Foreword and Author’s Note 7
1 2 3
I · The Life of the Buddha 34
II · Subjects other than the Life of the Buddha 54
I N TRO D U C TI O N : TH E B U D D H I S T A RT O F G A N D H A R A 9 S T U PA S A N D R E L I Q UA R I E S 21 S TO N E R E L I E F PA N E L S 33
4
I · Buddha Images 91
II · Bodhisattva Images 104
B U D D H I S T I M AG E S I N S TO N E 89
5 6 7 8
B U D D H I S T I M AG E S I N S T U C CO 123 B U D D H I S T B RO N Z E I M AG E S 147
P O P U L A R D E ITI E S A N D MY TH O LO G I C A L F I G U R E S 165 O B J E C TS O F H O U S E H O L D U S E 185
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Bibliography 209
Index 213
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6 · a ncient india
I N D I A
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1
INTRODUCTION: THE BUDDHIST ART OF GANDHARA
Ancient Gandhara
< Detail of cat. 19
Through the generosity of its benefactors, the Ashmolean Museum holds an extensive collection of Buddhist sculpture from the ancient region of Gandhara, centred in northwest Pakistan. The name Gandhara in antiquity refers to a specific geographical area corresponding to the present-day Peshawar Valley, an agricultural basin bounded on the west and northwest by the Hindu Kush mountain range and on the north and northeast by foothills of the Karakoram mountains. The sculptures and other objects presented in this volume, over 180 in all, originate from a larger cultural area often referred to as ‘greater Gandhara’. In a cultural context, Gandhara refers to a Buddhist school of sculpture that emerged in the early centuries of the current era. This primarily served monastic establishments in the Peshawar Valley, but also extended westward into eastern Afghanistan and the Kabul Valley, eastward into the Taxila and Islamabad regions of Pakistan, and northward into the Swat Valley (fig. 1). The massive mountain ranges, wild rivers, deep fertile valleys and arid plains of the greater Gandhara area were ideally situated at the crossroads of the widely diverse cultural traditions and political developments of the time. Design ideas and techniques that influenced the development of Gandhara sculpture came by way of ancient trade routes that linked China, Central Asia, Iran, the Mediterranean and the Indian subcontinent. Cosmopolitan urban centres grew and prospered in Gandhara as centres of international trade, with many cities supporting large Buddhist monastic complexes. Thus Gandhara sustained a prolific artistic tradition for at least six centuries. The peak of monastic construction and artistic embellishment occurred during the time of the Kushan empire that dominated Central Asia and northern India between the first and fourth centuries ad. But even with the decline of the Kushan dynasty, the arts continued to thrive in Gandhara for at least another two centuries.
The arts of Gandhara benefited enormously from generous local patronage and readily available markets. Gandhara monasteries served as the intellectual and cultural centres of the time, patronised by monks from wealthy families and lay devotees from the merchant classes, as well as by the Indian nobility and Kushan kings. The Buddhist ideal of merit accumulated by virtuous deeds was without question a primary motivating factor in the proliferation of Gandhara’s artistic activity. The building of a stupa or temple, or the installation of an iconic image, were considered supreme acts of piety that assured the donor happiness in this world while also promising future release from the chain of rebirth. Throughout centuries of monastery construction and expansion in both urban and rural settings, large numbers of sculptures were commissioned in stone, stucco and terracotta, along with works in bronze, gold, silver and ivory. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuan Zang (Hsuantsang), who travelled extensively and visited many Buddhist sites in India in the early seventh century ad, recorded stories and legends about the ancient kingdom of Gandhara as well as the Ashokan and Kushan periods of Buddhist history. He described impressive statuary in bronze and precious metals, praised the generous patronage that had occurred during the Kushan period and noted the role in the growth and spread of the Buddhist faith of Kanishka, the most famous Kushan king.1 Gandhara played a particularly important role in the history of the image of the Buddha in human form. Although the dates and locations continue to be debated, art forms that included images of the Buddha in human form apparently emerged during the first century ad. The development of this iconic imagery had been preceded by a period in which the Buddha was represented symbolically, in the form of footprints, the Bodhi tree, the Dharma wheel, the conch shell or an Buddhist Art of Gandhara · 9
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Figs. 2–5: Kushan coin deities Fig. 2 | Heracles crowning himself. Copper coin of Huvishka (BM 1989,0105.55; © Trustees of the British Museum) Fig. 3 | Oesho. Kushan sky and mountain god, his iconography drawn from Greek Heracles and Indian Shiva (BM 1888,1208.532; © Trustees of the British Museum)
empty throne. Gandhara was not alone in developing images of the Buddha in human form. Far to the south, in Mathura, another important school of sculpture developed a Buddhist art in its own regional style, dating from before the Kushan era and continuing for centuries after. Mathura art reveals a kinship and influence from the earliest pre-iconic Buddhist art found in India, especially in monastery sites located at Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati. In about the first century in both Mathura and Gandhara, new developments in artistic representation led to the appearance of images of the Buddha in human form. The subsequent popular acceptance of such images facilitated a major conceptual leap in artistic expression that contributed to revolutionary changes in India’s religious art. Scholars debate to this day whether Gandhara or Mathura was the first to introduce a Buddha image. The weight of evidence suggests that in the early stages the Mathura and Gandhara schools of sculpture in fact influenced each other, and it is probable that both developed their respective Buddha imagery and iconography simultaneously. Early historical reports of Gandhara are found in Persian inscriptions dating to the time of the Achaemenid empire in the sixth century bc. In an inscription of 519 bc Darius I, the third Achaemenid emperor, claims possession of Gandhara as the eastern most province in the empire. But the Achaemenids apparently did not exercise absolute control, because around the same period young men from royal houses throughout India were sent to the city of Taxila in Gandhara to finish their education. The city was reputed to be a magnet for scholars, with students from all social classes drawn to the city for instruction in the Vedas and ‘the eighteen branches of knowledge’.2 The records of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Achaemenid empire in the fourth century bc reveal that the Macedonian king marched across a mountain pass in the Hindu Kush with 50,000 men and advanced
ultimately to the Indus river. In this easternmost reach of his conquest, Alexander was met with fierce resistance in Gandhara. After Alexander’s death in 323 bc, Gandhara remained for a short time under the control of one of his officers, Seleucus, but in 305 bc Gandhara and other Central Asian areas were ceded to the Indian king Chandragupta, founder of the Mauryan dynasty. Indian influence in Gandhara continued under the expansion of the Mauryan empire undertaken by Chandragupta’s famous grandson Ashoka (273–232 bc). According to Buddhist legend, tens of thousands of monasteries were built in India during Ashoka’s reign. The archaeological and numismatic evidence reveals, however, that Ashoka’s presence in Gandhara was relatively limited. Only a few Buddhist monasteries have been found that predate the first century ad. After Ashoka’s death, displaced Hellenised Bactrians from northern Afghanistan occupied Gandhara until about 90 bc. Control then passed to the Shakas (Scythians), who united with Iranian Parthians to dominate Gandhara for about 150 years. Shaka and Parthian rule brought in Mithraic, Vedic and Zoroastrian religious traditions that proved to have substantial influence on the next wave of Central Asian tribes that entered into Gandhara, the Yuezhi nomadic predecessors of the Kushan dynasty.3
The Kushan era
W
The Kushan state that emerged between the first and fourth centuries ad was particularly successful in encompassing a complex mixture of ethnic and cultural groups spread over the vast territory of Central Asia and northern India. A great flourishing of creative activity occurred during the entire Kushan period, generated in part by profound developments in the philosophy of India’s three major religions: Jains, Hindus and Buddhists all began to produce images of their deities or saviour figures during this period. In Gandhara, Buddhism was probably the most active religion at the time for the population as a whole, but numismatic
10 · Introduction
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1 Miniature torana
left to right Fig. 17 | Distribution of the Relics (Peshawar Museum 2043, courtesy Abdul Samad) Fig. 18 | Transportation of the Relics (Islamabad Museum ID 53, photo: David Jongeward) Fig. 19 | Worship of the Stupa (BM 1902,1002.29; © Trustees of the British Museum)
Gandhara c.first century ad Ivory h. 3.4 cm, w. 4.3 cm EA1994.39 Gift of Professor Samuel Eilenberg
This is an ivory fragment of a miniature torana, a gateway to a stupa. It consists of two pillars and three architraves, two of which extend beyond the pillars and end in scrolling volutes. To the right between the architraves is a pair of bordered rosettes. A portrait bust of a bearded male figure appears within an arched canopy over the top architrave. Although it is hard to be certain, this fragment may have been a component of a miniature stupa of the Sanchi type. The torana appears to be generally modelled after the massive and elaborate stone gateways which face the four directions around the Great Stupa at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh, a monastic complex built in about the first century bc to the first century ad. The surprising inclusion of a bust figure is not a feature found in the Sanchi
toranas and suggests that this fragment is almost certainly of Gandhara origin. Why an enigmatic, classical-style portrait bust is present in this context is unclear, but similar images of a bearded male figure are commonly found in Gandhara panel reliefs. Perhaps the figure represents, for example, the Buddha’s constant companion Vajrapani, who frequently appears in panel reliefs (cats. 15, 16 and 19). This bust figure is also very similar to an image in a British Museum panel that shows Vajrapani overlooking the emaciated Bodhisattva as he undertakes austerities during his search for enlightenment.1
1 Zwalf 1996, no. 181.
Buddhist Art of Gandhara · 23
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2 Miniature stupa with winged lions
Gandhara First–second centuries ad Gilded bronze h. 14.5 cm with tenon, w. 8.3 cm (max.) EA1993.8 Purchased with the assistance of the Neil Kreitman Foundation to commemorate the Keepership of Dr J. C. Harle Published: Pandermales ed., 1997, no. 154; Topsfield 1998, pp. 274–5.
This unique miniature stupa is solid cast in one piece and gilded. The stupa’s base, drum and hemispherical dome are intact, but a superstructure normally comprising a harmika, mast and umbrellas is missing; its former presence is suggested by a rounded aperture at the top that was probably a slot for a mast tenon. The dome and cylindrical drum sit on a square stepped base, supported at each corner by stout, snubnosed lions with incised voluted wings on their shoulders that suggest a possible Parthian model. The curved underside of the base, the lions’ extended forelegs and a long tenon suggest the stupa originally rested on a curved base into which the object was inserted, possibly as a column finial. The lions are oriented to the four directions, recalling Ashokan columns with lion capitals and, from Gandhara, a miniature stupa with lion capitals.1 Its condition shows some wear and minor denting and scraping. The aperture at the top is now filled with a composite material of modern origin.
1 Jongeward et al. 2012, p. 76, fig. 3.27.
24 · Stupas and reliquaries
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66 Half-figure of the Buddha
Gandhara, possibly Charsadda or Swat Valley, c.Fifth century ad Grey schist h. 11.8 cm, w. 7 cm, d. 3.1 cm EA1962.47 Gift of Major P. C. Hailey
This fragmentary half-figure, broken above the waist, portrays a slim standing Buddha, his head surrounded by a halo marked with coarse, curving grooves. From a straight hairline, the hair is arranged in concentric curves; these continue into an ushnisha that is somewhat off-centre and leaning to the right. The hands are raised in dharmachakra mudra, the teaching gesture that signifies the setting in motion of the wheel of the Dharma, or Buddhist doctrine (cat. 63). The eyes are heavy-lidded and bulging, the mouth a straight line with virtually no lips. A garment with minimal folds drapes across the body from the left shoulder, leaving the right shoulder and arm bare. Joinery marks at the neck indicate that the head has been repaired at some earlier time. Although very worn, the sculpture reveals certain distinctive characteristics. In addition to the dharmachakra mudra, a hairstyle shown as concentric curves is extremely rare in Gandhara stone images. It is found in a few examples of bronze Buddha images from Afghanistan and Swat Valley that date from the fourth century to as late as the seventh century (cat. 129). Because such bronze images most likely derive from Gandhara stone sculpture models, this half-figure most probably dates from about the fifth century. According to old museum records, it is said to have come originally from Charsadda.
98 · Buddhist images in stone
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67 Head of the Buddha
Swat Valley First–second centuries ad Dark grey schist h. 28 cm, w. 18 cm, d. 13 cm EAOS.2 Gift of Rev W. E. Carless, 1928
The long oval head and the hairstyle are features that markedly distinguish this image from the heads of the Buddha that follow (cats. 68–71). The hair is comprised of multi-strand curling locks which undulate into one another and gather in a tall, broad ushnisha, drawn in at the base and tied with a twisted, two-strand cord. The narrow forehead is framed by a straight hairline and a nearly flat, unbroken eyebrow line. The large eyes are open, deeply set with heavy lids and clearly incised circles and point for the iris and pupil. The prominent nose is pointed, with flared nostrils. The thick moustache is treated similarly to the hair with multistrand curls. The mouth is small, with a narrow upper lip curving onto the lower. The cheeks are somewhat hollowed, the chin pointed and jutting. The right ear is intact and the left ear broken at the top; neither possesses the characteristic extended elongation found in most Gandhara Buddha images. A faint incised circle on the forehead is an urna mark. Reported to have been excavated in the Swat Valley, this head is most likely from a full-figure image. The tall oval shape and the treatment of hair, eyes and ushnisha link it with early Butkara images from the Swat Valley.1 Certain features of this head, including the stone type, might conceivably be taken as calling into question its authenticity. But it is accepted here that the head is genuine, primarily because of the circumstances of its acquisition in the early twentieth century, not a period notorious for the production of Gandhara fakes. The use of a stone block with pronounced crystalline inclusions, together with the rather crude rendering, suggest an amateurish local atelier at work without sufficient oversight. The head is clearly in the style of
early Swat Valley work, with which it can be readily compared. Broken at the neck, the head has suffered facial damage at the lower right side. It has been cut cleanly to leave a flat back; nothing remains of a former halo.
1 Cf. Faccenna and Taddei 1962, vol.1, pls.CXIV, CXVI, CCXXXIX.
Buddhist Art of Gandhara · 99
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130 Back-plate in the form of a flaming halo
Swat Valley Sixth–seventh centuries ad Bronze h. 11.4 cm, w. 10.2 cm, d. 0.4 cm EA1995.27a – b
Now broken in two pieces, this back-plate for a bronze Buddha image is said to have been found in Swat. It consists of a doublerimmed halo with an inner pearl or bead circle and a solid line border, both within radiating arcs of flames. The flame circle culminates in an elongated stupa form with banners flying at both sides and a circle on top (compare cat. 128). A number of bronze images from Sahri Bahlol in Pakistan of standing Buddha figures in the Gandhara style have highly complex back-plates; these comprise both a halo surrounding the head and an aureole around the body, with radiating spokes culminating in a ‘pearl-and-oval’ motif. The simplified style – featuring a circle of flames topped by a miniature stupa structure, as shown here – contrasts with the Sahri Bahlol examples; it is associated with styles developed in Swat Valley bronzes, attributed in some cases to as late as the ninth or tenth century.1
1 Cf. von Schroeder 1981, no. 12E; Errington and Cribb 1992, nos. 210–11; Behrendt 2007, nos. 58–9.
156 · Buddhist BRONZE images
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131 Bodhisattva Maitreya
Swat Valley Fifth–sixth centuries ad Bronze h. 12.7 cm, w. 4 cm, d. 3.8 cm EA2013.39 Bequest of Douglas and Mary Barrett
This cast bronze image, in outstanding if slightly worn condition, portrays the Bodhisattva Maitreya standing in a relaxed pose with bare feet on a lotus blossom pedestal.1 His head is surrounded by a halo which is double-rimmed, with a solid groove and a circle of dots. The webbed right hand is raised, the palm turned towards the body in namaskara mudra, a beckoning or greeting gesture. From a high hairline, the locks fall abundantly onto the shoulders, with a horizontal hair loop at the top bound around the middle. The head is a tall oval and the face rather elongated, with features now indistinct, primarily from wear. The large, open eyes appear under edged eyebrow lines that curve onto a broad nose without a bridge. There is no sign of an urna mark. The slim body is modelled with slightly raised breast areas, partially outlined by a double set of curving grooves, a clearly drawn waistline and the navel in a rounded abdomen. The right leg is bent at the knee with the bare foot pointing outwards, placing the weight of the body on the straight left leg. An occasional Gandhara predilection for clinging, transparent garments is retained here, with the folds of an outer garment (uttariya) falling from the left shoulder, passing over the forearm and reaching across the body to curve around the right thigh. A belted dhoti is knotted in the middle; end ties hang between the legs and folds are rendered in paired grooves. One of Maitreya’s key attributes, a small water pot said to contain the elixir of life and promise of salvation for the future, is cupped in the palm of the left hand. Both hands are somewhat oversized. The image is cast in the round, with the garment detail continuing on the back. The jewellery is characteristic of Gandhara Bodhisattva stone imagery,
including the ear ornaments, double-strand necklace and bracelets. The lotus pedestal, which also recalls Gandhara stone examples, is comprised of a narrow, rectangular plate, set on a lotus base with doubly outlined petals. The concave mid-section
of the back has a partial hole, possibly for original mounting purposes.
1 Cf. Czuma 1985, no. 119.
Buddhist Art of Gandhara · 157
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154 Tray with Nereids riding sea monsters
Gandhara First century bc–first century ad Grey schist diam. 13.7 cm, d. 1.8 cm EA 1996.82 Published: Pandermales 1997, no. 154; Topsfield 1998, pp. 272–3; Boardman 2015, pl. xxxviii
Two young female figures, with arms and legs covered by fishy scales, are mounted on confronted sea dragons. Their hair is pulled back in vertical strands. Both figures appear excited, with wide open, alert eyes. Each hangs onto the neck of her mount with one arm, while holding a bowl or cup in the other hand. The sea dragons confront each other with entwined forelegs and upturned heads, their eyes bulging and jaws open, showing rows of tiny teeth. The fleshy and scaly bodies have horny spines and are twisted into coiled loops. The tails, by contrast, are marine-like. A stylised leaf pattern fans out in the lower half of the tray. The scene is bordered by a flat rim with cross-hatching design. If the trays were used in households for cosmetic purposes, as is often proposed, the incised lines may have been a device allowing for adherence of powders. However, the lack of signs of wear on many trays such as this one suggest that they were not regularly used, but rather prized as a luxury household item. The scratched and lightly chipped reverse is slightly convex, with a thinly etched rectangle and a horizontal line. This female figure type is generally interpreted as a Gandhara version of the Nereids, sea nymph attendants to the god Poseidon. Their mounts are most likely a version of the Greek ketos, a sea monster associated with the afterlife, which also appears in the myths of Heracles and Perseus. A Nereid riding a ketos is one of the most frequently found themes displayed on the Gandhara trays.1 Depictions of the mounted figure holding a wine cup are common, and a version depicting the rider apparently feeding the dragon from a bowl or cup has also been found (cat. 155); both
are traceable to Parthian reinterpretations of Hellenistic themes.2 This tray may be unique in portraying two mounted figures in near-symmetrical balance, both covered in fish-like scales.
1 Cf. Czuma 1985, p. 151, no. 70; Lerner and Kossak 1991, no. 20; Behrendt 2008, p. 8; Pons 2011, pp. 157–8. 2 Pons 2011, pp. 157–8; see also Boardman 1987, pp. 73–84.
188 · Objects of household use
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155 Tray with Nereid riding a sea monster
Gandhara, Bannu District, Akra First century bc–first century ad Terracotta diam. 13 cm, d. 1.5 cm EAX.260 Gift of Mr A. G. Ray Published: Harle 1987, pp. 645–6, fig. 6
A fully clothed female figure leans back, riding astride a sea dragon. She holds a bowl or cup in her extended right hand that almost touches the sea dragon’s snout. The long, fleshy body of the sea dragon twists in coiled loops; it has horny spines and a scaly fish tail. The head, with a long spiral fin, is turned around towards the rider, the jaws open as if about to be fed from the bowl. Both rider and dragon appear comparatively calm in contrast to the excited figures in the previous tray (cat. 154). Gandhara terracotta trays such as this are extremely rare, but the Hellenistic theme of the Nereid and ketos is frequently found on stone trays. The dragon’s body creates a division between the tray’s upper relief and a lower section, decorated simply with striated lines that appear to emanate from the dragon’s belly. The tray has a double-banded rim with rather crude modelling. A break across the lower third of the tray has been mended with an old repair. On the reverse an old and damaged label, written by hand, reads: ‘Found in the Ak … M…s B…’ This most likely refers to the Akra Mounds in Bannu.
Buddhist Art of Gandhara · 189
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180 Lion head handle
181 Square plaque or seal with geometric pattern
Probably Gandhara First–second centuries ad Stone h. 4.7 cm, w. 4.7 cm, d. 1.6 cm EA2006.179 Gift of E. M. Scratton
This square, flat, stone plaque has a diamond-within-square motif surrounded by a bordered scrolling vine pattern. It was collected by the donor in the Northwest Frontier region in the 1930s. The stone shows a colouration change from dark to light, and appears similar to a stone type commonly used in the Swat Valley. A lug is retained on the heavily scratched flat back. Geometric patterning is found in a variety of applications in Gandhara art,
including border design for panel reliefs, pedestal design for full-figure icons and in trays. The function of this stone square is unclear. It may have been used as an ornament attachment, or possibly as a seal, although Gandhara seals are generally small, made of semi-precious stone and include stylised animal or mythological figures of Hellenistic style.1 The surface shows some soil incrustation, chipping and scratching.
1 Compare a similar sized copper plate, in Marshall 1951, III, pl. 185, no. 395.
Gandhara First–fourth centuries ad Bronze h. 5.1 cm, w. 5.3 cm, d. 4.4 cm EA1998.3 Anonymous gift
While its worn condition contributes to an appearance of being rather crudely moulded, the design of this bronze fitting is in the form of a stylised lion head. It most probably served as a chest or furniture fitting, bearing a ring handle in the mouth. There are roughly circular openings at top and bottom, as well as oblong openings on the sides. The piece is most likely modelled after lion head chest fittings, commonly known from Roman examples. A wide range of dates can apply to such ornamental pieces from Gandhara, from the first to fourth centuries ad.
Buddhist Art of Gandhara · 207
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208 · Objects of household use
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214 · INDEX
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