have now replaced online sessions. b. Growing numbers of people are against seeking therapy for behavioral and emotional problems. c. Fewer numbers of people are choosing the expensive, long-term approach Freud developed. d. Longer courses of therapy lasting several years, which focus on holistic care, have become the norm.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Freud's Theory

REF: 75 FEEDBACK: Growing numbers of people are seeking therapy for behavioral and emotional problems, but fewer are choosing the expensive, long-term approach Freud developed. Briefer courses of therapy, lasting from 1 to 15 sessions, have become the norm, along with the increasing use of psychotherapeutic drugs.

50. The trend away from orthodox psychoanalysis in the United States has also been reinforced by the _____ to total health care. a. long-term approach b. managed-care approach c. pragmatic approach d. companionship approach ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Freud's Theory REF: 75 FEEDBACK: The trend away from orthodox psychoanalysis in the United States has also been reinforced by the managed-care approach to total health care. It is considerably less costly for insurance companies to approve a treatment regimen that involves simply prescribing a drug rather than a course of psychoanalysis that might last several years.

51. All of the following are valid criticisms of Freudian psychoanalysis except that: a. Freud failed to consider the impact of biological forces. b. Freud's definitions are somewhat ambiguous. c. Freud did not study emotionally healthy persons. d. Freud focused too much on past behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Freud's Theory REF: 75 FEEDBACK: In addition to the flaws in the case study approach, Freud's primary method of research, some argue that Freud placed too great an emphasis on instinctual biological forces as determinants of personality.

52. Which of the following is a criticism of Freudian psychoanalysis by personality theorists? a. We have more free will than Freud acknowledged, and we can choose to act and grow spontaneously. b. We are influenced by our experiences before age 5 more than by the future that holds our hopes and plans. c. To develop a theory of human personality, only the healthy, positive human qualities need to be studied. d. Freud paid too much attention to the psychologically healthy and emotionally mature, to the exclusion of the emotionally disturbed.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Freud's Theory REF: 75–76 FEEDBACK: Some theorists disagree with Freud's deterministic view of human nature, suggesting that we have more free will than Freud acknowledged, and that we can choose to act and grow spontaneously, and to be in at least partial control of our fate. These theorists argue that we are also influenced by the future, by our hopes and plans, as much as or more than by our experiences before age 5.

TRUE/FALSE 1. The stimuli for instincts, according to Freud, include hunger and thirst.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 43 FEEDBACK: The stimuli for instincts—hunger and thirst, for example—are internal. When a need such as hunger is aroused in the body, it generates a state of physiological excitation or energy.

2. The libido includes hormones secreted in the pancreas of the body.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: The life instincts are oriented toward growth and development. The psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido. The libido can be attached to or invested in objects.

3. Much of Freud's personality theory revolves around the necessity of inhibiting or suppressing our sexual longings.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: Freud regarded sex as our primary motivation. Erotic wishes arise from the body's erogenous zones. He suggested that people are predominantly pleasure-seeking beings, and much of his personality theory revolves around the necessity of inhibiting or suppressing our sexual longings.

4. Freud's concept of the death instincts achieved only limited acceptance as part of the personality.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality REF: 44 FEEDBACK: The concept of the death instincts achieved only limited acceptance, even among Freud's most dedicated followers. One psychoanalyst wrote that the idea should be "relegated to the dustbin of history."

5. The ego is the reservoir for the libido and instincts.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Structure of Personality REF: 45 FEEDBACK: The id corresponds to Freud's earlier notion of the unconscious. The id is the reservoir for the instincts and libido.

6. The pleasure principle operates and functions primarily as part of the id.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Structure of Personality REF: 46 FEEDBACK: The id operates in accordance with what Freud called the pleasure principle. Through its concern with tension reduction, the id functions to increase pleasure and avoid pain.

7. Primary-process thought is believed to function within the ego.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Structure of Personality REF: 46 FEEDBACK: The id has no awareness of reality. The only ways the id can attempt to satisfy its needs are through reflex action and wish-fulfilling hallucinatory or fantasy experience, which Freud labeled primary-process thought.

8. In everyday language, we call the internal morality a conscience.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Structure of Personality REF: 47 FEEDBACK: In everyday language, we call the internal morality—a powerful and largely unconscious set of dictates or beliefs—a conscience. Freud called it the superego. The second part of the superego is the ego-ideal, which consists of good, or correct, behaviors for which children have been praised.

9. Neurotic anxiety manifests in adulthood and is a conflict between the id and the superego.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego REF: 47, 48 FEEDBACK: Neurotic anxiety has its basis in childhood, in a conflict between instinctual gratification and reality. Neurotic anxiety involves a conflict between the id and the ego; moral anxiety involves a conflict between the id and the superego.

10. Moral anxiety results from a conflict between the id and the superego.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego REF: 48 FEEDBACK: Moral anxiety results from a conflict between the id and the superego. In essence, it is a fear of one's conscience.

11. According to Freud, defense mechanisms are conscious forms of reality.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Defenses against Anxiety REF: 49 FEEDBACK: Although defense mechanisms vary in their specifics, they share two characteristics in

common: (1) they are all denials or distortions of reality—necessary ones, but distortions nonetheless, and (2) they all operate unconsciously.

12. Reaction formation is a voluntary addition of something to our unconscious awareness.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Defenses against Anxiety REF: 49 FEEDBACK: Repression is an involuntary removal of something from conscious awareness. Reaction formation involves expressing an id impulse that is the opposite of the one truly driving a person.

13. Once repression is operating, it is difficult to eliminate.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Defenses against Anxiety REF: 49 FEEDBACK: Once repression is operating, it is difficult to eliminate. Because we use repression to protect ourselves from danger, in order to remove it, we would have to realize that the idea or memory is no longer dangerous.

14. Projection can be described as blaming some else for one's own impulses.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Defenses against Anxiety REF: 50 FEEDBACK: A way of defending against disturbing impulses is to project them on to someone else.

This defense mechanism is called projection.

15. In Freud's psychosexual stages of development, each developmental stage has a conflict that must be resolved before the infant or child can progress to the next stage.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development REF: 51–52 FEEDBACK: Freud sensed strong sexual conflicts in the infant and young child, conflicts that seemed to revolve around specific regions of the body. From this information, he derived his theory of the psychosexual stages of development; each stage is defined by an erogenous zone of the body. In each developmental stage, a conflict exists that must be resolved before the infant or child can progress to the next stage.

16. The anal stage of development can be used as a weapon by a child against his or her parents.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development REF: 54 FEEDBACK: As any parent can attest, the anal stage is a time of conflict for everybody. Children learn that they have a weapon that can be used against their parents. The child has control over something and can choose to comply or not with the parents' demands.

17. A person who is stubborn or stingy may be described as an oral retentive person.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development REF: 54 FEEDBACK: One of the ways a child may react to the frustration of toilet training is to hold back or retain the feces. Parents may become worried, even frantic, if the child goes days without a bowel movement. Thus, the child discovers a new method for securing parental attention and affection. This behavior is the basis for the development of an anal retentive personality. Such a person becomes stubborn and stingy and hoards or retains things.

18. A person who is rigid, compulsively neat, obstinate, and overly conscientious as an adult, may have started reacting this way in the anal stage of psychosexual development.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development REF: 54 FEEDBACK: One of the ways a child may react to the frustration of toilet training is to hold back or retain the feces. Parents may become worried, even frantic, if the child goes days without a bowel movement. Thus, the child discovers a new method for securing parental attention and affection. This behavior is the basis for the development of an anal retentive personality. The anal retentive person is likely to be rigid, compulsively neat, obstinate, and overly conscientious.

19. Children at the latency stage are fixated on their genitals and sexual pleasure.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development REF: 54 FEEDBACK: A new set of problems arises around the fourth to fifth year, when the focus of pleasure shifts from the anus to the genitals. This stage is called the phallic stage. Children at the phallic stage display considerable interest in exploring and manipulating the genitals, their own and those of their playmates.

20. In Freud's theory, we human beings are depicted in gloomy, pessimistic terms, condemned to a struggle with our inner forces, which we are almost always destined to lose.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 57 FEEDBACK: Freud did not present us with a flattering or optimistic image of human nature. He argued that each person is a dark cellar of conflict in which a battle is continually raging. Human beings are depicted in gloomy, pessimistic terms, condemned to a struggle with our inner forces, which we are almost always destined to lose.

21. In Freud's system, there is only one ultimate and necessary goal in life: to increase the release of sexual fantasies from the unconscious to the conscious.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature

REF: 57 FEEDBACK: In Freud's system, there is only one ultimate and necessary goal in life: to reduce tension. On the nature–nurture issue, Freud adopted a middle ground.

22. Freud held a "free will" point of view, not a deterministic point of view.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 58 FEEDBACK: On the issue of free will versus determinism, Freud held a deterministic view: Virtually everything we do, think, and even dream is predetermined by the life and death instincts, the inaccessible and invisible forces within us.

23. Dream analysis and free association were the main techniques that Freud used in order to bring repressed memories, fears, and thoughts back to the level of conscious awareness.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Freud's Theory REF: 58 FEEDBACK: The goal of Freud's system of psychoanalysis was to bring those repressed memories, fears, and thoughts back into conscious awareness. Over the course of his work with patients, Freud developed two methods of assessment: free association and dream analysis.

24. According to Freud's theory, resistance involves a patient refusing to take any medication.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Freud's Theory REF: 59 FEEDBACK: In free association, some experiences or memories were evidently too painful to talk about, and the patient would be reluctant to disclose them. Freud called these moments resistances.

25. Freud's major research method was the case study.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Criticisms of Freud's Research REF: 60 FEEDBACK: Freud's major research method was the case study, which has several limitations. A case study is a detailed history of an individual that contains data from a variety of sources.

ESSAY 1. The id seems to be the impulsive side of a person, and the ego is the controlling side that helps balance the impulsive acts of the id. The superego functions as the moral control in relation to the id and the ego. Give a real-life example of a person struggling with a frustrating problem and how the id, ego, and the superego would respond to the anxiety in this person.

ANS: Students' answers will vary.

The id is the reservoir for the instincts and libido. Because the id is the reservoir of the instincts, it is vitally and directly related to the satisfaction of bodily needs. Reason or rationality is contained in

Freud's second structure of personality, the ego, which is the rational master of the personality. Its purpose is not to thwart the impulses of the id but to help the id obtain the tension reduction it craves.

Because the ego is aware of reality, however, it decides when and how the id instincts can best be satisfied. There is also a third set of forces—a powerful and largely unconscious set of dictates or beliefs—that we acquire in childhood: our ideas of right and wrong. Freud called it the superego.

For example, Jane would like to go dancing with two of her male friends (involves the id). However, she knows that using two boys for one date would create conflict (involves the ego); and she knows this might be socially wrong to do (involves the superego).

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Structure of Personality REF: 45, 46, 47 2. According to Freud, what is the purpose of anxiety?

ANS: Anxiety serves as a warning to the person that something is amiss within the personality.

Anxiety induces tension in the organism and thus becomes a drive that the individual is motivated to satisfy. The tension must be reduced. Anxiety alerts the individual that the ego is being threatened and that unless action is taken, the ego might be overthrown.

How can the ego protect or defend itself? There are a number of options: running away from the threatening situation, inhibiting the impulsive need that is the source of the danger, or obeying the dictates of the conscience. If none of these rational techniques works, the person may resort to defense mechanisms—the nonrational strategies designed to defend the ego.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego REF: 48–49 3. Give definitions and examples for the following defense mechanisms: (a) projection, (b) reaction formation, and (c) sublimation.

ANS: Students' answers will vary. (a) Projection: It is a defense mechanism that involves attributing a disturbing impulse to someone else. Lustful, aggressive, and other unacceptable impulses are seen as being possessed by other people, not by oneself. For example, a person says, in effect, "I don't hate him. He hates me." (b) Reaction Formation: It is a defense mechanism that involves expressing an id impulse that is the opposite of the one that is truly driving the person. For example, a person who feels threatened by sexual longings may become a rabid crusader against pornography. (c) Sublimation: It is a defense mechanism that involves altering or displacing id impulses by diverting instinctual energy into socially acceptable behaviors. For example, sexual energy can be diverted or sublimated into artistically creative behaviors.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Defenses against Anxiety REF: 50, 51 4. How does Freud justify the necessity of defense mechanisms to mental health?

ANS: Defense mechanisms are unconscious denials or distortions of reality. We are lying to ourselves when we use these defenses, but we are not aware of. If the defenses are working well, they keep threatening or disturbing material out of our conscious awareness. As a result, we may not know the truth about ourselves. We may have a distorted picture of our needs, fears, and desires.

There are situations in which the truth about ourselves emerges, when our defenses break down and fail to protect us. This occurs in times of unusual stress. If we knew we were lying to ourselves, the

defenses would not be so effective. When the defenses fail, we are stricken with overwhelming anxiety. We feel dismal, worthless, and depressed. Unless the defenses are restored, or new ones formed to take their place, we are likely to develop neurotic or psychotic symptoms. Thus, according to Freud, defenses are necessary to our mental health. We could not survive long without them.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Defenses against Anxiety REF: 51 5. List the different stages of childhood according to Freud's theory of psychosexual development.

Mention the ages in which these stages occur, and discuss the important characteristics of each stage.

ANS: Freud sensed strong sexual conflicts in the infant and young child, conflicts that seemed to revolve around specific regions of the body. From these observations, he derived his theory of the psychosexual stages of development; each stage is defined by an erogenous zone of the body. In each developmental stage, a conflict exists that must be resolved before the infant or child can progress to the next stage.

1. Oral stage: The oral stage, the first stage of psychosexual development, lasts from birth until some time during the second year. During this period, the infant's principal source of pleasure is the mouth.

The infant derives pleasure from sucking, biting, and swallowing.

2. Anal stage: Around the age of 18 months, a new demand, toilet training, is made of the child. Freud believed that the experience of toilet training during the anal stage had a significant effect on personality development. Defecation produces erotic pleasure for the child, but with the onset of toilet training, the child is put under pressure to learn to postpone or delay this pleasure. For the first time, gratification of an instinctual impulse is interfered with as parents attempt to regulate the time and place for defecation.

3. Phallic stage: Around the fourth to fifth year, the focus of pleasure shifts from the anus to the genitals. Children at the phallic stage display considerable interest in exploring and manipulating the genitals, their own and those of their playmates. The child becomes curious about birth and about why boys have penises and girls do not.

4. Latent stage: The storms and stresses of the oral, anal, and phallic stages of psychosexual development form the basic material out of which most of the adult personality is shaped. Because the child and parents certainly could use some rest, the next 5 or 6 years are quiet. The latency period is not a psychosexual stage of development. The sex instinct is dormant during this time.

5. Genital stage: The genital stage, the final psychosexual stage of development, begins at puberty. The body is becoming physiologically mature, and, if no major fixations have occurred at an earlier stage of development, the individual may be able to lead a normal life.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development REF: 51, 52, 53, 54, 57 6. Explain Freud's techniques of free association and dream analysis.

ANS: Looking for a technique other than hypnosis for helping a patient recall repressed material, Freud asked patients to lie on a couch while he sat behind it, out of sight. His reason for staying out of sight and hidden from the patients was both personal and professional. He called this technique free association. Freud encouraged his patients to relax and concentrate on events in the past. They were supposed to engage in a kind of daydreaming out loud, saying whatever came to mind. Patients were told to express spontaneously every idea and image exactly as it occurred, no matter how trivial, embarrassing, or painful the thought or memory might seem. The memories were not to be omitted, rearranged, or restructured.

Freud believed that dreams represent, in symbolic form, repressed desires, fears, and conflicts. So strongly have these feelings been repressed that they can surface only in disguised fashion during

sleep. He argued that there were two aspects of dreams: the manifest content, which refers to the actual events in the dream; and the latent content, which is the hidden symbolic meaning of the dream. Over the years, Freud found consistent symbols in his patients' dreams, events that signified the same thing for nearly everyone. Dreams reveal conflicts in a condensed, intensified form. Dream events rarely result from a single cause, and any event in a dream can have many sources. Dreams may also have mundane origins.

Both of these Freudian assessment techniques—free association and dream analysis—reveal to the psychoanalyst a great deal of repressed material, but all of it is in disguised or symbolic form. The therapist then must interpret or translate the material for the patient.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Freud's Theory REF: 58, 59, 60

Chapter 3—Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Jung's view of personality differs from Freud's in that Jung: a. placed an even greater emphasis on the unconscious. b. emphasized social factors in personality. c. considered human nature to be shaped solely by future goals. d. placed more emphasis on sex.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 82 FEEDBACK: A significant point of difference between Jung's view and Freud's view of personality revolved around the unconscious. Rather than minimizing the role of the unconscious Jung placed an even greater emphasis on it than Freud did. He probed more deeply into the unconscious and added an entirely new dimension: the inherited experiences of all human and even prehuman species.

2. Jung's theory is concerned with: a. inherited primal experiences. b. the development of social relationships.

c. consciousness, much more than Freud's. d. past events, not future aspirations.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 82 FEEDBACK: He probed more deeply into the unconscious and added an entirely new dimension: the inherited experiences of all human and even prehuman species. Although Freud had recognized the influence of inherited primal experiences, Jung made it the core of his system of personality.

3. Carl Jung's childhood experiences included: a. a typically happy and peaceful Swiss family life. b. the attention and adoration of a young and attractive mother. c. a life of ease based on his father's success in business. d. personal loneliness plus the marital conflicts and mental instability of his parents.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Jung (1875–1961) REF: 82 FEEDBACK: Jung’s difficult and unhappy childhood years were marked by deaths and funerals, neurotic parents in a failing marriage, religious doubts and conflicts, bizarre dreams and visions, and a wooden doll for his only companion. Although kind and tolerant, Jung’s father experienced periods of moodiness and irritability and failed to be the strong authority figure his son needed. Jung’s mother was by far the more powerful parent, but her emotional instability led her to behave erratically.

4. Jung’s early life was characterized by: a. a secure relationship with his parents. b. religious doubts and conflicts and bizarre dreams and visions. c. a high degree of self-confidence and an intense ambition to succeed. d. parents who held extremely strict religious views and emphasized the virtue of hard work.

ANS: B

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Jung (1875–1961) REF: 82 FEEDBACK: Jung’s difficult and unhappy childhood years were marked by deaths and funerals, neurotic parents in a failing marriage, religious doubts and conflicts, bizarre dreams and visions, and a wooden doll for his only companion.

5. Jung's theory of personality differs sharply from Freud's concerning the: a. role of unconscious. c. understanding of dreams. b. early childhood experiences. d. inner growth of an individual.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Jung (1875–1961) REF: 83 FEEDBACK: Jung’s loneliness is reflected in his theory, which focuses on the inner growth of the individual rather than on relationships with other people. In contrast, Freud’s theory is concerned more with interpersonal relationships, perhaps because Freud, unlike Jung, did not have such an isolated and introverted childhood.

6. Jung broke from Freud’s concepts because: a. he decided to follow his own ideas and viewpoints on personality. b. Freud was Jewish and Jung was a non-Jew.

c. Jung had no contact with Freud on a regular basis. d. he placed far more importance to sexuality in shaping personality than Freud did.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Jung (1875–1961) REF: 84 FEEDBACK: Jung had his own ideas and unique view of the human personality, and when he began to express these notions to Freud, it became inevitable that they would part. They severed their relationship in 1913.

7. How did Carl Jung overcome his neurotic disturbance, which later influenced his theory of personality? a. By confronting with his conscious mind b. Through the exploration of his dreams and fantasies c. By laboratory experiments in psychology d. Through word-association tests ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Jung (1875–1961) REF: 85 FEEDBACK: Jung overcame his neurotic disturbance by confronting his unconscious through the exploration of his dreams and fantasies. Out of Jung’s confrontation with his unconscious he fashioned his approach to personality. Jung established his theory on an intuitive base, which derived from his personal experiences and dreams.

8. Identify an area of disagreement between Jung and Freud. a. The existence of homosexuality c. The importance of dreams b. The existence of the unconscious d. The nature of libido ANS: D

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86 FEEDBACK: One of the first points on which Jung disagreed with Freud involved the nature of libido.

Jung did not believe that libido was primarily a sexual energy; he argued instead that it was a broad, undifferentiated life energy.

9. Jung considered libido as: a. a broader and more generalized form of psychic energy. b. the primitive and carnal desires inherent in all individuals. c. an individual's urge to engage in sexual activity. d. a series of developmental stages within an individual.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86 FEEDBACK: To Jung, libido meant a broader and more generalized form of psychic energy. Jung did not believe that libido was primarily a sexual energy; he argued instead that it was a broad, undifferentiated life energy.

10. What is the term given by Carl Jung for "personality"? a. Ego c. Persona b. Psyche d. Libido ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86 FEEDBACK: Jung used the term libido in two ways: first, as a diffuse and general life energy, and second, from a perspective similar to Freud’s, as a narrower psychic energy that fuels the work of the personality, which he called the psyche. It is through psychic energy that psychological activities such as perceiving, thinking, feeling, and wishing are carried out.

11. All of the following are principles explain the functioning of psychic energy except _____. a. differentiation principle c. equivalence principle b. opposition principle d. entropy principle ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86 FEEDBACK: Jung drew on ideas from physics to explain the functioning of psychic energy. He proposed three basic principles: opposites, equivalence, and entropy.

12. Which of the following best describes Jung’s principle of opposites? a. The psychic energy expended in bringing c. The psychic energy is continually about some condition is not lost but rather redistributed within a personality. is shifted to another part of a personality. b. The conflict between polarities is the d. The sharper the conflict between opposing primary motivator of behavior and tendencies in a personality, lesser the generator of psychic energy. psychic energy is produced.

ANS: B PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86 FEEDBACK: Jung noted the existence of opposites or polarities in psychic energy in the universe.

According to him, every wish or feeling has its opposite. This opposition—this conflict between polarities—is the primary motivator of behavior and generator of energy.

13. In principle of equivalence, Jung argued that: a. the greater the conflict between the c. opposing processes or tendencies in a personality, the greater will be the psychic energy produced. b. only one among a pair of psychological d. functions is dominant, as even the functions in a pair are opposing.

psychic energy is continually redistributed within a personality.

there is a tendency toward maintaining a balance or equilibrium in a personality.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86 FEEDBACK: For his principle of equivalence, Jung applied the physical principle of the conservation of energy to psychic events. He stated that energy expended in bringing about some condition is not lost but rather is shifted to another part of the personality. The principle of equivalence dictates that energy is continually redistributed within the personality.

14. Jung applied the principle of _____ to psychic energy by proposing that there is a tendency toward maintaining a balance or equilibrium in the personality. a. individuation c. entropy b. opposites d. animus revertendi ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86–87 FEEDBACK: In physics, the principle of entropy refers to the equalization of energy differences.

Entropy is a tendency toward balance or equilibrium within the personality; the ideal is an equal distribution of psychic energy over all structures of the personality. Jung applied this law to psychic energy by proposing that there is a tendency toward maintaining a balance or equilibrium in the personality.

15. According to Jung's principle of _____, if two desires or beliefs differ greatly in intensity or psychic value, energy will flow from the more strongly held to the weaker. a. opposites c. entropy b. equals d. equivalence ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 87 FEEDBACK: In physics, the principle of entropy refers to the equalization of energy differences. Jung applied this law to psychic energy by proposing that there is a tendency toward maintaining a balance or equilibrium in the personality. If two desires or beliefs differ greatly in intensity or psychic value, energy will flow from the more strongly held to the weaker.

16. According to Jung's principle of entropy, if a perfect balance of psychic energy is attained over all the aspects of a personality: a. only rational functions will dominate in c. the personality would have no psychic the personality. energy. b. ego would disappear from the personality. d. personal and collective unconscious merge in the personality.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 87 FEEDBACK: If perfect balance or equilibrium were attained, then the personality would have no psychic energy because the opposition principle requires conflict for psychic energy to be produced.

Ideally, the personality has an equal distribution of psychic energy overall its aspects, but this ideal state is never achieved.

17. According to Jung, the _____ is the conscious aspect of personality. a. ego c. superego b. id d. archetype ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 87 FEEDBACK: The ego is the center of consciousness, the part of the psyche concerned with perceiving, thinking, feeling, and remembering. It is our awareness of ourselves and is responsible for carrying out all the normal everyday activities of waking life.

18. According to Jung, all of the following are distinct aspects of the total personality except _____. a. ego c. personal unconscious b. collective conscious d. collective unconscious ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 87–93 FEEDBACK: Jung believed that the total personality, or psyche, is composed of several distinct systems or aspects that can influence one another: the ego (the conscious mind), the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious.

19. Which of the following best describes Jung’s beliefs on introversion and extraversion? a. A person has equal characteristics of both introversion and extraversion. b. A person typically has a dominant attitude toward either introversion or extraversion. c. A person's dominant attitude affects his or her personal unconscious. d. A person remains either introverted or extraverted throughout the life.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 87 FEEDBACK: According to Jung, all of us have the capacity for both introversion and extraversion, but only one becomes dominant in our personality. Much of our conscious perception of our environment, and how we react to it, is determined by these opposing mental attitudes.

20. Which of the following applies to the mental attitudes of extraversion and introversion?

a. b. c. d.

The dominant attitude directs a person's consciousness and behavior.

Only one of the attitudes becomes dominant in a person's personality.

The nondominant attitude becomes part of a person's personal unconscious.

All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 87 FEEDBACK: According to Jung, all of us have the capacity for both attitudes, but only one becomes dominant in our personality. The dominant attitude then tends to direct our behavior and consciousness. The nondominant attitude still remains influential, however, and becomes part of the personal unconscious, where it can affect behavior.

21. According to Jung, all of the following are functions of the psyche except: a. thinking. c. imagining. b. intuiting. d. sensing.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 87 FEEDBACK: Jung posited four functions of the psyche: sensing, intuiting, thinking, and feeling.

These functions refer to different and opposing ways of perceiving both the external real world and our subjective inner world.

22. Which of the following is grouped as rational psychological functions? a. Imagining and hoping c. Thinking and feeling b. Intuiting and sensing d. Thinking and sensing ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 88 FEEDBACK: Thinking and feeling are rational functions that involve making judgments and evaluations about our experiences. Although thinking and feeling are opposites, both are concerned with organizing and categorizing experiences.

23. Sensing and intuiting are grouped together as nonrational psychological functions because: a. they are involved in making conscious judgments about experiences. b. they evaluate experiences and express and in terms of like or dislike, pleasantness or unpleasantness, stimulation or dullness. c. they remain submerged in the personal unconscious. d. they do not use the processes of reason to evaluate experiences.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 87 FEEDBACK: Sensing and intuiting are grouped together as nonrational functions because they do not use the processes of reason. These functions accept experiences and do not evaluate them.

24. Jung proposed eight psychological types, based on the interactions of the: a. four psychological functions. c. two psychological attitudes and four psychological functions.

b. two psychological attitudes and four archetypes.

d. four archetypes.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 88 FEEDBACK: Jung proposed eight psychological types, based on the interactions of the two attitudes (introversion and extraversion) and four functions (thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting).

25. According to Jung, the _____ personality types tend to be outgoing, pleasure seeking, and adaptable. a. extraverted sensing c. introverted sensing b. extraverted feeling d. introverted feeling ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 88 FEEDBACK: The extraverted sensing types focus on pleasure and happiness and on seeking new experiences. They are strongly oriented toward the real world and are adaptable to different kinds of people and changing situations.

26. According to Jung, which of the following personality types tend to be logical and objective and live strictly by society's rules? a. Introverted feeling types c. Extraverted thinking types b. Introverted sensing types d. Extraverted intuiting types ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 88 FEEDBACK: The extraverted thinking types live strictly in accordance with society’s rules. These people tend to repress feelings and emotions, to be objective in all aspects of life, and to be dogmatic in thoughts and opinions.

27. Based on Jung's psychological types, the extraverted intuiting type of person would be: a. creative, able to inspire others, and able to seize opportunities. b. focused on pleasure and on seeking new experiences. c. very sensitive to the feelings of others and have values and high morals. d. very cold and rigid in their opinions.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 88 FEEDBACK: The extraverted intuiting types find success in business and politics because of a keen ability to exploit opportunities. They are attracted to new ideas, tend to be creative, and are able to inspire others to accomplish and achieve.

28. According to Jung, the personal unconscious is: a. a reservoir of material that was once c. conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed. b. the part of the psyche concerned with d. perceiving, thinking, feeling, and

a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized around a common theme. a psychic energy that fuels the work of a personality.

remembering.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 89 FEEDBACK: The personal unconscious in Jung’s system is similar to Freud’s concept of the preconscious. It is a reservoir of material that was once conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed because it was trivial or disturbing.

29. According to Jung, a(n) _____ is a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes in one's personal conscious organized around a common theme. a. id b. libido c. archetype d. complex ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 90 FEEDBACK: To Jung, a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes in the personal unconscious organized around a common theme, such as power or status. Complexes may be conscious or unconscious.

30. Which of the following is true of Jung's concept of complexes? a. Complexes are strictly under conscious control. b. A person with a complex can easily observe its effects. c. Complexes are specifically stored in the collective unconscious. d. Complexes that are not under conscious control can interfere with consciousness.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 90 FEEDBACK: Complexes may be conscious or unconscious. Those that are not under conscious control can intrude on and interfere with consciousness.

31. According to Jung's belief, which of the following is responsible for the formation of complexes in the personal unconscious of an individual? a. The childhood experiences c. The ancestral experiences b. The adult experiences d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 90 FEEDBACK: Complexes may be conscious or unconscious. Jung believed that complexes originate not only from our childhood and adult experiences, but also from our ancestral experiences, the heritage of the species contained in the collective unconscious.

32. The most unusual and controversial aspect of Jung's system is the: a. libido c. personal unconscious. b. collective unconscious. d. persona.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 90 FEEDBACK: The deepest and least accessible level of the psyche, the collective unconscious, is the most unusual and controversial aspect of Jung’s system. Jung believed that just as each of us accumulates and files all of our personal experiences in the personal unconscious, so does humankind collectively, as a species, store the experiences of all our human and pre-human ancestors in the collective unconscious.

33. According to Jung, which of the following is the deepest and least accessible level of the human psyche? a. Personal unconscious c. Collective unconscious b. Preconscious d. Subconscious ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 90 FEEDBACK: The deepest and least accessible level of the psyche that contains the accumulation of inherited experiences of human and pre-human species is the collective unconscious. It is also the most unusual and controversial aspect of Jung’s system.

34. Jung believed that humankind collectively, as a species, store the experiences of all our human and pre-human ancestors in the _____. a. personal unconscious b. preconscious c. collective unconscious d. subconscious ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 90 FEEDBACK: Jung believed that just as each of us accumulates and files all of our personal experiences in the personal unconscious, so does humankind collectively, as a species, store the experiences of all our human and pre-human ancestors in the collective unconscious. This heritage is passed to each new generation.

35. The ancient experiences contained in the collective unconscious are manifested by recurring themes or patterns, which Jung termed _____. a. archetypes c. personas b. complexes d. psychological functions ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 91 FEEDBACK: The ancient experiences contained in the collective unconscious are manifested by recurring themes or patterns, which Jung called archetypes. Jung also used the term primordial images.

36. Jung proposed all of the following major archetypes except the _____. a. persona c. anima and animus b. ego d. shadow

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 91 FEEDBACK: Among the archetypes Jung proposed are the hero, the mother, the child, God, death, power, and the wise old man. The major archetypes include the persona, the anima and animus, the shadow, and the self.

37. According to Jung, the persona archetype refers to the: a. masculine aspects of the female psyche. c. feminine aspects of the male psyche. b. public face or role a person presents to d. dark side of a personality. others.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 91 FEEDBACK: The persona archetype is a mask, a public face we wear to present ourselves as someone different from who we really are. The word persona refers to a mask that an actor wears to display various roles or faces to the audience.

38. The anima and animus express Jung's idea that all humans are essentially _____. a. transsexual c. bisexual b. homosexual d. heterosexual ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 92 FEEDBACK: The anima and animus archetypes refer to Jung’s recognition that humans are essentially bisexual. On the biological level, each sex secretes the hormones of the other sex as well as those of its own sex. On the psychological level, each sex manifests characteristics, temperaments, and attitudes of the other sex by virtue of centuries of living together.

39. Which of the following archetypes contains the basic, primitive animal instincts and has the deepest roots among all? a. The persona c. The animus b. The anima d. The shadow ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 92 FEEDBACK: The most powerful archetype has the sinister and mysterious name of shadow, which contains the basic, primitive animal instincts and therefore has the deepest roots of all archetypes.

Behaviors that society considers evil and immoral reside in the shadow, and this dark side of human nature must be tamed if people are to live in harmony.

40. Which of the following is true of the shadow archetype? a. The shadow should be totally suppressed c. The behaviors that society considers evil to maintain vitality and creativity. and immoral reside in the shadow. b. A person resorts to deception if the d. The shadow is a mask people wear to shadow is not completely suppressed. present themselves as someone different from who they really are.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 92 FEEDBACK: The shadow archetype contains the basic, primitive animal instincts and therefore has the deepest roots of all archetypes. Behaviors that society considers evil and immoral reside in the shadow, and this dark side of human nature must be tamed if people are to live in harmony.

41. According to Jung, the self archetype refers to the: a. unity, integration, and harmony of the total personality. b. basic, primitive animal instincts of a personality. c. masculine aspects of the female psyche. d. feminine aspects of the male psyche.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 93 FEEDBACK: The self archetype represents the unity, integration, and harmony of the total personality. To Jung, the striving toward that wholeness is the ultimate goal of life. This archetype involves bringing together and balancing all parts of the personality.

42. Jung believed that the self archetype does not emerge until: a. the complexes in personal unconscious are resolved. b. the shadow is completely suppressed. c. all the other systems of the psyche have developed. d. the adolescent years.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 93 FEEDBACK: The self cannot begin to emerge until all the other systems of the psyche have developed. This occurs around middle age, a crucial period of transition in Jung’s system, as it was in his own life.

43. Jung believed the full realization of the self lies in the _____. a. future c. personal unconscious b. past d. collective unconscious ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 93 FEEDBACK: The full realization of the self lies in the future. It is a goal—something to always strive for but which is rarely achieved. The self serves as a motivating force, pulling us from ahead rather than pushing us from behind.

44. According to Jung's view on personality development, the ego begins to develop in: a. early childhood. c. middle age. b. adolescence. d. old age.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Personality

REF: 93 FEEDBACK: The ego begins to develop in early childhood, at first in a primitive way because the child has not yet formed a unique identity. What might be called children’s personalities are, at this stage, little more than a reflection of the personalities of their parents.

45. Jung used the term psychic birth for the period when: a. a child is able to distinguish between himself and other people. b. the psyche assumes a definite form and content. c. the ego begins to develop in a primitive way in a person. d. a person is able to resolve his adaptation problems of young adulthood.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Personality REF: 94 FEEDBACK: Jung believed that it is not until puberty that the psyche assumes a definite form and content. He termed this period psychic, which is marked by difficulties and the need to adapt.

46. According to Jung, _____ one's interests must shift from the physical and material to the spiritual, philosophical, and intuitive. a. during early childhood c. in young adulthood b. during adolescence d. at middle age ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Personality REF: 95 FEEDBACK: Jung believed that middle age is a natural time of transition in which the personality is supposed to undergo necessary and beneficial changes. At middle age, the focus on consciousness must be tempered by an awareness of the unconscious. One's interests must shift from the physical and material to the spiritual, philosophical, and intuitive.

47. According to Jung's view, which of the following personality changes must occur in an individual during his or her middle age? a. The attitude of the personality must shift c. The process of realizing or actualizing the from extraversion to introversion self must begin b. The psychic energy must be rechanneled d. All of these are correct. to different activities and interests ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Personality REF: 95 FEEDBACK: During middle age the attitude of the personality must shift from extraversion to introversion. The focus on consciousness must be tempered by an awareness of the unconscious.

48. In Jung's view, which of the following is true of individuation? a. It involves fulfilling one's capacities and c. The tendency toward individuation is developing one's self. extrinsic and evitable. b. The psyche becomes more diffuse while d. It is dependent on one's self-mage and not attaining individuation. on any of the environmental forces.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Personality

REF: 95 FEEDBACK: Individuation involves becoming an individual, fulfilling one’s capacities, and developing one’s self. The tendency toward individuation is innate and inevitable, but it can be helped or hindered by environmental forces, such as one’s educational and economic opportunities and the nature of the parent–child relationship.

49. Which of the following steps in Jung's theory of individuation involves one's acceptance of his or her genuine self that is generally covered by a public face? a. Confronting the unconscious b. Transcend c. Dethroning the persona d. Accepting the anima and animus archetype ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Personality REF: 95–96 FEEDBACK: In the midlife process of individuation, the first change involves dethroning the persona.

Although we must continue to play various social roles if we are to function in the real world and get along with different kinds of people, we must recognize that our public personality may not represent our true nature. Further, we must come to accept the genuine self that the persona has been covering.

50. Which of the following did Jung believe was the most difficult step in the individuation process? a. Uniting all the opposing aspects within the c. Concealing the forces of the shadow from psyche others b. Recognizing the characteristics of the d. Dominating the unconscious forces into other sex within the self conscious awareness ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Personality REF: 96 FEEDBACK: In the individuation process a man must be able to express his anima archetype, or traditionally feminine traits such as tenderness, and a woman must come to express her animus, or traditionally masculine traits such as assertiveness. Jung believed that this recognition of the characteristics of the other sex was the most difficult step in the individuation process because it represents the greatest change in our self-image.

51. In the process of individuation, the developmental stage that is characterized by an innate tendency toward unity or wholeness in the personality, uniting all the opposing aspects within the psyche is termed as _____ by Jung. a. internalization c. transcendence b. compensation d. personification ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Personality REF: 96 FEEDBACK: Once the psyche’s structures are individuated and acknowledged, the next developmental stage can occur. Jung referred to this as transcendence, an innate tendency toward unity or wholeness in the personality, uniting all the opposing aspects within the psyche.

52. According to Jung, transcendence is the: a. struggle of environmental factors. b. innate tendency toward unity or wholeness in the personality.

c. realization of the conscious. d. understanding of the feminine side by a man.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Personality REF: 96 FEEDBACK: Once the psyche’s structures are individuated and acknowledged, the next developmental stage can occur. Jung referred to this as transcendence, an innate tendency toward unity or wholeness in the personality, uniting all the opposing aspects within the psyche.

53. According to Jung, Western culture places too much emphasis on _____, which can affect the ability of human race to appreciate the forces of the unconscious. a. optimism about the future. b. materialism and empirical science. c. mysticism and paranormal phenomena. d. spirituality.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 97 FEEDBACK: Jung opined that by placing too great an emphasis on materialism, reason, and empirical science, Western cultures are in danger of failing to appreciate the forces of the unconscious. He referred to this danger as a sickness of dissociation.

54. Jung used all of the following assessment techniques to evaluate personality except: a. IQ tests. c. Word-association tests. b. dream analysis. d. symptom analysis.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Jung’s Theory REF: 98 FEEDBACK: Three relatively formal techniques Jung used to evaluate personality were the word-association test, symptom analysis, and dream analysis. Jung’s techniques for assessing the functioning of the psyche drew on science and the supernatural, resulting in both an objective and a mystical approach.

55. In Jung's word-association test, which of the following factors indicated the presence of a complex in a subject's psyche? a. Delay in responding b. Slips of the tongue c. Same response to different words d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Jung’s Theory REF: 98 FEEDBACK: Jung used word association to uncover complexes in his patients. A variety of factors indicated the presence of a complex, including physiological responses, delays in responding, making the same response to different words, slips of the tongue, stammering, responding with more than one word, making up words, or failing to respond.

56. Jung believed that dreams are _____ and _____ in nature. a. periodical; retrospective b. prospective; compensatory c. predictable; neurotic d. recurrent; unpredictable ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Jung’s Theory REF: 98–99 FEEDBACK: Jung believed that dreams were more than unconscious wishes. First, dreams are prospective; that is, they help us prepare for experiences and events we anticipate will occur. Second, dreams are compensatory; they help bring about a balance between opposites in the psyche by compensating for the overdevelopment of any one psychic structure.

57. Jung used the method of _____ to analyze his patients’ dreams. a. free association c. manifest analysis b. amplification d. word association ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Jung’s Theory REF: 99 FEEDBACK: Jung used amplification to analyze dreams. Jung focused on the original dream element and asked the patient to make repeated associations and responses to it until he detected a theme.

58. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is: a. the updated version of the Maudsley Personality Inventory. b. a test to assess Jung’s psychological types and attitudes. c. the current version of the word-association test. d. a test which was used by Jung to assess his clients.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Jung’s Theory REF: 99 FEEDBACK: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is an assessment test based on Jung’s psychological types and the attitudes of introversion and extraversion. Today, the MBTI is the most popular and most frequently used personality test ever devised and is taken by more than two million people every year for hiring and promotion decisions (Cunningham, 2012).

59. Which of the following methods involves an extensive recollection of a person’s past experiences in which Jung sought to identify the developmental patterns he believed led to the present neurotic condition? a. Symptom analysis c. Life-history reconstruction b. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator d. Word-association test ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Jung’s Theory REF: 100 FEEDBACK: Jung, like Freud, used the case study method, which Jung called life-history reconstruction. It involved an extensive recollection of a person’s past experiences in which Jung sought to identify the developmental patterns he believed led to the present neurotic condition.

60. Which of the following is true of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) scores of college students in different studies? a. Medical school students who became primary care physicians scored high in intuiting and extraversion. b. Police officers and dental school students scored high in extraversion and in sensing and thinking. c. Students in liberal arts college who were most likely to drop out before graduation scored high in introversion and intuiting. d. Extraverted sensing type students had higher grade point averages than other psychological types.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Jung’s Theory REF: 101 FEEDBACK: Different psychological types may be drawn to different professions (Hanewitz, 1978).

The MBTI was given to a large sample of police officers, schoolteachers, and social work and dental school students. Police officers and dental school students, who deal with people in different ways from teachers and social workers, scored high in extraversion and in sensing and thinking.

61. In the context of midlife crisis in women, which of the following statements is true? a. Women who had to cope with more stressful changes before they reached their middle age were far more prepared. b. Jung believed both men and women to be equally vulnerable to midlife crisis. c. Heterosexual women were more satisfied at midlife than lesbians. d. Midlife transition was easier for career women than those who opted for a domestic life.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Jung’s Theory REF: 103 FEEDBACK: One study found that the midlife transition was less difficult for women who had actively pursued careers than for women who stayed at home and focused on marriage and family. The career women felt significantly less need to make major changes at midlife.

62. Despite the significance of Jung's contributions in the field of psychology, the bulk of his theory was not received enthusiastically by psychologists because: a. his books contain many inconsistencies c. he inferred the stories of sexual seduction and contradictions. in patients' childhood from his analysis of the symptoms, without really hearing his patients say so. b. there are discrepancies between his notes d. his research is based on a small and on his therapy sessions and the case unrepresentative sample of people, histories he published, which supposedly restricted to himself and those who sought were based on these notes. psychoanalysis with him.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Jung’s Theory REF: 105 FEEDBACK: Despite the significance of these formulations, the bulk of Jung’s theory was not received enthusiastically by psychologists. One reason concerns the difficulty of understanding Jungian concepts. Jung did not write for the general public. Reading his work can be frustrating, because his books contain many inconsistencies and contradictions.

63. Jung's use of _____ and _____ is the source of most of the criticism directed at his theory. a. extraversion; introversion c. dream analysis; free association b. archetypes; the persona d. the occult; the supernatural ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Jung’s Theory REF: 105 FEEDBACK: Jung’s embrace of the occult and the supernatural is probably the source of most of the criticism directed at his theory. Evidence from mythology and religion is not in favor in an era when reason and science are considered the most legitimate approaches to knowledge and understanding.

64. _____ was the first to emphasize the role of the future in determining behavior. a. Alfred Adler c. Erik Erikson b. Raymond Cattell d. Carl Jung ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Jung’s Theory REF: 105 FEEDBACK: Jung was the first to emphasize the role of the future in determining behavior, an idea adopted by Alfred Adler. Maslow, Erik Erikson, and Raymond Cattell embraced Jung’s suggestion that middle age is a time of crucial personality change.

65. Which of the following is true of Jung's contributions to psychology? a. Jung's writings are internally consistent c. Jung’s embrace of the occult and the and easy to understand. supernatural is most acclaimed. b. The word-association test, developed by d. Jung devised the Myers-Briggs Type Jung, became a standard projective Indicator (MBTI), which is currently the technique. most frequently used personality assessment test.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Jung’s Theory REF: 105 FEEDBACK: Jung made several important and lasting contributions to psychology. The word-association test became a standard projective technique and inspired the development of the Rorschach inkblot test and the so-called lie-detection techniques. The concepts of psychological complexes and of introverted versus extraverted personalities are widely accepted in psychology today.

TRUE/FALSE 1. Freud viewed human beings as victims of the past, whereas Jung believed that human beings are shaped by both their past and future events.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 82 FEEDBACK: A major area of disagreement between Freud and Jung concerned the direction of the forces that influence personality. Freud viewed human beings as prisoners or victims of past events, Jung believed that people are shaped by their future as well as their past.

2. Jung believed that the most crucial stage in personality development was middle age.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Jung (1875–1961) REF: 85 FEEDBACK: Jung concluded that the most crucial stage in personality development was not childhood, as Freud believed, but middle age, which was the time of his own crisis.

3. Jung represented libido as a broad, undifferentiated life energy, whereas Freud believed that libido was primarily a sexual energy.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86 FEEDBACK: Jung did not believe that libido was primarily a sexual energy; he argued instead that it was a broad, undifferentiated life energy. Jung used the term libido in two ways: first, as a diffuse and general life energy, and second, from a perspective similar to Freud’s, as a narrower psychic energy that fuels the work of the personality, which he called the psyche.

4. According Jung's principles of psychic energy, the principal of equivalence refers to the equalization of psychic energy over all structures of a personality.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86 FEEDBACK: For his principle of equivalence, Jung applied the physical principle of the conservation of energy to psychic events. He stated that energy expended in bringing about some condition is not lost but rather is shifted to another part of the personality.

5. According to Jung, the id is the center of consciousness.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 87 FEEDBACK: The ego is the center of consciousness, the part of the psyche concerned with perceiving, thinking, feeling, and remembering.

6. According to Jung, everyone has the capacity for both mental attitudes of extraversion and introversion, but only one becomes dominant in the personality.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 87 FEEDBACK: According to Jung, all of us have the capacity for both attitudes, but only one becomes dominant in our personality. The dominant attitude then tends to direct our behavior and consciousness. The nondominant attitude still remains influential, however, and becomes part of the personal unconscious, where it can affect behavior.

7. In the context of the psychological types proposed by Jung, people with extraverted thinking type of psychology may be perceived as rigid and cold.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 88 FEEDBACK: An extraverted thinking type individual may be perceived as rigid and cold. These people tend to repress feelings and emotions, to be objective in all aspects of life, and to be dogmatic in thoughts and opinions.

8. According to Jung, introverted feeling types are emotional, sensitive, and sociable.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 89 FEEDBACK: The introverted feeling types repress rational thought and they are capable of deep emotion but avoid any outward expression of it. They seem mysterious and inaccessible and tend to be quiet, modest, and childish.

9. Collective unconscious is a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized around a common theme.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 90 FEEDBACK: A complex is a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized around a common theme. Collective unconscious is the deepest level of the psyche containing the accumulation of inherited experiences of human and pre-human species.

10. The ancient experiences contained in the collective unconscious are manifested by recurring themes or patterns which Jung called archetypes.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 91 FEEDBACK: The ancient experiences contained in the collective unconscious are manifested by recurring themes or patterns, which Jung called archetypes. He also used the term primordial images.

11. According to Jung, both the animus and the anima archetypes exist and must be expressed.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 92 FEEDBACK: The anima and animus archetypes refer to Jung’s recognition that humans are essentially bisexual. Jung insisted that both the anima and the animus must be expressed.

12. Jung believed that the personality of an emotionally healthy middle-aged individual should be dominated by unconscious forces.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Personality REF: 95 FEEDBACK: At middle age the unconscious forces must be assimilated and balanced with the conscious. At this time of life, no single aspect of personality should dominate.

13. Contrary to Freud, Jung believed our personality is affected more by our experiences in middle age and by our hopes and expectations for the future than our experiences in childhood.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 96 FEEDBACK: Jung disagreed with Freud on the importance of childhood experiences. Jung thought they were influential but did not completely shape our personality by age 5. We are affected more by our experiences in middle age and by our hopes and expectations for the future.

14. According to Jung, the ultimate goal in life is the realization of the self.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 96 FEEDBACK: The ultimate and necessary goal of life is the realization of the self. Although it is rarely achieved, we are continually motivated to strive for it.

15. In Jungian word-association tests, the patient begins with measuring their knowledge of definitions from a word list.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Jung’s Theory REF: 98 FEEDBACK: The word-association test, in which a subject responds to a stimulus word with whatever word comes immediately to mind, has become a standard laboratory and clinical tool in psychology. In the early 1900s, Jung used the technique with a list of 100 words he believed were capable of eliciting emotions.

16. Dream analysis, one of the techniques used by Jung to evaluate personality, focuses on the symptoms reported by the patients and is based on the patient's free associations to those symptoms.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Jung’s Theory REF: 98 FEEDBACK: Dream analysis is a technique involving the interpretation of dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts. Jung agreed with Freud that dreams are the “royal road” into the unconscious.

17. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), an assessment test based on Jung’s psychological types and the attitudes of introversion and extraversion.

ANS: T PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Assessment in Jung’s Theory REF: 99 FEEDBACK: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is an assessment test based on Jung’s psychological types and the attitudes of introversion and extraversion. The MBTI is considered the most visible practical outgrowth of Jung’s work on the human personality.

18. Jung's case study method, which he called life-history reconstruction was reliable, gathered in a systematic fashion, and based on objective observation.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Jung’s Theory REF: 100 FEEDBACK: The criticisms of Freud’s data and research methods also apply to Jung’s life-history reconstruction. Jung’s data did not rely on objective observation and were not gathered in a controlled and systematic fashion.

19. Jung's embrace of the occult and the supernatural is probably the source of most of the criticism directed at his theory.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Jung’s Theory REF: 105 FEEDBACK: Jung’s embrace of the occult and the supernatural is probably the source of most of the criticism directed at his theory. Evidence from mythology and religion is not in favor in an era when reason and science are considered the most legitimate approaches to knowledge and understanding.

20. The word-association test became a standard projective technique and inspired the development of the Rorschach inkblot test and lie detection techniques.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Jung’s Theory REF: 105 FEEDBACK: The word-association test became a standard projective technique and inspired the development of the Rorschach inkblot test and the so-called lie-detection techniques. The concepts of psychological complexes and of introverted versus extraverted personalities are widely accepted in psychology today.

ESSAY 1. Elaborate the three major points of disagreements between Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung.

ANS: 1. The first point on which Jung came to disagree with Freud was the role of sexuality. Jung broadened Freud’s definition of libido by redefining it as a more generalized psychic energy that included sex but was not restricted to it.

2. The second major area of disagreement concerned the direction of the forces that influence personality. Whereas Freud viewed human beings as prisoners or victims of past events, Jung believed that "man is not necessarily doomed forever to be shoved about by traumas over which he could exercise little control." Jung argued that people are shaped by their future as well as their past. They are affected not only by what happened to them as children, but also by what they aspire to do in the future.

3. The third significant point of difference revolved around the unconscious. Rather than minimizing the role of the unconscious, Jung placed an even greater emphasis on it than Freud did. He probed more deeply into the unconscious and added an entirely new dimension: the inherited experiences of all human and even prehuman species. Although Freud had recognized the influence of inherited primal experiences, Jung made it the core of his system of personality. He brought together ideas from history, mythology, anthropology, and religion to form his own image of human nature.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 81–82 2. Explain how Jung applied the principle of entropy to psychic energy in his theory of personality.

ANS: In physics, the principle of entropy refers to the equalization of energy differences. Jung applied this law to psychic energy by proposing that there is a tendency toward maintaining a balance or equilibrium in a personality. If two desires or beliefs differ greatly in intensity or psychic value, energy will flow from the more strongly held to the weaker. Ideally, a personality has an equal distribution of psychic energy over all its aspects, but this ideal state is never achieved. If perfect balance or equilibrium were attained, then the personality would have no psychic energy because the opposition principle requires conflict for psychic energy to be produced.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86–87 3. Describe the principal of equivalence in Jung's personality model and give a real-life example.

ANS: Jung, for his principal of equivalence, applied the physical principle of the conservation of energy to psychic events. He stated that energy expended in bringing about some condition is not lost but rather is shifted to another part of the personality. Thus, if the psychic value in a particular area weakens or disappears, that energy is transferred elsewhere in the psyche.

Howard spent his adolescence chasing his dream of securing a high-paying job to give his career the ideal start. However, soon after he got placed in a top multinational company, he started dedicating more time and attention to his family and relationships than he did to his current job.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System REF: 86 4. Define the attitudes of extraversion and introversion. List three characteristics of extraverts and introverts.

ANS: Extraversion can be defined as an attitude of the psyche characterized by an orientation toward the external world and other people. Introversion is an attitude of the psyche characterized by an orientation toward one’s own thoughts and feelings.

Extraverts are open, sociable, assertive, oriented toward others, and the external world. Introverts are withdrawn, shy, may be focused on themselves and their own thoughts and feelings.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 87 5. Jung proposed several major archetypes, such as the persona, the anima and animus, the shadow, and the self. Define each archetype and give an illustration for each of them.

ANS: Students' answers will vary.

The persona archetype refers to a mask, a public face a person wears to present himself as someone different from who he really is to others. For example, Jim is the nicest guy at work, but when he gets home he beats his dog and gets mad at his wife.

Anima archetype comprises feminine aspects of the male psyche. For example, Jim can be very nurturing toward his children.

Animus archetype comprises masculine aspects of the female psyche. For example, Jessica, a high school girl, likes to smoke cigars and play baseball with the local men's team.

The shadow archetype is the dark side of the personality; the archetype that contains primitive animal instincts. For example, Sam is frightened by dreams he has about himself being an "evil mischief-maker" who frightens children on their way to school.

The self archetype represents the unity, integration, and harmony of the total personality. For example, Jessica has just now learned to become a good student and that she can be a fairly-decent mom to her kids, and, even though she is still working on this area, she is accepting her role as a spouse who can create a whole new way to enliven her marriage relationship.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Aspects of Personality REF: 91–93

Chapter 4—Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The theory of individual psychology, which focused on the uniqueness of each person, was proposed by: a. Charcot. c. Adler. b. Maslow. d. Breuer.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 108 FEEDBACK: Adler called his approach individual psychology because it focused on the uniqueness of each person and denied the universality of biological motives and goals ascribed to us by Sigmund Freud.

2. Which of the following terms did Alfred Adler use for his approach to personality? a. Individual psychology c. Community psychology b. Analytical psychology d. Social psychology ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 108 FEEDBACK: Adler called his approach individual psychology because it focused on the uniqueness of each person and denied the universality of biological motives and goals ascribed to us by Sigmund Freud.

3. Unlike Freud, which of the following did Adler emphasize? a. The conscious c. The uniqueness of the individual b. Minimizing the importance of sex d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 108, 109 FEEDBACK: Adler called his approach individual psychology because it focused on the uniqueness of each person. Unlike Freud, who saw sex as being of primary importance in shaping our personalities, Adler minimized the role of sex. To Adler, the conscious, not the unconscious, was at the core of personality.

4. Which of the following provides the most obvious link between Adler's childhood and his theory? a. Warmth and optimism c. Illness and sibling rivalry b. Wealth and security d. Rationality and clear thinking ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Adler (1870–1937) REF: 109 FEEDBACK: Adler's early childhood was marked by illness, an awareness of death, and intense jealousy of his older brother. He suffered from rickets, which kept him from playing with other children. Adler was always jealous of his older brother, who was vigorous and healthy and could

engage in the physical activities and sports in which Alfred could not take part.

5. On which of the following themes was Adler's childhood largely based? a. Inferiority feelings c. Castration anxiety b. The Oedipus complex d. Anal conflicts ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Adler (1870–1937) REF: 109 FEEDBACK: Adler felt inferior to his brother and to the other neighborhood children, who all seemed healthier and more athletic. As a result, he resolved to work hard to overcome his feelings of inferiority to compensate for his physical limitations.

6. Identify a true statement in the context of the relationship between Adler and Freud. a. They remained close friends all their lives. b. Freud was Adler's teacher, mentor, and well-wisher. c. Adler was psychoanalyzed by Freud. d. Their association ended in hostility.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Adler (1870–1937) REF: 110 FEEDBACK: Adler was an increasingly vocal critic of the Freudian theory. He severed all connection with psychoanalysis and went on to develop his own approach to personality. Freud reacted angrily to Adler's defection by belittling him and his theory. Adler showed similar hostility toward Freud, calling him a swindler and denouncing psychoanalysis as filth. Adler became irate whenever he was introduced or referred to as a student of Freud's.

7. All motivation to strive and succeed comes from: a. attempts to compensate for inferiorities. c. organic strengths. b. the attempt to resolve sexual conflicts. d. the superiority complex.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving REF: 111 FEEDBACK: Adler proposed that inferiority feelings are the source of all human striving. Individual growth results from compensation, from our attempts to overcome our real or imagined inferiorities.

Throughout our lives, we are driven by the need to overcome this sense of inferiority and to strive for increasingly higher levels of development.

8. In Adler's view, the process of overcoming inferiority feelings: a. decreases in adulthood. c. begins in infancy. b. is genetically determined. d. results in unsettled conflicts.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving REF: 111 FEEDBACK: Adler proposed that inferiority feelings are the source of all human striving. Individual growth results from compensation, from our attempts to overcome our real or imagined inferiorities.

This process begins in infancy.

9. According to Adler, the inferiority complex: a. is rooted in sexuality. b. is a function of the environment.

c. primarily begins in adolescence. d. hampers individuality.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving REF: 111 FEEDBACK: Although the initial experience of inferiority applies to everyone in infancy, it is not genetically determined. Rather, it is a function of the environment, which is the same for all infants, a climate of helplessness and dependence on adults.

10. According to Adler, all of the following are possible causes of an inferiority complex except: a. organic inferiority. c. brain neurosis. b. spoiling a child. d. neglecting a child.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Inferiority Feelings: The Source of Human All Striving REF: 111 FEEDBACK: An inferiority complex can arise from three sources in childhood: organic inferiority, spoiling, and neglect. People with an inferiority complex have a poor opinion of themselves and feel helpless and unable to cope with the demands of life.

11. Adler argued that a person having defective body parts: a. becomes sexually defective. b. lacks a high level of intelligence. c. compensates by shaping his or her personality well. d. avoids any technological support.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving REF: 111 FEEDBACK: Adler argued that defective parts or organs of the body shape personality through the person's efforts to compensate for the defect or weakness, just as Adler compensated for rickets, the physical inferiority of his childhood years.

12. Demosthenes overcame his stutter to become a great orator, and Theodore Roosevelt was sickly but later became a model of physical fitness. These are two good examples of: a. famous but inferior leaders. c. overcoming organic inferiority. b. a depressive complex. d. a superiority complex.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving REF: 112 FEEDBACK: A child who is physically weak might focus on that weakness and work to develop superior athletic ability. In ancient times, the Greek statesman Demosthenes overcame a stutter to become a great orator. The sickly Theodore Roosevelt, 26th president of the United States, became a model of physical fitness as an adult. Efforts to overcome organic inferiority can result in striking artistic, athletic, and social accomplishments.

13. Overcompensating for normal inferiority feelings can lead to a _____.

a. cognitive simplicity b. superiority complex

c. conditional positive regard d. detached personality

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving REF: 113 FEEDBACK: A superiority complex is a condition that develops when a person overcompensates for normal inferiority feelings. This involves an exaggerated opinion of one's abilities and accomplishments.

14. The urge toward perfection that motivates each of us is what Adler meant by: a. striving for superiority. c. the masculine protest. b. organismic valuing process. d. the entropy principle.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Striving for Superiority, or Perfection REF: 113 FEEDBACK: Adler described his notion of striving for superiority as the fundamental fact of life. It is the urge toward perfection or completion that motivates each of us.

15. Adler used the term _____ to explain a person's need to move toward a goal to go forward in life. a. observational learning c. finalism b. reaction formation d. sublimation ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Striving for Superiority, or Perfection REF: 114 FEEDBACK: Adler applied the term finalism to the idea that we have an ultimate goal, a final state of being, and a need to move toward it. However, we strive for ideals that exist in us subjectively.

16. For Adler, if a person believes that all people are basically good, then: a. the person will create unrealistic expectations of his or her environment. b. this ideal will be a reality for the person. c. the person will be concerned with instinctual satisfaction. d. this ideal will reside in the collective unconscious.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Striving for Superiority, or Perfection REF: 114 FEEDBACK: Adler applied the term finalism to the idea that we have an ultimate goal, a final state of being, and a need to move toward it. The goals for which we strive, however, are potentialities, not actualities. We live our lives around ideals such as the belief that all people are created equal or that all people are basically good. Adler believed that our goals are fictional or imagined ideals that cannot be tested against reality. However, those are real to the person who holds these views.

17. In Adler's view, fictional finalism: a. is responsible for most social inequality. b. guides our behavior as we strive to become complete. c. involves an exaggerated opinion of one's abilities. d. is found in only a very few superior persons.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Striving for Superiority, or Perfection REF: 114 FEEDBACK: Fictional finalism is the notion that fictional ideas guide our behavior as we strive toward a complete or whole state of being. We direct the course of our lives by many such fictions, but the most pervasive one is the ideal of perfection.

18. The style of life is not firmly crystallized until: a. the age of 4 or 5. c. middle age. b. adolescence. d. old age.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Style of Life REF: 114 FEEDBACK: The style of life is a unique character structure or pattern of personal behaviors and characteristics by which each of us strives for perfection. The style of life is learned from social interactions and is so firmly crystallized by the age of 4 or 5 that it is difficult to change thereafter.

19. Adler used all of the following terms as equivalents for "style of life" except: a. personality. c. character. b. self. d. complex.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Style of Life REF: 115 FEEDBACK: The creative power of the self is the ability to create an appropriate style of life. Adler believed that we create our "selves," our "personality," our "character;" these are all terms Adler used interchangeably with "style of life."

20. According to Adler, the development of an appropriate style of life is determined by: a. our past experiences. c. the epigenetic principle of maturation. b. our environment. d. the creative power of the self.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Style of Life REF: 115 FEEDBACK: The creative power of the self is the ability to create an appropriate style of life. Adler believed that we create our "selves," our "personality," our "character;" these are all terms Adler used interchangeably with "style of life." We are not passively shaped by childhood experiences.

21. Once our style of life has been created, it will: a. remain constant throughout life. c. replace the goal of achieving superiority. b. guide behavior only through adolescence. d. change only when the environment changes.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Style of Life REF: 115 FEEDBACK: Adler insisted that our style of life is not determined for us. We are free to choose and create it ourselves. Once created, however, the style of life remains constant throughout life.

22. Each of the following is one of Adler's four basic styles of life except the: a. dominant type. c. hurting type. b. getting type. d. avoiding type.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Style of Life REF: 115 FEEDBACK: Adler described several universal problems and grouped them into three categories: problems involving our behavior toward others; problems of occupation; problems of love. He proposed four basic styles of life for dealing with these problems: the dominant type, the getting type, the avoiding type, and the socially useful type.

23. Alcoholics and drug addicts are typical of the _____ type of style of life. a. avoiding c. getting b. dependent d. dominant ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Style of Life REF: 115 FEEDBACK: The dominant type displays a dominant or ruling attitude with little social awareness.

Such a person behaves without any regard for other people. The less extreme of this type become alcoholics, drug addicts, or suicides; they believe they hurt others by attacking themselves.

24. To Adler, the most common style of life is the: a. getting type. c. dependent type. b. avoiding type. d. dominant type.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Style of Life REF: 115 FEEDBACK: The getting type expects to receive satisfaction from other people and so becomes dependent on them. To Adler, this was the most common human type.

25. In the _____ type of style of life, one escapes failure by not facing life's problems. a. avoiding c. dominant b. getting d. socially useful ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Style of Life REF: 115 FEEDBACK: The avoiding type makes no attempt to face life's problems. By avoiding difficulties, a person avoids any possibility of failure.

26. According to Adler's concept of social interest, an individual must: a. get along with others. c. be independent of others. b. experience a deep sense of inferiority. d. strive for superiority.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Social Interest

REF: 116 FEEDBACK: Adler believed that getting along with others is the first task we encounter in life. Our level of ability to get along with other people becomes part of our style of life, and therefore influences how well or poorly we will deal with all of life's problems. He described this as the concept of social interest.

27. Adler proposed the concept of social interest to define: a. strategies the ego uses to defend itself. b. states of growth toward which self-actualizers evolve. c. the innate potential to cooperate with others. d. the dominant or ruling attitude in people.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Social Interest REF: 116 FEEDBACK: Adler believed that getting along with others is the first task we encounter in life. He described this as the concept of social interest, which is the individual's innate potential to cooperate with other people in order to achieve personal and societal goals.

28. Adler used the term "social interest" to indicate: a. coping behavior. c. community feeling. b. a fun-loving aspect of human nature. d. a unique style of life of the upper classes.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Social Interest REF: 116 FEEDBACK: Adler believed that getting along with others is the first task we encounter in life. He described this as the concept of social interest, which is the individual's innate potential to cooperate with other people in order to achieve personal and societal goals. Adler's term for this concept in the original German, "Gemeinschaftsgefuhl," is best translated as "community feeling."

29. In Adler's view, a mother's influence: a. is responsible for a person's ability to strive for perfection. b. is negligible because the child is guided more by the future than the past. c. can lead to the development of an Oedipus complex. d. can foster or thwart the development of social interest.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Social Interest REF: 116 FEEDBACK: Adler noted the importance of the mother as the first person with whom a baby comes in contact. Through her behavior toward the child, the mother can either foster social interest or thwart its development.

30. Adler did not develop his concept of social interest until after _____, when he changed and said that people are motivated more by social interest than by the needs for power and dominance. a. the birth of his first child c. he broke with Freud b. the end of World War II d. his older brother died ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Social Interest

REF: 116 FEEDBACK: After Adler broke with Freud and achieved recognition for his own work, he changed from his earlier stance and said that people are motivated more by social interest than by the needs for power and dominance.

31. Which of the following is a true statement about Adler's theory of the order of birth? a. The birth order is majorly influenced by the genetic makeup of an individual. b. Siblings having the same parents and living in the same house have identical social environments. c. Being exposed to differing parental attitudes does not determine different kinds of personalities. d. One's birth order could be determined on the basis of one's behavior.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 117 FEEDBACK: One of Adler's most enduring contributions is the idea that order of birth is a major social influence in childhood, one from which we create our style of life. Adler liked to amaze lecture audiences and dinner guests by correctly guessing people's order of birth on the basis of their behavior.

32. Being a major social influence in childhood, birth order dictates that the _____ child will experience a sense of dethronement. a. first-born c. youngest or last-born b. second-born d. third-born ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 117 FEEDBACK: First-borns have a very happy and secure existence, until the second-born child appears.

Suddenly, no longer the focus of attention, no longer receiving constant love and care, first-borns are, in a sense, dethroned.

33. According to Adler's idea involving the order of birth, in which of the following ways is the first-born likely to react to the dethronement caused by the arrival of the second-born? a. By developing a behavior problem c. By trying to recapture their former position of privilege b. By hating the new baby d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 117 FEEDBACK: No one could expect first-borns to suffer this kind of drastic displacement without putting up a fight. They will try to recapture their former position of power and privilege. For a time, first-borns may become stubborn, ill behaved, and destructive and may refuse to eat or go to bed.

When first-borns are punished for their troublesome behavior, they see that as more proof of their fall and may come to hate the second child, who is, after all, the cause of the problem.

34. According to Adler, a person interested in maintaining order and authority and being conscientious and scrupulous about detail is more likely to be a(n): a. first-born child. c. last-born child. b. only child. d. second-born child.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 118 FEEDBACK: Adler believed that first-borns also take an unusual interest in maintaining order and authority. They become good organizers, conscientious and scrupulous about detail, authoritarian and conservative in attitude.

35. In the context of Adler's idea of the order of birth, a person who is competitive and ambitious is most likely to be a(n): a. second-born child. c. only child. b. first-born child. d. youngest child.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 119 FEEDBACK: Competition with the first-born may serve to motivate the second-born, who may try to catch up to and surpass the older sibling. Second-borns are more optimistic about the future and are likely to be competitive and ambitious.

36. In the context of Adler's idea of the order of birth, the child most likely to develop at a remarkably fast rate is the: a. only child. c. youngest child. b. first-born. d. second-born.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 119 FEEDBACK: Driven by the need to surpass older siblings, youngest children often develop at a remarkably fast rate. Last-borns are often high achievers in whatever work they undertake as adults.

37. According to Adler, the child most likely to mature early and manifest adult behaviors is the: a. only child. c. youngest child. b. first-born. d. second-born.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 119 FEEDBACK: Only children never lose the position of primacy and power they hold in the family.

Spending more time in the company of adults than a child with siblings, only children often mature early and manifest adult behaviors and attitudes.

38. Identify a true statement in the context of Adler's image of human nature. a. Each person possesses the free will to shape the social forces influencing him or her. b. Adler's system offered a depressing universality and sameness in human nature. c. Each person strives to reduce conflict and attain a state free of any tension. d. Adler stated that we are all victims of our childhood experiences, which define our future.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 120

FEEDBACK: Adler's image of human nature is optimistic in his belief that people are not driven by unconscious forces. Adler's system provides a hopeful, flattering image of human nature that is the antithesis of Freud's dreary, pessimistic view. We possess the free will to shape the social forces that influence us and to use them creatively to construct a unique style of life.

39. Adler's approach to his patients was: a. more relaxed and informal than Freud's. b. more formal than Freud's.

c. identical to Freud's. d. like that of master and pupil.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Adler's Theory REF: 120 FEEDBACK: Adler's approach was more relaxed and informal than Freud's. The sessions were more like chats between friends than the more formal relationships maintained by Freud.

40. According to Adler, therapy: a. is all about abnormal behavior. b. reveals a stubborn and negative personality. c. reveals an overdeveloped sense of social interest. d. is like a chat between two friends.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Adler's Theory REF: 120 FEEDBACK: Adler's approach was more relaxed and informal than Freud's. The sessions were more like chats between friends than the more formal relationships maintained by Freud. Whereas Freud's patients lay on a couch while he sat behind them, Adler and his patients sat in comfortable chairs facing each other.

41. According to Adler, restless sleepers: a. are those who sleep on their stomach. b. sleep with their arms stretched out.

c. are those who curl up in a fetal position. d. sleep flat on their back.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Adler's Theory REF: 120 FEEDBACK: Adler assessed the personalities of his patients by observing everything about them.

Even the position in which we sleep is revealing. For example, according to Adler, restless sleepers and those who sleep flat on their back want to seem more important than they are.

42. Adler used all of the following methods of assessment except: a. birth order. c. dream analysis. b. early recollections. d. personality tests.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Adler's Theory REF: 120 FEEDBACK: Adler's primary methods of assessment, which he referred to as the entrance gates to mental life, are order of birth, early recollections, and dream analysis. Adler assessed the personalities of his patients by observing everything about them.

43. Adler believed that early recollections can be clues to a person's: a. superego feelings. c. style of life. b. Electra complex. d. ego-ideal.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Adler's Theory REF: 121 FEEDBACK: According to Adler, our personality is created during the first 4 or 5 years of life. Our early recollections, our memories from that period, indicate the style of life that continues to characterize us as adults.

44. Adler's own early recollections reveal his: a. feelings of inferiority. b. preference for his mother instead of his father. c. fear of other people. d. sexual longings.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Adler's Theory REF: 121 FEEDBACK: An early memory Adler recalled as an adult was from when he was 5 years old and had just started school. He remembered being terribly afraid every day because the path to school led through a cemetery. Since he was the only one who was afraid, this heightened his sense of inferiority.

It symbolized the fear and inferiority, and his efforts to overcome them, which characterized his style of life.

45. Adler believed that dreams: a. express conscious desires. b. manifest our psychotic compulsions.

c. fulfill wishes or reveal hidden conflicts. d. involve feelings about current problems.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Adler's Theory REF: 122 FEEDBACK: Adler did not believe that dreams fulfill wishes or reveal hidden conflicts. Rather, dreams involve our feelings about a current problem and what we intend to do about it.

46. Adler believed that psychology tests to assess personality were: a. artificial and ambiguous. b. useful in revealing unconscious desires. c. excellent at diagnosing psychological types. d. unnecessarily based on developing therapists' intuition.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Adler's Theory REF: 122 FEEDBACK: Adler had no desire to use psychological tests to assess personality. He argued that tests create artificial situations that provide ambiguous results. He did, however, support tests of memory and intelligence; it was tests of personality he criticized.

47. Adler's primary research method was the: a. Style of Life Inventory.

c. case study.

b. word-association test.

d. IQ test.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 123 FEEDBACK: Adler's primary research method was the case study. Unfortunately, little of Adler's data survived. He did not publish case histories except for two fragments: one written by a patient, the other written by a patient's physician.

48. On which of the following ideas proposed by Adler has research been conducted? a. Inferiority feelings c. Early recollections b. Pampering and neglect during childhood d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 123 FEEDBACK: Although most of Adler's propositions have resisted attempts at scientific validation, several topics have been the subject of research. These include dreams, inferiority feelings, early recollections, pampering and neglect in childhood, social interest, and order of birth.

49. Research on Adler's ideas revealed that early memories of depressed persons were concerned with: a. abandonment. c. illness. b. anger. d. threatening events.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 124 FEEDBACK: Early memories of people diagnosed as anxiety neurotics were concerned with fear; early memories of depressed persons centered on abandonment; and early memories of those with psychosomatic complaints involved illness.

50. A study by Hankoff (1987) using Adler's personality analysis methods showed that the early memories of adult criminals dealt with: a. disturbing or aggressive interactions. b. envy of rich people. c. feelings of social deprivation. d. striving for material goods.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 124 FEEDBACK: Early recollections of adult criminals dealt with disturbing or aggressive interactions with other people. They contained more unpleasant events than the early recollections of a control group.

51. Research has shown that children who are neglected by their parents score high on the _____ scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). a. paranoia c. depression b. aggression d. hysteria ANS: C

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 126 FEEDBACK: Ten years after the initial study involving parents of 8-year-old children, the children, then age 18, were given the depression scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Those whose test scores showed they were more depressed had been neglected in childhood by their parents.

52. According to Adler, _____ involves the persistent parental gratification of a child's needs and desires, leading to feelings of entitlement as well as tyrannical and manipulative behavior. a. overpermissiveness c. overdomination b. overprotection d. overindulgence ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 126 FEEDBACK: Adler argued that pampering in childhood could lead to a pampered style of life in which the person shows little or no social feelings for others. Studies have identified four types of pampering. Overindulgence involves the persistent parental gratification of a child's needs and desires, leading to feelings of entitlement as well as tyrannical and manipulative behavior.

53. _____, a type of pampering, involves exclusive parental decision-making, leading to a child's lack of self-confidence and a tendency to become dependent on others in adulthood. a. Overpermissiveness c. Overindulgence b. Overdomination d. Overprotection ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 126 FEEDBACK: Adler argued that pampering in childhood could lead to a pampered style of life in which the person shows little or no social feelings for others. Studies have identified four types of pampering. Overdomination involves exclusive parental decision-making, leading to a child's lack of self-confidence and a tendency to become dependent on others in adulthood.

54. On the Social Interest Index, women who scored high in social interest were also significantly higher in: a. superiority feelings. c. social conflicts. b. self-actualization. d. criminal behavior.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 127 FEEDBACK: Studies with the Social Interest Index (SII) showed that women who scored high in social interest were significantly higher in self-actualization, a characteristic of the healthy personality described by Maslow. Other research found that social interest was higher in women than in men and that it increased with age for both sexes.

55. According to Adler, first-borns are: a. concerned with power and authority. b. primarily of the getting type. c. less anxious than other children in stressful situations. d. lower in achievement than other children.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 128 FEEDBACK: According to Adler, first-borns are concerned with power and authority. One way for them to gain power and authority as adults is through achievement in their work. First-borns also tend to be more suggestible and dependent on other people. They are anxious in stressful situations and have a higher need for social relationships (Schachter, 1963, 1964). These findings can be predicted from Adler's theory.

56. Persons who reach high levels of intellectual achievement in school tend to be: a. high in social interest. c. second-borns. b. first-borns. d. characterized by a superiority complex.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 128 FEEDBACK: In many areas, from college attendance to high-level management, first-borns are over represented relative to their proportion of the population. More first-borns than later-borns become eminent, and they tend to attain greater intellectual achievement in academic settings and greater power and prestige in their careers.

57. Identify an accurate statement in the context of the study conducted by Schachter (1963, 1964) on the first-borns and later-borns. a. First-borns tend to be lower in IQ than c. First-borns tend to be less obedient than later-borns. later-borns. b. First-borns tend to be more dependent on d. All of these are correct. other people than later-borns.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 129 FEEDBACK: A study of more than 240,000 male army recruits in Norway showed that older siblings scored higher on IQ tests than younger siblings. First-borns tend to be more suggestible and dependent on other people. They are anxious in stressful situations and have a higher need for social relationships (Schachter, 1963, 1964). These findings can be predicted from Adler's theory. First-born girls were found to be more obedient and socially responsible than later-borns and to feel closer to their parents.

58. Research on second-borns shows that they are: a. higher than first-borns in self-esteem. b. more influenced by their older siblings than by parents. c. less easy-going than first-borns. d. more affected by abandonment than last-borns.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 129 FEEDBACK: A study of first-born and second-born siblings, conducted over 3 years, found that the attitudes, personalities, and leisure activities of second-born children were influenced more by their older siblings than by their parents. Research on major league baseball players found that those who were younger brothers were 10 times more likely than older brothers to attempt the high-risk action of

stealing bases during a game.

59. If pampered excessively, last-borns tend to_____ than first-borns and second-borns. a. have more difficulty adjusting c. be more depressed b. be more intelligent d. find themselves more competitive ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 129 FEEDBACK: Adler predicted that last-born children, if excessively pampered, would have adjustment problems as adults. Other research suggests that last-borns may feel a greater degree of academic rivalry with their siblings than first-borns do.

60. Contrary to Adler's theory, which of the following did research on only-born adults present? a. They are lower in self-esteem than adults reared with siblings. b. They are more selfish than adults reared with siblings. c. They are more cooperative than adults reared with siblings. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 129 FEEDBACK: Adler considered only-borns to be more selfish. However, research has not consistently supported this notion. One study found that only children were more cooperative than first-borns or last-borns.

61. As supported by research, in which of the following ways did "only" children differ from children with siblings? a. In having higher levels of intelligence c. In having high aspirations b. In being highly industriousness d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Adler's Theory REF: 130 FEEDBACK: An analysis of 115 studies of only-borns reported higher levels of achievement and intelligence and comparable social and emotional adjustment with people who have siblings. Later research confirmed those results and reported that only children had greater initiative, aspiration, industriousness, and self-esteem.

62. Who among the following personality theorists was influenced by Adler? a. Gordon Allport c. Karen Horney b. Abraham Maslow d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Adler's Theory REF: 131 FEEDBACK: Adler's emphasis on social forces in personality is seen in the theory of Karen Horney.

His focus on the whole person and the unity of personality is reflected in the work of Gordon Allport.

The creative power of people to shape their own styles of life, and the insistence that future goals are more important than past events, influenced the work of Abraham Maslow.

63. Adler is considered a forerunner of: a. laughter therapy. b. group therapy.

c. drug therapy. d. shock therapy.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Adler's Theory REF: 131 FEEDBACK: Specific Adlerian concepts of lasting importance to psychology include the early work on organic inferiority, which has influenced the study of psychosomatic disorders; the inferiority complex; compensation; and order of birth. Adler is also considered a forerunner of social psychology and group therapy.

64. All of the following are criticisms of Adler's system except that: a. it is overly simple. b. it relies too much on commonsense observations. c. it emphasizes past behavior and excludes goals and aspirations. d. it eliminates the complicated nature of the unconscious.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Adler's Theory REF: 131 FEEDBACK: Freud charged that Adler's psychology was oversimplified and would appeal to many people because it eliminated the complicated nature of the unconscious, had no difficult concepts, and ignored the problems of sex. A related charge is that Adler's concepts appear to rely heavily on commonsense observations from everyday life.

65. Adler's thinking and theory have been criticized as: a. inconsistent and unsystematic with many gaps and unanswered questions. b. rigid and exclusive, requiring total allegiance or complete rejection. c. overly complicated and difficult to understand. d. so close to Freud's that no significant differences are apparent.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Adler's theory REF: 131 FEEDBACK: Critics allege that Adler was inconsistent and unsystematic in his thinking and that his theory contains gaps and unanswered questions. Freud charged that Adler's psychology was oversimplified and would appeal to many people because it eliminated the complicated nature of the unconscious, had no difficult concepts, and ignored the problems of sex.

TRUE/FALSE 1. To Adler, the unconscious, not the conscious, was at the core of personality.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 109 FEEDBACK: To Adler, the conscious, not the unconscious, was at the core of personality. Rather than being driven by forces we cannot see and control, we are actively involved in creating our unique selves and directing our own futures.

2. Adler believed that inferiority feelings are a constant motivating force in all behavior.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving REF: 111 FEEDBACK: Adler believed that inferiority feelings are a constant motivating force in all behavior.

"To be a human being means to feel oneself inferior," Adler wrote.

3. Adler described his notion of the superiority complex as an exaggerated opinion of one's abilities and accomplishments.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving REF: 113 FEEDBACK: Whatever the source of the inferiority complex, a person may attempt to overcompensate and so develop what Adler called a superiority complex. This involves an exaggerated opinion of one's abilities and accomplishments.

4. Adler preferred the terms "objective goals" or "unguided self-discovery" for the concept of fictional finalism as it is known today.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Striving for Superiority, or Perfection REF: 114 FEEDBACK: Adler formalized the concept of fictional finalism as the notion that fictional ideas guide our behavior as we strive toward a complete or whole state of being. Adler preferred the terms "subjective final goal" or "guiding self-ideal" to describe this concept, but it continues to be known as "fictional finalism."

5. According to Adler, everything we do is shaped and defined by our unique style of life.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Style of Life REF: 114 FEEDBACK: We develop a unique pattern of characteristics, behaviors, and habits, which Adler called a distinctive character, or style of life. Everything we do is shaped and defined by our unique style of life.

6. Adler believed that developing emotional maturity is the first task we encounter in life.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Social Interest REF: 116 FEEDBACK: Adler believed that getting along with others is the first task we encounter in life. Our level of ability to get along with other people becomes part of our style of life, and therefore influences how well or poorly we will deal with all of life's problems.

7. The concept of social interest is described as the individual's innate potential to cooperate with other people to achieve personal and societal goals.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Social Interest REF: 116 FEEDBACK: Adler believed that getting along with others is the first task we encounter in life. He described this as the concept of social interest, which is the individual's innate potential to cooperate with other people in order to achieve personal and societal goals.

8. Adler believed the father's role was vital in developing the child's social interest as well as other aspects of the personality.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Social Interest REF: 116 FEEDBACK: Adler believed that the mother's role was vital in developing the child's social interest as well as all other aspects of the personality. Through her behavior toward the child, the mother can either foster social interest or thwart its development.

9. Adler believed that neurotics, perverts, and criminals were often first-borns.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 118 FEEDBACK: First-borns may also grow up to feel insecure and hostile toward others. Adler believed that neurotics, perverts, and criminals were often first-borns.

10. Second-borns do not suffer the sense of dethronement felt by first-borns when another child is added to the family.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 118 FEEDBACK: Second-born children never experience the powerful position once occupied by the first-borns. Even if another child is brought into the family, second-borns do not suffer the sense of dethronement felt by the first-borns.

11. Youngest children have an inferiority complex and therefore often develop at a slower rate than their older siblings.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 119 FEEDBACK: Driven by the need to surpass older siblings, youngest children often develop at a remarkably fast rate. Last-borns are often high achievers in whatever work they undertake as adults.

12. First-born children are likely to experience difficulties when they find that in areas of life outside the home, such as school, they are not the center of attention.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 119 FEEDBACK: In the family, only children remain the focus and center of attention. However, they may experience problems when they find that in areas of life outside the home, such as school, they are not the center of attention.

13. Adler believed the "only child" has not learned to share or to compete.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 119 FEEDBACK: Only children have learned neither to share nor to compete. If their abilities do not bring them sufficient recognition and attention, they are likely to feel keenly disappointed.

14. Adler's image of people is pessimistic in his belief that people are driven by unconscious forces.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 120 FEEDBACK: Adler's image of human nature is optimistic in his belief that people are not driven by unconscious forces. We possess the free will to shape the social forces that influence us and to use them creatively to construct a unique style of life.

15. Adler disagreed with Freud about the value of dreams by being of the opinion that dreams fulfill wishes or reveal hidden conflicts.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Adler's Theory REF: 121–122 FEEDBACK: Adler agreed with Freud about the value of dreams in understanding personality but disagreed on the way in which dreams should be interpreted. Adler did not believe that dreams fulfill wishes or reveal hidden conflicts. Rather, dreams involve our feelings about a current problem and what we intend to do about it.

ESSAY 1. Give an opinion of what kind of relationship Freud and Adler experienced with each other. How and for what reasons did this relationship change over time?

ANS: Adler's 9-year association with Freud began in 1902, when Freud invited Adler and three others to meet once a week at Freud's home to discuss psychoanalysis. Although their relationship never became close, Freud initially thought highly of Adler and praised his skill as a physician who was able to gain the trust of his patients. It is important to remember that Adler was never a student or disciple of Freud's and was not psychoanalyzed by him.

By 1910, although Adler was president of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society and coeditor of its journal, he was also an increasingly vocal critic of the Freudian theory. He soon severed all connection with psychoanalysis and went on to develop his own approach to personality.

Freud reacted angrily to Adler's defection. He belittled Adler's physical stature and called Adler loathsome, abnormal, driven mad by ambition, filled with venom and meanness, paranoid, intensely jealous, and sadistic. He also described Adler's theory as worthless.

Adler showed similar hostility toward Freud, calling him a swindler and denouncing psychoanalysis as filth. Adler became irate whenever he was introduced or referred to as a student of Freud's. In his later years, Adler became just as embittered toward defectors from his own approach as Freud had been toward those, like Adler, who deviated from psychoanalysis.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Adler (1870–1937) REF: 110 2. Demonstrate your understanding of the concept of compensation by defining this term and giving a real-life example for a young child.

ANS: Students' answers will vary.

Adler proposed that inferiority feelings are the source of all human striving. Individual growth results from compensation, from our attempts to overcome our real or imagined inferiorities. Compensation is defined as a motivation to overcome inferiority and to strive for higher levels of development.

Throughout our lives, we are driven by the need to overcome this sense of inferiority and to strive for increasingly higher levels of development.

For example, Daniel has a drive to overcome his early childhood struggle with math to become a Certified Public Accountant as an adult.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving REF: 111 3. Explain the concept of fictional finalism.

ANS: Adler applied the term finalism to the idea that we have an ultimate goal, a final state of being, and a need to move toward it. The goals for which we strive, however, are potentialities, not actualities. Adler believed that our goals are fictional or imagined ideals that cannot be tested against reality. We live our lives around ideals such as the belief that all people are created equal or that all people are basically good. These beliefs influence the ways we perceive and interact with other people.

Adler formalized this concept as fictional finalism, the notion that fictional ideas guide our behavior as we strive toward a complete or whole state of being. We direct the course of our lives by many such fictions, but the most pervasive one is the ideal of perfection.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Striving for Superiority, or Perfection REF: 114 4. Explain and give an example of how a supervisor of the dominant type would handle a problem in an office while contrasting this style of life with a supervisor who exemplifies the avoiding type. How would each basic style of life be different, and how would they be alike?

ANS: Students' answers will vary.

Adler proposed four basic styles of life for dealing with several universal problems: the dominant type, the getting type, the avoiding type, and the socially useful type.

The dominant type displays a dominant or ruling attitude with little social awareness. Such a person behaves without any regard for other people. The more extreme of this type attack others and become sadists, delinquents, or sociopaths. The less virulent become alcoholics, drug addicts, or suicides; they believe they hurt others by attacking themselves.

The avoiding type makes no attempt to face life's problems. By avoiding difficulties, the person avoids any possibility of failure.

For example, Bill, the dominant type supervisor, likes to tell his workers what to do by attacking their work ethic, while Carl, the avoiding type supervisor, ignores the problem in the office where the workers become non-productive.

Both types are not prepared to cope with the problems of everyday life. They are unable to cooperate with other people and the clash between their style of life and the real world results in abnormal behavior, which is manifested in neuroses and psychoses. They lack what Adler came to call social interest.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Style of Life REF: 115 5. Describe the profiles of first-born children and only children as proposed by Adler. Compare and contrast two similarities and two differences.

ANS: Both the first-borns and the only children enjoy the instant and undivided attention of the parents. First-born children and the only children also manifest adult behaviors and attitudes due to the prolonged time they spend with their parents.

When the second-born child appears, first-borns are, in a sense, dethroned. They are no longer the focus of attention and are no longer receiving constant love and care. Only children, on the other hand, never lose the position of primacy and power they hold in the family. They remain the focus and center of attention. First-born children have to share the affection of the parents with siblings and compete for it many times, whereas only children receive all the affection. Only children have learned neither to share nor to compete.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Birth Order REF: 117, 118, 119

Chapter 5—Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Horney strongly disagreed with Freud about: a. free association. b. the importance of the superego.

c. penis envy. d. the nature of the unconscious.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 135–136 FEEDBACK: An early feminist, Horney argued that psychoanalysis focused more on men's development than on women's. To counter Freud's contention that women are driven by penis envy, she proposed that men are envious of women for their ability to give birth.

2. Which of the following is true of Horney's theory on personality? a. It relates only to an adult's personality development. b. It focuses on aggression as the core of personality. c. It reflects a feminist viewpoint of psychoanalysis. d. It stresses biological determinants of personality.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 135, 136 FEEDBACK: An early feminist, Horney argued that psychoanalysis focused more on men's development than on women's. To Horney, people are motivated not by sexual or aggressive forces but rather by the needs for security and love, which clearly reflected her life experiences.

3. Horney's theory was influenced by her: a. close association with Jung. b. personal experiences.

c. work with Anna Freud. d. experience with Allport.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 136 FEEDBACK: Horney's theory was strongly influenced by her personal experiences in childhood and adolescence, as well as by social and cultural forces that were different from those that had influenced Freud.

4. Karen Horney incorporated her own childhood experience of _____ into her theory. a. sexual abuse c. racial discrimination b. physical abuse d. neglect and want for love ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Horney (1885–1952) REF: 136–137 FEEDBACK: Horney's personality theory is rooted in her childhood experiences. For most of her youth, she doubted that her parents wanted her and believed they loved Berndt, her older brother, more than they loved her.

5. What factor in Horney's childhood is reflected in her personality theory? a. Her sufferance of sexual conflict b. Her loneliness as an only child c. Her fear of being unwanted by her parents d. Her exhibition of perfectionist tendencies ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Horney (1885–1952) REF: 136–137 FEEDBACK: For most of her youth, Horney doubted that her parents wanted her and believed they loved her older brother Berndt more than they loved her. At 16, she wrote in her diary, "Why is everything beautiful on earth given to me, only not the highest thing, not love!"

6. As a child, Horney was: a. excessively pampered. b. interested in sports. c. ambitious and rebellious. d. severely punished.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Horney (1885–1952) REF: 137 FEEDBACK: Until the age of 8, Horney was a model child, clinging and compliant. Despite her efforts, however, she did not think she was getting sufficient love and security. Her self-sacrifice and good behavior were not working, so she changed tactics and deliberately became ambitious and rebellious, deciding that if she could not have love and security, she would take revenge for her feelings of unattractiveness and inadequacy.

7. Horney decided to undergo psychoanalysis after: a. failing to secure admission into a law school. b. realizing her inability to alleviate her depression and emotional problems otherwise. c. realizing that despite her happiness, she did not have fulfillment in life. d. facing verbal and physical racial discrimination.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Horney (1885–1952) REF: 137–138 FEEDBACK: During and after her marriage, Horney had a number of love affairs. When she realized these attachments were not helping to alleviate her depression and other emotional problems, she decided to undergo psychoanalysis.

8. Which of the following is the reason for the breakdown of Horney's relationship with Erich Fromm? a. Horney felt rejected when Fromm made disparaging comments about her appearance. b. Fromm gave Horney's daughter, Marriane, the confidence to confront her mother for the first time. c. Horney did not feel any attachment to Fromm who was 15 years older than her. d. Horney suffered from loneliness in Fromm's absence, who travelled extensively on business.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Horney (1885–1952)

REF: 138 FEEDBACK: Horney's most intense love affair was with another analyst, Erich Fromm, who was 15 years younger. When it ended after 20 years, she was deeply hurt. One event that led to the breakdown of the relationship was that she persuaded Fromm to analyze her daughter Marriane, and he helped the woman to understand her hostility toward her mother, giving Marriane the confidence to confront Horney for the first time.

9. Horney agreed with Freud about the: a. importance of the early childhood years in shaping the adult personality. b. primacy of instincts. c. dominant role of the unconscious. d. greater impact of biological forces as compared to social factors on personality.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Childhood Need for Safety and Security REF: 139 FEEDBACK: Horney agreed with Freud on one major point—the importance of the early years of childhood in shaping the adult personality. However, she differed from him on the specifics of how personality is formed.

10. Which statement does not reflect Horney's views about childhood? a. The fulfillment of safety needs of children can ensure their endurance to traumatic events. b. Biological forces are more important than social forces in shaping personality. c. There should be no discrimination based on gender. d. A child's security depends entirely on how the parents treat the child.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Childhood Need for Safety and Security REF: 139 FEEDBACK: An early feminist, she argued that psychoanalysis focused more on men's development than on women's. Horney believed that social forces in childhood, not biological forces, influence personality development. Horney believed that childhood was dominated by the safety need, by which she meant the need for security and freedom from fear. A child's security depends entirely on how the parents treat the child.

11. According to Horney, children can develop feelings of security in spite of traumatic events when: a. they are provided with a structured routine. b. parents show warmth and affection. c. parents treat them like adults. d. they are provided with unrestricted freedom.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Childhood Need for Safety and Security REF: 139 FEEDBACK: The major way parents weaken or prevent security is by displaying a lack of warmth and affection. Horney believed that childhood was dominated by the safety need, by which she meant the need for security and freedom from fear. She believed children could withstand much that is usually considered traumatic, such as abrupt weaning, occasional beatings, or even premature sexual experiences, as long as they feel wanted and loved and, therefore, secure.

12. In Horney's view, the more afraid a child is of his or her parents, _____. a. the more the child represses hostility c. the lesser the child's guilt

b. the lesser the child represses hostility

d. the greater the child's guilt

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Childhood Need for Safety and Security REF: 140 FEEDBACK: Children can easily be made to feel fearful of their parents through punishment, physical abuse, or more subtle forms of intimidation. The more frightened children become, the more they will repress their hostility.

13. In Horney's view, the more _____ a child feels, the more the child represses his or her hostility toward the parents. a. protected b. secure c. ambitious d. guilt ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Childhood Need for Safety and Security REF: 140 FEEDBACK: According to Horney, guilt is a reason why children repress hostility. The more guilt the child feels, the more deeply repressed will be the hostility. They may be made to feel unworthy, wicked, or sinful for expressing or even harboring resentments toward their parents.

14. Helplessness, fear, and hostility create what Horney called _____. a. basic negativism c. cognitive complexity b. basic anxiety d. conditions of worth ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis REF: 140 FEEDBACK: Horney defined basic anxiety as an "insidiously increasing, all-pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a hostile world" (Horney, 1937, p. 89). It is the foundation on which all later neuroses develop, and it is inseparably tied to feelings of hostility, helplessness, and fear (see Hjertass, 2009).

15. To Horney, basic anxiety is: a. the foundation of neurosis. b. the fear of the unknown.

c. a latent trait. d. a cardinal trait.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis REF: 140 FEEDBACK: According to Horney, basic anxiety is the foundation on which all later neuroses develop, and it is inseparably tied to feelings of hostility, helplessness, and fear. Regardless of how we express basic anxiety, the feeling is similar for all of us.

16. In Horney's view, in which of the following ways do children strive to protect against basic anxiety? a. By seeking affection or love c. By withdrawing from people b. By attaining power d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis REF: 140–141 FEEDBACK: In childhood, we try to protect ourselves against basic anxiety in four quite different ways: securing affection and love, being submissive, attaining power, or withdrawing.

17. Horney believed that _____ people must repress their personal desires and cannot defend against abuse. a. powerful c. indifferent b. submissive d. affectionate ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis REF: 141 FEEDBACK: Being submissive as a means of self-protection involves complying with the wishes of either one particular person or of everyone in our social environment. Submissive people must repress their personal desires and cannot defend against abuse for fear that such defensiveness will antagonize the abuser.

18. Horney compensated for her feelings of helplessness as a child by: a. giving in to her parents' demands. b. using rage and retribution toward everyone. c. striving for academic success. d. avoiding members of the opposite sex.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis REF: 141 FEEDBACK: Horney compensated for her feelings of helplessness as a child by striving for academic success. By attaining power over others, a person can compensate for helplessness and achieve security through success or through a sense of superiority.

19. According to Horney, one of the self-protective devices used to cope with basic anxiety involves: a. creating feelings of loss and regret. c. withdrawing from people psychologically. b. manifesting physical symptoms of pain. d. acting out sexually.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis REF: 141 FEEDBACK: In childhood, we try to protect ourselves against basic anxiety in four quite different ways: securing affection and love, being submissive, attaining power, or withdrawing. The fourth way of protecting oneself against basic anxiety involves withdrawing from other people, not physically but psychologically. Such a person attempts to become independent of others, not relying on anyone else for the satisfaction of internal or external needs.

20. In Horney's view, a child who isolates himself and refuses to play with others may be experiencing: a. the castration anxiety. c. withdrawal. b. self-actualization. d. the Oedipus complex.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis

REF: 141 FEEDBACK: A child who isolates himself and refuses to play with others may be experiencing withdrawal. The withdrawn person achieves independence with regard to internal or psychological needs by becoming aloof from others, no longer seeking them out to satisfy emotional needs.

21. The four self-protective mechanisms that were proposed by Horney: a. indicate a person's drive for perfection. b. defend against basic anxiety. c. provide happiness and pleasure. d. guarantee food, shelter, warmth, and love.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis REF: 141 FEEDBACK: The four self-protective mechanisms Horney proposed have a single goal: to defend against basic anxiety. They motivate the person to seek security and reassurance rather than happiness or pleasure.

22. According to Horney, neurotic needs are: a. irrational defenses against anxiety. b. spontaneous and seemingly purposeless behaviors. c. the innate needs to understand and overcome difficulties. d. consciously planned aspects of behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 141 FEEDBACK: Horney listed 10 needs that she termed neurotic needs because they are irrational solutions to one's problems. She believed that any of the self-protective mechanisms could become so permanent a part of the personality that it assumes the characteristics of a drive or need in determining the individual's behavior.

23. All of the following are neurotic needs according to Horney except: a. safety. c. admiration. b. power. d. exploitation.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 141–142 FEEDBACK: The 10 neurotic needs as listed by Horney are affection and approval, a dominant partner, power, exploitation, prestige, admiration, achievement or ambition, self-sufficiency, perfection, and narrow limits of life. Horney termed these needs neurotic needs because they are irrational solutions to one's problems.

24. The neurotic needs, as proposed by Horney, should become a cause for concern if a person: a. manifests any of them, even in a transient sense. b. is found to pursue one of them compulsively. c. experiences more than three of them. d. exhibits all of the neurotic needs.

ANS: B PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 142 FEEDBACK: Horney noted that we all manifest these needs to some degree. None of the needs is abnormal or neurotic in an everyday, transient sense. What makes them neurotic is the person's intensive and compulsive pursuit of their satisfaction as the "only" way to resolve basic anxiety.

25. In Horney's view, _____ includes the neurotic needs for self-sufficiency, perfection, and narrow limits to life. a. gaining affection c. attaining power b. withdrawing d. being submissive ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 142 FEEDBACK: Among the four ways to protect ourselves against basic anxiety, encompassed by the neurotic needs, withdrawing includes the needs for self-sufficiency, perfection, and narrow limits to life.

26. According to Horney, individuals of the aggressive personality type try to protect themselves against anxiety by expressing the neurotic need for _____. a. perfection c. admiration b. self-sufficiency d. affection ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 142 FEEDBACK: The neurotic needs encompass the four ways of protecting ourselves against anxiety: gaining affection, being submissive, attaining power, and withdrawing. Attaining power relates to the needs for power, exploitation, prestige, admiration, and achievement or ambition. Horney noted that we all manifest neurotic needs to some extent.

27. Which of the following is true of neurotic trends as described by Horney? a. They are elaborations of the self-protective mechanisms. b. They are displayed indiscriminately in any and all situations. c. They are compulsive attitudes and behaviors. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 142–143 FEEDBACK: Neurotic trends evolve from and elaborate on the self-protective mechanisms and involve compulsive attitudes and behavior. They are also displayed indiscriminately, in any and all situations.

28. According to Horney, the neurotic trend of moving toward other people is associated with the: a. compliant personality. c. detached personality. b. aggressive personality. d. intuitive personality.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 143

FEEDBACK: The compliant personality displays attitudes and behaviors that reflect a desire to move toward other people. Such a person has an intense and continuous need for affection and approval, an urge to be loved, wanted, and protected. Compliant personalities display these needs toward everyone, although they usually have a need for one dominant person, such as a friend or spouse, who will take charge of their lives and offer protection and guidance.

29. As noted by Horney, individuals who manipulate others to achieve their own ends represent the neurotic trend of moving _____ people. a. toward c. with b. against d. away from ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 143 FEEDBACK: The compliant personality displays attitudes and behaviors that reflect a desire to move toward other people. Compliant personalities manipulate other people, particularly their partners, to achieve their goals.

30. According to Horney, people with a compliant personality: a. are insensitive to the needs of others. c. regard themselves as superior to others. b. are incapable of manipulating others. d. feel helpless and weak about themselves.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 143 FEEDBACK: The attitude of compliant people toward themselves is consistently one of helplessness and weakness. They are willing to assume blame and defer to others, never being assertive, critical, or demanding.

31. To Horney, a person who is excessively dependent on others belongs to the _____ personality type. a. aggressive c. detached b. compliant d. withdrawing ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 143 FEEDBACK: Because the security of compliant personalities depends on the attitudes and behavior of other people toward them, they become excessively dependent, needing constant approval and reassurance. Any sign of rejection, whether actual or imagined, is terrifying to them, leading to increased efforts to regain the affection of the person they believe has rejected them.

32. Horney believed that people with a(n) _____ personality type may become highly successful in their careers, although the work itself will not provide them any intrinsic satisfaction. a. detached c. compliant b. withdrawing d. aggressive ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 144 FEEDBACK: People with an aggressive personality type drive themselves hard to become the best. As a result, they may actually become highly successful in their careers, although the work itself will not

provide intrinsic satisfaction.

33. According to Horney, people who rely on their own resources, have a great need for privacy and deny feelings for others represent the _____ personality type. a. psychotic c. aggressive b. detached d. compliant ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 144 FEEDBACK: Detached personalities have an almost desperate desire for privacy. They suppress or deny all feelings toward other people, particularly feelings of love and hate. If they are to function as detached personalities, they must rely on their own resources, which must be well developed.

34. In Horney' view, a person with a(n) _____ personality type would need to feel superior to others by automatic recognition of his or her uniqueness without struggle or involvement with others. a. aggressive c. dominant b. compliant d. detached ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 144 FEEDBACK: Individuals with a detached personality type need to feel superior, but not in the same way aggressive personalities do. Because detached people cannot actively compete with other people for superiority—that would mean becoming involved with others—they believe their greatness should be recognized automatically, without struggle or effort on their part.

35. Horney's compliant personality is similar to Adler's: a. avoiding type. c. getting type. b. defying type. d. ruling type.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 144 FEEDBACK: Similarities exist between the three personality types proposed by Horney and the styles of life in Adler's personality theory. Horney's compliant personality is similar to Adler's getting type, the aggressive personality is like the dominant or ruling type, and the detached personality is similar to the avoiding type.

36. In Horney's system, conflict in personality: a. derives from incompatibility among the three neurotic trends. b. decreases in intensity when one neurotic trend prevails over the others. c. decides the outcome of determinism versus free will for an individual. d. occurs between the anima and the animus archetype.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 144 FEEDBACK: In Horney's system, conflict is defined as the basic incompatibility of the three neurotic trends; this conflict is the core of neurosis. All of us, whether neurotic or normal, suffer some conflict among these basically irreconcilable modes.

37. According to Horney, a normal person differs from a neurotic in that a normal person: a. experiences no conflict among the neurotic trends. b. expresses all neurotic trends as circumstances warrant. c. experiences only one of the neurotic trends. d. shows complete absence of neurotic trends.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 144–145 FEEDBACK: Horney found that in the neurotic person, one of these three trends is dominant, whereas the other two are present to a lesser degree. In the person who is not neurotic, all three trends can be expressed as circumstances warrant.

38. Horney believed that a self-image is constructed by a(n) _____ person built on a realistic appraisal of their own abilities, potentials, and weaknesses. a. normal c. detached b. neurotic d. introverted ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Idealized Self-Image REF: 145 FEEDBACK: In normal people, the self-image is built on a realistic appraisal of our abilities, potentials, weaknesses, goals, and relations with other people. This image provides a sense of unity and integration to the personality and a framework within which to approach others and ourselves.

39. The idealized self-image of the neurotic person leads to a problem Horney called the: a. Jonah complex. c. realistic self-image. b. midlife crisis. d. tyranny of the shoulds.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Idealized Self-Image REF: 145 FEEDBACK: In attempting to realize their unattainable idealized self-image, neurotics engage in what Horney called the tyranny of the shoulds. Because they find their real self-image so undesirable, they believe they must live up to their illusory, idealized self-image, in which they see themselves in a highly positive light, for example, being virtuous, honest, generous, considerate, and courageous.

40. In Horney's view, the self-image of a neurotic: a. does not develop until he or she reaches middle age. b. is based on an unrealistic self-appraisal. c. does not differ from that of the normal person. d. is formed due to the predominance of the shadow archetype.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Idealized Self-Image REF: 145 FEEDBACK: For normal people, the self-image is an idealized picture of oneself built on a flexible, realistic assessment of one's abilities. For neurotics, the self-image is based on an inflexible, unrealistic self-appraisal.

41. Identify a true statement about Horney's belief regarding the construction of an idealized self-image. a. It leads to a state of self-regret. c. It is based on perfection. b. It is doomed to failure. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Idealized Self-Image REF: 145 FEEDBACK: In attempting to realize an unattainable ideal, neurotics engage in what Horney called the tyranny of the shoulds. Their attempt is doomed to failure because their self-image is not based on a realistic appraisal of their strengths and weaknesses. Instead, it is based on an illusion, an unattainable ideal of absolute perfection. They can never achieve their unrealistic self-image and end up in a state of self-hatred with no ability to forgive themselves or others.

42. Horney's idea that men envy women because of a woman's capacity for motherhood: a. showed that men desire to be women. b. was later accepted by Freud. c. was based on the pleasure of experiencing childbirth. d. was not displayed by most of her male patients.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Feminine Psychology REF: 146 FEEDBACK: Horney countered the idea of penis envy by arguing that men envied women because of their capacity for motherhood. Her position on this issue was based on the pleasure she said she had experienced in childbirth.

43. Horney believed that men often express and compensate for womb envy: a. by undergoing sex-change surgeries. b. with feelings of depression and inferiority. c. by seeking achievement in their work. d. through the mechanism of reaction formation.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Feminine Psychology REF: 147 FEEDBACK: Men have such a small part to play in the act of creating new life that they must sublimate their womb envy and overcompensate for it by seeking achievement in their work. Womb envy and the resentment that accompanies it are manifested unconsciously in behaviors designed to disparage and belittle women and to reinforce their inferior status.

44. According to Horney, a woman's sense of inferiority is: a. realistic and true for all women. b. a consequence of penis envy. c. biologically based. d. socially and culturally based.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Feminine Psychology REF: 147 FEEDBACK: Horney did not deny that many women believed themselves to be inferior to men. After generations of social, economic, and cultural discrimination, it is understandable that many women

saw themselves in that light.

45. Identify a true statement about the flight from womanhood as proposed by Horney. a. It leads to the denial of femininity. b. It inhibits sexual desire. c. It results in distrusting and resenting men. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Feminine Psychology REF: 147 FEEDBACK: As a result of the feelings of inferiority, women may choose to deny their femininity and to wish, unconsciously, that they were men. These women distrust and resent men and reject their sexual advances.

46. In Horney's view, the Oedipus complex in boys: a. develops when parents act to undermine a child's security. b. does not exist. c. is biologically based. d. results from the envy of the female capacity for motherhood.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Feminine Psychology REF: 148 FEEDBACK: According to Horney, Oedipal feelings develop only when parents act to undermine their child's security. By removing sex from the Oedipus complex, she reinterpreted the situation as a conflict between dependence on one's parents and hostility toward them.

47. In context of defining roles, Horney believes that modern women experience psychological conflict between: a. adolescence and middle age. b. love and work. c. love for their children and love for their parents. d. the ego and the superego.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Feminine Psychology REF: 148 FEEDBACK: Modern women are torn between love and work and are consequently dissatisfied in both. It remains as troublesome for some women in the 21st century to combine marriage, motherhood, and career as it was for Karen Horney in the 1930s.

48. Horney believed that neuroses and conflicts can be avoided when children are raised: a. with love, acceptance, and trust. b. with independence and discipline. c. to compromise with others. d. to become power oriented.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 149

FEEDBACK: Horney believed that neuroses and conflicts can be avoided if children are raised with love, acceptance, and trust. Parent–child relationships will either satisfy or frustrate the child's need for safety.

49. According to Horney, the urge toward self-realization derives from: a. an innate potential to fulfill life's ultimate goal. b. the impact of social forces in adolescence. c. our need to become self-sufficient. d. a continuous conflict among the neurotic trends.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 149 FEEDBACK: Horney's image of human nature is considerably more optimistic than Freud's. Each of us has the innate potential for self-realization, and this is our ultimate and necessary goal in life. Our intrinsic abilities and potential will blossom as inevitably and naturally as an acorn grows into an oak tree.

50. In Horney's view, although childhood influences are important, _____. a. middle age is the phase of transformation from extraversion to introversion b. later experiences also shape personality due to the flexibility of human nature c. adolescent experiences are more important than the earliest childhood experiences d. the idealized self-image of a person will be the greatest influence throughout his or her life ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 149 FEEDBACK: Horney believed that we have the capacity to consciously shape and change our personality. Because human nature is flexible, it is not formed into immutable shapes in childhood.

Each of us possesses the capacity to grow.

51. Horney used _____ to assess the functioning of the human personality. a. hypnosis c. projective tests and self-report inventories b. neurological evaluation d. free association and dream analysis ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Horney's Theory REF: 150 FEEDBACK: The methods Horney used to assess the functioning of the human personality were essentially those favored by Freud—free association and dream analysis—but with some modification.

The most basic difference in technique between Horney and Freud was in the relationship between analyst and patient.

52. Unlike Freud, Horney: a. believed in a cooperative therapist–client working relationship. b. was too passive and distant with her patients. c. delved into presumed infantile sexual fantasies. d. placed more emphasis on the ego than on the id.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Horney's Theory

REF: 150 FEEDBACK: The most basic difference in technique between Horney and Freud was in the relationship between analyst and patient. Horney believed that Freud played too passive a role and was too distant and intellectual. She suggested that analysis should be an "exquisitely cooperative enterprise" between patient and therapist.

53. In the context of the free association method used by Horney to assess the functioning of her patients' personality, which of the following statements is true? a. She followed Freud's lead in trying to probe their unconscious mind. b. She delved into their presumed infantile sexual fantasies. c. She focused on her patients' visible emotional reactions toward her. d. She believed that patients would always be truthful about their feelings about the events they remembered.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Horney's Theory REF: 150 FEEDBACK: Horney focused on her patients' visible emotional reactions toward her, believing that these could explain her patients' attitudes toward other people. She did not delve into presumed infantile sexual fantasies but inquired about the early years of patients' life only after evaluating their present attitudes, defenses, and conflicts.

54. Horney believed that dreams were: a. reliable sources of true memories. b. nothing more than reflections of the past.

c. prospective in nature. d. actual attempts to resolve problems.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Horney's Theory REF: 150 FEEDBACK: Horney believed that dream analysis could reveal a person's true self, and that dreams represented attempts to solve problems, in either a constructive or a neurotic way. Dreams can show us a set of attitudes that may differ from those of our self-image.

55. Horney's actual research approach relied mainly on: a. experimental observations to measure response to stimuli. b. correlational research involving self-report inventories. c. behavioral assessment through case studies. d. hypnosis and neurological assessments.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Horney's Theory REF: 151 FEEDBACK: Horney used the case study method. Horney focused on her patients' visible emotional reactions toward her, believing that these could explain her patients' attitudes toward other people.

56. Horney was opposed to: a. taking verbatim notes of her sessions. b. formulating hypotheses. c. testing her hypotheses in therapeutic situations. d. making clinical observations of her patients.

ANS: A

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Horney's Theory REF: 151 FEEDBACK: Horney was opposed to taking verbatim notes of her patients' recollections. However, she tried to be rigorous and scientific in her clinical observations, formulating hypotheses, testing them in therapeutic situations, and maintaining that her data were tested the same way scientists in other fields test theirs.

57. Which of the following has been found to be true according to research on the neurotic trends as proposed by Horney? a. College students preparing for careers in helping professions such as nursing and social work scored higher in compliance. b. Children who scored highest on the detached scale were found to be low in school achievement and have psychiatric problems. c. Shy girls with the neurotic trend of moving away from people became aloof adults with marital and job instability. d. Aggressive and ill-tempered children with the neurotic trend of moving against people were found to have inaccurate and negative self-images.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Horney's Theory REF: 151 FEEDBACK: A 35-item self-report inventory, the CAD, was devised to measure Horney's three neurotic trends, the Compliant, Aggressive, and Detached personality types. Research using the CAD inventory found that college students preparing for careers in helping professions such as nursing and social work scored higher in compliance than did students considering careers in business or science.

Those high in aggressiveness were found to be low in school achievement and to have psychiatric problems.

58. In the context of neurotic competitiveness as proposed by Horney, hyper-competitive men: a. scored high in self-esteem. c. were likely to be found across all cultures. b. were obsessed in competing only with d. believed women to be unworthy of respect themselves. or consideration.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Horney's Theory REF: 152 FEEDBACK: Hyper-competitive men were found to be hyper-masculine or macho, who believe that women are sex objects who deserved neither respect nor consideration. People who scored high on competitiveness were also high in narcissism, neuroticism, authoritarianism, dogmatism, and mistrust, and low in self-esteem and psychological health.

59. Between the two types of competitiveness identified by researchers, competing to excel (CE): a. is linked to feelings of loneliness. c. is linked to having a low self-esteem. b. deals with a need to dominate others. d. deals with surpassing one's personal goals.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Horney's Theory REF: 152 FEEDBACK: CE competing was linked to high self-esteem and low depression among high school students. Researchers identified two types of competitiveness: competing to win (CW) in order to dominate others, and competing to excel (CE) to surpass one's personal goals.

60. Horney' concept of the real self and self-realization were used by _____. a. Frederick Taylor c. Sigmund Freud b. Abraham Maslow d. Carl Jung ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Horney's Theory REF: 153 FEEDBACK: Horney's work had a significant impact on the personality theories developed by Erik Erikson and Abraham Maslow. Maslow used her concept of the real self and self-realization, and her notion of basic anxiety is similar to Erikson's concept of basic mistrust.

61. A valid criticism of Horney's personality theory by Freudians is that her theory: a. emphasizes excessively on sexuality. b. does not address trauma in childhood. c. denies the importance of biological instincts. d. is greatly influenced by rural European culture.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Horney's Theory REF: 154 FEEDBACK: To the Freudians, Horney's denial of the importance of biological instincts and her reduced emphasis on sexuality and the unconscious were obvious weaknesses. Horney's personality theory has also been criticized on the grounds that it is not as completely or consistently developed as Freud's.

62. Today, there is a renewed interest in Horney's ideas: a. primarily due to her opposition to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality inventory. b. primarily due to the women's movement that began in the 1960s. c. since Horney believed only biological contributions affect personality. d. since Horney made much use of research data from sociology and anthropology.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Horney's Theory REF: 154 FEEDBACK: Primarily due to the women's movement that began in the 1960s, Horney's books again attracted attention. Her writings on feminine psychology and sexuality may constitute the most influential of her contributions, of value to scholars on the role of women in society well more than 50 years after Horney's death.

TRUE/FALSE 1. Horney suffered from an inferiority complex from events that occurred when she was a young girl.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Horney (1885–1952) REF: 136–137 FEEDBACK: Horney envied her older brother, Berndt, because he was a boy, and girls were considered inferior. She also felt belittled and rejected when her father often made disparaging comments about her intelligence and appearance.

2. Although Karen Horney was married, she was constantly looking for other relationships.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Horney (1885–1952) REF: 137 FEEDBACK: During and after her marriage, Horney had a number of love affairs. A biographer wrote: "When she did not have a lover, or a relationship was breaking down, she felt lost, lonely, desperate, and sometimes suicidal."

3. According to Horney, basic anxiety is the "all-pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a hostile world."

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis REF: 140 FEEDBACK: Horney defined basic anxiety as an "insidiously increasing, all-pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a hostile world." It is the foundation on which all later neuroses develop, and it is inseparably tied to feelings of hostility, helplessness, and fear.

4. In Horney's view, neurotic needs were actual rational solutions to one's problems.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 141 FEEDBACK: Horney listed 10 such needs, which she termed neurotic needs because they are irrational solutions to one's problems. Horney believed that any of the self-protective mechanisms could become so permanent a part of the personality that it assumes the characteristics of a drive or need in determining the individual's behavior.

5. According to Horney, neurotic needs become less severe and are likely be overcome in late childhood even with no intervention on the part of the parents.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs, Questions about Human Nature REF: 141, 149 FEEDBACK: Neurotic needs are 10 irrational defenses against anxiety that become a permanent part of personality and that affect behavior. Parent–child relationships will either satisfy or frustrate the child's need for safety. If that need is frustrated, the outcome is neurotic behavior.

6. A person, according to Horney, will manifest all 10 neurotic needs to some degree.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 142 FEEDBACK: Horney noted that we all manifest 10 neurotic needs to some degree. None of the needs is abnormal or neurotic in an everyday, transient sense.

7. According to Horney, there are three categories of behaviors and attitudes toward oneself and others that express a person's needs.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 142 FEEDBACK: From her work with patients, Horney concluded that the needs could be presented in three groups, each indicating a person's attitudes toward the self and others. She called these three categories of directional movement the neurotic trends.

8. According to Horney, a person exhibiting a neurotic trend of moving against other people is most likely to have a neurotic need for perfection.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 142 FEEDBACK: According to Horney, a person exhibiting a neurotic trend of moving against other people is most likely to have a neurotic need for power, exploitation, prestige, admiration, and achievement.

9. Horney proposed the concept of the idealized self-image that helps us to improve and control their personality.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Idealized Self-Image REF: 145 FEEDBACK: Neurotics, who experience conflict between incompatible modes of behavior, have personalities characterized by disunity and disharmony. They construct an idealized self-image for the same purpose as normal people do: to unify the personality. But their attempt is doomed to failure because their self-image is not based on a realistic appraisal of their strengths and weaknesses.

10. According to Horney, neurotics tend to look for a problem in other people but blame themselves for it.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Idealized Self-Image REF: 146 FEEDBACK: One way in which neurotics attempt to defend themselves against the inner conflicts caused by the discrepancy between idealized and real self-images is by externalization, projecting the conflicts onto the outside world. This process may temporarily alleviate the anxiety caused by the conflict but will do nothing to reduce the gap between the idealized self-image and reality.

11. Karen Horney was influenced by Freud, but she argued that men envied women because of their capacity for motherhood.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Feminine Psychology REF: 146 FEEDBACK: Horney countered Freud's ideas that women were forever envious and resentful of men

for possessing a penis by arguing that men envied women because of their capacity for motherhood.

She uncovered in her male patients what she called womb envy.

12. Karen Horney was against the use of self-analysis, free association, and dream analysis.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Horney's Theory REF: 149–150 FEEDBACK: Horney was so confident of our capacity for self-growth that she emphasized self-analysis in her therapeutic work as well as in her own life. The methods Horney used to assess the functioning of the human personality were essentially those favored by Freud—free association and dream analysis—but with some modification.

13. Horney agreed with Freud's belief that therapy should be passive and intellectual.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Horney's Theory REF: 150 FEEDBACK: Horney believed that Freud played too passive a role and was too distant and intellectual. She suggested that analysis should be an "exquisitely cooperative enterprise" between patient and therapist.

14. Horney selected the case study method that is similar to the method used by Freud, Jung, and Adler while working with their patients.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Horney's Theory REF: 151 FEEDBACK: Horney used the case study method. Therefore, her approach, data, and interpretations are subject to the same criticisms made earlier of the work of Freud, Jung, and Adler.

15. Horney considered neurotic competitiveness as an indiscriminate need to win at all costs.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Horney's Theory REF: 152 FEEDBACK: Horney defined it as an indiscriminate need to win at all costs. The attitude of the person manifesting this need can be "compared to that of a jockey in a race, for whom only one thing matters—whether he is ahead of the others."

ESSAY 1. Describe the change in Horney's attitude and behavior toward her parents after the age of eight.

Mention how this affected her adult personality.

ANS: As a way of retaining her mother's affection, she acted the part of the adoring, obedient daughter. Until the age of eight, she was a model child, clinging and compliant. Despite her efforts, however, she did not think she was getting sufficient love and security. Her self-sacrifice and good behavior were not working, so she changed tactics and deliberately became ambitious and rebellious,

deciding that if she could not have love and security, she would take revenge for her feelings of unattractiveness and inadequacy.

For most of her youth, she doubted that her parents wanted her and believed they loved her older brother Berndt more than they loved her. Although she desperately wanted her father's love and attention, he intimidated her with his fierce eyes and stern, demanding manner. She felt belittled and rejected when he often made disparaging comments about her intelligence and appearance.

As an adult, she realized how much hostility she had developed as a child. Her personality theory describes how a lack of love in childhood fosters anxiety and hostility. A biographer concluded, "In all her psychoanalytic writings Karen Horney was struggling to make sense of herself and to obtain relief from her own difficulties.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Horney (1885–1952) REF: 136–137 2. Define basic anxiety. Describe the different ways in which we try to protect ourselves against basic anxiety in our childhood.

ANS: Horney defined basic anxiety as an "insidiously increasing, all-pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a hostile world." It is the foundation on which all later neuroses develop, and it is inseparably tied to feelings of hostility, helplessness, and fear. In childhood, we try to protect ourselves against basic anxiety in four quite different ways: securing affection and love, being submissive, attaining power, or withdrawing.

Securing Affection: By securing affection and love from other people, the person is saying, in effect, "If you love me, you will not hurt me." There are several ways by which we may gain affection, such as trying to do whatever the other person wants, trying to bribe others, or threatening others into providing the desired affection.

Being Submissive: Being submissive as a means of self-protection involves complying with the wishes of either one particular person or of everyone in our social environment. Submissive people avoid doing anything that might antagonize others. They must repress their personal desires and cannot defend against abuse for fear that such defensiveness will antagonize the abuser. Most people who act submissive believe they are unselfish and self-sacrificing.

Attaining Power: By attaining power over others, a person can compensate for helplessness and achieve security through success or through a sense of superiority. Such people seem to believe that if they have power, no one will harm them.

Withdrawing: The fourth way of protecting oneself against basic anxiety involves withdrawing from other people, not physically but psychologically. Such a person attempts to become independent of others, not relying on anyone else for the satisfaction of internal or external needs. The withdrawn person achieves independence with regard to internal or psychological needs by becoming aloof from others, no longer seeking them out to satisfy emotional needs. The process involves a blunting, or minimizing, of emotional needs.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis REF: 140–141 3. List the 10 neurotic needs identified by Horney, and classify them on the four ways in which an individual protects himself or herself against basic anxiety.

ANS: Horney listed 10 needs that she termed neurotic needs because they are irrational solutions to

one's problems. The 10 neurotic needs are as follows: 1. Affection and approval 2. A dominant partner 3. Power 4. Exploitation 5. Prestige 6. Admiration 7. Achievement or ambition 8. Self-sufficiency 9. Perfection 10. Narrow limits to life The neurotic needs encompass the four ways of protecting ourselves against anxiety.

• Gaining affection is expressed in the neurotic need for affection and approval.

• Being submissive includes the neurotic need for a dominant partner.

• Attaining power relates to the needs for power, exploitation, prestige, admiration, and achievement or ambition.

• Withdrawing includes the needs for self-sufficiency, perfection, and narrow limits to life.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 141–142 4. What are neurotic trends? Mention how Horney's earlier list of needs is reformulated under neurotic trends. Describe in detail the compliant personality.

ANS: In her later writings, Horney reformulated the list of needs. From her work with patients, she concluded that the needs could be presented in three groups, each indicating a person's attitudes toward the self and others. She called these three categories of directional movement the neurotic trends. The neurotic trends are as follows: • Movement toward other people—the compliant personality • Movement against other people—the aggressive personality • Movement away from other people—the detached personality The neurotic needs for affection and approval and for having a dominant partner are categorized under the compliant personality. The needs for power, exploitation, prestige, admiration, and achievement are categorized under the aggressive personality. The needs for self-sufficiency, perfection, and narrow limits to life are categorized under the detached personality.

The Compliant Personality: The compliant personality displays attitudes and behaviors that reflect a desire to move toward other people. Such a person has an intense and continuous need for affection and approval, an urge to be loved, wanted, and protected. Compliant personalities display these needs toward everyone, although they usually have a need for one dominant person, such as a friend or spouse, who will take charge of their lives and offer protection and guidance.

Compliant personalities manipulate other people, particularly their partners, to achieve their goals.

They often behave in ways others find attractive or endearing. Compliant people are concerned with living up to others' ideals and expectations, and they act in ways others perceive as unselfish and generous.

In dealing with other people, compliant personalities are conciliatory. They subordinate their personal desires to those of other people. They are willing to assume blame and defer to others, never being assertive, critical, or demanding. Their attitude toward themselves is consistently one of helplessness and weakness.

Consequently, they regard other people as superior, and even in situations in which they are

competent, they see themselves as inferior. Because the security of compliant personalities depends on the attitudes and behavior of other people toward them, they become excessively dependent, needing constant approval and reassurance.

The source of these behaviors is the person's repressed hostility. Horney found that compliant persons have repressed profound feelings of defiance and vindictiveness. They have a desire to control, exploit, and manipulate others, the opposite of what their behaviors and attitudes express.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Neurotic Needs REF: 142–143 5. In the context of the idealized self-image, describe the tyranny of the shoulds.

ANS: Horney argued that all of us, normal or neurotic, construct a picture of our selves that may or may not be based on reality. Neurotics, who experience conflict between incompatible modes of behavior, have personalities characterized by disunity and disharmony. They construct an idealized self-image for the same purpose as normal people do: to unify the personality. But their attempt is doomed to failure because their self-image is based on an illusion, an unattainable ideal of absolute perfection.

In attempting to realize this unattainable ideal, neurotics engage in what Horney called the tyranny of the shoulds. They tell themselves they should be the best or most perfect student, spouse, parent, lover, employee, friend, or child. Because they find their real self-image so undesirable, they believe they must live up to their illusory, idealized self-image, in which they see themselves in a highly positive light, for example, being virtuous, honest, generous, considerate, and courageous.

In doing so, they deny their real selves and try to become what they think they should be, or what they need to be to match their idealized self-image. However, their efforts are doomed to failure. They can never achieve their unrealistic self-image and end up in a state of self-hatred with no ability to forgive themselves or others.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Idealized Self-Image REF: 145

Chapter 6—Erik Erikson: Identity Theory MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. According to Erikson, personality develops: a. mostly during early childhood. b. only until age five.

c. during adolescence. d. over the entire life span.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 160 FEEDBACK: Erikson extended Freud's theory in three ways. He elaborated on Freud's stages of development, suggesting that personality continues to develop over the entire life span.

2. Erikson extended Freud's theory by placing greater emphasis on the _____ than on the _____. a. id; ego c. superego; ego b. ego; id d. unconscious; id ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 160 FEEDBACK: Erikson extended Freud's theory in three ways. He placed greater emphasis on the ego than on the id. In Erikson's view, the ego is an independent part of the personality. It is not dependent on or subservient to the id, as Freud had said.

3. Erik Erikson lived out one of his most famous concepts through: a. his rejection of an important father figure—Freud. b. the failure to earn an academic degree. c. several identity crises. d. his refusal to sign an oath of loyalty to the field of medicine.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Erikson (1902–1994) REF: 160 FEEDBACK: It is not surprising that the theorist who gave us the concept of the identity crisis, Erik Erikson, experienced several of the same kind of crises of his own which he was never able, over his lifetime to resolve.

4. Erikson's childhood and youth were characterized by: a. a number of identity crises. c. a strong bond with his biological father. b. a conflicted relationship with his negligent d. a strong Oedipal complex. mother.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Erikson (1902–1994) REF: 160 FEEDBACK: It is not surprising that the theorist who gave us the concept of the identity crisis experienced several of the same kind of crises of his own which he was never able, over his lifetime to resolve. Erik did not know for some years that Homburger was not his biological father and said that he grew up unsure of his name and psychological identity. Another crisis of identity occurred when

Erik started school. Despite his Danish parentage he considered himself German, but both his German and his Jewish classmates rejected him.

5. From his early work and analysis with Anna Freud, Erikson developed an interest in: a. psychoanalytic work with children. b. feminine psychology. c. understanding the biological influences of personality development. d. the unconscious and subconscious thoughts of his patients.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Erikson (1902–1994) REF: 161 FEEDBACK: Anna Freud, unlike her father, was interested in the psychoanalysis of children. Her influence, plus Erikson's own classroom teaching experiences, made him aware of the importance of social influences on personality and led him to also focus on child development.

6. After migrating from Vienna, Erikson worked: a. in Germany with schizophrenic patients. b. with young children in Africa. c. at a guidance center for emotionally disturbed delinquents. d. with Sigmund Freud.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Erikson (1902–1994) REF: 161–162 FEEDBACK: In 1933, recognizing the growing Nazi menace, the Eriksons immigrated to Denmark and then to the United States, settling in Boston. Erikson established a private psychoanalytic practice specializing in the treatment of children. He also worked at a guidance center for emotionally disturbed delinquents and served on the staff of Massachusetts General Hospital.

7. Erikson studied each of the following groups except: a. delinquents. c. Native American tribes. b. schizophrenic adults. d. normal children.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Erikson (1902–1994) REF: 162 FEEDBACK: In the United States, Erikson established a private psychoanalytic practice specializing in the treatment of children. He also worked at a guidance center for emotionally disturbed delinquents and served on the staff of Massachusetts General Hospital. In 1936, he was invited to the Institute of Human Relations at Yale, where he and a Yale anthropologist collaborated on a study of the child-rearing practices of South Dakota's Sioux Indians.

8. In which of the following did Erikson note the phenomenon of identity confusion? a. His study of patients in Vienna c. His study of schizophrenic adults b. His study of World War II veterans d. All of these are correct.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Erikson (1902–1994) REF: 162 FEEDBACK: In his observations of American Indians in South Dakota and in California, Erikson

noted certain psychological symptoms that appeared to be related to a sense of alienation from cultural traditions and resulted in the lack of a clear self-image or self-identity. This phenomenon, which Erikson initially called identity confusion, was similar to the condition he had observed among emotionally disturbed veterans after World War II. 9. Erikson divided the growth of the personality into: a. nine stages up to adolescence. c. eight psychosocial stages of development. b. four psychosexual levels. d. six categories of biological changes.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 162 FEEDBACK: Erikson divided the growth of the personality into eight psychosocial stages of development. To Erikson, eight successive stages encompass the life span. At each stage, we must cope with a crisis in either an adaptive or a maladaptive way.

10. Erikson included all of the following in his theory of personality except: a. the eight stages of life. c. basic strengths. b. social and environmental forces. d. unconscious forces.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 162, 163 FEEDBACK: Erikson divided the growth of the personality into eight psychosocial stages. The major difference between Erikson's and Freud's theories is that Erikson emphasized psychosocial correlates, whereas Freud focused on biological factors. According to Erikson, it is the social and environmental forces to which we are exposed that control the ways in which the genetically predetermined stages of development are realized. Erikson also proposed that each of the eight psychosocial stages provides an opportunity to develop our basic strengths.

11. Erikson used the term _____ to refer to the idea that human development is governed by a sequence of stages that depend on hereditary factors. a. functional autonomy of motives b. epigenetic principle of maturation c. expressive behavior d. primary-process thought ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 163 FEEDBACK: Erikson suggested that the developmental process was governed by what he called the epigenetic principle of maturation. By this he meant that inherited forces are the determining characteristics of the developmental stages. The prefix "epi" means "upon"; therefore, development depends on genetic factors.

12. Erikson's epigenetic principle of maturation: a. concerns the time required for a child to grow or mature to become an adult. b. states that personality is determined entirely by genetics. c. asserts that development is determined by both biological and social factors. d. confirms that only social and environmental factors determine our personality.

ANS: C

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 163 FEEDBACK: According to the epigenetic principle of maturation, inherited forces are the determining characteristics of the developmental stages; development depends on genetic factors. However, it is the social and environmental forces to which we are exposed that control the ways in which the genetically predetermined stages of development are realized. Thus, our personality development is affected by both biological and social factors.

13. In the context of Erikson's psychosocial stages of development, identify a true statement about the personal conflicts in the developmental stages. a. The potential for these personal conflicts exists at birth. b. Each conflict or crisis can be overcome in one of two ways. c. The personal crises involve a shift in perspective. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 163 FEEDBACK: In Erikson's theory, human development involves a series of personal conflicts. The potential for these conflicts exists at birth as innate predispositions, each of which will become prominent at different stages when our environment demands certain adaptations. Each confrontation with our environment is called a crisis. The crisis involves a shift in perspective.

14. According to Erikson, if a conflict at one developmental stage cannot be resolved, then a person is more likely to: a. resolve it during the later stages. b. compensate for it at the next stage of development. c. find it difficult to adapt to later problems. d. overcome problems faster in later stages.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 163 FEEDBACK: Each developmental stage has its particular crisis or turning point that necessitates some change in our behavior and personality. We may respond to the crisis in one of two ways: a maladaptive way or an adaptive way. Only when we have resolved each conflict can the personality continue its normal developmental sequence and acquire the strength to confront the next stage's crisis.

If the conflict at any stage remains unresolved, we are less likely to be able to adapt to later problems.

15. In Erikson's view, at each stage of psychosocial development, _____. a. the maladaptive way of coping must be suppressed b. the ego must incorporate both maladaptive and adaptive ways of coping c. we must eliminate our sexual and physical needs d. the mother is most important in resolving the crisis for the child ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 163 FEEDBACK: Erikson believed that the ego must incorporate both maladaptive as well as adaptive ways of coping. Ideally, at every stage of development the ego will consist primarily of the positive or adaptive attitude but will be balanced by some portion of the negative attitude.

16. Each of Erikson's developmental stages provides individuals an opportunity to: a. increase their awareness of their unconscious mind. b. explore the pleasure principle. c. overcome genetic predispositions. d. develop their basic strengths.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 163 FEEDBACK: Erikson also proposed that each of the eight psychosocial stages provides an opportunity to develop our basic strengths. To Erikson, basic strengths are motivating characteristics and beliefs that derive from the satisfactory resolution of the crisis at each developmental stage.

17. During Erikson's first stage of psychosocial development, when trust or mistrust are the ways of coping, the most important body part is the: a. anus. c. stomach. b. mouth. d. nose.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 164 FEEDBACK: Erikson's oral-sensory stage of psychosocial development, paralleling Freud's oral stage, occurs during our first year of life, the time of our greatest helplessness. During this stage, the mouth is of vital importance. Erikson wrote that the infant lives through, and loves with, the mouth.

18. According to Erikson, _____ involves a determination to exercise freedom of choice and self-restraint in the face of society's demands. a. competence c. purpose b. will d. fidelity ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 165 FEEDBACK: The most important point about the muscular-anal stage of psychosocial development is that for the first time children are able to exercise some choice, to experience the power of their autonomous will. The basic strength that develops from autonomy is will, which involves a determination to exercise freedom of choice and self-restraint in the face of society's demands.

19. The locomotor-genital stage of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, which occurs between ages 3 and 5, involves _____ as the two ways of coping. a. initiative versus guilt c. autonomy versus doubt and shame b. identity versus role confusion d. trust versus mistrust ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 165 FEEDBACK: The locomotor-genital stage, which occurs between ages 3 and 5, is similar to the phallic stage in Freud's system. Children express a strong desire to take the initiative in many activities. If the parents punish the child and otherwise inhibit these displays of initiative, the child will develop persistent guilt feelings that will affect self-directed activities throughout the person's life.

20. The adolescence stage of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development that includes the ways of coping of identity cohesion or role confusion appears between ages: a. 3 and 5. c. 12 and 18. b. 6 and 11. d. 19 and 35.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: Adolescence, between ages 12 and 18, is the stage at which we must meet and resolve the crisis of our basic ego identity. Those who fail to achieve a cohesive identity—who experience what Erikson called an identity crisis—will exhibit a confusion of roles.

21. Erikson identified the stage that deals with identity cohesion versus role confusion as: a. a time when a person has a strong sense of their own identity. b. a stage where a person develops a variety of physical and mental abilities. c. a moratorium to give a person time and energy to play different roles. d. a period of consistency, hope, and resolution of conflicts.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: Adolescence, between ages 12 and 18, is the stage at which we must meet and resolve the crisis of our basic ego identity. Erikson suggested that adolescence was a hiatus between childhood and adulthood, a necessary psychological moratorium to give the person time and energy to play different roles and live with different self-images.

22. According to Erikson, a(n) _____ identity is preferable to no identity during the adolescent stage. a. positive c. incongruent b. confusing d. negative ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: People who experience an identity crisis may withdraw from the normal life sequence (education, job, marriage) as Erikson did for a time or seek a negative identity in crime or drugs. Even a negative identity, as society defines it, is preferable to no identity at all, although it is not as satisfactory as a positive identity.

23. Erikson believed that for adolescents, excessive association with fanatical groups and cults or obsession with popular cultural icons could: a. restrict the developing ego. b. increase their positive well-being. c. lead them to develop their superego. d. help them overcome issues of fidelity.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: Erikson noted the strong impact of peer groups on the development of ego identity in adolescence. He noted that excessive association with fanatical groups and cults, or obsessive

identification with icons of popular culture, could restrict the developing ego.

24. According to Erikson, the basic strength that should develop during adolescence is: a. purpose. c. hope. b. wisdom. d. fidelity.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: The basic strength that should develop during adolescence is fidelity, which emerges from a cohesive ego identity. Fidelity encompasses sincerity, genuineness, and a sense of duty in our relationships with other people.

25. The term fidelity encompasses: a. sincerity, genuineness, and a sense of duty in relationships. b. trust, autonomy, initiative, and industriousness. c. the courage to envision and pursue goals. d. the freedom of choice and self-restraint.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: The basic strength that should develop during adolescence is fidelity, which emerges from a cohesive ego identity. Fidelity encompasses sincerity, genuineness, and a sense of duty in our relationships with other people.

26. To Erikson, the end of young adulthood may occur at the age of: a. 21. c. 25. b. 35. d. 30.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: Erikson considered young adulthood to be a longer stage than the previous ones, extending from the end of adolescence to about the age of 35.

27. Which of the following did Erikson consider to be a positive outcome in the young adulthood stage? a. A person establishes intimate relationships. b. Individuals establish their dependence on their parents. c. A person acquires the skill of competence. d. Individuals focus on understanding the purpose of their lives.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: Erikson considered young adulthood to be a longer stage than the previous ones, extending from the end of adolescence to about the age of 35. We undertake some form of productive work and establish intimate relationships, typically close friendships and sexual unions.

28. According to Erikson, a person undertakes some form of productive work, establishes intimate relationships, and has an opportunity to become independent from his or her parents during the stage of: a. young adulthood. b. adolescence. c. adulthood. d. latency.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: Erikson considered young adulthood to be a longer stage than the previous ones, extending from the end of adolescence to about the age of 35. During this period we establish our independence from our parents and quasi-parental institutions. We undertake some form of productive work and establish intimate relationships, typically close friendships and sexual unions.

29. According to Erikson, people who are unable to develop positive relationships during young adulthood may prefer to be alone because they fear _____ as a threat to their ego identity. a. casual social contact c. intimacy b. unconscious desires d. conflict ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 168 FEEDBACK: People who are unable to establish intimacies in young adulthood will develop feelings of isolation. They avoid social contacts, reject other people, and may even become aggressive toward them. They prefer to be alone because they fear intimacy as a threat to their ego identity.

30. Identify a true statement about people who are unable to develop positive relationships during young adulthood. a. They prefer to live in isolation. b. They avoid social contacts and reject other people. c. They fear intimacy. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 168 FEEDBACK: People who are unable to establish intimacies in young adulthood will develop feelings of isolation. They avoid social contacts, reject other people, and may even become aggressive toward them. They prefer to be alone because they fear intimacy as a threat to their ego identity.

31. The psychosocial developmental stage of maturity that lasts the longest is the: a. muscular-anal stage. c. adulthood stage. b. locomotor-genital stage. d. latency stage.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 168 FEEDBACK: Adulthood, approximately ages 35–55, is a stage of maturity in which we need to be actively involved in teaching and guiding the next generation.

32. According to Erikson, a person in the adulthood stage experiences _____ versus _____ and needs to be involved in teaching and guiding the next generation. a. generativity; stagnation c. intimacy; isolation b. ego integrity; despair d. industriousness; inferiority ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 168 FEEDBACK: Adulthood, approximately ages 35–55, is a stage of maturity in which we need to be actively involved in teaching and guiding the next generation. This need extends beyond our immediate family.

33. Erikson believed that the basic strength associated with adulthood is: a. wisdom. c. purpose. b. love. d. care.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: Care is the basic strength that emerges from generativity in adulthood. Erikson defined care as a broad concern for others and believed it was manifested in the need to teach, not only to help others but also to fulfill one's identity.

34. Erikson's depiction of emotional difficulties in middle age is similar to: a. Freud's description of ego development. b. Jung's description of the midlife crisis. c. Adler's description of individual psychology. d. Horney's description of middle-age anxiety.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: When middle-aged people cannot or will not find an outlet for generativity, they may become overwhelmed by stagnation, boredom, and interpersonal impoverishment. Erikson's depiction of these emotional difficulties in middle age is similar to Jung's description of the midlife crisis.

35. According to Erikson, when middle-aged people cannot or will not find an outlet for generativity, they: a. lose their strengths of competence, purpose, and fidelity. b. may become overwhelmed by stagnation and regress to a stage of pseudo-intimacy. c. adopt the behaviors of older, and more mature, adults. d. may join as many organizations as possible to satisfy their ego.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: When middle-aged people cannot or will not find an outlet for generativity, they may become overwhelmed by stagnation, boredom, and interpersonal impoverishment. And they may become physical or psychological invalids because of their absorption with their own needs and comforts.

36. Ego integrity involves: a. making unconscious desires conscious. b. allowing the superego and the id to be more balanced. c. experiencing a sense of frustration with one's past. d. accepting one's place and one's past.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: If we look back with a sense of fulfillment and satisfaction, believing we have coped with life's victories and failures, then we are said to possess ego integrity. Simply stated, ego integrity involves accepting one's place and one's past.

37. According to Erikson, which of the following should older people seek? a. Vital participation in life c. Stimulation from their environment b. New challenges d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: Older people must do more than reflect on the past. They must remain active, vital participants in life, seeking challenge and stimulation from their environment. As an older person himself, Erikson said that generativity (the focus of mature adulthood) was even more important than he had thought when he was first developing his theory.

38. _____, developed in the seventh stage of life, may be the most important factor contributing to ego integrity in the eighth and final stage of psychosocial development. a. Generativity c. Industriousness b. Intimacy d. Trust ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: Erikson said that generativity (the focus of mature adulthood) was even more important than he had thought when he was first developing his theory. He believed that much of the despair of older people is in fact a continuing sense of stagnation. Generativity, developed in the seventh stage of life, may be the most important factor contributing to ego integrity in the eighth and final stage.

39. The basic strength associated with the final stage of psychosocial development is: a. hope. c. purpose. b. faith. d. wisdom.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: The basic strength associated with this final developmental stage is wisdom. Deriving from ego integrity, wisdom is expressed in a detached concern with the whole of life.

40. According to Erikson, _____ are motivating characteristics that derive from the unsatisfactory resolution of developmental crises. a. secondary traits

b. instinctoid needs c. free associations d. basic weaknesses ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Weaknesses REF: 170 FEEDBACK: Similar to the way basic strengths arise at each stage of psychosocial development, so may basic weaknesses. Basic weaknesses are motivating characteristics that derive from the unsatisfactory resolution of developmental crises.

41. In Erikson's view, malignancies develop when: a. only a negative tendency is present. c. neuroses predominate. b. only an adaptive tendency is present. d. adulthood is reached.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Weaknesses REF: 170 FEEDBACK: When only the positive, adaptive, tendency is present in the ego, the condition is said to be "maladaptive." When only the negative tendency is present, the condition is called "malignant."

Maladaptions can lead to neuroses; malignancies can lead to psychoses.

42. Erikson believes that basic strengths: a. are goals to strive for but not reach. b. are potentially achievable by everyone. c. cannot be fully expressed because of id interference. d. are biologically determined and inevitable.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 170 FEEDBACK: A personality theorist who delineates basic human strengths presents an optimistic view of human nature. Erikson believed that although not everyone is successful in attaining hope, purpose, wisdom, and the other virtues, we all have the potential to do so. Nothing in our nature prevents it.

43. Erikson suggests that the failure of a person to adapt at one developmental stage: a. dooms the person to failure at later stages. b. can displace the person's true developing self. c. can be corrected successfully at a later stage. d. prevents the development of the superego.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 170 FEEDBACK: Erikson's theory allows for optimism because each stage of psychosocial growth, although centered on a crisis, offers the possibility of a positive outcome. We are capable of resolving each situation in a way that is both adaptive and strengthening. Even if we fail at one stage and develop a maladaptive response or a basic weakness, there is hope for change at a later stage.

44. On the free will–determinism dimension, Erikson's theory of human nature: a. is only partially deterministic. c. proposes no ultimate life goal.

b. rejects determinism in favor of free will.

d. focuses mainly on free will and innate tendencies.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 170 FEEDBACK: Erikson's theory is only partially deterministic. During the first four stages, the experiences to which we are exposed through parents, teachers, peer groups, and various opportunities are largely beyond our control. We have more chance to exercise free will during the last four stages, although the attitudes and strengths we have formed during the earlier stages will affect our choices.

45. Identify the assessment technique Erikson used in his analysis of emotionally disturbed children. a. Psychological testing b. Free association c. Dream analysis d. Play therapy ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Erikson's Theory REF: 171 FEEDBACK: For work with emotionally disturbed children and in research on normal children and adolescents, Erikson chose play therapy. He provided a variety of toys and observed how children interacted with them.

46. Erikson's most unusual assessment technique is: a. dream analysis. c. free association. b. psychohistorical analysis. d. birth order characterization.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Erikson's Theory REF: 172 FEEDBACK: Erikson's most unusual assessment technique is psychohistorical analysis. These analyses are essentially biographical studies.

47. Erikson's use of psychohistorical analysis included such significant personalities and figures as: a. Hitler and Hannibal. c. Castro and Stalin. b. Moses and Noah. d. Gandhi and Martin Luther.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Erikson's Theory REF: 172 FEEDBACK: Erikson's most unusual assessment technique is psychohistorical analysis. These analyses are essentially biographical studies. Erikson used the framework of his life-span theory of personality to describe the crises and the ways of coping of significant political, religious, and literary figures, such as Gandhi, Martin Luther, and George Bernard Shaw.

48. Erikson's primary research method was the: a. Inkblot analysis. b. psychoanalysis questionnaire.

ANS: C

c. case study. d. free association analysis.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 172 FEEDBACK: Erikson's primary research method was the case study. Erikson argued that case histories yield many insights into personality development and can help resolve a patient's problems.

49. In his study of play constructions, Erikson believed he saw: a. the symbolic expression of the genitals for both sexes. b. proof of his first three developmental stages. c. how sex roles were changing in modern culture. d. gender neutrality in the selection of play objects.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 172 FEEDBACK: Trained as an orthodox Freudian, Erikson interpreted play constructions along standard psychoanalytic lines. He wrote, "Sexual differences in the organization of a play space seem to parallel the morphology of genital differentiation itself: in the male, an external organ, erectable and intrusive in character … in the female, internal organs, with vestibular access, leading to a statically expectant ova."

50. Research on Erikson's psychosocial stages demonstrated: a. little support for all individual stages and their associated psychological manifestations. b. a relationship between happiness and adaptive development in the first six stages. c. no relationship between the individual stages and their ascribed aspects of personality. d. support for the occurrence of generativity or stagnation during adolescence.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 175 FEEDBACK: A study using the Inventory of Psychosocial Development, a test designed to assess adaptive and maladaptive development in Erikson's first six stages, found a significant relationship between happiness and adaptive development at each stage. Another study showed a high correlation between maladaptive development in the first six stages and a sense of alienation and uprootedness.

51. Studies on the concept of ego identity that was proposed by Erikson showed that: a. it is negatively related to maternal identification. b. younger men experience lower levels of psychological distress than do older men. c. women are more successful than men in achieving ego identity. d. adolescents who developed trust and autonomy displayed a high level of identity cohesion.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 175 FEEDBACK: Adolescents who developed trust, autonomy, initiative, and industriousness (adaptive ways of coping) in the first four stages of psychosocial development displayed a high level of identity cohesion rather than role confusion. Adolescents who had not resolved their identity crisis and who experienced role confusion had not developed adaptive ways of coping in the earlier stages.

52. Each of the following is a psychological type, or status, in the adolescent stage of development except: a. identity achievement. c. foreclosure.

b. identity competence.

d. moratorium.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 176 FEEDBACK: An extensive research program on the adolescent stage of development identified five psychosocial types, or statuses, for that period. These are identity achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, identity diffusion, and alienated achievement.

53. In the adolescence stage of psychosocial development, the status of _____ describes adolescents who are committed to occupational and ideological choices. a. identity achievement b. moratorium c. foreclosure d. identity diffusion ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 176 FEEDBACK: Identity achievement describes adolescents who are committed to occupational and ideological choices. A study of college students found a positive correlation between achieved identity status and objective measures of commitment.

54. Adolescents who have not experienced an identity crisis but are committed to an occupation are in the: a. foreclosure status. c. identity competence status. b. moratorium status. d. identity achievement status.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 176 FEEDBACK: Foreclosure describes adolescents who have not yet experienced an identity crisis but who express commitment to an occupation and an ideology. However, these commitments often have been determined for them by their parents and do not result from the adolescents' deliberate choice.

55. Which of the following psychosocial types precedes foreclosure in the adolescent stage of development? a. Identity achievement b. Moratorium c. Social acceptance d. Identity diffusion ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 177 FEEDBACK: An extensive research program on the adolescent stage of development identified five psychosocial types, or statuses, for that period. These are identity achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, identity diffusion, and alienated achievement. Four of these statuses, in the following order (identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement), represent increasingly successful resolutions of the identity problem.

56. Which of the following statuses of the adolescent stage of development does not represent a successful resolution of the identity problem? a. Identity diffusion b. Alienated achievement c. Foreclosure d. Moratorium ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 177 FEEDBACK: Four of the statuses, in the following order—identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement—represent increasingly successful resolutions of the identity problem.

Erikson predicted that people who have achieved an integrated ego identity will have greater ego strength than those who are farther from resolving their identity dilemma.

57. Women college students who are career-oriented are likely to: a. marry later in life. b. pursue a committed relationship early in life. c. date men who are not employed and who need emotional support. d. date more in college than those women who are not career-oriented.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 180 FEEDBACK: Questionnaire studies of several hundred women college students revealed that those who are career-oriented tended to marry later in life. They dated less while in college and were more wary of committed relationships.

58. Research on Erikson's theory suggests that college may delay the resolution of the _____. a. generativity crisis c. identity crisis b. womb envy d. penis envy ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 181 FEEDBACK: College may delay the resolution of the identity crisis and prolong the period during which young adults experiment with different roles and ideologies.

59. Generativity in middle age correlates positively with: a. income. c. wisdom. b. hope. d. power.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 181 FEEDBACK: Research on the adulthood stage of psychosocial development has shown that generativity in middle age is positively correlated with power and with intimacy motivation.

Generativity in middle age appears to be significantly related to having experienced warm, affectionate parenting in childhood.

60. Which of the following stages in the development of a psychologically healthy Black identity, proposed by William Cross, includes three identity clusters? a. The encounter stage c. The pre-encounter stage b. The immersion-emersion stage d. The internalization stage ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 186 FEEDBACK: The pre-encounter stage in the development of a psychologically healthy Black identity includes three identity clusters. The pre-encounter assimilation identity contains little racial awareness or racial identity. The pre-encounter miseducation identity internalizes negative stereotypes about being Black. The pre-encounter self-hatred identity involves holding highly negative views about Blacks, resulting in anti-Black and self-hating attitudes.

61. In response to charges that his concepts are ambiguous and poorly defined, Erikson cited: a. numerous supporters who refuted these charges. b. his growing influence and fame. c. the basic impossibility of trying to define personality. d. his artistic temperament and lack of formal training in science.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Erikson's Theory REF: 188 FEEDBACK: Erikson agreed that the charges of ambiguous terms and concepts, conclusions drawn in the absence of supporting data, and an overall lack of precision were valid and blamed them on his artistic temperament and lack of formal training in science. He wrote, "I came to psychology from art, which may explain, if not justify, the fact that at times the reader will find me painting contexts and backgrounds where he would rather have me point to facts and concepts."

62. Erikson's theory has been criticized because it is: a. irrelevant to the lives of average persons. b. more applicable to women than to men. c. incomplete in its description of the last stage of maturity. d. of more value in the laboratory than in the clinic.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Erikson's Theory REF: 188 FEEDBACK: A specific criticism relates to the incomplete description of the developmental stage of maturity, which Erikson attempted to correct in his 1986 book, Vital Involvement in Old Age. Also, some psychologists question whether personality development after age 55 is likely to be as positive as Erikson suggested with his concept of ego integrity. For many people, this stage of life is characterized by pain, loss, and depression, even for people who develop the basic strength of wisdom.

63. One of the most important contributions of Erikson's personality theory is to the field of: a. psychometry. b. computational social science. c. recombinant memetics. d. life-span developmental psychology.

ANS: D PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Reflections on Erikson's Theory REF: 189 FEEDBACK: The field of life-span developmental psychology, which has seen a massive increase in research and theory in recent years, owes much of its spark to Erikson's approach, as does the current interest in developmental problems of middle and old age.

TRUE/FALSE 1. Erikson's theory of personality development involves a series of personal constructs and ego-idealizations.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 162, 163 FEEDBACK: Erikson divided the growth of the personality into eight psychosocial stages. These were eight successive stages encompassing the life span. At each stage, we must cope with a crisis in either an adaptive or a maladaptive way. In Erikson's theory, human development involves a series of personal conflicts.

2. Erickson believed that our personality development is affected by both biological and social factors.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 163 FEEDBACK: It is the social and environmental forces to which we are exposed that control the ways in which the genetically predetermined stages of development are realized. Thus, our personality development is affected by both biological and social factors.

3. According to Erikson, basic strengths are interdependent and one strength cannot develop until the strength associated with the previous psychological stage of personality development has been confirmed.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 163 FEEDBACK: Basic strengths, or virtues, emerge once the crisis at each developmental stage has been resolved satisfactorily. He suggested that basic strengths are interdependent in that one strength cannot develop until the strength associated with the previous stage has been confirmed.

4. Autonomy versus shame is associated with the locomotor-genital stage, which occurs between the ages of one to three.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 164–165 FEEDBACK: During the muscular-anal stage at the second and third years of life, corresponding to Freud's anal stage, children rapidly develop a variety of physical and mental abilities and are able to do many things for themselves. Of all these abilities, Erikson believed the most important involved

holding on and letting go. When parents frustrate their child's attempt to exercise independence, the child develops feelings of self-doubt and a sense of shame in dealing with others.

5. The basic strength called purpose should be realized during the muscular-anal stage, which is characterized by initiative versus guilt.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 165 FEEDBACK: In the locomotor-genital stage, children express a strong desire to take the initiative in many activities. The basic strength called purpose arises from initiative. Purpose involves the courage to envision and pursue goals.

6. According to Erikson, in the latency stage of psychosocial development, a child's growing powers of deductive reasoning and the ability to play by rules lead to the deliberate refinement of the skills displayed in building things.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 166 FEEDBACK: Erikson's latency stage of psychosocial development, which occurs from ages 6 to 11, corresponds to Freud's latency period. The child's growing powers of deductive reasoning and the ability to play by rules lead to the deliberate refinement of the skills displayed in building things.

7. As indicated by Erikson, young adulthood includes generativity versus stagnation as the ways of coping with crisis and a person might resolve the crisis of his or her basic ego identity during this stage.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: Adolescence, between ages 12 and 18, is the stage at which we must meet and resolve the crisis of our basic ego identity. This stage of development is linked to identity cohesion versus role confusion as ways of coping with crisis.

8. People who fail to achieve a cohesive identity will experience a confusion of their roles and thus will have an identity crisis.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 FEEDBACK: Those who fail to achieve a cohesive identity—who experience what Erikson called an identity crisis—will exhibit a confusion of roles. They do not know who or what they are, where they belong, or where they want to go.

9. The basic strength that emerges from the intimacy of the young adult years is love.

ANS: T PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 168 FEEDBACK: The basic strength that emerges from the intimacy of the young adult years is love, which Erikson considered to be the greatest of all human virtues. He described it as a mutual devotion in a shared identity, the fusing of oneself with another person.

10. Erikson believed that all institutions— whether business, government, social service, or academic-related—provide opportunities for us to express ego integrity.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: Erikson believed that all institutions—whether business, government, social service, or academic—provide opportunities for us to express generativity. Thus, in whatever organizations or activities we are involved, we can usually find a way to become a mentor, teacher, or guide to younger people for the betterment of society at large.

11. Care is the basic strength that emerges from generativity in adulthood.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: Care is the basic strength that emerges from generativity in adulthood. Erikson defined care as a broad concern for others and believed it was manifested in the need to teach, not only to help others but also to fulfill one's identity.

12. Rather than just reflecting on the past, Erikson believed that older people must remain active, vital participants in life, while seeking challenge and stimulation from their environment.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: Older people must do more than reflect on the past. They must remain active, vital participants in life, seeking challenge and stimulation from their environment.

13. The basic strength associated with the final stage of maturity and old age is hope.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 169 FEEDBACK: The basic strength associated with the final developmental stage of old age is wisdom.

Deriving from ego integrity, wisdom is expressed in a detached concern with the whole of life.

14. Erikson's theory allows for optimism and offers the possibility of a positive outcome in each stage of personality development.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature

REF: 170 FEEDBACK: Erikson's theory allows for optimism because each stage of psychosocial growth, although centered on a crisis, offers the possibility of a positive outcome. We are capable of resolving each situation in a way that is both adaptive and strengthening.

15. The preference for gender-based toys among children existed during the time of Erikson but is not prevalent today.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 173 FEEDBACK: More than 50 years after Erikson's research on play constructions, traditional gender stereotyping with regard to toys and play behaviors persists. Most children still prefer gender-based toys. Boys typically play with trucks, soldiers, and guns. Girls typically play with dolls, jewelry, and toy kitchen implements.

ESSAY 1. Erikson is best known for his eight stages of psychosocial development. Consider the stage of trust versus mistrust and (A) identify when this stage occurs; (B) give a general description of a positive and negative development of this stage.

ANS: Erikson's oral-sensory stage of psychosocial development occurs during our first year of life, the time of our greatest helplessness. This is a period marked by the mother–child bond in which there can be excellent bonding and nurturance or lack of bonding and little affection between the child and the mother. This can create lifelong bonding issues and acceptance of self-worth issues.

If the mother responds appropriately to the baby's physical needs and provides ample affection, love, and security, then infants will develop a sense of trust, an attitude that will characterize the growing child's view of themselves and others. In this way, we learn to expect "consistency, continuity, and sameness" from other people and situations in our environment. On the other hand, if the mother is rejecting, inattentive, or inconsistent in her behavior, infants may develop an attitude of mistrust and will become suspicious, fearful, and anxious.

Although the pattern of trust or mistrust as a dimension of personality is set in infancy, the problem may reappear at a later developmental stage.

If this phase is not successfully negotiated and resolved, the phase will continue to have either a positive or negative effect on relationships in and outside of the family.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 163, 164 2. How is the superego developed in a child in the locomotor-genital stage according to Erikson?

ANS: The locomotor-genital stage, which occurs between ages 3 and 5, is similar to the phallic stage in Freud's system. Motor and mental abilities are continuing to develop, and children can accomplish more on their own.

One initiative that may develop is in the form of fantasies, manifested in the desire to possess the parent of the opposite sex and establish a rivalry with the parent of the same sex. How will the parents react to these self-initiated activities and fantasies? If they punish the child and otherwise inhibit these displays of initiative, the child will develop persistent guilt feelings that will affect self-directed activities throughout the person's life.

In the Oedipal relationship, the child inevitably fails, but if the parents guide this situation with love

and understanding, then the child will acquire an awareness of what is permissible behavior and what is not. The child's initiative can be channeled toward realistic and socially sanctioned goals in preparation for the development of adult responsibility and morality. In Freudian terms, we would call this the superego.

The basic strength called purpose arises from initiative. Purpose involves the courage to envision and pursue goals.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 165 3. Explain the concept of identity crisis experienced in adolescence. Explain the basic strength that is required to overcome anxiety in this stage.

ANS: Adolescence, between ages 12 and 18, is the stage at which we must meet and resolve the crisis of our basic ego identity. The self-image, which is an integration of our ideas of what we are and what we want to be, is formed during adolescence. If this process is resolved satisfactorily, the result is a consistent and congruent picture.

Shaping an identity and accepting it are difficult tasks, often filled with anxiety. Adolescents experiment with different roles and ideologies, trying to determine the most compatible fit.

People who emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self-identity are equipped to face adulthood with certainty and confidence. Those who fail to achieve a cohesive identity—who experience what Erikson called an identity crisis—will exhibit a confusion of roles. They do not know who or what they are, where they belong, or where they want to go. Even a negative identity, as society defines it, is preferable to no identity at all, although it is not as satisfactory as a positive identity.

Erikson noted the strong impact of peer groups on the development of ego identity in adolescence. He noted that excessive association with fanatical groups and cults, or obsessive identification with icons of popular culture, could restrict the developing ego.

The basic strength that should develop during adolescence is fidelity, which emerges from a cohesive ego identity. Fidelity encompasses sincerity, genuineness, and a sense of duty in our relationships with other people.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development REF: 167 4. Explain the terms maldevelopment, maladaptions, and malignancies as described by Erikson.

ANS: In an unbalanced development, the ego consists solely of one attitude, either the adaptive or the maladaptive one. Erikson labeled this condition maldevelopment. When only the positive, adaptive, tendency is present in the ego, the condition is said to be "maladaptive." When only the negative tendency is present, the condition is called "malignant." Maladaptions can lead to neuroses; malignancies can lead to psychoses. Erikson believed that both conditions could be corrected through psychotherapy. Maladaptions, which are the less severe disturbances, can also be relieved through a process of re-adaptation, aided by environmental changes, supportive social relationships, or successful adaptation at a later developmental stage.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Basic Weaknesses REF: 170 5. In the context of the adolescent stage of development, mention the key elements for this developmental stage that illustrate the turbulence and stress of this period.

ANS: Adolescence can be a turbulent and stressful period. Three key elements for this developmental stage have been identified. They are as follows: 1. Conflict with parents, characterized by a forceful resistance to adult authority.

2. Mood disruption, characterized by a volatile emotional life, mood swings, and episodes of depression.

3. Risky behaviors, characterized by reckless, rule-breaking, and antisocial behavior that may harm themselves and others.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Erikson's Theory REF: 178

Chapter 7—Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The personality theorist who helped bring personality into the mainstream and made it an academically respectable topic is: a. Alfred Adler. c. Gordon Allport. b. Raymond Cattell. d. Erich Fromm.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Allport Brings Personality into the Classroom and the Psychology Lab REF: 195 FEEDBACK: Gordon Allport made personality an academically respectable topic. Through his work, Allport served two purposes: He helped bring personality into the mainstream, and he formulated a theory of personality development in which traits play a prominent role.

2. With regard to historical determinism, Allport believed a person is: a. motivated by the power of the id. b. not in conscious control of the forces that motivate him or her. c. pathological by nature and genetics. d. not a prisoner of childhood conflicts and past experiences.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Allport Brings Personality into the Classroom and the Psychology Lab REF: 196 FEEDBACK: With regard to historical determinism—the importance of the past in determining the present—Allport said that we are not prisoners of childhood conflicts and past experiences, as Freud believed. Instead, we are guided more by the present and by our view of the future.

3. On which of the following points did Allport disagree with Freud? a. The dominance of unconscious forces over personality b. The role of the past in controlling the present c. The continuum between normal and abnormal behavior d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Allport Brings Personality into the Classroom and the Psychology Lab REF: 196 FEEDBACK: Allport challenged Freud's psychoanalysis on several points. First, Allport did not accept the notion that unconscious forces dominate the personality of normal mature adults. Second, with regard to the importance of the past in determining the present, unlike Freud, Allport believed that we are not prisoners of childhood conflicts and past experiences. Third, Allport opposed collecting data from abnormal personalities. Whereas Freud saw a continuum between the normal and abnormal, Allport saw a clear distinction.

4. Allport believed that the best way to study personality was through: a. the life histories of disturbed people. b. comparisons of normal and neurotic adults. c. the analysis of data from normal and healthy adults. d. laboratory experiments on animals and humans.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Allport Brings Personality into the Classroom and the Psychology Lab REF: 196 FEEDBACK: The only proper way to study personality, Allport believed, was to collect data from emotionally healthy adults. Other populations, such as neurotics, children, and animals, should not be compared with normal adults.

5. What did Allport believe was the biggest difference between normal and abnormal people? a. The abnormal personality functioned at an infantile level. b. The study of the abnormal person is more important. c. The unconscious is important only in the behavior of normal people. d. None of these are correct.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Allport Brings Personality into the Classroom and the Psychology Lab REF: 196 FEEDBACK: Allport opposed collecting data from abnormal personalities. Whereas Freud saw a continuum between the normal and abnormal, Allport saw a clear distinction. To Allport, the abnormal personality functioned at an infantile level.

6. Which of the following was Allport's argument against Freud's psychoanalysis? a. People are generally unaware of the forces that motivate them. b. There exists a continuum between the normal and the abnormal. c. Functional similarities in personality exist between child and adult or animal and human. d. Neurotics, children, and animals, should not be compared with normal adults.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Allport Brings Personality into the Classroom and the Psychology Lab REF: 196 FEEDBACK: Allport opposed collecting data from abnormal personalities. Whereas Freud saw a continuum between the normal and abnormal, Allport saw a clear distinction. The only proper way to study personality, he believed, was to collect data from emotionally healthy adults. Other populations, such as neurotics, children, and animals, should not be compared with normal adults.

7. Allport's own childhood was characterized by: a. a doting mother. c. a punitive and demanding father. b. feelings of isolation. d. many playmates and friends.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Allport (1897–1967) REF: 196 FEEDBACK: Too young to be a playmate to his older brothers, Allport was isolated from children outside the family as well. "I fashioned my own circle of activities," he wrote later. "It was a select circle, for I never fitted the general boy assembly."

8. As a child, Allport was: a. plagued by feelings of inferiority. b. highly disturbed and unhealthy. c. popular outside his family. d. interested in sports and outdoor games.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Allport (1897–1967) REF: 197 FEEDBACK: Arising from his childhood conditions of isolation and rejection, Allport developed inferiority feelings for which he attempted to compensate by striving to excel. He wrote about the identity quest that resulted from his inferiority feelings with regard to his brothers and other children.

9. As Allport grew into adulthood, he attempted to identify with: a. Sigmund Freud, whom he met in Vienna. b. Karen Horney, with whom he studied in New York. c. his oldest brother Floyd, a social psychologist. d. his uncle Steven, a famous artist.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Allport (1897–1967) REF: 197 FEEDBACK: As Allport grew older, he began to identify with his oldest brother, Floyd, envious of his brother's accomplishments. Well into adulthood, Gordon Allport continued to feel inferior compared to Floyd, whose achievements he tried to emulate.

10. Allport believed his famous meeting with Freud illustrated: a. how childhood feelings of inferiority persist into adulthood. b. the error of placing too much importance on the unconscious. c. the power of Freud's psychoanalytic method. d. how a guilty conscience inevitably will reveal itself.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Allport (1897–1967) REF: 198 FEEDBACK: Allport suspected that psychoanalysis probed the unconscious too deeply, as Freud tried to do with him. Psychology, Allport decided, should pay more attention to conscious or visible motivations. This was the path he chose for his study of personality.

11. Allport viewed personality as: a. purely a mental process. b. randomly changing and growing.

c. an interaction of mind and body. d. controlled entirely by instincts.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Nature of Personality REF: 198–199 FEEDBACK: Allport reviewed some 50 definitions of personality before offering his own. Allport defined personality as, "Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine … characteristic behavior and thought." "Psychophysical" means that personality is composed of both mind and body functioning together as a unit.

12. According to Allport, our uniqueness is determined by: a. our childhood experiences. c. the conflict between the id and the superego. b. the organismic valuing process. d. our genetics and learning.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Nature of Personality REF: 199 FEEDBACK: To support his emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual personality, Allport stated that we reflect both our heredity and our environment. In this way, Allport invokes both personal and situational variables to indicate the importance of both genetics and learning.

13. Allport considered personality to be _____. a. continuous b. discrete

c. invariant d. random

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Nature of Personality REF: 199 FEEDBACK: Allport considered personality to be discrete, or discontinuous. Not only is each person distinct from all others, but each adult is also divorced from his or her past.

14. When compared to childhood, Allport believed adulthood is: a. controlled by the life and death instincts. b. ruled by primitive biological urges and reflexes. c. characterized by a stronger ego. d. unconstrained by past experiences.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Nature of Personality REF: 199 FEEDBACK: Not only is each person distinct from all others, but each adult is also divorced from his or her past. Allport believed that the adult personality is not constrained by childhood experiences.

15. Allport's approach to personality is characterized by the: a. conscious rather than the unconscious. b. past rather than the present and future. c. abnormal rather than the normal. d. generalities in people rather than their unique qualities.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Nature of Personality REF: 199 FEEDBACK: The unique view of Allport's emphasizes the conscious rather than the unconscious, and the present and future rather than the past. He recognized the uniqueness of personality rather than proposing generalities or similarities for large groups of people.

16. Allport emphasized the importance of: a. the present and the future. b. the unconscious in normal mature adults.

c. data collected from neurotics. d. past childhood conflicts.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Nature of Personality REF: 199 FEEDBACK: Allport considered personality to be discrete, or discontinuous. Not only is each person

distinct from all others, but each adult is also divorced from his or her past. This unique view of Allport's emphasizes the conscious rather than the unconscious, and the present and future rather than the past. He recognized.

17. Allport considered _____ to be predispositions to respond, in the same or a similar manner, to different kinds of stimuli. a. reinforcements b. complexes c. sublimations d. traits ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 199 FEEDBACK: Allport considered personality traits to be predispositions to respond, in the same or a similar manner, to different kinds of stimuli. In other words, traits are consistent and enduring ways of reacting to our environment.

18. According to Allport, personality traits are: a. useful fictions we create to understand ourselves. b. real and exist within each of us. c. essentially just a theoretical concept. d. inborn instincts.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 199 FEEDBACK: In Allport's view, personality traits are real and exist within each of us. They are not theoretical constructs or labels made up to account for behavior.

19. To Allport, _____ are measured on a continuum and are subject to social, environmental, and cultural influences. a. metaneeds c. personality traits b. unconscious motivations d. sentiments ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 199 FEEDBACK: To Allport, traits are distinguishing characteristics that guide behavior. Traits are measured on a continuum and are subject to social, environmental, and cultural influences.

20. Identify a true statement about the characteristics of traits as summarized by Allport. a. Traits can be demonstrated empirically. b. Changes in situations do not cause changes in traits. c. Traits are independent of each other. d. Traits are theoretical constructs to account for behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: According to Allport, traits can be demonstrated empirically. By observing behavior

over time, we can infer the existence of traits in the consistency of a person's responses to the same or similar stimuli.

21. According to Allport, which of the following is true about the characteristics of traits? a. Traits are generated only in response to certain set of stimuli. b. Traits are the same as ego dispositions. c. Traits are frequently observed to overlap. d. Traits are known to remain the same irrespective of the situation.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: According to Allport, traits are interrelated; they may overlap, even though they represent different characteristics. For example, aggressiveness and hostility are distinct but related traits and are frequently observed to occur together in a person's behavior.

22. To avoid confusion in terminology, Allport relabeled individual traits as: a. instincts. c. learned responses. b. constructs. d. personal dispositions.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: Initially, Allport proposed two types of traits: individual and common. Individual traits are unique to a person and define his or her character. Common traits are shared by a number of people, such as the members of a culture. Allport later realized that some confusion could result from calling both of these phenomena traits, and so he revised his terminology. He relabeled common traits as traits and individual traits as personal dispositions and common traits as traits.

23. According to Allport, a(n) _____ trait influences every aspect of life. a. independent c. primary b. cardinal d. dominant ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: A cardinal trait is so pervasive and influential that it touches almost every aspect of a person's life. Allport described it as a ruling passion, a powerful force that dominates behavior.

24. Allport offered sadism and chauvinism as examples of a: a. common trait. c. central trait. b. cardinal trait. d. secondary trait.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: A cardinal trait is so pervasive and influential that it touches almost every aspect of a person's life. Allport described it as a ruling passion, a powerful force that dominates behavior. He offered the examples of sadism and chauvinism.

25. In Allport's view, central traits are:

a. b. c. d.

5 to 10 themes that best describe our behavior. exhibited only by mature adults. more pervasive than cardinal traits. possessed by only a few superior persons.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: Everyone has a few central traits, some 5 to 10 themes that best describe our behavior.

Allport's examples are aggressiveness, self-pity, and cynicism.

26. Identity a true statement about secondary traits as described by Allport. a. Secondary traits are minor preferences, such as the preference for a particular type of food. b. Secondary traits are highly inconspicuous and weak. c. Secondary traits appear much less consistent than other traits. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: The least influential individual traits are the secondary traits, which appear much less consistently than cardinal and central traits. Secondary traits may be so inconspicuous or weak that only a close friend would notice evidence of them. They may include, for example, a minor preference for a particular type of music or for a certain food.

27. According to Allport, the central problem for any personality theory is: a. how it deals with the conflicts of childhood. b. how it successfully resolves the identity crisis. c. how it compensates for the complexes in humans. d. how it treats the concept of motivation.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 200 FEEDBACK: Allport believed that the central problem for any personality theory is how it treats the concept of motivation. Allport emphasized the influence of a person's present situation not only in his personality theory but also in his view of motivation.

28. In Allport's theory, past events are: a. important, because they continue to dominate behavior. b. unimportant, because they are no longer active. c. at the core of motivation. d. second in importance to instincts.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 200 FEEDBACK: According to Allport, whatever happened in the past is exactly that: past. It is no longer active and does not explain adult behavior unless it exists as a current motivating force.

29. Allport believed that present and future behavior can best be explained in terms of the disconnect between past experiences and present motives through the concept of: a. functional autonomy. c. the epigenetic principle of maturation. b. psychosexual conflicts. d. instinctual drives.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201 FEEDBACK: Allport's concept of functional autonomy proposes that the motives of mature, emotionally healthy adults are not functionally connected to the prior experiences in which they initially appeared. It is the idea that motives in the normal, mature adult are independent of the childhood experiences in which they originally appeared.

30. Allport's concept of functional autonomy proposes that: a. forces that motivated us early in life become unrelated to their original circumstances. b. we are independent of psychological forces. c. the goal of adulthood is to replace cardinal traits with secondary traits. d. individuals will link their past to their present and the future.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201 FEEDBACK: Allport's concept of functional autonomy proposes that the motives of mature, emotionally healthy adults are not functionally connected to the prior experiences in which they initially appeared. Forces that motivated us early in life become autonomous, or independent, of their original circumstances.

31. Which of the following is an example of the functional autonomy of motives? a. The seed of a tree is not required for its nourishment when the tree is fully grown. b. The erratic toilet training of a child causes erratic behavior when the child grows older. c. A rat does not respond to reinforcement when it understands the reinforcer's intention. d. A therapist is motivated to not judge a client based on his or her choices.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201 FEEDBACK: Allport offered the example of a tree. It is obvious that the tree's development can be traced back to its seed. Yet when the tree is fully grown, the seed is no longer required as a source of nourishment.

32. Allport believed that in order to understand adult motives, we must study: a. how genetics affects people. c. why people behave as they do at present. b. parent–child relationships. d. childhood needs and frustrations.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201 FEEDBACK: Adult motives cannot be understood by exploring a person's childhood, as Freud believed. The only way to understand adult motives, Allport stressed, is to investigate why people behave as they do today.

33. Addictions and repetitive physical actions are examples of what Allport called: a. propriate functional autonomy. c. perseverative striving. b. perseverative functional autonomy. d. propriate patterning.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201 FEEDBACK: Perseverative functional autonomy is concerned with such behaviors as addictions and repetitive physical actions such as habitual ways of performing some routine, everyday task. The behaviors continue or persevere on their own without any external reward.

34. According to Allport, the level of functional autonomy that relates to low-level and routine behaviors is: a. propriate functional autonomy. c. propriate striving. b. perseverative striving. d. perseverative functional autonomy.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201 FEEDBACK: Perseverative functional autonomy is the level of functional autonomy that relates to low-level and routine behaviors. The behaviors and actions once served a purpose but they no longer do and are at too basic and low a level to be considered an integral part of personality.

35. Allport chose the term "proprium" for the: a. master trait that guides life. b. unconscious forces that motivate behavior. c. ego or self. d. superego or conscience.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201 FEEDBACK: Propriate functional autonomy is more important than perseverative functional autonomy and is essential to understanding adult motivation. The word "propriate" derives from "proprium," Allport's term for the ego or self.

36. The motives included in the proprium are: a. developed gradually over four stages. b. maintained or discarded by the ego.

c. determined by instinctual forces. d. restricted to unconscious factors.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201 FEEDBACK: Propriate motives are unique to each individual. The ego determines which motives will be maintained and which will be discarded. We retain motives that enhance our self-esteem or self-image.

37. According to Allport, propriate motives relate to our lifestyle and are: a. repetitive physical actions. b. genetically determined. c. general for all individuals.

d. necessary to our self-image.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201–202 FEEDBACK: Propriate motives are unique to each individual. The ego determines which motives will be maintained and which will be discarded. We retain motives that enhance our self-esteem or self-image.

38. All of the following are principles of propriate functional autonomy except: a. organizing the energy level. c. expressive behavior. b. mastery and competence. d. propriate patterning.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 202 FEEDBACK: Our propriate functioning is an organizing process that maintains our sense of self. This organizing process is governed by the following three principles: organizing the energy level, mastery and competence, and propriate patterning.

39. According to Allport, we acquire new motives through: a. organizing the energy level. c. controlling the id. b. resolving an underlying conflict. d. examining our undesirable motives.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 202 FEEDBACK: Our propriate functioning is an organizing process that maintains our sense of self. The first principle of this process, organizing the energy level, explains how we acquire new motives.

These motives arise from necessity, to help consume excess energy that we might otherwise express in destructive and harmful ways.

40. According to Allport, _____ describes a striving for consistency and integration of the personality. a. propriate patterning c. primary-process thought b. observational learning d. operant conditioning ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 202 FEEDBACK: Our propriate functioning is an organizing process that maintains our sense of self. This organizing process is governed by the following three principles: organizing the energy level, mastery and competence, and propriate patterning. The third principle, propriate patterning, describes a striving for consistency and integration of the personality.

41. Which of the following is an example of functionally autonomous behavior? a. Reflexes c. Neurological dysfunction b. Fixations d. Skill mastery ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for

REF: 202 FEEDBACK: According to the principle of mastery and competence, healthy, mature adults are motivated to perform better and more efficiently, to master new skills, and to increase their degree of competence. However, Allport noted that not all behaviors and motives could be explained by the principles of functional autonomy. Some behaviors, such as reflexes, fixations, neuroses, and behaviors arising from biological drives, are not under the control of functionally autonomous motives.

42. In an infant, before the proprium begins to emerge, _____. a. the infant possesses the consciousness of its self b. the infant reacts to sensory impressions in a deliberate manner c. the ego mediates between stimuli and responses d. there is no separation of "me" from everything else ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self REF: 202 FEEDBACK: Before the proprium begins to emerge, the infant experiences no self-consciousness, no awareness of self. There is not yet a separation of "me" from everything else. Infants receive sensory impressions from the external environment and react to them automatically and reflexively, with no ego to mediate between stimulus and response.

43. Allport believed that infants: a. experience a separation of themselves from everything else. b. identify objects as belonging to them. c. have little of what could be called a "personality." d. have functionally autonomous motives.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self REF: 202–203 FEEDBACK: Allport described infants as pleasure seeking, destructive, selfish, impatient, and dependent. He called them "unsocialized horrors." They possess little of what could be called a "personality."

44. At the _____ stage of the development of the proprium, children realize their identity remains intact despite the many changes that are taking place. a. self-esteem c. self-identity b. extension-of-self d. self-image ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self REF: 203 FEEDBACK: The self-identity stage of the development of the proprium is marked by a sense of continuity of one's identity. Children realize that they remain the same people and their identity remains intact despite changes in their bodies and their abilities. Self-identity is enhanced when children learn their names and see themselves as distinct from others.

45. At the extension-of-self stage of the development of the proprium, children: a. distinguish their bodies from objects in their environment. b. recognize the objects and people that are part of their world. c. realize their identity remains the same despite rapid growth.

d. learn to take pride in their accomplishments.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self REF: 203 FEEDBACK: The extension-of-self stage involves the growing awareness of objects and people in the environment and the identification of them as belonging to the child. Children come to recognize the objects and people that are part of their own world. Children speak of "my house," "my parents," and "my school."

46. When is the final stage in the development of the proprium accomplished? a. When children begin to apply logic to the solution of everyday problems b. When young people begin to formulate long-range goals and plans c. When children recognize the difference between their bodies and objects in their environment d. When young people become aware of satisfying parental expectations ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self REF: 203 FEEDBACK: The propriate striving stage is when adolescents begin to formulate plans and long-range goals for the future. Until they do so, their sense of self (their proprium) will remain incomplete.

47. Ideally, the development of the proprium is accomplished during: a. infancy. c. middle age. b. adolescence. d. old age.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self REF: 203 FEEDBACK: The stage of propriate striving develops during adolescence. Young people begin to formulate long-range goals and plans. Until they do so, their sense of self (their proprium) will remain incomplete.

48. Which of the following occurs when the needs for affection and security are met in infancy? a. The proprium develops steadily. c. Positive psychological growth is achieved. b. Motives become functionally autonomous. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self REF: 204 FEEDBACK: If the mother or primary caregiver provides sufficient affection and security, the proprium will develop gradually and steadily, and the child will achieve positive psychological growth. Childhood motives will be free to be transformed into the autonomous propriate strivings of adulthood.

49. Allport's concept of adulthood differs from the views of other personality theorists in describing people as: a. doomed to struggle endlessly with unconscious conflicts. b. no longer dominated by childhood drives. c. locked into the traits developed during childhood.

d. not being rational in most of their behavior.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Healthy Adult Personality REF: 205 FEEDBACK: The adult personality grows out of childhood and is no longer dominated or determined by childhood drives. Allport described six criteria for normal, mature, emotionally healthy adult personalities. By meeting these six criteria, adults can be described as emotionally healthy and functionally autonomous, independent of childhood motives.

50. Allport suggested all of the following as criteria for a mature, emotionally healthy personality except: a. a resilient id. c. self-objectification. b. the extension of the sense of self. d. a unifying philosophy of life.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Healthy Adult Personality REF: 205 FEEDBACK: Allport described six criteria for normal, mature, emotionally healthy adult personalities. They include the following: (1) mature adults extend their sense of self to people and activities beyond the self, (2) mature adults have a sense of humor and self-objectification, and (3) mature adults subscribe to a unifying philosophy of life.

51. Allport believed that emotionally healthy adults were: a. no longer victimized by what happened to them in their early years. b. guided primarily by unconscious forces of the superego. c. those in whom the personality is undifferentiated from childhood experiences. d. those who avoid self-objectification.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Healthy Adult Personality REF: 205 FEEDBACK: Allport described six criteria for normal, mature, emotionally healthy adult personalities. By meeting these six criteria, adults can be described as emotionally healthy and functionally autonomous, independent of childhood motives. As a result, they cope with the present and plan for the future without being victimized by what happened to them in their early years.

52. Allport took a(n) _____ stance on the question of free will versus determinism. a. extreme c. moderate b. fatalistic d. radical ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 206 FEEDBACK: Allport took a moderate stance on the question of free will versus determinism. He granted free choice in our deliberations about our future, but he also recognized that some behaviors are determined by traits and personal dispositions.

53. Allport's image of human nature is: a. highly pessimistic, as it is related to childhood experiences. b. that the ultimate goal of life is to increase tension. c. deterministic, allowing little free will in deliberations about the future.

d. one that denies a relationship between heredity and personality.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 206 FEEDBACK: To Allport, the ultimate and necessary goal of life is not to reduce tension, as Freud proposed, but rather to increase tension, impelling us to continually seek new sensations and challenges. When we have met one challenge, we are motivated to seek another.

54. Identify a true statement based on Allport's view on the ultimate and necessary goal of life. a. Catharsis is reached by reducing tension while seeking new challenges. b. Unique traits and common traits are combined into personal dispositions. c. The reward is in the process of achieving a goal rather than reaching it. d. Our environment supplies the temperament required to achieve the goal.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 206 FEEDBACK: To Allport, the ultimate and necessary goal of life is not to reduce tension, as Freud proposed, but rather to increase tension, impelling us to continually seek new sensations and challenges. The reward is the process of achieving rather than the specific achievement, striving for the goal rather than reaching it. In essence, he meant that "getting there is more fun than being there."

55. One of the assessment methods Allport extensively relied on was: a. the multivariate approach. c. the personal-document technique. b. participant and risk sampling. d. dream analysis.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Allport's Theory REF: 206 FEEDBACK: According to Allport, personality is so complex that to evaluate it we must employ many techniques. Allport relied heavily on the personal-document technique and the Study of Values.

56. Allport's personal-document technique involves the use of: a. dreams. b. written or spoken records. c. video transcriptions of interviews. d. questionnaires.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Allport's Theory REF: 206 FEEDBACK: Allport relied heavily on the personal-document technique and the Study of Values. The personal-document technique involves examining diaries, autobiographies, letters, literary compositions, and other samples of a person's written or spoken records to determine the number and kinds of personality traits.

57. In the context of the personal-document technique used by Allport, computer analysis of the letters from the middle-aged woman identified as Jenny: a. failed to verify his subjective assessment of traits. b. yielded results comparable to his eight prominent categories of traits.

c. expanded his eight trait categories to more than 200 traits. d. proved irrelevant to his initial assessment of the eight categories of traits.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Allport's Theory REF: 207 FEEDBACK: Allport's most famous case is an analysis of a collection of more than 300 letters written over a 12-year period by a middle-aged woman identified as Jenny. One of Allport's students performed a computer analysis on the letters to find categories of words that might indicate the existence of a particular trait. The computer analysis yielded eight prominent traits in Jenny's personality that were similar to the categories Allport had identified.

58. Allport and two colleagues developed an objective self-report assessment test called the _____. a. Study of Values c. Thematic Apperception Test b. Study of Traits d. 16PF Questionnaire ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Allport's Theory REF: 207 FEEDBACK: Allport and two colleagues developed an objective self-report assessment test called the Study of Values (Allport, Vernon, & Lindzey, 1960). They proposed that our personal values are the basis of our unifying philosophy of life, which is one of the six criteria for a mature, healthy personality.

59. Allport believed the best way to obtain reliable information on adult personality is through: a. correlational approaches. c. self-descriptions. b. laboratory experiments. d. dream analyses.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Allport's Theory REF: 208 FEEDBACK: Allport argued that projective techniques, such as the Thematic Apperception Test and the Rorschach inkblot test, may present a distorted picture of the normal personality because they deal with unconscious forces that have little effect on the normal adult personality. He suggested that more reliable information could be obtained by simply asking people to describe themselves, a method that reveals their dominant traits.

60. Allport's idiographic approach was the study of: a. genetics and heredity. b. the unconscious forces shaping personality. c. childhood activities and experiences. d. the individual case.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Allport's Theory REF: 208 FEEDBACK: Allport favored the idiographic approach, that is, the study of the individual case, as indicated by his use of personal documents. However, he did also use some nomothetic methods involving the statistical analysis of differences among large samples of subjects when he believed them to be appropriate.

61. Allport believed that personality traits are often revealed spontaneously through: a. introspection. c. coping behavior. b. Freudian slips. d. expressive behavior.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Allport's Theory REF: 208 FEEDBACK: Allport conducted considerable research on what he called expressive behavior, described as behavior that expresses our personality traits. Expressive behavior is spontaneous and seemingly purposeless behavior, usually displayed without our conscious awareness.

62. Consciously planned behavior determined by the needs of a given situation and designed for a specific purpose, usually to bring about a change in one's environment, is called _____. a. expressive behavior c. spontaneous behavior b. coping behavior d. non-directional behavior ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Allport's Theory REF: 208 FEEDBACK: Consciously planned behavior determined by the needs of a given situation and designed for a specific purpose, usually to bring about a change in one's environment, is called coping behavior. Coping behavior is easy to change and is displayed with our awareness.

63. Unlike coping behavior, expressive behavior is: a. more oriented toward a specific purpose. b. easier to change and has a specific purpose. c. reflective of the basic aspects of personality. d. directed toward bringing a change in the environment.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Allport's Theory REF: 208 FEEDBACK: Expressive behavior is spontaneous and reflects basic aspects of the personality. In contrast to coping behavior, expressive behavior is difficult to change, has no specific purpose, and is usually displayed without our awareness.

64. In Allport's example of public speaking, which illustrates expressive and coping behaviors, the level of coping behavior includes the speaker's _____. a. movements b. gestures c. tone d. content ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Allport's Theory REF: 208 FEEDBACK: To illustrate expressive and coping behaviors, Allport offered the example of public speaking. The speaker communicates with the audience on two levels. The formal, planned level (coping behavior) includes the lecture's content. The informal, unplanned level (expressive behavior) consists of the speaker's movements, gestures, and vocal inflections.

65. Allport's approach to personality development is reflected in the work of the humanistic psychologists: a. Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. c. John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner. b. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. d. Karen Horney and Erik Erikson.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Allport's Theory REF: 212 FEEDBACK: Allport's theory has been well received by a number of psychologists who continue to maintain that Allport's views provide a better basis for understanding personality than the approaches of most other theorists. His approach to personality development, his emphasis on uniqueness, and his focus on the importance of goals are reflected in the work of the humanistic psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

66. Allport is often considered to be one of the first psychologists to: a. reflect on childhood trauma. b. emphasize the importance of human needs. c. bring humanistic values to the field. d. study the behavioral characteristics of animals.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Allport's Theory REF: 212 FEEDBACK: Allport is often considered to be one of the first psychologists to bring humanistic values and concerns to the field. Interest in Allport's work has been revived recently as part of the current focus on personality traits, which is providing empirical support for some of his ideas.

67. Allport's major work on the _____ has been of vital importance in the development of the field of cognitive neuroscience. a. expression of emotions c. concept of inferiority b. role of genetics d. pleasure principle ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Allport's Theory REF: 212 FEEDBACK: Allport's major work on the expression of emotions has been of vital importance in the development of the field of cognitive neuroscience. There has also been a revival of interest in his personal-document technique for studying personality.

TRUE/FALSE 1. Allport believed that psychoanalysis probed too deeply into the unconscious and that more attention needed to be focused on conscious or visible motivations.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Allport (1897–1967) REF: 198 FEEDBACK: Allport suspected that psychoanalysis probed the unconscious too deeply, as Freud tried to do with him. Psychology, Allport decided, should pay more attention to conscious or visible motivations. This was the path he chose for his study of personality.

2. According to Allport, traits are inconsistent and transient ways of reacting to our genetic heritage.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 199 FEEDBACK: Allport considered personality traits to be predispositions to respond, in the same or a similar manner, to different kinds of stimuli. In other words, traits are consistent and enduring ways of reacting to our environment.

3. Of the two types of traits proposed by Allport, common traits are shared by a number of people, such as the members of a culture.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: Initially, Allport proposed two types of traits: individual and common. Individual traits are unique to a person and define his or her character. Common traits are shared by a number of people, such as the members of a culture.

4. Central traits are so pervasive and influential that they touch almost every aspect of a person's life.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: A cardinal trait is so pervasive and influential that it touches almost every aspect of a person's life. Allport described it as a ruling passion, a powerful force that dominates behavior.

5. Not everyone has a cardinal trait, or the trait Allport referred to as a "ruling passion."

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: A cardinal trait is so pervasive and influential that it touches almost every aspect of a person's life. Allport described it as a ruling passion, a powerful force that dominates behavior. Not everyone has a ruling passion, and those who do may not display it in every situation.

6. Secondary traits, as described by Allport, include behaviors such as aggression, self-pity, and cynicism.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 200 FEEDBACK: According to Allport, everyone has a few central traits, some 5 to 10 themes that best describe our behavior. Allport's examples are aggressiveness, self-pity, and cynicism.

7. Perseverative functional autonomy is concerned with behaviors that continue or persevere on their own without any external reward.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201 FEEDBACK: Perseverative functional autonomy, the more elementary level, is concerned with such behaviors as addictions and repetitive physical actions such as habitual ways of performing some routine, everyday task. The behaviors continue or persevere on their own without any external reward.

8. Allport's term for the ego or self is "per severa," from which the word "perseverative" is derived.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 201 FEEDBACK: Propriate functional autonomy is more important than perseverative functional autonomy and is essential to understanding adult motivation. The word "propriate" derives from "proprium," Allport's term for the ego or self.

9. According to Allport, some behaviors such as reflexes, fixations, neuroses, and behaviors arising from biological drives can be explained by the principles of functional autonomy.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Motivation: What We Strive for REF: 202 FEEDBACK: Allport noted that not all behaviors and motives could be explained by the principles of functional autonomy. Some behaviors, such as reflexes, fixations, neuroses, and behaviors arising from biological drives, are not under the control of functionally autonomous motives.

10. In Allport's view, our conditions of worth include those aspects of our personality that are distinctive and which unite our attitudes, perceptions, and intentions.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self REF: 202 FEEDBACK: Allport chose the term "proprium" for the self or ego. The proprium includes those aspects of personality that are distinctive and thus appropriate to our individual emotional life. These aspects are unique to each of us and unite our attitudes, perceptions, and intentions.

11. To Allport, infants receive sensory impressions from the external environment and react to them automatically and reflexively, with no ego to mediate between stimulus and response.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self REF: 202 FEEDBACK: Before the proprium begins to emerge, the infant experiences no self-consciousness, no awareness of self. There is not yet a separation of "me" from everything else. Infants receive sensory impressions from the external environment and react to them automatically and reflexively, with no ego to mediate between stimulus and response.

12. In Allport's view, the healthy personality changes from being a biologically dominated organism in infancy to a mature psychological organism in adulthood.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Healthy Adult Personality REF: 204 FEEDBACK: In Allport's view, the healthy personality changes and grows from being a biologically dominated organism in infancy to a mature psychological organism in adulthood. Our motivations become separated from childhood and are oriented toward the future.

13. Allport's conception of functional autonomy and independence holds that emotionally healthy adults are not tied to or driven by childhood motives or conflicts.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 205 FEEDBACK: Allport's view of functional autonomy and personality development holds that emotionally healthy adults are not tied to or driven by childhood conflicts. Thus, his theory presents an optimistic view of adults in conscious control of their lives, rationally attending to current situations, planning for the future, and actively fashioning an identity.

14. Allport's theory presents a pessimistic view of adults who are out of control of their lives, irrationally attending to past situations, with no plans for the future, while being inactive in finding their identity.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 205 FEEDBACK: Allport's view of functional autonomy and personality development holds that emotionally healthy adults are not tied to or driven by childhood conflicts. Thus, his theory presents an optimistic view of adults in conscious control of their lives, rationally attending to current situations, planning for the future, and actively fashioning an identity.

15. To Allport, the ultimate and necessary goal of life is not to increase tension, as Freud proposed, but rather to decrease tension.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 206 FEEDBACK: To Allport, the ultimate and necessary goal of life is not to reduce tension, as Freud proposed, but rather to increase tension, impelling us to continually seek new sensations and challenges. When we have met one challenge, we are motivated to seek another.

ESSAY 1. What are the characteristics of traits as summarized by Allport?

ANS: Allport summarized the characteristics of traits as follows: 1. Personality traits are real and exist within each of us. They are not theoretical constructs or labels made up to account for behavior.

2. Traits determine or cause behavior. They do not arise only in response to certain stimuli. They motivate us to seek appropriate stimuli, and they interact with the environment to produce behavior.

3. Traits can be demonstrated empirically. By observing behavior over time, we can infer the existence of traits in the consistency of a person's responses to the same or similar stimuli.

4. Traits are interrelated; they may overlap, even though they represent different characteristics.

For example, aggressiveness and hostility are distinct but related traits and are frequently observed to occur together in a person’s behavior.

5. Traits vary with the situation. For example, a person may display the trait of neatness in one situation and the trait of disorderliness in another situation.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits REF: 199–200 2. Mention and describe in a sentence the seven stages of the development of the proprium as given by Allport. Also, mention the ages in which these stages occur.

ANS: Allport described the nature and development of the proprium over seven stages from infancy through adolescence. They are as follows: 1. Bodily self: In this stage, infants become aware of their own existence and distinguish their own bodies from objects in the environment.

2. Self-identity: Children realize that their identity remains intact despite the many changes that are taking place.

3. Self-esteem: Children learn to take pride in their accomplishments.

4. Extension of self: In this stage, children come to recognize the objects and people that are part of their own world.

5. Self-image: Children develop actual and idealized images of themselves and their behavior and become aware of satisfying (or failing to satisfy) parental expectations.

6. Self as a rational coper: Children begin to apply reason and logic to the solution of everyday problems.

7. Propriate striving: Young people begin to formulate long-range goals and plans.

Adulthood: Normal, mature adults are functionally autonomous, independent of childhood motives. They function rationally in the present and consciously create their own lifestyles.

Stages 1–3 emerge during the first three years. Stages 4 and 5 emerge during the fourth through sixth year. Stage 6 develops during ages 6–12. Stage 7 develops during adolescence.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self REF: 202, 203 3. Describe how an emotionally healthy adult is formed in the transition from infancy to adulthood.

Mention Allport's six criteria for emotionally healthy adult personalities.

ANS: In Allport's view, the healthy personality changes and grows from being a biologically dominated organism in infancy to a mature psychological organism in adulthood. Our motivations become separated from childhood and are oriented toward the future. If our childhood needs for affection and security have been met, the proprium will develop satisfactorily. The adult personality grows out of childhood and is no longer dominated or determined by childhood drives.

Allport described six criteria for normal, mature, emotionally healthy adult personalities:

1. Mature adults extend their sense of self to people and activities beyond the self.

2. Mature adults relate warmly to other people, exhibiting intimacy, compassion, and tolerance.

3. The high degree of self-acceptance of mature adults helps them to achieve emotional security.

4. Mature adults hold a realistic perception of life, develop personal skills, and make a commitment to some type of work.

5. Mature adults have a sense of humor and self-objectification (an understanding of or insight into the self).

6. Mature adults subscribe to a unifying philosophy of life, which is responsible for directing the personality toward future goals.

By meeting these six criteria, adults can be described as emotionally healthy and functionally autonomous, independent of childhood motives. As a result, they cope with the present and plan for the future without being victimized by what happened to them in their early years.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Healthy Adult Personality REF: 204–205 4. According to the Study of Values, list the categories of values.

ANS: Allport and two colleagues developed an objective self-report assessment test called the Study of Values. Our values are personality traits and represent strongly held interests and motivations.

Allport believed that everyone possesses some degree of each type of value, but one or two of these will be more dominant in the personality. The categories of values are as follows: 1. Theoretical values are concerned with the discovery of truth and are characterized by an empirical, intellectual, and rational approach to life.

2. Economic values are concerned with the useful and practical.

3. Aesthetic values relate to artistic experiences and to form, harmony, and grace.

4. Social values reflect human relationships, altruism, and philanthropy.

5. Political values deal with personal power, influence, and prestige in all endeavors, not just in political activities.

6. Religious values are concerned with the mystical and with understanding the universe as a whole.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Allport's Theory REF: 207 5. Explain how facial expressions are coded. Give a few examples of how basic aspects of personality are revealed by facial expressions.

ANS: A long-term research program conducted by Paul Ekman identified facial expressions of seven emotions that can be objectively and consistently distinguished from one another. These emotions are anger, contempt, disgust, fear, sadness, surprise, and happiness (Ekman, Matsumoto, & Friesen, 1997).

Ekman, director of the Human Interaction Laboratory at the University of California at San Francisco, and his colleagues, have developed a coding system based on their analysis of 43 facial muscles. The system provides 3,000 different configurations useful in reading the emotional expressions in a person's face.

This Facial Action Coding System (FACS) is used in the United States by police departments, as well as the CIA and the FBI, to detect lying by criminal suspects and by terrorists. According to the FACS, tiny movements of their facial muscles will betray them (Kaufman, 2002). In 2009, Ekman was named

by Time magazine as one of the world's 100 most influential people (Taylor, 2009).

Other research has also shown that some basic aspects of personality are revealed by facial expressions. For example, neuroticism reveals itself in looks of anger, contempt, and fear.

Agreeableness shows in laughter and other expressions of friendly social interaction. Extraversion

appears in smiles, laughter, and other expressions of enjoyment and amusement. Conscientiousness is marked by expressions of embarrassment including a tightly controlled smile, an averted gaze, and head movements down and away from the observer (Keltner, 1997). We recognize smiles by unconsciously mimicking them. Using the same muscles as the person we are looking at sends the same message to activate the regions of the brain that are active in the person who is smiling at us (Niedenthal, Mermillod, Maringer, & Hess, 2010; Zimmer, 2011).

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Allport's Theory REF: 209–210

Chapter 8—Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, The Five-Factor Theory, HEXACO, and the Dark Triad MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Cattell's goal in studying personality was to: a. explore the unconscious. b. predict behavior.

c. change behavior. d. cure emotionally disturbed persons.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: Cattell's goal in his study of personality was to predict how a person will behave in response to a given stimulus situation. Cattell was not interested in changing or modifying behavior from abnormal to normal.

2. Cattel was interested in: a. modifying behavior from abnormal to normal. b. treating emotionally disturbed patients. c. changing the personality of unhappy people. d. studying the personality of normal people.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: Cattell was not interested in changing or modifying behavior from abnormal to normal, which had been the approach of other personality theorists. Those more clinically oriented theorists based their work on case studies of patients who were unhappy or emotionally disturbed and wanted to change. In contrast, Cattell's subjects were normal people.

3. Why did Cattell aim just to study the personality of normal people? a. He did not have to serve as a therapist in a c. He avoided treating people with mental mental institution. illness, as it was considered a taboo during his time. b. He was apathetic toward the problems of d. He thought it would be wise to understand emotionally disturbed people. personality fully before treating it.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: Cattell's aim was to study their personality, not to treat it. He believed it was impossible, or at least unwise, to attempt to change a personality before understanding fully what was to be modified.

4. Which of the following is true about Cattell's approach to personality? a. He relied on experimentation involving c. His approach to personality was measurement of change of behavior rigorously scientific. against stimuli. b. He was more inclined to change behavior d. His approach was clinical in nature and from abnormal to normal. relied heavily on case studies.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: Cattell's approach to personality was rigorously scientific, relying on observations of behavior and masses of data. In his research, it was not unusual for more than 50 kinds of measurements to be taken from a single subject.

5. Cattell used _____ for treatment of the data. a. ANOVA b. projective techniques

c. regression analysis d. factor analysis

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: The hallmark of Cattell's approach was his treatment of the data. He submitted them to the statistical procedure called factor analysis, which involves assessing the relationship between each possible pair of measurements taken from a group of subjects to determine common factors.

6. Factor analysis is a: a. new version of Freud's psychoanalysis. b. technique to measure relationships between several variables. c. method that assesses subjects by observing their gestures. d. technique to analyze the differences among group means and their associated procedures.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: The hallmark of Cattell's approach was his treatment of the data. He submitted them to the statistical procedure called factor analysis, which involves assessing the relationship between each possible pair of measurements taken from a group of subjects to determine common factors. It is a statistical technique based on correlations between several measures or variables, which may be explained in terms of underlying factors.

7. Factor analysis is based on: a. correlations between several measures. b. clinical analysis of case studies. c. treatment of the data derived from free association. d. the statistical analysis of life history factors.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: Cattell submitted data to the statistical procedure called factor analysis, which involves assessing the relationship between each possible pair of measurements taken from a group of subjects to determine common factors. It is a statistical technique based on correlations between several measures or variables, which may be explained in terms of underlying factors.

8. According to Cattell's conclusion, if two measures showed a high correlation, then: a. they exhibited mutual causation. b. they demonstrated the close relationship between the unconscious and the conscious.

c. they measured similar or related aspects of personality. d. they still couldn't be safely combined to form a trait.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: Factor analysis is a statistical technique based on correlations between several measures or variables, which may be explained in terms of underlying factors. If the two measures showed a high correlation with one another, Cattell concluded that they measured similar or related aspects of personality.

9. In Cattell's system, the mental elements of personality are called: a. complexes. c. sentiments. b. traits. d. archetypes.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: Cattell referred to these factors as traits, which he defined as the mental elements of the personality. Only when we know someone's traits can we predict how that person will behave in a given situation.

10. Cattell's childhood was characterized by: a. excessive poverty. b. neurotic parents. c. competition with an older brother. d. loneliness and lack of freedom.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Cattell (1905–1998) REF: 217 FEEDBACK: Cattell felt highly competitive with an older brother and wrote of the problems of maintaining his own freedom of development while confronted with this brother who could not be overcome. His parents had high, exacting standards of behavior for their children but were also permissive about how the children spent their spare time.

11. During his formal training in psychology, Cattell worked with: a. Charles E. Spearman. b. Henry Murray. c. B.F. Skinner. d. Alfred Adler.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Cattell (1905–1998) REF: 217 FEEDBACK: Cattell began graduate studies at the University of London, working with the eminent psychologist-statistician Charles E. Spearman, who had developed the technique of factor analysis. It was a courageous decision to make in 1924 because the field of psychology in England offered few professional opportunities and only six academic professorships in the entire country.

12. Spearman used factor analysis to measure mental abilities, whereas Cattell resolved to apply the method to the structure of: a. personality. c. higher education. b. society. d. physiological research.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Cattell (1905–1998) REF: 217 FEEDBACK: Cattell began graduate studies at the University of London, working with the eminent psychologist-statistician Charles E. Spearman, who had developed the technique of factor analysis.

Whereas Spearman had used factor analysis to measure mental abilities, Cattell resolved to apply the method to the structure of personality.

13. Cattell worked with the prominent American psychologist _____. a. Carl Rogers c. Edward L. Thorndike b. Henry Murray d. Abraham Maslow ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Cattell (1905–1998) REF: 217 FEEDBACK: Eight years after he earned his doctoral degree, Cattell received an opportunity to work full-time in his chosen field. The prominent American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike invited Cattell to spend a year at Thorndike's laboratory at Columbia University in New York.

14. Which of the following is true about the life of William Cattell? a. His parents were very restrictive and did not allow him much spare time. b. His decision to study psychology was rewarded with immediate success. c. He only married once, and his wife shared his dedication to his work. d. His life was characterized by intense dedication to and total absorption in his work.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Cattell (1905–1998) REF: 217–218 FEEDBACK: Cattell developed chronic digestive disorders from overwork, a deficient diet, and being forced to live in a cold basement apartment. His wife left him due to his poor economic prospects and total absorption in his work. He published more than 500 articles, as well as 43 books, a monumental accomplishment that reflected his dedication and perseverance.

15. According to Cattell, which of the following statements is true of traits? a. They are relatively permanent reaction c. They are derived by the method of factor tendencies. analysis. b. They are the basic structural units of the d. All of these are correct. personality.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 218 FEEDBACK: Cattell defined traits as relatively permanent reaction tendencies that are the basic structural units of the personality. To Cattell, traits are reaction tendencies, derived by the method of factor analysis, that are relatively permanent parts of the personality.

16. In the context of Cattell's classification of traits, characteristics such as intelligence and gregariousness are examples of _____ traits. a. common c. unique b. dynamic d. unusual ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 218 FEEDBACK: A common trait is one that is possessed by everyone to some degree. Intelligence, extraversion, and gregariousness are examples of common traits.

17. _____ traits are the driving forces for behavior. a. Temperament c. Guiding b. Dynamic d. Modal ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 219 FEEDBACK: Dynamic traits are the driving forces of behavior. They define our motivations, interests, and ambitions.

18. Which of the following traits describe the general style and emotional tone of our behavior and affect the ways we act and react to situations? a. Ability traits c. Temperament traits b. Unique traits d. Dynamic traits ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 219 FEEDBACK: Temperament traits describe the general style and emotional tone of our behavior; for example, how assertive, easygoing, or irritable we are. These traits affect the ways we act and react to situations.

19. Personality characteristics that correlate with one another but do not constitute a factor are called: a. surface traits. c. ability traits. b. source traits. d. dynamic traits.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 219 FEEDBACK: Surface traits are personality characteristics that correlate with one another but do not constitute a factor because they are not determined by a single source. For example, several behavioral elements such as anxiety, indecision, and irrational fear combine to form the surface trait labeled neuroticism, which does not derive from a single source.

20. Source traits are: a. derived from surface traits. b. basic factors of personality.

ANS: B PTS: 1

c. unstable and impermanent. d. composed of several elements.

A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 219 FEEDBACK: Source traits are stable and permanent traits that are the basic factors of personality, derived by the method of factor analysis. Each source trait gives rise to some aspect of behavior.

21. The behaviors that result from alcohol intake are _____. a. constitutional traits c. source traits b. environmental-mold traits d. dynamic traits ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 220 FEEDBACK: Constitutional traits originate in biological conditions but are not necessarily innate. For example, alcohol or drug use can lead to behaviors such as carelessness, talkativeness, and slurred speech.

22. Environmental-mold traits are: a. learned characteristics that impose a pattern on personality. b. derived from internal conditions. c. less stable and permanent than the constitutional traits. d. developed from biological conditions but are not necessarily innate.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 220 FEEDBACK: Environmental-mold traits derive from influences in our social and physical environments. These traits are learned characteristics and behaviors that impose a pattern on the personality.

23. The two types of source traits are: a. common traits and unique traits. b. constitutional traits and environmental-mold traits.

c. ability traits and dynamic traits. d. environmental-mold traits and temperament traits.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 220 FEEDBACK: Source traits are classified by their origin as either constitutional traits or environmental-mold traits. Constitutional traits originate in biological conditions but are not necessarily innate. Environmental-mold traits derive from influences in our social and physical environments.

24. Which of the following is true about the basic factors of personality? a. They are measured by the 16 PF Test. c. They are source traits. b. They can be tested objectively. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality REF: 220 FEEDBACK: After more than two decades of intensive factor-analytic research, Cattell (1965) identified 16 source traits as the basic factors of personality. These factors are best known in the form

in which they are most often used, in an objective personality test called the Sixteen Personality Factor (16 PF) Questionnaire.

25. Cattell has identified 16 _____ traits that form the basis of personality. a. surface c. ability b. unique d. source ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality REF: 220 FEEDBACK: After more than two decades of intensive factor-analytic research, Cattell (1965) identified 16 source traits as the basic factors of personality. These factors are best known in the form in which they are most often used, in an objective personality test called the Sixteen Personality Factor (16 PF) Questionnaire.

26. In Cattell's 16 PF (personality factor) questionnaire, on factor A, the low scorers are reserved, aloof, and detached, whereas the high scorers are: a. dominant, assertive, and forceful. c. outgoing, warmhearted, and easygoing. b. suspicious, jealous, and withdrawn. d. shrewd, worldly, and insightful.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality REF: 220 FEEDBACK: Cattell (1965) identified 16 source traits as the basic factors of personality. These factors are best known in an objective personality test called the Sixteen Personality Factor (16 PF) Questionnaire. On factor A, whereas the low scorers are reserved, aloof, and detached, the high scorers are outgoing, warmhearted, and easygoing.

27. In Cattell's 16 PF (personality factor) questionnaire, on factor Q4, the high scorers are tense, driven, and fretful, whereas the low scorers are: a. apprehensive, insecure, self-reproaching. c. tough-minded, self-reliant, and demanding. b. forthright, naïve, and unpretentious. d. relaxed, tranquil, and composed.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality REF: 220 FEEDBACK: Cattell (1965) identified 16 source traits as the basic factors of personality. These factors are best known in an objective personality test called the Sixteen Personality Factor (16 PF) Questionnaire. On factor Q4, whereas the high scorers are tense, driven, and fretful, the low scorers are relaxed, tranquil, and composed.

28. According to Cattell's research, one-third of our personality is _____ based. a. educationally c. genetically b. environmentally d. socially ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Influences of Heredity and Environment REF: 221 FEEDBACK: The results of Cattell's analyses showed that for some traits, heredity plays a major role.

He concluded that overall, one-third of our personality is genetically based, and two-thirds is determined by social and environmental influences.

29. Cattell's personality theory: a. was incorporative of several Freudian ideas. b. was closely aligned with Horney's theory. c. was similar to Adler's theory of individual psychology. d. was closely aligned to Erikson's eight stages of development.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Stages of Personality Development REF: 222 FEEDBACK: Cattell was not a follower of Freud's, but he incorporated several Freudian ideas into his theory; namely, that the early years of life are crucial in personality formation, and that oral and anal conflicts can affect personality.

30. According to Cattell's stages of development, as we mature, personality: a. becomes less flexible. c. ceases to grow. b. changes dramatically. d. begins to disintegrate.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Stages of Personality Development REF: 222 FEEDBACK: The fourth phase of development, maturity, lasts from approximately age 23 to 50. It is generally a productive, satisfying time in terms of career, marriage, and family situations. The personality becomes less flexible, compared with earlier stages, and thus emotional stability increases.

31. During _____, people reexamine their values and search for a new self. a. maturity c. adolescence b. late maturity d. old age ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Stages of Personality Development REF: 223 FEEDBACK: During late maturity, people reexamine their values and search for a new self. Health, vigor, and physical attractiveness may decline and the end of life may be in view.

32. According to Cattell, behavior that is considered predictable must be: a. perceived early on in life, such as childhood. b. perceived in the unconscious mind. c. lawful and orderly. d. an outcome of the constructs formed in the subject.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 223 FEEDBACK: According to Cattell, for behavior to be considered predictable, it must be lawful and orderly. Prediction would be difficult without regularity and consistency in the personality.

33. According to Cattell's view, which of the following is a necessary goal in life? a. Self-actualization c. Tension reduction

b. Fullest development of all factors

d. None of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 223 FEEDBACK: Cattell's definition of personality gives us clues about his view of human nature. He did not propose any ultimate or necessary goal that dominates behavior, no drive for self-actualization to pull us toward the future, no psychosexual conflicts to push us from the past.

34. Cattell accepted the influences on personality of both: a. free will and the drive for self-actualization. b. the superego and the id. c. the conscious and unconscious. d. nature and nurture.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 224 FEEDBACK: Cattell accepted the influence on personality of both nature and nurture. For example, constitutional traits are innate, whereas environmental-mold traits are learned.

35. On the uniqueness and universality issue, Cattell noted the existence of _____ traits and _____ traits. a. obvious; hidden c. common; unique b. surface; source d. learned; observational ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 224 FEEDBACK: Cattell accepted the influence on personality of both nature and nurture. On the uniqueness versus universality issue, Cattell took a moderate position, noting the existence of common traits, which apply to everyone in a culture, and unique traits, which describe the individual.

36. In the context of his views on human nature, Cattell: a. was more optimistic about our ability to solve social problems in his younger years. b. was more pessimistic about our ability to solve social problems in his younger years. c. was flattering in depicting the peaceful resolution of inner conflicts. d. was gloomy in illustrating a dark cellar of conflict in which a battle is continually raging.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 224 FEEDBACK: Cattell's personal view of human nature is clearer. In his younger years, he was optimistic about our ability to solve social problems. He predicted that we would gain greater awareness of and control over our environment.

37. According to Cattell's view of human nature, which of the following is true? a. Human beings are capable of exhibiting great spontaneity, even within the restrictions of law and order. b. With age, Cattell became more pessimistic about our ability to solve social problems. c. Cattell is biased toward free will on the issue of free will versus determinism. d. The experiences and forces of childhood have a permanent effect on personality.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 224 FEEDBACK: In his younger years, Cattell expected to see the level of intelligence rise, along with the development of "a more gracious community life of creatively occupied citizens." Reality did not live up to his expectations, however, and eventually he came to believe that human nature and society had regressed.

38. The L-data technique uses: a. questionnaires filled by the subjects themselves. b. ratings of specific behaviors in real-life settings. c. objective tests which are immune to falsification. d. observations of behavior in laboratory.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 224 FEEDBACK: The L-data technique involves observers' ratings of specific behaviors exhibited by people in real-life settings such as a classroom or office. For example, observers might record frequency of absence from work, grades at school, conscientiousness in performing job duties, emotional stability on the soccer field, or sociability in the office.

39. Q-data are obtained by: a. self-report questionnaires filled by subjects. b. tape recordings of psychotherapy sessions. c. observation of behavior in real-life settings. d. autobiographical accounts of the psychologists.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 224 FEEDBACK: The Q-data technique relies on questionnaires. Whereas the L-data technique calls for observers to rate the subjects, the Q-data technique requires them to rate themselves.

40. The assessment technique that involves the use of tests in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated is: a. T-data. c. L-data. b. Q-data. d. P-data.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 224 FEEDBACK: The T-data technique involves the use of what Cattell called "objective" tests, in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated. These tests circumvent the Q-data's shortcomings by making it difficult for a subject to know precisely what a test is measuring.

41. One advantage of T-data is that: a. it is obtained under controlled laboratory conditions. b. it is resistant to biases which affect scoring and interpretation. c. the subjects do not know what is being measured.

d. the subjects know themselves better than the researchers do.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 224 FEEDBACK: The T-data technique involves the use of what Cattell called "objective" tests, in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated. These tests circumvent the Q-data's shortcomings by making it difficult for a subject to know precisely what a test is measuring.

42. Cattell used the term "objective" to describe tests in which: a. results are reported in precise numerical scores. b. the observers record L-data on subjects in real-life situations. c. the subjects cannot distort responses to conceal their traits. d. precise Q-data from questionnaires are collected.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 224 FEEDBACK: The T-data technique involves the use of what Cattell called "objective" tests, in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated. These tests circumvent the Q-data's shortcomings by making it difficult for a subject to know precisely what a test is measuring.

43. Despite Cattell's perception, personality tests using the T-data technique are _____ because of the biases that affect scoring and interpretation. a. subjective c. objectionable b. realistic d. optimistic ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 224 FEEDBACK: Cattell considered T-data techniques such as the Rorschach, the Thematic Apperception Test, and the word-association test to be objective because they are resistant to faking. However, it is important to note that to most psychologists, this use of the word objective is misleading; such tests are usually called subjective because of the biases that affect scoring and interpretation.

44. Which of the following activities were performed by Cattell's research subjects for measurements of personality? a. They produced life records rated by c. They took personality tests resistant to observers. faking. b. They filled self-report questionnaires. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 224 FEEDBACK: Cattell's objective measurements of personality used three primary assessment techniques, which he called L-data (life records), Q-data (questionnaires), and T-data (personality tests). The L-data technique involves observers' ratings of specific behaviors exhibited by people in real-life settings such as a classroom or office. The Q-data technique relies on questionnaires. The

T-data technique involves the use of what Cattell called "objective" tests, in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated.

45. The 16 PF Test, in its original form, is used: a. for predicting occupational success, clinical diagnosis, and research. b. only with subjects whose first language is English. c. specially with neurotics and people with organic brain damage. d. with children younger than 16 years and adults older than 60 years of age.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 225 FEEDBACK: The 16 PF Test is widely used with people 16 years of age and older to assess personality for research, clinical diagnosis, and predicting success on a job. It has been translated into some 40 languages.

46. Which of the following research approaches was preferred by Cattell to study personality? a. The bivariate approach, or laboratory experiment method b. The clinical method, or case studies c. The multivariate approach, involving factor analysis d. All of these are correct.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Cattell's Theory REF: 226 FEEDBACK: In discussing research methods, Cattell listed three ways to study personality: bivariate, clinical, and multivariate approaches. Cattell chose to study personality through the multivariate approach, which yields highly specific data and involves the sophisticated statistical procedure of factor analysis.

47. In the context of the forms of factor-analysis used by Cattell to study personality, in the _____, large amounts of data are collected from a group of people. a. R technique b. T-data technique c. P technique d. L-data technique ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Cattell's Theory REF: 226 FEEDBACK: Cattell favored two forms of factor analysis: the R technique and the P technique. The R technique involves collecting large amounts of data from a group of people.

48. In the context of the forms of factor-analysis used by Cattell to study personality, in the _____, large amounts of data are collected on one subject over a long period. a. R technique c. L-data technique b. P technique d. Q-data technique ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Cattell's Theory REF: 226

FEEDBACK: Cattell favored two forms of factor analysis: the R technique and the P technique. The P technique involves collecting a large amount of data from a single subject over a long period.

49. Factor-analytic research has shown that partners in a stable marriage: a. have highly different personality traits. c. have highly similar personality traits. b. score high on the factor of apprehension. d. score low on the factor of apprehension.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Cattell's Theory REF: 226 FEEDBACK: Factor analysis showed that marital stability could be predicted from the test scores.

Partners in stable marriages had similar personality traits, whereas partners in unstable marriages showed highly different personality traits.

50. Cattell agreed that the _____ approach to research is scientific, rigorous, and quantitative but argued that it dealt with only limited aspects of personality. a. bivariate c. multivariate b. clinical d. case-study ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Cattell's Theory REF: 226 FEEDBACK: Cattell agreed that bivariate research is scientific, rigorous, and quantitative but argued that it dealt with only limited aspects of personality. In reality, personality is affected by many interacting variables.

51. Which of the following is true about the findings of the studies using Cattell's test? a. Three of the 16 source traits are determined by hereditary factors. b. A Turkish translation of the 16 PF test has been found to be valid measure of personality differences. c. The 16 PF Test can't be distorted or faked like the other personality tests. d. Partners in stable marriages were found to possess complementary traits.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Cattell's Theory REF: 227 FEEDBACK: As with other personality tests and some languages, a literal translation proved impossible. However, a Turkish translation of the 16 PF Test has also been found to be valid measure of personality.

52. Factor analysis is: a. open to subjective bias. b. completely objective.

c. a precise way to collect data. d. too restrictive to reveal much about personality traits.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Cattell's Theory REF: 227 FEEDBACK: Despite Cattell's legitimate claim that factor analysis is an objective, precise technique, critics argue that the opportunity exists for subjectivity to affect the outcome. At several stages in the research process, decisions are required that may be influenced by personal preferences.

53. Which of the following is true of the study of behavioral genetics? a. It involves the study of the relationship between hereditary factors and personality traits. b. It shows that environmental factors are more important than genetic factors. c. It was begun by Murray and carried forward by Allport and Cattell. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Behavioral Genetics REF: 228 FEEDBACK: There is growing evidence to support the idea that some traits are influenced by hereditary factors. The area of study focusing on the connection between genetics and personality is often called behavioral genetics which studies the relationship between genetic or hereditary factors and personality traits.

54. Which of the following statements is true of Eysenck's approach to Cattell's theory? a. He disagreed with Cattell and stated that c. He was an advocate of factor analysis and personality is composed of the id, ego, and Cattell's research. superego. b. He supplemented factor analysis with d. He demonstrated that factor analysis could other personality tests. be replicated under any circumstance.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Dimensions of Personality REF: 229 FEEDBACK: Hans Eysenck was also a critic of factor analysis and of Cattell's research because of the potential subjectivity in the technique and the difficulty in replicating Cattell's findings. Although Eysenck used factor analysis to uncover personality traits, he supplemented the method with personality tests and experimental studies that considered a wide range of variables.

55. Eysenck believed that personality traits can be derived from: a. case histories. c. factor analysis. b. dream analysis. d. performance projective tests.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Dimensions of Personality REF: 228–229 FEEDBACK: Eysenck agreed with Cattell that personality is composed of traits, or factors, derived by the factor-analytic method. However, Eysenck was also a critic of factor analysis and of Cattell's research because of the potential subjectivity in the technique and the difficulty in replicating Cattell's findings.

56. All of the following are personality dimensions identified by Hans Eysenck except: a. extraversion versus introversion. c. shyness versus social rejection. b. neuroticism versus emotional stability. d. psychoticism versus impulse control.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Dimensions of Personality REF: 229 FEEDBACK: The result of the efforts of Eysenck and his wife is a personality theory based on three dimensions, defined as combinations of traits or factors. The three personality dimensions are:

E—Extraversion versus introversion N—Neuroticism versus emotional stability P—Psychoticism versus impulse control (or superego functioning).

57. As a result of higher cortical arousal levels, introverts: a. exhibit greater sensitivity to low-level stimuli than extraverts. b. have higher pain thresholds than extraverts. c. need, and actively seek, excitement and stimulation. d. react less strongly than extraverts to sensory stimulation.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Dimensions of Personality REF: 230 FEEDBACK: Introverts shy away from excitement and stimulation because their cortical arousal levels are already high. As a result, introverts react more strongly than extraverts to sensory stimulation. Studies have shown that introverts exhibit greater sensitivity to low-level stimuli and have lower pain thresholds than extraverts.

58. According to Eysenck's research, extraverts have lower levels of _____ than introverts. a. hostility c. self-esteem b. cortical arousal d. agreeableness ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Dimensions of Personality REF: 230 FEEDBACK: Eysenck found that extraverts have a lower base level of cortical arousal than introverts do. Because the cortical arousal levels for extraverts are low, they need, and actively seek, excitement and stimulation.

59. According to Eysenck, the most significant factor in intelligence was: a. environment. c. learning. b. heredity. d. unpredictability.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Dimensions of Personality REF: 230 FEEDBACK: Eysenck conducted considerable research on intelligence. Eysenck's research suggested that some 80 percent of our intelligence is inherited, leaving only 20 percent as the product of social and environmental forces.

60. Eysenck believed that personality dimensions, such as introversion: a. are stable throughout the life span. b. are inconsistent because of heredity. c. are determined by childhood alone. d. are influenced equally by environment and heredity.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Dimensions of Personality REF: 230 FEEDBACK: The traits and dimensions Eysenck proposed tend to remain stable throughout the life span despite our different social and environmental experiences. Our situations may change but the

dimensions remain consistent.

61. Which of the following statements is true of neuroticism? a. People who scored high in neuroticism performed worse than those who scored low when their work environment was stressful. b. The characteristics of neuroticism are anxiety, depression, irrationality, tension, and moodiness. c. Neuroticism is largely a product of learning or experience rather than a product of genetics. d. A higher level of neuroticism was associated with increasing satisfaction from social relationships.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Dimensions of Personality REF: 231 FEEDBACK: Neurotics are characterized as anxious, depressed, tense, irrational, and moody. They may also have low self-esteem and be prone to guilt feelings. Eysenck suggested that neuroticism is largely inherited, a product of genetics rather than learning or experience. Studies in Australia found that people who scored high in neuroticism on the Eysenck Personality Inventory outperformed those who scored low when their work environment was fast-paced and stressful.

62. All of the following are personality factors identified by McCrae and Costa except: a. neuroticism. c. conscientiousness. b. deference. d. openness.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model REF: 233 FEEDBACK: Working at the Gerontology Research Center of the National Institutes of Health in Baltimore, Maryland, Robert McCrae and Paul Costa embarked on an extensive research program that identified five so-called robust or Big Five factors. These factors are neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

63. McCrae and Costa's five personality factors: a. are the first five factors identified by Cattell. b. show that environment is more important than heredity. c. largely overlap amongst themselves. d. include sociability, impulsivity, and emotionality.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model REF: 233 FEEDBACK: There is a similarity between the extraversion and neuroticism factors of McCrae and Costa and the extraversion and neuroticism dimensions proposed by Eysenck. Further, agreeableness and conscientiousness in the McCrae Costa model may represent the low end of Eysenck’s psychoticism dimension (impulse control). Openness shows a high positive correlation with intelligence. Similarly, agreeableness correlates with Adler’s concept of social interest.

64. The factors of McCrae and Costa that have a similarity to the dimensions proposed by Eysenck are: a. openness and agreeableness. c. attractiveness and likeableness. b. openness and conscientiousness. d. neuroticism and extraversion.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model REF: 233 FEEDBACK: There is a similarity between the extraversion and neuroticism factors of McCrae and Costa and the extraversion and neuroticism dimensions proposed by Eysenck. Studies of twins have found that four of the five factors show a stronger hereditary component: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness.

65. In the context of McCrae and Costa's Five-Factor Model, the characteristic traits of the factor of openness is: a. careful, reliable, hardworking, and c. worried, insecure, nervous, and highly organized. strung. b. sociable, talkative, fun-loving, and d. original, independent, creative, and daring. affectionate.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model REF: 233 FEEDBACK: Working at the Gerontology Research Center of the National Institutes of Health in Baltimore, Maryland, Robert McCrae and Paul Costa embarked on an extensive research program that identified five robust or Big Five factors. These factors are neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. The characteristics of openness are original, independent, creative, and daring.

66. In the context of the relative importance of McCrae and Costa's Big Five personality factors in different cultures, conscientiousness was considered the most important factor in the culture of _____. a. Chile c. Japan b. Singapore d. India ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model REF: 234 FEEDBACK: Although the same Big Five personality factors are common to virtually all urban cultures, major differences have been recognized in their relative importance and social desirability from one culture to another. The Japanese consider conscientiousness to be more important than all other factors.

67. All of the following are personality factors identified by Ashton and Lee except: a. neuroticism. c. agreeableness. b. emotionality. d. extraversion.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee: HEXACO: The Six-Factor Model REF: 241 FEEDBACK: Michael Ashton, of the Psychology Department at Brock University in Canada, and Kibeom Lee, of the Psychology Department at the University of Calgary, Canada, have proposed a six-factor model of personality. The six factors or dimensions of the HEXACO (an acronym derived from the factors) model are honesty, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.

68. According to the Dark Triad of Personality by Paulhus and Williams, which of the following is defined as the need to manipulate others, which is characterized by cunning, deceit, and unscrupulous behaviors? a. Machiavellianism b. Narcissism c. Psychopathy d. Homophobia ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams: The Dark Triad of Personality REF: 242 FEEDBACK: Paulhus and Williams, of the University of British Columbia, Canada, introduced a three-factor approach to understanding the darker side of personality. The trait of machiavellianism is defined as the need to manipulate others, characterized by cunning, deceit, and unscrupulous behaviors.

69. According to the Dark Triad of Personality by Paulhus and Williams, which of the following is a characteristic of narcissism? a. Using great charm and violence c. Need to manipulate others b. Taking advantage of others d. Inflated sense of one's abilities ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams: The Dark Triad of Personality REF: 242 FEEDBACK: Paulhus and Williams, of the University of British Columbia, Canada, introduced a three-factor approach to understanding the darker side of personality. The trait of narcissism is characterized by extreme selfishness, an inflated sense of one's abilities and talents, and the constant need for admiration and attention.

70. According to Brody, Buss, and Stelmack, the theories of Cattell, Eysenck, McCrae and Costa, Ashton and Lee, and Paulhus and Williams indicate that inheritance may account for as much as _____ percent of personality. a. 20 c. 40 b. 30 d. 50 ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on the Trait Approach REF: 244 FEEDBACK: According to Brody, Buss, and Stelmack, the theories of Cattell, Eysenck, McCrae and Costa, Ashton and Lee, and Paulhus and Williams, together with their supporting research, indicate that inheritance may account for as much as 50 percent of personality. However, we must not conclude prematurely that family and other environmental factors can be completely discounted as shapers of personality.

TRUE/FALSE 1. Cattell used the statistical procedure called factor analysis, which involves assessing the relationship between each possible pair of measurements taken from a group of research participants to determine common factors.

ANS: T

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: The hallmark of Cattell's approach was his treatment of the data. He submitted them to the statistical procedure called factor analysis, which involves assessing the relationship between each possible pair of measurements taken from a group of subjects to determine common factors.

2. Unique traits are those aspects of the personality shared by few other people.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 218 FEEDBACK: People differ because of their unique traits, those aspects of personality shared by few other people. Unique traits are particularly apparent in their interests and attitudes.

3. Ability traits describe the general style and emotional tone of our behavior.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 219 FEEDBACK: Temperament traits describe the general style and emotional tone of our behavior; for example, how assertive, easygoing, or irritable we are. Ability traits determine how efficiently we will be able to work toward a goal.

4. Environmental-mold traits derive from influences in our social and physical environments.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 220 FEEDBACK: Environmental-mold traits derive from influences in our social and physical environments. These traits are learned characteristics and behaviors that impose a pattern on the personality.

5. Constitutional traits are unitary personality factors that are very stable and permanent, while source traits originate in biological conditions but are not necessarily innate.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 219, 220 FEEDBACK: Source traits are unitary personality factors that are very stable and permanent.

Constitutional traits originate in biological conditions but are not necessarily innate.

6. Cattell described static traits as the traits concerned with motivation.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Dynamic Traits: The Motivating Forces REF: 221 FEEDBACK: Cattell described dynamic traits as the traits concerned with motivation, which is an

important issue in many personality theories. Cattell believed that a personality theory that failed to consider the impact of dynamic, or motivating, forces is incomplete, like trying to describe an engine but failing to mention the type of fuel on which it runs.

7. Cattell stated that environmental-mold traits derive from influences in our social and physical environments.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 220 FEEDBACK: Environmental-mold traits derive from influences in our social and physical environments. These traits are learned characteristics and behaviors that impose a pattern on the personality.

8. Cattell's aim was to treat the personality, not merely study it.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Predicting Behavior REF: 216 FEEDBACK: Cattell's aim was to study the personality, not to treat it. He believed it was impossible, or at least unwise, to attempt to change a personality before understanding fully what was to be modified.

9. Hans Eysenck was highly satisfied with his career choice in psychology.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) REF: 228 FEEDBACK: More than 40 years later, Hans Eysneck was asked if he had ever regretted his career choice. Often, he replied, but admitted that he was resigned to it.

10. At maturity, personality becomes more flexible compared to earlier stages.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Stages of Personality Development REF: 222 FEEDBACK: At maturity, the personality becomes less flexible, compared with earlier stages, and thus emotional stability increases. It is generally a productive, satisfying time in terms of career, marriage, and family situations.

11. The T-data technique involves the use of what Cattell called "objective" tests, in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 224 FEEDBACK: The T-data technique involves the use of what Cattell called "objective" tests, in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated. These tests circumvent

the Q-data's shortcomings by making it difficult for a subject to know precisely what a test is measuring.

12. L-data relies on the use of questionnaires and requires research participants to rate themselves.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 224 FEEDBACK: The Q-data technique relies on questionnaires. Whereas the L-data technique calls for observers to rate the subjects, the Q-data technique requires them to rate themselves.

13. The 16 PF is intended for use only with children under the age of sixteen.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 225 FEEDBACK: The most notable of the tests developed by Cattell is the 16 PF Test. This test is intended for use with people 16 years of age and older and yields scores on each of the 16 scales.

There are also versions of the test for use with children and with adolescents.

14. The 16 PF is widely used to assess personality for research, clinical diagnosis, and predicting occupational success.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Cattell's Theory REF: 225 FEEDBACK: The 16 PF Test is widely used to assess personality for research, clinical diagnosis, and predicting success on a job. It has been translated into some 40 languages.

15. Cattell chose to study personality through the multivariate approach.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Cattell's Theory REF: 226 FEEDBACK: Cattell chose to study personality through the multivariate approach, which yields highly specific data. In reality, personality is affected by many interacting variables.

ESSAY 1. Define the following types of traits: common trait, unique traits, ability trait, temperament trait, dynamic trait, surface trait, and source trait. Also, define the two types of source traits: constitutional and environmental-mold trait.

ANS: Common trait: A trait that is possessed by everyone to some degree.

Unique trait: A trait that is possessed by one or a few persons.

Ability trait: A trait that describes our skills and how efficiently we will be able to work toward our goals.

Temperament trait: A trait that describes our general behavioral style in responding to our

environment. It describes the general style and emotional tone of our behavior.

Dynamic trait: A trait that describes our motivations, interests, and ambitions.

Surface trait: A trait that shows a correlation with other traits but does not constitute a factor because it is not determined by a single source.

Source trait: It is a stable and permanent trait that is the basic factor of personality, derived by the method of factor analysis.

Constitutional trait: It is a source trait that depends on our physiological characteristics, but is not necessarily innate.

Environmental-mold trait: It is a source trait that is learned from social and environmental interactions.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Cattell's Approach to Personality Traits REF: 218–220 2. Explain the three ways to study personality as listed by Cattell.

ANS: Cattell listed three ways to study personality: bivariate, clinical, and multivariate approaches.

The bivariate approach: The bivariate, or two-variable, approach is the standard laboratory experimental method. The psychologist manipulates the independent variable to determine its effect on the subjects' behavior. This approach has also been called univariate because only one variable is studied at a time.

Cattell agreed that bivariate research is scientific, rigorous, and quantitative but argued that it dealt with only limited aspects of personality. In reality, personality is affected by many interacting variables. Also, in the typical artificial laboratory situation, significant emotional experiences cannot be manipulated and duplicated.

The clinical approach: The clinical approach, which includes case studies, dream analysis, free association, and similar techniques, is highly subjective. These methods do not yield verifiable and quantifiable data. Cattell wrote, "The clinician has his heart in the right place, but perhaps we may say that he remains a little fuzzy in his head."

The multivariate approach: Cattell chose to study personality through the multivariate approach, which yields highly specific data. It involves the sophisticated statistical procedure of factor analysis. Cattell favored two forms of factor analysis: the R technique and the P technique.

The R technique involves collecting large amounts of data from a group of people. Correlations among all the scores are made to determine personality factors or traits. The P technique involves collecting a large amount of data from a single subject over a long period.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Cattell's Theory REF: 225–226 3. According to Eysenck, explain the characteristics of extraverts and mention the biological differences between extraverts and introverts.

ANS: Extraverts are oriented toward the outside world, prefer the company of other people, and tend to be sociable, impulsive, adventurous, assertive, and dominant. In addition, people who score high in extraversion on the Eysenck Personality Inventory have been found to experience more pleasant emotions and to be happier than those who score low in extraversion. Extraverted businessmen have been shown to be much better at performing difficult tasks than introverted businessmen.

Eysenck was interested in how extraverts and introverts might differ biologically and genetically. He found that extraverts have a lower base level of cortical arousal than introverts do. Because the cortical arousal levels for extraverts are low, they need, and actively seek, excitement and stimulation. In contrast, introverts shy away from excitement and stimulation because their cortical arousal levels are already high. As a result, introverts react more strongly than extraverts to sensory stimulation. Studies

have shown that introverts exhibit greater sensitivity to low-level stimuli and have lower pain thresholds than extraverts. Other research supports differential responses to sensory stimulation but reports less convincing evidence that such differences can be attributed to variations in cortical arousal levels. Nevertheless, as Eysenck predicted, these differences are genetically based.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Dimensions of Personality REF: 230 4. Describe the six personality factors of the HEXACO model of Ashton and Lee. ANS: The six factors or dimensions of the HEXACO and their descriptions are as follows: Honesty/humility: Sincere, honest, faithful VERSUS greedy, pretentious, hypocritical, boastful.

Emotionality: Emotional, oversensitive, faithful, anxious VERSUS brave, tough, self-assured, stable.

Extraversion: Outgoing, lively, sociable, cheerful VERSUS shy, passive, withdrawn, reserved.

Agreeableness: Tolerant, peaceful, gentle, agreeable VERSUS quarrelsome, stubborn, and ill-tempered.

Conscientiousness: Disciplined, diligent, thorough, precise VERSUS reckless, lazy, irresponsible, absent-minded.

Openness to experience: Creative, innovative, unconventional VERSUS shallow, conventional, unimaginative.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee: HEXACO: The Six-Factor Model REF: 241 5. Provide five instances of research conducted on the Internet use by people in different cultures influenced by the Five Factor model of McCray and Costa.

ANS: Students' answers will vary.

In Israel, people who scored high in conscientiousness had more Facebook friends than those who scored low. Those in the highly neurotic group posted more of their photos on Facebook than those who scored low in neuroticism.

In the Netherlands, high Internet use bordering on the compulsive and addictive was greatest among introverted, disagreeable, and emotionally less stable and lonely adolescents.

In Germany, addiction to video gaming was highest among those high in neuroticism and low in conscientiousness and extraversion.

In the United States and in Germany, college students high in conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability were far less likely to post on Facebook about personal matters such as substance abuse or sexual behavior.

In Taiwan, research on college students showed that those high in conscientiousness shopped online for convenience; those high in openness shopped online to have a new adventure; those high in neuroticism shopped online in order to avoid other people.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Traits and the Internet REF: 243

Chapter 9—Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Abraham Maslow was associated with _____ psychology. a. psychoanalytic c. behaviorist b. individual d. humanistic ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 249 FEEDBACK: Abraham Maslow is considered the founder and spiritual leader of the humanistic psychology movement. He objected to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, particularly Freud’s approach to personality.

2. Maslow criticized psychoanalysis because: a. it focused only on society's outstanding personalities. b. it studied only abnormal or emotionally disturbed examples of humanity. c. it tortured animals during experiments. d. it studied materialism instead of spirituality.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 249 FEEDBACK: Maslow objected to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, particularly Freud's approach to personality. According to him, when psychologists study only abnormal or emotionally disturbed examples of humanity, they ignore all the positive human qualities such as happiness, contentment, and peace of mind.

3. Maslow's theory is derived from: a. the study of both animal and human behavior. b. case histories of clinical patients. c. the study of conditioned responses through behaviorism. d. research on independent, self-sufficient, and fulfilled adults.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 249-250 FEEDBACK: Maslow's theory does not derive from case histories of clinical patients but from research on creative, independent, self-sufficient, fulfilled adults. He concluded that each person is born with the same set of instinctive needs that enable us to grow, develop, and fulfill our potential.

4. Identify an accurate statement about Maslow's family. a. Maslow did not have any siblings. c. Maslow's mother was his only friend during childhood. b. Maslow's parents were highly educated d. Maslow's father was aloof and and affluent. periodically abandoned his wife and children.

ANS: D

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Maslow (1908-1970) REF: 250 FEEDBACK: The oldest of seven children, Maslow was born in 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. His parents were immigrants with little education and few prospects of rising above their desperately poor circumstances. His father was aloof and periodically abandoned his wife and children.

5. Maslow's teenage was characterized by: a. a consistent and compulsive drug abuse. b. happy and joyful moments.

c. a huge inferiority complex. d. numerous friendships.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Maslow (1908-1970) REF: 250 FEEDBACK: Maslow remembered his teenage years as marked by a huge inferiority complex.

Convinced he was ugly because of his prominent nose, he also felt inferior because of his scrawny build.

6. Which of the following is true about Abraham Maslow's childhood and adolescence? a. Books and education gave Maslow an escape from his ghetto of poverty and loneliness. b. Maslow's athletic achievements gave him a sense of accomplishment. c. Maslow was exceptional in his studies and his grades were consistently high. d. Being the only child, Maslow was showered with affection by his parents.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Maslow (1908–1970) REF: 250–251 FEEDBACK: When Maslow's early attempts at compensation to achieve recognition and acceptance as an athlete did not succeed, he turned to books. The library became the playground of his childhood and adolescence, and reading and education marked the road out of his ghetto of poverty and loneliness.

7.

At the University of Wisconsin, Maslow was delighted by the concept of behavior psychology by _____. a. John B. Watson c. Carl Jung b. Sigmund Freud d. Henry Murray ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Maslow (1908-1970) REF: 251 FEEDBACK: At Wisconsin, Maslow found the behavioral psychology of John B. Watson, leader of the revolution to make psychology a science of behavior. Like many people in the early 1930s, Maslow became enraptured, believing that behaviorism could solve all the world's problems.

8. Maslow's training in experimental psychology included: a. study of stimuli that stimulate or dampen c. work on dominance and sexual behavior hostility of children toward their parents. in primates. b. study of war veterans dealing with d. work on the behavioral manifestations of post-traumatic stress. collective unconscious in our daily lives.

ANS: C

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Maslow (1908-1970) REF: 251 FEEDBACK: Maslow's training in experimental psychology included work on dominance and sexual behavior in primates. It was a giant step from this type of research in the behaviorist framework to developing the ideas of humanistic psychology—from monkeys to self-actualization.

9. Which of the following reasons brought about a profound shift in Maslow's thinking and deviated him from behaviorism? a. The torture of monkeys during the experiments in graduation b. Detailed study of Freud's work and appreciation for psychoanalysis c. Deep religious convictions of his parents and his marriage to Bertha d. The start of World War II and the birth of his first child ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Maslow (1908-1970) REF: 251 FEEDBACK: Several influences brought about a profound shift in Maslow's thinking. He was deeply affected by the onset of World War II and by the birth of his first child. About the baby he said, "I was stunned by the mystery and by the sense of not really being in control. I felt small and weak and feeble before all this. I'd say anyone who had a baby couldn't be a behaviorist."

10. By developing a humanistic approach to psychology, Maslow wanted to demonstrate that: a. the collective unconscious rules our past and also affects our future. b. the power of the past influences the present and free will is inconsequential to our lives. c. people are capable of displaying better behavior than prejudice, hatred, and aggression. d. an individual's illnesses are positively correlated to their genetic capacity.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Maslow (1908-1970) REF: 252 FEEDBACK: In 1941, Maslow witnessed a parade shortly after Japan's surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, precipitating U.S. involvement in World War II. The experience changed his thinking and he resolved to devote himself to developing a psychology that would deal with the highest human ideals. He would work to improve the human personality and to demonstrate that people are capable of displaying better behavior than prejudice, hatred, and aggression.

11. In his needs-hierarchy theory, Maslow described the needs as instinctoid, which means that: a. the needs are acquired. b. the needs have a hereditary component. c. the needs have the same significance for all individuals. d. the needs are less essential for actual survival.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 252 FEEDBACK: Maslow proposed a hierarchy of five innate needs that activate and direct human behavior (1968, 1970b). They are the physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization needs. Maslow described these needs as instinctoid, by which he meant that they have a hereditary component.

12. According to Maslow's needs-hierarchy theory, hungry people are preoccupied with satisfying their _____ needs. a. self-actualization c. belongingness b. physiological d. esteem ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 252 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow's needs-hierarchy theory, hungry people are preoccupied with satisfying the physiological need for food, not with obtaining approval and esteem from other people.

It is only when people have adequate food and shelter, and when the rest of the lower needs are satisfied, that they are motivated by needs that rank higher in the hierarchy.

13. The key idea in Maslow's hierarchy of needs is that: a. the order of the needs in the hierarchy is the same for all individuals. b. the behaviors used to satisfy the needs are innate. c. the lower needs must be at least partially satisfied before higher needs become influential. d. the higher needs are the strongest of all the needs in the hierarchy.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 252 FEEDBACK: In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the needs are arranged in order from strongest at the bottom to the weakest at the top. Lower needs must be at least partially satisfied before higher needs become influential.

14. Maslow believed that people, in general, are driven by: a. inherited ways of need fulfillment. b. all the needs at the same time. c. higher needs such as esteem and self-actualization. d. only one dominant need at any point of time.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 252–253 FEEDBACK: Maslow believed that people are not driven by all the needs at the same time. In general, only one need will dominate our personality at any one point in time.

15. In the context of the needs-hierarchy theory, physiological and safety needs arise in _____. a. adulthood c. midlife b. adolescence d. infancy ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 254 FEEDBACK: In the context of the needs-hierarchy theory, physiological and safety needs arise in infancy. The need for self-actualization does not arise until midlife.

16. According to Maslow, belongingness and esteem needs arise in _____. a. adolescence c. childhood

b. infancy

d. old age

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 253 FEEDBACK: Higher needs appear later in life. Belongingness and esteem needs arise in adolescence.

17. In the context of Maslow's needs-hierarchy theory, satisfaction of higher needs: a. ensures actual survival of a person. b. leads to happiness, contentment, and fulfillment. c. is independent of social, economic, and political circumstances. d. is necessary in the early stages of life.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 253 FEEDBACK: Although higher needs are less necessary for survival, they can contribute to our personal growth. Satisfaction of higher needs leads to improved health, happiness, contentment, fulfillment, and longevity.

18. According to Maslow's needs-hierarchy theory, which of the following is true of higher needs? a. They are weaker than lower needs. b. They arise later in life. c. They are less necessary than lower needs for actual survival. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 253 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the higher needs are weaker needs. They appear later in life.

19. Maslow called higher needs _____. a. growth or being needs b. deficit or deficiency needs

c. critical needs d. biological needs

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 253 FEEDBACK: Maslow called higher needs growth or being needs. Satisfaction of higher needs leads to improved health, happiness, contentment, fulfillment, and longevity.

20. In the context of the needs-hierarchy theory, Maslow states that a need: a. has to be fully satisfied before the next need in the hierarchy becomes important. b. does not have to be fully satisfied before the next need in the hierarchy becomes important. c. motivates a person's behavior even after it has been gratified. d. does not have a hereditary component.

ANS: B

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 253 FEEDBACK: In the context of the needs-hierarchy theory, Maslow states that a need does not have to be satisfied fully before the next need in the hierarchy becomes important. He proposed a declining percentage of satisfaction for each need.

21. In the context of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which of the following is true of lower needs? a. They are stronger than the higher needs. b. They are called deficiency needs. c. Failure to satisfy lower needs produces a crisis. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 253 FEEDBACK: In the context of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the lower the need is in the hierarchy, the greater is its strength, potency, and priority. Maslow called lower needs deficit, or deficiency, needs; failure to satisfy them produces a deficit or lack in the individual.

22. According to Maslow, the need for self-actualization: a. does not arise in midlife. c. arises in childhood. b. arises in adolescence. d. does not arise until midlife.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 254 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow, the need for self-actualization does not arise until midlife.

Physiological and safety needs arise in infancy. Belongingness and esteem needs arise in adolescence.

23. In the context of Maslow's needs-hierarchy theory, all of the following are physiological needs except the need for _____. a. food c. friendship b. sleep d. water ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 254 FEEDBACK: In the needs-hierarchy theory, physiological needs include need for food, water, air, sleep, and sex. Belongingness and love needs can be expressed through a close relationship with a friend, lover, or mate, or through social relationships formed within a group.

24. Maslow believed that the needs for safety and security are important drives for _____. a. infants and neurotic adults b. successful older adults c. ambitious adolescents d. emotionally healthy adults ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs

REF: 254 FEEDBACK: Maslow believed that the needs for safety and security are important drives for infants and neurotic adults. Emotionally healthy adults have usually satisfied their safety needs, a condition that requires stability, security, and freedom from fear and anxiety.

25. According to Maslow, a visible indication of children's safety needs is their preference for: a. an adventurous life. b. a changing or dynamic lifestyle. c. an unrestricted freedom. d. a structure or routine.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 254–255 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow, a visible indication of children's safety needs is their preference for a structure or routine, for an orderly and predictable world. Too much freedom and permissiveness leads to an absence of structure and order. This situation is likely to produce anxiety and insecurity in children because it threatens their security.

26. In the context of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, identify a true statement about belongingness and love needs. a. Maslow equated love with sex. b. These needs fall under the category of metaneeds. c. These needs can only be gratified through an intimate relationship with a lover. d. Maslow recognized that sex is one way of expressing the love need.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 255 FEEDBACK: Maslow did not equate love with sex, which is a physiological need, but he recognized that sex is one way of expressing the love need. Belongingness and needs can be expressed through a close relationship with a friend, lover, or mate, or through social relationships formed within a group.

27. Maslow suggested that the failure to satisfy the need for _____ is a fundamental cause of emotional maladjustment. a. food c. privacy b. love d. success ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 255 FEEDBACK: Maslow suggested that the failure to satisfy the need for love is a fundamental cause of emotional maladjustment. The need to give and receive love can be satisfied in an intimate relationship with another person.

28. As proposed by Maslow, which of the following statements is true of the esteem needs? a. It is satisfied only in the form of recognition and social success. b. Satisfaction of the need for self-esteem allows people to feel confident of their strength. c. Satisfaction of the need for self-esteem is necessary for actual survival. d. It involves the maximum realization and fulfillment of our potentials, talents, and abilities.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 255 FEEDBACK: Maslow states that we require esteem and respect from ourselves, in the form of feelings of self-worth, and from other people, in the form of status, recognition, or social success. Satisfaction of the need for self-esteem allows us to feel confident of our strength, worth, and adequacy, which will help us become more competent and productive in all aspects of our life.

29. By self-actualization, Maslow meant: a. taking undue pride in one's achievements. b. fullest development of the self. c. thinking only about oneself. d. gaining recognition and status in society.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 255 FEEDBACK: The highest need in Maslow's hierarchy, self-actualization, involves the maximum realization and fulfillment of our potentials, talents, and abilities. The self-actualizing process may take many forms, but Maslow believed that everyone, regardless of occupation or interests, is capable of maximizing personal abilities and reaching the fullest personality development.

30. According to Maslow, which of the following is true of the self-actualization need? a. Self-actualization is limited to creative and intellectual superstars. b. It refers to the need to know and understand. c. It exists outside the hierarchy. d. Failure to become self-actualizing causes a person to become restless and discontent.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 255 FEEDBACK: Although a person may satisfy all the other needs in the hierarchy, if that person is not self-actualizing, he or she will be restless, frustrated, and discontent. The highest need in Maslow's hierarchy, self-actualization, involves the maximum realization and fulfillment of our potentials, talents, and abilities.

31. In the context of the needs-hierarchy theory, identify an accurate statement about the conditions to achieve self-actualization. a. We must have a realistic knowledge of our strengths and weaknesses. b. We must be free of constraints imposed by society and by ourselves. c. We must be secure in our self-image and in our relationships with other people. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 256 FEEDBACK: In the context of the needs-hierarchy theory, the following conditions are necessary in order for us to satisfy the self-actualization need: we must be free of constraints imposed by society and by ourselves; we must be secure in our self-image and in our relationships with other people; and we must be able to love and be loved in return; we must have a realistic knowledge of our strengths

and weaknesses, virtues and vices; and we must not be distracted by the lower-order needs. The highest need in Maslow's hierarchy, self-actualization, involves the maximum realization and fulfillment of our potentials, talents, and abilities.

32.

Maslow proposed a second set of innate needs called the _____, which exist outside the hierarchy. a. prestige needs b. aggressive needs c. cognitive needs d. self-actualization needs ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 257 FEEDBACK: Maslow later proposed a second set of innate needs, the cognitive needs—to know and to understand, which exist outside the hierarchy we have described. The need to know is stronger than the need to understand, and must therefore be at least partially satisfied before the need to understand can emerge.

33. The needs to know and to understand, as proposed by Maslow, are: a. innate and do not have to be taught. b. independent of the original five-need hierarchy. c. acquired and hence need to be groomed through training. d. less essential for complete personality development.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 257 FEEDBACK: The needs to know and to understand appear in late infancy and early childhood and are expressed by children as a natural curiosity. Because the needs are innate, they do not have to be taught, but the actions of parents and teachers can serve to inhibit a child's spontaneous curiosity.

34. According to Maslow, studies concerning the existence of cognitive needs suggest that emotionally healthy adults: a. consider cognitive needs to be more important than physiological needs. b. are wise enough to place the safety needs before cognitive needs. c. are motivated to improve their knowledge about unexplained events. d. refrain themselves from exploring mysterious events.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 257 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow, studies concerning the existence of cognitive needs suggest that emotionally healthy adults are attracted to mysterious and unexplained events and are motivated to improve their knowledge about them. Emotionally healthy adults in Maslow's own clinical practice complained of boredom and a lack of zest and excitement in their lives.

35. As stated by Maslow, which of the following is true of the cognitive needs? a. They are acquired needs. b. Failure to satisfy the cognitive needs is harmful and hampers the full development of the personality. c. They do not appear until middle age.

d. Satisfaction of the cognitive needs is necessary for the actual survival of children.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 257 FEEDBACK: Failure to satisfy the cognitive needs is harmful and hampers the full development and functioning of the personality. The needs to know and to understand appear in late infancy and early childhood and are expressed by children as a natural curiosity.

36. According to Maslow's theory, metamotivation refers to: a. the motivation of self-actualizers. c. the motivation driven by deficiency. b. constantly changing motivation. d. extrinsic motivation.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 257 FEEDBACK: Maslow proposed a distinct type of motivation for self-actualizers which he called metamotivation (sometimes called B-motivation or Being). The prefix "meta" means after or beyond.

Metamotivation, then, indicates that it goes beyond psychology's traditional idea of motivation.

37. Maslow states that metamotivation is a condition in which self-actualizers: a. seek to satisfy a deficiency. b. are said to be fulfilling a particular goal. c. are motivated by external rewards. d. are said to be developing from within.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 257 FEEDBACK: Maslow proposed a distinct type of motivation for self-actualizers which he called metamotivation. Self-actualizers are not motivated to strive for a particular goal. Instead, they are said to be developing from within.

38. According to Maslow, which of the following is an accurate statement about D-motivation? a. It involves striving for something specific to make up for something that is lacking within us. b. It involves maximizing our personal potential rather than striving for a particular goal object. c. It applies only to physiological needs. d. It motivates and urges people toward self-actualization.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 257 FEEDBACK: D-motivation involves striving for something specific to make up for something that is lacking within us. Maslow's (1971) writing about the development of B-motivation and D-motivation is incomplete, but apparently D-motivation applies not only to physiological needs but also to safety, belongingness and love, and esteem needs.

39. Identify a true statement about Maslow's perspective of self-actualizers.

a. Self-actualizers evolve to be in a state of "being," spontaneously, naturally, and joyfully expressing their full humanity. b. Self-actualizers are concerned with fulfilling their potential and with knowing and understanding their environment. c. Self-actualizers' goal is to enrich their lives by acting to increase tension so as to experience a variety of challenging events. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 258 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow, self-actualizers are concerned with fulfilling their potential and with knowing and understanding their environment. Their goal is to enrich their lives by acting to increase tension so as to experience a variety of stimulating and challenging events. Because their lower-order deficiency needs have been met, self-actualizers function at a level beyond striving for specific goal objects to satisfy a deficit. Thus, they are in a state of "being," spontaneously, naturally, and joyfully expressing their full humanity.

40. According to Maslow, which of the following is a metaneed? a. Wholeness c. Belongingness b. Esteem d. Sex ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 258 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow, wholeness is a metaneed. Metaneeds are states of being—such as goodness, uniqueness, and perfection—rather than specific goal objects.

41. According to Maslow, failure to satisfy metaneeds is harmful and produces a kind of _____, which thwarts the full development of the personality. a. metapathology c. neurosis b. metadiscourse d. hallucinosis ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 258 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow, failure to satisfy metaneeds is harmful and produces a kind of metapathology, which thwarts the full development of the personality. Metapathology prevents self-actualizers from expressing, using, and fulfilling their potential.

42. Metapathology, according to Maslow, causes: a. helplessness and depression in self-actualizers. b. frustration in self-actualizers due to failure in gratifying deficiency needs. c. basic anxiety and hallucinations in self-admirers. d. neurotic disorders in insecure adults.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 258 FEEDBACK: Metapathology, according to Maslow, prevents self-actualizers from expressing, using,

and fulfilling their potential. They may come to feel helpless and depressed, unable to pinpoint a source for these feelings or identify a goal that might alleviate the distress.

43. According to Maslow's research on emotionally healthy people, self-actualizers constitute _____ of the population. a. 1 percent or less c. 50 percent or more b. about 11 percent d. nearly 90 percent ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 258 FEEDBACK: Maslow's research on emotionally healthy people formed the basis of his personality theory (1970b, 1971). He did not find many examples of self-actualizers and estimated that they constitute 1 percent or less of the population.

44. Based on his research on emotionally healthy people, Maslow concluded that self-actualizers have a(n) _____ perception about their world, including other people. a. unbiased c. stereotypical b. subjective d. intolerant ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 258 FEEDBACK: Based on his research on emotionally healthy people, Maslow concluded that self-actualizers perceive their world, including other people, clearly and objectively, unbiased by prejudgments or preconceptions. Maslow's research on emotionally healthy people formed the basis of his personality theory (1970b, 1971).

45. As described by Maslow, which of the following is a characteristic of self-actualizers? a. They accept their strengths and weaknesses. b. They have a desire for widespread popularity and admiration. c. They openly rebel against cultural norms or social codes. d. They feel guilty about their failings.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 258 FEEDBACK: As described by Maslow, self-actualizers accept their strengths and weaknesses. They do not try to distort or falsify their self-image, they do not feel guilty about their failings, and they rarely hide their feelings or emotions or play a role to satisfy society. They do not openly rebel against cultural norms or social codes, but they are governed by their own nature rather than the strictures of society.

46. Maslow, based on his research, concluded that self-actualizers focus on: a. problems outside themselves. b. the social acceptability of their actions. c. problems in their personal lives. d. their safety needs.

ANS: A PTS: 1

A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 258 FEEDBACK: Maslow, based on his research, concluded that self-actualizers focus on problems outside themselves. They have a sense of mission, a commitment, to which they devote their energy.

47. One of the characteristics of self-actualizers, as described by Maslow, is that they: a. are driven by D-motivation. b. find pleasure and excitement in their hard work. c. seek to reduce tension and work hard to satisfy their lower needs. d. hide their feelings or emotions to satisfy the society.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 258 FEEDBACK: One of the characteristics of self-actualizers, as described by Maslow, is that they find pleasure and excitement in their hard work. Through their intense dedication, self-actualizers are able to satisfy the metaneeds.

48. In the context of social life, Maslow states that self-actualizers: a. prefer companionship than solitude. c. depend on themselves, not others for satisfaction. b. crave for social support. d. avoid people with weaknesses.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 259 FEEDBACK: In the context of social life, Maslow states that self-actualizers depend on themselves, not on others, for their satisfactions. This independence may make them seem aloof or unfriendly, but that is not their intent.

49.

As described by Maslow, identify a characteristic of self-actualizers. a. Self-actualizers have a large group of friends. b. Self-actualizers suffer because of isolation. c. Self-actualizers appreciate what they have and take little for granted. d. Self-actualizers undertake challenging tasks for money, fame, and power.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 259 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow, self-actualizers appreciate what they have and take little for granted. They have the ability to perceive and experience the world around them with freshness, wonder, and awe.

50. Maslow defined _____ as a moment of intense ecstasy, during which the self is transcended and the person feels supremely powerful, confident, and decisive. a. peak experience c. delusion b. simulated experience d. enlightenment ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers

REF: 259 FEEDBACK: Maslow defined peak experience as a moment of intense ecstasy, during which the self is transcended and the person feels supremely powerful, confident, and decisive. Self-actualizers know moments of intense ecstasy, not unlike deep religious experiences, that can occur with virtually any activity.

51. According to Maslow, all of the following are characteristics of self-actualizers except: a. freshness of appreciation. c. resistance to social pressures. b. intolerance. d. autonomy.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 260 FEEDBACK: Maslow adopted Alfred Adler's concept of social interest to indicate the sympathy and empathy self-actualizing persons have for all humanity. Although often irritated by the behavior of other people, self-actualizers feel a kinship with and an understanding of others as well as a desire to help them.

52. In the context of Maslow's study of self-actualizers, which of the following is not a characteristic of self-actualized persons? a. Acceptance of other people b. Creativeness c. Naturalness d. Acceptance of the strictures of the society ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 260 FEEDBACK: Maslow states that self-actualizers do not openly rebel against cultural norms or social codes, but they are governed by their own nature rather than the strictures of society. They are autonomous, independent, and self-sufficient.

53. According to Maslow's research, which of the following statements is true of self-actualizers' imperfections? a. They experience doubts and tension. c. They can be rude and ruthless occasionally. b. They can experience conflicts. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 260 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow's research, self-actualizers seem almost perfect. But they do have human flaws and imperfections. On occasion they can be rude, even ruthless, and they experience doubts, conflicts, and tension.

54. Maslow states that _____ is one of the reasons for the failure to self-actualize. a. laziness b. the Jonah complex c. the Electra complex d. spirituality

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 262 FEEDBACK: One of the reasons for the failure to self-actualize is what Maslow called the Jonah complex. The Jonah complex refers to our doubts about our own abilities.

55. Maslow used the term _____ to describe people's doubts about their own abilities. a. the Jonah complex c. the Electra complex b. the Cassandra complex d. the Oedipus complex ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 262 FEEDBACK: Maslow used the term the Jonah complex to describe people's doubts about their own abilities. We may fear that taking action to maximize our potential will lead to new situations with which we may be unable to cope. Simultaneously, we are afraid of and thrilled by the possibilities but too often the fear takes precedence.

56. According to Maslow, which of the following is a reason why people fail to self-actualize? a. For many people it may seem easier and safer to accept life as it is rather than seek new challenges. b. Inadequate education and improper child-rearing practices thwart the drive for self-actualization in adulthood. c. People may fear that taking action to maximize their potential will lead to new situations with which they may be unable to cope. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 261–262 FEEDBACK: Maslow states that inadequate education and improper child-rearing practices can thwart the drive for self-actualization in adulthood. People may also fear that taking action to maximize our potential will lead to new situations with which we may be unable to cope. The self-actualizing process takes effort, discipline, and self-control. For many people it may seem easier and safer to accept life as it is rather than seek new challenges.

57. In Maslow's view, personality is determined: a. exclusively by situational forces. b. solely by genetic factors. c. by the interaction of heredity and environment. d. by the interaction of three fundamental elements namely id, ego, and superego.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 262 FEEDBACK: Although the needs in Maslow's hierarchies are innate, the behaviors by which we satisfy them are learned. Therefore, personality is determined by the interaction of heredity and environment, of personal and situational variables.

58. Which of the following statements is true of Maslow's views on human nature?

a. He denied the existence of evil in humans. c. He believed that personality is determined solely by genetic factors. b. He argued that human nature is basically d. He argued that people are victims of early good, decent, and kind. childhood experiences.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 263 FEEDBACK: Maslow argued that human nature is basically good, decent, and kind, but he did not deny the existence of evil. He believed some people were evil beyond reclamation and wrote in his journal that "nothing will work ultimately with them but shooting."

59. Scores indicating higher self-actualization on the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) have been positively related to _____. a. enculturation b. depression c. creativity d. intolerance ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Maslow's Theory REF: 268 FEEDBACK: Scores indicating higher self-actualization on the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) have been positively related to several factors: emotional health, creativity, well-being following therapy, academic achievement, autonomy, and racial tolerance. These results are in the expected directions based on Maslow's description of self-actualizers.

60. Maslow's work on self-actualization began as an attempt to understand the personalities of: a. psychoanalytic pioneers Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler. b. statistician Raymond Cattell and author and mathematician Lewis Carrol. c. anthropologist Ruth Benedict and the Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer. d. psychotherapist Carl Jung and scientist B. F. Skinner.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Maslow's Theory REF: 263 FEEDBACK: Maslow's work on self-actualization did not begin as a formal program of personality assessment and research. He started his investigation simply to satisfy his own curiosity about two well-known people who impressed him, the anthropologist Ruth Benedict and the Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer.

61. In the context of Maslow's work on self-actualization, _____ were Maslow's first research subjects. a. artists b. historical figures c. college students d. middle-aged and older adults ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Maslow's Theory REF: 263

FEEDBACK: Maslow started his investigation simply to satisfy his own curiosity about two well-known people who impressed him, the anthropologist Ruth Benedict and the Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer. His first research subjects were college students, but he found only 1 out of 3,000 he could describe as self-actualizing.

62. Which of the following statements is true of the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI)? a. It is a projective technique used to assess personality. b. It has two major scales namely time competence and inner directedness. c. It was developed by Maslow. d. It was designed to assess the degree to which smartphone use can satisfy the needs in Maslow's system.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Maslow's Theory REF: 264 FEEDBACK: The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI), a self-report questionnaire consisting of 150 pairs of statements, was developed by psychologist Everett Shostrom (1964, 1974) to measure self-actualization. The POI is scored for 2 major scales and 10 subscales. The major scales are time competence, which measures the degree to which we live in the present, and inner directedness, which assesses how much we depend on ourselves rather than on others for judgments and values.

63. Which of the following statements is true of Maslow's research methodology for studying self-actualizers? a. He used case studies for his research. b. He used experimental methods for his research. c. He used correlational methods for his research. d. None of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Maslow's Theory REF: 265 FEEDBACK: Maslow did not use case studies or the experimental or correlational methods in his research. Critics have charged that Maslow's methods for studying self-actualizers were not rigorous or controlled. Maslow agreed; he knew his investigations failed to adhere to the requirements of scientific research.

64. Scores indicating high self-actualization on the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) correlate negatively with _____. a. alcoholism c. emotional health b. academic achievement d. ingenuity ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Maslow's Theory REF: 268 FEEDBACK: Scores indicating high self-actualization on the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) correlate negatively with alcoholism, institutionalization for mental disturbances, neuroticism, depression, and hypochondriasis. These results are in the expected directions based on Maslow's description of self-actualizers.

65. Which of the following statements is true of the self-determination theory? a. It suggests that people are concerned with fulfilling their deficiency needs.

b. It states that people develop their capabilities and potentials primarily due to societal pressures. c. It states that people are driven by extrinsic motivation. d. It suggests that people have an innate tendency to express their interests and overcome challenges.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Determination Theory REF: 269 FEEDBACK: A contemporary outgrowth of the essence of Maslow's self-actualization theory is the self-determination theory, which suggests that people have an innate tendency to express their interests, to exercise and develop their capabilities and potentials, and to overcome challenges. Research supporting the notion of self-determination has come from diverse groups such as football players in Australia, teenagers in India and Nigeria, and older women in the United States.

66. Identify an accurate statement about extrinsic motivation. a. It is a source of peak experience. c. It is associated with external rewards such as a promotion or pay raise. b. It is concerned with realizing one's talents d. It aids in the attainment of and abilities for the goal of inner self-actualization. satisfaction.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Determination Theory REF: 269 FEEDBACK: Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in some activity only for the sake of some external reward such as praise, a promotion or pay raise, or a higher grade. Self-determination is facilitated by a person's focus on intrinsic motivation, such as engaging in an activity solely because of the interest and challenge of the activity itself.

67. The three basic needs specified by the self-determination theory are: a. equity, security, and appreciation. b. appreciation, recognition, and security. c. achievement, power, and security. d. competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Determination Theory REF: 269 FEEDBACK: Self-determination theory specifies three basic needs namely competence, autonomy, and relatedness. It is through the satisfaction of these needs that a person can reach a state of well-being.

68. Criticism of Maslow's self-actualization theory center on the fact that: a. the sample of self-actualizing people was too large to come to a conclusion. b. the research does not reflect Maslow's idea of worthy and emotionally healthy people. c. the research methods were not rigorous and lacked experimentally generated supporting data. d. the theory does not apply outside the laboratory in social and personal terms.

ANS: C

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Maslow's Theory REF: 270 FEEDBACK: Criticisms of Maslow's theory center on his research methods and lack of experimentally generated supporting data. The sample of self-actualizing people from which the data were derived, fewer than half of whom were interviewed in person, is too small for generalization to the population at large.

69. Which of the following is true of Maslow's self-actualization theory? a. It has been criticized for the use of a very small sample size for generalizing to the population at large. b. It declined in popularity in the 1960s. c. It is based on the belief that self-actualization is a learned behavior. d. It has little relevance in the field of developmental psychology and organizational behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Maslow's Theory REF: 270 FEEDBACK: According to critics, the sample of self-actualizing people from which the data were derived, fewer than half of whom were interviewed in person, is too small for generalization to the population at large. Critics also have asked on what basis self-actualization is presumed to be innate.

Why could it not be learned behavior, the result of some unique combination of childhood experiences?

70. Maslow admitted that his theory was not widely supported by laboratory research, but he argued that: a. his theory is derived from the scientifically rigorous work of previous researchers. b. scientific research is not important in the study of human psychology. c. any idea that becomes popular is definitely reliable. d. his theory fits very well with the personal experience of most people.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Maslow's Theory REF: 270 FEEDBACK: Maslow's defense against the criticism of his theory was that although his theory was not widely supported by laboratory research, it was successful in social, clinical, and personal terms.

He wrote, "It has fitted very well with the personal experience of most people, and has often given them a structured theory that has helped them to make better sense of their inner lives."

TRUE/FALSE 1. Abraham Maslow is considered the founder and spiritual leader of the humanistic psychology movement.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 249 FEEDBACK: Abraham Maslow is considered the founder and spiritual leader of the humanistic psychology movement. He objected to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, particularly Freud's approach to personality.

2. Maslow had an ideal childhood where his parents can be described as self-actualized.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Maslow (1908–1970) REF: 250 FEEDBACK: Maslow's childhood was not pleasant. His father was aloof and periodically abandoned his wife and children, while his mother openly favored his younger siblings, never showed the slightest sign of affection for him, and constantly punished him for the slightest wrongdoing.

3. According to Maslow, although we come equipped with the five innate needs at birth, the behaviors we use to satisfy them are learned and, therefore, subject to variation from one person to another.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 252 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow, although we come equipped with the five innate needs at birth, however, the behaviors we use to satisfy them are learned and, therefore, subject to variation from one person to another. The order of the needs can also be changed by the social circumstances.

4. The needs in the Maslow's needs-hierarchy theory are arranged in order from strongest at the bottom to the weakest at the top.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 252 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow, we are not driven by all the needs at the same time. In general, only one need will dominate our personality at any one point in time.

5. In his needs-hierarchy theory, Maslow called the higher needs deficit needs.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 253 FEEDBACK: Maslow called higher needs growth or being needs. He called lower needs deficit, or deficiency needs.

6. In the context of his needs-hierarchy theory, Maslow proposed a declining percentage of satisfaction for each need.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 253 FEEDBACK: In the context of the needs-hierarchy theory, a need does not have to be satisfied fully before the next need in the hierarchy becomes important. Maslow proposed a declining percentage of satisfaction for each need.

7. According to Maslow, neurotics compulsively avoid structure and order.

ANS: F

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 255 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow, neurotic and insecure adults need structure and order because their safety needs still dominate their personality. Neurotics compulsively avoid new experiences.

8. Maslow states that satisfaction of our physiological needs allows us to feel confident of our strength, worth, and adequacy.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 255 FEEDBACK: Satisfaction of the need for self-esteem allows us to feel confident of our strength, worth, and adequacy, which will help us become more competent and productive in all aspects of our life. Satisfaction of our physiological needs is necessary for our survival.

9. In the context of Maslow's theory, cognitive needs are the innate needs to know and to understand.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 257 FEEDBACK: Maslow proposed a second set of innate needs, the cognitive needs—to know and to understand, which exist outside the hierarchy we have described. The needs to know and to understand appear in late infancy and early childhood and are expressed by children as a natural curiosity.

10. According to Maslow, metamotivation is sometimes called D-motivation or Deficiency.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 257 FEEDBACK: Maslow proposed a distinct type of motivation for self-actualizers which he called metamotivation (sometimes called B-motivation or Being). He described the motivation of people who are not self-actualizers as a condition of D-motivation or Deficiency.

11. According to Maslow's theory, metaneeds are states of being such as goodness, uniqueness, and perfection.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 258 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow's theory, metaneeds are states of being—such as goodness, uniqueness, and perfection—rather than specific goal objects. Failure to satisfy metaneeds is harmful and produces a kind of metapathology, which thwarts the full development of the personality.

12. Maslow states that metapathology prevents self-actualizers from expressing, using, and fulfilling their potential.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers

REF: 258 FEEDBACK: Maslow states that metapathology prevents self-actualizers from expressing, using, and fulfilling their potential. They may come to feel helpless and depressed, unable to pinpoint a source for these feelings or identify a goal that might alleviate the distress.

13. According to Maslow's research, self-actualizers are flexible and willing to make mistakes and learn from them.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 260 FEEDBACK: According to Maslow's research, self-actualizers are flexible, spontaneous, and willing to make mistakes and learn from them. They are open and humble, in the way children are before society teaches them to be embarrassed or shy about possibly doing something foolish.

14. Maslow states that if children are overprotected and not permitted to try new behaviors, they are likely to be inhibited as adults, unable to express themselves fully in activities vital to self-actualization.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 261 FEEDBACK: Maslow states if children are overprotected and not permitted to try new behaviors, explore new ideas, or practice new skills, then they are likely to be inhibited as adults, unable to express themselves fully in activities vital to self-actualization. Inadequate education and improper child-rearing practices can thwart the drive for self-actualization in adulthood.

15. Maslow denied the existence of evil in humans.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 263 FEEDBACK: Maslow argued that human nature is basically good, decent, and kind, but he did not deny the existence of evil. He believed some people were evil beyond reclamation and wrote in his journal that "nothing will work ultimately with them but shooting."

ESSAY 1. Contrast Maslow's hierarchy of needs and his theory of cognitive needs.

ANS: Maslow proposed a hierarchy of five innate needs that activate and direct human behavior. They are the physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization needs. The needs are arranged in order from strongest at the bottom to the weakest at the top. Lower needs must be at least partially satisfied before higher needs become influential. We are not driven by all the needs at the same time. In general, only one need will dominate our personality at any one point in time. Which one it will be depends on which of the others have been satisfied. The order of the needs can be changed.

Maslow later proposed a second set of innate needs, the cognitive needs—to know and to understand, which exist outside the hierarchy we have described. The need to know is stronger than the need to understand, and must therefore be at least partially satisfied before the need to understand can emerge.

The hierarchy of these two needs overlaps the original five-need hierarchy. Knowing and understanding—essentially, finding meaning in our environment—are basic to interacting with that

environment in an emotionally healthy, mature way to satisfy physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs REF: 252, 257 2. Distinguish self-actualizers from others in terms of their basic motivation.

ANS: According to Maslow's theory, self-actualizers differ from others in terms of their basic motivation. Maslow proposed a distinct type of motivation for self-actualizers which he called metamotivation (sometimes called B-motivation or Being). The prefix "meta" means after or beyond.

Metamotivation, then, indicates that it goes beyond psychology’s traditional idea of motivation.

Metamotivation implies a condition in which motivation, as we know it, plays no role. Self-actualizers are not motivated to strive for a particular goal. Instead, they are said to be developing from within.

Maslow described the motivation of people who are not self-actualizers as a condition of D-motivation or Deficiency. D-motivation involves striving for something specific to make up for something that is lacking within us. For example, failure to eat produces a deficiency in the body that we feel as discomfort. This feeling motivates us to take some action to reduce the resulting tension.

Self-actualizers are concerned with fulfilling their potential and with knowing and understanding their environment. In their state of metamotivation, they are not seeking to reduce tension, satisfy a deficiency, or strive for a specific object. Their goal is to enrich their lives by acting to increase tension so as to experience a variety of stimulating and challenging events. Because their lower-order deficiency needs have been met, self-actualizers function at a level beyond striving for specific goal objects to satisfy a deficit. Thus, they are in a state of "being," spontaneously, naturally, and joyfully expressing their full humanity.

Having explained that self-actualizers are thus, in a sense, unmotivated, Maslow proposed a list of metaneeds toward which self-actualizers evolve. Metaneeds are states of being—such as goodness, uniqueness, and perfection—rather than specific goal objects. Failure to satisfy metaneeds is harmful and produces a kind of metapathology, which thwarts the full development of the personality.

Metapathology prevents self-actualizers from expressing, using, and fulfilling their potential. They may come to feel helpless and depressed, unable to pinpoint a source for these feelings or identify a goal that might alleviate the distress.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 257–258 3. List out the characteristics of self-actualizers as identified by Maslow's research.

ANS: Maslow's research on emotionally healthy people formed the basis of his personality theory. He did not find many examples of self-actualizers and estimated that they constitute 1 percent or less of the population. However, he concluded that they share certain characteristics. They are as follows: • An efficient perception of reality. Self-actualizers perceive their world, including other people, clearly and objectively, unbiased by prejudgments or preconceptions.

• An acceptance of themselves, others, and nature. Self-actualizers accept their strengths and weaknesses. They do not try to distort or falsify their self-image, and they do not feel guilty about their failings. They also accept the weaknesses of other people and of society in general.

• A spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness. The behavior of self-actualizers is open, direct, and natural. They rarely hide their feelings or emotions or play a role to satisfy society, although they may do so to avoid hurting other people. Self-actualizers are individualistic in their ideas and ideals but not necessarily unconventional in their behavior. They feel secure enough to be themselves without being overly assertive.

• A focus on problems outside themselves. Self-actualizers have a sense of mission, a commitment, to which they devote their energy. This dedication to a cause or vocation is a requirement for self-actualization. Self-actualizers find pleasure and excitement in their hard work. Through their intense dedication, self-actualizers are able to satisfy the metaneeds. Their commitment challenges and develops their abilities and helps define their sense of self.

• A sense of detachment and the need for privacy. Self-actualizers can experience isolation without harmful effects and seem to need solitude more than persons who are not self-actualizing. Self-actualizers depend on themselves, not on others, for their satisfactions.

This independence may make them seem aloof or unfriendly, but that is not their intent. They are simply more autonomous than most people and do not crave social support.

• A freshness of appreciation. Self-actualizers have the ability to perceive and experience the world around them with freshness, wonder, and awe. An experience may grow stale for someone who is not self-actualizing, but self-actualizers will enjoy each recurrence as though it was the first. Whether it is a sunset, a painting, a symphony, a baseball game, or a birthday gift—all of these experiences can be viewed with delight. Self-actualizers appreciate what they have and take little for granted.

• Mystical or peak experiences. Self-actualizers know moments of intense ecstasy, not unlike deep religious experiences, that can occur with virtually any activity. Maslow called these events peak experiences, during which the self is transcended and the person feels supremely powerful, confident, and decisive.

• Social interest. Maslow adopted Alfred Adler’s concept of social interest to indicate the sympathy and empathy self-actualizing persons have for all humanity. Although often irritated by the behavior of other people, self-actualizers feel a kinship with and an understanding of others as well as a desire to help them.

• Profound interpersonal relations. Although their circle of friends is not large, self-actualizers have deep, lasting friendships. They tend to select as friends those with personal qualities similar to their own, just as we all choose as friends the people we find compatible.

Self-actualizers often attract admirers or disciples. These relationships are usually one-sided; the admirer asks more of the self-actualizer than the self-actualizer is able or willing to give.

• Creativeness. Self-actualizing people are highly creative and exhibit inventiveness and originality in their work and other facets of their lives. They are flexible, spontaneous, and willing to make mistakes and learn from them. They are open and humble, in the way children are before society teaches them to be embarrassed or shy about possibly doing something foolish.

• Resistance to enculturation. Self-actualizers are autonomous, independent, and self-sufficient.

They feel free to resist social and cultural pressures to think or behave in a certain way. They do not openly rebel against cultural norms or social codes, but they are governed by their own nature rather than the strictures of society.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Study of Self-Actualizers REF: 259–260 4. Briefly explain the self-determination theory.

ANS: A contemporary outgrowth of the essence of Maslow's self-actualization theory is the self-determination theory, which suggests that people have an innate tendency to express their interests, to exercise and develop their capabilities and potentials, and to overcome challenge.

Research supporting the notion of self-determination has come from diverse groups such as football players in Australia, teenagers in India and Nigeria, and older women in the United States. Those who scored highest in self-determination showed the greatest improvement in overall behavior and subjective well-being.

More recent research studying people in the United States, Belgium, China, Peru, Australia, Mexico,

Venezuela, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Japan have provided further support for the role of self-determination in facilitating positive growth needs and self-actualization. The self-determination theory posits three needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Determination Theory REF: 269 5. Discuss the criticisms of Maslow's theory.

ANS: Criticisms of Maslow's theory center on his research methods and lack of experimentally generated supporting data. The sample of self-actualizing people from which the data were derived, fewer than half of whom were interviewed in person, is too small for generalization to the population at large. Critics also charge that the ways in which Maslow amassed information about his original self-actualizing subjects are inconsistent and vague. He did not describe how he interpreted test results or analyzed biographical materials, nor did he indicate precisely what led him to identify those particular people as self-actualizing. However, as we have seen with other theorists, weakness in scientific methodology is not unique to Maslow.

For his subjects Maslow selected people he admired, according to his own personal criteria for self-actualization. These criteria were not specified at the time, and he later admitted that self-actualization was difficult to describe accurately. His list of characteristics of self-actualizers derives solely from his clinical interpretations of the data and may easily have been influenced by his personal philosophy and moral values. Thus, the descriptions may actually reflect Maslow's own ideal of the worthy and emotionally healthy individual.

Other criticisms have been directed at Maslow's definitions of various concepts such as metaneeds, metapathology, peak experiences, and self-actualization. His use of these terms could be inconsistent and ambiguous. Critics also have asked on what basis self-actualization is presumed to be innate. Why could it not be learned behavior, the result of some unique combination of childhood experiences?

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Maslow's Theory REF: 270

Chapter 10—Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Person-centered therapy, a popular approach to psychotherapy originated by Carl Rogers, was initially known as: a. counselor-centered therapy. c. conditional therapy. b. non-directive therapy. d. functional therapy.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 273 FEEDBACK: Carl Rogers originated a popular approach to psychotherapy known initially as non-directive or client-centered therapy, which later came to be called person-centered therapy. This form of psychotherapy has generated an enormous amount of research and is widely used today in counseling situations.

2. Rogers's personality theory is rooted in: a. Freud's theories. b. Jung's theories.

c. experimental psychology. d. humanistic psychology.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 273 FEEDBACK: Rogers's personality theory, like Maslow's, is rooted in humanistic psychology, which Rogers made the framework for the patient–therapist relationship. Rogers did not develop his theory from experimental research conducted in laboratories, but rather from his experiences working with patients, or clients as he preferred to call them.

3. The approach to psychotherapy used by Carl Rogers came to be known as person-centered therapy because: a. therapists mostly spend time listening to c. it is the person himself and not the patients talk about their lives in this therapist who directs the change and approach. improvement in personality. b. it frequently involves looking at a person's d. the therapist persuades a person to change early childhood experiences in order to his or her thought patterns through discover how these events might have multiple sessions in this approach. shaped the person.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 273–274 FEEDBACK: Carl Rogers originated a popular approach to psychotherapy known initially as non-directive or client-centered therapy, which later came to be called person-centered therapy. It tells us that the ability to change and improve personality is centered within the person. In other words, it is the person and not the therapist who directs such change. The therapist's role is to assist or facilitate the change.

4. Rogers believed that people are rational beings ruled by: a. their past events.

b. a conscious perception of themselves and their experiential world. c. an unconscious psychic energy that can be channeled externally, toward the outside world, or internally, toward the self. d. physiological factors.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 274 FEEDBACK: Rogers believed that we are rational beings ruled by a conscious perception of our selves and our experiential world. He gave very little importance to unconscious forces or other Freudian explanations.

5. According to Rogers, the ultimate goal in life is: a. to become a fully functioning person by actualizing the self. b. to be able to successfully distinguish between the self and others. c. to be able to shift interest from the physical and material to the spiritual, philosophical, and intuitive. d. to achieve life's goals and establish a secure, successful place in the world.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 274 FEEDBACK: Rogers proposed one single, innate, overriding motivation: the inborn tendency to actualize, to develop our abilities and potentials to the fullest. This ultimate goal is to actualize the self, to become what Rogers called a fully functioning person.

6. Rogers's personality was greatly shaped by his childhood experience of: a. being greatly influenced by his parents' liberal religious views. b. living by his parents' view of the world rather than his own. c. relishing a position of power as an only child in the family. d. being surrounded by friends at school and play.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Rogers (1902–1987) REF: 274 FEEDBACK: Rogers's parents held extremely strict religious views and emphasized moral behavior, suppressing all displays of emotion, and the virtue of hard work. He later wrote that their fundamentalist teachings gripped him like a vise throughout his childhood and adolescence. His parents' beliefs forced him to live by their view of the world rather than his own.

7. Rogers's childhood experiences involved: a. suppression of all displays of emotion. b. sexual conflicts. c. living by his own values at an early age. d. a hatred toward his father.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Rogers (1902–1987) REF: 274 FEEDBACK: Rogers's parents held extremely strict religious views and emphasized moral behavior, suppressing all displays of emotion, and the virtue of hard work. He later wrote that their

fundamentalist teachings gripped him like a vise throughout his childhood and adolescence.

8. Rogers's work in the field of psychology was influenced by his _____ in early childhood. a. desire to improve his self-concept b. popularity in school c. solitude and an insignificant social life d. belief that his parents favored him over his siblings ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Rogers (1902–1987) REF: 274 FEEDBACK: Rogers had little social life outside his family, and he came to believe that his parents favored an older brother. Rogers described himself as shy, solitary, dreamy, and often lost in fantasy.

9. Which of the following was the first endeavor of Carl Rogers in the field of psychology after he received his Ph.D. in 1931? a. Diagnosing and treating delinquent and underprivileged children b. Conducting experiments with higher primates c. Assessing the functioning of the psyche and the supernatural d. Running statistical analyses of opinion surveys ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Rogers (1902–1987) REF: 275 FEEDBACK: Rogers received his Ph.D. in 1931 and joined the staff of the Child Study Department of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in Rochester, New York. His job involved diagnosing and treating delinquent and underprivileged children.

10. During his trip to China, Rogers came to recognize the importance of _____ as a factor in his own development. a. an autonomous self b. his educational background c. the id, ego, and superego d. his fundamentalist upbringing ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 276 FEEDBACK: During his trip to China, Rogers came to recognize the importance of an autonomous self as a factor in his own development. His early research reinforced the importance of the self in the formation of the personality.

11. Rogers's clinical experience while teaching at the University of Wisconsin was mostly with: a. disturbed children in a local orphanage. b. young, intelligent, highly verbal college students. c. deeply disturbed psychotics at a state institution. d. wealthy businessmen who were highly stressed.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Rogers (1902–1987) REF: 276

FEEDBACK: Rogers taught at the University of Wisconsin from 1957 to 1963. His clinical experience while in academia was mostly with college students in the counseling centers. Thus, the kind of persons he treated during that time were people who were young, intelligent, highly verbal, and, in general, facing adjustment problems rather than severe emotional disorders.

12. William Kell, one of Rogers's students, conducted a research to predict the behavior of delinquent children and found that: a. family environment was the best predictor of later behavior. b. self-insight was the best predictor of later behavior. c. genetic factors were more influential than environmental factors. d. it is impossible to predict later behavior.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 277 FEEDBACK: William Kell, one of Rogers's students, attempted to predict the behavior of delinquent children. Rogers predicted that the factors of family environment and social interactions would correlate most strongly with delinquent behavior, but he was wrong. The factor that most accurately predicted later behavior was self-insight.

13. According to Rogers, counselors and social workers were emphasizing the wrong things in trying to treat delinquent children and adolescents. He believed that they should: a. try to alter the threatening home situation. c. try to modify the children's self-insight. b. place the children in foster care. d. focus on external factors such as the socioeconomic background.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 277 FEEDBACK: Rogers accepted that one's attitude toward the self was more important in predicting behavior than the external factors widely thought to be so influential in childhood. He believed that counselors and social workers were emphasizing the wrong things in trying to treat delinquent children and adolescents. Counselors traditionally focus on external factors such as a poor family environment and alter the circumstances by removing children from a threatening home situation and placing them in foster care. Instead, they should be trying to modify the children's self-insight.

14. Rogers believed that the tendency to actualize is: a. learned. c. innate. b. present in only a few exceptional d. dormant until adolescence. individuals.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 277 FEEDBACK: Rogers believed people are motivated by an innate tendency to actualize, maintain, and enhance the self. This drive toward self-actualization is part of a larger actualization tendency.

15. According to Rogers, which of the following is part of the actualization tendency of people? a. Physiological needs c. Process of maturation b. Psychological needs d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 277 FEEDBACK: Rogers believed people are motivated by an innate tendency to actualize, maintain, and enhance the self. This drive toward self-actualization is part of a larger actualization tendency, which encompasses all of our physiological and psychological needs. This tendency is responsible for maturation—the genetically determined development of the body's parts and processes.

16. According to Rogers's beliefs, which of the following is motivated by the actualization tendency in people? a. The personality shift from extraversion to c. The development of physiological introversion functioning b. The suppression of the dark side of the d. The expression of both the anima and the personality animus archetype ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 277 FEEDBACK: Rogers believed that the actualization tendency begins in the womb, facilitating human growth by providing for the differentiation of the physical organs and the development of physiological functioning. It is responsible for maturation—the genetically determined development of the body's parts and processes—ranging from the growth of the fetus to the appearance of the secondary sex characteristics at puberty.

17. Which of the following theories of Rogers was proven to be incorrect by his pupil William Kell? a. External factors correlate most strongly with delinquent behavior. b. A person's level of social interactions is the single most important predictor of later behavior. c. The right way to treat delinquent children and adolescents is to remove them from a threatening home situation and place them in foster care. d. The factor of self-insight correlates most strongly with delinquent behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 277 FEEDBACK: William Kell, one of Rogers's students, attempted to predict the behavior of delinquent children. Rogers predicted that the factors of family environment and social interactions (external factors) would correlate most strongly with delinquent behavior, but he was wrong. The factor that most accurately predicted later behavior was self-insight.

18. According to Rogers, through the process of organismic valuing, people: a. accept themselves and others for what they are. b. evaluate all life experiences in terms of their value for fostering or hindering their actualization and growth. c. establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people. d. learn to perceive reality efficiently and tolerate uncertainty.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 278

FEEDBACK: The governing process throughout the life span, in Rogers's view, is the organismic valuing process. Through this process, we judge experiences in terms of their value for fostering or hindering our actualization and growth.

19. According to the organismic valuing process, experiences that we perceive as promoting _____ are evaluated as good and desirable. a. diligence c. self-preservation b. perseverance d. actualization ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 278 FEEDBACK: Through the organismic valuing process, we evaluate all life experiences by how well they serve the actualization tendency. Experiences that we perceive as promoting actualization are evaluated as good and desirable; we assign them a positive value.

20. According to Rogers, the way one sees the environment is: a. highly objective. b. objective in childhood but not in adulthood. c. dependent on one's perception of it. d. dependent on one's unconscious.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Experiential World REF: 278 FEEDBACK: Rogers stated that the reality of our environment depends on our perception of it, which may not always coincide with reality. We may react to an experience far differently from the way our best friend does.

21. In the context of the actualization tendency, Rogers stated that our _____ become the only basis for our judgments and behaviors as we mature. a. psychological needs c. experiences b. physiological needs d. biological instincts ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Experiential World REF: 278 FEEDBACK: As the actualization tendency in infancy leads us to grow and develop, our experiential world broadens. Our experiences become the only basis for our judgments and behaviors.

22. The _____, in Rogers's view, is the process by which we judge experiences in terms of their merit for fostering or hindering our actualization and growth. a. actualization tendency c. organismic valuing process b. contestation-focused process d. social learning process ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 278 FEEDBACK: The organismic valuing process is the process by which we judge experiences in terms of their value for fostering or hindering our actualization and growth. Through this process, we evaluate all life experiences by how well they serve the actualization tendency.

23. What was Rogers view about the self? a. The self is our image of what we are and what we should be. b. The self is a consistent pattern.

c. The self is an organized whole. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 278–279 FEEDBACK: The self-concept is our image of what we are, what we should be, and what we would like to be. Ideally, the self is a consistent pattern, an organized whole. All aspects of the self strive for consistency.

24. According to Rogers, in which of the following cases will infants cease to strive for actualization and development? a. When parents disapprove of their new c. When parents accept their undesirable behavior behaviors b. When they acquire the ability to confront d. When they acquire the ability to their unconscious harmonize each aspect of the personality with all other aspects ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 279 FEEDBACK: Infants perceive parental disapproval of their behavior as disapproval of their newly developing self. If this occurs frequently, infants will cease to strive for actualization and development.

Instead, they will act in ways that will bring positive regard from others, even if these actions are inconsistent with their self-concept.

25. In which of the following cases is approval granted regardless of a person’s behavior? a. Unconditional positive regard c. Positive self-regard b. Positive regard d. Conditional positive regard ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 279 FEEDBACK: Unconditional positive regard is the approval granted regardless of a person's behavior.

In Rogers's person-centered therapy, the therapist offers the client unconditional positive regard.

26. In Rogers's person-centered therapy, the therapist offers the client: a. positive regard. b. conditional positive regard. c. positive self-regard. d. unconditional positive regard.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 279 FEEDBACK: Unconditional positive regard is the approval granted regardless of a person's behavior.

In Rogers's person-centered therapy, the therapist offers the client unconditional positive regard.

27. In which of the following cases is approval, love, or acceptance granted only when a person expresses desirable behaviors and attitudes? a. Conditional positive regard b. Unconditional positive regard c. Positive self-regard d. Positive regard ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 280 FEEDBACK: Conditional positive regard is the approval, love, or acceptance granted only when a person expresses desirable behaviors and attitudes. If a parent expresses annoyance every time the infant drops an object out of the crib, the child learns to disapprove of himself or herself for behaving that way.

28. The warning "Of course, Mommy loves you... when you're good!" is an example of: a. self-actualization. c. conditional positive regard. b. self-esteem need. d. unconditional positive regard.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 280 FEEDBACK: Conditional positive regard is the approval, love, or acceptance granted only when a person expresses desirable behaviors and attitudes. If a parent expresses annoyance every time the infant drops an object out of the crib, the child learns to disapprove of himself or herself for behaving that way.

29. An idea in Rogers's theory similar to Freud's superego is: a. self-concept. c. incongruence. b. conditions of worth. d. unconditional positive regard.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 280 FEEDBACK: To Rogers, conditions of worth is a belief that we are worthy of approval only when we express desirable behaviors and attitudes and refrain from expressing those that bring disapproval from others; this idea is similar to the Freudian superego.

30. According to Rogers's theory, conditions of worth evolve from: a. internalizing parents' norms and standards. b. rebelling against parents' demands. c. overcoming instincts. d. enhancing positive regard leading to positive self-regard.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 280 FEEDBACK: Conditions of worth evolve from developmental sequence of positive regard leading to positive self-regard. Positive self-regard is Rogers's version of the Freudian superego, and it derives from conditional positive regard.

31. Rogers believed that once infants develop conditions of worth, they: a. learn that parental affection has a price. b. are prevented from fully actualizing the self. c. start ignoring the attitudes of other people. d. develop external standards of judgment.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 280 FEEDBACK: Conditions of worth is a belief that we are worthy of approval only when we express desirable behaviors and attitudes and refrain from expressing those that bring disapproval from others.

When infants develop conditions of worth, they learn that parental affection has a price; it depends on behaving in certain acceptable ways.

32. A study of adolescents, conducted by Assor & Tai, 2012, found that when their mothers used conditional positive self-regard to reward them for academic achievement, and punish them for non-achievement, _____. a. they functioned freely b. they did not evaluate their behaviors and attitudes carefully c. their development was encouraged by fully actualizing the self d. their feelings of self-worth became erratic ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 281 FEEDBACK: A study of adolescents found that when their mothers used conditional positive self-regard to reward them for academic achievement, and punish them for non-achievement, their feelings of self-worth became erratic. When they got good grades, for example, they behaved in self-aggrandizing ways. But when they did not get good grades, they felt shame and tend to downplay or devalue their sense of self-worth (Assor & Tai, 2012).

33. The discrepancy between a person's self-concept and aspects of his or her experience is called _____. a. induction b. indifference c. inhibition d. incongruence ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 281 FEEDBACK: Incongruence is defined as the discrepancy between a person's self-concept and aspects of his or her experience. We learn to evaluate experiences, and to accept or reject them, not in terms of how they contribute to our overall actualization tendency, but in terms of whether they bring positive regard from others.

34. Our level of psychological adjustment and emotional health is a function of the extent to which our: a. self-concept is congruent with our c. anxiety is defended. experiences. b. instincts are repressed. d. ideas accurately predict future events.

ANS: A PTS: 1

A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 281 FEEDBACK: Our level of psychological adjustment and emotional health is a function of the degree of congruence or compatibility between our self-concept and our experiences. Psychologically healthy people are able to perceive themselves, other people, and events in their world much as they really are.

35. According to Rogers, all of the following are characteristics of fully functioning persons except: a. awareness of all experiences. c. unconditional positive regard. b. trust in their own organism. d. a sense of freedom.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Characteristics of Fully Functioning Persons REF: 281–282 FEEDBACK: To Rogers, a fully functioning person is the most desirable end result of psychological development and social evolution. According to him, fully functioning persons are aware of all experiences, live fully and richly in every moment, trust in their own organism, feel free to make choices without constraints or inhibitions, are creative and live constructively and adaptively, and are in a state of actualizing.

36. Rogers believed that a fully functioning person: a. represses negative feelings. b. develops defenses against threats to the self. c. relies on stereotypes to judge people. d. is open to all experiences and feelings.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Characteristics of Fully Functioning Persons REF: 281–282 FEEDBACK: To Rogers, a fully functioning person is the most desirable end result of psychological development and social evolution. According to him, fully functioning persons are aware of all experiences. They are open to positive feelings such as courage and tenderness, and to negative feelings such as fear and pain.

37. According to Carl Rogers, which of the following characteristics are present in a fully functioning person? a. Awareness of all experiences c. Creativity and spontaneity b. Freedom of choice, without inhibitions d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Characteristics of Fully Functioning Persons REF: 281, 282 FEEDBACK: To Rogers, a fully functioning person is the most desirable end result of psychological development and social evolution. According to him, fully functioning persons are aware of all experiences, live fully and richly in every moment, trust in their own organism, feel free to make choices without constraints or inhibitions, are creative and live constructively and adaptively, and are in a state of actualizing.

38. To characterize a person who is fully functioning, Rogers used the term _____, not _____, which implies that self-development is always in progress. a. mechanical; spontaneous c. incongruent; congruent b. enlightened; enlightening d. actualizing; actualized

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Characteristics of Fully Functioning Persons REF: 282 FEEDBACK: Rogers used the word "actualizing," not "actualized," to characterize the fully functioning person. The latter term implies a finished or static personality, which was not Rogers's intent.

Self-development is always in progress. Rogers wrote that being fully functioning is "a direction, not a destination."

39. According to Rogers, although the actualization tendency of human beings is innate, the actualizing process itself is influenced more by _____ forces than by _____ forces. a. environmental; physiological c. biological; social b. physiological; environmental d. social; biological ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 283 FEEDBACK: On the nature–nurture issue, Rogers gave prominence to the role of the environment.

Although the actualization tendency is innate, the actualizing process itself is influenced more by social than by biological forces.

40. In Rogers's view of human nature, _____. a. childhood experiences are more important than experiences later in life b. biological forces are more important than social forces c. the ultimate goal is the reduction of tension d. no aspect of personality is predetermined ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 283 FEEDBACK: On the issue of free will versus determinism, Rogers's position is clear. Fully functioning persons have free choice in creating their selves. In other words, no aspect of personality is predetermined for them.

41. Rogers believed that childhood experiences: a. are unimportant in determining personality. b. determine the personality by age five. c. are more important in personality development than are experiences later in life. d. have less impact on personality development than do experiences later in life.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 283 FEEDBACK: Childhood experiences have some impact on personality development, but experiences later in life have a greater influence. Our present feelings are more vital to our personality than the events of our childhood.

42. Which of the following is a true statement about Rogers's view of human nature? a. We seek challenge instead of the security of the familiar. b. We are doomed to conflict with our selves and with society. c. We are controlled by the events of the first 5 years of life.

d. We experience our world defensively.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 283, 284 FEEDBACK: In Rogers's opinion, we are not doomed to conflict with our selves or with our society.

We are not ruled by instinctive biological forces or controlled by events of the first 5 years of life. We experience our world openly, not defensively, and we seek challenge and stimulation instead of the security of the familiar.

43. In Rogers's person-centered therapy, the responsibility for changing behavior and reevaluating relationships falls on the _____. a. client b. therapist c. circumstances d. society ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284 FEEDBACK: Rogers argued that person-centered therapy provides a clearer view of a person's experiential world than all other forms of assessment and therapy. The therapist gives them unconditional positive regard and offers no judgments about their behavior or advice on how to behave. Everything centers on the client, including the responsibility for changing behavior and reevaluating relationships.

44. Rogers's technique of psychotherapy is called: a. person-centered therapy. c. regard analysis. b. actualization therapy. d. conditional worth analysis.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284 FEEDBACK: Person-centered therapy is Rogers's approach to therapy in which the client is assumed to be responsible for changing his or her personality. He explored the client's feelings and attitudes toward the self and toward other people.

45. Rogers believed that personality should be assessed through: a. dream analysis. c. the study of the unconscious. b. a person's subjective experiences. d. psychological tests.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284 FEEDBACK: To Rogers, the only way to assess personality was in terms of the person's subjective experiences, the events in the person's life as he or she perceives them and accepts them as real.

46. Rogers said it is difficult for a therapist to know a client's experiential world completely, because a. no form of therapy is infallible. b. communication is never perfect. c. non-conscious experiences are inaccessible.

d. all of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284 FEEDBACK: Although Rogers considered person-centered therapy the only worthwhile approach to personality assessment, he realized that it was not infallible. By focusing on subjective experiences, the therapist learns only about those events the client consciously expresses. The danger in trying to infer too much about non-conscious experiences is that the inferences the therapist draws may represent the therapist's own projections more than the client's actual experiences. Besides, because all forms of communication are imperfect, the therapist necessarily will see the client's world of experience imperfectly and incompletely.

47. In Rogers's approach to therapy, the therapist provides: a. unconditional positive regard. c. conditions of worth. b. good advice. d. judgments about behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284 FEEDBACK: The only predetermined belief of the person-centered therapist is the client's inherent value and worth. The therapist gives them unconditional positive regard and offers no judgments about their behavior or advice on how to behave.

48. The only predetermined belief of the person-centered therapist is: a. that a fully-functioning person is perfect. b. that all people have some kind of abnormality. c. what the therapist finds in a client's complete assessment. d. the client's inherent value and worth.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284 FEEDBACK: The only predetermined belief of the person-centered therapist is the client's inherent value and worth. The therapist gives them unconditional positive regard and offers no judgments about their behavior or advice on how to behave.

49. Identify the assessment technique used by Carl Rogers. a. Person-centered therapy b. Free association tests c. Dream analysis d. Case history analysis ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284 FEEDBACK: Rogers's approach to therapy was person-centered therapy in which the client is assumed to be responsible for changing his or her personality. Rogers opposed assessment techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and case histories.

50. The reason why Rogers opposed assessment methods such as free association and case histories is because he believed that: a. they made clients assume an aura of expertise and authority. b. they added personal responsibility to the clients. c. they made clients dependent on the therapist. d. the clients were not convinced that the therapist could solve all their problems.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284–285 FEEDBACK: Rogers opposed assessment techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and case histories. He believed they made clients dependent on the therapist, who then assumed an aura of expertise and authority. These techniques removed personal responsibility from the clients by giving them the impression that the therapist knew all about them.

51. Rogers developed a group therapy technique in which people learn about their feelings and about how they relate to one another. He called this approach the _____. a. support group b. emergent group c. encounter group d. social group ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 285 FEEDBACK: A group therapy technique in which people learn about their feelings and about how they relate to one another is called an encounter group. Rogers wanted to bring a state of enhanced psychological health and functioning to a greater number of people, and so he developed this group technique.

52. The Experiencing Scale, which is based on Rogers's work, attempts to assess one's _____. a. receptivity to experience b. positive regard c. level of self-trust d. conditions of worth ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 285 FEEDBACK: Rogers did not use psychological tests to assess personality, nor did he develop any tests. However, other psychologists have devised tests to measure aspects of the experiential world.

The Experiencing Scale (Gendlin & Tomlinson, 1967) measures our level of self-trust.

53. Rogers and his associates used qualitative and quantitative techniques to analyze the therapy sessions and to study how the _____ changes during a course of therapy. a. unconscious motivation c. self-concept b. psychological need d. conditional positive regard ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 286

FEEDBACK: Rogers and his associates also studied how the self-concept changes during a course of therapy. Using qualitative and quantitative techniques in the scientific tradition, they analyzed the therapy sessions. By applying rating scales and content analyses of a client's verbalizations, they investigated changes in the self-concept.

54. Identify the radical procedure introduced by Rogers in his therapy sessions in an attempt to enable researchers to study the client–therapist interaction? a. Analyzing correlations between the c. Recording and filming sessions observational data and subjective ratings of the participants b. Unconscious redirection of feelings from d. Analysis of id, ego, and superego one person to another ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 286 FEEDBACK: Rogers was enthusiastic about research on the nature of the therapy sessions, an idea resisted by many clinicians who saw it as a violation of privacy. What Rogers did was to introduce what was then a radical procedure. He recorded and filmed therapy sessions to enable researchers to study the client–therapist interaction.

55. Identify the technique used by Rogers to determine how closely a client's self-image or perceived self corresponded to the ideal self. a. Q-sort technique b. Rorschach Inkblot Test c. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) d. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 286 FEEDBACK: Much of Rogers's research used the Q-sort technique, a procedure developed by William Stephenson (1953). Applying the correlational method, Rogers used Q-sort responses to determine how closely a client's self-image or perceived self corresponded to the ideal self.

56. The technique in which a person arranges statements about the self-concept into categories that range from most descriptive to least descriptive is called the _____ technique. a. self-sorting c. rating scale b. Q-sort d. content categorization ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 286 FEEDBACK: Much of Rogers's research used the Q-sort technique, a procedure developed by William Stephenson (1953). In this technique, clients sort a large number of statements about the self-concept into categories that range from most descriptive to least descriptive.

57. According to recent researches, which of the following characteristics of therapists, as perceived by the clients, is more likely to be successful in a person-centered therapy? a. Empathetic and understanding b. Demonstration of unconditional positive regard for clients

c. Demonstration of congruence in the therapeutic relationship d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 287 FEEDBACK: A study by Rogers's associates measured the discrepancy between perceived self and ideal self in 25 clients. The researchers found that the discrepancy decreased over time during and following therapy. More recent research has shown that person-centered therapy is more likely to be successful when clients perceive their therapists to: be empathic and understanding, demonstrate unconditional positive regard for them, and show congruence by demonstrating that they are being genuine in the therapeutic relationship.

58. Self-reports from children whose parents used conditional regard showed that the children had: a. confidence that their parents approved of them. b. defensive skills to become more independent as adults. c. poor coping skills and fluctuating levels of self-esteem. d. a warm emotional relationship with others.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 287 FEEDBACK: Self-reports from children whose parents used conditional regard showed poor coping skills, fluctuating levels of self-esteem, low self-worth, feelings that their parents disapproved of them, and resentment toward their parents. No such negative consequences were reported by children whose parents did not use conditional regard.

59. According to a study conducted by Baldwin in 1949, children whose parents accepted them unconditionally and displayed democratic child-rearing practices: a. obtained low scores on the Q-sort. b. displayed an authoritarian manner as parents later in their lives. c. were likely to become conditional themselves as parents. d. were found to have higher self-esteem and greater emotional security.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 288 FEEDBACK: Parents who accepted their children unconditionally and displayed democratic child-rearing practices were found to have children with higher self-esteem and greater emotional security than parents who failed to accept their children and who displayed authoritarian behavior.

60. Rogers believed that failure to realize our innate _____ can lead to maladjustment. a. self-confidence c. aggressive drive b. primary process thought d. actualization tendency ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 289 FEEDBACK: Rogers believed that failure to realize our innate actualization tendency can lead to maladjustment. Also, high inconsistency between perceived self and ideal self correlates with low levels of self-actualization and self-esteem.

61. Rogers's personality theory has received wide recognition, particularly for its emphasis on _____. a. childhood experiences c. the self-concept b. libido d. the supernatural ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Rogers's Theory REF: 290 FEEDBACK: Rogers's personality theory, although less influential than his psychotherapy, has also received wide recognition, particularly for its emphasis on the self-concept. However, Rogers did not believe he had influenced academic or scientific psychology. Nonetheless, his theory and therapy have stimulated research on the nature of psychotherapy, the client–therapist interaction, and the self-concept.

62. One of the criticisms of Rogers's work was that: a. training in his methods required a medical c. degree and a lengthy period of specialization. b. he ignored those factors of which the d. clients were not consciously aware but which could influence behavior.

he did not verify the accuracy of his reports. his data did not rely on objective observation and were not gathered in a controlled and systematic fashion.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Rogers's Theory REF: 290 FEEDBACK: Critics charge that Rogers ignored those factors of which the client was not consciously aware but which could influence behavior. People may distort reports of their subjective experiences, repressing some events and elaborating on or inventing others, to conceal their true nature and present an idealized self-image.

63. Identify an application of Rogers's psychotherapy. a. Enhancing the self-image b. Dethroning the persona c. Recognizing the anima archetype d. All of these are correct.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Rogers's Theory REF: 290 FEEDBACK: Rogers's therapy has broad application not only as a treatment for emotional disturbances but also as a means of enhancing the self-image. In the helping professions, it is used to train clinical psychologists, social workers, and counselors. In addition, psychotherapists of many different orientations have accepted some of Rogers's core concepts in their therapeutic work with clients.

64. In the business world, Rogers's psychotherapy: a. received criticism particularly for its emphasis on the self-concept. b. was of less use than the traditional means of therapy. c. has been used as a training method for managers. d. is less influential than his personality theory.

ANS: C

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Rogers's Theory REF: 290 FEEDBACK: Rogers's therapy has since found broad application not only as a treatment for emotional disturbances but also as a means of enhancing the self-image. In the business world, it has been used as a training method for managers.

TRUE/FALSE 1. Rogers defined positive self-regard as a condition where positive regard comes more from within ourselves than from other people.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 279 FEEDBACK: Positive self-regard is the condition under which we grant ourselves acceptance and approval. In time, positive regard will come more from within us than from other people, a condition Rogers called positive self-regard. Positive self-regard becomes as strong as our need for positive regard from others.

2. Positive self-regard evolves from a developmental sequence of conditions of worth.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 280 FEEDBACK: Conditions of worth evolve from this developmental sequence of positive regard leading to positive self-regard. Positive self-regard is Rogers's version of the Freudian superego.

3. Rogers believed that the experiences that are incongruent or incompatible with our self-concept become threatening and are manifested as anxiety.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 283 FEEDBACK: Experiences that are incongruent or incompatible with our self-concept become threatening and are manifested as anxiety. For example, if our self-concept includes the belief that we love all humanity, once we meet someone toward whom we feel hatred, we are likely to develop anxiety.

4. In Rogers's view, an individual cannot be a fully functioning human being as long as he or she is guided heavily by the opinions of others.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 282 FEEDBACK: To Rogers, fully functioning persons trust in their own organism. They trust their own reactions rather than being guided by the opinions of others, by a social code, or by their intellectual judgments.

5. Rogers described fully functioning persons as happy, blissful, or contented at all times.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 281 FEEDBACK: Rogers did not describe fully functioning persons as happy, blissful, or contented, although at times they may be. More appropriately, their personality may be described as enriching, exciting, and meaningful.

6. Using the technique of guided imagery, Rogers explored a client's feelings and attitudes toward the self and toward other people.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284 FEEDBACK: In person-centered therapy, Rogers explored the client's feelings and attitudes toward the self and toward other people. He listened without any preconceptions, trying to understand the client's experiential world as the client viewed it.

7. In Rogers's therapy, clients are judged based on their bad choices and are forced to admit their guilt.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284 FEEDBACK: Clients are accepted as they are. The therapist gives them unconditional positive regard and offers no judgments about their behavior or advice on how to behave. Everything centers on the client, including the responsibility for changing behavior and reevaluating relationships.

8. Rogers opposed assessment techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and case histories.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 284 FEEDBACK: Rogers opposed assessment techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and case histories. He believed they made clients dependent on the therapist, who then assumed an aura of expertise and authority. These techniques removed personal responsibility from the clients by giving them the impression that the therapist knew all about them.

9. Rogers developed a group technique in which people could learn more about themselves and how they related to one another. This was called family systems therapy.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 285 FEEDBACK: Rogers developed a group technique in which people could learn more about themselves and how they related to, or encountered, one another. He called his approach the encounter group.

10. Rogers used psychological tests to assess his clients' personalities.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Rogers's Theory REF: 285 FEEDBACK: Rogers did not use psychological tests to assess personality, nor did he develop any tests. However, other psychologists have devised tests to measure aspects of the experiential world.

11. Rogers believed that person-centered interviews, which rely on clients' self-reports, were of greater value than experimental methods.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 285 FEEDBACK: Rogers believed that person-centered interviews, which rely on clients' self-reports, were of greater value than experimental methods. In his view, the more orthodox scientific approaches yielded less information on the nature of personality than did his clinical approach.

12. The Q sort is a way of empirically defining a client's self-image.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 286 FEEDBACK: Much of Rogers's research used the Q-sort technique, a procedure developed by William Stephenson. In this technique, clients sort a large number of statements about the self-concept into categories that range from most descriptive to least descriptive. Thus, the Q sort is a way of empirically defining the client's self-image.

13. Studies have suggested that positive self-regard may not be as prevalent in collectivist cultures, such as in Japan, as it is in the United States.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 287 FEEDBACK: There is some evidence to support Rogers's concept of the organismic valuing process.

Studies have also suggested that positive self-regard may not be as prevalent in a collectivist culture such as Japan as it is in a more individualistic culture such as the United States.

14. Researchers have concluded that the greater the incongruence between perceived self and ideal self, the higher the anxiety, insecurity, self-doubt, depression, social incompetence, and other psychological disorders.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 289 FEEDBACK: Several studies provide support for Rogers's suggestion that incongruence between perceived self and ideal self indicates poor emotional adjustment. Researchers have concluded that the greater the discrepancy, the higher the anxiety, insecurity, self-doubt, depression, social incompetence,

and other psychological disorders.

15. Rogers's person-centered psychotherapy was deprecated in the United States at the end of World War II due to the unfavorable social circumstances and its need for a medical degree and a lengthy period of specialization.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Rogers's Theory REF: 290 FEEDBACK: Rogers's person-centered psychotherapy was fostered in the United States at the end of World War II (1945) in part by social circumstances. Veterans returning from service overseas needed help readjusting to civilian life. The result was a demand for psychologists and for a counseling technique they could master and put into practice quickly. Training in traditional psychoanalysis required a medical degree and a lengthy period of specialization. However, "person-centered psychotherapy," wrote one analyst, "was simple, informal, and brief, and it required little training."

ESSAY 1. Describe how Rogers's philosophy of life developed during his trip to China.

ANS: Rogers decided to study agriculture at the University of Wisconsin. But following his sophomore year, he gave up the scientific study of agriculture to prepare for the ministry. In his junior year at Wisconsin, Rogers was selected to attend an international Christian student conference in Beijing, China. During his 6 months of travel, he wrote to his parents that his philosophy of life was changing. His religious views had swung from fundamentalist to liberal.

Freeing himself of his parents' ways grieved them, but brought him emotional and intellectual independence. He realized that he could think his own thoughts, come to his own conclusions, and take the stands he believed in. This liberation, and the confidence and direction it gave him, reinforced his opinion that all human beings must learn to rely on their own experiences, ideas, and beliefs.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Rogers (1902–1987) REF: 275 2. Describe how the idea of the self became the core of Rogers's theory of personality.

ANS: William Kell, one of Rogers's students, attempted to predict the behavior of delinquent children.

Rogers predicted that the factors of family environment and social interactions (external factors) would correlate most strongly with delinquent behavior, but he was wrong. The factor that most accurately predicted later behavior was self-insight.

He was surprised to learn that family environment did not relate highly to later delinquent behavior.

Two years later, Helen McNeil replicated the study using a different group of subjects and got results similar to those of Kell. A person's level of self-insight was the single most important predictor of behavior.

This time, faced with such an accumulation of data, Rogers accepted the findings and, on reflection, came to appreciate their significance.

Counselors traditionally focus on external factors such as a poor family environment and alter the circumstances by removing children from a threatening home situation and placing them in foster care.

Instead, they should be trying to modify the children's self-insight. That realization was important to Rogers personally.

Thus, the idea of the self became the core of Rogers's theory of personality, as it had become the core of his own life.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization REF: 277 3. Compare unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard by elaborating on three differences.

ANS: Unconditional positive regard is the approval granted regardless of a person's behavior. In the case of an infant, if positive regard for the infant persists despite the infant's undesirable behaviors, this is unconditional positive regard. On the other hand, conditional positive regard is the approval, love, or acceptance granted only when a person expresses desirable behaviors and attitudes. Parents may not react to everything their infant does with positive regard.

Unconditional positive regard is not conditional or dependent on the child's behavior. However, when positive regard is conditional, infants learn that parental affection has a price; it depends on behaving in certain acceptable ways.

Children who receive unconditional positive regard do not have to internalize any conditions of worth.

Therefore, their perceptions of life are not distorted and they are open to new experiences because nothing threatens their self-concept. However, children who receive conditional positive regard develop conditions of worth. External standards of judgment become internal and personal. They come to believe they are worthy only under certain conditions, the ones that brought parental positive regard and then personal positive self-regard. Children thus learn to avoid certain behaviors and no longer function freely. Because they feel the need to evaluate their behaviors and attitudes so carefully, and refrain from taking certain actions, they are prevented from fully developing or actualizing the self.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Development of the Self in Childhood REF: 279, 280, 281 4. Mention the characteristics of fully functioning persons, as described by Rogers.

ANS: To Rogers, the fully functioning person is the most desirable end result of psychological development and social evolution. He described several characteristics of fully functioning or self-actualizing people as follows: 1. Fully functioning persons are aware of all experiences.

2. Fully functioning persons live fully and richly in every moment.

3. Fully functioning persons trust in their own organism.

4. Fully functioning persons feel free to make choices without constraints or inhibitions.

5. Fully functioning persons are creative and live constructively and adaptively as environmental conditions change.

6. Fully functioning persons are in a state of actualizing.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Characteristics of Fully Functioning Persons REF: 281–282 5. Recount some of the research findings that support Rogers's ideas of acceptance of the self.

ANS: 1. A study of 56 mothers explored the relationship between their self-acceptance and the extent to which they accepted their children as they were rather than as they wished them to be (Medinnus & Curtis, 1963). This early research was based on Rogers's idea that people who accept their own nature realistically are more likely to accept others as they really are. The results revealed that self-accepting

mothers were more accepting of their children's nature. Also, the child's degree of self-acceptance depended to some extent on the mother's degree of self-acceptance.

2. According to Baldwin, 1949, parents who accepted their children unconditionally and displayed democratic child-rearing practices were found to have children with higher self-esteem and greater emotional security than parents who failed to accept their children and who displayed authoritarian behavior.

3. According to Harrington, Block, & Block, 1987, adolescents whose parents provided unconditional positive regard and allowed them to express themselves without restraint developed greater creative potential than did adolescents whose parents did not provide those conditions.

4. According to Harter, Marold, Whitesell, & Cobbs, 1996, adolescents who received unconditional positive regard from their parents were more confident and hopeful about their ability to receive support from others in the future. They also engaged in more behaviors that were consistent with their perception of their interests and talents. Teens who received conditional positive regard from their parents lacked such confidence and hope. They took more actions that were inconsistent with their true selves in an effort to obtain support and approval from their parents.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Rogers's Theory REF: 288–289

Chapter 11—George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Kelly attempted to describe all aspects of personality, including its emotional components, strictly in terms of _____. a. cognitive processes c. unconscious desires b. biological processes d. instinctoid needs ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 291 FEEDBACK: Contemporary psychoanalysts acknowledge the importance of cognitive processes. The difference between these approaches and George Kelly's cognitive theory of personality is that Kelly attempted to describe all aspects of personality, including its emotional components, strictly in terms of cognitive processes.

2. George Kelly's approach to personality is called: a. psychoanalysis. c. individual psychology. b. the humanistic approach. d. personal construct theory.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 293 FEEDBACK: Kelly's personal construct theory of personality differs substantially from every other approach. According to this approach, we are capable of interpreting behaviors and events and of using this understanding to guide our behavior and to predict the behavior of other people.

3. In developing his theory, which of the following methods did Kelly rely on? a. Psychoanalysis b. Behaviorism c. Trait theory d. None of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 293 FEEDBACK: Kelly's personal construct theory of personality differs substantially from every other approach. Kelly warned us that we would not find in his system such familiar concepts as the unconscious, the ego, needs, drives, stimuli and responses, and reinforcement—not even motivation and emotion.

4. According to Kelly, the only way to understand the human personality is to understand: a. one's childhood experiences and evidences of basic anxiety. b. unconscious desires and their expression in one's dreams. c. how people interpret events and organize their social relationships in a system. d. behavior as a manifestation of their primitive instincts.

ANS: C PTS: 1

A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 293 FEEDBACK: According to Kelly, our interpretation of events is more important than the events themselves. Therefore, in order to understand personality, we must first understand our patterns, the ways we organize or construct our world.

5. Kelly's personal construct theory states that personality can be understood by: a. determining the influence of the unconscious c. understanding one's need for safety and the on one's conscious behavior. anxiety caused by the lack of it. b. the way people organize and interpret their d. the passive response to stimuli in our world. environment.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 293-294 FEEDBACK: According to Kelly, each person creates a set of cognitive constructs about the environment. That is, we interpret and organize the events and social relationships of our lives in a system or pattern. On the basis of this pattern, we make predictions about ourselves and about other people and events, and we use these predictions to formulate our responses and guide our actions.

Therefore, in order to understand personality, we must first understand our patterns, the ways we organize or construct our world.

6. Kelly's personality theory derived from: a. his experience as a clinician. b. surveys conducted on factory workers. c. the study of self-actualized individuals. d. interpretations of the two-factor theory.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 294 FEEDBACK: The personality theory Kelly offered derived from his experience as a clinician. For several reasons, he interpreted his clinical experience differently from Freud and other theorists who treated patients.

7. According to Kelly, individuals use personal constructs to: a. manipulate their subconscious thoughts. b. release their repressed emotions and experiences. c. predict and control the events in their lives. d. assess the behavior of other people.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 294 FEEDBACK: Like scientists, all of us construct theories, which Kelly called personal constructs, by which we try to predict and control the events in our lives. He proposed that the way to understand someone's personality is to examine his or her personal constructs.

8. Which of the following is a difference between Kelly's cognitive theory and the cognitive movement that began around 1960? a. Cognitive psychologists studied their subjects in an experimental setting, whereas Kelly

developed his theory in a clinical setting. b. Cognitive psychologists studied their subjects in a clinical setting, whereas Kelly developed his theory in an experimental setting. c. Kelly's study primarily dealt with overt behavior, whereas cognitive psychologists primarily studied covert behavior. d. Kelly believed that learning influences a person's response to a given stimulus, whereas cognitive psychologists stressed on the conscious constructs by which people arrange their lives.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 295 FEEDBACK: Kelly's approach is that of a clinician dealing with the conscious constructs by which people arrange their lives, whereas cognitive psychologists are interested in both cognitive variables and overt behavior, which they study primarily in an experimental, not a clinical, setting.

9. Which of the following statements is true about Kelly's life? a. As a child, Kelly was neglected by his c. Paucity of funds made Kelly change his parents. specialization from physiological psychology to clinical psychology. b. Kelly had been preparing for a career in d. Kelly's work in psychology was majorly psychology from the time he had enrolled influenced by Freud's psychoanalytic in high school. theory.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 296 FEEDBACK: Kelly began his academic career at Fort Hays Kansas State College in the midst of the economic depression of the 1930s. There was no money to conduct research in physiological psychology, the specialty in which he had trained, so he switched to clinical psychology for which there was a need.

10. Kelly's initial clients were: a. middle-aged women with severe depression. b. students who were referred by their teachers for counseling. c. emotionally disturbed soldiers during World War II. d. maladjusted patients in a psychiatric ward.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Kelly (1905–1967) REF: 296 FEEDBACK: Kelly's patients were students who had been referred by their teachers for counseling.

The people he treated were not severely disturbed psychotics in mental hospitals or neurotics with troublesome emotional problems.

11. If Kelly had worked with schizophrenics in a mental institution during his formative professional years, _____. a. his theory would not have emphasized the ultimate human goal of self-actualization b. he would have had his clients discuss their concerns rationally and in intellectual terms c. he would have used Freud's psychoanalytic therapy to cure mental illnesses d. his theory might not have depended so heavily on cognitive information-processing

abilities ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Kelly (1905–1967) REF: 296 FEEDBACK: Unlike the emotionally maladjusted patients in a psychiatric ward or a psychoanalyst's office, Kelly's clients were much more capable of discussing their concerns rationally, of expressing their problems in intellectual terms, the level of functioning expected in an academic setting. Had circumstances placed Kelly during his formative professional years at work with schizophrenics in a mental institution, his theory might not have depended so heavily on cognitive information-processing abilities.

12. A person formulates hypotheses about the environment and tests them against: a. established psychological theories. c. the reality of daily life. b. the archetypes in collective unconscious. d. unconscious fears and desires.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personal Construct Theory REF: 297 FEEDBACK: Kelly suggested that people perceive and organize their world of experiences the same way scientists do, by formulating hypotheses about the environment and testing them against the reality of daily life. In other words, we observe the events of our life—the facts or data of our experience—and interpret them in our own way.

13. Which of the following statements best describes a construct? a. It is a unipolar element of one's personality causing extremities in behavior. b. It is a collection of one's subconscious thoughts and repressed emotions. c. It is an image of a universal experience contained in the collective unconscious. d. It is an intellectual hypotheses to explain or interpret life events.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personal Construct Theory REF: 297 FEEDBACK: A construct is a person's unique way of looking at life, an intellectual hypothesis devised to explain or interpret events. We behave in accordance with the expectation that our constructs will predict and explain the reality of our world.

14.

Once formed, constructs tend to: a. last for a few months at most. b. inhibit further change in behavior.

c. weaken as we grow older. d. guide our behavior.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personal Construct Theory REF: 297 FEEDBACK: We base our behavior on the constructs and evaluate the effects. We behave in accordance with the expectation that our constructs will predict and explain the reality of our world.

15. Which of the following is a reason for an individual to test his or her construct against reality? a. To determine the number of inappropriate constructs that can be applied to a situation b. To confirm his or her construct

c. To develop a theory based on each construct d. To address his or her fears using constructs ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personal Construct Theory REF: 297 FEEDBACK: Like scientists, individuals constantly test hypothesis against reality. We base our behavior on our constructs, and we evaluate the effects.

16. Which of the following is a feature of constructs? a. They can be revised. c. They cannot be replaced. b. They reduce one's ability to cope with new d. They are strongly influenced by situations. physiological needs.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personal Construct Theory REF: 298 FEEDBACK: Revising our constructs is a necessary and continuous process; we must always have an alternative construct to apply to a situation. If our constructs were inflexible and incapable of being revised (which is what would happen if personality was totally determined by childhood influences), then we would not be able to cope with new situations.

17. According to Kelly, the freedom to revise one's constructs is called: a. constructive determinism. c. constructive alternativism. b. constructive interference. d. constructive dichotomy.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personal Construct Theory REF: 298 FEEDBACK: The idea that we are free to revise or replace our constructs with alternatives as needed is known as constructive alternativism. If our constructs were inflexible and incapable of being revised (which is what would happen if personality was totally determined by childhood influences), then we would not be able to cope with new situations.

18. Personal constructs are oriented toward the: a. reconstruction of past events. b. anticipation of future events.

c. actualization of unconscious desires. d. release of psychic energy.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 298 FEEDBACK: Kelly's notion of constructs is anticipatory. We use constructs to predict the future so that we have some idea of the consequences of our actions, of what is likely to occur if we behave in a certain way.

19. Kelly's theory is based on the idea that _____. a. people belonging to the same culture construe events in identical ways b. future events duplicate past events c. personality is fully developed at childhood and is unchanging thereafter d. themes from the past will reappear in the future

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 299 FEEDBACK: Although such repeated events are not experienced identically, recurrent features or themes will emerge. Some aspects of a situation will be similar to those experienced earlier. Themes of the past reappear in the future, and we formulate our constructs on the basis of these recurring themes.

20. According to the individuality corollary, _____. a. different people perceive the same event in different ways b. constructs reflect an event's objective reality c. people differ in their physiological drives d. individuals predict events in terms of the best outcome for themselves ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 299 FEEDBACK: With the individuality corollary, Kelly introduced the notion of individual differences.

He pointed out that people differ from one another in how they perceive or interpret an event, and because people construe events differently, they thus form different constructs.

21. According to Kelly's construction corollary, _____. a. people in compatible groups and cultures c. people modify their constructs at specific construe events similarly intervals determined during their childhood b. people can predict how they will d. people are capable of modifying their experience a repeated event in the future behavior in social situations ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 299 FEEDBACK: Kelly believed no life event or experience could be reproduced exactly as it occurred the first time. However, some aspects of a situation will be similar to those experienced earlier, and it is on the basis of these similarities that we are able to predict or establish anticipations about how we will deal with that type of event in the future.

22. The main characteristic of the organization corollary is that: a. ordinary constructs are formed early in life. b. subordinate constructs are always consistent. c. constructs can include one or more subordinate constructs. d. individual constructs are isolated from patterns of constructs.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 299 FEEDBACK: Typically, we organize our constructs into a hierarchy, with some constructs subordinate to others. A construct can include one or more subordinate constructs.

23. The only valid test for a construct system is its: a. unipolarity. c. predictive efficiency.

b. destructive interference.

d. constructive interference.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 299 FEEDBACK: The only valid test for a construct system is its predictive efficiency, viz. how well it can predict future events. If the organization of our constructs no longer provides a useful way to predict events, we will modify it.

24. The dichotomy corollary states that: a. people modify their constructs as a result of new experiences. b. an individual must also account for dissimilarities among people or events. c. people modify their behavior based on other people's ideas of them. d. two individuals often perceive events in opposite and mutually exclusive ways.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 299 FEEDBACK: All constructs are bipolar or dichotomous. Just as we note similarities among people or events, we must also account for dissimilarities if we are to anticipate future events correctly.

25.

In a dichotomized construct, the alternative that people select is determined by: a. its similarity to one's past experiences. c. how well it predicts the outcome of future events. b. its compatibility to other primary d. one's subconscious motives and desires. constructs formed by a person.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 300 FEEDBACK: According to the dichotomy corollary, each construct has two opposing poles. For every situation one must choose the alternative that works best for themselves, the one that allows them to anticipate or predict the outcome of future events.

26.

According to the choice corollary, the high-risk, high-reward adventurous option has a: a. lower adaptive control. b. high adaptive control. c. high predictive efficiency. d. lower predictive efficiency.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 301 FEEDBACK: One must choose between the low-risk, minimal-reward secure option and the high-risk, high-reward adventurous option. The first has a high predictive efficiency, the second a lower predictive efficiency.

27.

In a dichotomized construct, when people select the high-risk, high-reward alternative, they are: a. extending their construct system. b. limiting their construct system.

c. fitting themselves into another person's construct system. d. reinforcing their existing construct system.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 301 FEEDBACK: The secure choice, which is similar to past choices, further defines and limits our construct system by repeating experiences and events, whereas the more adventurous choice extends our construct system by encompassing new experiences and events.

28.

Which of the following best explains why people persist in behaving in an unrewarding way? a. Most people opt for the secure, low-risk alternative. b. Most people opt for the high-risk, adventurous option. c. There are greater potential benefits. d. There is a high degree of uncertainty in their current behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 301 FEEDBACK: The popular tendency to opt for the secure, low-risk alternative may explain why some people persist in behaving in an unrewarding way. The potential rewards for changing one's behavior may be greater but so is the uncertainty.

29. According to Kelly's personal construct theory, which of the following is true of the choice corollary? a. People choose to see themselves using other people's constructs in order to maintain positive social relationships. b. People frequently choose alternatives that enable them to anticipate future events with the highest degree of certainty. c. People choose to maintain impermeability in their constructs for the sake of integrity. d. People often choose alternatives that can expand their existing construct system.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 301 FEEDBACK: Our choices are made in terms of how well they allow us to anticipate or predict events, not necessarily in terms of what is best for us. And it is Kelly's contention that each of us, in the best scientific tradition, desires to predict the future with the highest possible degree of certainty.

30. Instead of being friendly, Jim continues to act in a hostile manner even when rebuffed for it.

According to George Kelly, which of the following best explains Jim's persistent behavior? a. Jim makes a low-risk choice of behaving in a hostile manner because he can predict how others will react to it. b. Jim has never tried to be friendly, so he cannot predict how others are going to respond. c. Jim is uncertain about changing his behavior even though the rewards for being friendly are potentially greater. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 301

FEEDBACK: The popular tendency to opt for the secure, low-risk alternative may explain why some people persist in behaving in an unrewarding way. Hostile people do not know how others will react to friendliness because they have rarely tried it.

31. A construct's range of convenience is: a. its relevance to particular situations or people. b. defined by the number of needs it satisfies. c. determined by the number of people who hold the same construct. d. applicable to normal or abnormal behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 301 FEEDBACK: Range of convenience is the spectrum of events to which a construct can be applied.

Some constructs are relevant to a limited number of people or situations; other constructs are broader.

32. The only way a construct system can remain rigid is if a person: a. has not attained self-actualization. c. encounters no new experiences. b. has a wide range of convenience. d. is extremely self-confident.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 301 FEEDBACK: If we never have any new experiences, then our construct system would never have to change. But for most of us, life involves meeting new people and coping with new challenges.

33. Which of the following is likely to happen if one's construct system is permeable? a. A person tends to display neurotic c. A person is more likely to suffer in his or behavior. her interpersonal relationships. b. A person can apply his or her constructs to d. A person is more open to new a wide spectrum of events. experiences.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 302 FEEDBACK: A permeable construct is one that allows new elements to penetrate or be admitted to the range of convenience. Such a construct is open to new events and experiences and is capable of being revised or extended by them.

34. The idea that a new construct and an old one may be consistent in one situation and inconsistent in another situation is the: a. congruence corollary. c. successive modulation corollary. b. fragmentation corollary. d. situational corollary.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 302 FEEDBACK: The fragmentation corollary states that a new construct may be compatible or consistent with an old one in a given situation, but if the situation changes, these constructs can become inconsistent. Kelly believed that within our construct system some constructs might be incompatible

even though they coexist within the overall pattern.

35. If people construe an experience homogenously, then their cognitive processes will be: a. similar. b. identical. c. fragmented. d. permeable.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 303 FEEDBACK: Kelly suggested that if several people construe an experience similarly, we can conclude that their cognitive processes are similar. People from the same culture may show a resemblance in their behaviors and characteristics even though they are exposed to different individual life events.

36. The _____ corollary agues for the need to construe the constructs of others. a. individuality c. fragmentation b. commonality d. sociality ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 303 FEEDBACK: It is not enough for one person to construe or interpret experiences in the same way as another person. The first person must also construe the other person's constructs. In other words, we must understand how another person thinks if we are to anticipate how that person will predict events.

37. The _____ corollary says that people need to fit themselves in the constructs of the persons with whom they want to have positive relationships. a. range c. sociality b. modulation d. commonality ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 303 FEEDBACK: The sociality corollary says that each role is a behavior pattern that evolves from understanding how the other person construes events. In a sense, then, we fit ourselves into the other person's constructs.

38. Kelly viewed human nature as: a. a genetically determined trait. b. rational and capable of choice. c. a behavior determined by childhood events. d. constructs arranged in a hierarchy of needs.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 304 FEEDBACK: Kelly's personality theory presents an optimistic, even flattering, image of human nature (Kelly, 1969). He treated people as rational beings capable of forming a framework of constructs through which to view the world. He believed we are the authors, not the victims, of our destiny.

39. Kelly believed that individuals are motivated by: a. the fact of being alive. c. past events. b. instinctive drives. d. the need to self-actualize.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 304 FEEDBACK: Kelly did not accept the notion of determinism and held that we need no push from internal drives or needs because we are motivated by the fact of being alive. He saw no reason to invoke any other explanation.

40. All of the following are important aspects of Kelly's image of human nature except: a. moderation between uniqueness and c. pessimism. universality. b. free will. d. rationality.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 304 FEEDBACK: Pessimism is not an important aspect of Kelly's image of human nature. Kelly's personality theory presents an optimistic, even flattering, image of human nature based on rationality and free will. On the question of uniqueness versus universality, Kelly took a moderate position.

41. Kelly's primary assessment technique was the: a. free-association test. c. interview. b. Rorschach inkblot test. d. Q sort.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Kelly's Theory REF: 304 FEEDBACK: Kelly's primary assessment technique was the interview. He accepted the client's words at face value, believing this was the best way to determine the person's constructs.

42. Kelly stated that a therapist should: a. focus on a client's childhood experiences. b. respect what a client says even if he or she does not believe it. c. focus on emotional not rational factors. d. find the unconscious conflicts among constructs.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Kelly's Theory REF: 304 FEEDBACK: Kelly recognized that a person might deliberately lie or distort the reported version of events. However, what the client said must be respected, even if not always fully believed.

43. A self-characterization sketch is used to determine: a. specific neuroses among clients due to basic anxiety. b. the accuracy of the repertory grid. c. the corollaries dominating a client's life.

d. how people perceive themselves in relation to others.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Kelly's Theory REF: 304 FEEDBACK: Kelly found self-characterization sketch useful for learning how clients perceive themselves in relation to other people. Kelly's instructions to his clients were as follows. "I want you to write a character sketch of [client's name] just as if he were the principal character in a play. Write it as it might be written by a friend who knew him very intimately and very sympathetically, perhaps better than anyone ever really could know him."

44. The Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test is used to: a. discover a person's position in the needs c. manipulate the dominant construct in an hierarchy. individual. b. determine a person's roles according to his d. uncover the constructs people apply to the or her construct system. important people in their lives.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Kelly's Theory REF: 304 FEEDBACK: Kelly devised the Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test to uncover the constructs we apply to the important people in our lives. Kelly did not intend the test to be a standardized, objective self-report inventory.

45. Which of the following is true of interpreting the Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test? a. Kelly used it to determine the severity of c. Kelly did not intend the test to be a anxiety disorders among clients. standardized, objective self-report inventory. b. Kelly realized that a computer was d. Kelly did not believe in employing the essential in categorizing various constructs interview technique. as good or bad.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Kelly's Theory REF: 306 FEEDBACK: Kelly did not intend the test to be a standardized, objective self-report inventory. He designed it as a way to assess constructs as a necessary stage in psychotherapy, to induce clients to reveal the constructs by which they organize their world.

46.

George Kelly promoted a form of psychotherapy called _____ therapy. a. client-centered c. fixed role b. group d. behavior ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Kelly's Theory REF: 306 FEEDBACK: Kelly promoted a form of psychotherapy he called fixed role therapy. To help clients formulate new constructs and discard old ones, he asked them to write a self-characterization sketch describing them as the lead character in a play.

47.

Which of the following is true of Kelly's approach to psychotherapy? a. It is called fixed role therapy. b. It involves changing undesirable constructs. c. It involves clients acting out the role of a fictitious person. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Kelly's Theory REF: 306 FEEDBACK: Kelly's fixed role therapy is a psychotherapeutic technique in which clients act out constructs appropriate for a fictitious person. The therapist expects the client to discover that the new constructs in the fixed role sketch work better in anticipating events than do the old constructs by which the client was living.

48. Which of the following is a goal of the fixed role therapy promoted by George Kelly? a. A client should reinforce his or her existing constructs based on his or her negative self-perception. b. A client should discover that the new constructs work better in anticipating events than the old constructs by which the client was living. c. A client must be able to deal with role-stresses by focusing on a fixed role at a particular point in time. d. A client must develop new a construct system in alignment with his or her roles and responsibilities in the family.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Kelly's Theory REF: 306 FEEDBACK: The therapist expects the client to discover that the new constructs in the fixed role sketch work better in anticipating events than do the old constructs by which the client was living.

Once the client realizes this, he or she can incorporate the new constructs into the overall construct system and function in a more satisfying and effective way.

49. Which of the following was evident from the research on Kelly's theory? a. A person's constructs measured by the REP Test remain stable over time. b. Even though the role models changed, the constructs that were important to the subjects remained the same. c. Couples with similar constructs reported greater happiness with their marriage. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Kelly's Theory REF: 308–309 FEEDBACK: Studies using the REP Test have shown that a person's constructs remain stable over time. Although the role models changed, the constructs that were important to the subjects remained the same. Research has shown that the validity of the REP Test depends heavily on the skill of the psychologist interpreting the results. Also, for married subjects, spouses whose constructs were more alike reported greater happiness with their marriage than did couples whose constructs were more unlike (Neymeiyer, 1984).

50. The validity of the Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test depends on: a. contrasting constructs for spouses in a fulfilling marital relationship.

b. the skill of the psychologist interpreting the results. c. a client's memory of his or her childhood experiences. d. quantified summations of a client's answers on the repertory grid.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Kelly's Theory REF: 308 FEEDBACK: Research has shown that the validity of the REP Test depends heavily on the skill of the psychologist interpreting the results. Kelly did not intend the test to be a standardized, objective self-report inventory.

51. According to research on Kelly's theory, which of the following is true of friendships among college students? a. People who have similar constructs are c. People befriend those whose constructs unable to continue their friendship a few are already similar to theirs. years after college. b. People who have a non-discriminatory d. People develop similar constructs a few view of the world have fewer friends. months after becoming friends.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Kelly's Theory REF: 308–309 FEEDBACK: The results of the REP Test on a group of college students during their first week at college and again six months later showed that the similarity in constructs or attitudes among friends did not develop during the six-month period but had existed before the relationships were formed. The researchers concluded that people seek as friends those whose constructs are already similar to ours.

52.

In the context of research on Kelly's theory, which of the following statements is true of the effects of one's emotional state? a. People evaluate others according to their c. First-time patients in psychiatric hospitals own personal characteristics. construe their social network as limited. b. Delinquents tend to identify with fictional d. The REP Test is unreliable on those with negative characters rather than real-life organic brain damage. adults.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Kelly's Theory REF: 309 FEEDBACK: Research showed a correspondence between one's personal characteristics and the ways of construing other people. For example, among a group of student nurses, those identified as highly anxious tended to use anxious versus non-anxious as a construct for evaluating others.

53. According to Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test results, which of the following is true of schizophrenics? a. They cannot identify objects that are used for similar purposes. b. They are unstable and inconsistent in construing other people. c. They can solely identify people and objects in a clinical setting. d. None of these are correct.

ANS: B PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Research on Kelly's Theory REF: 309 FEEDBACK: Compared with normal subjects, schizophrenics were found to be unstable and inconsistent in construing other people. However, their construing of objects was stable and consistent, suggesting that their thought disorders applied only to social situations.

54. In the context of the real-world application of Kelly's theory, the Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test: a. has been used as a supplementary test in c. cannot be used in industrial settings. psychoanalysis. b. has been used in market research. d. cannot be used with schizophrenics.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Kelly's Theory REF: 309 FEEDBACK: The Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test has been used in market research to assess the criteria consumers use to evaluate products.

55. People high in cognitive complexity: a. are likely to hail from monocultural backgrounds. b. tend to have authoritarian parents. c. are low in empathic ability. d. can easily place a person in many categories.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Kelly's Theory REF: 310 FEEDBACK: People high in cognitive complexity are able to see variety among people and can easily place a person in many categories. Cognitive complexity is defined as the ability to discriminate in the process of applying personal constructs to other people.

56. Adults high in cognitive complexity are likely to have had: a. diverse experiences during childhood. b. more authoritarian parents. c. limited experiences during childhood. d. issues with their mental health at some point in their lives.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Kelly's Theory REF: 310 FEEDBACK: Cognitive complexity has been shown to increase with age with adults generally displaying greater cognitive complexity than children. Adults high in cognitive complexity typically had more diverse experiences in childhood. In addition, their parents were less authoritarian.

57. In the context of cognitive complexity and cognitive simplicity, which of the following statements is true of couples? a. The dominant partner tends to influence c. Partners often have divergent views of the constructs of the less dominant their worlds. partner. b. Partners tend to construe their worlds in a d. Men often score higher in cognitive similar manner. complexity than women.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Kelly's Theory REF: 310–311 FEEDBACK: Research on 40 couples suggested that these partners may have chosen each other because of their similar pre-existing levels of cognitive complexity, or else they developed this similarity as a result of living together. Either way, these partners tended to construe their worlds in a similar manner.

58. Kelly's theory has been criticized because it: a. projects a pessimistic view of human nature. b. focuses exclusively on the intellectual and rational aspects of human functioning. c. focuses exclusively on the emotional aspects of human functioning. d. was based on an inconsistent mode of data collection from his subjects.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Kelly's Theory REF: 312 FEEDBACK: Kelly's system has been criticized on several points. It focuses on intellectual and rational aspects of human functioning to the exclusion of emotional aspects.

59. Currently, Kelly's personal construct theory: a. is held as a supplementary therapy in psychoanalysis. b. is held as a basic principle of classical conditioning. c. is very popular among psychologists in the United States. d. enjoys a broad base of support in Europe and Canada.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Kelly's Theory REF: 312 FEEDBACK: Personal construct theory continues to enjoy a large and growing base of support, although this is much broader in Europe, Canada, and Australia than in the United States. Kelly's work is not as popular in the United States for several reasons.

60. All of the following are criticisms of Kelly's theory except that: a. it omits motivation and emotion. b. it is based on an unrepresentative sample. c. the concept of the unconscious lacks empirical support. d. the rational image of human nature does not coincide with reality.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Kelly's Theory REF: 312 FEEDBACK: Many psychologists see Kelly's theory as too different from prevailing ideas. Personality psychologists typically think in terms of the familiar concepts of motivation and emotion, unconscious forces, drives, and needs, which form no part of Kelly's system.

TRUE/FALSE

1. Kelly's personality theory is based on concepts such as the unconscious, the ego, needs, drives, stimuli and responses, and reinforcement.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 293 FEEDBACK: Kelly warned us that we would not find in his system such familiar concepts as the unconscious, the ego, needs, drives, stimuli and responses, and reinforcement—not even motivation and emotion.

2. Kelly stated that psychologists function very differently from ordinary people.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 294 FEEDBACK: Kelly concluded that people function in the same way scientists do. Both are concerned with predicting and controlling the events in their lives, and both are capable of doing so rationally.

3. Kelly's theory is similar in terminology to the cognitive movement as it is consistent with the cognitive movement's subject matter and methods.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Cognitive Movement in Psychology REF: 294–295 FEEDBACK: Despite the similarity in terminology, the cognitive movement has not embraced Kelly's work because the theory is not consistent with the movement's subject matter and methods. Kelly's approach is that of a clinician dealing with the conscious constructs by which people arrange their lives, whereas cognitive psychologists are interested in both cognitive variables and overt behavior, which they study primarily in an experimental, not a clinical, setting.

4. Kelly was committed to his own particular therapeutic technique and theory while counseling his patients.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Kelly (1905–1967) REF: 296 FEEDBACK: Kelly was not committed to any particular therapeutic technique or to a specific theory about the nature of personality. He felt free to use traditional methods of assessment and treatment as well as those of his own design.

5. A construct directs behavior in accordance with the expectation that one's constructs will predict and explain the reality of their world.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personal Construct Theory REF: 297 FEEDBACK: A construct is a person's unique way of looking at life, an intellectual hypothesis devised to explain or interpret events. People behave in accordance with the expectation that our

constructs will predict and explain the reality of our world.

6. Over the course of life, people become rigid and uncompromising in their constructs.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personal Construct Theory REF: 298 FEEDBACK: Over the course of our lives, we develop many constructs, one for almost every type of person or situation we encounter. Further, we may alter or discard constructs periodically as situations change.

7.

Although open to change, the relationships among constructs are usually more enduring than the specific constructs themselves.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 299 FEEDBACK: The relationships among constructs are usually more enduring than the specific constructs themselves, but they, too, are open to change. People who hold similar constructs may still differ from one another if they organize those constructs in different patterns.

8. According to the dichotomy corollary in Kelly's theory, all constructs are bipolar and mutually exclusive alternatives.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 299 FEEDBACK: According to the dichotomy corollary in Kelly's theory, all constructs are bipolar or dichotomous. Just as we note similarities among people or events, we must also account for dissimilarities if we are to anticipate future events correctly.

9. The choice corollary in Kelly's theory describes similarities among repeated events.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 300 FEEDBACK: The choice corollary in Kelly's theory states that we have some latitude in deciding between the alternatives and we must choose the alternative that works best for us, the one that allows us to anticipate or predict the outcome of future events. The construction corollary argues for similarities among repeated events.

10. According to Kelly, freedom of choice cannot be obtained by people at any stage of life.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 300 FEEDBACK: The notion that people have freedom of choice is found throughout Kelly's writings.

According to the dichotomy corollary described previously, each construct has two opposing poles and for every situation we must choose the alternative that works best for us, the one that allows us to

anticipate or predict the outcome of future events.

11. Kelly observed that a hostile person would not know how people would react to friendliness because he or she has rarely tried it.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 301 FEEDBACK: Kelly stated that hostile people often make the low-risk choice because they have come to know what to expect from others in response to aggressive behavior. They do not know how others will react to their friendliness because they have rarely tried it.

12. According to Kelly, the range of convenience or relevance for a construct is a matter of personal choice.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 301 FEEDBACK: The range of convenience or relevance for a construct is a matter of personal choice. For example, we may believe that the construct loyal versus disloyal applies to everyone we meet or only to our family members or to our pet dog.

13. An impermeable construct, although resistant to change, can be easily discarded.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 302 FEEDBACK: An impermeable or rigid construct is not capable of being changed, no matter what our experiences tell us. How much our construct system can be modulated, or adjusted, as a function of new experience and learning depends on the permeability of the individual constructs.

14. In the context of the commonality corollary, Kelly held that people who construe an experience similarly have similar cognitive processes.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 303 FEEDBACK: Kelly suggested that if several people construe an experience similarly, we can conclude that their cognitive processes are similar. Their anticipations and expectations of one another will have much in common and they will construe many of their experiences in the same way.

15. According to Kelly, it is the operation of our mental processes and not the specific events that influence the formation of personality.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 304 FEEDBACK: According to Kelly, it is the operation of our rational mental processes and not the specific events that influence the formation of personality. We live by constructs based on our

interpretation of events.

ESSAY 1. Describe Kelly's personal construct theory and discuss the concept of constructive alternativism.

ANS: Through the personal construct theory, Kelly suggested that people perceive and organize their world of experiences the same way scientists do, by formulating hypotheses about the environment and testing them against the reality of daily life. In other words, we observe the events of our life—the facts or data of our experience—and interpret them in our own way. This personal interpreting, explaining, or construing of experience is our unique view of events. It is the pattern within which we place them. Kelly said that we look at the world through "transparent patterns that fit over the realities of which the world is composed."

Constructs are intellectual hypotheses we devise and use to interpret or explain life events. Revising our constructs is a necessary and continuous process; we must always have an alternative construct to apply to a situation. If our constructs were inflexible and incapable of being revised (which is what would happen if personality was totally determined by childhood influences), then we would not be able to cope with new situations. Kelly called this adaptability constructive alternativism to express the view that we are not controlled by our constructs but we are free to revise or replace them with other alternatives.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Personal Construct Theory REF: 297–298 2.

State the fundamental postulate of personal construct theory. List and briefly describe the 11 corollaries of the personal construct theory which help in anticipating life events.

ANS: Kelly's personal construct theory is presented in a scientific format, organized into a fundamental postulate and 11 corollaries.

The fundamental postulate states that our psychological processes are directed by the ways in which we anticipate events.

The corollaries of the personal construct theory and their arguments are as follows: 1. The construction corollary: Because repeated events are similar, we can predict or anticipate how we will experience such an event in the future.

2. The individuality corollary: People perceive events in different ways.

3. The organization corollary: We arrange our constructs in patterns, according to our view of their similarities and differences.

4. The dichotomy corollary: Constructs are bipolar; for example, if we have an opinion about honesty, that idea must also include the concept of dishonesty.

5. The choice corollary: We choose the alternative for each construct that works best for us, the one that allows us to predict the outcome of anticipated events.

6. The range corollary: Our constructs may apply to many situations or people, or they may be limited to a single person or situation.

7. The experience corollary: We continually test our constructs against life's experiences to make sure they remain useful.

8. The modulation corollary: We may modify our constructs as a function of new experiences.

9. The fragmentation corollary: We may sometimes have contradictory or inconsistent subordinate constructs within our overall construct system.

10. The commonality corollary: Although our individual constructs are unique to us, people in compatible groups or cultures may hold similar constructs.

11. The sociality corollary: We try to understand how other people think and predict what they will do, and we modify our behavior accordingly.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 298 3. Give the definition for the dichotomy corollary. Explain how all constructs are bipolar or dichotomous.

ANS: The dichotomy corollary states that our constructs must always be framed in terms of a pair of mutually exclusive alternatives. All constructs are bipolar or dichotomous. This is necessary if we are to anticipate future events correctly. Just as we note similarities among people or events, we must also account for dissimilarities. For example, it is not enough to have a construct about a friend that describes the personal characteristic of honesty. We must also consider the opposite, dishonesty, to explain how the honest person differs from someone who is not honest. If we did not make this distinction—if we assumed that all people are honest—then forming a construct about honesty would not help us anticipate or predict anything about people we might meet in the future. A person can be expected to be honest only in contrast to someone who is expected to be dishonest. The appropriate personal construct in this example, then, is honest versus dishonest.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 299–300 4. To what extent do you feel arguments, even wars, result because people construe events with different construct systems? Defend your answer with Kelly's personal construct theory.

ANS: Students' answers will vary.

According to the sociality corollary of Kelly's personal construct theory, it is not enough for one person to construe or interpret experiences in the same way as another person. The first person must also construe the other person's constructs. In other words, we must understand how another person thinks if we are to anticipate how that person will predict events. Each role is a behavior pattern that evolves from understanding how the other person construes events. In a sense, then, we fit ourselves into the other person's constructs.

In conflicts between nations and countries which escalate into wars, either parties fail to fit themselves in the constructs of the other party, which leads to the lack of congeniality between the two. This can be attributed to the lack of permeability of the constructs of any or both of the conflicting parties. An impermeable or rigid construct is not capable of being changed, no matter what our experiences tell us.

However, Kelly stated that we are not prisoners of our past mistakes concerning aggression and are not bound by historical determinism. Therefore, we can learn new constructs to replace old constructs that are better suited for in our lives.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Ways of Anticipating Life Events REF: 302–303 5. Define cognitive simplicity and cognitive complexity. Compare the characteristics of people with different cognitive styles.

ANS: Cognitive simplicity is a cognitive style or way of construing the environment characterized by a relative inability to perceive differences among people. Cognitive complexity is defined as the ability to discriminate in the process of applying personal constructs to other people.

Research has found personality differences in terms of cognitive style. Some of them are as follows: a. People high in cognitive complexity are able to see variety among people and can easily place a person in many categories, whereas people high in cognitive simplicity are likely to place others in only one or two categories, unable to see much variety.

b. People high in cognitive complexity are better able to make predictions about other people's behavior. They more readily recognize differences between themselves and others, display more empathy toward others, and deal better with inconsistent information in construing others than do people high in cognitive simplicity. c. People with a more complex cognitive style will be more successful at this task than will people with a simpler cognitive style. d. People who score high in cognitive complexity are more likely to have a multicultural background than people scoring high in cognitive simplicity.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Kelly's Theory REF: 310–311

Chapter 12—B. F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Skinner argued that psychologists must restrict their investigations exclusively to: a. overt responses made by a subject. c. future goals and aspirations. b. sexual and aggressive conflicts. d. lower and higher needs.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 317 FEEDBACK: Skinner argued that psychologists must restrict their investigations to facts, to only what they can see, manipulate, and measure in the laboratory. That meant an exclusive emphasis on the overt responses a subject makes and nothing more.

2. Skinner argued that psychology is the science of: a. normal adults. c. individual differences. b. conscious processes. d. behavior.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 317 FEEDBACK: Skinner's contention was that psychology is the science of behavior, of what an organism does. His study of behavior was the antithesis of the psychoanalytic, trait, life-span, cognitive, and humanistic approaches, differing not only in subject matter but in methodology and aims.

3. An essential truth about B. F. Skinner's research is that: a. it is more similar to Adler's than it is to Freud's. b. it is one that looks inside a person for clues to his or her behavior. c. it is based on clinical studies of neurotics. d. it is the antithesis of the psychoanalytic and other approaches.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 317–318 FEEDBACK: Skinner's contention was that psychology is the science of behavior, of what an organism does. His study of behavior was the antithesis of the psychoanalytic, trait, life-span, cognitive, and humanistic approaches, differing not only in subject matter but in methodology and aims.

4. Which of the following is a true statement about B. F. Skinner? a. He denied the existence of internal forces that direct behavior and development. b. His study of behavior incorporated psychoanalytic and humanistic approaches. c. His work rendered all previous personality theories obsolete. d. He made no reference to internal, subjective states to account for behavior.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 318

FEEDBACK: B. F. Skinner made no reference to internal, subjective states to account for behavior.

Unconscious influences, defense mechanisms, traits, and other driving forces cannot be seen, he argued, and therefore they have no place in a scientific psychology.

5. Which of the following did Skinner reject as valid characteristics of personality? a. Traits c. Defense mechanisms b. Unconscious influences d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 318 FEEDBACK: Skinner made no reference to internal, subjective states to account for behavior.

Unconscious influences, defense mechanisms, traits, and other driving forces cannot be seen, he argued, and therefore they have no place in a scientific psychology.

6. Skinner's treatment of personality is unusual because: a. he did not look for the causes, motives, and drives within people. b. he approached personality from a physiological viewpoint. c. he stressed conscious but not unconscious processes. d. he emphasized the past and the future.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 318 FEEDBACK: In explaining personality, most other theorists look inside the person for clues. The causes, motives, and drives, the forces that direct our development and behavior, originate within each of us. In contrast, Skinner made no reference to internal, subjective states to account for behavior.

7. Skinner described human beings as: a. empty organisms. b. having rational thought.

c. genetically bound. d. ruled by unconscious motivation.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 318 FEEDBACK: To Skinner, human beings are "empty organisms," by which he meant that there is nothing inside us that can explain behavior in scientific terms. He saw no need to look inside the organism for some form of inner activity.

8. Skinner believed that physiological processes are: a. irrelevant for mental activities. b. less important than conscious processes. c. only relevant for the lower needs. d. highly important as the foundation of behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 318 FEEDBACK: Skinner did not deny the existence of physiological processes, only their usefulness for science. Since they are not overtly observable, they have no relevance for science. He said, "The inside of the organism is irrelevant either as the site of physiological processes or as the locus of mentalistic

activities."

9. The research for Skinner's behavioral approach was conducted on: a. rats and pigeons. b. college students seeking to understand the world they live in. c. troubled people undergoing psychotherapy. d. chimpanzees and cats.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 318 FEEDBACK: Skinner differed from other theorists in his choice of experimental subjects. Some personality theorists focus on emotionally disturbed persons, others on normal or average individuals.

Although Skinner's ideas about behavior have been applied to people, the research for his behavioral approach used rats and pigeons.

10. Skinner's research interest was in: a. adult feelings. b. behavioral responses to stimuli.

c. childhood experiences. d. identity crises in adolescents.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 318 FEEDBACK: Skinner's interest was in behavioral responses to stimuli, not in childhood experiences or adult feelings. Responding to stimuli is something animals do well, sometimes better than people do.

Thus, he chose animal behavior because it is simpler than human behavior.

11. Which of the following is true of the application of Skinner's behavioral approach? a. Till date, it is untried in the real world. b. It causes significant adverse effects in neurotics and psychotics. c. It is widely used in schools, correctional institutions, and hospitals. d. It is more relevant for animals than for humans.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 318 FEEDBACK: Despite Skinner's focus on studying animal behavior, his work has had wide practical applications for changing human behavior. His behavior-modification techniques are also widely used in schools, businesses, correctional institutions, and hospitals.

12. Skinner was taught by his parents to: a. think clearly, rationally, and objectively. b. fear God, the police, and what people think. c. love, listen, and be creative. d. be judgmental, serious, and honest.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Skinner (1904–1990) REF: 318 FEEDBACK: Skinner's parents were hardworking people who constantly dictated to him clear rules of proper behavior. He wrote, "I was taught to fear God, the police, and what people will think."

13. Skinner's childhood was characterized by: a. sibling rivalry. b. a strong Oedipus complex. c. parental warnings that influenced his adult behavior. d. compensation for physical inferiority.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Skinner (1904–1990) REF: 319 FEEDBACK: Skinner's parents were hardworking people who constantly dictated to him clear rules of proper behavior. He wrote, "I was taught to fear God, the police, and what people will think." In his autobiography, Skinner made many references to the impact of these childhood warnings on his adult behavior.

14. Skinner's experiences as an adult such as visiting a cathedral and taking care to avoid stepping on the gravestones set in the floor made it clear to him that his adult behaviors had been determined by _____ he experienced as a child. a. the sexual conflicts c. the unconscious complexes b. the identity crisis d. the reinforcements ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Skinner (1904–1990) REF: 319 FEEDBACK: Skinner's experiences as an adult such as visiting a cathedral and taking care to avoid stepping on the gravestones set in the floor made it clear to him that his adult behaviors had been determined by the rewards and punishments—the "reinforcements"—he had received as a child. Thus, his system of psychology and his view of people as "complex systems behaving in lawful ways" clearly reflected his own early life experiences.

15. We get a glimpse of Skinner's view that people operate predictably in his childhood interest of: a. dissecting frogs and other animals. b. constructing mechanical devices. c. listening sympathetically to the fears and worries of his young friends. d. pretending to be a preacher delivering sermons on hellfire and damnation.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Skinner (1904–1990) REF: 319 FEEDBACK: The many hours he spent as a child constructing mechanical devices such as wagons and seesaws were prophetic of Skinner's view of people as machines that operate predictably. Skinner also worked on a perpetual-motion machine, which perpetually failed.

16. At age 22, Skinner experienced: a. feelings of success and self-esteem. b. an identity crisis.

c. jealousy of an older brother. d. a late-blooming Oedipus complex.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Skinner (1904–1990) REF: 319 FEEDBACK: Skinner built a study in the attic of his parents' home in Scranton, Pennsylvania, and sat

down to write. The results were disastrous. Skinner was 22 years old and a failure at the only thing he wanted to do. He later referred to that time as his dark year, what Erikson would call an identity crisis.

Skinner's occupational identity as a writer, which he had so carefully constructed during his college years, had collapsed and took with it his sense of self-worth.

17. In his early adulthood, Skinner discovered a new identity by: a. beginning the cognitive revolution. b. forming the basis of his approach in literature. c. deciding he would study human behavior by scientific methods. d. resolving to become an accomplished writer of non-fiction.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Skinner (1904–1990) REF: 319–320 FEEDBACK: Just when Skinner thought he had lost all hope, he discovered a new identity that suited him, to which he would cling for the rest of his life. He decided that since writing had failed him, he would study human behavior by the methods of science rather than the methods of fiction.

18. In the fictional society in Skinner's novel Walden Two: a. punishment is applied only to children. b. neuroses are treated by psychoanalysis. c. only group therapy is used to treat neuroses. d. life aspects are controlled by positive reinforcement.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Skinner (1904–1990) REF: 320 FEEDBACK: Skinner projected all of his emotional and intellectual discontent onto the protagonist of a novel, Walden Two, letting the character vent his personal and professional frustrations. It describes a society in which all aspects of life are controlled by positive reinforcement, which is the basic principle of Skinner's system of psychology.

19. Skinner believed that behavior can be controlled by: a. its consequences. b. social learning. c. respondent conditioning. d. the reinforcement that precedes the behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 321 FEEDBACK: Skinner's fundamental idea is that behavior can be controlled by its consequences, that is, by what follows the behavior. He believed that an animal or a human could be trained to perform virtually any act and that the type of reinforcement that followed the behavior would be responsible for determining it.

20. When a specific stimulus elicits a response, it is called: a. operant conditioning. c. respondent behavior. b. fixed-interval reinforcement. d. extinction.

ANS: C PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 321 FEEDBACK: Skinner distinguished between two kinds of behavior: respondent behavior and operant behavior. Respondent behavior involves a response made to or elicited by a specific stimulus.

21. Which of the following does Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning involve? a. Substituting one stimulus for another b. Elimination of conditioned responses c. Respondent behavior that is unlearned d. All of these are correct.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 321 FEEDBACK: At a higher level to reflexive behavior is respondent behavior that is learned. This learning, called conditioning, involves the substitution of one stimulus for another. The concept originated in the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the early 1900s. In his experiment, a dog had been conditioned, or trained, to respond to a bell. The dog's response shifted from the food to the bell, which previously had been a neutral stimulus.

22. To condition a dog to salivate, Pavlov: a. recreated its keeper's footsteps after the dog smelled food. b. rang the bell shortly before the dog smelled food. c. rang the bell after the dog smelled food. d. recreated its keeper's footsteps before the dog smelled food.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 321 FEEDBACK: Pavlov sounded a bell shortly before feeding a dog. At first, the dog salivated only in response to the food and not to the bell because the bell had no meaning. However, after a number of pairings of the bell followed by the food, the dog began to salivate at the sound of the bell. Thus, the dog had been conditioned, or trained, to respond to the bell.

23. In his famous salivating dog experiment, Ivan Pavlov demonstrated that: a. animals other than humans can exhibit higher intelligence. b. learning primarily depends on the internal state. c. reinforcement is necessary for learning. d. all animals are governed by the laws of operant behavior.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 322 FEEDBACK: The classic experiment by Pavlov demonstrated the importance of reinforcement. The dogs would not learn to respond to the bell unless they were rewarded for doing so. Pavlov then formulated a fundamental law of learning: A conditioned response cannot be established in the absence of reinforcement.

24. Skinner believed that respondent behavior: a. produces a change in the organism's environment. b. must occur before reinforcement can occur.

c. is emitted in the absence of a stimulus. d. does not account for all human behavior.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 322 FEEDBACK: To Skinner, respondent behavior was less important than operant behavior. We are conditioned to respond directly to many stimuli in our environment, but not all behavior can be accounted for in this way. Much human behavior appears to be spontaneous and cannot be traced directly to a specific stimulus. Such behavior is emitted rather than elicited by a stimulus.

25. Skinner's term for voluntary, spontaneous behavior is: a. respondent behavior. c. fixed behavior. b. operant behavior. d. extinguishable behavior.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 322 FEEDBACK: To Skinner, respondent behavior was less important than operant behavior. Operant behavior is the behavior emitted spontaneously or voluntarily that operates on the environment to change it.

26. Which of the following is true of operant behavior according to Skinner? a. It involves emitted, not elicited, responses. b. It is modified by the reinforcement that follows the behavior. c. It produces a change in the organism's environment. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 322–323 FEEDBACK: Much human behavior appears to be spontaneous and cannot be traced directly to a specific stimulus. Such behavior is emitted rather than elicited by a stimulus. The nature and frequency of operant behavior will be determined or modified by the reinforcement that follows the behavior.

Operant behavior operates on the environment and, as a result, changes it.

27. When placed in a Skinner box, a rat is active, sniffing, poking, and exploring its environment, displaying behaviors that are _____. a. emitted c. respondent b. elicited d. extinguished ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box REF: 323 FEEDBACK: When a food-deprived rat is placed in a Skinner box, its behavior at first is spontaneous and random. The rat is active, sniffing, poking, and exploring its environment. These behaviors are emitted, not elicited; in other words, the rat is not responding to any specific stimulus in its environment.

28. In Skinner's experiment with a rat, the _____ becomes the reinforcer for the behavior of depressing the bar.

a. electric shock b. food

c. Skinner Box d. experimenter

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box REF: 323 FEEDBACK: The rat's behavior (pressing the lever) has operated on the environment and, as a result, has changed it. The environment now includes a food pellet. The food is a reinforcer for the behavior of depressing the bar.

29. In Skinner's research, food-deprived rats pressed a lever to receive a food pellet. The rat will eventually press the lever: a. and receive an electric shock. b. at a decreasing rate. c. because its behavior is under the control of the reinforcers. d. because its actions become more random.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box REF: 323 FEEDBACK: When the rat begins to press the bar more often, it gets more food—more reinforcement—and so presses the bar even more frequently. The rat's behavior is now under the control of the reinforcers. Its actions in the box are less random and spontaneous because it is spending most of its time pressing the bar, and eating.

30. When Skinner withheld the reinforcers for rats in a Skinner box continuously, the rats: a. looked for food elsewhere in the box. c. eventually stopped pressing the lever. b. ran wildly around the box. d. did nothing.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box REF: 323 FEEDBACK: The rat's bar-pressing actions can be controlled by presenting or withholding the reinforcers or by presenting them at a different rate. Withholding the food extinguishes operant behavior. If the unreinforced behavior no longer works, in that it no longer brings a reward, after a while it will stop.

31. According to Skinner, parental disapproval of a child's behavior will: a. foster the child's hostility and aggression. b. inhibit the child's tendency to self-actualize. c. lead to the cessation of that behavior. d. reinforce the behavior.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box REF: 324 FEEDBACK: As the infant grows, the positively reinforced behaviors, those of which the parents approve, will persist, whereas those of which the parents disapprove will be extinguished or discontinued.

32. Skinner believed that personality is a(n):

a. b. c. d.

network of respondent behaviors. enduring, unique cluster of reinforcements. pattern or collection of operant behaviors. set of traits determined by past reinforcements.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box REF: 324 FEEDBACK: From infancy on, we display many behaviors, and those that are reinforced will strengthen and form patterns. This is how Skinner conceived of personality, as a pattern or collection of operant behaviors.

33. In fixed-interval reinforcement, _____. a. rats press the lever very rapidly when reinforcements are extinguished b. the response rate declines when the interval between reinforcements is shortened c. the frequency of reinforcers had no effect on how quickly the responses extinguished d. the timing of the reinforcement is unrelated to the number of responses ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Schedules of Reinforcement REF: 325 FEEDBACK: In fixed-interval reinforcement, the timing of the reinforcement has nothing to do with the number of responses. The reinforcer arrives only after the passage of a given time period and the emission of the correct response. Skinner's research showed that the shorter the interval between presentations of the reinforcer, the greater the frequency of response.

34. An employee paid on a weekly basis operates under a _____ schedule of reinforcement. a. continuous c. fixed-interval b. fixed-ratio d. positive ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Schedules of Reinforcement REF: 325 FEEDBACK: A job in which your salary is paid once a week or once a month operates on the fixed-interval schedule. You are not paid according to the number of items you produce or the number of sales you make (the number of responses) but by the number of hours, days, or weeks that elapse.

35. In a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule, if the interval between presentations of reinforcers is shortened the response rate will: a. extinguish. b. increase. c. decrease. d. remain the same but extinction will take longer.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Schedules of Reinforcement REF: 325 FEEDBACK: Skinner's research showed that the shorter the interval between presentations of the reinforcer, the greater the frequency of response. The response rate declined as the interval between reinforcements lengthened.

36. Slot machines operate on a _____ reinforcement schedule. a. fixed-ratio c. fixed-interval b. variable-ratio d. variable-interval ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Schedules of Reinforcement REF: 326 FEEDBACK: A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is based on an average number of responses between reinforcers, but there is great variability around that average. Slot machines, roulette wheels, horse races, and state lottery games pay on a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule, an extremely effective means of controlling behavior.

37. A good example of a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is: a. weekly pay. c. fishing. b. piece-rate pay. d. state lottery.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Schedules of Reinforcement REF: 326 FEEDBACK: A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is based on an average number of responses between reinforcers, but there is great variability around that average. Slot machines, roulette wheels, horse races, and state lottery games pay on a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule, an extremely effective means of controlling behavior.

38. Shaping a behavior that is not likely to occur spontaneously is accomplished by: a. self-actualization. c. variable-interval reinforcement. b. successive approximation. d. accident or luck.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Shaping of Behavior REF: 327 FEEDBACK: Animals and humans demonstrate many more complex operant behaviors that have a much lower probability of occurring in the normal course of events. Skinner presented the method of successive approximation, or shaping, so that an experimenter or a parent can reinforce and condition a pigeon or a child to perform behaviors that are not likely to occur spontaneously.

39. The successive approximation method: a. was developed by Pavlov. b. is an example of variable-ratio reinforcement. c. is successful with animals but not humans. d. is also called shaping.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Shaping of Behavior REF: 327 FEEDBACK: Animals and humans demonstrate many more complex operant behaviors that have a much lower probability of occurring in the normal course of events. Skinner presented the method of successive approximation, or shaping, so that an experimenter or a parent can reinforce and condition a pigeon or a child to perform behaviors that are not likely to occur spontaneously.

40. The shaping of behavior is accomplished by: a. reinforcing whenever possible. b. reinforcing only successive approximations of the final behavior desired. c. punishing any behaviors other than the desired final behavior. d. extinguishing competing behavior.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Shaping of Behavior REF: 327 FEEDBACK: The experimental procedure involving a pigeon explains the term successive approximation. The organism is reinforced as its behavior comes in successive, or consecutive, stages to approximate the final behavior desired.

41. Which of the following statements is true of superstitious behavior? a. It has a functional relation to the reinforcement received when the behavior is displayed. b. It is learned quickly when the interval between reinforcements is long. c. It is the result of a behavior being reinforced accidentally. d. It persists for a very short time—less than an hour on average—in humans.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Superstitious Behavior REF: 328 FEEDBACK: Sometimes we are reinforced accidentally after we have displayed some behavior. As a result, that behavior, which did not lead to or cause the reinforcement in any way, may be repeated in a similar situation. Skinner called this phenomenon superstitious behavior.

42. Superstitious behavior is learned quickly when there are: a. constant reinforcements regardless of outcome. b. short intervals between reinforcers. c. animal subjects rather than human. d. functional relationships between behavior and reinforcement.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Superstitious Behavior REF: 328 FEEDBACK: Superstitious behaviors are persistent behaviors that have a coincidental and not a functional relationship to the reinforcement received. With short intervals between reinforcers, superstitious behaviors are learned quickly.

43. To Skinner, self-control means: a. the conscious control of internal behavior. b. positively reinforced behaviors. c. control over the variables that determine behavior. d. will power that has been conditioned.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self-Control of Behavior REF: 329 FEEDBACK: The ability to exert control over the variables that determine our behavior is called self-control. According to Skinner, behavior is controlled and modified by variables that are external to the organism.

44. Skinner suggests all of the following techniques in order to control the external variable that determines our behavior through self-control except: a. self-administered satiation. b. aversive stimulation. c. physical punishment. d. stimulus avoidance.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self-Control of Behavior REF: 329 FEEDBACK: According to Skinner, behavior is controlled and modified by variables that are external to the organism. Skinner suggested that to some extent we can control the external variables that determine our behavior through four self-control techniques: stimulus avoidance, self-administered satiation, aversive stimulation, and self-reinforcement.

45. When a token economy was instituted in a psychiatric hospital: a. there was a dramatic increase in appropriate patient behaviors. b. patient behavior improved but only when staff was watching. c. initial patient improvements were quickly lost when the novelty wore off. d. there was no improvement until real money was substituted for the tokens.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 330–331 FEEDBACK: A ward of female psychotic patients in a state mental institution was treated as a giant Skinner box. They had been institutionalized for a long time and were unable to care for themselves. In this setting of utter hopelessness, the patients were offered opportunities to work at jobs, for which they would receive tokens. The conditioning worked dramatically. Not only did the patients groom themselves and clean their surroundings, but they also busied themselves at a variety of tasks.

46. In the token economy experiment, psychotic patients: a. became less dependent and more responsible. b. were released from the hospital within a month. c. developed insight into their unconscious motivations. d. displayed dramatic changes in their superego.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 330–331 FEEDBACK: The token economy experiment was conducted on a ward of female psychotic patients in a state mental institution, which was treated as a giant Skinner box. The conditioning worked dramatically and the patients began interacting socially with one another and with the staff and even assumed some responsibility for patient care. Their self-esteem improved markedly, and they became less dependent.

47. Behaviors modified in a token economy: a. usually revert to their original state when tokens are no longer provided. b. never revert to their original state. c. remain modified to some degree, even outside the institution. d. become resistant to partial reinforcement.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 331 FEEDBACK: In a token economy, reinforcement must be continued if the desired behavior changes are to persist. When tokens are no longer provided, reinforced behaviors usually revert to their original state.

48. In behavior modification programs, unconscious motivating forces are: a. brought to the surface. c. eliminated by negative reinforcement. b. not dealt with. d. extinguished.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 331 FEEDBACK: Behavior modification programs have been successfully applied to education, business, and industry. No attempt is made to deal with any alleged anxieties, repressed traumas, or unconscious motivating forces. The focus is on changing overt behavior, defining the nature of the appropriate reinforcers, and determining their optimal rate of presentation to modify behavior.

49. According to Skinner, most operant conditioning applications involve: a. both punishment and positive reinforcement. b. extinction. c. positive reinforcement. d. both positive and negative reinforcement.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 332 FEEDBACK: According to Skinner, most operant-conditioning applications involve positive reinforcement rather than punishment. Also, negative reinforcement does not always work, whereas positive reinforcement is more consistently effective.

50. For changing behavior from undesirable to desirable, Skinner believed that punishment is: a. more effective than positive reinforcement. b. as effective as negative reinforcement. c. less effective than extinction. d. often ineffective.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 332 FEEDBACK: Skinner said that punishment was ineffective in changing behavior from undesirable to desirable or from abnormal to normal. He stated, "What's wrong with punishments is that they work immediately, but give no long-term results. The responses to punishment are either the urge to escape, to counterattack, or a stubborn apathy. These are the bad effects you get in prisons or schools, or wherever punishments are used."

51. An example of negative reinforcement is: a. putting coins in a broken soft drink machine. b. giving bonuses to workers even when they fail to excel.

c. nagging a spouse to stop smoking. d. spanking a child to make him or her stop using expletives.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 332 FEEDBACK: Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment. A negative reinforcer is an aversive or noxious stimulus, the removal of which is rewarding. We can see examples of negative reinforcement in everyday situations. A person may stop smoking to avoid the aversive stimulus of a nagging spouse or colleague. The aversive stimulus (the nagging) should cease when the desirable behavior (not lighting a cigarette in the home or office) is displayed.

52. According to Skinner, negative reinforcement is: a. same as punishment. b. less effective than positive reinforcement. c. more effective than intermittent reinforcement. d. more successful with neurotics.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 332 FEEDBACK: Skinner opposed using noxious stimuli to modify behavior, noting that the consequences were not as predictable as with positive reinforcement. Also, negative reinforcement does not always work, whereas positive reinforcement is more consistently effective.

53. With positive reinforcement, the environment changes as a consequence of the behavior; in case of negative reinforcement, _____. a. the unpleasant stimulus will continue even when the subject emits desired response b. the undesirable behavior will eventually reappear c. the undesirable behavior will intensify d. the noxious stimulus will disappear ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 332 FEEDBACK: As with positive reinforcement, the environment changes as a consequence of the behavior; in this case, the noxious stimulus will disappear. In the laboratory or classroom, an operant-conditioning situation can be established in which the unpleasant stimulus (such as a loud noise or an electric shock) will continue until the subject emits the desired response.

54. On the issue of free will versus determinism, Skinner believed people function: a. in accordance with inner being. c. like machines. b. by genetic factors. d. by unconscious conflicts.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 332–333 FEEDBACK: From Skinner's scholarly writings to his popular novel about a utopian society based on operant conditioning his message is the same: Behavior is controlled by reinforcers. On the issue of free will versus determinism, Skinner believed people function like machines, in lawful, orderly, predetermined ways. He rejected all suggestions of an inner being or autonomous self that determines

a course of action or chooses to act freely and spontaneously.

55. Skinner believed people are not responsible for their actions, because: a. their instincts of aggression are inborn. b. they operate in predictable ways, controlled by external variables. c. the inherent tendency of the human species is selfishness. d. of the concept of free will.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 333 FEEDBACK: From Skinner's scholarly writings to his popular novel about a utopian society based on operant conditioning his message is the same: Behavior is controlled by reinforcers. In a sense, this means that it is pointless to blame or punish people for their actions. In this view, a dictator who orders the mass killing of thousands of people, or a serial killer who murders a dozen, can no more be held responsible for their actions than can a driverless car that plunges down a hill. Both operate in lawful, predictable ways, controlled by external variables.

56. Which one of the following best describes Skinner's view of human nature? a. We are condemned to a struggle with our inner forces, which we are almost always destined to lose. b. We are potentially capable of attaining hope, purpose, wisdom, and the other virtues. c. We are determined by the learning and unlearning of childhood experiences. d. We are controlled by the environment, but we can control ourselves by changing the environment.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 333 FEEDBACK: Despite Skinner's belief that behavior is controlled by external stimuli and reinforcers, we are certainly not victims. Although controlled by our environment, we are responsible for designing that environment.

57. In the application of Skinner's behavior modification techniques: a. it is necessary to first assess genetic factors. b. it is necessary to first assess specific behaviors. c. it is necessary to first assess parenting style experienced in childhood. d. it is necessary to first assess childhood memories with dream analysis.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Skinner's Theory REF: 333 FEEDBACK: In the application of Skinner's behavior-modification techniques, it is necessary to first assess specific behaviors, both desirable and undesirable. Also to be assessed are the environmental factors that serve as reinforcers and that can be manipulated to alter behavior.

58. Skinner's approach to assessing behavior is called _____ and it involves three aspects of behavior. a. free association c. projective technique b. dream analysis d. functional analysis ANS: D PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Assessment in Skinner's Theory REF: 333 FEEDBACK: Skinner's approach to assessing behavior is called functional analysis and it involves three aspects of behavior. Skinner did not use the typical assessment techniques favored by other theorists. There was no place in his work for free association, dream analysis, or projective techniques.

59. Each of the following is a factor in Skinner's functional analysis except: a. the frequency of the behavior. b. the situation in which the behavior occurs. c. the reinforcement associated with the behavior. d. the motivation behind the behavior.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Skinner's Theory REF: 333 FEEDBACK: Skinner's approach to assessing behavior is called functional analysis and it involves three aspects of behavior. They are: (1) the frequency of the behavior, (2) the situation in which the behavior occurs, and (3) the reinforcement associated with the behavior. Unless these factors have been evaluated, it is not possible to plan and implement a behavior modification program.

60. Which of the following is true of functional analysis? a. It is used to assess behavior. b. It involves the reinforcement associated with the behavior. c. It does not assess personality. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Skinner's Theory REF: 333 FEEDBACK: Because Skinner was not dealing directly with personality, he really had no interest in assessing it. He did, however, assess behavior. Skinner's approach to assessing behavior is called functional analysis and it involves three aspects of behavior. They are: (1) the frequency of the behavior, (2) the situation in which the behavior occurs, and (3) the reinforcement associated with the behavior.

61 Assessment of behavior is accomplished using all of the following except: a. projective techniques. b. direct observation of behavior. c. self-report procedures. d. physiological measurements.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Skinner's Theory REF: 333 FEEDBACK: Three approaches to assessing behavior are direct observation, self-reports, and physiological measurements. Many behaviors can be assessed through direct observation. Usually, two or more people conduct the observation to assure accuracy and reliability.

62. Which of the following approaches of assessing behavior may include quantification of heart rate, muscle tension, and brain waves? a. Physiological measurement of behavior

b. Self-reports of behavior c. Direct observation of behavior d. Analysis of cognitive processes ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Skinner's Theory REF: 334 FEEDBACK: Physiological assessments of behavior include heart rate, muscle tension, and brain waves. By recording such measurements, it is possible to evaluate the physiological effects of various stimuli. The measures can also be used to confirm the accuracy of information obtained by other assessment methods.

63. Which of the following is true of Skinner in the context of assessment methods? a. He followed mainstream experimental psychology. b. He relied primarily on correlation. c. He preferred the intensive study of a single subject. d. He used data from the average performance of groups of subjects.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Skinner's Theory REF: 334 FEEDBACK: In experimental psychology, the usual procedure is to study large groups of animal or human subjects and to statistically compare their average responses. In contrast, Skinner preferred the intensive study of a single subject. He argued that data on the average performance of groups is of little value in dealing with a particular case.

64. Skinner believed that valid and replicable results could be obtained without _____ as long as sufficient data were collected from a single-subject under well-controlled circumstances. a. conditional analysis c. technical analysis b. cognition analysis d. statistical analysis ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Skinner's Theory REF: 334 FEEDBACK: Skinner believed that valid and replicable results could be obtained without statistical analysis as long as sufficient data were collected from a single subject under well-controlled experimental conditions. The use of large groups of subjects forced the experimenter to deal with average behavior.

65. All of the following are criticisms of Skinner's system except that: a. operant conditioning cannot change behavior. b. research from pigeons cannot be generalized to humans. c. it has a deterministic view. d. it ignores human qualities such as conscious free will.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Skinner's Theory REF: 335 FEEDBACK: Those who oppose determinism find much to dislike in Skinner's views. They argue that the exclusive emphasis on overt behavior ignores uniquely human qualities such as conscious free will.

There has been criticism of the type of subject and the simplicity of the situations in Skinner's

experiments. Some critics ask, can we extrapolate from a pigeon pecking at a disc to a person functioning in the real world? The gap seems too vast to permit broad generalizations.

TRUE/FALSE 1. Skinner used animals rather than people in his research on behavioral responses to stimuli.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 318 FEEDBACK: Responding to stimuli is something animals do well, sometimes better than people do.

Thus, Skinner chose animal behavior for his research because it is simpler than human behavior.

2. Therapeutic techniques derived from Skinner's research are used in clinical settings to treat a variety of disorders including psychoses, mental retardation, and autism.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 318 FEEDBACK: Despite Skinner's focus on studying animal behavior, his work has had wide practical applications for changing human behavior. Techniques such as behavior therapy derived from his research are used in clinical settings to treat a variety of disorders including psychoses, mental retardation, and autism.

3. Skinner's fundamental idea is that the collective unconscious can be set free to increase behavioral responses in the subject.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 321 FEEDBACK: Skinner's approach to behavior, simple in concept, is based on thousands of hours of well-controlled research. His fundamental idea is that behavior can be controlled by its consequences, that is, by what follows the behavior.

4. Operant behavior involves a response made or elicited by a specific stimulus.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 321 FEEDBACK: Skinner distinguished between two kinds of behavior: respondent behavior and operant behavior. Respondent behavior involves a response made to or elicited by a specific stimulus.

5. To Skinner, respondent behavior was less important than operant behavior.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior REF: 322 FEEDBACK: To Skinner, respondent behavior was less important than operant behavior. We are

conditioned to respond directly to many stimuli in our environment, but not all behavior can be accounted for in this way.

6. Operant conditioning is the procedure by which a change in the consequences of a response will affect the rate at which the response occurs.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box REF: 323 FEEDBACK: Operant conditioning is the procedure by which a change in the consequences of a response will affect the rate at which the response occurs. It is illustrated by the experiment of a food-deprived rat put in Skinner's operant-conditioning apparatus, also known as the Skinner box.

7. In the fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement, the reinforcer is presented following the first response that gives the experimenter an average number of responses.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Schedules of Reinforcement REF: 325 FEEDBACK: A fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement means that the reinforcer is presented following the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. The timing of the reinforcement has nothing to do with the number of responses.

8. Slot machines, roulette wheels, horse races, and state lottery games pay on a variable-interval schedule of reinforcement.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Schedules of Reinforcement REF: 326 FEEDBACK: A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is based on an average number of responses between reinforcers, but there is great variability around that average. Slot machines, roulette wheels, horse races, and state lottery games pay on a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule, an extremely effective means of controlling behavior.

9. Skinner's research on reinforcement schedules shows that they are effective for controlling, modifying, and shaping behavior.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Schedules of Reinforcement REF: 326 FEEDBACK: Skinner's research on reinforcement schedules shows that they are effective for controlling, modifying, and shaping behavior. If you are in charge of rats, salespeople, or assembly-line workers, or are trying to train your pet or your child, these operant-conditioning techniques can bring about the behaviors you want.

10. Shaping, according to Skinner, is the same thing as respondent behavior, which involves a response made or elicited by a specific stimulus.

ANS: F

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Shaping of Behavior REF: 327 FEEDBACK: How can an experimenter or a parent reinforce and condition a pigeon or a child to perform behaviors that are not likely to occur spontaneously? Skinner answered these questions with the method of successive approximation, or shaping. Successive approximation is an explanation for the acquisition of complex behavior. Behavior such as learning to speak will be reinforced only as it comes to approximate or approach the final desired behavior.

11. Persistent behavior that has a coincidental and not a functional relationship to the reinforcement received is called superstitious behavior.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Superstitious Behavior REF: 328 FEEDBACK: Persistent behavior that has a coincidental and not a functional relationship to the reinforcement received is called superstitious behavior. With short intervals between reinforcers, superstitious behaviors are learned quickly.

12. Skinner described self-control as the ability to alter the impact of internal successive approximation.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self-Control of Behavior REF: 329 FEEDBACK: Skinner called self-control the ability to alter the impact of external events. Self-control is the ability to exert control over the variables that determine our behavior.

13. Through the technique of self-administering satiation, we exert control to cure ourselves of bad habits by overdoing the behavior.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self-Control of Behavior REF: 329 FEEDBACK: Through the technique of self-administered satiation, we exert control to cure ourselves of some bad habit by overdoing the behavior. Smokers who want to quit can chain-smoke for a period of time, inhaling until they become so disgusted, uncomfortable, or sick that they quit.

14. A token economy is descriptive of what Skinner believed the country had become in his time.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 330 FEEDBACK: A token economy is a behavior-modification technique in which tokens, which can be exchanged for valued objects or privileges, are awarded for desirable behaviors. Behavior modification is a form of therapy that applies the principles of reinforcement to bring about desired behavioral changes.

15. Positive reinforcement does not always work, whereas negative reinforcement is more consistently effective.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 332 FEEDBACK: Negative reinforcement does not always work, whereas positive reinforcement is more consistently effective. Skinner opposed using noxious stimuli to modify behavior, noting that the consequences were not as predictable as with positive reinforcement.

ESSAY 1. Describe how Skinner's research differed from that of other personality theorists.

ANS: Skinner did not offer a personality theory that can easily be contrasted and compared with others. In fact, Skinner did not offer a personality theory at all, nor did his research deal specifically with personality. His work attempted to account for all behavior, not just personality, in factual, descriptive terms. Skinner argued that psychologists must restrict their investigations to facts, to only what they can see, manipulate, and measure in the laboratory. That meant an exclusive emphasis on the overt responses a subject makes and nothing more. Skinner's contention was that psychology is the science of behavior, of what an organism does. His study of behavior was the antithesis of the psychoanalytic, trait, life-span, cognitive, and humanistic approaches, differing not only in subject matter but in methodology and aims.

In explaining personality, most other theorists look inside the person for clues. The causes, motives, and drives—the forces that direct our development and behavior—originate within each of us. In contrast, Skinner made no reference to internal, subjective states to account for behavior. Unconscious influences, defense mechanisms, traits, and other driving forces cannot be seen, he argued, and therefore they have no place in a scientific psychology.

Skinner did not deny the existence of internal forces, only their usefulness for science. Skinner applied similar reasoning to physiological processes, which are not overtly observable and so have no relevance for science. He saw no need to look inside the organism for some form of inner activity. To Skinner, human beings are "empty organisms," by which he meant that there is nothing inside us that can explain behavior in scientific terms.

Another way Skinner differed from other theorists is in his choice of experimental subject. Some personality theorists focus on emotionally disturbed persons, others on normal or average individuals.

Although Skinner's ideas about behavior have been applied to people, the research for his behavioral approach used rats and pigeons. Responding to stimuli is something animals do well, sometimes better than people do. Thus, he chose animal behavior because it is simpler than human behavior.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism REF: 317–318 2. Illustrate the operant-conditioning process using the example of a rat in a Skinner box.

ANS: Operant conditioning is the procedure by which a change in the consequences of a response will affect the rate at which the response occurs.

The operant conditioning process can be illustrated by following the progress of a rat in Skinner's operant-conditioning apparatus, also known as the Skinner box. When a food-deprived rat is placed in the box, its behavior at first is spontaneous and random. The rat is active, sniffing, poking, and exploring its environment. These behaviors are emitted, not elicited; in other words, the rat is not responding to any specific stimulus in its environment.

At some time during this random activity, the rat will depress a lever or bar located on one wall of the Skinner box, causing a food pellet to drop into a trough. The rat's behavior (pressing the lever) has

operated on the environment and, as a result, has changed it. The environment now includes a food pellet. The food is a reinforcer for the behavior of depressing the bar.

The rat now begins to press the bar more often. It gets more food—more reinforcement—and so presses the bar even more frequently. The rat's behavior is now under the control of the reinforcers. Its actions in the box are less random and spontaneous because it is spending most of its time pressing the bar, and eating.

If we put the rat back in the box the next day, we can predict its behavior and we can control its bar-pressing actions by presenting or withholding the reinforcers or by presenting them at a different rate. Withholding the food extinguishes operant behavior in the same way that it extinguishes respondent behavior. If the unreinforced behavior no longer works, in that it no longer brings a reward, after a while it will stop. Thus, the person who controls the reinforcers controls the subjects' behavior.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box REF: 323 3. Describe the four schedules of reinforcement and give one example for each.

ANS: Students' answers will vary.

Skinner pointed out that in everyday life outside the psychology laboratory, our behavior is rarely reinforced every time it occurs. In a Skinner box, after observing that the rats continued to press the bar at a fairly constant rate even when they were not being reinforced for each response, Skinner decided to investigate different reinforcement schedules to determine their effectiveness in controlling behavior. Among the rates of reinforcement he tested are the following.

• Fixed interval • Fixed ratio • Variable interval • Variable ratio Fixed interval: A fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement means that the reinforcer is presented following the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. That interval might be 1 minute, 3 minutes, or any other fixed period of time. The timing of the reinforcement has nothing to do with the number of responses. A job in which your salary is paid once a week or once a month operates on the fixed-interval schedule.

Fixed ratio: In the fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement, reinforcers are given only after a specified number of responses have been made. For example, the experimenter could reinforce after every 10th or 20th response. In this schedule, unlike the fixed-interval schedule, the presentation of reinforcers depends on how often the subject responds. The higher response rate for the fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule also applies to humans. In a job in which your pay is determined on a piece-rate basis, how much you earn depends on how much you produce.

Variable interval: In the variable-interval schedule of reinforcement, the reinforcer might appear after 2 hours the first time, after 1 hour 30 minutes the next time, and after 2 hours and 15 minutes the third time. A person who spends the day fishing might be rewarded, if at all, on a variable-interval basis.

Variable ratio: A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is based on an average number of responses between reinforcers, but there is great variability around that average. Skinner found that the variable-ratio schedule is effective in bringing about high and stable response rates, as the people who operate gambling casinos can happily attest. Slot machines, roulette wheels, horse races, and state lottery games pay on a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule, an extremely effective means of controlling behavior.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Schedules of Reinforcement REF: 324, 325, 326 4. Define self-control and describe the techniques of self-control, giving one example for each.

ANS: Students' answers will vary.

Self-control is defined as the ability to exert control over the variables that determine our behavior.

According to Skinner, behavior is controlled and modified by variables that are external to the organism. Although these external stimuli and reinforcers are responsible for shaping and controlling behavior, we do have the ability to use what Skinner called self-control, which he described as acting to alter the impact of external events. Skinner did not mean acting under the control of some mysterious "self."

He suggested that to some extent we can control the external variables that determine our behavior through four self-control techniques: • Stimulus avoidance • Self-administered satiation • Aversive stimulation • Self-reinforcement Stimulus avoidance: In stimulus avoidance, for example, if your roommate is too noisy and interferes with your studying for an exam in the morning, you could leave the room and go to the library, removing yourself from an external variable that is affecting your behavior. By avoiding a person or situation that makes you angry, you reduce the control that person or situation has over your behavior.

Self-administered satiation: Through the technique of self-administered satiation, we exert control to cure ourselves of some bad habit by overdoing the behavior. Smokers who want to quit can chain-smoke for a period of time, inhaling until they become so disgusted, uncomfortable, or sick that they quit. This technique has been successful in formal therapeutic programs designed to eliminate smoking.

Aversive stimulation: The aversive stimulation technique of self-control involves unpleasant or repugnant consequences. Obese people who want to lose weight declare their intention to their friends in person or to a larger audience through Facebook or other social networking sites. If they do not keep their resolution, they face the unpleasant consequences of personal failure, embarrassment, and criticism.

Self-reinforcement: In self-reinforcement, we reward ourselves for displaying good or desirable behaviors. A teenager who agrees to strive for a certain grade point average or to take care of a younger brother or sister might reward himself or herself by buying concert tickets or new clothes. To Skinner, then, the crucial point is that external variables shape and control behavior. But sometimes, through our own actions, we can modify the effects of these external forces.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Self-Control of Behavior REF: 329–330 5. Contrast punishment and negative reinforcement. How do the effects of punishment and negative reinforcement compare with those of positive reinforcement in shaping behavior?

ANS: Punishment is defined as the application of an aversive stimulus following a response in an effort to decrease the likelihood that the response will recur. Skinner said that punishment was ineffective in changing behavior from undesirable to desirable or from abnormal to normal. Positive

reinforcement administered for desirable behaviors is much more effective than punishment. Most operant-conditioning applications involve positive reinforcement rather than punishment. The token-economy patients were not punished for failing to behave appropriately. Instead, they were reinforced when their behavior changed in positive ways.

Skinner stated, "What's wrong with punishments is that they work immediately, but give no long-term results. The responses to punishment are either the urge to escape, to counterattack, or a stubborn apathy. These are the bad effects you get in prisons or schools, or wherever punishments are used."

Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment. It is defined as the strengthening of a response by the removal of an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is an aversive or noxious stimulus, the removal of which is rewarding.

In the laboratory or classroom, an operant-conditioning situation can be established in which the unpleasant stimulus (such as a loud noise or an electric shock) will continue until the subject emits the desired response. As with positive reinforcement, the environment changes as a consequence of the behavior; in this case, the noxious stimulus will disappear.

We can see examples of negative reinforcement in everyday situations. A person may stop smoking to avoid the aversive stimulus of a nagging spouse or colleague. The aversive stimulus (the nagging) should cease when the desirable behavior (not lighting a cigarette in the home or office) is displayed.

Skinner opposed using noxious stimuli to modify behavior, noting that the consequences were not as predictable as with positive reinforcement. Also, negative reinforcement does not always work, whereas positive reinforcement is more consistently effective.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Applications of Operant Conditioning REF: 332

Chapter 13—Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Bandura criticized Skinner for his: a. focus on operant, rather than respondent behavior. b. lack of attention to physiological processes. c. emphasis on individual animal subjects. d. belief in observational learning.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 341 FEEDBACK: Bandura criticized Skinner's emphasis on individual animal subjects rather than on human subjects interacting with one another. He argued that we cannot expect data from experiments that involve no social interaction to be relevant to the everyday, real world, because very few people live in social isolation.

2. Albert Bandura differs from Skinner on all the following points except: a. in the study of human subjects in interaction with others. b. in the study of observational learning. c. in emphasizing learning as a function of reinforcement. d. in emphasizing learning without directly experiencing reinforcement.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 342 FEEDBACK: Although Bandura agreed with Skinner that much learning takes place as a result of reinforcement, he also stressed that virtually all forms of behavior can be learned without directly experiencing any reinforcement. Bandura's approach is also called observational learning, indicating the importance in the learning process of observing other people's behavior.

3. According to Albert Bandura's approach to psychology, _____. a. learning can occur without direct reinforcement b. animals of the same species are studied during mutual interaction c. internal variables and processes are negligible d. each person is unique as defined by his or her traits ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 342 FEEDBACK: The focus on learning by observation or example, rather than always by direct reinforcement, is a distinctive feature of Bandura's theory. Rather than experiencing reinforcement ourselves for each of our actions, we learn through vicarious reinforcement by observing the behavior of other people and the consequences of that behavior.

4. Bandura believed that reinforcement: a. is less important than physiological drives. b. can occur vicariously and still affect behavior. c. is more important than perception of the reinforcement.

d. causes abnormal behavior, rather than normal behavior.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 342 FEEDBACK: Rather than experiencing reinforcement ourselves for each of our actions, we learn through vicarious reinforcement by observing the behavior of other people and the consequences of that behavior. This focus on learning by observation or example, rather than always by direct reinforcement, is a distinctive feature of Bandura's theory.

5. According to Bandura, the observational learning approach: a. is a less extreme form of behaviorism than Skinner's. b. takes cognitive or thought processes into consideration. c. studies normal human subjects in social interaction. d. all of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 342 FEEDBACK: Bandura presented a less extreme form of behaviorism than Skinner. He based his theory on rigorous laboratory research with normal people in social interactions and emphasized the observation of others as a means of learning, and he considered learning to be mediated by cognitive processes.

6. Which of the following is true about the life of Albert Bandura? a. Bandura was born in Poland and later moved to Canada with his family. b. Bandura's childhood was unhappy and was marked by isolation and depression. c. Bandura chose psychology out of interest despite his friends' advice. d. Bandura's parents understood the value of education and encouraged him to study.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Bandura (1925–) REF: 342 FEEDBACK: Bandura's parents were immigrants from Poland who emphasized the value of education. "You have a choice," his mother told him when he was young. "You can work in the field and get drunk in the beer parlor, or you might get an education." He chose an education.

7. Which of the following is true about Bandura's academic pursuit of psychology? a. His interest in psychology persisted despite problems in commuting to his university. b. He chose psychology because it was scheduled at a convenient time, not because he was interested in it. c. He was loyal to behaviorism early in his career but soon began to digress from it. d. His interest in psychology waned soon after he found that the course material was drab.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Life of Bandura (1925–) REF: 343 FEEDBACK: The carpool in which Bandura commuted to the campus every day included engineering and pre-med students, all of whom had early-morning classes. Psychology was also offered in that time period, and so Bandura enrolled in the course, not out of any real interest, but simply because it was a convenient time.

8. In the context of learning through observation, Bandura pointed out that operant conditioning is: a. an inefficient way to learn certain skills. b. less important than respondent conditioning. c. usually the safest method for learning behavior. d. a way of learning by observing others.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 343 FEEDBACK: Bandura argued that operant conditioning, in which trial-and-error behavior continues until the person happens upon the correct response, is an inefficient and potentially dangerous way to learn certain skills such as swimming or driving. He challenged the notion that behavior can be learned or changed only through direct reinforcement.

9. In modeling, it is possible for individuals to acquire responses: a. in the absence of other people. b. that have never been performed or displayed before. c. by the means of operant conditioning. d. in the same way a rat learns to press the lever in the Skinner box.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 343–344 FEEDBACK: Through modeling, by observing the behavior of a model and repeating the behavior ourselves, it is possible to acquire responses that we have never performed or displayed before and to strengthen or weaken existing responses.

10. Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated the power of: a. operant conditioning. c. direct reinforcement. b. modeling. d. trial-and-error behavior.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 344 FEEDBACK: Bandura's now-classic demonstration of modeling involves the Bobo doll, an inflatable plastic figure about 4 feet tall. In Bandura's studies, preschool children watched an adult hit and kick Bobo. When the children were left alone with the doll, they modeled their behavior after the example they had just witnessed. The experimental group was found to be twice as aggressive as the control group.

11. According to the Bobo doll studies conducted by Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963, the group of children who watched an adult model attack a Bobo doll was: a. not as aggressive as those who watched the attack on television. b. half as aggressive as those who watched the behavior of a filmed cartoon character. c. as aggressive as they were before. d. twice as aggressive as those in the control group.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 344

FEEDBACK: In Bandura's studies, preschool children watched an adult hit and kick Bobo. When the children were left alone with the doll, they modeled their behavior after the example they had just witnessed. Their behavior was compared with that of a control group of children who had not seen the model attack the Bobo doll. The experimental group was found to be twice as aggressive as the control group.

12. According to the studies on modeling conducted by Bandura, which of the following statements is true? a. The disinhibition effect increases with c. Children model their behavior on age. examples provided by their parents. b. Verbal modeling can cause effective d. Modeling influences actions without learning without explanation. changing perception.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 344 FEEDBACK: The research in which Bandura compared the behavior of parents of two groups of children showed that the parents of the inhibited children were inhibited, and the parents of the aggressive children were aggressive. The children had modeled their behavior on the examples provided by their parents.

13. Bandura found that verbal modeling: a. is as effective as actually observing a model. b. works best when supplemented by behavioral demonstrations. c. is incapable of changing behavior. d. increased aggression in children in the Bobo doll study.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 344 FEEDBACK: Verbal modeling can induce certain behaviors, as long as the activities involved are fully and adequately explained. Verbal instructions are usually supplemented by behavioral demonstrations, such as when a driving instructor serves as a model performing the behaviors involved in driving.

14. _____ is the weakening of constraints by observing the behavior of a model. a. Disinhibition c. Dissipation b. Disinclination d. Dissociation ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 345 FEEDBACK: Research has shown that behaviors a person usually suppresses or inhibits may be performed more readily under the influence of a model. This phenomenon, called disinhibition, refers to the weakening of an inhibition or restraint through exposure to a model.

15. Which of the following is true about disinhibition and its various forms? a. Lack of anonymity online reduces disinhibition against offensive behavior. b. Sexual behavior is unaffected by the phenomenon of disinhibition. c. Disinhibition is usually higher in females and tends to increase with age. d. Anonymity in large crowds increases tendencies of people to discard their inhibitions.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 345 FEEDBACK: Disinhibition is the weakening of inhibitions or constraints by observing the behavior of a model. People in a crowd may start a riot, breaking windows and shouting, exhibiting physical and verbal behaviors they would never perform when alone. They are more likely to discard their inhibitions against aggressive behavior if they see other people around them doing so.

16. According to Bandura, deviant people: a. were not reinforced sufficiently in childhood. b. resisted attempts at modeling in childhood. c. learned devious behavior through operant conditioning. d. followed models the rest of society considers undesirable.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 345 FEEDBACK: People who deviate from cultural norms have learned their behavior the same way as everyone else. The difference is that deviant individuals have followed models the rest of society considers undesirable.

17. All of the following factors affect the extent of modeling except: a. the similarity between the model and the subject. b. the age and sex of the model and the subject. c. the status and prestige of the model. d. the friendship between the model and the subject.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 346 FEEDBACK: Bandura and his associates investigated three factors found to influence modeling: a) the characteristics of the models; b) the characteristics of the observers; c) the reward consequences associated with the behaviors. Friendship between the model and the subject does not affect the extent of modeling like all the other factors do.

18. In modeling experiments, the degree of modeling increases as the _____. a. similarity between the model and the c. complexity of behavior displayed by the subject increases model increases b. self-confidence and self-esteem of the d. age of the model and the subject increases observer increases ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 346 FEEDBACK: The characteristics of the models affect our tendency to imitate them. In real life, we may be more influenced by someone who appears to be similar to us than by someone who differs from us in obvious and significant ways.

19. A child is more likely to model its behavior after: a. a person of the opposite sex. c. a person rather than a cartoon character.

b. a person who is very different.

d. all of these are correct.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 346 FEEDBACK: Children showed greater imitation of a live model than an animated character, but even in the latter instance the modeled behavior was significantly greater than that of the control group that observed no models.

20. In the context of modeling, which of the following is more likely to be imitated? a. Simple behaviors c. Behaviors that are rewarded b. Hostile behaviors d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 346, 347 FEEDBACK: Highly complex behaviors are not imitated as quickly and readily as simpler behaviors.

Hostile and aggressive behaviors tend to be strongly imitated, especially by children. The reward consequences linked to a particular behavior can affect the extent of the modeling and even override the impact of the characteristics of the models and the observers.

21. Which of kind of behavior is most likely to be imitated by children? a. Aggressive c. Artistic b. Complex d. Thoughtful ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 347 FEEDBACK: The type of behavior the model performs affects the extent of imitation. Hostile and aggressive behaviors tend to be strongly imitated, especially by children.

22. Which of the following statements is true about the characteristics of observers that influence modeling? a. Older children are reinforced primarily by c. Because of immediate imitation during physical stimuli such as food, affection, infancy, reiterations of modeled behavior and punishment. are unnecessary. b. The set of behaviors we choose to imitate d. The probability of imitation of a modeled stay constant during our lifetime. behavior is inversely proportional to self-esteem of the observer.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 348 FEEDBACK: The attributes of the observers also determine the effectiveness of observational learning. People who are low in self-confidence and self-esteem are much more likely to imitate a model's behavior than are people high in self-confidence and self-esteem.

23. People who are low in _____ are much more likely to imitate a model's behavior than are people high in the same attribute. a. self-esteem c. neuroticism b. extraversion d. psychoticism

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 348 FEEDBACK: The attributes of the observers also determine the effectiveness of observational learning. People who are low in self-confidence and self-esteem are much more likely to imitate a model's behavior than are people high in self-confidence and self-esteem.

24. Each of the following is a process of observational learning except: a. attentional processes. c. extinction processes. b. retention processes. d. production processes.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 348 FEEDBACK: Bandura analyzed the nature of observational learning and found it to be governed by four related mechanisms: attentional processes, retention processes, production processes, and incentive and motivational processes.

25. According to Bandura, attentional processes: a. facilitate modeling but are not necessary for modeling to occur. b. can be influenced by the model's attractiveness and confidence. c. provide direct reinforcement to the observer. d. are less important than retention processes.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 348 FEEDBACK: It has been found that celebrity models, experts, and those who appear confident and attractive command greater attention and imitation than models who lack these attributes. Some of the most effective models in American culture today appear on television, YouTube, and other online sites.

26. Observers pay closer attention to modeled behavior that: a. produces neutral outcomes rather than positive or negative consequences. b. produces positive consequences rather than negative consequences. c. produces positive or negative consequences rather than neutral outcomes. d. produces negative consequences rather than positive consequences.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 349 FEEDBACK: Observers also pay closer attention to modeled behavior that produces positive or negative consequences rather than neutral outcomes. When observers watch a model doing something they expect to do themselves, they pay greater attention than when the modeled behavior has no personal relevance.

27. To retain behavior that has been observed, a person must: a. first perform the observed behavior. b. reinforce the behavior directly. c. encode and symbolically represent the model's behavior.

d. relate the behavior to his or her self-concept.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 349 FEEDBACK: To retain what has been attended to, a person must encode it and represent it symbolically. One can retain information about a model's behavior in two ways: through an imaginal internal representational system or through a verbal system.

28. Imaginal internal representational systems: a. involve value judgments about the behavior being observed. b. are both oral and verbal. c. are largely unconscious. d. help an observer in retaining the modeled behavior.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 349 FEEDBACK: One can retain information about a model's behavior in two ways: through an imaginal internal representational system or through a verbal system. In the imaginal system, we form vivid, easily retrievable images while we are observing the model, whereas the verbal representational system operates similarly and involves a verbal coding of some behavior we have observed.

29. In _____, we form a mental picture of the model's behavior and use it as a basis for imitation at a future time. a. a classical conditioning system c. a verbal system b. an operant conditioning system d. an imaginal system ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 349 FEEDBACK: In the imaginal system, we form vivid, easily retrievable images while we are observing the model. In observational learning, we form a mental picture of the model's behavior and use it as a basis for imitation at some future time.

30. In the production processes, what has been observed and retained is: a. translated into overt behavior. c. produced in the mind. b. recreated as a rigid memory. d. assigned a monetary value.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 349–350 FEEDBACK: Translating imaginal and verbal symbolic representations into overt behavior requires the production processes, described more simply as practice. Although we may have attended to, retained, and rehearsed symbolic representations of a model's behavior, we still may not be able to perform the behavior correctly.

31. Incentive and motivational processes: a. affect performance of an observed behavior but not attentional or retention processes. b. affect attentional and retention processes but not performance of the desired behavior. c. influence attentional and retention processes as well as performance of the desired

behavior. d. are mandatory for observational learning to occur and the learned behavior to be replicated.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 350 FEEDBACK: When incentives are available, observation is more quickly translated into action.

Incentives also influence the attentional and retention processes. We may not pay as much attention without an incentive to do so, and when less attention is paid, there is less to retain.

32. In modeling and observational learning, reinforcement: a. is required for any learning to occur. b. is not always required for learning to occur. c. must only occur vicariously. d. must only be self-administered.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 350 FEEDBACK: Bandura pointed out that although reinforcement can facilitate learning, reinforcement is not always required for learning to occur. Many factors other than the reward consequences of the behavior determine what we attend to, retain, and rehearse.

33. According to Bandura, reinforcement: a. is experienced vicariously during our observation of a model. b. is vital to social learning through modeling.

c. needs to be given by another person to be effective. d. cannot be administered by oneself.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 350 FEEDBACK: Reinforcement can assist in modeling but is not vital to it. When reinforcement does occur, it can be given by another person, experienced vicariously, or administered by oneself.

34. In his approach to personality, Bandura saw "self" as the: a. equilibrium between the conscious and the unconscious. b. psychic agent that determines behavior. c. set of cognitive processes and structures. d. set of needs controlled through tension reduction.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 350 FEEDBACK: In Bandura's approach to personality, the self is not some psychic agent that determines or causes behavior. Rather, the self is a set of cognitive processes and structures concerned with thought and perception.

35. Bandura believed that self-reinforcement: a. is unaffected by past behavior as our limits are fixed.

b. is particularly effective for infants. c. is achieved by setting personal standards of behavior and achievement. d. is not as effective as reinforcement administered by others.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 350 FEEDBACK: Self-reinforcement is as important as reinforcement administered by others, particularly for older children and adults. We set personal standards of behavior and achievement.

36. Which of the following is true of self-administered reinforcement? a. It is guided by our past behavior as reference. b. It involves both reward and punishment. c. It is more effective with older children and adults. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 350, 351 FEEDBACK: Self-reinforcement is as important as reinforcement administered by others, particularly for older children and adults. A continuing process of self-reinforcement regulates much of our behavior requires internal standards of performance, subjective criteria or reference points against which we evaluate our behavior. Our past behavior may become a reference point for evaluating present behavior and an incentive for better performance in the future.

37. Self-reinforcement is: a. incapable of influencing learning. b. more important than reinforcement administered by others. c. more effective with children than with adults. d. apparently similar to conscience or superego.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 351 FEEDBACK: Self-reinforcement appears conceptually similar to what other theorists call conscience or superego, but Bandura denies that it is the same. A continuing process of self-reinforcement regulates much of our behavior.

38. Self-reinforcement: a. has to be tangible to be effective. b. can be guided by our past behavior as reference points.

c. ceases when we fail to reach a certain level of achievement. d. has also been alternatively addressed as the superego by Bandura.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 351 FEEDBACK: Self-reinforcement requires internal standards of performance, subjective criteria or reference points against which we evaluate our behavior. Our past behavior may become a reference point for evaluating present behavior and an incentive for better performance in the future.

39. Unrealistic performance standards: a. result from behavior learned from unusually talented models. b. are a result of alcoholism and drug use. c. do not motivate or challenge us enough. d. cause us to perform sustainably at our peak.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 351 FEEDBACK: People who set unrealistic performance standards—who observed and learned behavioral expectations from unusually talented and successful models, for example—may continue to try to meet those excessively high expectations despite repeated failures. Emotionally, they may punish themselves with feelings of worthlessness and depression.

40. _____ is our feeling of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in coping with life. a. Self-reinforcement c. Self-sufficiency b. Self-efficacy d. Self-development ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 351 FEEDBACK: How well we meet our behavioral standards determines our self-efficacy. In Bandura's system, self-efficacy refers to feelings of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in coping with life.

41. Bandura stated, "People strive to exercise control over events that affect their lives. By exerting influence in spheres over which they can command some control, they are better able to realize desired futures and to forestall undesired ones. The striving for control over life circumstances permeates almost everything people do." This is a description of: a. self-efficacy. c. self-development. b. self-reinforcement. d. self-sufficiency.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 351 FEEDBACK: Another way Bandura described self-efficacy was in terms of our perception of the control we have over our lives. He stated, "People strive to exercise control over events that affect their lives. By exerting influence in spheres over which they can command some control, they are better able to realize desired futures and to forestall undesired ones. The striving for control over life circumstances permeates almost everything people do."

42. People high in self-efficacy: a. are self-confident, but give up too quickly. b. believe they deal effectively with life events. c. have more rigid superegos than persons low in self-efficacy. d. tend to be introverted loners.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 351 FEEDBACK: People low in self-efficacy feel helpless, unable to exercise control over life events.

People high in self-efficacy believe they can deal effectively with events and situations.

43. All of the following are sources of information about efficacy except: a. performance attainment. c. verbal persuasion. b. vicarious experiences. d. future achievements.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 352 FEEDBACK: Our judgment about our self-efficacy is based on four sources of information. They are performance attainment, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional arousal.

44. Seeing other people fail at some activity: a. can increase self-efficacy. b. can lower self-efficacy. c. affects self-efficacy only in children. d. affects self-efficacy only in adults.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 352 FEEDBACK: Seeing other people perform successfully—strengthen self-efficacy, particularly if the people we observe are similar to us in their abilities. In effect, we are saying, "If they can do it, so can I." In contrast, seeing others fail can lower self-efficacy: "If they can't do it, neither can I." 45. All of the following are ways of increasing self-efficacy except: a. providing realistic verbal persuasion. b. arranging reachable goals to expose people to success experiences. c. increasing the level of physiological and emotional arousal. d. enhancing vicarious success experiences.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 353 FEEDBACK: The more calm and composed we feel, the greater our self-efficacy. The higher our level of physiological and emotional arousal, the lower our self-efficacy.

46. According to Bandura's views, which of the following statements is true about the development of self-efficacy during childhood? a. Self-efficacy develops completely by the time children cross their infancy. b. Men with high self-efficacy are likely to have had more demanding mothers than fathers when they were children. c. Children base the judgment of their abilities similarly irrespective of whether they have siblings or not. d. Grouping children according to their abilities promotes the development of self-efficacy and self-confidence by arranging reachable goals.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Developmental Stages of Self-Efficacy REF: 353 FEEDBACK: High self-efficacy men tend to have had, when they were children, warm relationships

with their fathers. Mothers were more demanding than fathers, expecting higher levels of performance and achievement.

47. According to Bandura, which of the following statements is true about the development of self-efficacy during adulthood? a. Adulthood can be divided into three c. Women who feel high in self-efficacy stages: young, middle, and late on the about their parenting skills are likely to basis of development of self-efficacy. promote self-efficacy in their children. b. Compared with other stages, self-efficacy d. The success of this stage depends directly reassessments are difficult in adulthood. on the level of self-efficacy developed during the childhood years.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Developmental Stages of Self-Efficacy REF: 354 FEEDBACK: Women who feel high in self-efficacy about their parenting skills are likely to promote self-efficacy in their children. Women who believe they are good parents are less subject to despondency and emotional strain in their role as a parent than are women low in self-efficacy.

48. In the context of the developmental stages of self-efficacy, in old age: a. self-efficacy reassessments are convenient compared to other stages. b. peers provide comparative reference points for assessing one's level of achievement. c. goals are redefined as careers, family, and social lives are reassessed. d. low self-efficacy can further affect physical and mental functioning.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Developmental Stages of Self-Efficacy REF: 354 FEEDBACK: Declining mental and physical abilities, retirement from active work, and withdrawal from social life may force a new round of self-appraisal. A lowering of self-efficacy can further affect physical and mental functioning in a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy.

49. Bandura's approach to behavior modification is based on the belief that: a. socially undesirable or abnormal behaviors are learned. b. maladaptive traits must be uncovered. c. unconscious conflicts must be resolved. d. one's style of life has to be assessed first.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Behavior Modification REF: 354–355 FEEDBACK: Like Skinner's approach to therapy, Bandura focused on external aspects, those inappropriate or destructive behaviors, in the belief that they are learned, just as all behaviors are learned. Bandura did not attempt to deal with any supposed underlying unconscious conflicts.

50. Bandura did not attempt to deal with: a. underlying unconscious conflicts. b. behaviors or symptoms.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Behavior Modification

c. modifying or changing learned behaviors. d. fears or phobias which restrict daily life.

REF: 355 FEEDBACK: Bandura did not attempt to deal with any supposed underlying unconscious conflicts. It is the behavior or symptom, rather than any presumed internal neurosis that is the target of the social-learning approach.

51. Bandura applied modeling techniques: a. with live models but not with filmed models. b. more effectively on animals rather than people. c. to eliminate fears and other intense emotional reactions. d. to uncover the internal neurosis responsible for socially undesirable behavior.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Behavior Modification REF: 355 FEEDBACK: Bandura applied modeling techniques to eliminate fears and other intense emotional reactions. If modeling is the way we learn our behaviors originally, then it should also be an effective way to relearn or change behavior.

52. In guided participation, a snake phobia can be eliminated by: a. positively reinforcing subjects for touching snakes. b. encouraging subjects to handle the snake in the absence of an observable model. c. having subjects observe a live model, then actually handle the snake. d. instructing subjects to imagine a model coping with a feared or threatening situation.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Behavior Modification REF: 355 FEEDBACK: The technique called guided participation involves watching a live model and then participating with the model. For example, to treat a snake phobia, subjects watch through an observation window while a live model handles a snake. Subjects eventually come to touch the snake without gloves.

53. Which of the following statements is true of modeling? a. It has been shown to reduce anxiety about surgery. b. It has been shown to reduce anxiety about tests. c. It has been shown to work even when subjects only imagine a model. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Behavior Modification REF: 355, 356 FEEDBACK: Covert modeling has been shown to be effective even in the absence of an observable model. Fear of medical treatment and text anxiety are two of the many behaviors which have been treated or modified with the use of modeling therapy.

54. Which of the following is an advantage of modeling therapy? a. It can break down unconscious c. It can decrease self-efficacy. resistances. b. It can be used with groups. d. All of these are correct.

ANS: B PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Behavior Modification REF: 355–356 FEEDBACK: Modeling techniques can be used with groups, saving time and money in treating people with the same problem. Extraneous behaviors can also be edited out so that the subject's time is spent viewing only relevant behaviors.

55. The modeling approach to behavior modification: a. is effective only with internal neurosis. b. can improve self-efficacy and make people deal with fear. c. manipulates and controls people against their will. d. can only be used for seeing and learning simple behaviors.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Behavior Modification REF: 356 FEEDBACK: Considerable research on modeling has been conducted on self-efficacy during and after behavior modification therapy. The results have shown that as the subjects' self-efficacy improved during treatment, they were increasingly able to deal with the source of the fear.

56. In the context of ethical issues, which of the following statements is true of behavior modification techniques? a. They occur without the client's awareness c. They manipulate and control people and regulation. against their will. b. They will be unsuccessful unless the client d. They put constraints on socially understands what behaviors are being acceptable behaviors, which can reinforced. sometimes interfere with personal growth.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Behavior Modification REF: 357 FEEDBACK: Self-awareness and self-regulation are vital for the effectiveness of any program to change or relearn behaviors. In other words, behavior-modification techniques will not be successful unless the person is able to understand what behaviors are being reinforced. They are not being treated against their will.

57. Arguing in favor of behavior modification, Bandura said it: a. is the only effective way to resolve unconscious conflicts. b. actually increases personal freedom. c. enables a person to live with behavior problems. d. is only effective when a client awareness is limited.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Behavior Modification REF: 357 FEEDBACK: Bandura explained that far from manipulating or enslaving, modeling techniques actually increase personal freedom. People who are afraid to leave the house or who have a compulsion to wash their hands continually are not truly free.

58. According to Bandura's position on free will versus determinism, people: a. choose what they want to become and are free agents. b. control behavior through the cognitive processes. c. are powerless objects controlled by environmental forces alone.

d. are ultimately helpless and hopeless in a chaotic universe.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Questions about Human Nature REF: 357 FEEDBACK: According to Bandura, behavior is controlled by the person through the cognitive processes, and by the environment through external social situations. Bandura calls this view reciprocal determinism.

59. Bandura's assessment techniques include: a. self-report inventories. b. projective techniques.

c. free association. d. dream analysis.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Assessment in Bandura's Theory REF: 357 FEEDBACK: Bandura did not use assessment measures such as free association, dream analysis, or projective techniques. His assessment techniques included direct observation of people's behavior, self-report inventories, and physiological measurements.

60. Bandura's research: a. was limited to children. b. relied only on the correlational method. c. compared the average performance of large groups. d. was mostly limited to directly reinforced learning.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Bandura's Theory REF: 357 FEEDBACK: Bandura studied large subject groups and compared their average performance by statistical analysis. He favored well-controlled laboratory investigations in the rigorous tradition of experimental psychology.

61. Research on self-efficacy shows that it: a. differs as a function of gender and age. b. is unrelated to physical appearance.

c. is higher in women than men. d. decreases with age until maturity.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Bandura's Theory REF: 358 FEEDBACK: Self-efficacy differs as a function of gender and age. On the average, men score higher than women in self-efficacy. These gender differences peak during the 20s and then decline in later years.

62. In the context of career choice and job performance, research suggests that women perceive themselves as high in self-efficacy only: a. when they have traditional "female" occupations. b. when they have traditional "male" occupations. c. if their marriages are successful. d. if their spouses are high in self-efficacy.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Bandura's Theory REF: 359 FEEDBACK: Research has shown that men perceive themselves to be high in self-efficacy for so-called traditional "male" as well as traditional "female" occupations. In contrast, women perceive themselves high in self-efficacy for so-called female occupations but low in self-efficacy for traditional male occupations.

63. According to research, which of the following statements is true about the relationship between self-efficacy and physical appearance? a. For men, self-esteem had a greater effect on their feelings of being in control of their lives than did their physical appearance. b. Older baby-faced adults reported lower levels of self-efficacy because of their inability to create a perception of maturity. c. People who were rated less attractive reported lower feelings of control in both job and social situations. d. Height was found to be unrelated to the extent to which people felt in control of their lives.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Bandura's Theory REF: 359 FEEDBACK: A major finding in this study was the significant effect of physical attractiveness on control beliefs. People who were rated less attractive reported lower feelings of control in both job and social situations.

64. According to research on self-efficacy by Holzberger, Philipp, & Kunter, 2013, which of the following statements is true about how self-efficacy affects academic performance? a. In high-achieving schools, policies and c. Levels of self-efficacy of classroom regulations are implemented strictly to teachers and ratings of the teachers by enforce discipline. students mutually affect each other. b. Students in the East German collectivist d. In low-achieving schools, teachers tend to culture scored higher in self-efficacy than cultivate self-efficacy among students by those in the West German individualist giving them achievable goals. culture.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Bandura's Theory REF: 359 FEEDBACK: Classroom teachers in Germany who were high in self-efficacy were rated by their students as being more effective teachers than those low in self-efficacy. In addition, those whose students rated them high in quality of classroom instruction developed higher levels of self-efficacy.

65. According to research conducted on Bandura's theory, which of the following statements is true of the factors influenced by self-efficacy? a. There is a significant positive relationship c. Self-efficacy affects several aspects of between self-efficacy and academic physical well-being, including pain performance. tolerance and living a healthy lifestyle. b. Gender differences in self-efficacy can d. All of these are correct. influence our choice of career.

ANS: D PTS: 1

A-HEAD: Research on Bandura's Theory REF: 359, 360 FEEDBACK: Self-efficacy affects academic performance, physical health, career choice and job performance. There is a significant positive relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance. Self-efficacy affects several aspects of physical well-being, including pain tolerance and living a healthy lifestyle. Gender differences in self-efficacy can influence our choice of career.

66. People high in self-efficacy: a. set higher goals for themselves on the job. b. focus on personal deficiencies and fear of failure. c. tend to be women over age 60. d. consistently perform poorly at school.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Bandura's Theory REF: 359–360 FEEDBACK: Employees high in self-efficacy set higher personal goals and are more committed to them than employees low in self-efficacy. Those high in self-efficacy tend to focus on analyzing and solving problems on the job. Those low in self-efficacy focus on personal deficiencies and the fear of failure, which can undermine their productivity.

67. In the context of collective efficacy, which of the following statements is true? a. The level of collective efficacy in sports c. Collective efficacy in families occur teams is directly proportional to their where children are raised with strict previous performance. guidance from parents. b. Violence and criminal behavior increases d. Office departments which are high in the feeling of collective efficacy in collective efficacy have been shown to neighborhoods to combat violence. increase on-the-job stress.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Bandura's Theory REF: 362–363 FEEDBACK: The value of collective efficacy has been studied in college basketball teams. It was demonstrated that a high sense of collective efficacy arose in teams that had highly competent leaders early in the season and that had won most of their games in the previous season. Teams with the highest collective efficacy at the beginning of the new season placed better in end-of-season standings than did teams that scored low in collective efficacy.

68. In a study of adults in Germany, those who scored high in personal self-efficacy: a. posted more formal and professional photos on Instagram. b. presented themselves as relaxed, funny, and cool on their Facebook pages. c. demonstrated a higher tendency of participating in cyberbullying. d. were far less likely to become addicted to Internet use.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Research on Bandura's Theory REF: 364 FEEDBACK: Adults in Germany who scored high in self-efficacy regarding their ability to make a favorable impression on other people tended to post more informal personal photos (such as at a party) and to present themselves as relaxed, funny, and cool on their Facebook pages than those low in that aspect of personal self-efficacy.

69. According to critics of Bandura's approach, which of the following is a limitation of the social learning theory? a. It is subjective and unsuitable to laboratory methods of investigation. b. With recent changes in society, its usefulness and validity are being questioned. c. It is incompatible with the functional, pragmatic spirit of American psychology. d. It ignores the distinctly human inner aspects of the personality.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Reflections on Bandura's Theory REF: 366 FEEDBACK: Social-learning theory focuses on overt behavior. Critics charge that this emphasis ignores distinctly human inner aspects of personality such as motivation and emotion. The theory is objective and amenable to laboratory methods of investigation, making it compatible with the emphasis in experimental psychology. Observational learning and behavior modification are compatible with the functional, pragmatic spirit of American psychology.

TRUE/FALSE 1. A distinctive feature of Bandura's theory is vicarious reinforcement, which involves observing the behavior of other people.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 342 FEEDBACK: Rather than experiencing reinforcement ourselves for each of our actions, we learn through vicarious reinforcement by observing the behavior of other people and the consequences of that behavior. This focus on learning by observation or example, rather than always by direct reinforcement, is a distinctive feature of Bandura's theory.

2. Bandura believes that we have trouble regulating our own behavior when it comes to visualizing or imagining consequences if we have not experienced them ourselves.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 342 FEEDBACK: We can regulate and guide our behavior by visualizing or imagining the consequences of the behaviors we observe, even though we have not experienced them ourselves. Unlike Skinner, Bandura believed that cognitive processes can influence observational learning.

3. Skinner proposed that our cognitive processes act as mediators between stimulus and response.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 342 FEEDBACK: No direct link exists between stimulus and response or between behavior and reinforcer, as Skinner proposed. Instead, our cognitive processes mediate between the two.

4. Modeling is observing the behavior of a model and repeating the behavior ourselves.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 343 FEEDBACK: Modeling is a behavior-modification technique that involves observing the behavior of others (the models) and participating with them in performing the desired behavior. Bandura did not deny the importance of direct reinforcement as a way to influence behavior, but he challenged the notion that behavior can be learned or changed only through direct reinforcement.

5. In the Bobo doll experiments by Bandura, the experimental group was found to be less aggressive than the control group.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 344 FEEDBACK: In the Bobo doll experiments conducted by Bandura, when the children were left alone with the doll, they modeled their behavior after the example they had just witnessed. Their behavior was compared with that of a control group of children who had not seen the model attack the Bobo doll. The experimental group was found to be twice as aggressive as the control group.

6. Modeling determines not only what the subjects did but also what they looked at and perceived.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 345 FEEDBACK: Modeling affects the subjects' perceptual responses to the stimuli. In other words, modeling determines not only what the subjects did but also what they looked at and perceived.

7. Bandura believed that violent behavior is learned by imitating aggressive behavior seen in television, movies, and video games.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 345–346 FEEDBACK: Bandura was an outspoken critic of the type of society that provides the wrong models for its children, particularly the examples of violent behavior that are standard fare on television and in movies and video games. His research clearly shows the effect of models on behavior.

8. Bandura believed that only positive behaviors such as strength, courage, and optimism will be reinforced when children learn these behaviors from parents or other models.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 346 FEEDBACK: Among the many behaviors children acquire through modeling are non-rational fears. A child who sees that his or her parents are fearful during thunderstorms or are nervous around strangers will easily adopt these anxieties and carry them into adulthood with little awareness of their origin.

9. According to Bandura, a child who becomes fearful during thunderstorms or is nervous around strangers may have acquired such fears from his or her parents.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 346 FEEDBACK: Among the many behaviors children acquire through modeling are non-rational fears. A child who sees that his or her parents are fearful during thunderstorms or are nervous around strangers will easily adopt these anxieties and carry them into adulthood with little awareness of their origin.

10. Adults who appear to successfully solve problems they face are more likely to be imitated by children.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 346 FEEDBACK: People are more likely to be influenced by models their own age. One's peers who appear to have successfully solved the problems one is facing are highly influential models.

11. The attentional process in observational learning involves retaining or remembering a model's behavior so that we can imitate or repeat it at a later time.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 349 FEEDBACK: The retention process involves retaining or remembering the model's behavior so that we can imitate or repeat it at a later time. The attentional process involves developing our cognitive processes and perceptual skills so that we can pay sufficient attention to a model, and perceiving the model accurately enough, to imitate displayed behavior.

12. Hindrance in the ability to perform actions decreases with the increase in the skill-level of those actions.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 349–350 FEEDBACK: Although we may have attended to, retained, and rehearsed symbolic representations of a model's behavior, we still may not be able to perform the behavior correctly. This is most likely to occur with highly skilled actions that require the mastery of many component behaviors.

13. Self-reinforcement appears conceptually similar to what other theorists call the id or the psyche.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 351 FEEDBACK: Self-reinforcement appears conceptually similar to what other theorists call conscience or superego, but Bandura denies that it is the same.

14. When we reach a certain level of achievement, it may no longer challenge, motivate, or satisfy us, so we raise the standard and require more of ourselves.

ANS: T

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 351 FEEDBACK: When we reach a certain level of achievement, it may no longer challenge, motivate, or satisfy us, so we raise the standard and require more of ourselves. Failure to achieve may result in lowering the standard to a more realistic level.

15. The most influential source of efficacy judgments is performance attainment.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy REF: 352 FEEDBACK: The most influential source of efficacy judgments is performance attainment. Previous success experiences provide direct indications of our level of mastery and competence.

ESSAY 1. Define modeling. Describe the Bobo doll study which demonstrates the process of modeling.

ANS: Modeling is a behavior-modification technique that involves observing the behavior of others (the models) and participating with them in performing the desired behavior.

Bandura's now-classic demonstration of modeling involves the Bobo doll, an inflatable plastic figure about 4 feet tall. In Bandura's studies, preschool children watched an adult hit and kick Bobo. When the children were left alone with the doll, they modeled their behavior after the example they had just witnessed. Their behavior was compared with that of a control group of children who had not seen the model attack the Bobo doll. The experimental group was found to be twice as aggressive as the control group.

The intensity of the aggressive behavior remained the same in the experimental subjects whether the model was seen live, on television, or as a cartoon character. The effect of the model in all three media was to elicit aggressive behavior that was not displayed with the same strength by children who had not seen the models.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 343–344 2. Describe how modeling is influenced by the reward consequences associated with behavior.

ANS: The reward consequences linked to a particular behavior can affect the extent of the modeling and even override the impact of the characteristics of the models and the observers. A high-status model may lead us to imitate a certain behavior, but if the rewards are not meaningful to us, we will discontinue the behavior and be less likely to be influenced by that model in the future.

Seeing a model being rewarded or punished for displaying a particular behavior affects imitation. In a Bobo doll study, some of the children watched as the model who hit the Bobo doll was given praise and a soda and candy. Another group of children saw the model receive verbal and physical punishment for the same aggressive behavior. The children who observed the punishment displayed significantly less aggression toward the Bobo doll than did the children who saw the model being reinforced.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning REF: 348

3. List the four interrelated processes associated with observational learning, and describe them briefly with an example.

ANS: Bandura analyzed the nature of observational learning and found it to be governed by four related mechanisms, which are as follows: a) Attentional processes: They involve developing our cognitive processes and perceptual skills so that we can pay sufficient attention to a model, and perceiving the model accurately enough, to imitate displayed behavior. Example: Staying awake during driver's education class. b) Retention processes: They involve retaining or remembering the model's behavior so that we can imitate or repeat it at a later time; for this, we use our cognitive processes to form mental images and verbal descriptions of the model's behavior. Example: Taking notes on the lecture material or the video of a person driving a car. c) Production processes: They involve translating the mental images or verbal symbolic representations of the model's behavior into our own overt behavior by physically producing the responses and receiving feedback on the accuracy of our continued practice. Example: Getting in a car with an instructor to practice shifting gears and dodging the traffic cones in the school parking lot. d) Incentive and motivational processes: They involve perceiving that the model's behavior leads to a reward and thus expecting that our learning—and successful performance—of the same behavior will lead to similar consequences. Example: Expecting that when we have mastered driving skills, we will pass the state test and receive a driver's license.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Processes of Observational Learning REF: 348–349 4. Describe the aspects of development of self-efficacy during childhood.

ANS: Self-efficacy develops gradually over time. Infants begin to develop self-efficacy as they try to exercise greater influence over their physical and social environments. They learn about the consequences of their own abilities such as their physical prowess, social skills, and language competence. These abilities are in almost constant use acting on the environment, primarily through their effects on parents. Ideally, parents are responsive to their growing child's activities and attempts to communicate, and will provide stimulating surroundings that permit the child the freedom to grow and explore.

The significance of parental influence diminishes as the child's world expands and admits additional models such as siblings, peers, and other adults. Like Adler, Bandura considered birth order within the family to be important. He argued that first-born children and only children have different bases for judging their own abilities than do later-born children.

Teachers influence self-efficacy judgments through their impact on the development of cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills, which are vital to efficient adult functioning. Children often rate their own competence in terms of their teachers' evaluations of them.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Developmental Stages of Self-Efficacy REF: 353, 354

Chapter 14—Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding Happiness MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Julian Rotter's relationship with his brothers was a good example of: a. Freud's concept of life instincts. c. Erikson's concept of the identity crisis. b. Adler's concept of birth order. d. Rogers's concept of self-insight.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 372 FEEDBACK: Rotter (1916–2014) was born in Brooklyn, New York, the youngest of three brothers.

He said they "fit quite well into Adler's descriptions of the oldest, the middle, and the 'fighting' youngest child."

2. When Rotter began teaching at Ohio State, _____ was the director of the clinical psychology program. a. B. F. Skinner c. Albert Bandura b. George Kelly d. Karen Horney ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 372 FEEDBACK: Rotter served as a psychologist with the U.S. Army during World War II and then accepted a teaching position at Ohio State University, where George Kelly was director of the clinical psychology program.

3. At Ohio State University, Julian Rotter advanced his: a. social-learning approach to psychology. b. behaviorist approach to psychology. c. psychoanalytic approach to psychology. d. cognitive approach to psychology.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 372 FEEDBACK: At Ohio State, Rotter advanced his social-learning approach to personality. His research program attracted many outstanding graduate students who went on to productive careers.

4. Which of the following is a characteristic of people with an external locus of control? a. They enjoy greater mental and physical c. Their behavior is independent of the health than those who are high in internal internal cues. control. b. They see little value in exerting any effort d. They report lower anxiety, higher to change or improve their situation. elf-esteem, and greater happiness because of their accepting nature.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 372–373

FEEDBACK: People with an external locus of control believe that other people, fate, or luck control the rewards they receive. They believe that their own behaviors and abilities make no difference in the reinforcers they receive, see little value in exerting any effort to improve their situation. .

5. Which of the following is a characteristic of people who have an internal locus of control? a. They believe that other people, fate, or c. They see little value in exerting any effort luck control the rewards they receive. to improve their situation. b. They are less susceptible to attempts to d. They are convinced that they are influence them. powerless with respect to outside forces.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 373 FEEDBACK: Internal locus-of-control people believe they have a firm grip on their own lives and behave accordingly. In addition, internals are less susceptible to attempts to influence them and place a higher value on their skills.

6. Rotter assessed the locus of control of research participants with the use of: a. physiological observations. c. projective tests. b. achievement tests. d. self-report inventories.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 373 FEEDBACK: Rotter developed self-report inventories to assess locus of control. The Internal-External (I-E) Scale consists of 23 forced-choice alternatives. From each pair of items, subjects select the one that best describes their beliefs.

7. Rotter developed the Internal-External (I-E) Scale to measure his concept of locus of control. Another scale to assess locus of control is the: a. Children's Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Scale. b. Inventory of Internal-External Scale for Children. c. Functional Analysis Scale of Internal-External Measures. d. Personal Construct Locus of Control Scale.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 373 FEEDBACK: A scale to assess locus of control is the Children's Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Scale, a widely used 40-item test that has been translated into two dozen languages. Variants of the I-E Scale measure specific behaviors such as the relationship between locus of control and factors relating to successful dieting and weight loss as well as performance in a variety of situations.

8. In the context of locus of control, college students generally have been found to have an _____ rather than an _____ orientation. a. internal; external c. emotional; experiential b. external; internal d. experiential; emotional ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 373, 374

FEEDBACK: Attempts to control our external environment begin in infancy, becoming more pronounced between ages 8 and 14. College students generally have been found to show an internal rather than an external orientation.

9. According to Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995, people apparently become more internally oriented as they grow older, reaching a peak in: a. old age. c. their mid-20s. b. middle age. d. their mid-80s.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 374 FEEDBACK: People apparently become more internally oriented as they grow older, reaching a peak in middle age. Also, a study of men and women in the United States, ages 60 to 75, found that their internal locus of control was significantly improved by cognitive training.

10. According to studies conducted in Africa on ethnic group comparisons of locus of control, native Africans, like American-born Blacks in general, scored higher in external locus of control than did American-born _____. a. Arabs c. Asians b. Whites d. Hispanics ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 374 FEEDBACK: Studies conducted in Africa found that native Africans, like American-born Blacks in general, scored higher in external locus of control than did American-born Whites (Okeke, Draguns, Sheku, & Allen, 1999). In the African nation of Botswana, Black male and female adolescents scored higher in external locus of control than did White adolescents in the United States.

11. A comparison of adolescent Caucasian, Hispanic, Asian, and African-American teenagers in 2015 found that having a more internal locus of control was considered to be more important for the _____ than for the other groups. a. Caucasians c. African-Americans b. Hispanics d. Asians ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 374 FEEDBACK: A comparison of adolescent Caucasian, Hispanic, Asian, and African-American teenagers found that having a more internal locus of control was considered to be more important for the Caucasians but less so for the other groups (Kang, Chang, Chen, & Greenberger, 2015). Research on Hispanic immigrants to the United States showed that those with a higher internal locus of control were more effective in adapting to the demands of their new culture and in dealing with the effects of discrimination or being marginalized (Llamas & Consoli, 2014).

12. In the context of studies on cultural differences, students from more collectivist cultures scored _____, while those students from individualistic cultures tended to score _____. a. high in external locus of control; low in internal locus of control b. high in external locus of control; high in internal locus of control c. equally in external locus of control; high in external locus of control

d. low in external locus of control; equally in external locus of control ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 374 FEEDBACK: American culture traditionally prizes self-reliance and individualism, whereas Asian culture emphasizes collectivism, community reliance, and interdependence. A large-scale comparison of 18 cultures confirmed that people in collectivist cultures such as China scored higher in external control than those in Westernized countries who placed a greater value on having an internal locus of control (Cheng, Cheung, Chio, & Chan, 2013).

13. In the context of collectivist versus individualistic cultural differences, for Asians, success is viewed: a. more as a direct result of their own behavior. b. less as a result of chance. c. less as a consequence of divine blessings. d. more as a product of external than internal factors.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 374 FEEDBACK: In general, Asians have been shown to be more externally oriented than Americans, a finding that may be explained in terms of different cultural beliefs. Therefore, for Asians, success is viewed more as a product of external than internal factors.

14. According to Uba, 1994, Chinese residents of Hong Kong were _____ externally oriented than Americans of Chinese heritage, and Americans of Chinese heritage were _____ externally oriented than Americans of European heritage. a. less; more b. less; less c. more; less d. more; more ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 374 FEEDBACK: The more contact Asians have with Americans, however, the more internally oriented they become. For example, Chinese residents of Hong Kong measured higher in external locus of control than did Americans of Chinese heritage, and Americans of Chinese heritage were more externally oriented than Americans of European heritage (Uba, 1994).

15. In the context of behavioral differences due to locus of control, research in Korea shows that people who scored _____ were more likely to persist in online college programs than those who scored _____. a. high in external academic locus of control; c. low in internal academic locus of control; low in internal academic locus of control high in internal academic locus of control b. low in internal academic locus of control; d. high in internal academic locus of control; high in external academic locus of control low in internal academic locus of control ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 375

FEEDBACK: Research in Korea found that people high in internal academic locus of control (believing they would do well in school) were more likely to persist in an online college program than those who scored low in internal academic locus of control (Joo, Joung, & Sim, 2011). A study of college students in Turkey found that those high in internal academic locus of control were far less likely to become addicted to Internet use than those who scored low in internal academic locus of control (Iskender & Akin, 2010).

16. In the context of mental health differences due to locus of control, people higher in internal locus of control experience less: a. benefit from therapy for addiction. c. job satisfaction. b. anxiety and depression. d. philanthropism.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 375–376 FEEDBACK: People high in internal control experience less anxiety and depression, are less likely to be lonely or attempt suicide, and find greater meaning in life. People suffering from various kinds of addiction have been found to benefit from therapy when they are able to develop a greater internal locus of control.

17. In the context of physical health differences due to health locus of control, _____ people may be physically healthier than _____ people. a. negatively oriented; positively oriented c. internally oriented; externally oriented b. outward oriented; self- oriented d. past- oriented; future- oriented ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 376 FEEDBACK: Internally oriented people tend to be physically healthier than externally oriented people and to have lower blood pressure and fewer heart attacks. When they do develop cardiac problems, they cooperate better with the hospital staff and are released earlier than patients who are externally oriented.

18. According to physical health differences studies, internals are more likely to: a. wear seat belts and exercise regularly. b. have high blood pressure. c. be more at risk for HIV. d. have more eating disorders.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 376 FEEDBACK: Some studies show that internals tend to be more cautious about their health and are more likely to wear seat belts, eat well, exercise regularly, and quit smoking (Cobb-Clark, Kassenboehmer, & Schurer, 2014; Phares, 1993; Seeman, Seeman, & Sayles, 1985; Segall & Wynd, 1990). Internally oriented people tend to be physically healthier than externally oriented people and to have lower blood pressure and fewer heart attacks.

19. Evidence from the study of Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2016, suggests that locus of control is directly related to: a. successive approximation. c. parental behavior.

b. peer pressure.

d. genetic traits.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 376 FEEDBACK: Evidence suggests that locus of control is learned in childhood and is directly related to parental behavior (Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2015). External control beliefs are likely to be expressed by children reared in homes without an adult male role model.

20. According to Schneewind, 1995, those children in large single-parent families headed by women tended to have a(n)_____ locus of control. a. internal c. reinforced b. external d. rational ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 376 FEEDBACK: External control beliefs tend to increase with the number of siblings. Children in large single-parent families headed by women were found to be more likely to develop an external locus of control (Schneewind, 1995).

21. Which of the following is true according to research on the effect of the locus of control on mental and physical health? a. Internally oriented people have higher c. People with greater internal locus of blood pressure and greater probability of control do not find therapy particularly heart attack than externally oriented beneficial when they suffer from people. addiction. b. People who are low in external control are d. In cases of cardiac problems, internally more likely to attempt suicide due to oriented people tend to get back to work anxiety and depression. sooner than those with external locus of control.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 376 FEEDBACK: Internally oriented people tend to be physically healthier than externally oriented people and to have lower blood pressure and fewer heart attacks. When they do develop cardiac problems, they cooperate better with the hospital staff and are released earlier than patients who are externally oriented.

22. According to Freed & Tompson, 2011, children whose mothers were depressed and had little education or income were likely to: a. have an extraverted personality. c. develop an internal locus of control. b. have a high level of self-efficacy. d. develop an external locus of control.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 376–377 FEEDBACK: Later research shows that children whose mothers are depressed and have little formal education or income are likely to develop an external locus of control (Freed & Tompson, 2011).

Children raised in low-income families have a lower sense of control in all aspects of their lives than

children from higher-income families (Mittal & Griskevicius, 2014).

23. The concepts of Bandura's _____ and of Rotter's _____ have a strong relationship according to the large-scale research program using both college students and sales representatives as subjects. a. self-esteem; self-concept c. self-control; parental control b. logical forms; reinforcement d. self-efficacy; locus of control ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 377 FEEDBACK: A large-scale research program using both college students and sales representatives as subjects reported a strong relationship between Rotter's concept of locus of control and Bandura's concept of self-efficacy (Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002). Some researchers have suggested that both ideas deal with our perception or belief about the degree of control we have over events in our life and our ability to cope with them.

24. Zuckerman conducted research on a limited-domain aspect of personality called: a. learned helplessness. c. self-efficacy. b. sensation seeking. d. superstitious behavior.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 378 FEEDBACK: Beginning in the 1970s, psychologist Marvin Zuckerman, at the University of Delaware, conducted research on a limited-domain aspect of personality he called sensation seeking. This trait has a large hereditary component initially noted by Eysenck.

25. According to Zuckerman, those who have a desire for intense experience and have the willingness to take risks for the sake of such experience are people who are: a. self-absorbed. c. sensitive. b. safe players. d. sensation seeking.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 378 FEEDBACK: Zuckerman describes sensation seeking as a desire for "varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experience, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experience." We might call it simply "taking chances."

26. Zuckerman assessed sensation seeking in his subjects with the use of: a. questionnaires. c. projective techniques. b. multiple observations. d. case studies.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 378 FEEDBACK: To measure sensation seeking Zuckerman constructed the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS), a 40-item paper-and-pencil questionnaire. When developing this test, he administered it to many people whose behavior corresponded to his definition of sensation seeking.

27. Zuckerman used the _____, a 40-item paper and pencil questionnaire as his method of research. a. Correlation Coefficient Measure c. Sensation Seeking Scale b. Scientific Correspondence Scale d. Group Analysis Survey ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 378 FEEDBACK: To measure sensation seeking Zuckerman constructed the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS), a 40-item paper-and-pencil questionnaire. When developing this test, he administered it to many people whose behavior corresponded to his definition of sensation seeking.

28. According to Zuckerman, a person who has a job as a police officer or a race-car driver is: a. self-actualized c. sensation seeking. b. ego dystonic. d. light headed.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 378 FEEDBACK: To measure sensation seeking Zuckerman constructed the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS), a 40-item paper-and-pencil questionnaire. When developing this test, he administered it to many people whose behavior corresponded to his definition of sensation seeking. These included people who volunteered for psychological experiments that exposed them to novel experiences and people whose jobs involved physical danger (police officers and race-car drivers).

29. Zuckerman used the method of _____ to identify sensation seeking. a. ANOVA c. standard deviation b. factor analysis d. z-test ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 379 FEEDBACK: Using the method of factor analysis, Zuckerman identified four components of sensation seeking. They are thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.

30. According to Zuckerman, the need to seek release in unrestrained social activities such as risky sex, impulsiveness, aggressiveness, and antisocial behaviors comprise the _____ component of sensation seeking. a. disinhibition c. boredom susceptibility b. experience seeking d. thrill and adventure seeking ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 379 FEEDBACK: Using the method of factor analysis, Zuckerman identified four components of sensation seeking. The need to seek release in uninhibited social activities such as risky sex, impulsiveness, aggressiveness, and antisocial behaviors is called disinhibition.

31. In general, _____ people are more inclined to seek adventure, risk, and novel experiences than _____ people. a. older; younger c. cheerful; depressed

b. depressed; cheerful

d. younger; older

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 379 FEEDBACK: Zuckerman found that differences in sensation seeking occur at a very young age. In general, younger people are more inclined to seek adventure, risk, and novel experiences than older people.

32. According to the test scores on subjects ranging from adolescents to 60-year-olds, sensation seeking begins to _____ during the middle school years and then _____ in one's 20s. a. stall; increase c. decrease; increase b. increase; decrease d. increase; stall ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 380 FEEDBACK: Test scores on subjects ranging from adolescents to 60-year-olds showed that sensation seeking begins to increase during the middle school years and decrease in one's twenties (Lynne-Landsman, Graber, Nichols, & Botvin, 2011). No significant differences were reported as a function of educational level.

33. On the Sensation Seeking Scale, college students scored _____ in comparison with those who did not attend college. a. poorly c. significantly higher b. significantly lower d. similarly ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 380 FEEDBACK: No significant differences were reported as a function of educational level. College students did not score significantly higher or lower on the SSS than those who did not attend college.

34. In the context of racial differences in sensation seekers, Asians scored _____ on the Sensation Seeking Scale than did people in Western countries. a. lower c. higher b. higher than Arabs d. lower than Arabs ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 380 FEEDBACK: Researchers found significant racial and cultural differences in SSS scores. Asians scored lower on the SSS than people in Western countries, and white subjects scored higher in sensation seeking than non-Whites.

35. Pro-social risk takers, such as police officers and firefighters, had significantly _____ sensation seeking scores than anti-social risk takers, such as drug addicts and criminals. a. higher c. lower b. better d. equal ANS: C

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 381 FEEDBACK: Research has identified three types of risk takers: antisocial risk takers, adventurous risk takers, and pro-social risk takers. Those identified as antisocial (such as drug addicts and criminals) or as adventurous (mountain climbers and sky divers) showed significantly higher SSS scores than pro-social risk takers (police officers and firefighters).

36. Which of the following is true about high sensation seekers? a. They seek newer experiences while c. They have a high tendency of engaging in willing to be settled in a particular risky heterosexual behavior than geographical location. homosexual behavior. b. They are most likely to be found among d. They are less likely to establish social educated college-going population than relationships at their workplace. those who never went to college.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 382 FEEDBACK: High sensation seekers were also less likely to establish social relationships at their place of employment or try to obtain information from co-workers or supervisors. The researchers suggested that such lower level jobs might not be sufficiently stimulating for high sensation seekers.

37. In the context of differences in color choices due to difference in sensation seeking, high sensation seekers show a preference for: a. light blue. c. red. b. yellow. d. green.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 382 FEEDBACK: Studies in Israel showed that high sensation seekers are more likely to cross a street on foot against a red light. They show a preference for so-called hot colors such as red and orange, rather than pastels such as light blue (Rosenbloom, 2006a, 2006b).

38. High sensation-seeking scores correlate positively with _____, as described by Jung and measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. a. neuroticism c. introversion b. composure d. extraversion ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 382 FEEDBACK: High sensation-seeking scores also correlated positively with extraversion as described

by Carl Jung and measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Morehouse, Farley, & Youngquist, 1990). However, investigations of sensation seeking and neuroticism showed no correlation.

39. In the context of personality differences in sensation seeking, high scores on the Sensation Seeking Scale correlate with a high degree of _____. a. autonomy c. neuroticism b. variability d. basic anxiety

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 382–383 FEEDBACK: High scores on the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) correlated with a high degree of autonomy. High scorers openly express their emotions. They are assertive in relating to others, nonconforming, and confirmed risk takers.

40. According to Martin Seligman, a condition resulting from the perception that we have no control over our environment is called: a. basic anxiety. c. learned helplessness. b. the Jonah complex. d. depression.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 385 FEEDBACK: In the mid-1960s, psychologist Martin Seligman at the University of Pennsylvania, who would later lead the happiness and positive psychology trend in psychology, began research on a limited-domain facet of personality called learned helplessness. It is defined as a condition resulting from the perception that we have no control over our environment.

41. In the context of Seligman's study of learned helplessness in dogs, which of the following statements is true? a. The first part of the experiment was based on a Freudian conditioning situation. b. In the second part, the dogs displayed the required operant behavior by jumping over the low barrier in the box. c. The learned reaction of the dogs in the first part generalized to the second part, even though a means of escape was available. d. The dogs were being conditioned to associate a high-pitched sound with the smell of food.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 386 FEEDBACK: Seligman suggested that perhaps during the first part of the experiment the dogs had learned that they were helpless to change their situation. When the tone sounded, there was nothing they could do to avoid the paired shock. This learned reaction apparently generalized to the second part of the experiment, even though a means of escape was available.

42. Which of the following phrases is most likely to be made by a person demonstrating learned helplessness? a. "The Lord willing and the creek don't rise, we'll have crops this year!" b. "If they can't do anything about this, then neither can I!" c. "I just hate going back to the same place and meeting the same people all over again!" d. "A wise person does not go back to a wishing well that has no luck!"

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 387

FEEDBACK: Learned helplessness was found to occur after human subjects simply observed helpless models, especially when the subjects recognized similarities between themselves and the models (Chamber & Hammonds, 2014). The experimenters in these and many other studies suggested that the subjects were saying, in effect, "If the models can't do anything about this, then neither can I." 43. According to Seligman, a(n) _____ explanatory style can prevent learned helplessness from spreading to other aspects of life. a. optimistic c. radical b. pessimistic d. cynical ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 388 FEEDBACK: Seligman proposed the concept of explanatory style to account for the factor of optimism versus pessimism. An optimistic explanatory style prevents helplessness; a pessimistic explanatory style spreads helplessness to all facets of life.

44. If you expect good things to happen to you, then you are a(n): a. pessimist. c. idealist. b. realist. d. optimist.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 388 FEEDBACK: Seligman expanded his work on learned helplessness to encompass the factor of optimism versus pessimism. Put simply, optimists are people who expect good things to happen to them; pessimists are people who expect bad things to happen to them.

45. According to Seligman, people with an optimistic explanatory style tend to: a. take responsibility for their care when they are experiencing health problems. b. believe their own actions will make no difference when they experience health problems. c. be found more among Americans with Chinese heritage than those with European heritage. d. have an outlook on their health similar to those who have a pessimistic explanatory style.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 389 FEEDBACK: According to Seligman, people with an optimistic explanatory style tend to be healthier than people with a pessimistic explanatory style. Pessimists tend to believe that their actions are of little consequence and, as a result, are unlikely to try to prevent illness by changing their behavior with regard to smoking, diet and exercise, or timely medical attention.

46. According to a study of young adults by Peterson, Maier, & Seligman in 1993, when optimists did get sick, they were more likely to: a. recover slowly compared with a pessimist. c. be unable to cope with pain. b. be active and not take enough rest. d. consult a physician.

ANS: D

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 389 FEEDBACK: A study of young adults found that optimists were less likely than pessimists to get sick.

However, when optimists did get sick, they were far more likely to take responsibility for their care, such as resting, consulting a physician, or drinking appropriate fluids (Peterson, Maier, & Seligman, 1993).

47. According to studies by Peterson & Seligman, 1987, et al., _____ were shown to develop stronger immune systems and to be more likely to recover from heart attacks. a. realists c. optimists b. pessimists d. wealthy adults ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 389 FEEDBACK: Optimists seem to develop stronger immune systems and are more likely to recover from heart attacks and to experience less pain and fewer symptoms following heart surgery than pessimists (Peterson & Seligman, 1987; Peterson, Maier, & Seligman, 1993; Ronaldson, Poole, Kidd, Leigh, Jahangiri, & Steptoe, 2014).

48. In context of the cultural differences in explanatory styles, Japanese college students were found to be more _____ than American students. a. optimistic c. radical b. pessimistic d. sensation seeking ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 390 FEEDBACK: A comparison of college students in the United States and Japan found that Japanese students were more pessimistic than American students. The American students were far more likely to predict that positive events would happen to them rather than to other people. In contrast, Japanese students believed that positive events were much more likely to happen to other people (Chang, Asakawa, & Sanna, 2001).

49. Which of the following is true of the findings of studies on explanatory styles? a. Contrary to pessimists, optimists pay attention to positive stimuli only. b. People under age 35 tend to have a more optimistic explanatory style than those who are over 65. c. Stressful life experiences can decrease the level of optimism in an individual. d. Younger optimists also tended to underreport their weight, whereas elderly optimists claimed the opposite.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 390–391 FEEDBACK: Stressful life experiences can affect one's level of optimism. A group of adults who were

primary caregivers for relatives with Alzheimer's disease were compared on measures of optimism-pessimism with a group of adults who were not acting as caregivers. The caregivers grew increasingly pessimistic over a four-year period and experienced greater anxiety, stress, and physical health complaints (Robinson-Whelen, Kim, MacCallum, & Kiecolt-Glaser, 1997).

50. Which of the following statements is true of the effect of optimism on cognitive functioning? a. Optimism alone influences cognitive c. Pessimists are more often inflexible, rigid, functioning. and likely to give up pursuing their goals. b. Pessimists are more likely to pay attention d. Optimists are more likely to pay attention to both positive and negative stimuli to only positive stimuli and to ignore equally. negative stimuli.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 391–392 FEEDBACK: In research, students who scored high on pessimism were more likely to pay attention to negative stimuli; students who scored high on optimism attended to both positive and negative stimuli (Segerstrom, 2001). A study of college students in Germany found that optimists were flexible and adaptable in their cognitive activities, whereas pessimists were more often inflexible, rigid, and likely to give up pursuing their goals (Weber, Vollmann, & Renner, 2007).

51. According to Gibson & Sanbonmatsu, 2004, among college students gambling at a casino near their university, _____ were far more likely to continue gambling in the face of consistent losses. a. optimists c. introverts b. pessimists d. cynics ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 392 FEEDBACK: Among college students gambling at a casino near their university, the optimists were far more likely to continue gambling in the face of consistent losses, whereas the pessimists were more likely to stop. Apparently, the optimists maintained their positive expectations about winning even during a losing streak (Gibson & Sanbonmatsu, 2004).

52. According to Seligman, learned helplessness has been found to be related to: a. restlessness. c. excessive risk taking. b. depression. d. unrealistic goals.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 392 FEEDBACK: Seligman found a strong association between learned helplessness and depression. A major symptom of depression is the feeling of being unable to control life events. Seligman referred to depression as the "ultimate pessimism."

53. People who have a more _____ explanatory style recover more quickly from failure or negative life pressures. a. optimistic c. depressed

b. exciting

d. pessimistic

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 393 FEEDBACK: According to Seligman, the important difference between people who recover from temporary depression and those who do not is their explanatory style. "A pessimistic explanatory style changes learned helplessness from brief and local to long-lasting and general," he wrote. In optimists, a failure produces only brief demoralization.

54. According to Seligman, learned helplessness during infancy and early childhood can predispose us to a(n): a. secondary-process thought. c. primary-process thought. b. internal locus of control. d. pessimistic explanatory style.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 394 FEEDBACK: Although learned helplessness can occur throughout life, Seligman suggested that we are particularly vulnerable to developing those feelings in infancy and early childhood. During these formative years the experience of learned helplessness can predispose us to the pessimistic explanatory style (Seligman, 1975).

55. Which of the following is true about the life of Martin Seligman? a. He has admitted that he has a happy and c. He is an intelligent but laid-back person joyful life. who sees work as a necessary evil. b. His early school days was marked by a d. He resigned to psychology in the absence feeling of isolation. of other viable alternatives.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin Seligman: Positive Psychology REF: 395 FEEDBACK: Seligman attended to a private prep school in Albany, New York; most of the students came from wealthy upper-class families and Seligman felt like an outsider. He was keenly aware of the differences between him and the other boys, and as a result felt isolated and alone.

56. According to research on causes and characteristics of subjective well-being, which of the following has been found to be true? a. Happiness leads to the kinds of behavior c. In multicultural societies, subjective which bring about success. well-being is high for people with a strong ethnic identity. b. External locus of control has a strong d. The relationship between life satisfaction positive correlation with life satisfaction. and future orientation was decreased with age for American managers.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin Seligman: Positive Psychology REF: 395, 396 FEEDBACK: Research tends to show that happiness, or subjective well-being, leads to the kinds of

behaviors that bring about success (Boehm & Lyubomirsky, 2008). People high in subjective well-being "are more likely to secure job interviews, to be evaluated more positively by supervisors once they obtain a job, [and] to show superior performance and productivity" (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005, p. 8).

57. According to a study among older Germans who were hospitalized with various disabilities, it was found that their _____ rather than their _____ decreased their subjective well-being a. attitude toward the infirmity; physical c. social support; age impairments b. age; social support d. physical impairments; attitude toward the infirmity ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin Seligman: Positive Psychology REF: 397 FEEDBACK: A study on older Germans hospitalized with various disabilities found that it was not the physical impairments that decreased subjective well-being as much as the person's attitude toward the infirmity. People with more positive attitudes scored higher in subjective well-being than those who expressed negative attitudes (Schneider, Driesch, Kruse, Nehen, & Heuft, 2006).

58. According to Munsey, 2010, people who do not have children report _____ happiness than people with children; those with _____ children are the least happy group. a. greater; very young c. more; hyperactive b. less; introvert d. lesser; older ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin Seligman: Positive Psychology REF: 398 FEEDBACK: Happiness has been shown to decline for husbands and for wives following the birth of their first child. In general, people who do not have children report greater happiness than people with children; those with very young children express the least happiness (Munsey, 2010).

59. According to a research in Germany in 2010, it was found the most important choices among life goals relating directly to happiness included the characteristics of one's partner, a healthy lifestyle: a. a wonderful career, a great house, and a c. a proper balance of work and leisure, and large bank account. social involvement. b. a modest amount of exercise, positive d. a lot of kids, contentment, and good thinking, and loving pets. hobbies.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin Seligman: Positive Psychology REF: 401 FEEDBACK: In Germany, research showed that the most important choices among life goals relating to happiness included the characteristics of one's partner, a healthy lifestyle, a proper balance between work and leisure, and social involvement (Headey, Muffels, & Wagner, 2010). People high in subjective well-being differ from people low in subjective well-being in terms of their motivations and goals.

TRUE/FALSE 1. Julian Rotter was first interested in Skinner's ideas and went on to become a behavioral theorist.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 372 FEEDBACK: In high school, Rotter discovered books about psychoanalysis by Freud and Adler. As a game, he began trying to interpret the dreams of his friends, and decided he wanted to become a psychologist.

2. People with an external locus of control think that other people, fate, or luck controls the rewards they receive.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 372 FEEDBACK: People with an external locus of control believe that other people, fate, or luck controls the rewards they receive. They are convinced that they are powerless with respect to outside forces.

3. According to a study of 14- and 15-year-olds in Norway, boys scored significantly higher than girls did on internal locus of control.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 374 FEEDBACK: Attempts to control our external environment begin in infancy, becoming more pronounced between ages 8 and 14. A study of 14- and 15-year-olds in Norway found that girls scored significantly higher than boys did on internal locus of control (Manger & Ekeland, 2000).

4. In general, Asians were shown to be more internally oriented than Americans.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 374 FEEDBACK: In general, Asians have been shown to be more externally oriented than Americans, a finding that may be explained in terms of different cultural beliefs. The more contact Asians have with Americans, however, the more internally oriented they become.

5. Disinhibition is an aversion to repetitive experiences, routine work, and predictable people, and a reaction of restless discontent when exposed to such situations.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 379 FEEDBACK: Using the method of factor analysis, Zuckerman identified four components of sensation seeking. One of the components is boredom susceptibility, which is an aversion to repetitive experiences, routine work, and predictable people, and a reaction of restless discontent when exposed to such situations.

6. Zuckerman asserted that experience seeking does not decline with age.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 380 FEEDBACK: Zuckerman stated, "When I was a young sensation seeker I imagined that after I retired I would do all kinds of adventurous things like hang gliding, parachute jumping, and learning to fly an airplane. But whereas thrill and adventure seeking and disinhibition fall rapidly with age, experience seeking does not change."

7. In the context of gender differences in sensation seeking, women scored higher on boredom susceptibility, whereas men scored higher on experience seeking.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 380 FEEDBACK: Significant gender differences were also found in the four individual components of sensation seeking. Men scored higher on thrill and adventure seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility, whereas women scored higher on experience seeking.

8. According to Levenson, the motives of the pro-social group of risk takers are related to factors other than thrill or adventure seeking.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 381 FEEDBACK: The motives of the pro-social group are related to factors other than thrill and adventure seeking (Levenson, 1990). High sensation seekers also appear more willing than low sensation seekers to relocate from familiar to unfamiliar surroundings and to travel to exotic places, even when the journey involves physical hazards.

9. Zuckerman's studies found that high sensation seekers are egocentrically introverted.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 382 FEEDBACK: Zuckerman and other researchers found that SSS scores, particularly on disinhibition, were related to Eysenck's factor of extraversion and to the asocial tendencies associated with psychoticism. As a result of this finding, Zuckerman suggested that high sensation seekers are egocentrically extraverted, which means they are concerned with other people only as an audience or a source of stimulation.

10. People who score higher on the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) are more likely to engage in daydreams.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 383 FEEDBACK: People who score higher on the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) tend to engage in what

Sigmund Freud called primary-process thought. They may have images, dreams, and daydreams so vivid that the distinction blurs between these internal stimuli and the real world. Zuckerman suggested that because high sensation seekers continually search for novel experiences, if they cannot find them in external situations they may look inward and create a fantasy world.

11. In Roberti's 2004 study, high scores on the SSS were positively correlated with the openness to experience and the agreeableness dimensions of the five-factor model of personality.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 383 FEEDBACK: High scores on the SSS were also positively correlated with the openness to experience and the agreeableness dimensions of the five-factor model of personality (Roberti, 2004).

12. Correlations between sensation seeking and intelligence test scores are generally highly positive.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 383 FEEDBACK: Correlations between sensation seeking and intelligence test scores are generally positive but not high. A study of children in the Republic of Mauritius, an island nation in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa, found that those who scored high in sensation seeking at age 3 scored 12 points higher on intelligence tests at age 11 than children who scored low in sensation seeking at age 3.

13. According to Seligman, people who are optimistic tend to be healthier that those who are pessimistic.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 389 FEEDBACK: According to Seligman, people with an optimistic explanatory style tend to be healthier than people with a pessimistic explanatory style. Pessimists tend to believe that their actions are of little consequence and, as a result, are unlikely to try to prevent illness.

14. Research has showed that in the face of adversity, pessimism, irrespective of how unrealistic it may be, is more desirable than unrealistic optimism.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 392 FEEDBACK: Unrealistic pessimism in the face of adversity, such as a serious illness, may also be harmful. Telling yourself that you will never be able to cope or overcome the situation (thus also exhibiting low self-efficacy) may lead to a lack of effort and, consequently, a lack of success (Blanton, Axsom, McClive, & Price, 2001).

15. Positive psychology was advanced in the late 1990s by Zuckerman during his term as president of the American Psychological Association.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin Seligman: Positive Psychology REF: 395 FEEDBACK: Positive psychology was advanced by Seligman in the late 1990s during his term as president of the American Psychological Association. He thought psychology should deal with the best of human functioning—happiness, excellence, and optimal human growth.

ESSAY 1. Describe the findings of three research studies on how the locus of control varies with mental health differences.

ANS: Students' answers will vary.

According to Owen, 2006; Schmitz, Neumann, & Oppermann, 2000, people high in internal locus of control are less likely to have emotional problems or to become alcoholics. They also cope better with stress, as was demonstrated in a study of nurses in Germany. Those who reported higher levels of work-related stress and burnout scored higher in external locus of control than those less bothered by stress and burnout.

Other research among diverse populations—including pregnant women, female prisoners, and police officers—found that those high in external control are more prone to fantasies, anxiety, depression, fear of death on the job (police), psychotic episodes, and hopelessness. They were also more likely to become victims of cyberbullying than those high in internal control.

According to Leontopoulou, 2006, college students in Greece, a family-oriented and highly protective culture, were followed as they dealt with the social and emotional challenges of leaving home, many for the first time. Students who scored high in internal control adjusted more readily than those high in external control.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Julian Rotter: Locus of Control REF: 375 2. Mention and describe in a sentence the components of sensation seeking. Differentiate between good and bad sensation seeking.

ANS: Using the method of factor analysis, Zuckerman identified four components of sensation seeking: • Thrill and adventure seeking: It is the desire to engage in physical activities involving speed, danger, novelty, and defiance of gravity such as parachuting, scuba diving, or bungee jumping.

• Experience seeking: It is the search for novel experiences through travel, music, art, or a nonconformist lifestyle with similarly inclined people.

• Disinhibition: It is the need to seek release in uninhibited social activities such as risky sex, impulsiveness, aggressiveness, and antisocial behaviors.

• Boredom susceptibility: It is an aversion to repetitive experiences, routine work, and predictable people, and a reaction of restless discontent when exposed to such situations.

Zuckerman later noted a distinction between so-called good and bad sensation seeking: • The good type, or non-impulsive socialized sensation seeking, involves the thrill- and adventure-seeking component.

• The bad type, impulsive unsocialized sensation seeking, consists of high scores on the disinhibition, experience seeking, and boredom susceptibility components, as well as high scores on Eysenck's psychoticism scale.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking REF: 379 3. Describe Martin Seligman's experiment with dogs that demonstrated learned helplessness. What was Seligman's reaction on seeing the findings?

ANS: In Seligman's initial experiments, dogs were harnessed and exposed to painful, though not physically harmful, electric shock. There was no action the dogs could take to escape or avoid the shock. After a series of shocks, the dogs were placed in a two-compartment shuttle box. As in the first experiment Seligman witnessed, a shock was administered through the floor of the compartment. The behavior of these dogs was compared with that of a control group of dogs that had not been exposed to the first electric shocks.

When the dogs in the control group were placed in the box and given the shock through the floor, they raced about the compartment until they accidentally leaped the barrier into the safe compartment. On succeeding trials, they jumped the barrier more quickly each time, having learned that this was the way to escape. The dogs in the experimental group, who had received electric shocks before being placed in the shuttle box, behaved differently. After getting the shock through the compartment floor, they raced around for about 30 seconds and then gave up, dropping to the floor and whimpering. They never learned to escape, not even when experimenters tried to entice them over the barrier with food. These dogs had given up; they had become passive and helpless and would make no attempt to change their situation.

On seeing the results, the experimenters were baffled, but Seligman thought he had a clue. He suggested that perhaps during the first part of the experiment the dogs had learned that they were helpless to change their situation. When the tone sounded, there was nothing they could do to avoid the paired shock. Why even try? This learned reaction apparently generalized to the second part of the experiment, even though a means of escape was available. Seligman wrote, "I was stunned by the implications. If dogs could learn something as complex as the futility of their actions, here was an analogy to human helplessness, one that could be studied in the laboratory. Helplessness was all around us—from the urban poor to the newborn child to the despondent patient with his face to the wall. Was this a laboratory model of human helplessness, one that could be used to understand how it comes about, how to cure it, how to prevent it, what drugs worked on it, and who was particularly vulnerable to it?"

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 386 4. Describe the effect of geography on subjective well-being as found by at least three different research studies.

ANS: A nationwide survey of Americans (ages 25–75) found different criteria for happiness in various parts of the country. People in the New England states considered physical well-being, autonomy, and not feeling constrained as necessary for subjective well-being. People in western south-central states (Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana) showed a greater concern with personal growth and feelings of cheerfulness and happiness as criteria for subjective well-being. Those in eastern south-central states (Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama) focused more on social responsibility and contributing to the welfare and well-being of others as necessary for their own feelings of happiness.

Other research found that subjective well-being was highest in the west coast and mountain states, moderately high in the east coast states, and lowest in the midwestern and southern states. Overall,

happiness was significantly related to higher income, higher level of education, and greater tolerance for the views of other people.

A study conducted in regions of Germany over a 24-year period found that as people aged, the life satisfaction of those living in affluent areas remained higher than those living in less affluent regions.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style REF: 399

Chapter 15—Personality in Perspective MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. All personality theories discuss _____ that are influential, to some degree, in shaping our personality. a. people c. predispositions b. factors d. constructs ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Introduction REF: 407 FEEDBACK: Each of the theories discusses factors that are influential, to some degree, in shaping our personality. Each theorist has contributed vital pieces to the puzzle.

2. Among the following personality theorists, whose theory has been influenced by genetic factors? a. Cattell c. Buss and Plomin b. Eysenck d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Genetic Factor REF: 407–408 FEEDBACK: Eysenck's dimensions of psychoticism, neuroticism, and extraversion, Cattell's sixteen source traits, and Buss and Plomin's three temperaments of emotionality, activity, and sociability illustrate the effect of genetic factors on the personality theories. There is increasingly strong evidence that many personality traits or dimensions are inherited.

3. Zuckerman's trait of sensation seeking is primarily influenced by: a. genetic factors. c. factor analysis. b. environmental factors. d. unconscious factors.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Genetic Factor REF: 408 FEEDBACK: Zuckerman's trait of sensation seeking is primarily influenced by genetic factors. The trait approach, with its emphasis on the impact of heredity, remains a necessary and useful area of personality research.

4. The _____ approach, with its emphasis on the impact of heredity, remains a useful and growing area of personality research. a. environmental c. factor b. construct d. trait ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Genetic Factor REF: 408 FEEDBACK: The trait approach, with its emphasis on the impact of heredity, remains a necessary and useful area of personality research. What remains to be determined is precisely how many inherited factors, traits, or temperaments there are.

5. According to research on genetic factors that influence our personality, which of the following statements is true? a. The traits of the five-factor model were c. In addition to major dimensions of found most consistently in developing personality, it has also been noted that countries such as Ethiopia, Lebanon, common everyday behaviors such as Malaysia, and Uganda. eating habits are influenced by genetics. b. Personality can be completely explained d. Studies with twins and non-twin siblings by heredity. in Germany and Belgium found increasing variability in traits with age from childhood to adulthood.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Genetic Factor REF: 408 FEEDBACK: In addition to finding genetic components in major dimensions of personality, researchers have also noted some common, everyday behaviors that are influenced by genetics. Studies in the United States, Finland, the French-speaking portion of Canada, and Sweden have found evidence of genetic influences on sexual attitudes, on eating behaviors in 2-year-olds, on depression in children who are victims of bullying, and on attitudes toward practicing playing a musical instrument.

6. According to several research studies, _____ effects on personality become increasingly important as we advance from childhood to adulthood. a. environmental c. physiological b. genetic d. superficial ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 408–409 FEEDBACK: Much research indicates that genetic effects are most important in infancy and the very early years, whereas environmental effects on personality become increasingly important as we advance from childhood to adulthood. Environmental influences continue to affect our behavior and personality throughout our life.

7. Adler argued that personality is influenced greatly by _____. a. birth order c. needs hierarchy b. neurotic needs d. self-efficacy ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Adler spoke of the impact of birth order, arguing that personality is influenced by our position in the family relative to our siblings. We are exposed to different parental and social problems and challenges as a function of the age difference between our siblings, or whether we have siblings at all.

8. Which of the following theorists recognized the importance of social environmental factors in shaping personality? a. Allport c. Adler b. Horney d. All of these are correct.

ANS: D PTS: 1

A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Allport noted that although genetics supplies the raw material of personality, it is the social environment that shapes the material into the finished product. Horney believed that the culture in which we grow up can produce different effects, such as those she found in the different kinds of neuroses exhibited by her German and her American patients. Adler spoke of the impact of birth order, arguing that personality is influenced by our position in the family relative to our siblings.

9. _____ believed that female inferiority develops from the way girls are treated in a male-dominated culture. a. Adler c. Fromm b. Freud d. Horney ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Horney spoke of female inferiority developing from the way girls are treated in a male-dominated culture. She suggested that women raised in a matriarchal culture might have higher self-esteem and different personality characteristics.

10. Allport noted that _____ supplies the raw material of personality, while _____ shapes the material into finished products. a. health; heredity b. society; self-actualization c. genetics; the social environment d. parental influence; a restricting environment ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Even Allport and Cattell, who inaugurated the trait approach to personality, agreed on the importance of the environment. Allport noted that although genetics supplies the raw material of personality, it is the social environment that shapes the material into the finished product.

11. Which of the following statements is true about the significance given to social and environmental factors by the personality theorists? a. Adler suggested that women raised in a c. Cattell argued that environmental factors matriarchal culture might have higher ultimately affect all of his 16 personality self-esteem. factors to some extent. b. Horney noted that social environment d. Allport's eight stages of psychosocial shapes the raw materials of personality development are innate, but the provided by genetics into finished environment determines the ways in products. which they are realized.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Cattell argued that heredity is more important for some of his 16 personality factors than for others, but environmental influences will ultimately affect every factor to some extent. Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development are innate, but the environment determines the ways in which those genetically based stages are realized.

12. According to Erikson, the formation of _____ identity is influenced by social and historical forces. a. id c. superego b. ego d. psyche ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Erikson believed that social and historical forces influence the formation of ego identity.

His eight stages of psychosocial development are innate, but the environment determines the ways in which those genetically based stages are realized.

13. _____ believed that environmental factors can either promote or inhibit the innate need for self-actualization. a. Horney c. Maslow b. Allport d. Cattell ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Maslow and Rogers contended that self-actualization was innate but recognized that environmental factors could either inhibit or promote the self-actualization need.

14. Wars and economic recessions can restrict life choices and influence the formation of: a. self-identity. c. the unconscious. b. archetypes. d. constructs.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Large-scale societal events such as wars and economic recessions can restrict our life choices and influence the formation of self-identity. More ordinary life changes, such as becoming parents, getting a divorce, or changing jobs, can also affect our personality.

15. Which of the following is true according to research on the effects of social environment on personality? a. Personality dimensions of any two cohort c. The nature of the workplace has the birth groups from a particular country are potential to affect only our overt behavior. always similar. b. Becoming a parent is associated with d. Those who see stressful events as an higher levels of marital and life opportunity to learn become more satisfaction. extraverted over time.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 410 FEEDBACK: Stressful life events, such as the death of a spouse or the loss of a job, may influence personality. Among the adults in the United States studied in their mid-40s and again 10 years later, those who experienced these stressful events as negative turning points became more neurotic over time, whereas those who saw them as an opportunity to learn became even more extraverted.

16. According to research on the effects of social environment on personality, _____.

a. Canadians from minority groups with c. extraversion was found to be higher in the strongest ethnic identities were highest in western regions of the United States self-esteem and subjective well-being b. neuroticism is higher in the northwestern d. children who grow up in disadvantaged and southwestern states of the United neighborhoods are likely to show adaptive States tendencies characterized by high resilience ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 410 FEEDBACK: Ethnic background and whether we are part of a minority or majority culture can also help to determine personality. Among people in Canada who identified themselves as members of minority groups, those with the strongest ethnic identities were highest in self-esteem and subjective well-being.

17. Overwhelming evidence shows that _____ influences virtually every aspect of behavior. a. heredity c. learning b. the unconscious d. basic anxiety ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Learning Factor REF: 410 FEEDBACK: Evidence is overwhelming that learning plays a major role in influencing virtually every aspect of our behavior, not only personality but our major life goals as well. All of the social and environmental forces that shape personality do so by the methods of learning.

18. Skinner described personality simply as an accumulation of _____. a. learned responses c. inherited traits b. archetypes d. personal constructs ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Learning Factor REF: 410 FEEDBACK: Even inherited facets of personality can be modified, disrupted, prevented, or allowed to flourish by the process of learning. Skinner taught us the value of positive reinforcement, successive approximation, superstitious behavior, and other learning variables in shaping what others call personality, but which he described as simply an accumulation of learned responses.

19. _____ is known for the ideas of self-efficacy, observational learning, and vicarious reinforcement. a. Cattell c. Seligman b. Bandura d. Zuckerman ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Learning Factor REF: 410 FEEDBACK: Bandura introduced the idea that we learn from watching models (observational learning) and through vicarious reinforcement. Bandura agreed with Skinner that most behaviors are learned and that genetics plays only a limited role.

20. In Seligman's terms, people who believe they are in control are _____ rather than _____. a. rational; irrational c. poor; wealthy

b. restrictive; permissive

d. optimistic; pessimistic

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Learning Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: In Seligman's terms, people who believe they are in control are optimistic rather than pessimistic. A high degree of control has been related to better coping mechanisms, fewer stress effects, greater mental and physical health, perseverance, higher aspirations and self-esteem, lower anxiety, higher grades, and greater social skills and popularity.

21. _____ is beneficial to many aspects of life and is determined by social and environmental factors. a. Control c. Consistency b. Change d. Conformity ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Learning Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: Control is beneficial to many aspects of life. By whatever name—self-efficacy, internal locus of control, or optimism—control is determined by social and environmental factors.

22. The first theorist to emphasize parental influences on the formation of personality was: a. Adler. c. Freud. b. Jung. d. Horney.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: Although Freud was the first theorist to emphasize parental influences on the formation of personality, virtually every theorist thereafter has echoed his views to some degree.

23. _____ wrote from experience about how lack of parental warmth and affection can undermine a child's security and result in feelings of helplessness. a. Freud c. Erikson b. Bandura d. Horney ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: Horney wrote from her own experience about how lack of parental warmth and affection can undermine a child's security and result in feelings of helplessness. Although Freud was the first theorist to emphasize parental influences on the formation of personality, virtually every theorist thereafter has echoed his views to some degree.

24. _____ saw infancy as the major formative period that shapes a child's character. a. Adler c. Cattell b. Horney d. Maslow ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411

FEEDBACK: Allport and Cattell, whose work was based on the importance of traits, recognized the parental factor in personality formation. Cattell saw infancy as the major formative period, with the behavior of parents and siblings shaping a child's character.

25. Allport considered an infant's relationship with the _____ to be the primary source of affection and security, conditions crucial to later personality development. a. brother c. father b. sister d. mother ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: Allport and Cattell, whose work was based on the importance of traits, recognized the parental factor in personality formation. Allport considered an infant's relationship with the mother to be the primary source of affection and security, conditions crucial to later personality development.

26. Cattell believed _____ was the major formative period for personality development. a. infancy c. young adulthood b. adolescence d. middle life ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: Allport and Cattell, whose work was based on the importance of traits, recognized the parental factor in personality formation. Cattell saw infancy as the major formative period, with the behavior of parents and siblings shaping a child's character.

27. _____ held that a child's relationship with the mother in the first year of life was vital in promoting a trusting attitude. a. Rogers c. Maslow b. Erikson d. Skinner ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: Erikson held that a child's relationship with the mother in the first year of life was vital in promoting a trusting attitude. Although Freud was the first theorist to emphasize parental influences on the formation of personality, virtually every theorist thereafter has echoed his views to some degree.

28. According to the personality theory of _____, in the first two years of life, parents need to satisfy their child's physiological and safety needs, which is prerequisite to the emergence of higher order needs. a. Skinner c. Seligman b. Maslow d. Zuckerman ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: Maslow commented on how necessary it was for parents to satisfy their child's physiological and safety needs in the first two years of life. This was a prerequisite for the emergence of higher-order needs.

29. According to _____, it is the parents' responsibility to supply unconditional positive regard to their children. a. Rogers c. Horney b. Adler d. Fromm ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: Rogers spoke of the parents' responsibility for supplying unconditional positive regard to their children. Although Freud was the first theorist to emphasize parental influences on the formation of personality, virtually every theorist thereafter has echoed his views to some degree.

30. According to research on the influence of parental factor on personality, parents who were described as more _____ had children who were more competent and mature than children raised by permissive or indifferent parents. a. authoritarian c. harsh b. authoritative d. punitive ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: Parental behaviors can determine, or undermine, specific aspects of personality, such as self-efficacy, locus of control, learned helplessness or optimism, and subjective well-being. There is a great deal of evidence showing that children of parents who are described as authoritative (that is, warm but firm in their child-rearing practices) are more competent and mature than children of parents described as permissive, harsh, or indifferent.

31. A study of adolescents in Singapore found that those whose parents were _____ had greater confidence in their abilities and were better adjusted socially than those whose parents were _____. a. externally oriented; internally oriented c. authoritative; authoritarian b. internally oriented; externally oriented d. authoritarian; authoritative ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 412 FEEDBACK: A study of adolescents in Singapore found that those whose parents were authoritative had greater confidence in their abilities and were better adjusted socially than those whose parents were authoritarian (strict, harsh, and demanding obedience) (Ang, 2006). A large-scale analysis of parent–child relationships found clear evidence that parents who were high in extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to new experience behaved in more warm and consistent ways toward their children than parents who scored low on those factors.

32. Considerable research suggests that _____ from parents can promote a child's autonomy, competence, and self-efficacy. a. unrestricted freedom c. criticism b. inadequate affection d. praise ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 412

FEEDBACK: Considerable research suggests that praise from parents can promote a child's sense of autonomy, realistic standards and expectations, competence, and self-efficacy, and can enhance intrinsic motivation to achieve. And just as positive parental behaviors have positive effects on children, negative parental behaviors have detrimental effects.

33. A review of research between early childhood experiences and adult psychopathology showed that children who grew up to become depressed and anxious adults had: a. authoritative parents. c. adventurous childhoods. b. inadequate parenting. d. over-affectionate parents.

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 412 FEEDBACK: A review of research on the relationship between early childhood experiences and adult psychopathology showed consistently that the childhoods of depressed and anxious adults were related to inadequate parenting. The parents were found to be more rejecting and abusive, and less caring and affectionate, than parents of less troubled adults.

34. According to a study of children in Finland, mothers who had an unfriendly attitude about child rearing raised children who had _____ attitudes at age 15. a. depressed c. hostile b. timid d. needy ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 412 FEEDBACK: A 12-year study of children in Finland found that when mothers had hostile attitudes toward child rearing (attitudes measured when their children were 3 and 6 years old), their children were highly likely to have hostile attitudes by the time they became 15. Thus, hostile mothers were found to rear children who also became hostile.

35. A longitudinal study in the United States found that adults high in conformity and low in self-direction had parents who were _____ during their childhood. a. cold and restrictive c. depressed and psychotic b. aggressive and anxious d. extroverted and demonstrative ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 412 FEEDBACK: A longitudinal study in the United States comparing subjects at ages 5 and 31 found that restrictive, cold, and strict parenting of the 5-year-olds produced adults who scored high in conformity and low in self-direction.

36. In a national longitudinal survey of children ages 3 to 12, no significant problems with self-esteem were found in children when mothers: a. were single. c. became volunteers at school. b. parented strictly. d. worked outside the home.

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 412

FEEDBACK: In a national longitudinal survey of children ages 3 to 12, no significant problems with behavior or self-esteem were found when the mothers had jobs outside the home. The researcher concluded that care-giving by someone other than the child's mother had no negative impact on the variables studied.

37. In Israel, in studies of children reared in collective child-care arrangements, the primary responsibility for child care in communal settlements is assigned to _____. a. a grandmother or a grandfather c. the father b. a professional caregiver d. the mother ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 413 FEEDBACK: A unique real-world laboratory in which to explore the issue of surrogate caregivers is the collective child-care arrangement in kibbutzim (communal settlements) in Israel. In that situation, mothers attend to their infants' needs only for the first few months of life. Then the primary responsibility for child care is assigned to professional caregivers. Children typically spend more time with these surrogate mothers and fathers than they do with their parents.

38. Which of the following is true about the major controversy that erupted in the late 1990s about the effect parental behaviors have on the child's personality? a. It was proposed that peers influence a c. It was proposed that the behavior of the child's personality more than parents do. parents reflects the behavior of the children and not the other way round. b. It was found that a child's personality d. It was found that in individualistic development is negatively impacted when cultures, the style of parenting was the parents are not the primary caregivers. changing from authoritarian to authoritative.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 413 FEEDBACK: A major controversy erupted in the late 1990s when it was suggested that parental behaviors have no long-term effects on their child's personality outside the home. According to this idea, peers influence a child's personality much more than do parents. Children adopt the behaviors, attitudes, values, and characteristics of their classmates and friends in an effort to win their acceptance and approval.

39. Researchers who subscribe to the primacy of _____ factors in personality tend to minimize or reject the parental effect. a. learning c. social b. environmental d. genetic ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 413 FEEDBACK: Researchers who subscribe to the primacy of genetic factors in personality tend to reject or minimize the parental effect, suggesting that the family environment contributes little to personality.

However, one question remains: Is personality fixed in early life by influences such as parents, peers, and genes or can it be changed in later years?

40. _____ believed that personality was shaped and fixed by the age of 5.

a. Jung b. Freud

c. Fromm d. Horney

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 413 FEEDBACK: Freud believed that personality was shaped and fixed by the age of 5 and that it was difficult after that to change any aspect of it. While it does seem clear that the childhood years are indeed crucial to personality formation, research also indicates that personality continues to develop well beyond childhood, perhaps throughout the entire life span.

41. According to studies of consistency in personality, _____ are consistent over the life span. a. habits c. learned behaviors b. environmental influences d. traits ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 414 FEEDBACK: A meta-analysis of 152 longitudinal studies involving more than 55,000 people showed a high level of consistency in personality traits at all ages. The highest level of consistency was found in adulthood. According to these findings, traits are consistent over the life span, reaching the highest level after age 50.

42. In a study of 32,000 people ages 21 to 60 conducted over the Internet, conscientiousness and agreeableness _____ through early and middle adulthood. a. stayed the same c. decreased b. increased d. leveled off ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 414 FEEDBACK: A study of more than 32,000 people ages 21 to 60 conducted over the Internet showed that conscientiousness and agreeableness increased through early and middle adulthood.

Conscientiousness increased most strongly in the 20s; agreeableness increased most strongly during the 30s.

43. Studies confirm that personality _____ as we grow into adolescence and early adulthood. a. stays the same c. changes b. stagnates d. regresses ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 414 FEEDBACK: In a study of children ages 8 to 12, who were surveyed again 10 years later, personality changes between the ages of 18 and 22 could be predicted to a significant extent by their personality characteristics in childhood. What all these studies confirm is that personality changes as we grow into adolescence and early adulthood.

44. Which of the following has been found to be true for people who have lost their jobs? a. They showed significant increases in neuroticism. b. They showed significant decreases in introversion.

c. Their levels of neuroticism, conscientiousness, and extraversion remained unchanged. d. Their levels of conscientiousness were similar to those of people who maladapted to such situations.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 415 FEEDBACK: What brings about personality change in adulthood? Many psychologists believe that the answer is rooted in social and environmental influences and in the adaptations we make to them. In instances of adjustment, people who have lost their jobs have shown significant increases in neuroticism and decreases in conscientiousness and extraversion.

45. Similar to the traits discussed by McCrae and Costa, _____ remain stable and relatively unchanging from about age 30 on. a. surface traits c. dispositional traits b. delayed traits d. overlapping traits ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 415 FEEDBACK: One theorist suggested that personality continues to develop over time on three levels: dispositional traits, personal concerns, and life narrative. Dispositional traits are inherited traits of the kind discussed by McCrae and Costa, those characteristics found to remain stable and relatively unchanging from age 30 on.

46. _____ refer to conscious feelings, plans, goals, and how we feel about the people in our lives. a. Constructs c. Life instincts b. Personal plans d. Personal concerns ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 415 FEEDBACK: Personal concerns refer to conscious feelings, plans, and goals; what we want, how we try to achieve it, and how we feel about the people in our lives. These may change often over the life span as a result of the diverse situations and influences to which we are exposed.

47. _____ implies the shaping of the self, attaining an identity, and finding a unified purpose in life. a. Life lesson c. Life review b. Life narrative d. Life challenge ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 415 FEEDBACK: Life narrative implies shaping the self, attaining an identity, and finding a unified purpose in life. We are constantly writing our life story, creating who we are and how we fit into the world.

48. As adults, we adjust our _____ to adapt to each stage of life and its differing needs, challenges, and opportunities. a. self-instinct c. archetypes b. fantasies d. life narrative

ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 415 FEEDBACK: Like personal concerns, the life narrative changes in response to social and environmental situations. As adults we may adjust our narrative to adapt to each stage of life and its needs, challenges, and opportunities.

49. The developmental view of personality holds that _____ remain largely constant, while _____ are subject to change. a. basic strengths; subliminal perceptions c. dispositional traits; conscious judgments b. subliminal perceptions; basic strengths d. conscious judgments; dispositional traits ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 415 FEEDBACK: The developmental view holds that the underlying dispositional traits of personality remain largely constant, while our conscious judgments about who we are and who we would like to be are subject to change.

50. Which of the following is true of the significance of the consciousness factors in the various personality theories? a. Adler described humans as conscious, c. According to Jung, we are driven rational beings capable of planning and completely by the forces that motivate us. directing the course of our lives. b. Freud focused his theory on the conscious d. The cognitive movement in psychology or cognitive processes. has established the conscious as the sole determinant of human behavior.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Consciousness Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: Adler described humans as conscious, rational beings capable of planning and directing the course of our lives. We formulate hopes, plans, and dreams and delay gratification, and we consciously anticipate future events.

51. _____ believed that people who are not neurotic will function in a conscious, rational way, aware of and in control of the forces that motivate them. a. Jung c. Rogers b. Allport d. Maslow ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Consciousness Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: Allport believed that people who are not neurotic will function in a conscious, rational way, aware of and in control of the forces that motivate them. Rogers thought people were primarily rational beings, governed by a conscious perception of themselves and their world of experience.

52. _____ thought people were primarily rational human beings, governed by a conscious perception of themselves and their world of experience. a. Allport c. Rogers

b. Maslow

d. Jung

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Consciousness Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: Rogers thought people were primarily rational beings, governed by a conscious perception of themselves and their world of experience. Allport believed that people who are not neurotic will function in a conscious, rational way, aware of and in control of the forces that motivate them.

53. _____ recognized the role of consciousness when he proposed that people have cognitive needs to know and to understand. a. Maslow c. Seligman b. Zuckerman d. Rotter ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Consciousness Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: Maslow recognized the role of consciousness when he proposed cognitive needs to know and to understand.

54. _____ argued that we formulate hypotheses about our social world and test them against the reality of our experience. a. Rogers c. Zuckerman b. Maslow d. Kelly ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Consciousness Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: Kelly argued persuasively that we form constructs about our environment and other people and that we make predictions (anticipations) about them based on these constructs. We formulate hypotheses about our social world and test them against the reality of our experience.

55. Who credited people with the ability to learn through example and vicarious reinforcement? a. Rotter c. Bandura b. Maslow d. Kelly ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Consciousness Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: Bandura credited people with the ability to learn through example and vicarious reinforcement. To do so, we must be able to anticipate and appreciate the consequences of the actions we observe in others.

56. There is widespread agreement that _____ exists and is an influence on personality. a. consciousness c. psyche b. unconsciousness d. libido ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Consciousness Factor

REF: 416 FEEDBACK: There is widespread agreement that consciousness exists and is an influence on personality. However, there is less agreement on the role or even the existence of another influence, that of the unconscious.

57. Sigmund Freud introduced us to the world of the: a. conscious. c. unconscious. b. archetypes. d. source traits.

ANS: C PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Unconscious Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: Sigmund Freud introduced us to the world of the unconscious, that murky repository of our darkest fears, conflicts, and forces that affect our conscious thoughts and behaviors. Psychologists have found some evidence to support Freud's notion that thoughts and memories are repressed in the unconscious, and that repression (as well as other defense mechanisms) may operate at the unconscious level.

58. Which of the following is true about the unconscious factor that affects the personality? a. Evidence has been found to support the c. Contemporary researchers describe notion that repression of thoughts and unconscious cognitive processes as more memories occurs at an unconscious level. emotional than rational. b. Abraham Maslow introduced us to the d. Rational unconscious remains the latest world of the unconscious. and least understood factor that affects our personality.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Unconscious Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: Sigmund Freud introduced us to the world of the unconscious, that murky repository of our darkest fears, conflicts, and forces that affect our conscious thoughts and behaviors. Psychologists have found some evidence to support Freud's notion that thoughts and memories are repressed in the unconscious, and that repression (as well as other defense mechanisms) may operate at the unconscious level.

59. Recent research confirms that the _____ is a powerful force, perhaps even more pervasive in its influences than Freud suggested. a. instinctive drift c. conscious b. psyche d. unconscious ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Unconscious Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: Recent research confirms that the unconscious is a powerful force, perhaps even more pervasive in its influence than Freud suggested. However, the modern depiction of the unconscious is not the same as Freud's view.

60. Contemporary researchers focus on unconscious cognitive processes and describe them as more _____ than _____. a. irrational; illegitimate c. logical; existential b. rational; emotional d. statistical; analytical

ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Unconscious Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: The modern depiction of the unconscious is not the same as Freud's view. Contemporary researchers focus on unconscious cognitive processes and describe them as more rational than emotional.

61. The rational unconscious is often referred to as the: a. non-conscious. c. subconscious. b. psyche. d. preconscious.

ANS: A PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Unconscious Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: The rational unconscious is often referred to as the non-conscious, to distinguish it from Freud's unconscious, his so-called dark cauldron of repressed wishes and desires. Contemporary researchers focus on unconscious cognitive processes and describe them as more rational than emotional.

62. One method for studying the non-conscious involves _____, in which various stimuli are presented to research participants below their level of conscious awareness. a. operant conditioning c. vicarious reinforcement b. subliminal activation d. supportive automation ANS: B PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Unconscious Factor REF: 416 FEEDBACK: One method for studying the non-conscious involves subliminal activation, in which various stimuli are presented to subjects below their level of conscious awareness. Despite the subjects' inability to perceive the stimuli, their conscious processes and behaviors can be activated by those stimuli.

63. In a study called "Mommy and I are one," _____ presentation of certain stimuli influences cognitive as well as emotional responses. a. suppressive c. direct b. conscious d. subliminal ANS: D PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Unconscious Factor REF: 417 FEEDBACK: The text discussed the "Mommy and I are one" study about how subliminal presentation of certain stimuli influenced cognitive as well as emotional responses (Silverman & Weinberger, 1985). The subliminal stimuli had therapeutic value even though the subjects had no conscious awareness of the actual messages.

64. The _____, as Freud envisioned it, remains the least understood factor in personality development. a. emotional unconscious c. individual unconscious b. collective unconscious d. rational unconscious ANS: A PTS: 1

A-HEAD: The Unconscious Factor REF: 417 FEEDBACK: The emotional unconscious as Freud envisioned it—the startling idea that signaled the formal beginning of the study of personality—remains the least understood factor and still very much what it was in Freud's time, mysterious and inaccessible.

TRUE/FALSE 1. Whether our genetic predispositions are realized depends on social and environmental conditions, particularly those of childhood.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Genetic Factor REF: 408 FEEDBACK: What we inherit are predispositions, not destinies; tendencies, not certainties. Whether our genetic predispositions are realized depends on social and environmental conditions, particularly those of childhood.

2. Horney spoke of the impact of birth order, arguing that personality is influenced by our position in the family relative to our siblings.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Horney believed that the culture in which we grow up can produce different effects, such as those she found in the different kinds of neuroses exhibited by her German and her American patients. Adler spoke of the impact of birth order, arguing that personality is influenced by our position in the family relative to our siblings.

3. According to research, the time periods in which we are born can influence our personality.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Even the time period in which you were born and reared can influence your personality.

Societal standards and attitudes, likes and dislikes, as well as the nature of external threats, are different for each generation and can have a substantial influence on personality.

4. According to research, our jobs can influence our personality.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 409 FEEDBACK: Our jobs can influence our personality. In a study of young adults aged 18 to 26 living in New Zealand, personality measures given at 18, and again at 26, showed that those who had satisfying, high-status jobs at 26 had increased in positive emotionality (well-being, social closeness, and feelings of achievement) and decreased in negative emotionality (aggressiveness, alienation, and stress) since age 18.

5. According to research, people in Eastern cultures tend to score higher in subjective well-being than people in Western cultures.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 410 FEEDBACK: Western cultures tend to be more individualistic than Eastern cultures. People in Western cultures tend to score higher on extraversion, sensation-seeking, and subjective well-being.

6. All of the social and environmental forces that shape personality do so by the methods of learning.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Learning Factor REF: 410 FEEDBACK: All of the social and environmental forces that shape personality do so by the methods of learning. Evidence is overwhelming that learning plays a major role in influencing virtually every aspect of our behavior, not only personality but our major life goals as well.

7. A high degree of control has been related to better coping mechanisms, fewer stress effects, and greater mental and physical strength.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Learning Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: A high degree of control has been related to better coping mechanisms, fewer stress effects, greater mental and physical health, perseverance, higher aspirations and self-esteem, lower anxiety, higher grades, and greater social skills and popularity. People who believe they have control over their lives are high in self-efficacy, have an internal locus of control, and are not characterized by learned helplessness (which involves lack of control).

8. Control is learned in infancy and early childhood and is fixed for life.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Learning Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: By whatever name—self-efficacy, internal locus of control, or optimism—control is determined by social and environmental factors. It is learned in infancy and childhood, though it can change later in life.

9. Kelly saw infancy as the major formative period, with the behavior of parents and siblings shaping a child's character.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411 FEEDBACK: Cattell saw infancy as the major formative period, with the behavior of parents and siblings shaping a child's character.

10. In one study, hostile mothers were found to rear children who did not become hostile.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 412 FEEDBACK: A 12-year study of children in Finland found that when mothers had hostile attitudes toward child rearing (attitudes measured when their children were 3 and 6 years old), their children were highly likely to have hostile attitudes by the time they became 15. Thus, hostile mothers were found to rear children who also became hostile.

11. It was found that parents can both influence and reflect the behavior of children.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 412 FEEDBACK: A study of more than 20,000 families in a variety of countries from Australia to Japan to the United States found that genetic factors accounted for as much as 40 percent of parental behavior.

It also found that some parental behavior is influenced by how their child behaves. That finding leads to the notion that parents can both influence and reflect the behavior of their children.

12. In child-rearing studies of more than 15,000 children, significant problems with behavior and self-esteem were found when the mothers took a job outside the home.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 412 FEEDBACK: In a national longitudinal survey of children ages 3 to 12, no significant problems with behavior or self-esteem were found when the mothers had jobs outside the home. The researcher concluded that care-giving by someone other than the child's mother had no negative impact on the variables studied.

13. Allport, Erikson, and Cattell believed that it is difficult to change any aspect of personality after the age of 5, similar to what Freud believed.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 413 FEEDBACK: Theorists such as Cattell, Allport, and Erikson viewed childhood as important but agreed that personality could be modified in later years. Some theorists suggested that personality development is ongoing in adolescence, whereas Jung, Maslow, Erikson, and Cattell viewed middle age as a time of major personality change.

14. Research in personality finds that traits are consistent over the life span.

ANS: T PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 414 FEEDBACK: A meta-analysis of 152 longitudinal studies involving more than 55,000 people showed a high level of consistency in personality traits at all ages. According to these findings, traits are consistent over the life span, reaching the highest level after age 50.

15. All the aspects of personality explained by the personality theories are now clear and accessible.

ANS: F PTS: 1 A-HEAD: Final Comment REF: 417 FEEDBACK: Most aspects of personality remain mysterious, and some are still not fully accessible.

We have gone through diverse ways of defining and describing personality, and each theory we have discussed has contributed another part of the answer to that vital question of what is personality.

ESSAY 1. Describe the findings of Adler, Horney, Allport, Cattell, and Erikson about the environmental factor that affects personality.

ANS: Environmental influences continue to affect our behavior and personality throughout our life.

Adler spoke of the impact of birth order, arguing that personality is influenced by our position in the family relative to our siblings. We are exposed to different parental and social problems and challenges as a function of the age difference between our siblings, or whether we have siblings at all.

In Adler's view, these different home environments can result in different personalities.

Horney believed that the culture in which we grow up can produce different effects, such as those she found in the different kinds of neuroses exhibited by her German and her American patients. She also pointed out the vastly different social environments to which boys and girls are exposed as children.

She spoke of female inferiority developing from the way girls are treated in a male-dominated culture.

She suggested that women raised in a matriarchal culture might have higher self-esteem and different personality characteristics.

Allport noted that although genetics supplies the raw material of personality, it is the social environment that shapes the material into the finished product. Cattell argued that heredity is more important for some of his 16 personality factors than for others, but environmental influences will ultimately affect every factor to some extent.

Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development are innate, but the environment determines the ways in which those genetically based stages are realized. He believed that social and historical forces influence the formation of ego identity.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Environmental Factor REF: 408–409 2. Explain the effect of parenting on the formation of personality by stating the findings of at least three research studies.

ANS: Students' answers will vary.

Although Freud was the first theorist to emphasize parental influences on the formation of personality, virtually every theorist thereafter has echoed his views to some degree.

There are various examples of how parental behaviors can determine, or undermine, specific aspects of personality, such as self-efficacy, locus of control, learned helplessness or optimism, and subjective well-being. Parental behaviors can influence primarily inherited traits such as sensation seeking.

A study of adolescents in Singapore found that those whose parents were authoritative had greater confidence in their abilities and were better adjusted socially than those whose parents were authoritarian (strict, harsh, and demanding obedience) (Ang, 2006). A large-scale analysis of parent–child relationships found clear evidence that parents who were high in extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to new experience behaved in more warm and consistent ways toward their children than parents who scored low on those factors.

Parents in Arab cultures tend to be more authoritarian than authoritative. A study of mothers who had immigrated with their children to Canada showed that the women from collectivist cultures such as Egypt, Iran, India, and Pakistan were more authoritarian than women from individualistic countries in Western Europe (Rudy & Grusec, 2006).

Another study found that mothers characterized by negative emotions and disagreeableness had children who scored higher in defiance, anger, disobedience, and other behavior problems than did mothers who did not exhibit negative emotional qualities (Kochanska, Clark, & Goldman, 1997).

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Parental Factor REF: 411, 412 3. Describe in a sentence or two dispositional traits, personal concerns, and life narrative.

ANS: One theorist suggested that personality continues to develop over time on three levels: dispositional traits, personal concerns, and life narrative (McAdams, 1994).

Dispositional traits are inherited traits of the kind discussed by McCrae and Costa, those characteristics found to remain stable and relatively unchanging from age 30 on.

Personal concerns refer to conscious feelings, plans, and goals; what we want, how we try to achieve it, and how we feel about the people in our lives. These may change often over the life span as a result of the diverse situations and influences to which we are exposed. Although these situations can alter our feelings and intentions, our underlying dispositional traits (such as our basic level of neuroticism or extraversion) with which we confront these life situations may remain relatively stable.

Life narrative implies shaping the self, attaining an identity, and finding a unified purpose in life. We are constantly writing our life story, creating who we are and how we fit into the world. Like personal concerns, the life narrative changes in response to social and environmental situations. As adults we may adjust our narrative to adapt to each stage of life and its needs, challenges, and opportunities.

In sum, then, this view holds that the underlying dispositional traits of personality remain largely constant, while our conscious judgments about who we are and who we would like to be are subject to change.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Developmental Factor REF: 415 4. Describe Kelly's theory on cognitive factors. Elaborate the non-conscious and its method of assessment.

ANS: Kelly offered the most complete theory based on cognitive factors. He argued persuasively that we form constructs about our environment and other people and that we make predictions (anticipations) about them based on these constructs. We formulate hypotheses about our social world and test them against the reality of our experience. Based on everyday evidence, it is difficult to deny

that people construe, predict, and anticipate how others will behave and then modify or adapt their behavior accordingly.

Recent research confirms that the unconscious is a powerful force, perhaps even more pervasive in its influence than Freud suggested. However, the modern depiction of the unconscious is not the same as Freud's view. Contemporary researchers focus on unconscious cognitive processes and describe them as more rational than emotional.

The rational unconscious is often referred to as the non-conscious, to distinguish it from Freud's unconscious, his so-called dark cauldron of repressed wishes and desires. One method for studying the non-conscious involves subliminal activation, in which various stimuli are presented to subjects below their level of conscious awareness. Despite the subjects' inability to perceive the stimuli, their conscious processes and behaviors can be activated by those stimuli.

The obvious conclusion to be drawn from such research is that people can be influenced by stimuli they can neither see nor hear. The "Mommy and I are one" study showed how subliminal presentation of certain stimuli influenced cognitive as well as emotional responses (Silverman & Weinberger, 1985). The subliminal stimuli had therapeutic value even though the subjects had no conscious awareness of the actual messages. Thus, the unconscious may have both a rational and an emotional component.

PTS: 1 A-HEAD: The Consciousness Factor; The Unconscious Factor REF: 416–417

1 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care

Chapter 1 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Discuss how personality develops and the ways of looking at it.

Describe how the social media influences our personality.

Explain the role of culture in shaping personality.

Describe the concepts of reliability and validity in the study of personality.

Explain and give examples of various types of assessment methods used in studying personality.

Describe how ethnic and gender issues affect personality assessment.

Explain the role of research in the study of personality.

Describe the theories of personality and inquire about human nature by asking questions for further discussion throughout the pages of this text.

Lecture Outline I. Take a Look at the Word Here are three standard dictionary definitions of the word taken at random: • The state of being a person.

• The characteristics and qualities that form a person’s distinctive character.

• The sum total of all the physical, mental, emotional, and social characteristic of a person.

Everybody has a personality that will help determine the boundaries of their success and life fulfillment. An individual’s personality can limit or expand their options and choices in life, prevent them from sharing certain experiences, or enable them to take full advantage of them. The number and variety of social situations one is involved in are also determined by one’s personality—for example, one’s relative sociability or shyness.

Psychologists have devoted considerable effort to developing tests to assess or measure personality. A widely used personality test, the Adjective Check List, offers 300 adjectives that describe personality. One psychologist suggested that individuals can get a very good idea of its meaning if they examine their intentions whenever they use the

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2 Chapter 1

word I. The word I is what defines one as an individual, separate from everybody else.

Another way of trying to understand personality is to look at its source. The word goes back to about the year 1500 and derives from the Latin word persona, which refers to a mask used by actors in a play. Based on its derivation, one might conclude that personality refers to one’s external and visible characteristics those aspects of an individual that other people can see. One may in the use of the word personality refer to enduring characteristics. It is assumed that personality is relatively stable and predictable.

It may be suggested that personality is an enduring and unique cluster of characteristics that may change in response to different situations. Each personality theorist offers a unique version, a personal vision of the nature of personality and that viewpoint has become his or her definition.

II. Personality and the Social Media There are at least three ways in which social media and personality may interact to affect one another, leading to three questions to which psychologists are increasingly seeking answers.

• Does an individual present his or her real self on social media?

• Does the use of social media influence or change one’s personality?

• Do people with different personalities use social media in different ways?

Some research suggests that most people are honest about their online faces. Studies conducted in the United States and in Germany found that social networking sites do convey accurate images or impressions of the personality profiles people offer. The researchers concluded that depictions of personalities presented online are at least as accurate as those conveyed in face-to-face interactions. Psychologists have found that the use of online social networking sites like Facebook can both shape and reflect individuals’ personalities. One study found that high levels of social media use can reduce psychological well-being (how happy one feels) and decrease the quality of relationships with friends and romantic partners (Blais, Craig, Pepler, & Connolly, 2008; Huang, 2010a; Kross et al., 2013).

In addition to affecting one’s personalities, social networking sites can also reflect them.

Studies in both Eastern and Western cultures found that those who were more extraverted and narcissistic were much more likely to use Facebook than those who did not score high on those personality characteristics. The more narcissistic teenagers were also more likely to update their Facebook status more frequently (Kuo & Tang, 2014; Michikyan, Subrahmanyam, & Dennis, 2014; Ong et al., 2011; Panek, Nardis, & Konrath, 2014; Winter et al., 2014).

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3 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care

III. The Role of Race and Gender in Shaping Personality The personality theorists offer diverse views of the nature of the human personality.

Despite their disagreements and divergences, however, they all share certain defining characteristics in common. All are White, of European or American heritage, and almost all are men. In most fields, educational and professional opportunities for women and people of ethnic minority groups were severely limited. Yet, the personality theorists confidently offered theories that were supposed to be valid for all people, regardless of gender, race, or ethnic origin.

IV. The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality A specialty area called cross-cultural psychology has fostered a great deal of research supporting the conclusion that personality is formed by both genetic and environmental influences.

Research shows substantial cultural differences between East and West in the notion of fate attribution or destiny. However, there is also evidence that as Eastern cultures such as China modernize and become more westernized, that cultural belief is reduced.

Individual competitiveness and assertiveness are often seen as undesirable and contrary to Asian cultural standards. Western cultures are typically depicted as the opposite.

Genetic differences between people in collectivistic versus individualistic cultures have been linked to lower levels of anxiety and depression in collectivistic cultures and higher levels in individualistic cultures (Chiao & Blizinsky, 2010).

The impact on behavior and personality of cultural differences in child-rearing practices is also substantial. In the individualistic culture of the United States, parents tend to be non-coercive, democratic, and permissive in their child-rearing techniques. In collectivist cultures, such as Asian and Arab societies, parental practices tend to be more authoritarian, restrictive, and controlling.

Self-enhancement is defined as the tendency to promote oneself aggressively and make one conspicuous. The opposite of that, self-effacement, is considered to be more in agreement with the cultural values of Asian societies. Research in various countries in Europe found that self-enhancers were rated by others as being emotionally stable, socially attractive, and socially influential (Dufner, Denissen, Sediilides, Van Zalk Meeus, & Van Aken, 2013).

Less research has been conducted on personality in African and South American nations

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4 Chapter 1

than in English-speaking countries, or in many of the countries of Europe and Asia. Also, much of the research that has been conducted among those populations has not been made widely available in English-language sources. Another problem limiting the applicability of cross-cultural personality research is that the majority of studies in personality use American college students as subjects.

V. Assessing Your Personality The assessment of personality is a major area of application of psychology to a number of real-world concerns. For example, clinical psychologists try to understand the symptoms of their patients or clients by assessing their personalities, by differentiating between normal and abnormal behaviors and feelings. Only by evaluating personality in this way can clinicians diagnose disorders and determine the best course of therapy. School psychologists evaluate the personalities of the students referred to them for treatment in an attempt to uncover the causes of adjustment or learning problems. Counseling psychologists measure personality to find the best job for a particular applicant, matching the requirements of the position with the person’s interests and needs. Research psychologists assess the personalities of their subjects in an attempt to account for their behavior in an experiment or to correlate their personality traits with other measurements.

The best techniques of personality assessment adhere to the principles of reliability and validity. Reliability involves the consistency of response to an assessment device.

Validity refers to whether an assessment device measures what it is intended to measure.

If a test does not measure what it claims to, then it is not valid, and its results cannot be used to predict behavior.

The major approaches to personality assessment are: • Self-report or objective inventories • Projective techniques • Clinical interviews • Behavioral assessment procedures • Thought and experience sampling procedures The self-report inventory or test approach involves asking people to report on themselves by answering questions about their behavior and feelings in various situations. These tests include items dealing with symptoms, attitudes, interests, fears, and values. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most useful self-report personality test. It is a true-false test that consists of 567 statements. The test items cover physical and psychological health; political and social attitudes; educational, occupational, family, and marital factors; and neurotic and psychotic behavior tendencies.

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5 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care

The test’s clinical scales measure such personality characteristics as gender role, defensiveness, depression, hysteria, paranoia, hypochondriasis, and schizophrenia.

Despite the length and privacy issues, the MMPI in its various forms is a valid test that discriminates between neurotics and psychotics and between the emotionally healthy and the emotionally disturbed. Although there are self-report inventories to assess many facets of personality, the tests are not always appropriate for people whose level of intelligence is below normal, or for those with limited reading skills. Even minor changes in the wording of the questions or the response alternatives on self-report measures can lead to major changes in the results. There is also the tendency for test-takers to give answers that appear to be more socially desirable or acceptable, particularly when they are taking tests as part of a job application. Despite these problems, self-report inventories remain the most objective approach to personality assessment. Their greatest advantage is that they are designed to be scored objectively and quickly through automated personality assessment programs, providing a complete diagnostic profile of the test-taker’s responses.

The advantages of computerized test administration include the following: • It is less time-consuming for both the applicant and the organization • It is less expensive • The scoring is more objective • The method is readily accepted by younger members of the workforce • It prevents test-takers from looking ahead at questions, and it prevents them from changing answers already given Clinical psychologists developed projective tests of personality for their work with the emotionally disturbed. Inspired by Sigmund Freud’s emphasis on the importance of the unconscious, projective tests attempt to probe that invisible portion of one’s personality.

The theory underlying projective techniques is that when individuals are presented with an ambiguous stimulus, like an inkblot or a picture that can be interpreted in more than one way, they will project their innermost needs, fears, and values onto the stimulus when they are asked to describe it. Because the interpretation of the results of projective tests is so subjective, these tests are not high in reliability or validity.

The Rorschach Inkblot Technique was developed in 1921 by the Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach. He settled on 10 blots for the very practical reason that he could not afford to have more than 10 printed. The inkblot cards (some black, others in color) are shown one at a time, and the psychologists ask specific questions about the earlier answers. Responses can be interpreted in several ways, depending on whether the patient reports seeing movement, human or animal figures, animate or inanimate objects, and partial or whole figures.

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The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 19 ambiguous pictures, showing one or more persons, and one blank card. People taking the test are asked to tell a story about the people and objects in the picture, describing what led up to the situation shown, what the people are thinking and feeling, and what the outcome is likely to be. There are no objective scoring systems for the TAT, and its reliability and validity are low when used for diagnostic purposes. However, the TAT has proven useful for research purposes, and scoring systems have been devised to measure specific aspects of personality, such as the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. Word associations and sentence completion tests are additional projective techniques that psychologists use to assess personality. Response words are analyzed for their commonplace or unusual nature, for their possible indication of emotional tension and for their relationship to sexual conflicts. In addition to specific psychological tests used to measure an individual’s personality, assessment often includes clinical interviews. A wide range of behaviors, feelings, and thoughts can be investigated in the interview, including general appearance, demeanor, and attitude; facial expressions, posture, and gestures; preoccupations; degree of self-insight; and level of contact with reality. Interpretation of interview material is subjective and can be affected by the interviewer’s theoretical orientation and personality.

Nevertheless, clinical interviews remain a widely used technique for personality assessment.

In the behavioral assessment approach, an observer evaluates a person’s behavior in a given situation. The better the observers know the people being assessed and the more frequently they interact with them, the more accurate their evaluations are likely to be. In the thought-sampling approach to assessment, a person’s thoughts are recorded systematically to provide a sample over a period of time. Because thoughts are private experiences and cannot be seen by anyone else, the only person who can make this type of observation is the individual whose thoughts are being studied. This procedure is typically used with groups.

A variation of thought sampling is the experience sampling method. This is conducted very much like thought sampling, but the participants are also asked to describe the social and environmental context in which the experience being sampled occurs. Thought sampling research relies on technological developments such as smartphones. Thus, researchers can determine whether assessments are being recorded at the times and intervals requested. If they are entered sometime after the experience, they could be influenced by the vagaries of memory.

The assessment of personality can be influenced by a person’s gender. Women are more often diagnosed with depression, anxiety, and related disorders than are men. The

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7 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care

average course of therapy for women tends to be longer than that for men, and doses of psychoactive medications prescribed for women tend to be higher than those for men.

Some personality tests have been translated for use in other cultures; there are potential problems with their cross-cultural application. For example, among traditional Chinese people, important personality characteristics include being gracious, having a family orientation, emphasizing harmony with others, and showing frugality in everyday behavior. None of these factors is typical of those measured by American personality inventories. Research consistently shows that Asian Americans, particularly firstgeneration immigrants, underutilize mental health treatment services. Also, research conducted in the 1990s showed generally consistent differences between Black and White subjects on self-report personality tests. Rorschach scores for subjects from Mexico and from Central American and South American countries differ significantly from the norms of the comprehensive scoring system. Hermann Rorschach was one of the first to recognize the effects of cultural differences in performance on personality assessment techniques. Another research reinforces this idea that what is normal in one culture may be judged undesirable, wrong, sick, or just plain weird in other cultures. The reworking of personality tests to ensure that they accurately reflect and measure relevant personality variables is difficult and requires knowledge of and sensitivity to cultural differences.

VI. Research in the Study of Personality Psychologists conduct research on personality in different ways. The method used depends on which aspect of personality is under investigation. The primary clinical method is the case study or case history, in which psychologists probe their patients’ past and present lives for clues to the source of their emotional problems. Freud used case studies extensively in developing his theory of psychoanalysis. Psychologists also use a variety of other clinical methods in addition to case studies, including dream analysis, tests, and interviews. Although the clinical method attempts to be scientific, it does not offer the precision and control of the experimental or correlational methods. The data obtained by the clinical method are more subjective, involving mental and largely unconscious events and early life experiences. Such data are open to different interpretations that may reflect the therapist’s own personal biases, more so than data obtained by other methods. Also, memories of childhood events may be distorted by time.

There are two kinds of variables in an experiment. One is the independent or stimulus variable, which is the one manipulated by the experimenter. The other is the dependent variable, which is the subjects’ behavior in response to that manipulation. The

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experimental group includes those subjects to whom the experimental treatment is given. The control group is not exposed to the independent variable. An example of the experimental method in action is Albert Bandura’s social-learning theory of personality.

There are situations in which the experimental method cannot be used. Some aspects of behavior and personality cannot be studied under rigorously controlled laboratory conditions because of safety and ethical considerations. Another difficulty is that the subjects’ behavior might change simply because they know they are being observed.

Now, through crowd-sourcing and other online employment services, psychologists can rapidly and inexpensively find enough subjects for their studies. One highly popular source is the Mechanical Turk on Amazon. Virtual research offers advantages over traditional experimental research. Studies conducted on the Web produce faster responses, are less costly, and have the potential to reach a broader range of subjects of different ages, levels of education, employment, income, social class, and ethnic origin.

Online research can assess a population far more diverse than that found on a typical college campus.

However, online research also has disadvantages. Web users tend to be younger, more affluent, and better educated than nonusers, thus limiting the chances that an online sample will be truly representative of the population as a whole. People who respond to online research may also differ from nonresponders on important personality characteristics. It is also difficult to determine how honest and accurate online subjects will be when they provide personal information on factors such as age, gender, ethnic origin, education, or income.

In the correlational method, researchers investigate the relationships that exist among variables. Also, in the correlational approach subjects are not assigned to experimental and control groups.

Researchers applying the correlational method are interested in the relationship between the variables—in how behavior on one variable changes or differs as a function of the other variable. For example, is birth order related to aggressiveness? The reliability and validity of assessment devices are typically determined through the correlational method.

The primary statistical measure of correlation is the correlation coefficient. The direction of the relationship can be positive or negative. The closer the correlation coefficient is to +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship and the more confidently individuals can make predictions about one variable from the other. The primary limitation of the correlational method relates to the matter of cause and effect. Just because two variables show a high correlation with each other, it cannot be concluded that one has caused the

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9 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care

other.

VII. The Role of Theory in Personality Theories Theories are sets of principles used to explain a particular class of phenomena, such as the behaviors and experiences relating to personality. Researchers must be able to collect data through one or more research methods to determine whether aspects of the theory should be accepted or rejected. Personality theories must be able to clarify and explain the data of personality by organizing those data into a coherent framework. Theories should also help one understand and predict behavior.

The intent of theories is toward greater objectivity. However, psychologists have long recognized that some personality theories have a subjective component, which may reflect events in the theorist’s life as a sort of disguised autobiography. In order to understand a personality theory fully then, one should learn something about the life of the person who proposed it. It is important to consider how the development of a theory may have been influenced by specific events in a theorist’s life. Initially, the theorist may have been describing himself or herself. Later, the theorist may have sought appropriate data from other sources to support the generalization of that personal view to others. It is also a possibility that the theory influences what the theorists remember and choose to tell people about their lives. Much of the information about a theorist’s life comes from autobiographical recollections. These accounts are usually written late in life, after the person has proposed and defended the theory.

VIII. Questions about Human Nature: What Are We Like?

Each theorist has a conception of human nature that addresses the basic issues of what it means to be human. The various conceptions of human nature offered by the theorists allows for a meaningful comparison of their views. A basic question about human nature concerns the age-old controversy between free will and determinism. A second issue has to do with the nature-nurture controversy. Do the abilities, temperaments, and predispositions a person inherits determine his or her personality, or is a person shaped more strongly by the conditions under which he or she lives? Controversy also exists about the question of intelligence: Is intelligence affected more by genetic endowment (nature) or by the stimulation provided by home and school settings (nurture)? A third issue involves the relative importance of one’s early childhood experiences, compared with events that occur later in life. If one assumes, as some theorists do, that what happens to an individual in infancy and childhood is critical to personality formation, then one must consequently believe that one’s later development is little more than an elaboration of the basic themes laid down in the early years of life. This view is known as

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historical determinism. An individual’s personality is mostly fixed by the age of 5 or so and is subject to little change over the rest of his or her life. The adult personality is determined by the nature of these early experiences. The opposite position considers personality to be more independent of the past, capable of being influenced by events and experiences in the present as well as by people’s aspirations, hopes, and goals for the future.

Is human nature unique or universal? This is another issue that divides personality theorists. A fifth issue involves an individual’s ultimate and necessary life goals.

Theorists differ on what constitutes an individual’s major motivation in life. Do individuals function like machines, like some sort of self-regulating mechanism, content as long as some internal equilibrium or balance is maintained? Are individuals optimistic or pessimistic? An individual’s general image of human nature is the lens through which he or she perceives, assesses, judges, and interacts with other people in his or her culture.

The significance of this is to point out that there are many sources of influence on the growth and development of the human personality, and diverse ways of explaining human nature.

Lecture Topic Lecture Topic 1.1 My own Theory of Personality Students should create (in groups or individually) their idea of the “perfect” person. Have the groups or individuals brainstorm ideas to come up with a list of traits that describe this “perfect” individual. An artistic rendering by the group or individual would be an added ingredient as a visual report for the entire class when reporting their findings. Part of the purpose of this exercise is for the student to understand what a personality theorist needs to do to create his or her theory. Elements of the “perfect” person may be drawn from characteristics in genetics, the influence of the environment, traits, and/or cultural and ethnic background.

Internet Site for Lecture Topic 1.1: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/persintro.html Lecture Topic 1.2 Give students a summary of how personality and the social media interact and affect one

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11 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care

another. Then have students answer the three questions to which psychologists are increasingly seeking answers to: • Do we present our real selves on social media?

• Does the use of social media influence or change our personalities?

• Do people with different personalities use social media in different ways?

Students may list out the traits that distinguish their real selves from their virtual selves.

Is there a substantial difference between the two? Also ask them to analyze how their friends portray themselves on social media.

Internet Sites for Lecture Topic 1.2: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/r-kay-green/the-social-media-effecta_b_3721029.html?ir=India&adsSiteOverride=in https://prezi.com/2qqtwxtcn7zk/social-media-and-the-affects-on-personality/ http://college.usatoday.com/2010/12/21/has-social-media-affected-your-personality/

Student Projects Student Project 1.1 Students may desire to read the following web articles and use these sites to receive ideas on papers, essays, and summary reports for class assignments on the role of race and gender in shaping personality.

Internet Sites for Student Project 1.1: http://study.com/academy/lesson/sociocultural-perspective-definition-examples-quiz.html http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic1230873.files/CulturalInfluences.pdf Student Project 1.2 Ask students to write a report on the five major approaches to personality assessment.

Have students include the advantages and limitations of each assessment. They may also include case studies and researches.

Internet Sites for Student Project 1.2:

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http://www.britannica.com/science/personality-assessment http://nobaproject.com/modules/personality-assessment http://www.affective-science.org/pubs/2003/ESM2003.pdf Student Project 1.3 Assign students to critique the major research methods used in the study of personality (clinical method, the experimental method, virtual research, and the correlational method). The following internet sites provide additional information concerning the research methods.

Internet Sites for Student Project 1.3: http://www.simplypsychology.org/case-study.html http://www.simplypsychology.org/experimental-method.html http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1761932/ http://www.simplypsychology.org/correlation.html

Online Discussion Board 1.

Psychologists have found that the use of online social networking sites like Facebook can both shape and reflect our personalities. Does Facebook shape and reflect your personality? If not Facebook, what other sites (YouTube, Tumblr, Instagram, Netflix) affect your personality?

2.

Is your personality influenced more by genetics or environmental factors? Elucidate.

3.

What is your viewpoint of human nature? Explain the five issues in the text that define a theorist’s image of human nature.

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1 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis

Chapter 2 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Describe the development of the psychoanalytic approach to personality.

Provide a foundation of psychoanalytic thought through the study of its founder, Sigmund Freud.

Describe the structure of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego.

Explain the concepts of defense mechanisms against anxiety.

Detail the psychosexual stages of personality development.

Describe free association and dream analysis used by Freud for assessment.

Explain the extensions of Freudian theory with ego psychology and Object Relations Theory.

Lecture Outline The personality theory has been influenced more by Sigmund Freud than by anyone else.

His system of psychoanalysis was the first formal theory of personality and is still the best known. Not only did Freud’s work affect thinking about personality in psychology and psychiatry, but it also made a tremendous impact on the way one looks at human nature in general.

I. The Life of Freud (1856–1939) Freud was born in 1856 in Moravia. His father was a relatively successful wool merchant.

When Freud was 4, he moved with his family to Vienna, where he remained for almost 80 years. Freud felt hostility and anger toward his father while growing up. He felt a passionate, even sexual attachment toward his mother, a relationship that set the stage for his concept of the Oedipus complex. Much of Freud’s theory reflected and built on his own experiences as a child. There were eight children in the Freud family. From an early age he exhibited a high level of intelligence, which his parents helped to foster. He was given a room of his own; he often took his meals there so as not to lose time from his studies. Freud entered high school a year earlier than was typical. He was fluent in German and Hebrew, and mastered Latin, Greek, French, and English in school and taught himself Italian and Spanish. Freud had many interests, including military history, but when it came time to choose a career from among the few professions that were open to Jews in Vienna, he settled on medicine.

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While in medical school, Freud began to experiment with cocaine, which at that time was not an illegal substance. In 1884, he published an article about cocaine’s beneficial effects, thinking it would make him famous. But that was not to be. This article was later judged to be a major contributor to the epidemic of cocaine use which swept over Europe and the United States, lasting well into the 1920s. Freud was strongly criticized for his part in unleashing the cocaine plague. Because Freud lacked an independent income, he believed his only choice was to enter private practice. He studied several months in Paris with Jean Martin Charcot, pioneer in the use of hypnosis, who alerted Freud to the possible sexual basis of neurosis.

After several years in clinical practice, Freud was increasingly convinced that sexual conflicts were the primary cause of all neuroses. He claimed that the majority of his women patients reported traumatic sexual experiences from their childhoods. About a year after he published this theory, Freud changed his mind and announced that in most cases the childhood sexual abuse his patients told him about had never really happened.

They had been telling him fantasies, Freud claimed. On further reflection, Freud concluded that the fantasies his patients described were quite real to them.

Freud’s attitude toward sex was negative and felt that the sex act was degrading because it contaminated both mind and body. He occasionally had been impotent during his marriage and had sometimes chosen to abstain from sex because he disliked condoms and coitus interruptus. Freud blamed his wife for the termination of his sex life, and for many years he had dreams involving his resentment toward her for forcing him to abandon sex.

Freud’s personal frustrations and conflicts about sex surfaced in the form of neuroses.

Freud diagnosed his condition as anxiety neurosis and neurasthenia—a neurotic condition characterized by weakness, worry, and disturbances of digestion and circulation. He traced both disturbances to an accumulation of sexual tension.

Freud psychoanalyzed himself through the study of his own dreams, a process he continued for the rest of his life. It was during this period that he performed his most creative work in developing his theory of personality. He formulated much of his theory around his own neurotic conflicts and childhood experiences, as filtered through his interpretations of his dreams.

As his work became known through published articles and books as well as papers presented at scientific meetings, Freud attracted a group of disciples. The disciples included Carl Jung and Alfred Adler, who later broke with Freud to develop their own theories.

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3 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis

In 1909, Freud received an honorary doctoral degree at Clark University in the United States. His system of psychoanalysis was warmly welcomed in the United States. Two years after his visit, American followers founded the American Psychoanalytic Association and the New York Psychoanalytic Society. In 1920, only 11 years after his visit to America, more than 200 books on his work had been published in the United States.

During the 1920s and 1930s, Freud reached the pinnacle of his success, but at the same time his health began to deteriorate seriously. When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, they expressed their feelings about Freud by publicly burning his books. He later agreed to leave for London. In 1939, his physician promised that he would not let Freud suffer needlessly. He administered three injections of morphine over the next 24 hours, each dose greater than necessary for sedation, and brought Freud’s long years of pain to an end.

II. Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality Instincts are the basic elements of the personality, the motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction. The stimuli for instincts—hunger and thirst, for example—are internal. When a need such as hunger is aroused in the body, it generates a state of physiological excitation or energy. The mind transforms this bodily energy into a wish. It is this wish—the mental representation of the physiological need—that is the instinct or driving force that motivates the person to behave in a way that satisfies the need. When the body is in such a state of need, the person experiences a feeling of tension or pressure. People may take different paths to satisfy their needs. Freud believed that psychic energy could be displaced to substitute objects, and this displacement was of primary importance in determining an individual’s personality. Although the instincts are the exclusive source of energy for human behavior, the resulting energy can be invested in a variety of activities. All the interests, preferences, and attitudes that a person displays as an adult were believed by Freud to be displacements of energy from the original objects that satisfied the instinctual needs.

The life instincts serve the purpose of survival of the individual and the species by seeking to satisfy the needs for food, water, air, and sex. The life instincts are oriented toward growth and development. The psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido. The libido can be attached to or invested in objects, a concept Freud called cathexis. The life instinct Freud considered most important for the personality is sex.

Freud regarded sex as an individual’s primary motivation. Erotic wishes arises from the body’s erogenous zones: the mouth, anus, and sex organs. In opposition to the life instincts, Freud postulated the destructive or death instincts. One component of the death

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instincts is the aggressive drive, which he saw as the wish to die turned against objects other than the self. The aggressive drive compels individuals to destroy, conquer, and kill.

III. The Levels of Personality Freud’s original conception divided personality into three levels: the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. The conscious corresponds to its ordinary everyday meaning. He likened the mind to an iceberg. The conscious is that part above the surface of the water—the tip of the iceberg. The unconscious is the invisible portion of personality below the surface. The unconscious contains the major driving power behind all behaviors and is the repository of forces one cannot see or control. Between these two levels is the preconscious. This is the storehouse of every individual’s memories, perceptions, and thoughts of which he or she is not consciously aware at the moment but that can easily be summoned into consciousness.

IV. The Structure of Personality The id corresponds to Freud’s earlier notion of the unconscious. The id is the reservoir for the instincts and the libido. The id is a powerful structure of personality because it supplies all the energy for the other two components. The id operates in accordance with what Freud called the pleasure principle. Through its concern with tension reduction, the id functions to increase pleasure and avoid pain. The id has no awareness of reality.

Hungry infants cannot find food on their own. The only ways the id can attempt to satisfy its needs are through reflex action and wish-fulfilling hallucinatory or fantasy experience, which Freud labeled primary-process thought.

The growing child is taught to deal intelligently and rationally with other people and the outside world and to develop the powers of perception, recognition, judgment, and memory—the powers adults use to satisfy their needs. Freud called these abilities secondary-process thought. The ego is the rational master of the personality. The ego perceives and manipulates the environment in a practical and realistic manner and so is said to operate in accordance with the reality principle. The ego thus exerts control over the id impulses. The ego serves two masters—the id and reality—and is constantly mediating and striking compromises between their conflicting demands.

There is also a third set of forces—a powerful and largely unconscious set of dictates or beliefs—that one acquires in childhood: one’s ideas of right and wrong. In everyday language one calls this internal morality a conscience. Freud called it the superego.

Those behaviors for which children are punished form the conscience, one part of the

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5 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis

superego. The second part of the superego is the ego-ideal, which consists of good, or correct, behaviors for which children have been praised. The superego is relentless, even cruel, in its constant quest for moral perfection.

V. Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego Freud described anxiety as an objectless fear to a specific object that caused it. When one cannot cope with anxiety, when one is in danger of being overwhelmed by it, the anxiety is said to be traumatic.

Freud proposed three different types of anxiety. Reality (or objective) anxiety involves a fear of real dangers in the real world. Neurotic anxiety has its basis in childhood, in a conflict between instinctual gratification and reality. Moral anxiety results from a conflict between the id and the superego. This is a fear of one’s conscience. Anxiety serves as a warning to the person that something is amiss within the personality.

VI. Defenses against Anxiety Freud believed that defenses must, to some extent, always be in operation. He postulated several defense mechanisms and noted that individuals rarely use just one; they typically defend themselves against anxiety by using several at the same time. Although defense mechanisms vary in their specifics, they share two characteristics in common: (1) they are all denials or distortions of, and (2) they all operate unconsciously.

Repression is an involuntary removal of something from conscious awareness. Denial is related to repression and involves denying the existence of some external threat or traumatic event that has occurred. In reaction formation, individuals defend themselves against a disturbing impulse by actively expressing the opposite impulse. Another way of defending against disturbing impulses is to project them on to someone else. This defense mechanism is called projection. In regression, the person retreats or regresses to an earlier period of life that was more pleasant and free of the current level of frustration and anxiety. Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves reinterpreting one’s behavior to make it seem more rational and acceptable. If an object that satisfies an id impulse is not available, the person may shift the impulse to another object. This is known as displacement. Finally, sublimation involves the altering the id impulses themselves. The instinctual energy is thus diverted into other channels of expression, ones that society considers acceptable and admirable.

Unless the defenses are restored, or new ones formed to take their place, individuals are likely to develop neurotic or psychotic symptoms. Thus, according to Freud, defenses are

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6 Chapter 2

necessary to one’s mental health.

VII. Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development Each psychosexual stage of development is defined by an erogenous zone of the body.

In each developmental stage a conflict exists that must be resolved before the infant or child can progress to the next stage. In fixation, a portion of libido or psychic energy remains invested in that developmental stage, leaving less energy for the following stages.

The oral stage, the first stage of psychosexual development, lasts from birth until some time during the second year. During this period, the infant’s principal source of pleasure is the mouth. During this stage, the infant is totally dependent on the mother or caregiver who becomes the primary object of the child’s libido. There are two ways of behaving during this stage: oral incorporative behavior (taking in) and oral aggressive or oral sadistic behavior (biting or spitting out). Around the age of 18 months, a new demand, toilet training, is made of the child. Freud believed that the experience of toilet training during the anal stage had a significant effect on personality development. Defecation produces erotic pleasure for the child, but with the onset of toilet training, the child is put under pressure to learn or postpone or delay this pleasure. A new set of problems arises around the fourth or fifth year, when the focus of pleasure shifts from the anus to the genitals.

Children at the phallic stage display considerable interest in exploring and manipulating the genitals, their own and those of their playmates. The basic conflict of the phallic stage centers on the unconscious desire of the child for the parent of the opposite sex. Out of Freud’s identification of this conflict came one of his best-known concepts: the Oedipus complex The Oedipus complex operates differently for boys and girls. The mother becomes a love object for the young boy. The boy sees the father as an obstacle in this path and comes to look upon him as a rival and a threat. As a result, he becomes jealous of and hostile toward the father. Accompanying the boy’s desire to replace his father is the fear that the father will retaliate and harm him. He interprets his fear of his father in genital terms, becoming fearful that his father will cut off the offending organ (the boy’s penis), which is the source of the boy’s pleasure and sexual longings. And so castration anxiety, comes to play a role, as it may have done in Freud’s childhood. The boy replaces the sexual longing for the mother with a more acceptable affection and develops a strong identification with the father. Freud was less clear about the female phallic conflict, which some of his followers termed the Electra complex. During the phallic stage, however, the father becomes the girl’s new love object. She comes to envy her father and transfers her love to him because he possesses the highly valued sex organ. A

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7 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis

girl develops penis envy, because she believes she may have lost her penis. Poorly resolved conflicts can cause lingering forms of castration anxiety and penis envy. The socalled phallic character or personality type evidences strong narcissism. The latency period lasts for five or six years and is not a psychosexual stage of development. The sex instinct is dormant. The genital stage, the final psychosexual stage of development, begins at puberty. The adolescent must conform to social sanctions and taboos that exist concerning sexual expression, but he believed that conflict is minimized through sublimation. According to Freud, the first 5 years are the crucial ones. To Freud, what individuals are as adults is determined by the conflicts to which they are exposed and with which they must cope before many of them have even learned to read.

VIII. Questions about Human Nature In Freud’s system, there is only one ultimate and necessary goal in life: to reduce tension.

Although Freud recognized universality in human nature, in that individuals all pass through the same stages of psychosexual development and are motivated by the same id forces, he asserted that part of the personality is unique to each person. On the issue of free will versus determinism, Freud held a deterministic view.

IX. Assessment in Freud’s Theory Freud considered the unconscious to be the motivating force in life. He developed free association in which the patient says whatever that comes to his or her mind. Freud then started using hypnosis with some degree of success and called the process catharsis.

Also, some patients revealed disturbing events during hypnosis, but were unable to recall them when he questioned them later.

Freud also found that sometimes the technique did not operate so freely. Some memories were evidently too painful to talk about. Freud called these moments resistances. Freud believed that dreams represent, in symbolic form, repressed desires, fears, and conflicts.

So strongly have these feelings been repressed that they can surface only in disguised fashion during sleep. He argued that there were two aspects of dreams: the manifest content, which refers to the actual events in the dream; and the latent content, which is the hidden symbolic meaning of the dream.

X. Criticisms of Freud’s Research Freud’s major research method was the case study. It does not rely on objective observation, the data are not gathered in systematic fashion, and the situation (the psychoanalytic session) is not amenable to duplication and verification. Freud did not

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keep verbatim records of his therapy sessions. As a result, it’s possible that his data were incomplete, consisting of what he remembered hours later. Some critics also suggest that Freud’s patients did not actually reveal childhood sexual experiences, because, in most cases, those experiences never occurred. Only a dozen or so cases have been detailed in Freud’s writings, and most these were of young, unmarried, upper-class women of good education. Several investigators compared Freud’s notes with the published case study of the Rat Man, one of his most famous patients. The published version of the case did not agree with the notes Freud made after his sessions with the patient.

In the years since Freud’s death in 1939, many of his ideas have been submitted to experimental testing. The researchers found that some Freudian concepts—notably the id, ego, superego, death wish, libido, and anxiety—could not be tested by the experimental method. Researchers found no evidence to support the psychosexual stages of development or a relationship between Oedipal variables and sexual problems later in life. The notion that unconscious forces can influence conscious thought and behavior is now well established. Current research shows that unconscious influences may be even more pervasive than Freud suggested. Much research on the nature of unconscious involves subliminal perception in which stimuli are presented to people below their level of conscious awareness.

A series of experiments also showed that goals could be aroused, or activated, outside of conscious awareness. In addition, behaviors to satisfy these goals were then displayed, even though the students were not consciously aware of doing so. Other imaginative research has demonstrated that the unconscious can influence emotional as well as cognitive and behavioral processes.

Psychoanalytic researchers have identified two components of the ego: ego control and ego resiliency. The degree of ego control ranges from under-controlled to overcontrolled. Both extremes are considered maladaptive. Ego resiliency refers to one’s flexibility in adjusting or changing their typical level of ego control to meet the daily changes in their environment. High ego resiliency also correlated positively with general intelligence, good grades in school, popularity with peers, greater life satisfaction, and better social functioning. Low ego control in boys and girls, and low ego resiliency in girls, was related positively to drug abuse in adolescence.

To Freud, catharsis involved the physical expression of an emotion by recalling a traumatic event, which often led to relief of the disturbing symptom. The analysis found that the more negative and stressful the setting or context in which displacement occurs, the greater the intensity of that displacement. Also, dwelling on anger maintains the feeling and is likely to cause it to be more expressed outwardly in aggressive behavior. A

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9 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis

number of differences have been found between those of us who habitually repress bad experiences and memories and those who do not. Repressors have problems remembering specific experiences that they found negative, stressful, fearful, and traumatic. Repressors tend to be low in anxiety and high in defensiveness, and to have significantly poorer recall of negative memories from childhood (Davis, 1987; Myers & Derakshan, 2004). In addition, repressors are far more likely to avoid romantic attachments than are nonrepressors (Davis, 1987; Vetere & Myers, 2002).

Research on projection have found that accusing another person of lying and cheating in a game increased the amount of blame placed on that person and reduced the amount of blame the subjects placed on themselves for showing the same negative behaviors.

Studies have found a hierarchy among the Freudian defense mechanisms in which the simpler ones are used earlier in life and the more complex ones emerge as one grows older. In an unusual study of Asians and Americans, a group of Americans was compared with a group of Asian Buddhists living in Thailand. The researchers found a strong similarity between people in the two cultures in their use of regression, reaction formation, projection, repression, denial, and compensation.

Research also does not support Freud’s idea that dreams represent a fulfillment of wishes or desires. It seems clear that dreams are often characterized by highly emotional content from the dreamers’ own lives, both past and present. A great deal of research confirms that dreams also reflect mundane, ordinary, everyday experiences, and that the emotional intensity of these experiences, as well as the person’s mood, influences the dream stories.

Exposure to electronic media such as cellphones, smartphones, computers, DVDs, and video games, as well as interactive Internet use, have all been shown to influence the content and frequency of dreams. There are also cultural difference with regard to dreams. A comparison of the dreams of college students in the United States and China revealed that the Chinese students reported more familiar people in their dreams and fewer aggressive situations than did the American students. People in both Eastern and Western cultures tend to agree that dreams may contain hidden personal truths that can provide useful information about themselves and their environment.

There have been a number of studies dealing with the behavior and attitudes of children toward parents of the same and opposite sex, which is a major ingredient of Freud’s notion of the Oedipal relationship. A classic study found that significantly more men reported dreams reflecting castration anxiety; significantly more women reported dreams reflecting castration wishes or penis envy.

An investigation of the oral personality type showed a strong relationship between the

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oral orientation, as identified by the Rorschach, and obesity. This supports Freud’s contention that oral types are preoccupied with eating and drinking. Research on personality development over time indicate that the personality characteristics of preschool children changed dramatically, as shown by follow-up studies conducted over 6 to 7 years. Other studies suggest that the middle childhood years (ages 7–12) may be more important in establishing adult personality patterns than the early childhood years.

According to Freud, what appears to be ordinary forgetting or a casual lapse in speech is actually a reflection of unconscious motives or anxieties. Research on repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse has found ample evidence that such abuse can be forgotten for many years before being recalled. Despite evidence to support the existence of repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse that did occur, research has also demonstrated how easily false memories can be implanted and recollections distorted, to the point where something that never occurred can be made conscious and appear to be genuine.

XI. Extensions of Freudian Theory Anna Freud said she never would have been born if a safer contraceptive method been available to her parents. She became Sigmund’s favorite daughter. At age 22, Anna began four years of psychoanalysis with her father. To analyze one’s child was a serious violation of Freud’s own rules for the practice of psychoanalysis, and the situation with Anna was kept secret for many years. She devoted her life to the care of her father and to his system of psychoanalysis. Anna worked only with children and substantially revised orthodox psychoanalysis by greatly expanding the role of the ego, arguing that the ego operates independently of the id. Anna Freud clarified the operation of the defense mechanisms, which is only one of her significant contribution to psychoanalytic theory.

XII. Reflections on Freud’s Theory Psychoanalysis contributed to the growing interest of American psychologists in the study of personality beginning in the 1930s. In the 1940s and 1950s, the ideas of psychoanalysis influenced the emerging study of motivation in psychology. Contemporary psychology has absorbed many Freudian concepts, including the role of the unconscious, the importance of childhood experiences in shaping adult behavior and the operation of defense mechanisms.

Growing number of people are seeking therapy for behavioral and emotional problems, but few are choosing the expensive, long-time approach Freud developed. Some argue that Freud placed too great an emphasis on instinctual biological forces as determinants of personality. Another criticism focuses on Freud’s emphasis on past behavior to the exclusion of individual goals and aspirations. Theorists also take exception to Freud’s

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11 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis

views on women, specifically to the concepts of penis envy, women’s poorly developed superegos, and women’s inferiority feelings about their bodies. Critics suggest that, if people wish to develop a theory of human personality, why not study the best and the healthiest, the positive human qualities as well as the negative ones?

Class Discussion Topics Class Discussion Topic 2.1 Students are to discuss the use of drugs, such as cocaine, in Freud’s time. There was no Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to require tests to be run on animal and human subjects for safety. Was Freud responsible for the death of one of his friends in giving him a lethal dose of cocaine? Was Freud using “good practice” when he prescribed the medication? Do you believe, based on the text and your research, that Freud was addicted to cocaine well beyond middle age? Have students break up into groups to discuss these questions and then present their findings to the whole class.

Class Discussion/Exercise Topic 2.2 Brainstorm the origins of anxiety on the board with your students. Name some environmental, social, physical, and mental causes of anxiety. Now take at least two items from each category and construct a neurotic patient. One student should play the role of the patient while another student can take up the role of the therapist trained in psychoanalysis. Have the therapist use the free association method to bring to the conscious the anxieties that have been listed for the patient.

Student Projects Student Project 2.1 Freud used the case study method to study his patients. Unfortunately, Freud did not use verbatims (writing down what the client would say, immediately after a therapy session).

If Freud was here today, he might have used an audio or video tape recorder, as he avoided writing notes down right after his session. For this project, students could list three advantages and three disadvantages of using tape recorders. The students could also do a “mock” video or audio recording of a session with someone using the techniques of dream analysis and free association popularized by Freud.

Student Project 2.2

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Have students (in class or an online environment) submit a video/audio of a “mock” psychoanalytic session. This could be an individual or even a group project. Students would use the techniques of dream analysis and free association popularized by Freud.

Student Project 2.3 In this project, the student is to consider the superego. Freud suggested that the superego is the moral restraint that is needed, combined with the id and the ego. The following website suggests a link between the superego of Freud and the moral and religious viewpoint of a “Higher Power.” Students should read the article and explain the concept of “Higher Power Superego” in their own words. Does the author of this article believe that Freud would have come to this conclusion about the superego if he had not rejected his own religious background? Defend your answer.

Click on the Web: http://www.earthtym.net/conscience.htm Student Project 2.4 The following web article will help students critically examine Freud’s concept of the superego, the schools of psychoanalysis, and the goals of psychotherapy. Students are to write a five-page critique of the superego and how this concept might be related to psychoanalysis.

Click on the Web: http://freud.org.uk/education/topic/10575/subtopic/40017/

Online Discussion Board Each student is to answer the following questions by giving his or her opinions. Two cautions that students should keep in mind are: A. When you share personal information; remember, this information is NOT confidential.

B. Be nice, encouraging, and uplifting when you respond to another person.

1.

Freud voiced strong opinions about religion. In your opinion, (1) what were they; and (2) what is your opinion of his views?

2.

Freud’s clients seemed to be mostly female. (1) Explain, in your words, why he might have chosen women almost exclusively for his work in therapy. (2) Do you believe he was successful in helping his clients? Explain your answer.

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1 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology

Chapter 3 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Review the life of Jung.

Explain the systems of personality according to Jung.

Describe Jung’s theory on the development of personality.

Explain the use of word association, symptom analysis, and dream analysis for assessment.

Outline the usefulness of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator for assessment of personality.

Detail research in Jung’s theory.

Lecture Outline Sigmund Freud once designated Carl Jung as his spiritual son and heir, Jung went on to develop his own theory of personality that differed dramatically from orthodox psychoanalysis. He fashioned a new and elaborate explanation of human nature quite unlike any other which he called analytical psychology. The first point on which Jung came to disagree with Freud was the role of sexuality. Jung broadened Freud’s definition of libido by redefining it as a more generalized psychic energy that included sex but was not restricted to it. Jung argued that people are shaped by their future as well as their past.

People are affected not only by what happened to them as children, but also by what they aspire to do in the future. Jung probed more deeply into the unconscious and added an entirely new dimension: the inherited experiences of human and prehuman species.

I. The Life of Jung (1875–1961) Jung was born in Switzerland into a family that included nine clergymen. Jung experienced an unhappy childhood and was close to his father but considered him weak and powerless.

Jung’s mother was by far the more powerful parent, but her emotional instability led her to behave erratically. As a result of his mother’s odd behavior, Jung became wary of all women, a suspicion that took many years to dispel.

Distrustful of his mother and disappointed in his father, Jung felt cut off from the external world, the world of conscious reality. As an escape, he turned inward to his unconscious, to the world of dreams, visions, and fantasies, in which he felt more secure. The essence of

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his personality theory was shaped in essentially the same way. To Jung, such dreams represented the direction of his approach to the human personality. They directed him to explore the unconscious mind, which lies beneath the surface of behavior. As a child, Jung deliberately avoided other children, and they avoided him. His loneliness is reflected in his theory, which focuses on the inner growth of the individual rather than on relationships with other people.

Jung chose to study medicine at the University of Basel and specialized in psychiatry. Jung later developed an independent clinical practice and also gave lectures at the University of Zurich.

By the time Jung became associated with Sigmund Freud in 1907, Jung had already established a significant professional reputation on his own. Freud anointed Jung as his successor and crown prince. For a time, the two men remained close. Contrary to Freud’s hopes, Jung was not an uncritical disciple. Jung had his own ideas and unique view of the human personality, and when he began to express these notions, it became inevitable that they would part.

Freud and Jung both suffered from neurotic episodes at approximately the same age. Freud resolved it by analyzing his dreams, which formed a basis for his personality theory. Jung overcame his disturbance by confronting his unconscious through the exploration of his dreams and fantasies. Out of Jung’s confrontation with his unconscious he fashioned his approach to personality. He concluded that the most crucial stage in personality development was not childhood, as Freud believed, but middle age, which was the time of Jung’s own crisis. Jung’s theory was refined along more rational and empirical lines by data provided by his patients Jung remained productive in research and writing for most of his 86 years. His books became popular, and his analytical psychology attracted increasing numbers of followers.

II. Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System Jung used the term libido in two ways: first, as a diffuse and general life energy, and second, for a perspective similar to Freud’s, as a narrower psychic energy that fuels the work of the personality, which he called the psyche. Jung drew on ideas from physics to explain the functioning of psychic energy. He proposed three basic principles: opposites, equivalence, and entropy. The principal of opposites is a conflict of polarities, and it is the primary motivator of behavior and the generator of energy. For his principal of equivalence, Jung applied the physical principle of the conservation of energy to psychic events. He stated that energy expended in bringing about some condition is not lost but rather is shifted to another part of the personality. The word equivalence implies that the

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3 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology

new area to which energy has shifted must have an equal psychic value; that is, it should be equally desirable, compelling, or fascinating. Otherwise, the excess energy will flow into the unconscious. In physics, the principle of entropy refers to equalization of energy differences. Jung believed these laws of psychic energy gave a human being balance or equilibrium in their personality. Jung applied this law to psychic energy by proposing that there is a tendency toward maintaining a balance or equilibrium in the personality.

III. Aspects of Personality Jung believed that the total personality, or psyche, is composed of several distinct systems or aspects that can influence one another. The ego is the center of the consciousness, the part of the psyche concerned with perceiving, thinking, feeling, and remembering. Jung believed that psychic energy could be channeled internally, toward the self (introversion), or externally, toward the outside world (extraversion). Extraverts are open, sociable, and socially assertive, while introverts are withdrawn and are often shy. According to Jung, everyone had the capacity for both attitudes, but only one becomes dominant in the personality.

Jung recognized that there were different kinds of extraverts and introverts, he proposed additional distinctions among people based on what he called psychological functions.

These functions refer to different and opposing ways of perceiving both the external real world and the subjective inner world. Jung posited four functions of the psyche: sensing, intuiting, thinking, and feeling.

Jung proposed eight psychological types, based on the interactions of the two attitudes and four functions: • The extraverted thinking types • The extraverted feeling types • The extraverted sensing types • The extraverted intuiting types • The introverted thinking types • The introverted feeling types • The introverted sensing types • The introverted intuiting types The personal unconscious in Jung’s system is similar to Freud’s conception of the preconscious. It is a reservoir of material that was once conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed because it was trivial or disturbing. Little mental effort is required to take something out, examine it for a while, and then put it back, where it will remain until the next time people want it or are reminded of it. As individuals file more and more

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experiences in their personal unconscious, they begin to group them into what Jung called complexes. A complex is a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized around a common theme. These complexes may be conscious or unconscious, harmful, or useful.

The deepest and least accessible level of the psyche is the collective unconscious. These are universal experiences inherited from previous ancestral generations. Jung believed that just as people accumulate and file all their personal experiences in the personal unconscious, so does humankind collectively, as a species, store the experiences of all human and pre-human ancestors in the collective unconscious. He believed that whatever experiences are universal—that is, are repeated by each generation—become part of individual personality. Individuals inherit the potential to have fears and are predisposed to behave and feel the same ways people have always behaved and felt. Jung believed that certain basic experiences have characterized every generation throughout human history. In his studies of ancient cultures, both mythical and real, Jung discovered what he believed to be common themes and symbols that appeared in diverse parts of the world. In addition, Jung’s patients, in their dreams and fantasies, recalled and described the same kinds of symbols he had discovered in ancient cultures. He could find no other explanation for these shared symbols and themes over such vast geographical and temporal distances than that they were transmitted by and carried in each person’s unconscious mind.

The ancient experiences contained in the collective unconscious are manifested by recurring themes or patterns, which Jung called archetypes. Among the archetypes Jung proposed are the hero, the mother, the child, God, death, power, and the wise old man. The word persona refers to a mask that an actor wears to display various roles or faces to the audience. The persona archetype is a mask, a public face people wear to present themselves as someone different from who they really are.

The anima and animus archetypes refer to Jung’s recognition that humans are essentially bisexual. On the biological level, each sex secretes the hormones of the other sex as well as those of its own sex. On the psychological level, each sex manifests characteristics, temperaments, and attitudes of the other sex by virtue of centuries of living together.

The psyche of the woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype), and the psyche of the man contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype). Jung insisted that both the anima and the animus must be expressed. Otherwise, these vital aspects will remain dormant and underdeveloped, leading to one-sidedness of the personality. The most powerful archetype has the sinister and mysterious name of shadow, which contains the basic, primitive animal instincts and therefore has the deepest roots of all archetypes. Not only is the shadow the source of evil, it is also the source of vitality, spontaneity, creativity,

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5 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology

and emotion. If the shadow is totally suppressed, the psyche will be dull and lifeless. The self-archetype represents the unity, integration, and harmony of the total personality. To Jung, striving toward that wholeness is the ultimate goal in life. The self cannot begin to emerge until all the other systems of the psyche have developed. This occurs around middle age and the actualization of the self involves goals and plans for the future.

IV. The Development of the Personality Jung believed that individuals develop and grow regardless of age and are always moving toward a more complete level of self-realization. Jung did not posit sequential stages of growth in as much detail as Freud, but he wrote of two general periods in the overall developmental process. The ego begins to develop in early childhood, at first in a primitive way because the child has not yet formed a unique identity. At this stage, the children’s personality is a little more than a reflection of the personalities of their parents. Parents exert a great influence on the formation of the child’s personality. Parents might try to force their own personalities on their children, wanting them to be an extension of themselves. Or they might expect their children to develop personalities quite different from their own as a way of seeking vicarious compensation for their own deficiencies. It is not until puberty that the psyche assumes a definite form and content. This period, which Jung called our psychic birth, is marked by difficulties and the need to adapt. From the teenage years through young adulthood, they are concerned with preparatory activities such as completing education, beginning a career, getting married, and starting a family.

The period of middle age, according Jung; was the time of personal crisis for Jung and for many of his patients. By that age, the adaptation problems of young adulthood have usually been resolved. The more Jung analyzed this period, the more strongly he believed that such drastic personality changes were inevitable and universal. Middle age is a natural time of transition in which the personality is supposed to undergo necessary and beneficial changes. Middle age is when individuals begin the process of realizing or actualizing the self.

Individuation involves becoming an individual, fulfilling one’s capacities, and developing one’s self. To strive for individuation, middle-aged people must abandon the behaviors and values that guided the first half of their lives and confront their unconscious, bringing it into conscious awareness and accepting what it tells them to do. Only in that way can the true self be revealed. An emotionally healthy middle-aged person is no longer ruled by either consciousness or unconsciousness, by a specific attitude or function, or by any of the archetypes. All are brought into harmonious balance when individuation is achieved.

Of particular importance in the midlife process of individuation is the shift in the nature of

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the archetypes. The first change involves dethroning the persona. Next, individuals become aware of the destructive forces of the shadow and acknowledge that dark side of their nature with its primitive impulses, such as selfishness. People must also come to terms with their psychological bisexuality. A man must be able to express his anima archetype, or traditionally feminine traits such as tenderness, and a woman must come to express her animus, or traditionally masculine traits such as assertiveness.

Once the psyche’s structures are individuated and acknowledged, transcendence can occur.

Transcendence, according to Jung, is an innate tendency toward unity or wholeness in the personality, uniting all the opposing aspects within the psyche.

V. Questions about Human Nature On the nature–nurture issue, Jung took a mixed position. The drive toward individuation and transcendence is innate, but it can be aided or thwarted by learning and experience.

The ultimate and necessary goal of life is the realization of the self. Although it is rarely achieve, individuals are highly motivated to strive for it. Jung presented a more positive, hopeful image of human nature than Freud did. Progress does not stop in childhood, as Freud had assumed, but continues throughout life. By placing too great an emphasis on materialism, reason, and empirical science, individuals are in danger of failing to appreciate the forces of the unconscious. Jung’s hopefulness about human nature was a watchful, warning kind.

VI. Assessment in Jung’s Theory Jung’s techniques for assessing the functioning of the psyche drew on science and the supernatural, resulting in both an objective and a mystical approach. He formed his personality theory on the basis of his patient’s fantasies and dreams, and his explorations of ancient languages, alchemy, and astrology. His sessions with patients were unusual and often chaotic. Jung believed his patient’s fantasies were real to them and accepted them at face value.

The word-association test, in which a subject responds to a stimulus word with whatever word comes immediately to mind, has become a standard laboratory and clinical tool is psychology. Jung used word association to uncover complexes in his patients.

Symptom analysis focuses on the symptoms reported by the patient and is based on the person’s free associations to those symptoms, according to Jung.

Jung was concerned with more than the causes of dreams in his approach to dream

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7 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology

analysis. He believed that dreams were more than unconscious wishes. First, dreams are prospective; that is, they help people prepare for experiences and events they anticipate will occur. Second, dreams are compensatory; they help bring about a balance between opposites in the psyche by compensating for the overdevelopment of any one psychic structure. Jung worked with a series of dreams reported by a patient over a period of time.

Jung believed he could discover recurring themes, issues, and problems that persisted in the patient’s unconscious. Jung also used amplification to analyze dreams.

An assessment instrument related to Jung’s personality theory is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The MBTI is the most popular and most frequently personality test ever devised and is taken by more than two million people every year for hiring and promotion decisions.

VII. Research on Jung’s Theory Jung, like Freud, used the case study method, which Jung called life-history reconstruction.

The criticisms of Freud’s data and research methods also apply to Jung’s work. Jung’s data did not rely on objective observation and were not gathered in a controlled and systematic fashion. Jung did not keep verbatim records of his patient’s comments, nor did he attempt to verify the accuracy of his patient’s reports. Jung’s data was subjective and unreliable.

His work has been criticized for dealing with conclusions he may have slanted to fit his theory. Most of this research uses the MBTI and focuses on the attitudes of introversion and extraversion. Different psychological types may be drawn to different professions (Hanewitz, 1978). The teachers and social work students showed high levels of intuiting and feeling. Police officers and dental school students, who deal with people in different ways from teachers and social workers, scored high in extraversion and in sensing and thinking.

People categorized as introverted thinking types have better memories for neutral or impersonal stimuli, such as numbers. Persons labeled extraverted feeling types have better memories for human stimuli with emotional overtones, such as facial expressions.

Introverted thinking types more frequently recalled events that occurred when they were alone.

The MBTI has also been translated for use in a number of different countries, including Turkey, Syria, and other Arab countries. Introverts were more likely than extraverts to recall everyday dreams that bore no relation to archetypes. Intuiting types recalled more archetypal dreams than did sensing types. As far as individuation in research, executives who looked within themselves and were more spontaneous were action-oriented rather than reacting to external forces and pressures. Jung, and others who have studied this so-called

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midlife crisis, initially viewed it as a phenomenon far more likely to affect men than women. More recently, however, the idea that women undergo a similar crisis has been recognized. Research has demonstrated that many women in midlife undergo an intense period of self-evaluation, reviewing their lives and judging their relative success or failure.

One study found that the midlife transition was less difficult for women who had actively pursued careers than for women who stayed at home and focused on marriage and family.

A longitudinal study followed women for 20 years after they graduated from college. The results showed that the personalities of the women at midlife, based on ratings by independent judges, could be divided into three levels or prototypes: conflicted, traditional, and individuated.

The lowest level, the conflicted prototype, was characterized by personal conflicts, psychological problems, poor relationships with others, anxiety, hostility, and rigidity. The second level, the traditional prototype, was characterized by devotion to others, feelings of guilt, an emphasis on fulfilling duties and obligations at the expense of their own selfdevelopment and self-expression, and a concern for societal standards and getting the approval of others. The third level, the individuated prototype, corresponds to Jung’s concept of individuation, the ideal outcome of the midlife personality crisis.

VIII. Reflections on Jung’s Theory Jung’s complex and unusual approach to the human personality has had considerable impact on a broad range of disciplines, notably psychiatry, sociology, economics, political science, philosophy, and religion.

The word-association test became a standard projective technique and inspired the development of the Rorschach inkblot test and the so-called lie-detection techniques. The concepts of psychological complexes and of introverted versus extraverted personalities are widely accepted in psychology today. Despite the significance of these formulations, the bulk of Jung’s theory was not received enthusiastically by psychologists. Jung’s writing were difficult to comprehend and lacked internal consistency and systematization. Jung’s embrace of the occult and the supernatural is probably the source of most of the criticism directed at his theory.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 3.1 Have students interview a family member or survey friends who would represent each of

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9 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology

Jung’s three developmental stages. The interviewer should devise three questions to ask those being interviewed. In the childhood stage, the questions should be written in such a manner that the child being interviewed has become aware of what makes him/her different from other children or adults. The adolescent being interviewed should be asked questions such as “do you know what you want to major in college” or “what career goals do you have?” These questions should be designed to elicit whether or not the adolescent’s decision making is reality based, which cover Jung’s stage from puberty to young adulthood. Finally, a middle-aged person would be asked three questions concerning his or her transition from the external to the internal and if this person perceives his or her life is in balance. The findings of these three surveys can be used for a group discussion at the next class meeting. The instructor may want each group to share the findings of its interviews and surveys from people in each stage of development. Did this person successfully transition from one stage to the other? Give two examples of positive issues and/or negative problems in this person’s transition through each of the three stages of life, according to Jung’s theory.

Lecture Topic 3.2 With the use of Table 3.3 of your text, pair students and allow them to use the examples from Jung’s word-association test. Students should then perceive if this response would be characterized by Jung as a “normal” response or a “neurotic” response. Challenge the students to justify why this would be a normal or neurotic response. This could also be done as an oral exercise and as a written assignment after the responses are given to each student by the respondent. A variation of this assignment may be to have each student in the pair develop ten stimulus words and ask his or her partner for response. NOTE: The instructor may need to add parameters to this exercise, such as not allowing degrading words or words that would be overly sensational or graphic in content.

Student Projects Student Project 3.1 Students will demonstrate an understanding of how a college student would view the theory of Jung’s life stages of childhood, puberty to young adulthood, and then the transition that a student would need to make in college to succeed. Is the student aware of the need to develop good study habits? Do the students perceive a difference in how they study in college as to when they were (a) in grade school and (b) in high school? Allow the students to read an article on study habits and make up a list of five personal study strategies in which they could improve as a mature college student rather than as a child or adolescent.

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Student Project 3.2 Students should apply their knowledge of Jung’s theory of introversion and extraversion and explain how this relates to critical thinking. Compare a person who is diagnosed on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) as an “introverted thinking” type with a person identified as an “introverted intuiting” psychological type. Explain which of these types would more readily identify with the need to develop critical thinking. Justify your answer.

For more resources, check the following websites: http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/ http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc-thkg.htm Student Project 3.3 Students may study the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). This instrument was developed in relationship to Jung’s psychological types of introversion and extraversion.

The instructor may also provide vignettes outlining the eight different psychological types and allow the student to use this as either a study guide or as a written exercise. Students would need to identify and justify their choice of (a) psychological type, with what they perceive is the matching, and (b) vignette.

Internet Sites for Student Project 3.3: http://www.capt.org/mbti-assessment/home.htm http://www.personalitypathways.com/MBTI_intro.html Student Project 3.4 Jung’s theories have been controversial as he combined the psychological with the mystical. The Internet site below may help the students to understand an oppositional approach to the use of Jung’s theories in relation to Christian ideology. Students may choose to write a paper using the internet resource mentioned below. Students may also compare and contrast the theory of Jung. Students may also focus on the oppositional approach of this article and may agree or disagree with the article’s approach to the theories of Jung. Which areas of Jung’s theory seem to be contrary to Christian ideology?

Do students agree or disagree with these stated views in light of their moral or ethical foundation? Which areas of Jung’s theories, if any, do students perceive as compatible with

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11 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology

Christian ideology? Based on the students’ opinion and research, would Jung’s theories be compatible with other major religions, such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and/or Islamic beliefs?

Internet sites for Student Project 3.4: http://www.psychoheresy-aware.org/jungleg.html Student Project 3.5 Students may be assigned outside readings of Jung or to write a critique. The following internet sites provide information concerning the present positions of Jungian theorists: http://www.junginla.org/ http://cgjungboston.com/ http://www.cgjunghouston.org/

Online Discussion Board Carl Jung Review: 1.

Differentiate and give an example of both introversion and extraversion. Which do you think you are, according to this model, and why?

2.

(A) Describe “life’s goal” as Jung saw it. (B) What is your “life’s goal”?

3.

(A) Summarize Jung’s view of human nature. (B) What is your personal, religious, and/or spiritual viewpoint of human nature?

4.

Using Jung’s concept of the “collective unconscious,” explain in your words the widespread appeal of music and/or competitive sports.

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1 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology

Chapter 4 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Review the life of Alfred Adler.

Analyze Adler’s concept of inferiority feelings.

Outline the striving for superiority, or perfection.

Describe the style of life according to Adler.

Compare and contrast Adler’s ideas of birth order.

Evaluate assessment in Adler’s theory.

Evaluate research on Adler’s theory.

Lecture Outline Alfred Adler fashioned an image of human nature that did not portray people as victims of instincts, biological forces, or childhood experiences. He called his approach to human nature individual psychology, which focused on the uniqueness of each person and denied the universality of biological motives and goals.

I. The Life of Adler (1870–1937) Adler’s early childhood was marked by illness, an awareness of death, and intense jealousy of his older brother. At the age of 4, Adler almost died from pneumonia. Adler felt inferior to his brother and to the other neighborhood children, who all seemed healthier and more athletic. As a result, he resolved to work hard to overcome his feelings of inferiority and to compensate for his physical limitations. Gradually he achieved a sense of self-esteem and social acceptance. In his personality theory, Adler emphasized the importance of the peer group and suggested that childhood relationships with siblings and with children outside the family were much more significant than Freud believed.

The theorist who would give the world the notion of inferiority feelings spoke from the depths of his own childhood.

Adler studied medicine at the University of Vienna. He was interested in incurable diseases but became so distressed at his helplessness to prevent death, particularly in younger patients, that he decided to specialize in neurology and psychiatry instead.

Adler’s 9-year association with Freud began in 1902. By 1910, he was also an increasingly vocal critic of the Freudian theory. In 1912, Adler founded the Society for

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2 Chapter 4

Individual Psychology. He later organized government sponsored child counseling clinics in Vienna. In his clinics, Adler introduced group training and guidance procedures, forerunners of modern group therapy techniques. He moved to New York City in 1929 and continued to develop and promote his individual Psychology and soon rose in prominence as a psychological expert.

II. Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving Adler believed that inferiority feelings were common to all humans, and it is not sign of weakness or abnormality. Adler proposed that inferiority feelings are the source of all human striving. Individual growth results from compensation, from one’s attempts to overcome real or imagined inferiorities. Throughout an individual’s life, he or she is driven by a sense of inferiority and to strive for increasingly higher levels of development. The process begins in infancy. Adler believed that infants are aware of their parents’ greater power and strength and of their own hopelessness to resist or challenge that power. Although this initial experience of inferiority applies to everyone in infancy, it is not genetically determined. Rather, it is a function of the environment, which is the same for all infants, a climate of helplessness and dependence on adults.

For a child, an inability to overcome inferiority feelings intensifies them, leading to the development of an inferiority complex. Adler found such a complex in the childhood of many adults who came to him for treatment.

Adler argued that defective parts or organs of the body shape personality through the person’s efforts to compensate for the defect or weakness. Efforts to overcome organic inferiority can result in striking artistic, athletic, and social accomplishments, but if those efforts fail, they can lead to an inferiority complex.

When confronted with obstacles to gratification, spoiled children come to believe that they must have some personal deficiency that is thwarting them; hence, an inferiority complex develops. The infancy and childhood of neglected children are characterized by a lack of love and security because their parents are indifferent or hostile. As a result, these children develop feelings of worthlessness, or even anger, and view others with distrust.

A person may attempt to overcompensate and so develop what Adler called a superiority complex. This involves an exaggerated opinion of one’s abilities and accomplishments.

Such persons may feel inwardly self-satisfied and superior and show no need to demonstrate their superiority with actual accomplishments. Or the person may feel such a need and work hard to become extremely successful.

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3 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology

III. Striving for Superiority, or Perfection Adler described his notion of striving for superiority as the fundamental fact of life.

Adler suggested that people strive for superiority in an effort to perfect themselves, to make themselves complete or whole. Adler saw human motivation in terms of expectations and aspirations for the future. He argued that instincts and primal impulses were insufficient as explanatory principles. Only the ultimate, final goal of superiority or perfection could explain personality and behavior.

Adler believed that an individual lives his/her life around ideals such as the belief that all people are created equal or that all people are basically good. These beliefs influence the way one perceives and interacts with other people. Adler formalized this concept as fictional finalism, the notion that fictional ideas guide one’s behavior as they strive toward a complete or whole state of being.

There are two additional points Adler made about striving for superiority. First, it increases rather than reduces tension. Unlike Freud, Adler did not believe that an individual’s sole motivation was to reduce tension. Second, the striving for superiority is manifested both by the individual and by society as a whole. People, as social beings, strive for superiority or perfection not only as individuals but also as members of a group.

In Adler’s view, individuals and society are interrelated and interdependent. People must function constructively with others for the good of all. Thus, to Adler, human beings perpetually strive for the fictional, ideal goal of perfection.

IV. The Style of Life According to Adler, people develop a unique pattern of characteristics, behaviors, and habits, which he called a distinctive character, or style of life. Infants are afflicted with inferiority feelings that motivate them to compensate for helplessness and dependency.

Infants are afflicted with inferiority feelings that motivate them to compensate for helplessness and dependency. In these attempts at compensation, children acquire a set of behaviors. These behaviors become part of the style of life, a pattern of behaviors designed to compensate for inferiority. The style of life is learned from social interactions and is so firmly crystallized by the age of 4 or 5 that it is difficult to change thereafter.

The style of life thus becomes the guiding framework for all later behaviors. Its nature depends on social interactions, especially the person’s order of birth within the family and the nature of the parent–child relationship.

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Adler proposed a concept called the creative power of the self. Adler believed that people create themselves, their personality, and their character. People are not passively shaped by childhood experiences. Those experiences themselves are not as important as individual conscious attitude toward them. Adler believed in the existence of individual free will.

Adler proposed four basic styles of life for dealing with several universal problems involving an individual’s behavior toward others, problems of occupation, and problems of love: (a) the dominant type displays a dominant or ruling attitude with little social awareness; (b) the getting type which is the most common human type, where a person expects to receive satisfaction from other people and so becomes dependent on them; (c) the avoiding type is a person who avoids any possibility of failure; and (d) the socially useful type who cooperates with others and acts in accordance with their needs.

V. Social Interest Adler believed that getting along with others is the first task a person encounters in life.

He described this as the concept of social interest, which is the individual’s innate potential to cooperate with other people to achieve personal and societal goals. People depend on their early social experiences to realize their innate potential. The individual must cooperate with and contribute to society to realize personal and communal goals.

Adler believed that people have a fundamental need to belong in order to be healthy, well-functioning individuals.

Adler noted the importance of the mother as the first person with whom a baby comes in contact. Through her behavior toward the child, the mother can either foster social interest or thwart its development. The mother must teach the child cooperation, companionship, and courage. Adler believed that a host of evils ranging from war to racial hatred to public drunkenness stemmed from a lack of community feeling.

When Adler was part of Freud’s group, he was considered cantankerous and ambitious, quarreling over the priority of his ideas. But in later years, he mellowed and his system also changed, from emphasizing power and dominance as motivating forces to stressing the more benign force of social or community interest.

VI. Birth Order One of Adler’s most enduring contributions is the idea that order of birth is a major social influence in childhood. Even though siblings have the same parents and live in the same house, they do not have identical social environments.

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5 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology

The first-born child gets their parents’ instant and undivided attention. As a result, firstborns have a secure, happy existence, until the second-born appears. Suddenly, no longer the focus of attention, no longer receiving constant love and care, first-borns are, in a sense, dethroned. For a time, first-borns may become stubborn, ill behaved, and destructive and may refuse to eat or go to bed. When first-borns are punished for their troublesome behavior, they see that as more proof of their fall and may come to hate the second child, who is, after all, the cause of the problem. There are advantages to being the first-born child, however. As the children age, the first-born often has to play the role of teacher, tutor, leader, and disciplinarian, expected by parents to help care for younger siblings. Adler believed that first-borns also take an unusual interest in maintaining order and authority. They become good organizers, conscientious and scrupulous about detail, authoritarian and conservative in attitude.

A second baby is not the novelty the first was; parents may be less concerned and anxious about their own behavior and may take a more relaxed approach to the second child.

They never experience the powerful position once occupied by the first-borns. From the beginning, second-borns have a pacesetter in the older sibling. Competition with the firstborn may serve to motivate the second-born, who may try to catch up to and surpass the older sibling, a goal that spurs language and motor development in the second-born. In some cases, competitiveness would not become part of the second-borns’ lifestyles, and they may become underachievers, performing below their abilities in many facets of life.

Youngest or last-born children are driven by the need to surpass older siblings, they often develop at a remarkably fast rate. The opposite can occur, however, if the youngest children are excessively pampered and come to believe they needn’t learn to do anything for themselves. As they grow older, such children may retain the helplessness and dependency of childhood.

Only children remain the focus and the center of attention. Spending more time in the company of adults than a child with siblings, only children often mature early and manifest adult behaviors and attitudes. Only children may experience problems when they find in areas of life outside the home, such as school, they are not the center of attention. Only children have learned neither to share nor to compete. If their abilities do not bring them sufficient recognition or attention, they are likely to feel keenly disappointed.

VII. Questions about Human Nature Adler’s image of human nature is optimistic in his belief that people are not driven by

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6 Chapter 4

unconscious forces. Adler saw each person as striving to achieve perfection. Although he argued that some aspects of human nature are innate—for example, the potential for social interest and striving for perfection—it is experience that that determines how these inherited tendencies will be realized. Adler believed each person possessed the free will to shape the social forces that influenced them and to use them creatively to construct a unique lifestyle. Adler saw each person as striving to achieve perfection, and he viewed humanity in similar terms. He believed in the creative power of the individual and was optimistic about social progress.

VIII. Assessment in Adler’s Theory Adler developed his theory by analyzing his patients; that is, by evaluating their verbalizations and behavior during therapy sessions. Adler assessed the personalities of his patients by observing everything about them: such as the way they walked or sat, the manner of shaking hands, even the choice of chair they sat in. He suggested that the way an individual uses his or her body indicates something about his or her style of life. Even the position in which an individual sleeps is revealing. Adler’s purpose in assessing personality was to discover the patient’s style of life and to determine whether it was the most appropriate one for that person.

Individual’s early recollections indicate the style of life that characterizes them as adults.

Adler found that it made little difference whether his clients’ early recollections were of real events or were fantasies. In either case, the primary interest of the person’s life revolved around the remembered incidents and so, in Adler’s view, early recollections are “the most satisfactory single indicators of lifestyle.”

Adler agreed with Freud about the value of dreams in understanding personality, but disagreed on the way in which the dreams should be interpreted. To Adler, dreams involve people’s feelings about a current problem and what they intend to do about it.

Adler believed that dreams should never be interpreted without knowledge of the person and his or her situation. The dream is a manifestation of a person’s style of life and is unique to the individual. Adler did find common interpretations of some dreams, however. For example, a flying dream indicates a sense of striving upward, while a dream of falling indicates that the person’s emotional view involves a demotion or loss, such as a fear of losing self-esteem or prestige.

Adler argued that tests create artificial situations that provide ambiguous results. He did, however, support tests of memory and intelligence, it was tests of personality he criticized. Psychologists have developed tests to measure Adler’s concept of social interest. The Social Interest Scale (SIS) consists of pairs of adjectives. Subjects would

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7 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology

chooses the word in each pair that best describes an attribute they would like to possess.

The Social Interest Index (SII) is a self-report inventory in which subjects judge the degree to which statements represent themselves or their personal characteristics.

The Basic Adlerian Scales for Interpersonal Success (BASIS-A), is a 65-item self-report inventory designed to assess lifestyle as well as degree of social interest. The five personality dimensions measured are social interest, going along, taking charge, wanting recognition, and being cautious.

IX. Research on Adler’s Theory Adler’s primary research method was the case study. Unfortunately, little of Adler’s data survived. Adler’s data and research method are subject to the same criticisms as with Freud and Jung. His observations cannot be repeated and duplicated, nor were they conducted in a controlled and systematic fashion. Adler did not attempt to verify the accuracy of his patient’s reports or explain the procedures he used to analyze the data.

Although most of Adler’s propositions have resisted attempts at scientific validation, several topics have been the subject of research. These include dreams, inferiority complexes, early recollections, pampering and neglect in childhood, social interest, and order of birth.

Adler’s belief that dreams help people solve current problems was investigated by exposing subjects to situations in which the failure to solve a puzzle was considered a threat to the personality. They were then allowed to sleep. Some were permitted to dream but were awakened only during non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep. Others were awakened during rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep so that they could not dream.

Those who dreamed later recalled significantly more of the uncompleted puzzle than those who did not dream. The researchers concluded that dreaming enabled the subjects to deal effectively with the current threatening situation—that is, the failure to solve the puzzle.

Research has found that adults who scored low on inferiority feelings tended to be more successful and self-confident and more persistent in trying to achieve their goals than adults who scored high on inferiority feelings.

A study of police officers in the United States found that those who had traumatic early recollections experienced more pronounced symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder than those who did not have those kinds of early memories (Patterson, 2014). Research

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8 Chapter 4

using objective scoring systems for early recollections has shown that these memories tend to be subjective recreations rather than events that actually occurred, much like Adler’s memory of the cemetery (Statton & Wilborn, 1991).

More recent research has found that neglected children have also been found to experience more shame, depression, symptoms of PTSD, and lower socialization skills than children who were not neglected (Bennett, Sullivan, & Lewis, 2010; Lowell, Viezel, Davis, & Castillo, 2011; Milot, Plamondon, Ethier, Lemelin, St-Laurent, & Rousseau, 2013).

Adler argued that pampering in childhood could lead to a pampered style of life in which the person shows little or no social feelings for others. Studies have identified four types of pampering: • Overindulgence, which involves the persistent parental gratification of a child’s needs and desires, leading to feelings of entitlement as well as tyrannical and manipulative behavior • Overpermissiveness, which involves allowing children to behave as they please with no consideration for the effects of their behavior on other people, leading to a disregard of social rules and the rights of others • Overdomination, which involves exclusive parental decision-making, leading to a child’s lack of self-confidence and a tendency to become dependent on others in adulthood • Overprotection, which involves parental caution, excessively warning children of potential dangers in their environment, leading to generalized anxiety and a tendency to avoid or hide from social situations Research with college students found that those high in social interest scored high in spirituality and religiosity. However, their spirituality was of a positive, tolerant, and helping nature, not necessarily religious ethnocentrism or fundamentalism (Leak, 2006a).

Studies in the United States and in Poland found that first-borns scored higher on measures of intelligence, completed more years of formal education, and worked in more prestigious occupations than later-borns (Herrera, Zajonc, Wieczorkowska, & Cichomski, 2003). First-borns tend to be more dependent and suggestible on other people. First-borns may also be more extraverted and conscientious.

According to Adler’s theory, then, more last-borns than early-borns would become alcoholics. An analysis of 115 studies of only-borns reported higher levels of achievement and intelligence and comparable social and emotional adjustment with people who have siblings.

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9 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology

Believers in birth-order effects, one study suggests, score significantly lower in being open to new experiences and significantly higher in neuroticism than those who do not believe in differential effects of their order of birth (Gundersen, Brown, Bhathal, & Kennedy, 2011).

X. Reflections on Adler’s Theory Adler’s influence within psychology has been substantial. Adler’s emphasis on social forces in reflected in the theory Karen Horney. The creative power of people to shape their own styles of life, and the insistence that future goals are more important than past events, influenced the work of Abraham Maslow. His focus on the whole person and the unity of personality is reflected in the work of Gordon Allport. Adler disputed Freud’s views on women, arguing that there was no biological basis, such as penis envy, for women’s alleged sense of inferiority. Specific Adlerian concepts of lasting importance to psychology include the early work on organic inferiority, which has influenced the study of psychosomatic disorders; the inferiority complex; compensation; and order of birth.

Freud charged that Adler’s psychology was oversimplified and would appeal to many people because it eliminated the complicated nature of the unconscious, had no difficult concepts, and ignored the problems of sex. Some psychologists dispute Adler’s position on the issue of determinism versus free will. Adler’s followers claim that individual psychology remains popular among psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and educators.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 4.1 Give a brief description of two real-life examples of (a) a person with an inferiority complex and (b) a person with a superiority complex. You may use someone that is famous in politics, entertainment, or sports. You may also have students illustrate and list their feelings of inferiority and superiority. Then, have students list three traits or characteristics for each of these people. Another variation would be to divide the class in half and give each student a role of being either “superior” or “inferior” and role-playing a situation where a person might strive to be superior or have a tendency to put himself or herself down.

Internet Site for Lecture Topic 4.1: http://talentdevelop.com/articles/LSAFOI.html

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10 Chapter 4

Lecture Topic 4.2 Have students illustrate their “family table” when they were (a) six years old, (b) thirteen years old, and (c) at their present age. The students should draw a diagram of these three tables as if they were looking down from the ceiling. The students should then describe and analyze the dynamics of the interactions of the “family table” in terms of Adler’s order of birth. Which family members interacted the most with each other? Which family members interacted the least? According to Adler’s order of birth and his characteristics for first-born, second-born, youngest child, and the only child, which characteristics do you identify with in order of birth? Do you agree with Adler on the order of birth, in relation to your family at these three different times in life? This is a “Sociogram.” For more information on Sociograms, click on the site below.

Internet Site for Lecture Topic 4.2: https://www.scribd.com/search?query=sociograms Lecture Topic 4.3 Regarding gender roles, ask students to speculate on how hard or easy it might be for them to reverse “traditional” roles (i.e. the woman stays home with the children and manages the home, while the man goes to work). What issues of inferiority and superiority may occur for a mother and a father who have reversed their roles?

Internet Site for Lecture Topic 4.3: http://www.adlerian.us/theoprac.htm

Student Projects Student Project 4.1 Students can compare and contrast Adler’s order of birth with their birth order and with a classmate or friends. This project could be treated as an assignment or be used for classroom discussion.

Internet Sites for Student Project 4.1: http://www.adlerian.us/birthord.htm

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11 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology

http://hubpages.com/relationships/How-Birth-Order-Plays-A-Part-In-A-ChildsDevelopment Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, Fall 2001 Vol. 40 Issue 2 P. 243–249 A visual encapsulation of Adlerian Theory: A tool for teaching and learning. (Alfred Adler and psychological theories of perception and future orientation) Cynthia J. Osborn.

Record number A79744327 The Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Winter 1998 Vol. 38 P. 121–127 Understanding children with emotional problems.

Alfred Adler.

Record number A20772170 Student Project 4.2 Students may desire to read the following web article that contains a summary of the findings of studies on the order of birth. Students may use this site to receive ideas on papers, essays, and summary reports for class assignments: Internet Site for Student Project 4.2: http://www.littletree.com.au/birthorder.htm Student Project 4.3 The following sites give additional information of recent books on the subject of birth order and whether or not birth order affects our personalities.

Internet Sites for Student Project 4.3: www.romppel.de/birth-order/ http://carterandevans.com/portal/images/pdf/article11.pdf http://familyservices.us.com/pdf/A%20Review%20of%20200%20BirthOrder%20Studies-Lifestyle%20Characteristics.pdf

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1 Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends

Chapter 5 Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Describe the early life of Karen Horney and how her childhood affected her theories of personality and her view of childhood needs.

Compare and contrast Horney’s ten neurotic trends with Freud’s defense mechanisms.

Explain the concepts of basic anxiety and how a neurotic person would respond regarding personality formation.

Describe the concept of womb envy and how this differs from Freud’s concept of penis envy.

Explain the dilemma that women may have between motherhood and career and how the prevailing culture shapes these decisions.

Describe the nature of the “tyranny of the shoulds” and the contributions and criticisms of Horney’s theories.

Lecture Outline I. The Life of Horney (1885–1952) Karen Danielsen grew up in a small village near Hamburg, Germany. She was the second-born child who, from an early age, envied her older brother, Berndt. For most of her youth she doubted that her parents wanted her and believed they loved Berndt more than they loved her. As a way of retaining her mother’s affection, she acted the part of the adoring, obedient daughter. As an adult, she realized how much hostility she had developed as a child. Although Horney’s quest for love and security was often thwarted, her search for a career was straightforward and successful.

The early years of her marriage were a time of great personal distress. During and after her marriage, Horney had a number of love affairs. When she realized these attachments were not helping to alleviate her depression and other emotional problems, she decided to undergo psychoanalysis. The therapist Horney consulted, Karl Abraham (a Freudian loyalist), attributed her problems to her attraction to forceful men, which he told her was a residue of her childhood Oedipal longings for her powerful father. During her selfanalysis, Horney was strongly influenced by Adler’s notion of compensation for inferiority feelings. Apparently she believed that by studying medicine, and by

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2 Chapter 5

promiscuous sexual behavior, she was acting more like a man. Her most intense love affair was with another analyst, Erich Fromm, who was 15 years younger. When it ended after 20 years, she was deeply hurt.

II. The Childhood Need for Safety and Security Horney believed that childhood was dominated by the safety need, by which she meant the need for security and freedom from fear. Parents can act in various ways to undermine their child’s security and thereby induce hostility.

Children can easily be made to feel fearful of their parents through punishment, physical abuse, or more subtle forms of intimidation. The more frightened children become, the more they will repress their hostility.

Guilt is another reason why children repress hostility. The repressed hostility, resulting from a variety of parental behaviors, undermines the childhood need for safety and is manifested in the condition Horney called basic anxiety.

III. Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis Horney defined basic anxiety as an “insidiously increasing, all-pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a hostile world.” During childhood, one tries to protect oneself against basic anxiety in four quite different ways: • By securing affection and love from other people, the person is saying, in effect, “If you love me, you will not hurt me.” There are several ways by which people may gain affection, such as trying to do whatever the other person wants, trying to bribe others, or threatening others into providing the desired affection.

• Being submissive as a means of self-protection involves complying with the wishes of either one particular person or of everyone in the social environment.

• By attaining power over others, a person can compensate for helplessness and achieve security through success or through a sense of superiority.

• The fourth way of protecting oneself against basic anxiety involves withdrawing from other people, not physically but psychologically.

The four self-protective mechanisms Horney proposed have a single goal: to defend against basic anxiety. They motivate the person to seek security and reassurance rather than happiness or pleasure. Another characteristic of these self-protective mechanisms is their power and intensity.

IV. Neurotic Needs

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3 Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends

Horney listed 10 needs that she termed neurotic needs because they are irrational solutions to one’s problems. The 10 neurotic needs are affection and approval, a dominant partner, power, exploitation, prestige, admiration, achievement or ambition, self-sufficiency, perfection, and narrow limits to life.

Horney noted that every individual manifests these needs to some degree. What makes them neurotic is the person’s intensive and compulsive pursuit of their satisfaction as the “only” way to resolve basic anxiety.

From her work with patients, she concluded that the needs could be presented in three groups, each indicating a person’s attitudes toward the self and others. She called these three categories of directional movement the neurotic trends. The neurotic trends are: • Movement toward other people—the compliant personality • Movement against other people—the aggressive personality • Movement away from other people—the detached personality The compliant personality displays attitudes and behaviors that reflect a desire to move toward other people. Such a person has an intense and continuous need for affection and approval, an urge to be loved, wanted, and protected. Compliant personalities manipulate other people, particularly their partners, to achieve their goals.

Aggressive personalities move against other people. By excelling and receiving recognition, they find satisfaction in having their superiority affirmed by others. They make no effort to appease others but will argue, criticize, demand, and do whatever is necessary to achieve and retain superiority and power.

People described as detached personalities are driven to move away from other people and to maintain an emotional distance. They need to feel superior, but not in the same way aggressive personalities do.

Horney found that in the neurotic person, one of these three trends is dominant, whereas the other two are present to a lesser degree. In Horney’s system, conflict is defined as the basic incompatibility of the three neurotic trends; this conflict is the core of neurosis. In the person who is not neurotic, all three trends can be expressed as circumstances warrant. The normal person is flexible in behaviors and attitudes and can adapt to changing situations.

V. The Idealized Self-Image

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Horney argued that everyone, whether normal or neurotic, construct a picture of themselves that may or may not be based on reality. In normal people, the self-image is built on a realistic appraisal of their abilities, potentials, weaknesses, goals, and relations with other people. This image provides a sense of unity and integration to the personality and a framework within which to approach others and themselves. Neurotics, who experience conflict between incompatible modes of behavior, have personalities characterized by disunity and disharmony. They construct an idealized self-image for the same purpose as normal people do: to unify the personality. But their attempt is doomed to failure because their self-image is not based on a realistic appraisal of their strengths and weaknesses.

The “tyranny of the shoulds” according to Horney, is the attempt to meet the unobtainable goals of perfectionism. In doing so, they deny their real selves and try to become what they think they should be, or what they need to be to match their idealized self-image.

Although the neurotic or idealized self-image does not coincide with reality, it is real and accurate to the person who created it. A realistic self-image is flexible and dynamic, adapting as the individual develops and changes. By contrast, the neurotic self-image is static, inflexible, and unyielding.

One way in which neurotics attempt to defend themselves against the inner conflicts caused by the discrepancy between idealized and real self-images is by externalization, projecting the conflicts onto the outside world. Externalization involves the tendency to experience conflicts as though they were occurring outside of one. It also entails depicting external forces as the source of the conflicts.

VI. Feminine Psychology Early in her career, Horney expressed her disagreement with Freud’s views on women.

She began work on her version of feminine psychology in 1922, the year she became the first woman to present a paper on the topic at an international psychoanalytic congress.

Horney was especially critical of Freud’s notion of penis envy, which she believed was derived from inadequate evidence (that is, from Freud’s clinical interviews with neurotic women). He suggested that women were victims of their anatomy, forever envious and resentful of men for possessing a penis.

Horney countered these ideas by arguing that men envied women because of their capacity for motherhood. She uncovered in her male patients what she called womb

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5 Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends

envy. Womb envy and the resentment that accompanies it are manifested unconsciously in behaviors designed to disparage and belittle women and to reinforce their inferior status.

Horney did not deny that many women believed themselves to be inferior to men. What she questioned was Freud’s claim of a biological basis for these feelings. If women feel themselves to be unworthy, she argued, it is because they have been treated that way in male-dominated cultures.

As a result of these feelings of inferiority, women may choose to deny their femininity and to wish, unconsciously, that they were men. Horney referred to this as the flight from womanhood, a condition that can lead to sexual inhibitions.

Horney also disagreed with Freud about the nature of the Oedipus complex. Her explanation for Oedipal feelings lies in neurotic conflicts that evolve from parent–child interactions. These feelings are not based on sex or other biological forces, nor are they universal. They develop only when parents act to undermine their child’s security. Freud did not respond directly to Horney’s challenge to his views on women, nor did he alter his concept of the Oedipus complex.

As an early feminist, Horney expressed concern about the psychological conflicts in defining women’s roles and pointed out the differences between the traditional ideal of womanhood with the more modern view. Horney argued that women must seek their own identity, as she did, by developing their abilities and pursuing careers. These contrasting traditional and more modern roles create conflicts that some women to this day have difficulty resolving.

Horney recognized the importance of social and cultural forces on the development of personality. She also noted that different cultures and social groups view women’s roles in different ways.

VII. Questions about Human Nature Horney’s image of human nature is considerably more optimistic than Freud’s. One reason for her optimism was her belief that biological forces do not condemn people to conflict, anxiety, neurosis, or universality in personality. Neuroses and conflicts can be avoided if children are raised with love, acceptance, and trust. Horney also believed that people have the capacity to consciously shape and change their personality. Therefore, adult experiences may be as important as those of childhood.

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VIII. Assessment in Horney’s Theory The methods Horney used to assess the functioning of the human personality were essentially those favored by Freud—free association and dream analysis—but with some modification. With free association, Horney did not follow Freud’s lead in trying to probe the unconscious mind. Instead, Horney focused on her patients’ visible emotional reactions toward her, believing that these could explain her patients’ attitudes toward other people. Horney believed that dream analysis could reveal a person’s true self, and that dreams represented attempts to solve problems, in either a constructive or a neurotic way. She did not offer a list of universal dream symbols but insisted that each dream be explained within the context of the patient’s conflict.

Although Horney did not use psychological tests, later researchers developed several based on portions of Horney’s theory. A 35-item self-report inventory, the CAD, was devised to measure Horney’s three neurotic trends. The Horney-Coolidge Type Indicator (HCTI), a 57-item self-report inventory, is another measure of Horney’s three neurotic trends.

IX. Research on Horney’s Theory Horney used the case study method. Therefore, her approach, data, and interpretations re subject to the same criticisms made earlier of the work of Freud, Jung, and Adler. Horney was opposed to taking verbatim notes of her patients’ recollections. However, she tried to be rigorous and scientific in her clinical observations, formulating hypotheses, testing them in therapeutic situations, and maintaining that her data were tested the same way scientists in other fields test theirs.

Researchers have studied Horney’s three proposed neurotic trends, redefining them as follows: • Moving against people (ill-tempered) • Moving away from people (shy) • Moving toward people (dependent) Horney spoke of neurotic competitiveness as a major aspect of contemporary culture. She defined it as an indiscriminate need to win at all costs. The attitude of the person manifesting this need can be “compared to that of a jockey in a race, for whom only one thing matters—whether he is ahead of the others.” People who scored high on competitiveness were also high in narcissism, neuroticism, authoritarianism, dogmatism, and mistrust, and low in self-esteem and psychological health.

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7 Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends

Researchers identified two types of competitiveness: competing to win (CW) in order to dominate others, and competing to excel (CE) to surpass one’s personal goals. CE competing was linked to high self-esteem and low depression among high school students.

X. Reflections on Horney’s Theory Horney’s ideas may be more relevant to problems inherent in American culture today than the ideas of Freud, Jung, or Adler were. Her work had a significant impact on the personality theories developed by Erik Erikson and Abraham Maslow.

Horney received a great deal of criticism from those who continued to adhere to Freud’s position. Her personality theory has also been criticized on the grounds that it is not as completely or consistently developed as Freud’s. Another criticism is that her observations and interpretations were too greatly influenced by the middle-class American culture in which she developed so much of her theory.

Primarily due to the women’s movement that began in the 1960s, Horney’s books again attracted attention. A loyal, albeit small, group of disciples carries on her work, much of which is published in The American Journal of Psychoanalysis (http://www.springer.com/psychology/journal/11231).

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 5.1 Horney and her reflections on early childhood.

Horney’s childhood experiences heavily influenced her theory on personality development. Karen Horney was not a very happy child and grew up in what we may call today a dysfunctional family. Horney’s family consisted of an absent father and a domineering mother. Being both the second born and a girl made her always desire to have the position of her older brother. While intellectually gifted as a child, she was rarely recognized to her satisfaction for the achievements she made academically. This feeling of not measuring up to her expectations influenced Horney’s development of “the tyranny of the shoulds” and the idealized self-image. Karen adored her father but could never win the affection of this stern sea captain. Her relationship with her mother was to play the role of the adoring child until that role did not give her pleasure or reduce her feelings of insecurity. Karen Horney needed affection, unconditional love, and intimacy at a time where she could not receive what she desired. Karen Horney continued to seek

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8 Chapter 5

this perfect love and affection in the arms of several men who dissatisfied her. This dissatisfaction may have led Horney to her theories on feminine psychology. Believing in a woman’s abilities to be independent of others, feeling adequate in their emotions, and striving to achieve their personal goals with their families and careers are reflected in the theories of Karen Horney. Have the class reflect upon their lives or someone they know who might have a similiar story as Karen Horney.

Internet Sites for Lecture Topic 5.1: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/horney.html http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/horney.htm Lecture Topic 5.2 Horney addresses the need for safety as an important ingredient for the further development of the adult personality. The lecturer could address the topic of the need for safety and the additional needs of security for a child. These two needs combine to help a child feel warmth and affection by the parent(s). Address these two issues with the class and have the class members discuss specific issues that apply positively and/or negatively to help a child have these basic issues resolved as they go through different stages in life.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs and Horney’s safety need could be discussed with regard to how they both apply to personality development. Have the students write a brief opinion paper or prepare a quiz to offer feedback on the students’ ability to compare and contrast these two theories of personality development.

Internet Site for Lecture Topic 5.2: http://www.intelligenceforecasting.com/english/articles/2009/An%20Early%20Feminist %20on%20Safety%20and%20Satisfaction-Dec-6-2009.pdf

Student Projects Student Project 5.1 Ask students to write a paper concerning Horney’s theories and feminist psychology.

Those interested in the roots of feminist psychology may want to start further research with the following articles: Isis, January 2001, Vol. 92 Issue 1, P. 242

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9 Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends

The Unknown Karen Horney: Essays on Gender, Culture, and Psychoanalysis by Bernard J. Paris.

Book review by Mari Jo Buhle.

Record number A76576212 Smithsonian, August 1988, Vol. 19 Issue 5, P. 127 A Mind of Her Own: the Life of Karen Horney by Geraldine R. Foty.

Book review by Susan Quinn Record number A6576102 Internet Sites for Student Project 5.1: http://plaza.ufl.edu/bjparis/ikhs/horney/intro.html http://www.questia.com/library/psychology/psychologists/karen-horney.jsp Student Project 5.2 Ask students to have a small group discussion concerning Horney’s theory of idealized versus the real image of the self. The discussion should center on the merits of having some idealized goals along with a more realistic idea of what a person is capable of succeeding. Questions should center on what advice students would give to a person.

Each group could design a “self-help” plan for a person based on confronting her neurotic needs in a positive manner, rather than just rely on everyone else to “fix her.” What role would the therapist play if he or she was Karen Horney? Would Karen Horney say that this person is sabotaging her ability to have good social relations? What would the therapist act like in both therapy situations? Would the therapist be approachable and determined to be his/her patient’s helping partner in therapy?

Internet Sites for Student Project 5.2: http://www.ptypes.com/idealized_self.html http://www.pathwork.org/lectures/P083.PDF http://www.enneagramcentral.com/Explore/SelfImage.htm Student Project 5.3 Using these websites, students may learn about the other works of psychologists who

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10 Chapter 5

follow the tenets of the personality theory of Karen Horney. Students could contact this site and set up an internet interview with a clinician and ask him about the important concepts he includes in his therapy with clients, using Horney concepts.

Internet Sites for Student Project 5.3: http://www.karenhorneyclinic.org/ http://www.feministvoices.com/karen-horney/ Student Project 5.4 The International Karen Horney Society is a depository and center for current research into the concepts of Karen Horney. This would be a good research site for students to study for quizzes, exams, and to also write papers on her concepts of personality development.

Internet site for Student Project 5.4: http://plaza.ufl.edu/bjparis/

Online Discussion Board Karen Horney Review: 1.

(A) Describe your personality in terms of Horney’s major adjustment techniques.

(You can even describe a fictional person rather than yourself). Do you move toward, against, or away from people with about equal frequency? If not, which of the three do you emphasize?

(B) Using Horney’s theory, attempt to explain why you use the major adjustment techniques the way you do.

2.

Respond to Freud’s contention that “anatomy is destiny” from Horney’s viewpoint and from your own. Does your viewpoint differ from either Freud or Horney?

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1 Erik Erikson: Identity Theory

Chapter 6 Erik Erikson: Identity Theory Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Describe the life of Erikson.

Examine the psychosocial stages of personality development.

Outline basic weaknesses.

Analyze assessment in Erikson’s theory.

Summarize research on Erikson’s theory.

Reflect on Erikson’s theory.

Lecture Outline I. The Life of Erik Erikson (1902–1994) Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany. Erikson had Danish parents and lived in Germany with his Jewish stepfather (Dr. Theodore Homburger) and Danish mother. He kept the surname Homburger until age 37 when he became a U.S. citizen and changed his name to Erik Homburger Erikson. Another crisis of identity occurred when Erik started school. Despite his Danish parentage, he considered himself German, but his German classmates rejected him because his mother and stepfather were Jewish. His Jewish classmates rejected him because he was tall and blond and had Aryan facial features.

Erikson dropped out of conventional society and traveled extensively in Europe, reading, recording his thoughts in a notebook, and observing life around him. He described himself as morbidly sensitive and neurotic, even close to psychotic.

At the age of 25, Erikson received an offer to teach at a small school in Vienna that had been established for the children of Sigmund Freud’s patients and friends. Erikson trained in psychoanalysis and was analyzed by Anna Freud. After he had completed his program of study, he became a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute.

In 1933, the Eriksons immigrated to Denmark and then to the United States, settling in Boston. In 1936, with no academic degree, he was invited to the Institute of Human Relations at Yale, where he taught in the medical school and continued his psychoanalytic work with children. Erikson collaborated with a Yale anthropologist to research on a study of child-rearing practices of South Dakota’s Sioux Indians. Later, Erikson went to the Institute of Human Development of the University of California at

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2 Chapter 6

Berkeley to expand his clinical experience, where he saw patients that were normal as well as those who were emotionally disturbed.

During Erikson’s work with American Indians in South Dakota and California, he noted that certain psychological symptoms appeared to be related to a sense of alienation from cultural traditions and resulted in the lack of a clear self-image or self-identity. This condition that Erikson initially called identity confusion was similar to the condition he had observed among emotionally disturbed veterans after World War II. Erikson taught a graduate seminar and a popular undergraduate course on the human life cycle at Harvard and retired in 1970. He published a book about old age when he was 84.

II. Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development According to Erikson, there are eight psychosocial stages. Erikson believed that the developmental process was governed by the epigenetic principle of maturation. By this, he meant that inherited forces are the determining characteristics of the developmental stages. The prefix epi means “upon”; therefore, development depends on genetic factors. To Erikson, human development involves a series of personal conflicts, which will become prominent at different stages when one’s environment demands certain adaptations. Each confrontation with one’s environment is called a crisis. The crisis involves a shift in perspective, requiring one to refocus one’s instinctual energy in accordance with the needs of each stage of the life cycle. One may respond to the crisis in one of two ways: an adaptive (positive) or a maladaptive (negative) way. If the conflict at any stage remains unresolved, one is less likely to be able to adapt to later problems.

Erikson also proposed that each of the eight psychosocial stages provides an opportunity to develop one’s basic strengths or virtues that emerge once the crisis has been resolved satisfactorily. These eight basic strengths are hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. Erikson’s oral-sensory stage of psychosocial development, paralleling Freud’s oral stage, occurs during one’s first year of life, the time of one’s greatest helplessness. The infant is totally dependent on the primary caregiver for survival, security, and affection. The baby’s interaction with the mother determines whether an attitude of trust or mistrust for future dealings with the environment will be incorporated into his or her personality.

During the muscular-anal stage at the second and third years of life, corresponding to Freud’s anal stage, children rapidly develop a variety of physical and mental abilities and can do many things for themselves. Children of this age can exercise some choice. The key question becomes how much will society, in the form of parents, allow children to express themselves and do all they are capable of doing?

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3 Erik Erikson: Identity Theory

The locomotor-genital stage, which occurs between ages three and five, is similar to the phallic stage in Freud’s system. Children express a strong desire to take the initiative in many activities. A child’s initiative can be channeled toward realistic and socially sanctioned goals in preparation for the development of adult responsibility and morality.

In Freudian terms, one would call this the superego.

Erikson’s latency stage of psychosocial development, which occurs from ages six to eleven, corresponds to Freud’s latency period. The child begins school and is exposed to new social influences. The child’s growing powers of deductive reasoning and the ability to play by rules lead to the deliberate refinement of the skills displayed in building things.

The attitudes and behaviors of parents and teachers largely determine how well children perceive themselves to be developing and using their skills. This stage completes the four childhood psychosocial developmental stages of Erikson.

Adolescence, between ages 12 and 18, is the stage of psychosocial development in which one must meet and resolve the crisis of one’s basic ego identity. People form their selfimage during this stage and integrate what they think of themselves and about what others think of them. People who emerge from this stage with a strong sense of selfidentity are equipped to face adulthood with certainty and confidence. Those who fail to achieve a cohesive identity—who experience what Erikson called an identity crisis— will exhibit a confusion of roles. Erikson noted the strong impact of peer groups on the development of ego identity in adolescence. He noted that excessive association with fanatical groups and cults, or obsessive identification with icons of popular culture, could restrict the developing ego.

Erikson considered young adulthood to be a longer stage than the previous ones, extending from the end of adolescence to about the age of 35. This is a time of independence and the establishment of intimate relationships. People who are unable to establish intimacies in young adulthood will develop feelings of isolation. They avoid social contacts, reject other people, and may even become aggressive toward them.

Adulthood, approximately ages 35–55, is a stage of maturity in which one needs to be actively involved in teaching and guiding the next generation. When middle-aged people cannot or will not find an outlet for generativity, they may become overwhelmed by “stagnation, boredom, and interpersonal impoverishment” (Erikson, 1968, p. 138).

During the final stage of psychosocial development, maturity and old age, people are confronted with a choice between ego integrity and despair. These attitudes govern the way people evaluate their whole life. If people look back with a sense of fulfillment and

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satisfaction, believing that they have coped with life’s victories and failures, then they are said to possess ego integrity.

III. Basic Weaknesses Similar to the way basic strengths arise at each stage of psychosocial development, so may basic weaknesses. Although the ego should consist primarily of the adaptive attitude, it will also contain a share of the negative attitude. In an unbalanced development, the ego consists solely of one attitude, either the adaptive or the maladaptive one. Erikson labeled this condition maldevelopment. When only the positive, adaptive tendency is present in the ego, the condition is said to be “maladaptive.” When only the negative tendency is present, the condition is called “malignant.” Maladaptions can lead to neuroses; malignancies can lead to psychoses.

IV. Questions about Human Nature Erikson believed that although not everyone is successful in attaining hope, purpose, wisdom, and the other virtues, people have the potential to do so. According to Erikson, people are capable of resolving each situation in a way that is both adaptive and strengthening. Even if one fails at one stage and develops a maladaptive response or a basic weakness, there remains hope for change at a later stage. The first four stages are determined partially by parents, teachers, peer groups, and various opportunities that are largely beyond one’s control. People have more chance to exercise free will during the last four stages. Erikson believed that personality was affected more by learning and experiences than by heredity.

V. Assessment in Erikson’s Theory Erikson believed that assessment techniques should be selected and modified to fit the unique requirements of the individual patient. In developing his personality theory, Erikson used data obtained primarily from play therapy, anthropological studies, and psychohistorical analysis. In play therapy, Erikson provided a variety of toys and observed how children interacted with them. The form and intensity of the play revealed aspects of personality that might not be manifested verbally because of a child’s limited powers of verbal expression.

Erikson’s most unusual assessment technique is psychohistorical analysis. These analyses are essentially biographical studies. Erikson used the framework of his life-span theory of personality to describe the crises and the ways of coping of significant political, religious, and literary figures, such as Gandhi, Martin Luther, and George Bernard Shaw.

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5 Erik Erikson: Identity Theory

Erikson did not use psychological tests for personality assessment. However, tests such as the Ego-Identity Scale—measures ego identity during adolescence—and the Loyola Generativity Scale—a self-report inventory to measure the level of generativity or stagnation in adulthood—were developed based on his formulations.

VI. Research in Erikson’s Theory Erikson’s primary research method was the case study. Erikson argued that case histories yield many insights into personality development and can help resolve a patient’s problems. Erikson used play therapy to conduct research on his theory, focusing on what he called play constructions. In one study, boys and girls, ages 10 to 12, were asked to construct a scene for an imaginary movie using dolls, toy animals, toy cars, and wooden blocks. The girls tended to build static, peaceful scenes that contained low, enclosed structures, while the boys focused on exteriors, action, and height. According to Erikson, based on biological differences, girls build low enclosures in which people are walled in, and boys would build towers. More than 50 years after Erikson’s research on play constructions, traditional gender stereotyping with regard to toys and play behaviors persists. Girls typically play with dolls, jewelry, and toy kitchen implements, while boys play with trucks, soldiers, and guns.

Erikson emphasized the importance of developing an early sense of trust if one has to achieve feelings of security and well-being later in life. This position has received strong research support. Psychologists tested Erikson’s belief that positive outcomes in resolving the identity crisis are related to positive outcomes at prior developmental stages.

An extensive research program on the adolescent stage of development identified five psychosocial types, or statuses, for that period. These are identity achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, identity diffusion, and alienated achievement.

Computer games and social media sites offer adolescents a unique, high-tech opportunity to do precisely what Erikson said was so necessary at that developmental stage: to try different roles to see which offers the best fit. Research has found that disclosing too much personal information online can lead some teenagers to an extended period of adolescence, delaying the construction of a sound ego identity for themselves. A study of seventh to ninth graders found that those who had not yet developed a sense of their true selves were prone to greater use of the social media than those who had a stronger sense of self and personal identity. This can lead to the danger that a person could become so absorbed in a virtual identity that it comes to replace the true developing self. Erikson believed that social and historical factors affect the formation of ego identity, which in

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6 Chapter 6

turn affects the nature of the personality. One such example of the work of social factors in personality development is the women’s movement of the 1960s and 1970s. One legacy of this movement was that more adolescent women included a career orientation as part of their ego identity.

Erikson defined identity consolidation as the process of dealing successfully with the social realities of adult life. This involves making adjustments to the changing demands of one’s social world. He believed that identity consolidation usually occurs during the 20s, as people assume adult responsibilities of marriage, family, and career.

Erikson suggested that the identity crisis began around 12 and was resolved, one way or another, by approximately age 18. However, for some people, the identity crisis may not occur until later. In one study, up to 30 percent of the people studied were still searching for an identity as late as age 24, or perhaps, over the entire lifespan.

Research on the adulthood stage of psychosocial development has shown that generativity in middle age is positively correlated with power and with intimacy motivation. Erikson believed that people in the maturity and old age stage of psychosocial development spend time recalling and examining their lives, accepting or regretting past choices. However, one study showed that there were no significant differences between younger adults (ages 25–35) and older adults (ages 60–65) in reported frequency of life reflections. Younger people engaged in reflection to gain selfinsight and find solutions to current problems. Older people reflected on their past to evaluate their lives and achieve a sense of ego integrity.

One aspect of ego development not considered by Erikson is the impact of racial identity and its positive benefits. Research on this topic consistently shows the importance of developing and maintaining a racial or ethnic identity for minority groups. Many studies of Latino, Asian, and Black teenagers in the United States, Hong Kong, and Canada show clearly that a strong ethnic identity is related to psychological well-being, high selfesteem, strong social bonds, satisfaction with life, and good academic motivation. A study of Black and Hispanic women found that identity confusion (a conflict in identity between one’s minority culture and the majority culture) may lead to eating disorders.

Identification with a North American model of beauty that emphasizes extreme thinness created in some women a tendency to exhibit disorders such as anorexia. The researchers suggested that this condition resulted from attempts to emulate the appearance standards of the ideal woman of the majority White culture.

The Revised Racial Identity Model proposed by William Cross, a model of ethnic identity for African-American adolescents, suggests four stages in the development of a

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7 Erik Erikson: Identity Theory

psychologically healthy Black identity. These four stages include Pre-encounter, Encounter, Immersion-Emersion, and Internalization. The pre-encounter stage includes three identity clusters: • The pre-encounter assimilation identity contains little awareness of racial identity.

• The pre-encounter miseducation identity internalizes negative stereotypes about being Black.

• The pre-encounter self-hatred identity involves holding highly negative views about Blacks, resulting in anti-Black and self-hating attitudes.

In the encounter stage, the person is subjected to racism or discrimination, which causes a shift in the adolescent’s worldview.

The immersion-emersion stage proposes two identities: • The immersion-emersion intense Black involvement identity celebrates everything Black as good and desirable.

• The immersion-emersion anti-White identity views everything White as evil and wrong.

The internalization stage also consists of two identities: • Black nationalism, which adheres to a pro-Black Afrocentric perspective.

• Multiculturalist inclusive identity embraces not only a Black identity but also other types of ethnic, racial, and gender identity.

Another aspect of ego identity not considered directly by Erikson is gender preference identity. Researchers have proposed that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) identity develops over a series of stages, similar to the way Erikson explained the development of ego identity or ethnic identity.

VII. Reflections on Erikson’s Theory Erikson’s substantial contributions to psychology include the recognition that personality continues to develop throughout the life span, the concept of the identity crisis in adolescence, and the incorporation in his theory of the impact of cultural, social, and historical forces. While some of his concepts, such as an incomplete description of the developmental stage of maturity and sex differences in his interpretation of playconstructions, have come under attack by critics, Erikson showed little interest in responding to his critics. His influence grew through his books and the work of succeeding generations of psychologists, psychiatrists, teachers, and counselors who found in his ideas useful ways to describe personality development from infancy through old age.

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8 Chapter 6

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 6.1 The instructor should prepare two charts to show the differences and the similarities of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development and the first four stages of Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development. This topic could also be used for a class or group discussion. While Freud worked almost exclusively with neurosis, Erikson was also concerned about the development of so-called normal people. Questions to be considered in the class discussion include: what is observable in young children from both Freud’s and Erikson’s developmental stages? Are there gender differences entwined with Freud’s and Erikson’s theories? If the developmental stages of Freud and Erikson are left incomplete, what are the potential problems later on in life? Take a specific developmental stage of childhood and have the students present an imaginary case of a person experiencing pathology in Freud’s psychosexual stages and a maladaptive person during the same stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development.

Lecture Topic 6.2 Have students work in groups or in pairs to analyze in which of Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development a particular disorder manifests itself. When does this disorder become pervasive and present? Is this the same stage, or can the students perceive family situations, crises, individual personality factors, and parenting styles in another earlier stage that relate to this disorder? Are there any prevention skills that the students could suggest for a young child and his/her parents to implement in early psychosocial stages of development to combat eating disorders?

Lecture Topic 6.3 A lecture, class discussion, or group discussion could center on Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development and possible outcomes and crises resulting from unresolved stages.

After the instructor gives a detailed lecture of the stages and their positive and negative outcomes, the students should discuss (as a class, in small groups, or an individual assignment) the stage of psychosocial development that they might be experiencing at present. Each student or group should list detailed scenarios of crises that could occur at this stage. What crises could happen in relationships, school, or on the job? What kinds of natural, physical, or accidental crises affect one’s well-being during this stage of psychosocial development? Students could devise vignettes to construct their own scenarios of crises for a person. The vignettes could also be used as an out of class

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9 Erik Erikson: Identity Theory

assignment to be completed either individually or in small groups.

Student Projects Student Project 6.1 Students may need some help to resolve their present psychosocial stage of development in a positive way, especially in the area of stress reduction. Have the students come up with a five-point “system” to help them reduce stress.

Internet sites for Student Projects 6.1: http://www.helpguide.org/mental/stress_management_relief_coping.htm http://www.helpguide.org/mental/stress_relief_meditation_yoga_relaxation.htm Student Project 6.2 The following two articles will help the student who is interested in further research into the theory of Erikson’s psychosocial development, especially in children: Gifted Child Today, January 2001 Vol. 24, Issue1, pp. 54–55 Gifted Children and Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development. Tracy L. Cross.

Record number A71761785 The Journal of Men’s Studies, Fall 1998, Vol. 7, Issue 1, pp. 133 Exploring Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development: Generativity and Its Relationship to Paternal Identity, Intimacy, and Involvement in Childcare. (Psychologist Erik Erikson) (Faithful Fathering: Spiritual Narratives and Religious Meanings) Shawn L. Christiansen; Rob Palkovitz.

Record number A5323381 Seeing a Counselor: http://www.cmhc.utexas.edu/stress.html Internet Site for Student Project 6.2: http://www.thecenteredself.com/mhlinks.htm Student Project 6.3

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10 Chapter 6

Students who are looking for a listing of Erikson’s books and resources concerning Erikson and his theory of psychosocial development may want to use the following web resources. Students can use these sites to research for papers, prepare for quizzes, or prepare a student group discussion on how each person in the group progressed through certain life stages and if there was any specific “Erikson” stage that seemed to be more or less important or crucial in their personality development.

Internet Site for Student Project 6.3: http://erikerikson.wikispaces.com/Resources Student Project 6.4 Erik Erikson made a visit to study the Oglala Lakota Indians. The following website is an account of his visit and a very thorough description of Erikson’s theory of personality.

Students who would like to study culture and diversity may want to research this site and develop a position paper on socio-cultural differences in the life span.

Internet Site for Student Project 6.4: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/erikson.html/

Online Discussion Board Review of Eric Erikson: 1.

Erikson is best-known for his “Eight Stages of Personality Development.”

Choose one stage and (a) tell when this stage occurs, (b) give a general description of a positive and negative development of this stage, and (c) describe and give an example from real-life for a positive or negative resolution by the end of this stage.

2.

To minimize life’s confusion, adolescents often idolize and over-identify with a teacher, a television or motion picture star, an athlete, or even a friend. Was there someone in your adolescent years you idolized; or at least, patterned your life after at that particular time? Why or why not? Was this over-identification helpful? Harmful? Explain your answer.

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1 Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality

Chapter 7 Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Describe the life of Allport.

Review the nature of personality.

Outline Allport’s personality traits.

Discuss Allport’s idea of motivation.

Analyze personality development.

Evaluate assessment of Allport’s theory.

Evaluate research on Allport’s theories.

Reflect on Allport’s theory.

Lecture Outline I. Allport Brings Personality into the Classroom and the Psychology Lab During a career that spanned more than four decades, Gordon Allport made personality an academically respectable topic. The formal and systematic study of personality was not recognized by the psychology establishment until Allport published Personality: A Psychological Interpretation in 1937. Thus, Allport served two purposes: He helped bring personality into the mainstream, and he formulated a theory of personality development in which traits play a prominent role.

II. The Life of Allport (1897–1967) Born in Montezuma, Indiana, Allport was the youngest of four sons. His mother was a teacher, and his father was a salesman who decided to become a doctor. Too young to be a playmate to his older brothers, Allport was isolated from children outside his family as well. In Allport’s personality theory, one of the major propositions is that psychologically healthy adults are unaffected by childhood events. Perhaps reflecting this belief, Allport revealed very little about his childhood years. Gordon Allport felt inferior to others even when he became a noted psychologist. Allport attended Harvard and was active as a volunteer for a boy’s club, a group of factory workers, and a contingent of foreign students.

Allport met Freud in Vienna while visiting one of his brothers. Allport appeared to Freud

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2 Chapter 7

to be “neat, meticulous, orderly and punctual—possessing many of the characteristics [he] associated . . . with the compulsive personality” (Pervin, 1984, p. 267). Allport suspected that psychoanalysis probed too deeply into the unconscious. Allport’s theory would reflect this opinion; he believed one should pay more attention to conscious or visible motivations.

Allport completed his Ph.D. at Harvard in 1922 and spent two years studying with noted psychologists in Germany and England. He spent nearly forty years at Harvard, conducting research on personality and social psychology and instructing several generations of students. Considered an elder statesman in the field, Allport received many distinguished honors for his contributions to the field of psychology.

III. The Nature of Personality Allport gave this definition of personality: “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine . . . characteristic behavior and thought” (Allport, 1961, p. 28). Allport believed that heredity provides the personality with raw materials, such as physique, intelligence, and temperament, that may then be shaped, expanded, or limited by the conditions of one’s environment. All port believed that one’s genetic endowment works with one’s social environment, and no two people have precisely the same environment. Therefore, Allport concluded that to study personality, psychology must deal with the individual case and not with average findings among groups. Allport found no continuum of personality between childhood and adulthood. In a sense, there are two personalities: one for childhood and one for adulthood. The adult personality is not restrained by childhood experiences.

IV. Personality Traits According to Allport, traits are consistent and enduring ways of reacting to one’s environment. Personality traits are real and exist within everyone. They determine or cause behavior and can be demonstrated empirically. They are interrelated and may overlap, even though they represent different characteristics. Traits can also vary with the situation. Allport relabeled common traits as traits and individual traits as personal dispositions. Personal dispositions do not all have the same intensity or significance.

They may be cardinal traits, central traits, or secondary traits. A cardinal trait was described by Allport as a ruling passion, a powerful force that dominates behavior.

Everyone has a few central traits, such as aggressiveness, self-pity, and cynicism. The least influential individual traits are secondary traits, such as a preference for particular music or certain kinds of food.

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3 Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality

V. Motivation: What We Strive for Allport believed that what happened in the past during toilet training, schooling, or some other childhood crisis is no longer current and does not explain adult behavior unless it exists as a current motivating force. Allport’s concept of functional autonomy proposes that the motives of mature, emotionally healthy adults are not functionally connected to the prior experiences in which they initially appeared. Perseverative functional autonomy is concerned with such behaviors as addictions and repetitive physical actions such as habitual ways of performing some routine, everyday task.

Propriate functional autonomy is more important than perseverative functional autonomy and is essential to understand adult motivation. The word propriate derives from proprium, Allport’s term for the ego or self. One’s propriate functioning is an organizing process that maintains one’s sense of self. It determines how one perceives the world, what one remembers from one’s experiences, and how one’s thoughts are directed.

This organizing process is governed by the following three principles: • Organizing the energy level—explains how one acquires new motives.

• Mastery and competence—refers to the level at which one chooses to satisfy motives.

• Propriate patterning—describes a striving for consistency and integration of the personality.

Allport noted that not all behaviors and motives could be explained by these principles of functional autonomy. Some behaviors, such as reflexes, fixations, neuroses, and behaviors arising from biological drives, are not under the control of functionally autonomous motives.

VI. Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self Allport proposed seven stages to describe the nature and development of the proprium from infancy through adolescence. Before the proprium begins to emerge, the infant experiences no self-consciousness, no awareness of self. Allport described infants as pleasure seeking, destructive, selfish, impatient, and dependent. They are simply driven by reflexes to reduce tension and maximize pleasure. During the first three stages from birth to about age four, the bodily self develops when infants begin to be aware of what Allport referred to as a “bodily me.” In the second stage, children gain self-identity that is enhanced when they learn their names and see them as distinct from others. The third stage involves the development of self-esteem when they discover that they can accomplish things on their own. The extension-of-self being the fourth stage involves the growing awareness of objects and people in the environment and the identification of

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4 Chapter 7

them as belonging to the child. The self-extension and self-image stages typically occur between the ages of four and six. Children develop actual and idealized images of themselves in the fifth stage. The self-as-a-rational-coper stage occurs between ages six and twelve, when children realize that reason and logic can be applied to solving everyday problems. This is followed by the propriate striving stage, where young people begin to formulate long-range plans and goals.

Parent-child interaction is vitally important throughout all the stages of development of the proprium. The infant-mother bond is crucial for affection and security. If childhood needs are frustrated, the child becomes insecure, aggressive, demanding, jealous, and self-centered. Psychological growth is stunted. The result is a neurotic adult who functions at the level of childhood drives.

VIII. The Healthy Adult Personality In Allport’s view, the healthy personality changes and grows from being a biologically dominated organism in infancy to a mature psychological organism in adulthood. In adulthood, personality grows out of childhood and is no longer dominated by childhood drives. Allport described six criteria for the normal, mature, and emotionally healthy adult personalities: • Mature adults extend their sense of self to people and activities beyond the self.

• Mature adults relate warmly to other people, exhibiting intimacy, compassion, and tolerance.

• Mature adult’s high degree of self-acceptance helps them to achieve emotional security.

• Mature adults hold a realistic perception of life, develop personal skills, and make a commitment to some type of work.

• Mature adults have a sense of humor and self-objectification (an understanding of or insight into the self).

• Mature adults subscribe to a unifying philosophy of life, which is responsible for directing the personality toward future goals.

By meeting these six criteria, adults can be described as emotionally healthy and functionally autonomous, independent of childhood motives.

IX. Questions about Human Nature Allport’s theory presents an optimistic view of adults in conscious control of their lives, rationally attending to current situations, planning for the future, and actively fashioning an identity. Allport believed in the uniqueness of each person. To Allport, the ultimate

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5 Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality

and necessary goal of life is not to reduce tension, as Freud proposed, but rather to increase tension, impelling oneself to continually seek new sensations and challenges.

Allport’s optimistic image of human nature was reflected in his personal liberal stance and his interest in social reform. The humanistic attitude expressed in his work was mirrored in his personality. His colleagues and students described him as someone who genuinely cared about people and that these feelings were reciprocated.

X. Assessment in Allport’s Theory Allport believed that personality is very complex and to evaluate it one must employ many techniques. He listed 11 major methods: • Constitutional and physiological diagnosis • Cultural setting, membership, role • Personal documents and case studies • Self-appraisal • Conduct analysis • Ratings • Tests and scales • Projective techniques • Depth analysis • Expressive behavior • Synoptic procedures (combining information from several sources in a synopsis) Alllport relied heavily on the personal-document technique and the Study of Values. The Personal-document technique involves examining diaries, autobiographies, letters, literary compositions, and other samples of a person’s written or spoken records to determine the number and kinds of personality traits. Study of Values is an objective selfreport assessment test developed by Allport and two colleagues.

XI. Research on Allport’s Theory Allport opposed applying methods used with the emotionally disturbed, such as case studies and projective techniques, to the study of emotionally healthy people. Allport favored the idiographic approach, that is, the study of the individual case, as indicated by his use of personal documents. Allport conducted research on expressive behavior, which is described as behavior that expresses one’s personality traits. He also identified coping behavior, which is oriented toward a specific purpose and is consciously planned and carried out. Expressive behavior is spontaneous, difficult to change, has no specific purpose, and is usually displayed without one’s awareness.

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6 Chapter 7

There has been considerable theoretical and experimental work describing both facial and vocal expressive behavior. This research has shown that personality can be assessed from voice recordings, films, and videotapes. The expressive behaviors linked to specific traits have even been assessed from still photographs. Researchers have accumulated an impressive body of evidence to show that some people can form reliable impressions of a stranger’s personality based solely on facial appearance and expression. In further research findings, Type A behavior, the pattern suggested to be associated with the potential for heart disease, has been distinguished from Type B behavior by expressions of disgust, glaring, grimacing, and scowling. However, cultural differences have been found in the study of facial expressions and personality between Chinese infants who showed consistently less facial expression than American and Japanese infants. Research into facial recognition and transmission of emotional states in simulated chat rooms concludes that people express emotions in computer-mediated communication in a similar way as in face-to-face situations.

Allport’s idiographic research approach ran counter to the main current of thought in contemporary psychology, which accepted nomothetic research instead. Allport’s focus on emotionally healthy adults was also at variance with the then prevalent position in clinical psychology, which dealt with the neurotic and psychotic. Other criticisms have been on his theory of functional autonomy and his focus exclusively on the individual.

However, Allport’s theory has been well received in the academic community. His view that people are shaped more by future expectations than by past events is congenial with a hopeful and humanistic philosophy.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 7.1 Have a discussion concerning the meeting of Freud and Allport. Discuss the story that Allport gave about the little boy who was on the train with him to Vienna. Also, repeat Freud’s analysis of this story. Did Freud believe that this story was a dream or fantasy of Allport, or did he perceive this story by Allport to be an accurate and detailed report of an incident from Allport’s real-life experiences? Even if Freud perceived this as an accurate and authentic story from Allport, was he correct in assuming that Allport fit this profile of a “little boy.” What would have happened if Allport received this report as genuine “analysis” of himself by Freud? Would Allport have changed his theory to say that childhood memories do indeed impact adulthood? Allport seems to have gone in an opposite direction than Freud on the impact of childhood, except for biological predispositions. Have students discuss the impact of what they might spontaneously say or perceive about a person who meets them for the first time. Was Freud being

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7 Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality

presumptuous in his analysis of Allport? Have a further discussion of how Allport believes one can tell more about a person by reading facial expressions rather than analyzing one’s past. Have a debate over Freud’s perspective and Allport’s perspective on personality development.

Lecture Topic 7.2 Apply various traits and personal dispositions to match people you know. Can these profiles be perceived as accurately reflecting the problems in which these people are identified with in the first place? Would these people be better identified with projective tests and interpretation from psychoanalysis? Justify why or why not? Are the theories of Allport and his use of more spontaneous and possible measures, such as judging facial expressions, reliable measures across groups of people? Why or why not?

Internet Site for Lecture Topic 7.2: http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/trait-theory.htm Lecture Topic 7.3 Ask students to devise a list of Allport’s traits and read some case studies in a journal or diary to analyze a person. In the use of Allport’s traits and personal dispositions, would one understand and know a person more accurately than would be known by administering projective techniques? Have a discussion on the merits of projective technique, as opposed to Allport’s use of measures, such as Study of Values or other personal-document techniques, for normally healthy people.

Internet Sites for Lecture Topic 7.3: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/valuestest.html http://shrike.depaul.edu/~kmerz/study_of_values.htm

Student Projects Student Project 7.1 Students may want further resources about Allport’s Theory of traits and personal dispositions as they become adjusted to college life. Have students analyze the ideal traits and personal dispositions to look for when choosing teachers for courses or when

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8 Chapter 7

selecting a counselor. Here are some resources for students: Internet Sites for Student Project 7.1: http://psychcentral.com/classics/Allport/Traits/ http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/myl/ldc/llog/AllportRinehart.pdf http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0341/is_3_55/ai_58549257/ Student Project 7.2 The following two articles allow students to understand Allport and the “Open” system he created: Journal of Social Issues, Fall 1999 Vol. 55, Issue 3, p. 415–427 Gordon Willard Allport: A Tribute. Thomas F. Pettigrew.

Record number A58549253 Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Summer 1997 Vol. 37 No. 3, p. 61–79 Humanistic psychology and intellectual identity: The “open” system of Gordon Allport.

Ian Nicholson.

Record number A19632999 Student Project 7.3 Students may use the following websites to understand more about Allport and to create their projective tests, using pictures or photos of people in various situations. They can use the format outlined by Allport to ask questions to fellow students about what they perceive in these pictures. They can then see if the student responses accurately portray themselves (projection) in the photos or pictures.

Internet Sites for Student Project 7.3: http://psychology.okstate.edu/faculty/jgrice/4333/AllportTraitTheorist.pdf http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/allport.html http://www.psych.westminster.edu/psy311/allport/ppframe.htm

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1 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, and Other Trait Theorists

Chapter 8 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, the FiveFactor Theory, HEXACO, and the Dark Triad Learning Objectives 1. Understand factor analysis.

2. Describe the life of Cattell.

3. Review Cattell’s approach to personality traits.

4. Analyze source traits: the basic factor of personality.

5. Outline dynamic traits: the motivating forces.

6. Compare the influences of heredity and environment.

7. Illustrate the stages of Cattell’s personality development.

8. Evaluate assessment in Cattell’s theory.

9. Discuss research in Cattell’s theory.

10. Describe the dimensions of personality according to Eysenck.

11. Contrast the use of the Five-Factor Model by McCrae and Costa.

12. Review HEXACO by Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee. 13. Discuss the Dark Triad of Personality as conceived by Paulhus and Williams.

14. Explain the influence of the Internet on personality.

Lecture Outline I. Predicting Behavior Cattell’s approach to personality was rigorously scientific, relying on observations of behavior and masses of data. The hallmark of Cattell’s approach was his treatment of the data. He submitted them to the statistical procedure called factor analysis, which involves assessing the relationship between each possible pair of measurements taken from a group of subjects to determine common factors. Cattell referred to these factors as traits, which he defined as the mental elements of the personality. To be able to understand someone fully, one must be able to describe in precise terms the entire pattern of traits that define that person as an individual.

II. The Life of Cattell (1905–1998)

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2 Chapter 8

Raymond Cattell came from a happy home in Staffordshire, England. At the age of 16, Cattell enrolled at the University of London to study physics and chemistry, where he graduated three years later with honors. Cattell studied with psychologist-statistician Charles E. Spearman, who had developed the technique of factor analysis. Cattell received his Ph.D. in 1929 and decided to apply the factor analysis method to the structure of personality. Cattell eventually moved to Harvard University where his colleagues included Gordon Allport and William Sheldon. Further, at the University of Illinois, Cattell was employed as a research professor for more than 20 years and published over 500 articles. Cattell taught at the University of Hawaii in his seventies and received many awards in the field of psychology.

III. Cattell’s Approach to Personality Traits Cattell defined traits as relatively permanent reaction tendencies that are the basic structural units of the personality. He classified traits in several ways: • Common trait—is one that is possessed by everyone to some degree, such as intelligence or extraversion.

• Unique traits—people differ because of these traits which are those aspects of the personality shared by few other people.

• Ability traits—determine how efficiently one will be able to work toward a goal.

• Temperament traits—describe the general style and emotional tone of one’s behavior, such as how easygoing or irritable people are.

• Dynamic traits—the driving forces of behavior which define one’s motivations, interests, and ambitions.

• Surface traits—are personality characteristics that correlate with one another but do not constitute a factor because they are not determined by a single source. o Anxiety, indecision, and irrational fear combine to form the surface trait labeled neuroticism.

• Source traits—are those individual factors derived from factor analysis that combine to account for surface traits.

• Constitutional traits—originate in biological conditions but are not necessarily innate. o Alcohol or drug use can lead to behaviors such as carelessness, talkativeness, and slurred speech.

• Environmental-mold traits—are learned characteristics and behaviors that impose a pattern on the personality.

IV. Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality

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3 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, and Other Trait Theorists

Through factor analytic research, Cattell identified 16 source traits as the basic factors of personality. Cattell called this objective personality test the Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire. A person can score high, low, or somewhere in between on these basic personality factors. Cattell added additional factors, which he called temperament traits because they relate to the general style and emotional tone of behavior. He gave as examples excitability, zest, self-discipline, politeness, and self-assurance.

V. Dynamic Traits: The Motivating Forces Cattell described dynamic traits as the traits concerned with motivation, which is an important issue in many personality theories. Cattell showed great interest in the relative influences of heredity and environment in shaping personality. Cattell’s data suggests that 80 percent of intelligence (Factor B) and 80 percent of timidity versus boldness (Factor H) can be accounted for by genetic factors. Cattell concluded that overall, one-third of the personality is genetically based, and two-thirds is determined by social and environmental influences.

VI. Stages of Personality Development Cattell proposed six stages in the development of personality covering the entire life span. The period of infancy spans from birth to age six, and it is a time to be influenced by parents and siblings. The ages 6 to 14, the childhood stage of personality formation, marks the beginning of a move toward independence from parents and an increasing identification with peers. The adolescence stage is from 14 to 23, and it is marked by emotional disorders and delinquency as young people experience conflicts centered on the drives for independence, self-assertion, and sex. Ages 23 to 50 mark the fourth stage, maturity, which is generally a productive, satisfying time in terms of career, marriage, and family situations. Late maturity is from the age of 50 to 65 and involves personality developments in response to physical, social, and psychological changes. The final stage is old age, from 65 onwards. A person in this stage has adjustments to different kinds of losses, such as the death of spouses, relatives, and friends; loss of career; loneliness; and insecurity.

VII. Questions about Human Nature Cattell wrote, “Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation”. For behavior to be considered predictable, it must be lawful and orderly.

A prediction would be difficult without regularity and consistency in the personality.

Cattell did not propose any ultimate or necessary goal that dominates behavior, no drive

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4 Chapter 8

for self-actualization to pull people toward the future, no psychosexual conflicts to push them from the past.

VIII. Assessment in Cattell’s Theory Cattell’s objective measurements of personality used three primary assessment techniques: • Life records (L-data): o The L-data technique involves observers’ ratings of specific behaviors exhibited by people in real-life settings such as a classroom or office. o L-data include overt behaviors that can be seen by an observer and occur in a naturalistic setting rather than in the artificial situation of a psychology laboratory.

• Questionnaires (Q-data): o The Q-data technique relies on questionnaires. o It calls for observers to rate themselves. o Cattell warned that Q-data must not automatically be assumed to be accurate.

• Personality tests (T-data): o The T-data technique involves the use of what Cattell called “objective” tests, in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated.

Cattell developed the 16 PF Test, which is based on the 16 major source traits. The 16 PF Test is widely used to assess personality for research, clinical diagnosis, and predicting occupational success. The test has been translated into some 40 languages. There are several variations of the 16 PF Test that measure specific aspects of personality—such as anxiety, depression, and neuroticism—and for special purposes such as marriage counseling and performance evaluation of business executives. There are also versions of the test for use with children and with adolescents.

IX. Research on Cattell’s Theory In discussing research methods, Cattell listed three ways to study personality: • Bivariate approach: In this method, the psychologist manipulates the independent variable to determine its effect on the subjects’ behavior (the dependent variable).

• Clinical approach: This method includes case studies, dream analysis, free association, and similar techniques.

• Multivariate approach: This method involves the sophisticated statistical procedure of factor analysis. Cattell chose the multivariate approach, which yields specific data.

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5 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, and Other Trait Theorists

Cattell favored two forms of factor analysis: the R technique and the P technique. The R technique involved collecting large amounts of data from a group of people. Correlations among all the scores are made to determine personality factors or traits. The P technique involves collecting a large amount of data from a single subject over a long period.

X. Reflections on Cattell’s Theory Cattell claimed that factor analysis is an objective, precise technique, while critics argued that subjectivity could affect the outcome. The subjective error in the factor-analytic approach is among the reasons for a general lack of acceptance of his theory. He is, however, generally accepted as the father of the personality trait approach and a very influential psychologist.

XI. Behavioral Genetics The area of study focusing on the connection between genetics and personality is often called behavioral genetics. Regardless of the method used to evaluate or investigate personality, a significant genetic component must be considered. Allport and Cattell were among the first to suggest that inherited factors shape personality and that they rank in importance with environmental factors.

XII. Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) Hans Eysenck was born in Berlin and immigrated to England in 1934 after Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. He studied psychology at the University of London. Over the course of his career, Eysenck published amazing 79 books, including some for the general public, and an equally amazing 1,097 journal articles. He developed several personality assessment devices including the Eysenck Personality Inventory, the Eysenck Personality Profiler, the Maudsley Medical Questionnaire, and the Maudsley Personality Inventory.

XIII. The Dimensions of Personality Eysenck spent most of his career at the University of London’s Maudsley Hospital and Institute of Psychiatry, conducting research on the measurement of personality. Although Eysenck used factor analysis to uncover personality traits, he supplemented the method with personality tests and experimental studies that considered a wide range of variables.

Eysenck and his second wife, Sybil (Ph.D., University of London), together developed many of the questionnaires used in their research. The result of their efforts is a

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6 Chapter 8

personality theory based on three dimensions, defined as combinations of traits or factors.

One might think of the dimensions as superfactors. The three personality dimensions are: • E—extraversion versus introversion • N—neuroticism versus emotional stability • P—psychoticism versus impulse control (or superego functioning).

The traits and dimensions proposed by Eysenck remain stable throughout the life span despite one’s different social and environmental experiences.

Extraverts are oriented toward the outside world, prefer the company of other people, and tend to be sociable, impulsive, adventurous, assertive, and dominant. Extraverts have a lower base level of cortical arousal than introverts do. In contrast, introverts shy away from excitement and stimulation because their cortical arousal levels are already high.

Neurotics are characterized as anxious, depressed, tense, irrational, and moody. They may also have low self-esteem and be prone to guilt feelings. People high in neuroticism have greater activity in the brain areas that control the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. According to Eysenck, people are genetically predisposed either toward neuroticism or emotional stability.

People who score high in psychoticism are aggressive, antisocial, tough-minded, cold, and egocentric. Also, they have been found to be cruel, hostile, and insensitive to the needs and feelings of others. They score low on emotional well-being and have greater problems with alcohol, drug abuse, and violent criminal behavior than people who score low in psychoticism.

According to Eysenck, traits and dimensions are determined primarily by heredity, although the research evidence shows a stronger genetic component for extraversion and neuroticism than for psychoticism. His studies suggested that personality owes more to one’s genetic inheritance than to one’s environment.

XIV. Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model McCrae and Costa, who worked for the Gerontology Research Center of the National Institutes of Health in Baltimore, identified five so-called robust or Big Five factors in their research. These five factors are neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. These factors were confirmed through a variety of assessment techniques including self-ratings, objective tests, and observers’ reports. In studies of twins, four of the five factors show a stronger hereditary component: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness. Agreeableness was found to have a

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7 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, and Other Trait Theorists

stronger environmental component. These five factors have been consistently observed in both Eastern and Western cultures, a finding that also supports a genetic component. The five factors are found in children as well as adults. Longitudinal research studying the same people over a six-year period demonstrated a high level of stability for all five traits.

In several studies, extraversion was positively related to emotional well-being, whereas neuroticism has been negatively related to emotional well-being. People high in openness tend to have a wide range of intellectual interests and to seek challenges. In other research, the factors of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness correlated positively with academic performance in college. In research conducted in the workplace, it was found that people who scored high in conscientiousness set high goals and strive to achieve them, initiate desirable work behaviors, and receive high performance ratings.

The evidence is clear from studies of a wide range of emotions and behaviors that the five-factor model of personality has a high predictive value. McCrae and Costa’s findings have been replicated and continue to inspire considerable research.

XV. Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee: HEXACO: The Six-Factor Model Ashton and Lee have proposed a six-factor model of personality. Two of the factors— extraversion and conscientiousness—are similar to those found in the five-factor model; the other four differ in various degrees from the earlier work and are unique to this model of personality. The six factors or dimensions of the HEXACO (an acronym derived from the factors) are honesty/humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.

Research is ongoing to determine the behavioral and emotional correlates of the sixfactor model. Research with college students in New Zealand found that those low in openness to experience and emotionality scored high in right-wing authoritarianism and prejudice toward dissident groups. Employed Americans who had high scores in honesty/humility received higher job performance than those who scored low.

XVI. Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams: The Dark Triad of Personality Paulhus and Williams introduced a three-factor approach to understanding the darker side of personality, which includes the following traits (2002): • Narcissism—extreme selfishness, an inflated sense of one’s abilities and talents, and the constant need for admiration and attention.

• Machiavellianism— the need to manipulate others, characterized by cunning,

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8 Chapter 8

•

deceit, and unscrupulous behaviors.

Psychopathy— callous, insensitive, egocentric, antisocial, takes advantage of other people, using great charm and often violence.

One can get a better idea of people exhibiting these characteristics by considering the items in the so-called Dirty Dozen Scale, a self-rating test developed as a quick way of assessing the Dark Triad. The Dark Triad is also associated with short-term exploitative sexual relationships.

XVII. Personality Traits and the Internet As shown in previous chapters, the Internet, particularly social networking sites, can both influence and reflect one’s personality. Studies have shown that becoming addicted to Internet use is greater among those who score high in neuroticism and are excessively focused on themselves. In the Netherlands, high Internet use bordering on the compulsive and addictive was greatest among introverted, disagreeable, and emotionally less stable and lonely adolescents. In the United States and Germany, college students high in conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability were far less likely to post on Facebook about personal matters such as substance abuse or sexual behavior. In Taiwan, research on college students showed that those high in openness shopped online for convenience; those high in openness shopped online to have a new adventure; those high in neuroticism shopped online in order to avoid other people. A study of 11- to 16-yearold Americans who scored high in openness to new experiences spent more time using computers and playing video games than those who scored low in openness to experience.

XVIII. Reflections on the Trait Approach The evidence is greatest for the factors of extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism, but virtually every other dimension investigated by personality researchers displays a strong biological component. This suggests that the genetic effect far outweighs the environmental effect. The various components of one’s personality remain products of both the genetic makeup and the experiences of one’s life.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 8.1 A lecture should be given detailing the individual factors for the 16 PF Test. The instructor may use either a power point or a chart on the board to show the diagram for

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9 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, and Other Trait Theorists

each of the 16 personality factors with the use of a Likert one to five scaling chart. The instructor could then proceed to profile a famous person (living or dead) using the 16 PF Test. After the students hear the profile of the famous person, they could mark the person as having a high, low, or mid-propensity for each of the specific factors. The same exercise could then be used as a quiz or part of an exam. Students could even profile themselves or a family member.

Student Projects Student Project 8.1 Students may want to apply the various trait factors to real-life situations. Students consistently choose teachers or a personal counselor by their traits, along with a comparison of the student’s own perceived traits. Have students discuss what traits they look for in a teacher, counselor, or other types of mentor.

Internet Sites for Student Project 8.1: http://teaching.about.com/od/Information-For-Teachers/a/Twenty-five-EssentialQualities-Of-A-Good-Teacher.htm http://712educators.about.com/od/teachingstrategies/tp/sixkeys.htm Student Project 8.2 Students could use their knowledge of Cattell’s trait theory to seek out their learning style, ways to strategize and use their traits to survive in college, and to recognize how their traits can become strengths in family relationships. This could be a discussion in the classroom, online, or an assignment. Here are some helpful links: Internet Sites for Student Project 8.2: http://www.learning-styles-online.com/overview/ http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FCR/is_4_41/ai_n27484165/ http://savannahnow.com/accent/2010-10-31/family-relationships-parent-worries-aboutcollege-students-drinking Student Project 8.3

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10 Chapter 8

This article was written by Cattell and may be of use for students to understand the value of ipsative measures of personality structure: American Journal of Psychology, Summer 1994 Vol. 107, No. 2, pp. 261–274 Finding personality structure when ipsative measurements are the unavoidable basis of the variables. Raymond B. Cattell; Jerry Brennan.

Record number A15658135 Internet Sites for Student Project 8.3: https://oprablog.wordpress.com/2010/10/12/great-blog-but-what-are-ipsative-tests/ http://www.documentingexcellence.com/stat_tool/measurement_processes.htm Student Project 8.4 Students may want to research trait theory and more about the life of Raymond Cattell.

Included in the link below are some of his theories, a list of prominent books on Cattell and trait theory, the 16 PF, and an interview with Cattell.

Internet Site for Student Project 8.4: http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/rcattell.shtml Student Project 8.5 Students may desire to use the following links as resources for researching Cattell’s method of trait theory. Students could design their own analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of using trait theory to classify people.

Internet Sites for Student Project 8.5: http://faculty.css.edu/dswenson/web/LEAD/GreatTrait.html http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/fehringer.html

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1 Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory

Chapter 9 Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Describe the life of Maslow.

Review Maslow’s theory of personality development.

Discuss the study of self-actualizers.

Evaluate assessment in Maslow’s theory.

Explain research on Maslow’s theory.

Summarize self-determination theory.

Lecture Outline I. The Life of Maslow (1908–1970) Abraham Maslow was born in New York in 1908 and was the oldest of seven children.

His father was an alcoholic, and his mother was cruel and unaffectionate. A huge inferiority complex marked his teenage years. Maslow found books to be a good refuge.

He desired to learn and went to study at the University of Wisconsin. There, Maslow became enraptured, believing that behaviorism could solve all the world’s problems. His training in experimental psychology included work on dominance and sexual behavior in primates. After earning his Ph.D., Maslow completed his postdoctoral fellowship under E. L. Thorndike at Columbia University and later taught at Brooklyn College. Maslow took several intelligence and scholastic aptitude tests, scoring an IQ of 195, which Thorndike described as within the genius range. Maslow had the opportunity to meet the wave of immigrant intellectuals fleeing Nazi Germany, including Karen Horney and Alfred Adler. He also met Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer and the American anthropologist Ruth Benedict. These influences prompted his ideas concerning selfactualization. Maslow later taught at Brandeis University and spent time in California to work on his philosophy of politics, economics, and ethics based on a humanistic psychology. Maslow received many awards for his accomplishments. He died in 1970 of a massive heart attack.

II. Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs Maslow proposed a hierarchy of five innate needs that activate and direct human behavior. These needs are physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and

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2 Chapter 9

self-actualization. He described these needs as instinctoid, by which he meant that they have a hereditary component. The needs are arranged in order from strongest at the bottom to the weakest at the top. Maslow believed that failure to satisfy a lower need produced a crisis. For this reason, Maslow called lower needs deficit or deficiency needs; failure to satisfy them produces a deficit or lack in the individual. Satisfaction of higher needs leads to improved health, happiness, contentment, fulfillment, and longevity. For this reason, Maslow called higher needs growth or being needs.

According to Maslow, physiological needs have a greater personal impact as motivating forces in cultures where basic survival remains an everyday concern. Safety and security needs are important drives for infants and neurotic adults. Infants react visibly and immediately to any threat to their safety. Adults have learned ways to inhibit their reactions to dangerous situations. Children will desire a structure or routine for an orderly and predictable world. Some measure of freedom must be granted to children, but only within the limits of their capacity to cope. Neurotic adults compulsively avoid new experiences.

Belongingness and love needs can be expressed through a close relationship with a friend, a lover, a mate, or through social relationships formed within a group. The need to give and receive love can be satisfied in an intimate relationship with another person.

Individuals require esteem and respect from themselves, in the form of feelings of selfworth, and from other people, in the form of status, recognition, or social success.

Self-actualization is the highest need in Maslow’s hierarchy. The following conditions are necessary for individuals to satisfy the self-actualization need: • Individuals must be free of constraints imposed by society and by themselves.

• Individuals must not be distracted by the lower-order needs.

• Individuals must be secure in their self-image and their relationships with other people, and they must be able to love and be loved in return.

• Individuals must have a realistic knowledge of their strengths and weaknesses, virtues and vices.

Maslow proposed a second set of innate needs, the cognitive needs—to know and to understand. The need to know is stronger than the need to understand, and must therefore be at least partially satisfied before the need to understand can emerge. The needs to know and to understand begins in late infancy and in early childhood and are expressed by children as a natural curiosity. Failure to satisfy the cognitive needs is harmful and hampers the full development and functioning of the personality. Maslow believed it is impossible to become self-actualizing if people fail to meet the needs to know and to understand.

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3 Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory

III. The Study of Self-Actualizers Maslow proposed a distinct type of motivation for self-actualizers called metamotivation (sometimes called B-motivation or Being). The word metamotivation indicates that it goes beyond psychology’s traditional idea of motivation, implying a condition in which motivation as one knows it plays no role. It can be said that self-actualizers are developing from within. Those who are not self-actualizers have D-motivation or Deficiency. D-motivation applies not only to physiological needs but also to the needs for safety, belongingness and love, and esteem. A self-actualizing person’s goal is to enrich their lives by acting to increase tension to experience a variety of stimulating and challenging events. Thus, they are in a state of “being,” spontaneously, naturally, and joyfully expressing their full humanity.

Maslow also proposed a list of metaneeds, which are states of being—such as goodness, uniqueness, and perfection—rather than specific goal objects. Metapathology arises from the failure to satisfy these metaneeds and prevents self-actualizers from expressing, using, and fulfilling their potential. Maslow believed that only 1 percent or less of the population were self-actualized and that they share certain characteristics: • They have an efficient perception of reality.

• They accept themselves, others, and nature. They do not distort or falsify their selfimage or feel guilty.

• They are spontaneous, simplistic, and natural.

• They focus on problems outside themselves.

• They have a sense of detachment and the need for privacy.

• They have a freshness of appreciation.

• They have mystical or peak experiences—an event during which the self is transcended, and the person feels supremely powerful, confident, and decisive.

• They have deep, lasting relationships and often attract admirers or disciples.

• They are flexible, spontaneous, and willing to make mistakes and learn from them.

• They are autonomous, independent, and self-sufficient.

• They can be rude on occasion, even ruthless, and they experience doubts, conflicts, and tension.

Poor economic conditions, inadequate education, and improper child-rearing practices can thwart the drive for self-actualization in adulthood. Maslow referred to another reason for the failure to self-actualize called the Jonah complex. The Jonah complex refers to one’s doubts about one’s abilities.

IV. Questions about Human Nature

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4 Chapter 9

Maslow focused on psychological health rather than illness, growth rather than stagnation, virtues and potentials rather than weaknesses and limitations. Although the needs in Maslow’s hierarchies are innate, the behaviors by which one satisfies them are learned. Therefore, personality is determined by the interaction of heredity and environment, of personal and situational variables.

Maslow argued that human nature is basically good, decent, and kind, but he did not deny the existence of evil. He suggested that wickedness was not an inherited trait but rather the result of an inappropriate environment. Maslow’s compassion for humanity is clear in his writings, and his optimism is expressed in the belief that each person is capable of fulfilling his or her vast human potential.

V. Assessment in Maslow’s Theory Maslow observed people whom he thought had the characteristics of self-actualization.

Maslow’s research with college students led him to believe that young people did not have these characteristics. When Maslow studied people who were middle-aged and older, he felt that less than 1 percent of the population was capable of meeting his criteria for self-actualization. Maslow then identified some of his contemporaries as well as some historical figures, such as Thomas Jefferson, Albert Einstein, George Washington Carver, Harriet Tubman, and Eleanor Roosevelt. Maslow used a variety of techniques to assess their personalities. For historical figures, he worked with biographical material, analyzing written records for similarities in personal characteristics. For the living subjects, Maslow relied on interviews, free association, and projective tests.

The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) was developed by Everett Shostrum to measure self-actualization. The POI is scored for two major scales and ten subscales. The major scales are time competence, which measures the degree to which one lives in the present, and inner directedness, which assesses how much one depends on oneself rather than on others for judgments and values.

VI. Research on Maslow’s Theory Maslow’s investigations into self-actualization failed to meet the requirements of scientific research. Maslow was convinced that his results were valid, and he expected that other researchers would eventually confirm his theory. In support of Maslow’s theory, a study of male and female college students found that satisfaction of the needs for safety, belongingness, and esteem was negatively related to neuroticism and depression. A study using the Need Satisfaction Inventory, a self-report questionnaire

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5 Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory

designed to measure how well a person satisfies Maslow’s needs, correlated test scores of college students with their scores on the Eysenck Personality Inventory. The results showed that those who were higher in need satisfaction were lower in neuroticism. Some psychologists consider the need to belong to be as powerful a drive as the physiological needs for food and water. Research also supports Maslow’s position that people high in self-esteem have greater self-worth and self-confidence. Scores indicating higher selfactualization on the POI have been positively related to several factors: emotional health, creativity, well-being following therapy, academic achievement, autonomy, and racial tolerance.

VII. Self Determination Theory Self-determination theory, an outgrowth of Maslow’s self-actualization theory, suggests that people have an innate tendency to express their interests, to exercise and develop their capabilities and potentials, and to overcome challenges. This theory proposes that for a person to experience well-being, three basic needs must be satisfied. These needs are competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Studies have shown that the satisfaction of these needs and the corresponding focus on intrinsic motivation is positively associated with high-esteem and self-actualization.

VIII. Reflections on Maslow’s Theory Criticisms of Maslow’s theory center on his research methods and lack of experimentally generated supporting data. For his subjects, Maslow selected people he admired, according to his criteria of self-actualization. These descriptions may actually reflect Maslow’s own idea of the worthy and emotionally healthy individual. Because of his optimism and compassion, his theory, and the humanistic approach to psychology in general, became popular in the 1960s and the 1970s. Teachers and counselors, business and government leaders, health care professionals, and many ordinary people trying to cope with the hassles of everyday life have found Maslow’s views compatible with their needs and useful in solving their problems.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 9.1 Maslow’s study of people who are self-actualized can be a topic for this lecture. The instructor can talk about Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and then assign historical figures to groups of students. The students must determine if this person meets the criteria outlined

by Maslow for a fully self-actualized person. The students can be given biographical

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6 Chapter 9

information, or the students can research this historical figure and then propose and present to the rest of the class their findings on the person they have studied.

Student Projects Student Project 9.1 Students in groups or as individuals could assemble a series of questions that correspond to Maslow’s list of needs. The students could use these questions to survey a random group of students and determine how many subjects perceive themselves to be selfactualized. Do the results of this survey support Maslow’s estimation of the population of self-actualizers? The surveys could be done off-campus or in other cooperative universities. These surveys could also be used with the general population on a random basis to understand the qualities and perceived prevalence of self-actualization.

Internet Sites for Student Project 9.1: http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html http://www.bized.co.uk/educators/level2/people/activity/people24.htm Student Project 9.2: Students may refer several articles on the advantages and disadvantages of Maslow’s theory. This could be the start of a research paper, an online discussion board, or a classroom discussion.

Internet Sites for Student Project 9.2: https://sites.google.com/site/cnsmrbhvr/consumer-needs/maslow-s-hierarchy-ofneeds/pros-and-cons http://www.ask.com/world-view/advantages-disadvantages-maslow-s-hierarchy-needsdda09fc86e979db3?ad=dirN&o=0 Students who have an interest in the application of Maslow’s humanistic principles may want to further research his theories through these articles: ADWEEK, Dec 8, 2003 Vol. 44, Issue. 48, pp. 17–18 After the fall: Starting over at the bottom of Maslow’s pyramid. (Advertising and

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7 Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory

branding) Jeff De Joseph.

Record number A111203155 Nursing Forum, April-June 2003 Vol. 38, Issue 2, pp. 3–4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs—revisited. (Editorial) Lynda Juall Carpenito-Moyet.

Record number A106027482 Student Project 9.3 The following resources will be useful for students who are interested in understanding the life and influence of Maslow and his theories. Students can use these sites to do research for a paper or to design a hierarchy of needs for their family members and friends.

Internet Sites for Student Project 9.3: http://psikoloji.fisek.com.tr/maslow/self.htm http://www.terrapsych.com/maslow.html http://www.naho.ca/jah/english/jah03_01/editorial.pdf Student Project 9.4 Students may develop an in-class project by conducting outside surveys to test Maslow’s theory. Students could develop a profile delineating what a person would need in order to become self-actualized. Students could then create a survey to test for these needs. This survey could be used in the classroom to validate or invalidate Maslow’s theory.

Internet Site for Student Project 9.4: http://www.positivedisintegration.com/Hall1997.pdf Online Discussion Board Abraham Maslow review: 1.

At what level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs do you think you are currently operating? Explain and justify your answer.

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8 Chapter 9

2.

(A) Evaluate your personality in terms of the 15 characteristics of a self-actualized person. Indicate which of the 15 characteristics you possess to some degree and which you do not.

(B) What conclusions do you draw from your observations?

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1 Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory

Chapter 10 Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Describe the life of Carl Rogers.

Review the self and the tendency toward actualization.

Outline the experiential world.

Analyze the development of the self in childhood.

Review the characteristics of fully functioning persons.

Examine assessment in Roger’s theory.

Evaluate research on Roger’s theory.

Lecture Outline I. The Life of Rogers (1902–1987) Carl Rogers was born in 1902 in Illinois. His parents held strict religious views and emphasized moral behavior, suppressing all displays of emotion, and the virtue of hard work. Carl escaped into books from a rigid family life and to not feel lonely. Rogers read about agricultural experiments and came to appreciate the value of the scientific approach with its use of control groups, isolation of a variable for study, and statistical analysis of data. Rogers later broke from his parents’ religious beliefs and trained in clinical and educational psychology. He taught at a number of universities and was an academic clinician. He was also a resident fellow at the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute in California where he applied his person-centered philosophy to worldwide peace problems through tension reduction.

II. The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization Rogers’ early research reinforced the importance of the self in the formation of the personality. He investigated the child’s background and had the child rated on factors he believed would influence behavior. These factors included the family environment, health, intellectual development, economic circumstances, cultural influences, social interactions, and level of education. Rogers suggested that the factors of family environment and social interactions would correlate most strongly with delinquent behavior; however, the factor that most accurately predicted later behavior was selfinsight.

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2 Chapter 10

Rogers believed the focus of counselors should be trying to modify children’s selfinsight. He believed people are motivated by an innate tendency to actualize, maintain, and enhance the self. This drive toward self-actualization is part of a larger actualization tendency, which encompasses all physiological and psychological needs. Rogers believed that the actualization tendency begins in the womb and is responsible for maturation. To Rogers, the process involves struggle and pain. The governing process throughout the life span, in Rogers’s view, is the organismic valuing process. Through this process, one evaluates all life experiences by how well one serves the actualization tendency.

III. The Experiential World In developing his theory, Rogers weighed the impact of the experiential world in which individuals operate daily. This provides a frame of reference or context that influences one’s growth. Rogers wanted to know how people perceive and react to this multifaceted world of experiences to which they are constantly exposed. Rogers answered the question by saying that the reality of their environment depends on their perception of it, which may not always coincide with reality.

As the actualization tendency in infancy leads individuals to grow and develop, the experiential world broadens. One’s experiences become the only basis for his or her judgments and behaviors.

IV. The Development of the Self in Childhood As infants gradually develop a more complex experiential field from widening social encounters, one part of their experience becomes differentiated from the rest. This separate part, defined by the words I, me, and myself, is the self or self-concept. The formation of the self-concept involves distinguishing what is directly and immediately a part of the self from the people, objects, and events that are external to the self.

Ideally, the self is a consistent pattern, an organized whole. All aspects of the self strive for consistency. As the self emerges, infants develop a need for what Rogers called positive regard. It includes acceptance, love, and approval from other people, most notably from the mother during infancy. If positive regard for the infant persists despite an infant’s undesirable behaviors, the condition is called unconditional positive regard.

By this, Rogers meant that the mother’s love for the child is granted freely and fully; it is not conditional or dependent on the child’s behavior. In time, positive regard will come more from within themselves than from other people, a condition Rogers called positive

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3 Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory

self-regard. Positive self-regard can be defined as a feeling of contentment with oneself and is related to positive mental health. Like positive regard, positive self-regard is reciprocal. When people receive positive regard and develop positive self-regard, in turn they may provide positive regard to others.

Conditions of worth evolve from this developmental sequence of positive regard leading to positive self-regard. Positive self-regard is Roger’s version of the Freudian superego, and it derives from conditional positive regard. Thus, infants learn that parental affection has a price; it depends on behaving in certain acceptable ways. Children may feel they are worthy only under certain conditions. Having internalized their parents’ norms and standards, they view themselves as worthy or unworthy, good or bad, according to the terms their parents defined. Sometimes children will have a distorted concept of their experiential world and may come to evaluate experiences or accept or reject them, by what others think of them. This tendency can lead to incongruence between the self-concept and the experiential world, the environment as one perceives it.

V. Characteristics of Fully Functioning Persons According to Rogers, the fully functioning person is the most desirable end result of psychological development and social evolution. Fully functioning (self-actualizing) persons have the following characteristics: They are aware of all their experiences; they live fully and richly in every moment; they trust in their own reactions rather than being guided by the opinions of others, by a social code, or by their intellectual judgments; they feel a sense of freedom to make choices without constraints or inhibitions; they are creative and live constructively and adaptively as environmental conditions change; and they in a state of actualizing. Being fully functioning involves continually testing, growing, striving, and using all of one’s potential, a way of life that brings complexity and challenge.

VI. Questions about Human Nature On the issue of free will versus determinism, Roger’s position was clear. Fully functioning persons have free choice in creating their selves. On the nature–nurture issue, Rogers gave prominence to the role of the environment. Rogers believed that people have a basically healthy nature and an innate tendency to grow and fulfill their potential.

The ultimate and necessary goal of life is to become a fully functioning person. A personality theorist who credits people with the ability, motivation, and responsibility to understand and improve themselves obviously views people in an optimistic and positive light. In Rogers’s opinion, people are not doomed to conflict with themselves or with

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4 Chapter 10

their society.

VII. Assessment in Rogers’s Theory To Rogers, the only way to assess personality is in terms of the person’s subjective experiences, the events in the person’s life as he or she perceives them and accepts them as real. In the technique of person-centered therapy, Rogers explored the client’s feelings and attitudes toward the self and toward other people. By focusing on subjective experiences, the therapist learns only about those events the client consciously expresses.

Experiences that are not in conscious awareness remain hidden. What the therapist learns about a client depends on the client’s ability to communicate. The only predetermined belief of the person-centered therapist is the client’s inherent value and worth. Clients are accepted as they are. The therapist gives them unconditional positive regard and offers no judgments about their behavior or advice on how to behave.

Roger’s used his person-centered therapy in groups, where he believed a greater number of people could learn about themselves and how they relate to or encounter others. He called this approach the encounter group. Group sizes ranged from 8 to 15 people. They typically met 20 to 60 hours over several sessions. The group facilitator was to establish an atmosphere in which the group members could express themselves and focus on how others perceive them. The job of the facilitator was to make it easier for members to achieve self-insight and become more fully functioning.

Rogers did not use psychological tests to assess personality, nor did he develop any tests.

However, other psychologists have devised tests to measure aspects of the experiential world. The Experience Inventory and the Experiencing Scale are examples of such tests.

VIII. Research on Rogers’s Theory Rogers believed that person-centered interviews, which rely on clients’ self-reports, were of greater value than experimental methods. Although Rogers did not use laboratory methods to collect data about personality, he did use them to attempt to verify and confirm his clinical observations. Rogers recorded and filmed therapy sessions to enable researchers to study the client–therapist interaction. With recorded therapy sessions, everything became available for study. Rogers referred to it as a microscope with which to examine the “the molecules of personality change.”

Rogers and his associates also studied how the self-concept changes during a course of therapy. Much of this research Rogers used the Q-sort technique, a procedure developed

by William Stephenson (1953). In this technique, clients sort a large number of

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5 Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory

statements about the self-concept into categories that range from most descriptive to least descriptive.

In a classic study, college students completed the Q-sort list to test Rogers’s proposition that fully functioning persons are open to all experiences, whereas psychologically unhealthy persons erect defenses to protect themselves against experiences that threaten their self-image. A study of 56 mothers explored the relationship between their selfacceptance and the extent to which they accepted their children as they were rather than as they wished them to be. Other studies also supported Rogers’s belief that parental behavior affects a child’s self-image. Studies were also conducted on Roger’s suggestion that incongruence between the perceived self and the ideal self indicates poor emotional adjustment. Rogers’s therapy has found broad application not only as a treatment for emotional disturbances but also as a means of enhancing the self-image.

IX. Reflections on Rogers’s Theory Critics charge that Rogers ignored those factors of which a client was not consciously aware but which could influence behavior. People may distort reports of their subjective experiences, repressing some events and elaborating on or inventing others, to conceal their true nature and present an idealized self-image.

Rogers’s person-centered psychotherapy quickly became popular. Its rapid acceptance was fostered in part by social circumstances in the United States at the end of World War II (1945). More than 400 college counseling centers based on Rogers’s teachings were established after World War II under the auspices of the Veterans Administration to help returning veterans adjust to civilian life. Client-centered therapy received an enormous boost and hundreds more colleges established their own counseling centers.

Roger's therapy found broad application not only as a treatment for emotional disturbances but also as a means of enhancing the self-image. His personality theory, although less influential than his psychotherapy, has also received wide recognition, particularly for emphasis on the self-concept. Rogers’s background was a unique combination of clinic, lecture hall, and laboratory. He drew on his considerable experience with emotionally disturbed clients and on the intellectual stimulation of colleagues and students.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 10.1

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6 Chapter 10

This lecture could focus on the conditions that a person would need in childhood to become fully functioning and self-actualizing as an adult. The instructor and students could brainstorm ideas concerning the ideal parental skills needed to become a fully functioning and selfactualizing adult. What is the ideal environment in which children are able to challenge their environment and make the choices in their lives which would lead them to become selfactualized as an adult? Rogers’s work has been criticized for ignoring the impact of unconscious forces, and for accepting the possible distortion of a client’s subjective experiences in self-reports. For children who are struggling with maturity, this may not be the best model to take full advantage of Carl Rogers’ theories. Children, when faced with choices beyond their maturity level, may very well make acrimonious choices which may negatively affect their lives and the lives of others. This is in direct conflict with Rogers’s theory of a person who, when left alone with his or her own choices, will make the best possible decision for his or her life. The instructor can contrast Rogers’ theory with how other theories of personality regard a child’s ability to make good choices in his or her life.

Internet Site for Lecture Topic 10.1: http://www.sageofasheville.com/pub_downloads/EMPATHIC_AN_UNAPPRECIATED_WA Y_OF_BEING.pdf Lecture Topic 10.2 Rogers’ theories were very popular during the 1960s and 1970s. The instructor may address the social issues of the day, which may have increased the popularity of humanistic psychology as theorized by Maslow and Rogers. Some possibilities include: a film documentary about the socalled perfect community of Woodstock (where no one was arrested for a violent crime); communes that used Rogers’ techniques and Maslow’s theories of self-actualization; the drug culture of the times; the racial riots attempting equality for those who felt their voices were not being heard; and the protest of the Vietnam War and the expression of free choices to do what one wants, do nothing, or express oneself through music, free love, or radical political movements. Questions that could be asked include the following: Did the popularity of Rogers’s and Maslow’s theories of “human potential” and “self-actualization” instigate these various social movements? Or conversely, were these theories just popularized by the movements of the 1960s and the 1970s? Is the humanistic movement of psychology as active today as it was in those time periods? Why or why not?

Internet Sites for Lecture Topic 10.2: http://www.simplypsychology.org/humanistic.html

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7 Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory

http://www.ryerson.ca/~glassman/humanist.html Lecture Topic 10.3 The instructor may further the students’ understanding of Rogers’s principles of self-concept and the awareness of one’s ideal self. The students could be asked to review case studies in small groups and make several Q-sort cards to explain where the person in the concerned case is in terms of their “self-actualizing” process. These case studies could also be used as a quiz or part of an exam to understand the application of Rogers’s client-centered therapy.

Student Projects Student Project 10.1 Carl Rogers was known for his work as a therapist. The following articles will help students understand Carl Rogers and how others perceive his work. Students could use the following two articles to write their own version or critique about client-centered therapy.

Journal of Counseling and Development, Winter 2004 Vol. 82, Issue1, P. 116–124, Winter 2004. Carl Rogers life and work: an assessment on the 100th anniversary of his birth. (Profile) Howard Kirschenbaum. Record number A113856980 Journal of Counseling and Development, Spring 2003 Vol. 81, Issue 2, P. 178 (7).

An Analysis of How Carl Rogers Enacted Client-Centered Conversation With Gloria.

(Research). (Counseling Research) Scott A. Wickman; Cynthia Campbell. Record number A102341131 Internet Sites for Student Project 10.1: http://www.scribd.com/doc/36562575/Humanistic-Approaches-to-Therapy-PersonCentred-Theory-and-Practice http://personcentered.com/dialogue.htm Student Project 10.2 The following web resource may encourage students to formulate ideas and opinions on the theories of Carl Rogers, self-actualizing, and client-centered therapy. It contains assorted articles explaining and defending client-centered therapy.

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8 Chapter 10

Internet Site for Student Project 10.2: http://world.std.com/~mbr2/cct.papers.html Student Project 10.3 With the following websites, students can outline their own review and/or commentary on the concepts of Rogers’s personality theory.

Internet Sites for Student Project 10.3: This website contains a critical review of Rogers’s theories: http://www.wynja.com/personality/rogersff.html The following is the official website for the Association for the Development of the Person Centered Approach (ADPCA): http://www.adpca.org/

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1 George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory

Chapter 11 George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Review the life of George Kelly.

Describe personal construct theory.

Summarize ways of anticipating life events.

Evaluate assessment in Kelly’s theory.

Interpret research on Kelly’s theory.

Lecture Outline I. The Cognitive Movement in Psychology Kelly’s personal construct theory of personality differs substantially from every other approach discussed in this book. Kelly believed that each person creates a set of cognitive constructs about the environment. By that he meant that people interpret and organize the events and social relationships of their lives in a system or pattern.

The personality theory Kelly offered derived from his experience as a clinician. The model of human nature Kelly developed from his clinical work is unusual. He concluded that people function in the same way scientists do. Kelly believed that psychologists do not attribute to their subjects the same intellectual and rational abilities they ascribe to themselves.

Like scientists, everyone constructs theories, which Kelly called personal constructs, by which they try to predict and control the events in their lives. He proposed that the way to understand someone’s personality is to examine his or her personal constructs. Kelly’s theory could be considered a precursor to contemporary cognitive psychology. The two approaches share the term cognitive, with its implied interest in conscious activities, but little else. His theory is not part of mainstream American psychology as defined by experimental psychologists, but that does not detract from its usefulness for studying personality.

II. The Life of Kelly (1905–1967) Kelly was born on a farm in Kansas. An only child, he received a great deal of attention

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2 Chapter 11

and affection from his parents, who were fundamentalist in their religious beliefs and committed to helping the less fortunate. Kelly’s early education was erratic and conducted as much by his parents as by school-teachers. At 13, he went to a high school in Wichita and seldom lived at home after that. He worked briefly as an engineer and an instructor and then entered graduate school where he received a master’s degree in educational sociology. Kelly also earned Bachelor of Education degree while studying at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland and finally developed an interest in psychology.

Kelly began his academic career at Fort Hays Kansas State College in the midst of the economic depression of the 1930s. He developed a clinical psychology service for the local public school system and for the students at his college. He established traveling clinics, going from school to school, which gave him the opportunity to deal with a variety of problems and to try different approaches to treatment. Kelly used traditional methods of assessment and treatment as well as those of his own design. Unlike the emotionally maladjusted patients in a psychiatric ward or a psychoanalyst’s office, Kelly’s clients were much more capable of discussing concerns rationally, of expressing their problems in intellectual terms, the level of functioning expected in an academic setting.

Kelly joined the U.S. Navy and served as a psychologist in the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery in Washington, D.C. Later, Kelly spent 19 years teaching, refining his personality theory, and conducting research. Kelly was a major force in the development of the clinical psychology profession during its rapid growth following World War II. III. Personal Construct Theory Kelly suggested that people perceive and organize their world of experiences by formulating hypotheses about the environment and testing them against the reality of daily life. One observes the events of one’s life and interprets them in one’s own way.

This personal interpreting, explaining, or construing of experience is one’s unique view of events. This special view, the unique pattern created by each individual, is what Kelly called the construct system.

A construct is a person’s unique way of looking at life, an intellectual hypothesis devised to explain or interpret events. Over the course of one’s life one develops many constructs, one for almost every type of person or situation one encounters. People expand, alter, and discard these constructs periodically as situations change. One’s constructs must continually be revised and be adaptable to change. Kelly called this adaptability constructive alternativism to express the view that people are not controlled by their constructs, but are free to revise or replace them with other

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3 George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory

alternatives.

IV. Ways of Anticipating Life Events Kelly’s personal construct theory is presented in a scientific format, organized into a fundamental postulate and 11 corollaries. The fundamental postulate states that our psychological processes are directed by the ways in which we anticipate events. By using the word, processes, Kelly was suggesting that personality was a continually flowing, moving process. Another key word in the fundamental postulate is anticipate. Kelly’s notion of constructs is anticipatory. People use constructs to predict the future so that they have some idea of the consequences of their actions, of what is likely to occur if they behave in a certain way. Kelly believed no life event or experience could be reproduced exactly as it occurred the first time. An event can be repeated, but it will not be experienced in precisely the same way. This is called the construction corollary.

With the individuality corollary, Kelly pointed out that people differ from one another in how they perceive or interpret an event, and because people construe events differently, they thus form different constructs. According to Kelly, people organize individual constructs into a pattern according to their view of their interrelationships, that is, their similarities and differences. Kelly called this the organization corollary, where people organize their constructs into a hierarchy, with some constructs subordinate to others.

The dichotomy corollary states that all constructs are bipolar or dichotomous. People’s constructs must always be framed in terms of a pair of mutually exclusive alternatives.

With the choice corollary, every situation forces one to choose the alternative that works best for oneself, the one that allows one to anticipate or predict the outcome of future events. Kelly suggested that people have some latitude in deciding between two alternatives, and he described it as a choice between security and adventure.

The range corollary is a range of convenience or applicability to situations or people.

This range of convenience or relevance for a construct is a matter of personal choice. The experience corollary is related to exposure to new experiences. Kelly suggests that people evaluate and reinterpret their constructs as their environment changes. If people never have any new experiences, then their construct system would never have to change.

Constructs differ in their permeability, which means to penetrate or to pass through something. The modulation corollary measures how much people adapt or adjust to new experiences. An impermeable or rigid construct is not capable of being changed, no matter what their experiences tell them.

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4 Chapter 11

Kelly believed that within one’s construct system some constructs might be incompatible even though they coexist within the overall pattern. This competition among constructs is called the fragmentation corollary. People use these kinds of constructs so that they can tolerate subordinate inconsistencies without damaging their overall construct system.

The commonality corollary describes similarities among people in interpreting events.

People from the same culture may show a resemblance in their behaviors and characteristics even though they are exposed to different individual life events.

Kelly’s final construct, the sociality corollary defines interpersonal relationships.

According to Kelly, one must understand how another person thinks if one is to anticipate how that person will predict events. Construing another person’s constructs is something people do routinely.

V. Questions about Human Nature Kelly’s personality theory presents an optimistic, even flattering, image of human nature.

He treated people as rational beings capable of forming a framework of constructs through which to view the world. His view endows people with free will, the ability to choose the direction their lives will take, and the ability to change when necessary by revising old constructs and forming new ones. He did not consider past events to be the determinants of present behavior. Kelly did not posit an ultimate and necessary life goal, but one may infer that one’s goal is to establish a construct system that enables one to predict events.

VI. Assessment in Kelly’s Theory Kelly’s primary assessment technique was the interview. Kelly recognized that a person might deliberately lie or distort the reported version of events. However, what the client said must be respected, even if not always fully believed. Another technique used to assess a construct system is to have the person write a self-characterization sketch. The clients were to write this as it might be written by a friend who knew them intimately and very sympathetically. Kelly found this useful for learning how clients perceive themselves in relation to other people.

Kelly devised the Role Construct Repertory Test (REP) to uncover the constructs one applies to the important people in one’s lives. The client is asked to list by name the people who have played a significant role in his or her life such as mother, father, spouse, closest friend, and the most intelligent or interesting person he or she knows. The names are sorted, three at a time, and clients are asked to select from each group of three the two

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5 George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory

people who are most alike, noting how they differ from the third. This information is presented in a diagram called a repertory grid. The assumption underlying the REP Test is that people construe events in dichotomies, according to the dichotomy corollary, in terms of like versus unlike or similar versus dissimilar.

Kelly promoted a form of psychotherapy he called the fixed role therapy, to help clients formulate new constructs and discard old ones. He would ask them to write a selfcharacterization sketch describing themselves as the lead character in a play. Kelly developed fixed role therapy from observing a friend who began to live the role he was performing in a college play. The friend was so strongly influenced by the part that his behavior offstage gradually became more and more like the character. The goal of fixed role therapy, then, is to first play a role and then come to live it.

VII. Research on Kelly’s Theory Studies using the REP Test have shown that a person’s constructs remain stable over time. One REP Test study investigated the complexity of a person’s construct system.

Some research has shown a correspondence between one’s personal characteristics and the ways of construing other people. The REP Test has been used to study schizophrenics, neurotics, depressives, and persons with organic brain damage. A study using a modified version of the REP Test, the researchers compared the personal construct systems of repeat patients in psychiatric hospitals with those hospitalized for the first time. Researchers have applied the REP Test in market research to assess the criteria consumers use to evaluate products. Industrial-organizational psychologists have used the REP Test for vocational counseling, employee selection, evaluation of performance on the job, and evaluation of training programs.

Research on cognitive styles was derived from the REP Test and focuses on the concept of cognitive complexity. Cognitive complexity is defined as the ability to discriminate in the process of applying personal constructs to other people. People high in cognitive complexity are able to see variety among people and can easily place a person in many categories. The other extreme, cognitive simplicity, refers to being less capable of perceiving differences when judging other people. People high in cognitive simplicity are likely to place others in only one or two categories, unable to see much variety. Research has found personality differences in terms of cognitive style. In Kelly’s theory, cognitive complexity is the more desirable and useful cognitive style.

VIII. Reflections on Kelly’s Theory Kelly developed a unique and radical personality theory that did not derive from or build

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6 Chapter 11

on other theories. It emerged from his interpretation, his own construct system, of data provided by his clinical practice. Kelly’s system has been criticized on several points. It focuses on intellectual and rational aspects of human functioning to the exclusion of emotional aspects. His viewpoint was limited largely to Midwestern young adults in the process of defining a construct system that would help them cope with college life.

However, personal construct theory continues to enjoy a large and growing base of support, although the support is much broader in Europe, Canada, and Australia, than in the United States. Personality psychologists typically think in terms of the familiar concepts of motivation and emotion, unconscious forces, drives, and needs, which form no part of Kelly’s system. Adherents apply his theory to problems in clinical psychology, industrial psychology, anthropology, criminology, and urban planning as a way of modifying and predicting behavior in many walks of life.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 11.1 An instructor could lecture on how culture and personal background can change and alter the perceptions of the people around. Kelly came from the Midwest United States and was not heavily influenced by European founded psychology until he studied in Scotland.

Kelly may have been exposed to Freud’s theories, but decided to found his intellectual approach to counseling in a practical way. The instructor may want to contrast the assessment techniques of free association and dream analysis and the tenets of psychoanalysis with Kelly’s use of the interview, self-characteristic sketches, and the Role Construct Repertory Test. The instructor could help students understand whether or not these two types of techniques help the client. The psychoanalytic methods of assessment may or may not coincide with the assessment goals of Kelly’s measures. In the students’ opinions, are either of these techniques relatively helpful for the client?

Have the students discuss in class or in groups the importance of these two areas of assessment as well as the similarities and differences. This could also lead to a quiz or a debate about the effectiveness of one set of techniques over the other.

Lecture Topic 11.2 Students can explore and examine Kelly’s corollaries with a case study for a classroom discussion. Following a lecture on the 11 corollaries, the instructor may have the students work in groups and challenge each other to explore the case studies to find as many corollaries as possible and what dimension of a particular corollary each of the cases displays. These case studies could also be used as a partial exam or quiz on the subject.

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7 George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory

Internet Site for Lecture Topic 11.2: http://upza.academia.edu/PieterDuToit/Papers/771959/Pursuing_a_constructivist_approach_to_m entoring_in_the_higher_education_sector

Student Projects Student Project 11.1 Students may wish to use the following website to further their research on the theories of George Kelly.

Internet Site for Student Project 11.1: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/kelly.html Student Project 11.2 The following website centers on personal construct theory and business applications with the use of the repertory grid. Students may apply Kelly’s theory to their own constructs of similarities and differences in personality.

Internet Site for Student Project 11.2: http://www.brint.com/PCT.htm

Online Discussion Board George Kelly Review: To what extent do you feel arguments, even wars, result because people construe events with different construct systems? In your opinion, what can be done to reduce such confrontation at a personal level between people? Give a detailed point by point answer in relation to this theory.

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1 B.F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory

Chapter 12 B.F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Describe the life of Skinner.

Review reinforcement: the basis of behavior.

Analyze operant conditioning and the Skinner box.

Enumerate the schedules of reinforcement.

Explain successive approximations and how they shape behavior.

Outline superstitious behavior.

Describe the self-control of behavior.

Explain the applications of operant conditioning.

Evaluate assessment and research in Skinner’s theory.

Lecture Outline I. Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism Skinner did not offer a personality theory that can easily be contrasted and compared with others discussed in this book. Skinner’s work attempted to account for all behavior, not just personality, in factual, descriptive terms. He argued that psychologists must restrict their investigations to facts, to only what they can see, manipulate, and measure in the laboratory. In explaining personality, Skinner made no reference to internal, subjective states to account for behavior. He did not deny the existence of internal forces, only their usefulness for science. He saw no need to look inside the organism for some form of inner activity. To Skinner, human beings are “empty organisms,” by which he meant that there is nothing inside oneself that can explain behavior in scientific terms.

Another way Skinner differed from other theorists is in his choice of experimental subject. Although his ideas about behavior have been applied to people, the research for his behavioral approach used rats and pigeons. He admitted that human behavior is more complex than animal behavior but suggested that the differences are in degree, not in kind.

II. The Life of Skinner (1904–1990)

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2 Chapter 12

Skinner was brought up under strict parenting in Pennsylvania. He spent hours constructing mechanical devices such as wagons, seesaws, carousels, slingshots, model airplanes, and a steam cannon that shot carrots and potato plugs over neighboring houses.

His interest in animal behavior also derived from childhood. He trained pigeons to play Ping-Pong and guide a missile to its target. Skinner majored in English and wanted to become a novelist in which he was not successful. He decided to study human behavior by the methods of science rather than the methods of fiction. Skinner studied psychology at Harvard, taught there until 1936 and also taught at the University of Minnesota and Indiana University.

Skinner returned to writing and projected his emotional and intellectual discontent onto the protagonist of a novel, Walden Two, letting the character vent his personal and professional frustrations. This book has sold over two million copies. It describes a society in which all aspects of life are controlled by positive reinforcement. Skinner worked well into his eighties with enthusiasm and dedication.

III. Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior Skinner’s fundamental idea is that behavior can be controlled by its consequences, that is, by what follows the behavior. Skinner distinguished between two kinds of behavior: respondent behavior and operant behavior. Respondent behavior involves a response made to or elicited by a specific stimulus. Reinforcement is the act of strengthening a response by adding a reward, thus increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated, and extinction is the process of eliminating a behavior by withholding reinforcement. To Skinner, respondent behavior was less important than operant behavior—behavior emitted spontaneously or voluntarily that operates on the environment to change it. The nature and frequency of operant behavior will be determined or modified by the reinforcement that follows the behavior.

IV. Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box Operant-conditioning is a procedure by which a change in the consequences of a response will affect the rate at which the response occurs. Skinner believed that most human and animal behavior is learned through operant conditioning. To Skinner, personality is a pattern or collection of operant behaviors.

V. Schedules of Reinforcement Skinner pointed out that in everyday life outside the psychology laboratory, one’s behavior is rarely reinforced every time it occurs. After observing that his rats continued

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3 B.F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory

to press the bar at a fairly constant rate even when they were not being reinforced for each response, Skinner decided to investigate different reinforcement schedules to determine their effectiveness in controlling behavior. Among the rates of reinforcement he tested are the following.

• A fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement means that the reinforcer is presented following the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.

• This is much like a person’s weekly or monthly salary.

• In the fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement, reinforcers are given only after a specified number of responses have been made.

• An example for this type of reinforcement would be a job in which one’s pay is determined on a piece-rate basis, how much one earns depends on how much one produces.

• In the variable-interval schedule of reinforcement, the reinforcer might appear after 2 hours the first time, after 1 hour 30 minutes the next time, and after 2 hours and 15 minutes the third time.

• A person who spends the day fishing might be rewarded, if at all, on a variable-interval basis.

• A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is based on an average number of responses between reinforcers, but there is great variability around the average.

• Skinner found that the variable-ratio schedule is effective in bringing about high and stable response rates, as the people who operate gambling casinos can attest.

VI. The Shaping of Behavior According to Skinner, conditioning a child or animal to make desired complex responses can be achieved with the use of successive approximations or shaping. The organism, as it goes through this process of shaping, is reinforced as its behavior comes in successive, or consecutive, stages to approximate the final behavior desired. This is called successive approximation. Skinner suggested that this is how children learn the complex behavior of speaking. Infants spontaneously emit meaningless sounds, which parents reinforce by smiling, laughing, and talking. After a while, parents reinforce this babbling in different ways, providing stronger reinforcers for sounds that approximate real words.

VII. Superstitious Behavior Skinner believed people are sometimes reinforced accidently after they have displayed some behavior. For example, an offensive lineman for the Tampa Bay (FL) asked his roommate to switch beds so that he could sleep closer to the bathroom. Immediately thereafter, his playing improved. For the rest of his career, he insisted on the bed nearest

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4 Chapter 12

the bathroom door in every motel in which the team stayed. Skinner called this phenomenon superstitious behavior. Skinner found that a single reinforcer of this kind may be powerful enough for a person or an animal to repeat the accidentally reinforced behavior more frequently for a while. In humans, such behaviors may persist throughout life and require only occasional reinforcement to sustain them.

VIII. The Self-Control of Behavior According to Skinner, behavior is controlled and modified by variables that are external to the organism. Skinner described self-control as acting to alter the impact of external events. He suggested that to some extent one can control the external variables that determine one’s behavior through four self-control techniques: • Stimulus avoidance—people reduce the control a person or situation has over their behavior by avoiding that person or situation, such as an alcoholic removing liquor from one’s house to avoid the temptation of drinking.

• Self-administered satiation—people exert control to cure themselves of bad habits by overdoing the behavior. Smokers who want to quit can chain-smoke for a period of time, inhaling until they become so disgusted, uncomfortable, or sick that they quit.

• Aversive stimulation—a technique of self-control that involves unpleasant or repugnant consequences.

• Self-reinforcement—people reward themselves for displaying good or desirable behaviors. To Skinner, then, the crucial point is that external variables shape and control behavior.

IX. Applications of Operant Conditioning Behavior modification has been used successfully with children and adults, with the mentally healthy and the mentally disturbed, and with individuals as well as group behaviors. The classic application of behavior modification the token economy. This is a technique in which tokens can be exchanged for valued objects or privileges as a reward for a desirable behavior. Token economy programs have worked in a variety of institutional settings as a way of reducing problem behaviors. When tokens are no longer provided, reinforced behaviors usually revert to their original state.

Operant-conditioning techniques have been applied to problems in business and industry.

Reinforcers for business include pay, job security, recognition from supervisors, perks and status within the company, and the opportunity for personal growth. The focus is on changing overt behavior, defining the nature of the appropriate reinforcers, and determining their optimal rate of presentation to modify behavior. Most operant-

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5 B.F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory

conditioning applications involve positive reinforcement rather than punishment.

Skinner said that punishment was ineffective in changing behavior from undesirable to desirable or from abnormal to normal. Positive reinforcement administered for desirable behaviors is much more effective than punishment. Negative reinforcement is an aversive or noxious stimulus, the removal of which is rewarding, such as a loud noise or an electric shock that continues until the subject emits a desirable behavior. However, negative reinforcement does not always work, whereas positive reinforcement is more consistently effective.

X. Questions about Human Nature Skinner believed people are primarily products of learning, shaped more by external variables than genetic factors. What is learned in childhood can be modified, and new behavior patterns can be acquired at any age. Skinner made no references to overcoming inferiority, reducing anxiety, or striving for self-actualization. In his novel Walden Two and in other writings, he discussed his notion of the ideal human society. He stated that individual behavior must be directed toward the type of society that has the greatest chance of survival. On the issue of free will versus determinism, Skinner believed people function like machines, in lawful, orderly, predetermined ways. Despite Skinner’s belief that behavior is controlled by external stimuli and reinforcers, people are certainly not victims. Although controlled by one’s environment, one is responsible for designing that environment.

XI. Assessment in Skinner’s Theory Skinner’s approach to assessing behavior is called functional analysis and it involves three aspects of behavior: • The frequency of behavior • The situation in which the behavior occurs • The reinforcement associated with the behavior Three approaches to assessing behavior are direct observation, self-reports, and physiological measurements. Usually two or more people conduct the observation to assure accuracy and reliability. With a comprehensive direct-observation program, it is possible to plan a course of behavior modification. Self-reports are carried out through interviews and questionnaires. Questionnaires for assessing behavior are similar in format to self-report inventories that assess personality. Physiological assessments of behavior include heart rate, muscle tension, and brain waves. Whatever assessment technique is chosen to assess behavior in different stimulus situations, the ultimate goal is to modify behavior, not to change personality.

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6 Chapter 12

XII. Research on Skinner’s Theory Skinner preferred the intensive study of a single subject. He believed that the data on the average performance of groups is of little value in dealing with a particular case. Skinner believed that valid and replicable results could be obtained without statistical analysis as long as sufficient data were collected from a single subject under well-controlled experimental conditions.

XIII. Reflections on Skinner’s Theory There has been criticism of the type of subject and the simplicity of the situations in Skinner’s experiments. He made broad assertions and predictions about human behavior and society—about social, economic, religious, and cultural issues—with considerable confidence.

Skinner’s belief that all behaviors are learned was challenged by two of his former students who conditioned more than 6,000 animals of 38 different species to perform for television commercials and tourist attractions. The animals included pigs, raccoons, chickens, hamsters, porpoises, whales, and cows. The animals displayed a tendency toward instinctive drift by substituting instinctive behaviors for the behaviors that had been reinforced, even when the instinctive behaviors interfered with receiving food.

However, Skinner ignored most of the criticisms of his work.

Although Skinner’s radical behaviorist position continues to be applied in laboratory, clinical, and organizational settings, its dominance has been challenged by the cognitive movement in psychology, which began in the 1960s. Despite the inroads of cognitive psychology, however, Skinner’s position remains influential in many areas, from classrooms to assembly lines, from Skinner boxes to treatment programs for behavior disorders.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 12.1 The instructor may lecture on the differences between Skinner’s theory and other theorists, such as Freud, Adler, and Jung in terms of personality. Divide the class into four groups and have a brainstorming session with each group taking one of these four theorists as the topic. The students could then defend their theorist and their theory. The following questions could be asked to each group: Does this theorist have a logical and

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7 B.F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory

worthwhile theory? Does their theory have applicability in therapy and to what extent?

Have a vote of which group presented the best case and which theorist and theory seems to make most sense to most of the students. The instructor could highlight strong points and weak points of each group’s defense of the theorist and their theories.

Lecture Topic 12.2 The instructor may generate discussion with the use of questions on behavior modification or continue the comparison with other theorists. The questions could easily be divided for several groups to discuss and then the students would give their consensus and divergent opinions on the efficacy of each set of questions. This material could also be assigned individually or enacted in a role-playing situation using dialogue in place of the narrative in each of the case studies. A simulated counseling session could be done or each group could simulate a group meeting of therapists who are given this case to diagnose and assign assessment instruments and treatment techniques for each of these cases with the use of dialogue or the use of the book’s narrative.

Student Projects Student Project 12.1 Students may want more information about Skinner, his theories, and more recent research on behavior modification. They could write a paper on behavior modification strategies and change their own study skills. Here are a few resources: Psychology Today, March–April 2004 Vol 37 Issue 2 Page 83 (1) Opening Skinner’s Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century by Lauren Slater. Book review by Erik Strand.

Record Number A115344432 Internet Sites for Student Project 12.1: http://booksthatteach.com/articles/13steps.htm http://www.csbsju.edu/academic-advising/help/getmore.htm Student Project 12.2 Have students design a “Skinner Box” for a small animal. The students could use a shoe box and then put objects inside the box which would help “modify” the animal’s

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8 Chapter 12

behavior. Note: No animal is needed or required for this project. Another variation is to have each group diagram a behavior modification program for a person struggling with a mild habit, such as occasional coffee drinking.

Internet Sites for Student Project 12.2: www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOgowRy2WC0 Student Project 12.3 Have students work in groups and create a mild behavior modification experiment with other students at their university or college. Students could place a movable obstruction on a walkway and conduct an experiment on how various people contend with these barriers. A short interview of each participant could be conducted on how they contended with the barriers.

Internet site for Student Project 12.3: http://teachingedpsych.wikispaces.com/Behavior+Modification+Project-General+Directions Student Project 12.4 Students should research for papers or more information on Skinner and behavior management. Here are some web links for further research.

Internet Sites for Student Project 12.4: http://www.ldonline.org/article/6030/ http://www.latitudes.org/behavioral_charts.html http://www.ucsfhealth.org/education/behavior_modification_ideas_for_weight_managem ent/index.html Student Project 12.5 The following websites present a wealth of information for students to research for

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9 B.F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory

papers on behavioral management in the workplace and in everyday life. The students could devise a behavioral management system for their everyday routines which could be changed to be more effective in their lives.

Internet Sites for Student Project 12.5: http://www.bfskinner.org/ http://www.mediate.com/articles/belak4.cfm

Projects in Behavior Modification Behavioral Modification Project 12.1 You and your group are to complete an experiment on human nature. Your group is to design and implement the experiment and report your results during the scheduled class time. Videotape your results if you are able to do so. More information will be given in class.

Here are some ideas for your experiment: 1. Have your group put up some very modest “barriers” for people on a sidewalk.

Observe what each person does with the obstacles. Develop different variables, such as type of barrier, how they overcame the obstacle(s) (if they did or not), gender differences, or age range differences. You should have enough people (around 20) to observe to make your observations generalizable to a larger group of students, faculty, staff, etc. (Caution: Let security and/or maintenance know if this could be a potential problem for them).

2. Drop a picture or a wallet with a name and instructions on it (For example, “If found, please immediately give this picture to Sandy in James 101. REWARD FOR IMMEDIATE RETURN!”). “Sandy” would be from your group and would interview the person after the experiment. See what the person does with the picture or wallet and follow up with the person in the interview of “why” he or she did what he or she did. Variables could be age range, sex differences, and categories of what he or she did and why.

3. Use crutches or a wheel chair and attempt to get in a doorway. Fake a scene where you fall or lose your books. See what people do and interview them afterwards on why they helped or not. (Note: Please give any person the right not to respond to you).

4. Glue or otherwise fasten some quarters on the steps leading to a building. See who attempts to pick them up and what their level of frustration is when they are unable

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10 Chapter 12

5.

to do so.

Make up your own behavior modification experiment. Just be safe for yourself and your participants. Also, get permission from public safety or maintenance if you feel you need to.

Behavioral Modification Project 10.2 The purpose of this experiment is to replicate a scientific experiment by John Darley and Daniel Bateson from 1973. They set up a situation for subjects to encounter a person who may need immediate medical help. This experiment follows the biblical account that Jesus gave as a parable. There are four corresponding hypotheses presented: 1. Persons in a hurry will be less likely to help than persons not in a hurry.

2. Individuals preoccupied with religious and ethical thoughts (as the priest and the Levite in the New Testament parable presumably were) will be no more likely to offer aid than other persons thinking of other things.

3. Persons who are “intrinsically religious,” or alternatively, whose religiousness is the expression of a quest for meaning, will more likely be helpful than persons whose religiousness resembles that of the priest or the Levite, for whom, according to Darley and Bateson, religion is only a means towards the ends.

4. Make up a further hypothesis about male/female differences in helping persons of the same gender and cross gender, and predict the outcome in your hypothesis.

Set up the experiment in a controlled setting where no one will call 911 or security. Tell your subjects after the experiment that this was staged and the findings will not be used outside the classroom. You may let security know the general location, date and place of the experiment. The instructor needs to know the time, place, and ‘set-up’ plans for each of the experiment groups before the experiment is done.

Test a sufficient number of subjects (at least 10). Give each member of your group a role to play. Also, decide whether you will interview subjects on their reasons for ‘passingby’ or for ‘stopping and helping’ after the experiment. It would be most helpful if you can videotape the experiment and bring it to class.

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1 Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory

Chapter 13 Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Describe the life of Bandura.

Review modeling and the basis of observational learning.

Analyze the processes of observational learning.

Trace self-reinforcement and self-efficacy.

Outline the developmental stages self-efficacy.

Illustrate behavior modification.

Evaluate assessment and research on Bandura’s theory.

Lecture Outline Although Bandura agreed with Skinner that much learning takes place as a result of reinforcement, he also stressed that virtually all forms of behavior can be learned without directly experiencing any reinforcement. Bandura’s approach is also called observational learning, indicating the importance in the learning process of observing other people’s behavior. Rather than experiencing reinforcement by oneself for each of one’s actions, one learns through vicarious reinforcement by observing the behavior of other people and the consequences of that behavior.

I. The Life of Bandura (1925–) Bandura was born in Canada and attended the University of British Columbia in Vancouver as an undergraduate and took a course in psychology out of expediency. He then earned his Ph.D. After a year at the Wichita, Kansas, Guidance Center, he joined the faculty of Stanford University, where he began his new approach to psychology. He quickly became very successful and compiled an extensive record of publications.

II. Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning Bandura believed in modeling, which is a behavior modification technique that involves observing the behavior of others (the models) and participating with them in performing the desired behavior. Through modeling, by observing the behavior of a model and repeating the behavior, it is possible to acquire responses that people have never performed or displayed before and to strengthen or weaken existing responses. Bandura’s

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2 Chapter 13

now-classic demonstration of modeling involves the Bobo doll, an inflatable plastic figure about 4 feet tall. Bandura used the famous Bobo doll experiments to show how a person, such as a child, will model behaviors shown to them by an adult. The Bobo doll experiments showed how a model (the adult) could cause the research participant (the child) to elicit aggressive behaviors, actions that were not displayed with the same strength by children who had not seen the models.

Additional research compared highly aggressive children and children that were more inhibited. When the parents of these two groups were compared, the parents of the inhibited children were inhibited, and the parents of the aggressive children were aggressive.

Research has shown that behaviors a person usually suppresses or inhibits may be performed more readily under the influence of a model. This phenomenon called disinhibition, refers to the weakening of inhibition or constraints by observing the behavior of a model. The researchers concluded that modeling affects the subjects’ perceptual responses to the stimuli, hence modeling can determine not only what the subjects do, but also what they look at and perceive.

Bandura concluded that much of the behavior—good and bad, normal and abnormal—is learned by imitating the behavior of other people. Bandura was an outspoken critic of the type of society that provides the wrong models for its children, particularly the examples of violent behavior that are standard fare on television and in movies and video games.

His research clearly shows the effects of models on behavior. In Skinner’s system, reinforcers control behavior; for Bandura, it is the models who control behavior.

Bandura and his associates investigated three factors found to influence modeling: • The characteristics of the models • The characteristics of the observers • The reward consequences associated with the behaviors The characteristics of the models affect one’s tendency to imitate them. In infancy, modeling is limited to immediate imitation. In infancy, it is necessary for the modeled behavior to be repeated several times after the infant’s initial attempt to duplicate it. Also, the modeled behavior must be within the infant’s range of sensorimotor development. By about age two, children have developed sufficient attentional, retention, and production processes to begin imitating behavior some time after the observation rather than immediately. The attributes of the observers also determine the effectiveness of observational learning. People who are low in self-confidence and self-esteem are much more likely to imitate a model’s behavior than are people high in self-confidence and

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3 Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory

self-esteem.

The reward consequences linked to a particular behavior can affect the extent of the modeling and even override the impact of the characteristics of the models and the observers. A high-status model may lead people to imitate a certain behavior, but if the rewards are not meaningful to them, they will discontinue the behavior and be less likely to be influenced by that model in the future.

III. The Processes of Observational Learning Bandura analyzed the nature of observational learning and found it to be governed by four related mechanisms: • Attentional processes: o Observational learning or modeling will not occur unless the subject pays attention to the model. o The more closely one pays attention to a model’s behavior, the more likely one is to imitate it. o Attention to modeling behavior varies as a function of the observers’ cognitive and perceptual skills and the value of the behavior being modeled. o The more highly developed are one’s cognitive abilities and the more knowledge one has about the behavior being modeled, the more carefully one will attend to the model and perceive the behavior.

• Retention processes: o One must be able to remember significant aspects of the model’s behavior in order to repeat it later. o One can retain the information about a model’s behavior in two ways: through an imaginal internal representational system or through a verbal system.

• Production processes: o Translating imaginal and verbal symbolic representations into overt behavior requires the production processes. o Practice of the proper physical movements, and feedback on their accuracy, is needed to produce the smooth performance of the behavior.

• Incentive and motivational processes: o One perceives that the model’s behavior leads to a reward and thus expecting that one’s learning of the same behavior will lead to similar consequences. o When incentives are available, observation is more quickly translated into action. o Incentives also influence the attentional and retention processes.

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4 Chapter 13

o o o

One’s incentive to learn is influenced by one’s anticipation of the reinforcement or punishment for doing so.

Reinforcement can assist in modeling, but is not vital to it.

When reinforcement does occur, it can be given by another person, experienced vicariously, or administered by oneself.

IV. Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy Self-reinforcement appears conceptually similar to what other theorists call conscience or superego, but Bandura denies that it is the same. A continuing process of selfreinforcement regulates much of people’s behavior. One learns the initial set of internal standards, whether realistic or not, from the behavior of models, typically one’s parents and teachers.

In Bandura’s system, self-efficacy refers to feelings of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in coping with life. Meeting and maintaining one’s performance standards enhances self-efficacy; failure to meet and maintain them reduces it. People low in selfefficacy feel helpless, unable to exercise control over life events. People who have high self-efficacy believe they can deal effectively with events and situations. Because they expect to succeed in overcoming obstacles, they persevere at tasks and often perform at a high level. According to Bandura, people base their judgment about their self-efficacy on four sources of information: • Performance attainment—previous success experiences provide direct indications of one’s level of mastery and competence.

• Vicarious experiences—seeing other people perform successfully strengthens one’s self-efficacy.

• Verbal persuasion—reminding people that they have the ability to achieve whatever they want to achieve, can enhance self-efficacy.

• Physiological and emotional arousal—the more calm and composed one feels, the greater one’s self-efficacy.

Bandura has helped people enhance self-efficacy in a variety of situations. He has helped subjects learn to play musical instruments, relate better to people of the opposite sex, master computer skills, give up cigarette smoking, and conquer phobias and physical pain.

V. Developmental Stages of Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy develops gradually over time. Infants begin to develop self-efficacy as they try to exercise greater influence over their physical and social environments. The

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5 Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory

significance of parental influence diminishes as the child’s world expands and admits additional models such as siblings, peers, and other adults. Teachers influence selfefficacy judgments through their impact on the development of cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills, which are vital to efficient adult functioning.

The transitional experiences of adolescence involve coping with new demands and pressures, from a growing awareness of sex to the choice of college and career. Bandura noted that the success of this stage typically depends on the level of self-efficacy established during the childhood years.

Bandura divided adulthood into two periods: young adulthood and the middle years.

Young adulthood involves new adjustments such as marriage, parenthood, and trying to establish a career. High self-efficacy is necessary for successful outcomes of these experiences. The middle years of adulthood are stressful as people reevaluate their careers and their family and social lives.

Self-efficacy reassessments in old age are difficult. A lowering of self-efficacy can further affect physical and mental functioning in a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy. To Bandura, self-efficacy is the single most important factor in determining success or failure throughout the entire life span.

VI. Behavior Modification Bandura’s goal in developing his social-cognitive theory was to modify or change those learned behaviors that society considers undesirable or abnormal. Bandura applied modeling techniques to eliminate fears and other intense emotional reactions. He used a technique called guided participation which involves watching a live model and then participating with the model. The participants eventually come in contact with what they may fear or avoid. In covert modeling, subjects are instructed to imagine a model coping with a feared or threatening situation; they do not actually see a model. Covert modeling has been used to successfully treat snake phobias and social inhibitions.

Phobias restrict a person’s daily life. For example, many people who fear spiders react with rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, and vomiting just from seeing a picture of a spider. Modeling techniques can also be used with groups, saving time and money in treating people with the same problem. Modeling techniques has been effective with phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and sexual dysfunctions. The positive effects have been reported to last for years.

The modeling approach can also help with fear of medical treatment. One early study

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6 Chapter 13

dealt with children who were scheduled for surgery and had never been in a hospital before. They were divided into two groups: an experimental group that watched a film about a boy’s experience in the hospital and a control group that saw a film about a boy taking a trip. The child in the hospital film was an exemplary model. Despite some initial anxiety, he coped well with the doctors and the medical procedures. The modeling film was effective in reducing anxiety. In addition, those who had seen the hospital film had fewer behavior problems after hospitalization than did those in the control group. For some college students, test anxiety is so serious a problem that their examination scores do not accurately reflect their knowledge of the material being tested. Research shows that subjects high in test anxiety performed significantly better in a recall test after watching a filmed model talk about coping mechanisms for test anxiety.

Although the results of behavior modification are impressive, the techniques have drawn criticism from some educators, politicians, and even psychologists. They suggest that behavior modification exploits people, manipulating and controlling them against their will. Behavior modification does not occur without the client’s awareness. Bandura noted that the client–therapist relationship is a contract between two consenting individuals, not a relationship between a sinister master-controller and a spineless puppet. Many behavior modification techniques have derived from Bandura’s work and are popular alternatives to psychoanalysis and other therapeutic approaches.

VII. Questions about Human Nature For Bandura, behavior is controlled by the person through the cognitive processes, and by the environment through external social situations. This is called reciprocal determinism. He noted that people are neither “powerless objects controlled by environmental forces nor free agents who can become whatever they choose. Both people and their environments are reciprocal determinants of each other.”

VIII. Assessment in Bandura’s Theory Like Skinner, Bandura focused on overt behavior rather than on internal motivating variables. He did not use assessment measures such as free association, dream analysis, or projective techniques. Unlike Skinner, Bandura accepted the operation of cognitive variables. It is these cognitive variables, as well as behavior, that can be assessed.

IX. Research on Bandura’s Theory Bandura favored well-controlled laboratory investigations in the rigorous tradition of experimental psychology. He studied large subject groups and compared their average

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7 Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory

performance by statistical analysis.

In research, self-efficacy differs as a function of gender and age. On the average, men score higher than women in self-efficacy. These gender differences peak during the 20s and then decline in later years. For both men and women, self-efficacy increases through childhood and early adulthood, peaks in middle age, and then declines after age 60.

People with good physical appearance score high in self-efficacy and there is a significant positive relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance. Career choice and job performance were also linked to self-efficacy studies as was physical well-being and health. Self-efficacy has been found to affect several aspects of people’s mental health, including depression and anxiety, as well as social interest and selfesteem. In mental health issues, those with low self-efficacy rate high in depression, while enhanced self-efficacy and a sense of control over life events are positively related to the ability to cope with stress and to minimize its harmful effects on biological functioning.

Research on Internet self-efficacy (one’s feelings of confidence in one’s ability to effectively use the Internet) conducted on 8th-grade students in Taiwan found no gender differences. However, girls ranked higher than boys in level of confidence in communicating online, whereas boys were higher in level of confidence in exploring online.

Just as an individual may develop a sense of self-efficacy, a group of people working together in a common enterprise to achieve specific goals may develop a sense of collective efficacy. Bandura and researchers in many countries have demonstrated convincingly that in laboratory situations and in the real world, seeing violence begets violence whether on a television or computer screen, movies, video games, or in homes, streets, and schools. A study of people in their early and mid-20s found a strong positive correlation between the amount of violence they had watched on television between the ages of 6 and 10 and their aggressive behavior as adults.

X. Reflections on Bandura’s Theory Social-learning theory focuses on overt behavior. Critics charge that this emphasis ignores distinctly human inner aspects of personality such as motivation and emotion.

The social-learning approach has several distinct advantages. First, it is objective and amenable to laboratory methods of investigation, making it compatible with the emphasis in experimental psychology. Second, observational learning and behavior modification are compatible with the functional, pragmatic spirit of American psychology.

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8 Chapter 13

Bandura’s central idea, that people learn behaviors from role models whom they wish to emulate, has been used in radio and television programs in less well-developed nations to promote such social issues as population control, improving the status of women, and decreasing the spread of AIDS.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 13.1 Instructors may speak about the Bobo Doll study and how children exhibited aggressive behavior after observing an aggressive model. They also modeled inhibited techniques for a child. Have a discussion on whether this kind of study can be done with children without breaking the present ethical standards. If one were to duplicate this study, how would one split the children into control and experimental groups? In performing this behavior modification technique, are the researchers unethical in modeling aggressive behavior for the children to be exposed? If one used only “inhibited” models, would this study have a different ending? The instructor could assign groups to write some ethical rules before the next lecture. The students’ “rules” and “restrictions” could be compared with APA guidelines for ethical standards with the use of human subjects.

Internet Sites for Lecture Topic 13.1: www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pr0OTCVtHbU http://www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html Lecture Topic 13.2 An instructor may address the issue of aggressive behavior modeling and the media. The instructor could review the concern and exhibit some research that shows how this kind of modeling may influence children to be aggressive or make them more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior. The instructor could use a collection of video games, music, advertisements from a newspaper, a news report showing violence, a movie, or a television action program that contains violent modeling. The instructor could develop a survey for students in which they count the number of violent episodes in each of the presented media forms. It could also include a scale with which the students can rate each episode (ranging from not violent to extremely violent). The instructor may want to compare the movie and television rating system and then have the students monitor whether or not these rating systems truly reflect restricted viewing. They could make this rating sheet anonymous, and each student could rate whether he or she comes from a

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9 Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory

family that exhibited aggression or inhibition. This lecture could easily lead to an assignment for groups or individuals to study the different types of media outside the classroom and then make a more formal report in class.

Lecture Topic 13.3 How does Bandura’s modeling and behavior modification techniques apply in the classroom today? The instructor may use this question to generate a class discussion, or this question could be used as a pop quiz, an online group discussion, or as a part of an exam. The students may also discuss how Bandura diverges from other theories on personality.

Student Projects Student Project 13.1 Students may research the theories of Bandura further. The students could write a paper on how to behaviorally prepare for stressful classes, exams, and college life, in general.

Internet Sites for Student Project 13.1: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-different-types-of-stress-reduction-techniques.htm http://www.brown.uk.com/anxiety/stress-inoculation.pdf Child Development, May–June 2003 Vol. 74, Issue 3, P. 769 (14) Role of affective self-regulatory efficacy in diverse spheres of psychosocial functioning.

(Empirical Articles). Albert Bandura; Gian Vittorio Caprara; Claudio Barbaranelli; Maria Gerbino; Concetta Pastorelli.

Record number A102791824 Annual Review of Psychology, Annual 2001 P.1 Social Cognitive Theory: An Agentic Perspective. Albert Bandura.

Record number A73232700 Student Project 13.2 The following website will provide students with resources to further research the theories of Bandura, modeling, and his viewpoint on behavior modification. Students may create their own modeling situation, such as observing the behavior of their siblings

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10 Chapter 13

before and after they play various video games which may be nonaggressive or aggressive in content.

Internet Site for Student Project 13.2: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/bandura.html Student Project 13.3 The issue of self-efficacy can be interchangeable with self-esteem and/or self-concept.

Students may research the specifics of self-efficacy in Bandura’s system as they compare self-esteem and self-concept in an opinion paper on the subject.

Internet Site for Student Project 13.3: http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Pajares/eff.html https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/BanEncy.html

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1 Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding Happiness

Chapter 14 Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding Happiness Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

Review Julian Rotter’s locus of control.

Outline Marvin Zuckerman’s sensation seeking.

Summarize Martin E. P. Seligman’s learned helplessness and the optimistic and pessimistic explanatory styles.

Evaluate Martin E. P. Seligman’s positive psychology.

Lecture Outline I. Julian Rotter: Locus of Control Rotter (1916–2014) met Alfred Adler when he enrolled for a Master’s degree in chemistry at the Brooklyn College. Following this meeting, he switched his major from chemistry to psychology. Rotter then became a social-learning theorist, who sought explanation for behavior and personality outside and inside the organism. In the course of an extensive research program, Rotter found that some people believe that their reinforcers depend on their own actions whereas other people believe that their reinforcers are controlled by other people and by outside forces. Rotter called this concept locus of control. People who have an internal locus of control believe that the reinforcement they receive is under the control of their own behaviors and abilities.

Those with an external locus of control believe that other people, fate, or luck control the rewards they receive.

Rotter developed self-report inventories to assess locus of control. The Internal-External (I-E) Scale consists of 23 forced-choice alternatives. From each pair of items, subjects select the one that best describes their beliefs. Another scale to assess locus of control is the Children’s Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Scale, a widely used 40-item test.

There are self-report instruments for this type of scale for adults, children, and even preschool children. Variants of the I-E Scale measure specific behaviors such as the relationship between locus of control and factors relating to successful dieting and weight loss as well as performance in a variety of situations. Studies have shown that girls score significantly higher than boys did on internal locus of control, and people apparently

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2 Chapter 14

become more internally oriented as they grow older, reaching a peak in middle age.

Studies conducted in Africa found that native Africans, like American-born Blacks in general, scored higher in external locus of control than did American-born Whites.

Asians have shown to be more externally oriented than Americans, a finding that may be explained in terms of different cultural beliefs.

Internally oriented people cope better with stress, have less anxiety and depression, and are less likely to be lonely or commit suicide, and find greater meaning in life. Internally oriented people tend to be physically healthier than externally controlled people with lower rates of blood pressure and fewer heart attacks. Some studies show that internals tend to be more cautious about their health and are more likely to wear seat belts, eat well, exercise regularly, and quit smoking. Locus of control is learned in childhood and is directly related to parental behavior. Children in large single-parent families headed by women were found to be more likely to develop an external locus of control Parents of children who possess an internal locus of control were found to be highly supportive, to offer praise (positive reinforcement) for achievements, and to be consistent in their discipline; they were not authoritarian. As their children grew older, these parents continued to foster an internal orientation by encouraging independence.

Locus of control can be generalized over many situations, whereas self-efficacy tends to be more specific to a particular situation. Studies have provided Rotter’s theories considerable empirical support and locus of control has become one of the most studied variables in psychology.

II. Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking In the 1970s, Marvin Zuckerman conducted research on a limited-domain aspect of personality he called sensation seeking. This trait has a large hereditary component initially noted by Eysenck. He described this trait in people as a desire for “varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experience, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experience.”

Zuckerman contsructed the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS), a 40-item paper-and-pencil questionnaire. When developing this test, he administered it to many people whose behavior corresponded to his definition of sensation seeking. These included people who volunteered for psychological experiments that exposed them to novel experiences, people whose jobs involved physical danger and people who admitted to experimenting with drugs or varied sexual experiences. Their SSS scores were compared with the scores of people who deliberately avoided novel or risky activities. Zuckerman identified four components using factor analysis to identify sensation seeking. These are, thrill and

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3 Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding Happiness

adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility. In general, younger people are more inclined to seek adventure, risk, and novel experiences than older people. In countries as diverse as the United States and Iran, men consistently scored higher in sensation seeking and lower in impulse control than women. Men scored higher on thrill and adventure seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility. Women scored higher on experience seeking.

High sensation seekers are more likely than low sensation seekers to use and sell illicit drugs (and to do so at an earlier age), to drink alcoholic beverages, to shoplift, and to commit delinquent behavior. Studies of American high school and college students found that high sensation seekers were more likely to smoke, use alcohol and drugs, drive fast, have more car accidents and convictions for reckless or drunk driving, and engage in frequent sex. Physical risk-taking behavior has been related to sensation seeking. A High school and college students in China who scored high in sensation seeking were more likely to become obsessed with computer games and Internet use.

A study of 233 low-level employees in the United States found that high sensation seekers scored lower on job performance than low sensations seekers. High sensation seekers were also less likely to establish social relationships at their place of employment or try to obtain information from co-workers or supervisors. High sensation seekers do not relate to other people in a dependent or nurturing way. However, high sensation seeking was not correlated with abnormal or neurotic behavior. Those low in this scale may have neuroses such as phobias and obsessive-compulsive behaviors. High scorers openly express their emotions and act independently of social conventions and other people’s needs and attitudes.

However, tests of creativity and originality revealed that high sensation seekers have a greater capacity for original thinking, but do not always express it in their schoolwork.

They also tend to engage in what Sigmund Freud called primary-process thought.

Zuckerman suggested that because high sensation seekers continually search for novel experiences, if they cannot find them in external situations they look inward and create a fantasy world. Because high sensation seekers have a greater need for stimulating and varied experiences, they tend to choose different jobs than low sensation seekers. High SSS scores correlated positively with scientific interests and negatively with clerical interests. The high sensation seekers of both sexes who were interested in helping professions preferred risky, cutting-edge jobs such as crisis intervention work or paramedic duty on emergency response teams.

High sensation seekers tend to be more liberal in their political and religious attitudes than low sensation seekers. Those with high SSS scores are more likely to express

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atheistic views rather than belief in any conventional religion. Low sensation seekers also show a low tolerance for ambiguity. They believe that ambiguous ideas and situations are threats rather than challenges.

A large amount of research consistently shows a strong hereditary basis for the sensationseeking personality factor. A twin study conducted jointly by Zuckerman and Sybil Eysenck found an even greater genetic component. However Zuckerman recognized the influence of learning (an environmental factor). Zuckerman also recognized the influence of other situational or environmental factors, such as parental sensation seeking. Scores on the SSS in early studies supported the idea that first-borns and only-borns were higher in sensation seeking than later-borns. Because firstborns and only-borns receive more stimulation and attention from their parents at an early age, they are likely to be exposed to a greater optimal level of stimulation, predisposing them to sensation-seeking behavior as adults. Sensation seeking has been related to a wide range of behavioral, cognitive, personality, and physiological variables.

III. Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic Explanatory Style.

Seligman began research in the mid-1960’s on a limited-domain aspect of personality he called learned helplessness. Seligman observed this phenomenon in the laboratory with dogs. The dogs were being conditioned to associate a high-pitched sound with an electric shock. However, when he did the experiment where the dogs had to jump a low wall to avoid the shock, the dogs did not cross to escape the shock. The dogs lay down, whimpered, and made no effort to escape. The dogs were conditioned to the first shock of the experiment and may not have jumped the barrier because they sensed they would be shocked anyway. This learned reaction probably generalized to the second part of the experiment, even though a means of escape was available.

Learned helplessness has been demonstrated in many studies using human subjects. For example, people in an experimental group were exposed to a loud, irritating noise and told they could turn it off if they pressed a series of buttons in the correct sequence.

However, there was no correct sequence that they could push to stop the loud tones. In the control group, there was a relatively easy sequence to follow to turn off the tones. In the next step, the experimental subjects were placed in a situation in which all they had to do to stop the noise was move their hand from one side of a box to the other in response to a light signal. Control-group subjects rapidly learned this behavior but experimentalgroup subjects sat passively, making no effort to turn off the irritating noise. Learned helplessness effects were documented in adult men and women, college students, adolescents, children, elderly persons, unemployed women, and patients in psychiatric

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5 Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding Happiness

hospitals.

The same techniques used in human and animal experiments have been applied by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and other organizations committed to fighting terrorism. After exposure to such conditions, the prisoners exhibited the same symptoms of learned helplessness as subjects in the laboratory experiments. The beneficial effects on psychological health of having control over one’s life have been widely documented.

It has also been shown that people can learn to increase their feeling of control. To investigate whether learned helplessness could affect physical health, Seligman and his associates designed a study in which rats were injected with malignant tumor cells. They conditioned some of the rats for learned helplessness and other rats for some measure of control over their own behavior. The rats that had some level of control had better rates of survival from the tumors. Learned helplessness was also shown to weaken the rats’ immune systems. These findings may provide a physiological explanation for the result that the helpless rats were unable to reject their tumors.

Explanatory style is a way of explaining to oneself one’s relative lack of control over one’s environment. An optimistic explanatory style can prevent learned helplessness, while a pessimistic explanatory style spreads helplessness to all facets of life.

According to Seligman, people who are optimistic tend to be healthier, where pessimists tend to believe that their actions are of little consequence and, as a result, are unlikely to try to prevent illness by changing their behavior with regard to smoking, diet and exercise, or timely medical attention. Findings of research also show that optimists live longer than pessimists. Among breast cancer patients experiencing a recurrence, optimists lived longer over a five-year period of study, independent of the severity of their illness.

Optimism is helpful in coping with AIDS, because the person feels more in control of his or her life. However, an optimist may believe that they may not get AIDS because of their attitudes about life. Although such beliefs may be illusory, they helped the subjects cope with a serious health threat and minimized the depression that often accompanies a major illness.

People over age 65 tend to have a more optimistic explanatory style to score higher in subjective well-being than those who are younger. A comparison of college students in the United States and Japan found that Japanese students were more pessimistic than American students. The American students were far more likely to predict that positive events would happen to them rather than to other people. In contrast, Japanese students believed that positive events were much more likely to happen to other people.

College students who scored higher on optimism have less stress and depression. A study of American college students found that optimists typically earned better grades than

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pessimists. Optimism and pessimism can influence cognitive functioning. Some optimists may hold unrealistic views about their vulnerability to the effects of their behavior. On the other hand, unrealistic pessimism in the face of adversity, such as a serious illness, may also be harmful. Telling oneself that one will never be able to cope or overcome the situation (thus also exhibiting low self-efficacy) may lead to a lack of effort and, consequently, a lack of success. However, when facing adversity like a serious illness, the pessimist may tell themselves they will not be able to cope or overcome the situation.

Seligman found several similarities between the symptoms of depression and the characteristics of learned helplessness. Depression is associated with poor health and puts people at risk for physical illness by reducing the effectiveness of the immune system, suppressing NK cell activity, and altering white blood cell count. Seligman’s research supports his hypothesis that learned helplessness leads to depression in people with a pessimistic explanatory style.

According to Seligman, some people appear to give up, become depressed, and experience health problems, while others, facing similar circumstances, recover over a period of time. Overall, researchers concluded that the pessimists responded to negative events and problems passively and made few attempts to alter their circumstances.

Seligman believed that people are more vulnerable to feelings of learned helplessness in infancy and early childhood. Infants begin in a state of total helplessness, but mature to cry for their needs and to exercise control. A child will have numerous interactions with helplessness and their ability to control and overcome these feelings. If they do not have successful outcomes, there may be an increase in overall feelings of learned helplessness.

Learned helplessness may develop later in childhood in response to factors such as bullying from peers, a harsh school environment, or other negative experiences. Race and poverty are also related to the development of learned helplessness.

IV. Martin Seligman: Positive Psychology Positive psychology was advanced by Seligman in the late 1990s during his term as president of the American Psychological Association. He thought psychology should deal with the best of human functioning—happiness, excellence, and optimal human growth.

In 2010, he ranked himself among the lowest 30 percent of people in terms of positive feelings and emotions. Psychologists have labeled the happy personality in terms such as subjective well-being or life satisfaction and define it as encompassing a cognitive evaluation of the quality of one’s life experience and the possession of positive moods and emotions. A level of income adequate to pay for our basic needs is a necessary, though not sufficient, prerequisite for happiness. Health appears to be a necessary but not

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7 Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding Happiness

sufficient condition for subjective well-being.

Older people who have stronger social networks and supportive friends report greater happiness than those who are more socially isolated. Married people report higher levels of happiness than people who are divorced, separated, widowed, or who have never married. When African-American adults were asked to rate their life satisfaction, those who had experienced discrimination reported lower levels of life satisfaction than those who experienced no discrimination.

There has been research done on the personality correlates of the happy personality, particularly with the Big Five Factors and with Eysenck’s three personality factors. In several studies in different countries, the researchers found that low neuroticism and high extraversion correlated significantly with national levels of subjective well-being. Both self-efficacy and internal locus of control are positively related to life satisfaction. Trust, emotional stability, self-esteem, and the ability to deal positively with stress all correlate with high subjective well-being.

Having positive emotions such as joy, interest, love, and enthusiasm is linked to subjective well-being. People high in subjective well-being differ from people low in subjective well-being in terms of their motivations and goals. In research, there is a strong positive relationship between life satisfaction and an orientation toward the future.

Research tends to show that happiness, or subjective well-being, leads to the kinds of behaviors that bring about success. Overall, research on a large sample of people from a variety of rich and poor nations found that Internet communication made people happier, although some benefited more than others. Seligman distinguished different kinds of happiness, or finding satisfaction in life, and he proposed three distinct types: • Positive emotion: the pleasant life • Engagement: the engaged life • Meaning: the meaningful life The pleasant life consists of a great deal of positive emotion such as satisfaction, job contentment, serenity, and optimism. The engaged life consists of engagement, involvement, purpose, commitment, and absorption in work. The meaningful life involves using one’s talents, abilities, and strengths to belong to, serve, or commit to some enterprise larger than the self. His research has shown that the pursuit of meaning and engagement were much more strongly correlated with happiness than the pursuit of pleasure.

Seligman’s original call for a positive psychology received an enthusiastic response. In 2000, only two years after he introduced the topic, the Journal of Happiness Studies, the

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first such journal in the field, began publication. By 2014, more than 10,000 journal articles were being published annually; seminars were held, books written, and popular magazines and talk shows were praising its goals. By 2015, a Google search for “happiness” generated almost 350 million hits.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 14.1 An instructor may lecture on Rotter’s internal versus external locus of control and compare this theory with Freud’s superego and the id. The struggle between the superego and the id could serve as a basis for Rotter’s locus of control. Divide the students in the class in half, if manageable, and have one half of the students construct an example of a fictitious person who is struggling between the control factors of the id and the superego.

The other half of the students should construct a fictitious person struggling with the issues of internal and external locus of control. The goal of this lecture and exercise is to compare, contrast, and analyze the psychoanalytic dimensions and Rotter’s assessment of the personality.

Lecture Topic 14.2 With this topic, the instructor may compare and contrast Eysenck’s conceptualization of introversion and extroversion to that of Jung and Rotter’s internal versus external locus of control theory. Have the students formulate opinions through group discussion and class discussions on the similarities and differences of the three theorists presented.

Internet Sites for Lecture Topic 14.2: http://www.trans4mind.com/personality/EPQ.html http://philosophy.lander.edu/ethics/jung.html http://wilderdom.com/psychology/loc/LocusOfControlWhatIs.html

Student Projects Student Project 14.1 Have groups of students create a poster, a PowerPoint demonstration, or a video tape simulation of how Rotter’s locus of control becomes an issue in an adolescent. The

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9 Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding Happiness

students could use the mediums listed above to demonstrate the internal and external control factors that an adolescent might struggle to resolve. How much internal locus of control can an adolescent have over his or her own life, considering the many externally controlling factors that parents or society may impose? The students could follow the adolescent through a dilemma of being internally controlled and allowing the external controls to be applied to their lives. What would be the outcome for this adolescent?

Another twist to this project is to apply Zuckerman’s ideas about sensation seeking. Does this adolescent have a sensation-seeking personality? How do these characteristics affect their lives in comparison to Rotter’s theories?

Internet sites for Student Project 14.1: http://wilderdom.com/psychology/loc/Measures.html http://wsm.wsu.edu/s/we.php?id=200 Student Project 14.2 Many students struggle with an eating disorder. This problem could be framed in the context of Rotter’s internal and external locus of control factors. Students could develop internal locus of control reinforcement strategies for a person struggling with an eating disorder. Is this person internally controlling himself or herself or are external controls creating the environment for this eating disorder to thrive? Is the control he or she is using over his or her body “internal” or “external”?

Internet Site for Student Project 14.2: https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychologytextbook/personality-16/social-cognitive-perspectives-on-personality-81/bandura-s-androtter-s-social-cognitive-theories-of-personality-314-12849/ Student Project 14.3 Have students consider how Rotter’s locus of control theory can come into play with regard to education. This can generate a discussion about their own approach to schoolwork, and how a particular locus of control can lead to different reactions to success and failure. Find some resources below.

High School Journal, Oct–Nov 2003 v87 i1 p39 (12) Effects of Locus of Control on African American High School Seniors’ Educational

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Aspirations: Implications for Preservice and Inservice High School Teachers and Counselors. Lamont A. Flowers; H. Richard Milner; James L. Moore III. Record number A111012065 Education, Spring 2003 v123 i3 p548 (5) Locus of Control and At-Risk Youth: A Comparison of Regular Education High School Students and Students in Alternative Schools. Christi Allen Miller; Trey Fitch; Jennifer L. Marshall.

Record number A100806945 Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, March 2003 v74 i1 pA-13(1) Relations of physical fitness, body image, locus of control, depression, and self-reported exercise in college women and men. (Health). Daniel D. Adame; Sally A. Radell; Thomas C. Johnson; Stephen P. Cole.

Record number A99492632 Student Project 14.4 The following are Web Links for further student research. Students could design a survey for sensation seeking, locus of control or learned helplessness by Seligman. The student could write a paper comparing his or her family of origin and whether or not his or her family had issues of internal or external locus of control in the area of parenting practices.

Internet sites for Student Project 14.4: http://psych.fullerton.edu/jmearns/rotter.htm http://shamimkhaliq.50megs.com/Psychology/Personality/rotter.htm http://allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/learned_helplessness.html

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1 Chapter 15: Personality in Perspective

Chapter 15 Personality in Perspective Learning Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Describe the genetic factor.

Analyze the environmental factor.

Define the learning factor.

Illustrate the parental factor.

Describe the developmental factor.

Summarize the consciousness factor.

Understand the unconscious factor.

Lecture Outline I. The Genetic Factor There is increasingly strong evidence that many personality traits or dimensions are inherited. These include: • Eysenck’s dimensions of psychoticism, neuroticism, and extraversion (the latter derived from the work of Jung) • McCrae and Costa’s five-factor model of personality including neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness • Buss and Plomin’s three temperaments of emotionality, activity, and sociability No matter how many inherited traits there may be, however, not even the most ardent proponent of the genetics approach argues that personality can be completely explained by heredity. Whether their genetic predispositions are realized depends on social and environmental conditions, particularly those of childhood.

II. The Environmental Factor Every personality theorist has discussed the importance of the social environment in influencing personality. Adler spoke of the impact of birth order, arguing that personality is influenced by one’s position in the family relative to one’s siblings. Horney believed that the culture and time period in which one is reared shows its effects. She spoke of female inferiority developing from the way females are treated in a male-dominated

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2 Chapter 15

culture.

Allport and Cattell, who inaugurated the trait approach to personality, agreed on the importance of the environment. Allport noted that although genetics supplies the raw material of personality, it is the social environment that shapes the material into the finished product. Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development are innate, but the environment determines the ways in which those genetically based stages are realized.

Maslow and Rogers contended that self-actualization was innate but believed that environmental factors could inhibit or promote the self-actualization need.

The time period in which a person was born and reared can influence his or her personality, such as a study showing those born in the 1980s as a group of people having substantially higher anxiety and neuroticism. One’s job can influence one’s personality.

Those in high-status jobs have higher levels of positive emotionality and lower levels of negative emotionality. Ethnic background and whether one is part of a minority or a majority culture affects such variables as sensation seeking, locus of control, and the need for achievement. Personality can even vary by neighborhood. Children who grow up in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods are more likely to show maladaptive personality tendencies characterized by low resiliency and problem behaviors that can lead to social and emotional problems as they get older (Hart, Atkins, & Matsuba, 2008).

III. The Learning Factor Learning plays a major role in influencing almost every aspect of behavior. Skinner taught people the value of positive reinforcement, successive approximation, superstitious behavior, and other learning variables in shaping what others call personality, but which he described as simply an accumulation of learned responses.

Bandura credited people with the ability to learn through example and vicarious reinforcement. Research has documented that learning influences self-efficacy (Bandura), locus of control (Rotter), learned helplessness, and optimism versus pessimism (Seligman).

IV. The Parental Factor Most theorists have included parental influences on the formation of personality. Adler focused on the consequences for children who feel unwanted or rejected by their parents.

Horney wrote from her own experience about how lack of parental warmth and affection can undermine a child’s security and result in feelings of helplessness.

3 Chapter 15: Personality in Perspective

Allport considered the infant’s relationship with the mother to be the primary source of affection and security, while Cattell saw infancy as the major formative period, with the behavior of parents and siblings shaping the child’s character. Maslow commented on how necessary it was for parents to satisfy their child’s physiological and safety needs in the first two years of life, while Rogers spoke of the parents’ responsibility for supplying unconditional positive regard to their children.

Parental behaviors can determine, or undermine, specific aspects of personality, such as self-efficacy, locus of control, and learned helplessness or optimism, and subjective wellbeing. Parental behaviors can influence sensation seeking, and uncaring and punitive parents could stifle the emergence of inherited traits such as extraversion, sociability, agreeableness, and openness to experience.

There is a great deal of evidence showing that children of parents who are described as authoritative (that is, warm but firm in their child-rearing practices) are more competent and mature than children of parents described as permissive, harsh, or indifferent. A study of adolescents in Singapore found that those whose parents were authoritative had greater confidence in their abilities and were better adjusted socially than those whose parents were authoritarian (strict, harsh, and demanding obedience).

A major controversy erupted in the late 1990s when it was suggested that parental behaviors have no long-term effects on their child’s personality outside the home.

Researchers who subscribe to the primacy of genetic factors in personality also tend to reject or minimize the parental effect, suggesting that the family environment contributes little to personality.

V. The Developmental Factor Freud believed that personality was shaped and fixed by the age of 5 and that it was difficult after that to change any aspect of it. Research suggests that people’s basic foundation of enduring personality dispositions remains stable over many years.

However, some research shows that the factors of neuroticism, extraversion, and openness decline from college age to middle age, whereas the factors of agreeableness and conscientiousness increase with age.

Many psychologists believe that personality change in adulthood is rooted in social and environmental influences and in the adaptations we make to them. Changes in economic circumstances, leaving college, marriage and parenthood, divorce, job loss or advancement, midlife crises, aging parents—all create problems to which adults must adjust.

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One theorist suggested that personality can be described on three levels: • Dispositional traits, which are inherited traits that remain stable and relatively unchanging from age 30 on.

• Personal concerns that refer to conscious feelings, plans, and goals, and • Life narratives, which involve shaping the self, attaining an identity, and finding a unified purpose in life.

VI. The Consciousness Factor Almost every personality theory in the chapter has described conscious (cognitive) processes. Freud and Jung focused on the unconscious but still addressed the ego or conscious mind that perceives, thinks, feels, and remembers, enabling people to interact with the real world. Allport believed those who are not neurotic will function in a conscious, rational way, aware of and in control of the forces that motivate them. Maslow also recognized the role of consciousness when he proposed cognitive needs to know and to understand. Kelly argued that people form constructs about their environment and other people, they make predictions (anticipations) about them based on these constructs.

Bandura believed that people have the ability to learn through example and vicarious reinforcement. There is widespread agreement that consciousness exists and is an influence on personality.

VII. The Unconscious Factor Sigmund Freud introduced the notion that thoughts and memories are repressed in the unconscious, and that repression may operate at the unconscious level. Contemporary researchers focus on unconscious cognitive processes and describe them as more rational than emotional. The rational unconscious is often referred to as the non-conscious, to distinguish it from Freud’s unconscious, his so-called dark cauldron of repressed wishes and desires. The obvious conclusion to be drawn from such research is that people can be influenced by stimuli they can neither see nor hear. Studies have shown that the unconscious may have both a rational and an emotional component. Although the unconscious is an ongoing topic in psychology today, many of the personality theorists who followed Freud ignored it.

VIII. Final Comment As seen throughout this course, most aspects of personality also remain mysterious and some are still not fully accessible. The chapter explains the viewpoints of Freud and his concepts of anxiety, the unconscious, and life of fear. Although it is true that enormous

5 Chapter 15: Personality in Perspective

progress has been made in charting personality and detailing the factors that shape it, the challenges of the field remain active and dynamic. Perhaps the question, “What is personality?” is the most important question of all for psychology, for it reflects the attempt to understand ourselves.

Lecture Topics Lecture Topic 15.1: An instructor may lecture on the various factors that influence personality development.

Students could respond by developing a fictitious person who is influenced by these various factors. Each group of students could take a factor, such as the learning factor and discuss how this factor may influence a person across the life span. Each group of students should regard its factor as the most influential of all the factors in personality development for the assignment. This lecture could also be conducted as a debate between different groups and the factors they have chosen. Does the learning factor overlap with other influencing factors? Does each group believe in the genetic factor influencing personality across the age span? How much of a role does culture play later on in life when compared to parenting? Are people “fixed” at birth or at five years of age in their personality, or do they have enough evidence showing that change takes place across the life span?

Student Projects Student Project 15.1 Students may research the different factors that seem to influence personality. Then students could be asked to debate, write a research paper, or discuss about these factors in class. The students could concentrate on a specific factor that they believe contributes most to influencing the personality, such as the genetic or learning factor. Does the parenting factor play a role in a person’s personality later on in life? These factors may be customized around a particular personality theory, such as trait theory. The students may ask whether each of these factors could be influential in the theory of behaviorism, humanism, or in individual personality development.

Internet Site for Student Project 15.1: http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/bigfive.html

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