TURKMEN CARPETS THE NEVILLE KINGSTON COLLECTION Elena Tsareva
Arnoldsche Art Publishers
Introduction
Since the early twentieth century publications on Turkmen carpets have been arranged according to tribes and oases. Typically the first to be represented are the Southern Turkmenistan groups of the Salor, Saryk and Tekke. Next come the Yomut and other Aralo-Caspian groups, including the Chodor and the Arabachi. Last in line is the variety of the Middle Amu Darya weavings. While no one had ever defined the three major historical-cultural-territorial zones we now recognise the amazing knowledge and artistic sensibility of General A.A. Bogolubov and his main collaborator, the ethnographer Captain F.A. Mikhailov, the authors of the 1908 album Carpets of Central Asia, in outlining the framework for future territorial classification. One reason for still following the classical order of presenting Turkmen carpets in this book is a wish to underline the characteristic features and individuality of tribal items. The state of our knowledge has changed surprisingly little since the beginning of the twentieth century and both scholars and connoisseurs of Turkmen carpets still strive to understand the traditions that stand behind the clear differences between the products of various groups. What has changed is our understanding of the structural components of Turkmen weavings and the importance of technical peculiarities for the identification of their place of origin and time of manufacture. That new knowledge is so important that we can divide the history of the study of the phenomenon into ‘pre-knot counting’ and ‘knot counting’ periods, as modern scholars pay special attention to structural description of the rugs. But as we know, every stick has two ends. In our case, the more we know about structures, the more complicated the picture of the art of the Turkmen carpet becomes. Hopefully, armed with new technology, the next generation of textile researchers will sort out the enormous mass of data on the subject compiled during the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, and succeed better than we have in introducing the knotted pages of human civilisation to a broad public.
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Introduction
7
Turkmen carpets of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries duction
The study of the history of carpets has many aspects. One of these, of great help in tracing the elements that constructed and shaped carpet weaving traditions in general is a well known but often forgotten notion—that nothing ever disappears from our culture. This fact stands stands behind the spiritual traditions and cultural heritage of mankind, no matter how many and how different later additions and developments are. The narrative character of Turkmen carpet ornaments has been well understood and often spoken about by specialists in the field over the course of more than a hundred years of study of Turkmen piled weavings. However, the sole major published work on the origin and meaning of Turkmen carpet imagery, remains Valentina G. Moshkova’s research on gols as tribal markers (1946, 1970), together with articles by Hans Konig (1980), Robert Pinner (1980), and myself (Tsareva 2004, 2005, 2011, 2012), as well as an interesting 2005 paper by Peter Hoffmeister devoted to a particular variant of a tree-shaped kelleh motif in the elems of Turkmen chuvals. Other works touching on carpet ornamentation usually discuss pattern variations, but do not trace the genesis or semantic meaning of the motifs under consideration. But it is only the historical approach that makes it possible to systematise chronologically the enormous variety of Turkmen carpet motifs and structures, and use them as a source for the attribution of the rugs. Decorated pottery is the material medium that carries most of the early data that helps us to trace the history of the formation of that variety. It is through the simple imagery of the primary ornaments of the Neolithic period that we can follow the creation of stable archetypes for some carpet patterns. Although the processes of transformation and ideoadaptation of early motifs started in deep antiquity, such early motifs are easily identified due to the ‘conservation’ of their primary identification marks, which remained unchanged in spite of later complications, simplifications, or the syncretism of initial subjects and their derivations. Although most of these millennia-old patterns have, over time, lost their original meanings and names, a very few still keep both recognisable primary shapes and their initial names, handed from weaver to weaver from generation to generation despite historic and linguistic changes. They include terms such as ak su, darvaza, kelleh and others terms used in the descriptions that follows. The most beautiful ode to Turkmen carpets as historical texts was penned by Nikolai F. Burdukov, an expert and lover of Oriental textiles, in his elegant 1904 essay ‘Carpets of Turkestan’. He
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Turkmen Carpets
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9
remain unclear. We can only suppose that the arrangement of the motifs and the red colour of central field follow an idea first represented in Achaemenian times in the Pazyryk carpet. Other elements – the Kufesque main border, the hamtoz guard stripes, and the enclosing outer border, complete the image of the carpet as an embodiment of the tribal idea. This precisely formulated and strictly observed set of markers was highly valued and clearly understood by the producers of tribal carpets, and the supposed spectators, although for anyone not acquainted with the meanings and explicit formula represented it remained an ‘interweave of lines’. The artistic and structural characteristics of both Salor carpets give us information on the tribe’s conditions of life, status, trade relations, carpet weaving skills, and other matters. One example should suffice to illustrate the level of information to be found in seemingly minor peculiarities. It concerns the structure of the Z4S plied threads, which is usually explained as a wish to make yarns thicker, but without saying why. Examination of the threads suggests two reasons. In one case (cat.1), I believe that the crimson wool yarn, probably purchased, was fine in comparison to that hand-spun by the craftswoman herself, so to avoid imbalance she doubled the number of threads plied together. In second case (cat.2) the weaver wanted to use an additional shade of red, so plied together Z2 red and Z2 carmine yarns to produce a special shade, better seen with a lens. Although very close in pattern and technique, Neville Kingston’s two Salor main carpets have notable differences in proportion and in shades of red ground colour. The first is noticeably longer than wide, and has a deep, cold ground colour. The second has a rather squarish shape and a cherry-red tint to the ground colouring. It is thanks to these small gradations that we can identify the place of production of the items: the cold deep red of the first corresponds to the tribe’s prior presence at the Akhal Oasis, while the softer tones of the second are linked to to the Merv Oasis tradition. It is also thanks to the colouring that we can date both pieces to the late eighteenth century, as in the early nineteenth century the tribe lived in the Serahks Oasis, known for darker, less clear shades of red, while earlier Balkhan area products show purple-red tints. It should be emphasised that here I speak only about the ground colour, as the Salor palette can contain up to 18 shades of red. If we are to refine the relative dating more exactly, there are some artistic and technical reasons to put (cat.1) slightly earlier. Here we touch on a delicate point, which concerns simple but necessary rules for assigning a carpet’s cultural origin, date and place of manufacture. In order to get correct information one should make a very close examination of both explicit and implicit
Fig.4a. Detail
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fig. 8
fig. 8a
arches extends to the images of vertical creatures inside the arches. The similarity cannot be accidental, so the question arises as to whether the darvaza ‘gates’ inspired the kejebe composition, or vice versa? Or perhaps there is another possibility: both designs could be derived from a common Western Central Asian archetype, which we also see on Hellenistic period ossuaries, and on the
Fig.8. cat.44 Image of wedding caravan representation on a youmut
(fig.11). It is commonly described by archaeologists as a ‘vertical tree-shaped’ motif, that connects
group asmalyk, with figure of camel
the figure with the world of plants, so the Turkmen term ‘forty branches’ can be seen as an echo of
and kejebe litter. Fig 8a. Detail of Yomut group asmalyk
an ancient concept of kyrk shoh as a female family tree’. Found on metal and wood artefacts of the early nomads, including the ‘Pazyryk’ peoples,
traditional zardevor, long embroidered wall hangings, of the settled population of Maverannahr
Fig.9. Detail drawing of the Çatal
over time the image developed into one of the most common and popular motifs among the no-
in Uzbekistan. Put together, this data speaks for an ancient origin for the ‘row of arches’ composi-
Hüyük sanctuary wall painting. After
madic Turkic population of the Great Steppes and beyond. In carpets its shape was determined by
tion, whose roots may go as far back as the Neolithic period Çatal Hüyuk wall paintings from Asia Minor, in which we also see a deity figure inside the arch (fig.9). On balance, the known data suggests that the question of primacy should be resolved for the kejebe as a prototype. In this context, it is evident that the Zoroastrian Magi or priests who were probably the creators of the darvaza composition clearly understood the lofty meaning of
Mellaart following spread
knotting technique peculiarities, and the general pattern concept of double-mirror-image sym-
Fig.10. Cat. 5 Torba tent bag, with
metry. The process of formation was accompanied by adding motifs of different genesis, so that
kyrk shoh pattern. 120 x 46 cm
the ‘horned’ figure includes the central eight-pointed star element of Eneolithic agrarian origin.
(maximum). South Turkmenistan, Merv oasis. Salor. Not later than
The borders combine a typically pastoralist sekme main border with pan-Eurasian chakmak guard
early 18th century.
both its elements, and combined them to make a beautiful and expressive visual rrepresentation of one of mankind’s most complicated cosmological ideas. Mention of the Magi emphasises the fact that these compositions belong to the pre-Islamic strata of images. Further, it is impossible that any weaver, no matter how skilled, could invent an image with the complex semantic content and drawing seen in the darvaza motif. There is little doubt that these and other equally complex motifs were the invention of high ranked priests and scholars of the time, in much the same way as happened both earlier and later at the courts of the kings, emirs and sultans of the carpet weaving countries of both East and West. We continue with a masterpiece torba or tent bag, with 5 х 2 rows of kyrk shoh motifs (Turkmen-Persian ‘forty horns, branches’), also known in literature as the dyrnak (‘horned’) or ‘Memling’ gol (fig.10-cat.5). Apparently simple, the motif belongs to a strata of imagery derived from the ‘female family tree’ symbols depicted on pan-Eurasian rock carvings from Mongolia to France
fig. 9
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fig. 10
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fig. 11
stripes, a gochak upper band (a Turkmen favourite), and other elements, all perfectly combined into a harmonious work of art. The origin of the hexagonal shemle lattice enclosing complex mutated anthropomorphic motifs is not clear (fig.12-cat 6). Equally useless for identification of the pattern is its local name, meaning ‘extended’ in Turkmen. This is most probably a misrepresented loan word. Of more help is comparison with the South Caucasian gabystan (‘place of idols’) composition, which clearly shows the anthropomorphic character of the figures within the lattice [Tsareva 2000: 240]. On Turkmen soil the most accurate representation of this motif is in the hexagonal ‘faces’ of the vertical figures within the darvaza and kejebe compositions. This comparison confirms the anthropomorphic character of the image and puts it into the class of sacred motifs. Comment on this beautifully made masterpiece would be incomplete without observing that, alas, it has been chemically washed at some time in its history. Although we often say that nothing can spoil beauty, it has been somewhat spoiled, as the colour balance of the wool and silk fibres of the pile is distorted. This colour distortion means that we cannot properly identify either the place or date of manufacture of the piece, as colour shades are one of the basic tools for attributing textiles. Although it is dry and the pile yarns are corroded, the knots of are firmly embedded in their ‘nests’ and do not fall off, due to the even thickness of the high quality yarns used. This and other technical details make it possible to date the bag to the eighteenth century, although seeing the original colours would have helped to identify the bag more exactly. The last Salor item to discuss is a refined torba, with the ak su (Turkmen, ‘white/sweet water’) composition (fig.13-cat.7), which is practically a twin to an example in the Bogolubov Collection at the Ethnographic Museum in St Petersburg [REM 87-16; Tsareva 1984, fig.11]. The special
figs. 12, 13
Fig,11. Drawings of ‘Female Family Tree’
Fig. 12. Cat. 6 Torba tent bag, with shemle
petrographs. After Novgorodova 1989
pattern. 99 x 40 cm maximum. South Turkmenistan, Salor. Not later than 18th century. Fig.13. Cat. 7 Torba tent bag, with ak su pattern. 132 x 47,5 cm. South Turkmenistan, Salor. Not later than early 19th century.
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Turkmen Carpets
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Kingston Collection: General Catalogue
SARYK
(corroded), ivory. Natural dyes. Finish: sides – cut, no original finish; top – no original finish; bottom – cut.
Cat. 6 [tag 120] Torba, tent bag, with shemle pattern. 99 × 40 cm (maximum) South Turkmenistan, Salor
SOUTH TURKMENISTAN SALOR
Cat. 4
No later than 18th century
Torba or mafrash, tent bag, with kejebe pattern. ?
Warp: wool, ivory, Z2S.
?× ? cm
Weft: two shoots; wool; dark brown; Z2S, loose.
South Turkmenistan, Serakhs Oasis, Salor
Pile: wool, silk, cotton, camel hair; Z2S, Z3S. Pile faces up.
18th century (?)
Pile height (mm): 0, corroded wool and silk; 2, blue
Warp: wool, ivory, Z2S, fine.
scale and brown; otherwise, 1–1.5.
Weft: two shoots; wool; brown, of different shades;
Knot: as open left, depressed, ‘small knots’.
Z2S, fine.
Knot count: 2.976–3.886 knots/sq. dm.
Cat. 8
Pile: wool, silk; Z2S. Pile loops up.
Colours (10): purple, cherry (side elem), dark claret
Haly, main carpet. 157–168 × 234 cm
Pile height: 2 mm maximum.
(Z3S), crimson (silk, corroded), yellow (camel hair),
South Turkmenistan, Merv Oasis, Saryk
Knot: as open left, strongly depressed.
orange, dark green-blue, dark sky blue, dark blue,
Late 18th century
Knot count: 2,640–3,400 knots/sq. dm.
olive-brown (faded), white (cotton, thick). Natural
Warp: wool; ivory; Z2S.
Colours (7): two shades of cherry-red, yellow, dark
dyes.
Weft: two shoots; wool; light-brown mix; Z2S.
Iranian-red, two shades of orange-red (Z2S and Z3S),
otherwise, 5.
green-blue, dark blue, olive-brown, ivory.
Finish: sides – no original finish; top – purple and ivory
Pile: wool; Z2S.
orange, emerald green/green-blue, sky blue, dark
Knot: AS, open left, depressed.
Natural dyes.
tabby, damaged, was folded over to the front and
Pile height: 3 mm (olive-brown); otherwise 2–2.5 mm
blue, black-brown (corroded), ivory. Natural dyes.
Knot count: 2,100–3,478 knots/sq. dm.
Finish: sides – no original finish; ends – missing.
sewn down; bottom – cut.
(worn out very differently, ivory the shortest).
Finish: sides – no original finish; ends – no original
Colours (14): purple-red, dark purple-red, carmine,
finish, added kilim ends are restoration.
crimson, crimson (silk), red plied with carmine (Z4S),
ornamented central field areas.
bright cherry-red, orange (very little), yellow (silk),
Knot count: 1,750–2,016 knots/sq. dm.
* The average knot density shown here and
dark green-blue/emerald-green, sky, dark blue, dark
Colours (10): two shades deep of cherry, pink-orange,
elsewhere below is the product of multiple vertical
brown (corroded), ivory. Natural dyes.
orange, green-blue, two shades of sky, olive-brown,
and horizontal measurements taken in different
Finish: sides – plaiting ‘in checks’ in green and basic red
chocolate-brown, ivory.
places across each carpet
over side warps, flatweave attached to cut edge;
Finish: sides – no original finish; ends – cut.
Knot: sy, flat; rows of sharing; offset in non-
ends – cut.
Cat. 5
Cat. 7
Torba, tent bag, with kyrk shoh pattern.
Torba, tent bag, with ak su pattern.
120 × 46 cm (maximum)
132 × 47.5 cm
South Turkmenistan, Merv Oasis, Salor
South Turkmenistan, Salor
No later than early 18th century
Not later than early 19th century
Warp: wool; ivory, with some darker fibres; Z2S.
Warp: wool; ivory; Z2S, fine.
Weft: two shoots; wool, dark and light brown mix;
Weft: two shoots; wool; brown mix; Z2S.
Cat. 3
Z2S, loose.
Pile: wool, silk; Z2S, Z4S; Z3S, Z6S. Pile looks up.
Festive tent panel with darvaza pattern.
Pile: wool, silk; camel or goat undercoat hair; Z2S, Z4;
Pile height: light cherry, 3 mm; silk corroded;
Cat. 1.
168 × 62 cm
Z3S (dark cherry, dark sky blue, ivory in particular);
otherwise, 2 mm.
Haly, main carpet, with 6 × 13 Salor-gols.
South Turkmenistan, Salor, violet group
otherwise Z2S.
Knot: as open left, depressed.
? × ? cm
18th–early 19th century
Pile height (mm): 0, light yellow; 2, ivory; 4, dark blue;
Knot count 3,196–4,400 knots/sq. dm.
South Turkmenistan, Akhal Oasis (?), Salor
Warp: wool; ivory; Z2S, excellent quality.
otherwise, 2–3.
Colours (10): purple-red, claret (Z3S, Z6S), crimson
18th century
Cat. 2
Weft: two shoots; wool; light brown; Z2S, fine.
Knot: as open left, depressed.
(silk), light cherry, Iranian red (Z2S, Z4S), sky (Z2S,
Warp: wool, ivory, Z2S, quite fine.
Haly, main carpet, with 6 × 10 Salor-gols.
Pile: wool, silk; Z2S, Z3S.
Knot count: 2,520–3,430 knots/sq. dm.
Z3S), mid-blue, dark blue, black-brown, ivory. Natural
Weft: two shoots; wool, mid-brown, Z2S, fine.
? × ? cm
Pile height (mm): 1, Iranian red (corroded); 3.5, cherry-
Colours (14): purple-red, dark cherry (Z3S),
dyes.
Cat. 9
Pile: wool, silk, Z2S, Z3S, Z4.
South Turkmenistan, Akhal Oasis (?), Salor
red; otherwise, 2–3
light cherry (abrash); crimson (wool, corroded),
Finish: sides – no original finish (all over rewoven); top
Haly, main carpet. ? × ? cm
Pile height (mm): 3–4, crimson silk, black-brown; 5,
18th century
Knot: as open left, slightly depressed.
crimson (silk), orange-red, orange, light yellow
– red and ivory tabby, folded over to the back by
South Turkmenistan, Merv Oasis, Saryk
light red; 6, dark red; 7, cold shades, ivory.
Warp: wool, ivory, Z2S, fine.
Knot count: 3,332–3,920 knots/sq. dm.
(totally corroded), emerald-green, dark green-blue,
restorers and sewn down; traces of original sewn on
Not later than first half 19th century
Knot: AS, open left, depressed.
Weft: two shoots; wool, rust-brown, Z2S.
Colours (13): crimson (Z3S, corroded), crimson (silk,
dark sky (Z2S, Z3S), dark blue, dark olive-brown
band, 2 cm wide; bottom – ivory tabby, folded over to
Warp: wool or hair (?); silver-ivory; Z2S, fine.
Knot count: 2,310–3,432 knots/sq. dm.*
Pile: wool, silk; Z2S, Z4S.
Z2S), Iranian red, cherry-red, light cherry, light rose
(faded), ivory (Z2S, Z3S, camel or goat hair).
the back and sewn down. Remains of cut off fringe,
Weft: two shoots; wool; dark brown and olive-brown;
Colours (12–14): two shades of purple (Z2S and Z3S),
Pile height (mm): 1, crimson silk (corroded); 3, sky blue;
(silk, second bath), off-purple-red (1.8–2mm), yellow,
Natural dyes.
of dark blue colour, on four warps.
Z2S, very loose, hardly any ply.
dark carmine, crimson (Z4, corroded), crimson (silk),
4, crimson wool, dark brown (both corroded);
blue-green, mid-sky-blue, dark blue, dark brown
Finish: sides – no original finish; ends – missing.
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Catalogue
Pile: wool, excellent quality; silk; Z2S, Z3S.
Catalogue
193