New Views of the Middle Ages by ACC Art Books

Contents

NewViews of the Middle Ages: Highlights from the Wyvern Collection Text and photography © 2020 Bowdoin College Book © 2020 Scala Arts Publishers, Inc. First published in 2020 by Scala Arts Publishers, Inc. c/o CohnReznick LLP 1301 Avenue of the Americas 10th floor New York, NY 10019 www.scalapublishers.com Scala – New York – London Distributed outside of Bowdoin College in the book trade by ACC Art Books 6 West 18th Street Suite 4B New York, NY 10011 ISBN 978-1-78551-189-9 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of Bowdoin College and Scala Arts Publishers, Inc. Project managed and edited by Rachel Giles Designed by Jo Ellen Ackerman / Bessas & Ackerman CT, and Adrian Hunt Design, UK All photography by Luc Demers, unless otherwise noted Printed and bound in China

Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data: Names: Gerry, Kathryn B., editor. | Bowdoin College. Museum of Art, organizer, host institution. Title: New views of the Middle Ages : highlights from the Wyvern Collection / edited by Kathryn Gerry. Description: New York : Bowdoin College Museum of Art in association with Scala Arts Publishers, Inc., 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “Medieval art. Wyvern Collection of Medieval and Early Renaissance art, at Bowdoin College Museum of Art, Brunswick, Maine. Examples of metalwork, ceramic, ivory, stone and wood sculpture, panel paintings and illuminated manuscripts from across Europe and Christian community of Ethiopia”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020019638 | ISBN 9781785511899 (casebound) Subjects: LCSH: Art, Medieval--Exhibitions. | Art--Private collections--Exhibitions. | Wyvern Collection--Exhibitions. Classification: LCC N5963.B78 B696 2020 | DDC 709.02/074-dc23 / LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020019638

Foreword...8 Anne Collins Goodyear

Front cover: Venetian Enameled Plate, detail, c.1500 Cat. 26

Portals to the Past for the Students of Today: Teaching with Artworks in the Museum...58 Stephen Perkinson

Back cover: Vermicular Chasse with Saints and the Lamb of God, detail, c.1185 Cat. 7 p.2: Dragon Aquamanile, c.1200 Cat. 6 pp. 4–5: Triptych with the Trinity and Biblical Scenes, detail, c.1500 Cat. 28

Introduction...11 Kathryn Gerry Medieval Art in the Twenty-First Century...14 Kathryn Gerry Medieval Art and Modern Life: Reviving and Re-imagining the Gothic for a New World...40 Ayla Lepine

SELECTED EXHIBITION HIGHLIGHTS...76 EXHIBITION CATALOGUE...102 Introduction...104 The Substance and Craft of Medieval Art...106 Global Networks in the Middle Ages: Looking Beyond Europe...116 Body and Self: Constructing Identity in Medieval Art...128 Bibliography...140 Photographic Credits...142 Index...143

Contents

Foreword...8 Anne Collins Goodyear

Front cover: Venetian Enameled Plate, detail, c.1500 Cat. 26

Portals to the Past for the Students of Today: Teaching with Artworks in the Museum...58 Stephen Perkinson

Introduction...11 Kathryn Gerry Medieval Art in the Twenty-First Century...14 Kathryn Gerry Medieval Art and Modern Life: Reviving and Re-imagining the Gothic for a New World...40 Ayla Lepine

Foreword Anne Collins Goodyear Co-Director, Bowdoin College Museum of Art

Keble-Petre Hours, c.1485, detail (ff 30v) Attributed to the Masters of Adolph of Cleves, and additional hands Cat. 43

This catalogue and the accompanying exhibition exemplify the exciting work to be done through partnerships between museums—particularly those on academic campuses—and private collectors. New Views of the Middle Ages: Highlights from The Wyvern Collection unites the voices of seasoned scholars with the insights of emerging professionals—the Bowdoin students included in seminars dedicated to developing new perspectives on medieval art organized by Visiting Assistant Professor of Art History Kathryn Gerry. As a round-table organized by Professor of Art History and Associate Dean for Academic Affairs Stephen Perkinson attests, the research stimulated by the surprising and provocative objects presented here is not limited to the field of art history, but crosses many disciplines. The tissue that unites these inquiries is, of course, the objects themselves. The works assembled here challenge the long-held assumption that the medieval concerns only European communities and artisans, opening up new vistas into the communication and trade between Europe, the continent of Africa, and lands far to the east of the Mediterranean Basin. Gerry invites the reader, and the viewer, to consider their many histories and the worldviews that have been reflected and shaped by the acts of interpreting and collecting these objects. Ayla Lepine, Assistant Curate, Hampstead Parish Church, London, in turn describes the persistent influence of the medieval in modern and contemporary art—a presence often hidden in plain sight. New Views of the Middle Ages: Highlights from The Wyvern Collection testifies to innovative strategies for organizing, stimulating, and presenting information. The many dimensions of this project have their origins in the inspiration of the work of scholars and artists centuries ago who sought to make manifest intangible ideas in physical substance. Just as the art of the medieval era represented the meeting of visual expression and intellectual concerns, so too do these objects continue to test the boundaries of knowledge, pushing us to reconsider our assumptions anew through their unrelenting materiality. The new perspectives on medieval art presented here grow out of the support and encouragement of many individuals. Above all, the Bowdoin College Museum of Art (BCMA) is grateful to the private collector who has built the Wyvern Collection with an insight and sensitivity that includes sharing these 9

Foreword Anne Collins Goodyear Co-Director, Bowdoin College Museum of Art

Keble-Petre Hours, c.1485, detail (ff 30v) Attributed to the Masters of Adolph of Cleves, and additional hands Cat. 43

works, not only with specialists, but with students. We deeply appreciate the many benefits conferred by the long-term loan that has made possible the extended viewing and teaching opportunities critical to the scholarship presented here. For his longstanding commitment to partnering with the BCMA and for the expertise in medieval studies that has made possible the important loan on which this project is based, we thank Stephen Perkinson. We are grateful to Kathryn Gerry for her leadership of this project and to Ayla Lepine for her contribution to this volume. We recognize with appreciation the many students whose diligence has been vital to this project. The participants in Gerry’s Fall 2019 seminar, ARTH 3370, Medieval Art and the Modern Viewer: Building an Exhibition with the Wyvern Collection—Amanda Banasiak, Claudine Chartouni, Maria McCarthy, Olivia Muro, Camila Papadopoulo, and Brooke Wrubel—authored catalogue entries and many of the labels featured in the exhibition. Several other students also contributed to the exhibition: Grace Clipson, Noah Dubay, James Little, Kate McKee, and Cassidy Pratt. The preparation of this catalogue has benefitted immensely from the generous assistance of colleagues beyond Bowdoin. For their scholarly and curatorial expertise, we thank Marco Aimone, Barbara Boehm, Laura Cleaver, Kristen Collins, Eyob Derillo, Chassica Kirchoff, Genevra Kornbluth, Lisa Mahoney, Griff Mann, and Paul Williamson. We appreciate the generous editorial support offered by Jennifer Norman and Rachel Giles at Scala Arts Publishers, and the careful work of photographer Luc Demers. We thank the numerous colleagues at the BCMA who have supported this undertaking, including Leslie Bird, Sean Burrus, Frank H. Goodyear, Michelle Henning, Jo Hluska, Elizabeth Humphrey, Laura Latman, Alison Martino, and José Ribas. We express our sincere appreciation to Bowdoin College faculty and staff members Margaret Broaddus, Dallas Denery, Jen Edwards, Anne Haas, Martie Janeway, Ayodeji Ogunnaike, Ann Ostwald, Vyjayanthi Ratnam Selinger and Emma Maggie Solberg. As always, we express our appreciation to Dean of Academic Affairs Elizabeth McCormack and President Clayton Rose for their support. Finally, we offer our sincere thanks for the generous support from the Stevens L. Frost Endowment Fund, which has helped make this project possible.

Introduction Kathryn Gerry

New Views of the Middle Ages: Highlights from the Wyvern Collection presents, in the form of an exhibition and this accompanying catalogue, over fifty works of medieval art, including several east African and west Asian pieces alongside European items, from the sixth through the sixteenth centuries. Drawn from the Wyvern Collection, an extraordinary group of objects put together by one of the most influential private collectors active today, many of these works have not yet been on public view. This show is important for several reasons, the most obvious of which is perhaps the quality and variety of the art itself. But equally important is the location of the exhibition, which positions these impressive works outside the urban hubs already well known for the availability of fine art, and instead on the campus of a small, liberal arts college in Maine. The objects in this exhibition present us with direct and tangible links to the past, offering opportunities for the community of Bowdoin College and the larger region to interact with, learn from, and be inspired by these works. In keeping with this setting, which teems with students and scholars working in many different fields, and vibrant communities of makers and viewers eager to find links between themselves and a larger world, the exhibition has been structured around three major themes: the role of specific materials and skills in the creation of medieval art, the fundamental importance of larger global networks in the creation of art in medieval Europe, and the ways in which medieval people used works of art to explore and define their identities and selves. Although individual works have been selected and arranged in order to elucidate these issues, these currents run through the entire exhibition in subtle and polyvalent ways, and relationships can be seen, connections drawn, that interweave these threads and stretch beyond them. As this publication will serve as a lasting record of this endeavor, each of the works included in the show is well documented here. Select highlights of the exhibition have been singled out for more detailed presentation, with catalogue entries authored by Bowdoin students. The participation of these talented emerging professionals in the production of this exhibition and publication is one the most exciting parts of this project, and demonstrates the potential for deep research and experiential learning brought about by direct engagement with works of art and cultural artifacts. 11

Introduction Kathryn Gerry

A broader historical context for these objects, and reflections upon the importance of medieval art and culture today, grow out of the essays and round-table conversation included here. In my own contribution, it has been my goal to provide a brief introduction to the history of medieval art history and a more detailed look at some of the innovative and exciting developments that have helped reshape this area of study in the early twenty-first century. Although no short overview could cover all of the excellent and provocative research offered by medieval art historians in the last twenty years, this sampling aims to demonstrate the breadth and ingenuity of medieval art history today, and its relevance for our understanding of both the distant past and our own present. Ayla Lepine’s contribution explores some of the ways in which medieval art has never really left us. Although we often use the term “Gothic Revival” to describe some of the art and architecture of the seventeenth through twentieth centuries (and, indeed, into the twenty-first), many of the individual works that fall into that category are not so much revivals as continuations and adaptations. Artists, architects, designers, and philosophers have not sought to return to the past, or bring the past as it was to life, but instead have used art and architecture to think through the ways our own world does or could relate to that past. Forms reminiscent of medieval construction are not so much re-created as adapted and pushed in new directions in order to shift our own social and political structures. The round-table conversation presented in this publication was led by Stephen Perkinson, who gathered faculty and Museum of Art staff to explore the role of objects and museums in teaching. We met on a cold winter afternoon to look and talk together, centering the discussion on a small group of works from the Wyvern Collection, and exchanging our thoughts on the importance of teaching with objects, the different ways that students learn when they have direct access to works of art, and the different ways that we teach when we bring students out of the classroom and into the Museum. In closing, it is appropriate to draw attention to the foundational importance of the participation of Bowdoin students in the creation of this exhibition and publication. The loan of objects from the Wyvern Collection is already making an enormous impact in our classrooms, and the comments and insights that students have offered have certainly informed my own thinking and that of my colleagues about these works. Together with my colleagues at the Bowdoin College Museum of Art and the College as a whole, we express our deep appreciation to all who have made this exciting interchange possible. The private collector whose objects make up the core of this exhibition has our particular and heartfelt gratitude. His generosity, of things and ideas, has made possible this amazing exhibition, as well as new and exciting ways of teaching at the College. Inspired by his example, it is to our students—a group of remarkable thinkers and creators—and to those who they will in turn inspire, that we wish to dedicate this volume. 12

Plaque with Christ and Saint Thomas, c.1425–50, detail Workshop of Nicola da Guardiagrele (?) Cat. 10

MEDIEVAL ART IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Kathryn Gerry

Virgin and Child with Musical Angel, c.1500, detail Follower of Hans Memling Cat. 18

The exhibition New Views of the Middle Ages: Highlights from the Wyvern Collection and this accompanying publication are the result of an extraordinary loan, and the start of what promises to be an equally extraordinary opportunity for teaching and research on an undergraduate campus.1 This loan includes over one hundred works of art from one of the most significant private collections of our era. Nearly half of these works are included in this exhibition, offering an unprecedented opportunity for students, faculty, curators, and the public to explore a vibrant and often challenging period in the history of art. When we look closely at the art of medieval Europe, we often find something rather different from what we expect, not quite what we usually think of as “art” and not quite what we usually think of as “medieval.” Many of the works on display in this exhibition have been chosen precisely because they challenge our typical viewpoints and ideas, inviting us to reconsider what we think art might be, and how we think people living in Europe and neighboring regions in the sixth through the sixteenth centuries might have seen and understood the world. The Middle Ages, spanning from the fall of the Roman Empire in Western Europe until the European discovery of the Americas and the Protestant Reformation, roughly 500–1500, contained the seeds of many of the societal structures and cultural and scientific achievements that we consider so fundamental to our modern lives, although we may often overlook these important relationships between past and present. The Wyvern Collection has a great deal to offer to anyone, experts and amateurs alike, interested in unpacking the many histories embedded within the objects it comprises. The art of the Middle Ages, broadly interpreted, was once of notable interest to American collectors in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, attested by the collections of Isabella Stewart Gardner, J.P. Morgan, and Henry Walters, to name but a few.2 But as the US gained political and economic power over the course of the twentieth century, the nation’s own cultural achievements followed a parallel path to prominence, and a wider public understanding of European medieval art and history has waned. This has not been the case in Europe and Great Britain, where the layers of history—ancient, medieval, and modern—are embedded in the architecture and urban structures that continue to define daily life. A major exhibition of medieval art, then, at an American museum, 15

MEDIEVAL ART IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Kathryn Gerry

Virgin and Child with Musical Angel, c.1500, detail Follower of Hans Memling Cat. 18

raises two critical questions. Firstly, is medieval history relevant today? And secondly, does the art of this era have anything to reveal about our collective past or our path forward? This essay argues that the answer to these questions is a resounding “yes,” and in what follows, I will explore the importance of this area of study for the twenty-first century. As art historians identify, explore, and embrace new models for understanding the past and new technologies for revealing and sharing that past, our knowledge of what life was like in the Middle Ages is changing. Particularly within the last two decades, new insights into the materials and techniques used in the period, the trade networks that thrived within and beyond Europe and the Mediterranean, and the ways in which race and gender inflected individual identities are leading us to refine, and in some cases revolutionize, how we view the history of this period and its relevance for present-day audiences. A richer understanding of this pivotal era in history can open new ways for modern viewers to appreciate the artistic achievements of this period, and also new perspectives on some of the key issues that matter to us today. People in the medieval era, like people in the modern world, explored different ways to identify and define themselves and those around them. The ingenuity and variety of their attempts to understand themselves and their roles within a larger world can offer new and often unexpected perspectives. Works from the Wyvern Collection present an exceptional opportunity to explore some of these recent developments in the field of art history, and to reconsider our collective past and present.3 Many art historians in the nineteenth and early twentieth century sought to fit the history of the art and architecture of the Middle Ages into a historical narrative that had developed largely in response to more recent art and architecture, and in particular to the study of the Renaissance, in which the ability to make paint or stone mimic the natural world was seen as a fundamental goal of artists. According to this narrative, every artist should want to make paintings and sculptures look believably like the real thing, and if any given artists did not achieve this, it was simply because they could not, whether because of a lack of training or a lack of talent. This model leaves virtually no room for abstraction or conceptually driven art until the advent of modernism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This line of reasoning seems to suggest that only in the modern world, in the wake of the advent of photography, could artists be considered free from the constraints of representational art that had determined quality and achievement in the past. But such a model was not at play in the Middle Ages, and if we try to make medieval art align with the priorities of later periods, our understanding will be seriously compromised. Indeed, makers of medieval art often adopted a different approach than the humanist naturalism so prized in later periods, especially in the case of religious subject matter. In the medieval era many viewers understood 16

artistic creations as abstract representations of significant concepts and ideals, able to capture the complex nature of the sacred precisely by moving beyond the forms of the physical world. This privileging of ideas, rather than representational accuracy or naturalism, has been a stumbling block for many modern viewers. It can sometimes feel as if today’s viewer needs an almost impossibly deep background in the histories of religion, literature, and politics to even begin to understand what medieval artists were trying to say. But much recent scholarship has prioritized strategies for making medieval art more accessible to broader audiences by identifying new inroads to understanding and appreciation. Researchers in colleges, universities, and museums have embraced new methodologies, new technologies, and a willingness to take medieval people on their own terms. This has led to exciting discoveries and innovative ways to think about the art of the past, and we are continually moving towards a deeper understanding of how medieval artists and architects gave shape to the big ideas of their day. Research in the humanities is never static, and theories about the past are constantly being formulated, tested, and revised as new information comes to light and people have new ideas about how to use that information. Many medieval art historians, along with those working in other periods, have recently shifted their focus from finished works of art—the end result of the artistic process—to the materials and processes that were used to create those works. At the same time, researchers in other disciplines, including history and sociology, have joined art historians, archaeologists, and anthropologists in an appreciation of the ways that historic artifacts, whether or not they fit into the category of “art,” can serve as rich sources of information about the priorities and experiences of the people of the past. This shift, sometimes referred to as the “material turn,” has seen art historians look to the social sciences and other fields as they formulate and revise ideas about the art of the past. The material turn has also seen the discipline of art history taking on an influential role, able to offer guidance and much food for thought to researchers in other fields who have taken an interest in material culture.4 Medieval Art and Digital Humanities Digital technologies have opened up new areas of research into the materials and practices of medieval artists and architects. Technological advances have made it possible to see art and architecture quite literally in new ways, and to share these new ways of seeing with a wider public. Architectural historians Stephen Murray and Andrew Tallon, for example, have utilized a number of digital technologies, including laser scanning, to understand the achievements of late medieval architects, and to assist with efforts to preserve some of the engineering marvels of the Gothic period.5 Art historians, conservators, and conservation scientists, sometimes in collaboration with specialists from other academic fields and the 17

commercial sector, have used technologies more often associated with modern medicine and scientific research to uncover levels of detail far beyond what the human eye can see, sometimes revealing a great deal of hidden information. These investigations have utilized a range of technologies, including multi-spectral imaging, computed tomography (CT) scanning, X-radiography, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), dendrochronology, and Raman spectroscopy, making it possible in some cases to determine with greater precision than previously possible the nature and age of some of the materials used, different stages of production, specific artistic techniques and processes, and even revealing texts and images which had been all but invisible.6 Such new research has enhanced popular exhibitions organized by major museums, accompanied by print catalogues as well as online resources, bringing these new discoveries to a wider public.7 Murray and Tallon have even created an online resource, Mapping Gothic France, through which members of the public as well as educators and specialist researchers can use digital tools to explore technological and sociopolitical aspects of late medieval architecture.8 Projects in the emerging field of digital humanities, like those outlined above, often involve collaboration between art historians and specialists in other fields, and in some cases have impacts far beyond the field of art history. A college museum like the BCMA can bring some of these cutting-edge technologies to bear on questions that arise in the classroom or in the context of higher education more broadly. In preparation for the Wyvern exhibition, staff and students conducted Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) in an effort to better observe the processes by which certain works of art were made. RTI enabled us to see some of the tool marks on a Merovingianperiod brooch in the Wyvern Collection with much greater clarity than with the naked eye, revealing the precise shapes of some of the tools used and clarifying which areas were chased (marked with tools), and which were cast (figs 1 and 2 and see pp. 78–79). The texture of the gold foil placed underneath the garnets, in the portion of the brooch shaped like an animal’s head, can also be seen in more detail. In the case of an enameled plaque with a personification of the sense of 18

touch, areas of repair had been identified in the enamel depicting the clothing of the central figure, but the RTI revealed just how significant this repair work had been, highlighting the markedly different surface textures of the original enamel and the later repair (see pp. 100–1). Materials and Meaning in Medieval Art

Fig. 3 Saint-Denis Ewer, late 10th or early 11th century (lid: 11th century) Rock crystal, filigree gold 9.4 × 5.3 in (24 × 13.5 cm) Musée du Louvre, Paris, France, MR333

top: Fig. 1 RTI image of Frankish Animal Head Bow Brooch (Fibula), detail. bottom: Fig. 2 Frankish Animal Head Bow Brooch (Fibula), detail, c.6th century Present-day France Partially gilt silver, garnet Length: 8 in (20.2 cm) Wyvern Collection, 1025

The materials themselves often took on a significant role in the concept-driven art of the medieval period, creating otherworldly environments and visions, and permeated with significance far beyond their financial value. Rock crystal, a favored material throughout the Middle Ages, provides an example of the ways in which the material itself could imbue an object with meaning. In medieval Christian thought, rock crystal held many associations, understood to be a healing element when taken in medicinal compounds, and symbolizing Christ and the salvific power of the Divine.9 A small reliquary, likely from the early thirteenth century and possibly made in Normandy, consists of a rock-crystal container, enclosing a sacred relic, framed by gold and semi-precious stones (see pp. 82–83). The metalworking techniques and materials employed on the lid and foot of this tiny work are typical of northern Europe, but the central vessel of the reliquary, enshrining the saintly relics at the heart of this object, is likely a re-used flask carved from a single piece of the transparent mineral. The origin of the tiny flask re-used in this particular reliquary is not known, but it follows a longstanding tradition of incorporating earlier works from the Roman, Byzantine, or Islamic Mediterranean into sacred reliquaries made in northern Europe throughout the Middle Ages. Prominent examples include the Borghorst Cross,10 and a ewer once owned by the powerful royal abbey of SaintDenis, outside Paris (fig. 3). The example from Saint-Denis is one of the most famous of these composite works and has a venerable and remarkable provenance: the rock-crystal ewer was carved in Cairo in the tenth or eleventh century, probably for the Fatimid court. It was later equipped with a gold lid made in southern Italy, and subsequently acquired by Abbot Suger (c.1081–1151), the leader of the abbey of Saint-Denis and a close associate of the French royal family. Records from Saint-Denis note that a 19

Fig. 3 Saint-Denis Ewer, late 10th or early 11th century (lid: 11th century) Rock crystal, filigree gold 9.4 × 5.3 in (24 × 13.5 cm) Musée du Louvre, Paris, France, MR333

Keble-Petre Hours c.1485 Attributed to the Masters of Adolph of Cleves, and additional hands Present-day Belgium (Ghent?) Parchment, ink, paint, gold Height of leaves: 8.2 in (20.9 cm); width of leaves: 5.6 in (14.2 cm) Wyvern Collection, 0487; (above) ff 167v/168r; (below) ff 30v/31r Cat. 43

A traditional Book of Hours is a latemedieval compendium of prayers and devotional texts that guides the reader through religious practice. Based on monastic rituals, Books of Hours enabled the laity to enact a higher level of piety and devotion in their daily lives. The core text of these books consists of a series of prayers, readings, and psalms known as “The Hours of the Virgin.” This includes a set of eight prayers to be recited at regular intervals throughout the day, mimicking monastic devotional practice, and forging an intimate and direct relationship with God. The devotional goals of such a work were reinforced by the intimate scale and format of a book, which could be held in the hands of the worshipper. Illuminated miniatures interact with the text to encourage contemplation of narratives and events central to Christian belief. For those who could not read Latin, these images complemented the written text and provided another path of entry to devotional practice.1 Many Books of Hours begin with a calendar of the holy

feasts of the year, followed by illustrated texts relating to the Virgin Mary, the Crucifixion of Jesus, and various saints, but the Keble-Petre Hours has an unusual order. It begins with the calendar of the liturgical year, as typical, but then proceeds with the narratives of saints, the Crucifixion of Jesus, and then material related to the Virgin Mary. Probably made in Ghent, the KeblePetre Hours was owned in the early sixteenth century by an English couple, William Brown and his wife Alice Keble. It was used for prayer and as a repository for family records, including the births of their children, embodying Brown’s and Keble’s lives and relationships with God.2 The Keble-Petre Hours is illuminated in great detail with the narratives of saints, the Virgin Mary and the Crucifixion of Christ. Annotation of the book—notes written on the fly leaves, and in the margins of prayers and devotions—signifies a close interaction between the owner and God. After the death of Alice Keble, the book was passed to her second husband,

then to her daughter, and on through several generations. With each new owner, family records of births and marriages were added to the Keble-Petre Hours, embedding subsequent family members within a multi-generational instrument of devotion. Upon adding a name or portrait, the owner became integrated within the work for the rest of its existence, establishing through the physical object of the book and the ritual performance of its prayers intimate and enduring connections between the individual, the family, and the divine. While the book was not originally made for any particular individual, these markings by owners individualized the Book of Hours for the Keble family. Amanda Banasiak Bowdoin Class of 2020 notes 1. Wieck 2001. 2. Reinburg 2019.

Diptych with Saint George, and the Virgin and Child c.1500 (Virgin and Child wing possibly several decades earlier) Present-day Ethiopia (Virgin and Child wing likely produced in the Mediterranean, perhaps present-day Crete) Wood, tempera Height: 4.8 in (12.2 cm); width (open): 7.9 in (20 cm) Wyvern Collection, 0472 Cat. 29

The adoption of Christianity in the fourth century by the Aksumite Empire—an area corresponding with present-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia—led to the development of a new tradition of Christian painting. In adopting the new religion, the Aksumite Empire solidified its relationship with the Roman Empire, and unified the culturally diverse peoples living in the region. During the Zagwe Dynasty (tenth or eleventh century–1270) and the early Solomonic period (1270– 1530) of the Ethiopian Empire, the growth and development of Christianity saw an increasing affiliation between monasteries, artists, and political leaders. Ethiopian pilgrims and diplomats traveled to the Mediterranean region, and European artists are known to have traveled to Ethiopia (see cat. 30), and these points of contact brought new media, aesthetic sensibilities, and styles of working to Ethiopia.1 During this period, Christian iconography marked church interiors, devotional and liturgical objects, painted icons and illustrated manuscripts, with functions and impacts analogous to European art of the period. Ethiopian

artists at this time, especially when creating works for ritual use, prioritized the powerful expression of spiritual truth. Visually, their work is characterized by exaggerated proportions, static poses, and flattened bodies of figures.2 This unusual diptych challenges expectations by demonstrating two styles within a single work: one associated with local Ethiopian painters working on wood, and one clearly drawing on foreign models, inspired perhaps by illuminated manuscripts or Byzantine icon painting, and probably executed by a Mediterranean painter. The left wing of the diptych depicts Saint George with strong black outlines that emphasize and flatten the form. The saint’s body extends forward, initiated by the reach of his spear, yet still in a static position. By contrast, the right wing depicts the Virgin Mary in a more volumetric, rounded form. The Virgin and Child are framed with light, creating highlights and shadows that define the figures. The Virgin wears a heavy cloak, painted with lines and shadows that give the appearance of draping fabric. It is unclear when these two panels were first

joined together, and differences in the character of the wood used in the two panels, as well as the differences in painting techniques, suggest that they were not made at the same moment. However, the dimensions and formats of the two panels are closely matched, making it likely that whichever was made later was intended to be joined to the earlier panel. Saint George raises his spear towards the Virgin Mary, symbolizing his determination to protect the Virgin from any evil that might threaten her, consistent with traditional Ethiopian Christian iconography that celebrated Saint George’s role as a warrior. As the patron saint of Ethiopia, George is represented alongside the Virgin Mary in many manuscripts, church murals, and panel paintings.3 Amanda Banasiak Bowdoin Class of 2020 notes 1. Campbell 2004; Krebs 2016. 2. Grierson 1993; Holbert et al. 2001. 3. Chojnacki 1973.

Plaque with the Tree of Jesse c.1500 Present-day Germany or France Mother-of-pearl Height: 4.9 in (12.5 cm); width: 3.1 in (8 cm) Wyvern Collection, 1820 Cat. 21

Embedded in each layer of the Wyvern mother-of-pearl plaque is a unique collection of histories. The shell has travelled far, passing through the hands of south Asian merchants, Rhenish goldsmiths, and prominent European collectors, enduring transformation in both matter and meaning along the way. Composed of thin calcium-carbonate plates secreted by mollusks in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean, motherof-pearl was once more valuable than gold. The material has been revered by myriad cultures and civilizations since the dawn of time, mentioned in Hindu, Islamic, and Christian religious texts; worn as secular jewelry in ancient Rome, the Near East, and Native North America; and used for decoration in Byzantine mosaics, Mayan tombs, and southeast Asian inlay. During the Middle Ages, returning European merchants and crusaders brought back both the shells and a taste for their precious contents. Fine jewels often served as symbols of rank, and by the twelfth century, the first goldsmith guilds had been formed to cut and shape them. Secular workshops sprang up across western Europe, particularly in the Rhineland, where goldsmiths carved mother-of-pearl by hand or dissolved it in acid for use in plaques, reliquaries, family

altars, rosaries, and medallions. The works were mostly circular or polygonal in form, carved on only one side, and seldom painted. Even the most skilled gemcutters found themselves limited by the material, which retains its natural concavity and is easily damaged by excessive manipulation. Mother-of-pearl relief carvings varied in subject matter, with scenes of the Annunciation, Birth of Christ, Crucifixion, and Saint George appearing most frequently, as in the Metropolitan Museum’s late-fifteenth-century medallion of George slaying the dragon.1 In this regard, the iconography of the Wyvern plaque sets it apart. Carved into the object’s surface is the Tree of Jesse, a schematic representation of the royal lineage of Christ that is based on a biblical passage (Isaiah 1:11) and typically found in late-medieval printed media and stained glass. Why, then, was this image translated into mother-of-pearl, and what does it reveal about the plaque’s function? The sixteenth century saw the proliferation of the Kunstkammer in central and northern Europe, an intimate space devoted to the collection of all things beautiful, mysterious, and rare. Conceived as microcosms of the world, these princely “art-rooms” encompassed both man-made and natural wonders in order to showcase

the collector’s panoramic education and extraordinary connoisseurship. The select few guests who had access to these chambers would have admired the canvas, copper, and alabaster paintings obscuring every inch of wall; examined the sculptures, skeletons, minerals, and metalwork spilling out of display cabinets; and reclined on monumental furniture featuring exquisite veneers, inlays, panels, and hardstone mounts. For Kunstkammer collectors, value was determined by variety.2 The Wyvern plaque belongs amid the array of artifacts that comprised such a collection. It is highly probable that the object caught the eye of a private collector, making its way into the domestic sphere of the European elite, where it was prized for its unusual composition carved in such a coveted material. Ethereal and iridescent, the plaque held particular fascination for all those who encountered it— the traces of time, technique, and culture contained in a single shell. Olivia Muro Bowdoin Class of 2020 notes 1. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1986.10. 2. Impey and MacGregor 1985.

Plaque with the Tree of Jesse c.1500 Present-day Germany or France Mother-of-pearl Height: 4.9 in (12.5 cm); width: 3.1 in (8 cm) Wyvern Collection, 1820 Cat. 21

Prayer Bead with Scenes from the Life of Saint Jerome c.1500–1530 Workshop of Adam Dircksz? Present-day Netherlands or Belgium Boxwood Diameter of lower hemisphere: 1.9 in (4.8 cm); diameter of upper hemisphere: 1.7 in (4.4 cm) Wyvern Collection, 2544 Cat. 16

Prayer beads are designed to be held in the palm of one’s hand for private devotion. One can imagine running a thumb over the carved tracery, flipping the bead open and closed, reciting the Latin inscriptions, or admiring its mysterious interior scenes. Boxwood, a dense, finely grained hardwood, was imported and carved in Netherlandish workshops to make prayer beads, or “nuts,” and other devotional objects. Wooden loops, seen on the exterior of this example, linked the finely carved prayer nuts to a string of smaller beads, such as a rosary or paternoster. Elaborate beads like the Wyvern example might also be worn on a woman’s belt or girdle, signaling both piety and wealth. Most prayer bead interiors reimagined familiar moments from the life of Christ, such as the Nativity or the Crucifixion, which makes this sculptural study of Saint Jerome notable. Opening the boxwood prayer bead, one encounters two episodes from the life of Saint Jerome. A scholar and hermit, Saint

Jerome is best known for preparing the Vulgate, an early Latin translation of the Bible, in the late fourth century. The Golden Legend, a collection of saints’ biographies compiled in the thirteenth century, tells how Jerome befriended a lion after courageously removing a thorn from his paw. His act of kindness and the lifelong companionship that followed is a common subject in medieval art and symbolizes the power of devotion and a fierce loyalty to the church. A Latin inscription from the Book of Amos (3:8) frames the upper interior.1 Beneath the vaulted ceiling, in the background, Saint Jerome stands before a church facade. Next to him, a group of musicians sit in a half circle below trees behind the Crucifixion. In the middle ground, Saint Jerome, wearing a wide-brimmed hat, plays with the lion. The foreground features a larger image of Saint Jerome kneeling before Christ on the cross and beating his bare chest. He turns his back to his cardinal hat and robes, which hang idly from a tree,

emphasizing his repudiation of earthly possessions for spiritual pursuits. There is a second inscription on the lower border from the Book of Jeremiah (5:5–6).2 Vertically aligned with the Crucifixion above, Jerome and two other men enter the scene through an archway. They greet a group of kneeling men, in a composition that parallels that of the Crucifixion scene above. Behind them, Jerome’s lion chases three men who toss their hands up in fear while the saint rides peacefully on a horse or camel in an agrarian setting. These images of Saint Jerome, in a private moment of devotion and a public reception, would have encouraged both private and public piety. Maria McCarthy

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Bowdoin Class of 2020 notes 1. For text and translation, see Williamson 2019, p. 335. 2. For text and translation, see Williamson 2019, p. 335.

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Bowdoin Class of 2020 notes 1. For text and translation, see Williamson 2019, p. 335. 2. For text and translation, see Williamson 2019, p. 335.

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Plaque with The Personification of Touch c.1600 Attributed to Master IDC Present-day France (Limoges) Painted enamel on copper, gold Height: 8 in (20.2 cm); width: 6.6 in (16.7 cm) Wyvern Collection, 0775 Cat. 49

Based on a print originally produced by Marten de Vos, The Personification of Touch comes from one of the famed enamel workshops of Limoges, France. The plaque demonstrates the emergent interest in secular works during the transition between the medieval period and the Northern Renaissance around the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Secular works were created throughout the medieval period, but they were increasingly produced at this time to cater to Europe’s humanist upper classes, as this well-educated elite audience shifted its focus from the Church towards worldly matters. The plaque’s medium, size, and subject matter indicate that it was a private commission, meant to be contemplated closely for an extended period of time, potentially even discussed with guests and friends. The carefully crafted detail apparent in the work would certainly entertain viewers, providing them with an opportunity to consider the meaning of each small animal and plant and to show off their academic prowess through conversations about the work. In allegorical series representing the five senses, a popular subject matter in this

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period, the senses were personified as women, a choice that reflected an increased interest in engaging with the classical tradition, and a medieval association of femininity with sensuality.1 Here, the hands of the figure “Touch” come into contact with two animals—a tortoise and a bird—with very different textures. She is framed by depictions of Adam and Eve cast out of the Garden of Eden to her left (Genesis 3:23) and the miracle of Christ walking on water (Matthew 14:22–33) to her right. Due to the Christian association of “left” (sinistra in Latin) with Satan and “right” (dextera in Latin) with the righteous path, these stories’ positions emphasize a clear “bad” and “good.” In turn, the choice to seat the allegorical figure between these biblical episodes asks viewers a stark moral question: confronted by Touch, will you follow in the steps of Adam and fall into sin, or will you follow in the steps of Christ and rise above such profane pleasures? With an abbreviated Latin inscription at the bottom of the enamel, the work reveals its intellectual associations, implying that its owner was highly educated. This is further emphasized by

the allegorical figure’s outfit, which has been heavily repaired, leading to a loss of some details. She wears lace-up sandals and a dress originally covered in lines depicting drapery, which would have been interpreted as classicizing, complementing the biblical tales with humanist references. By the 1530s, artisans in Limoges had begun producing many works with classical themes, so such clothing would have been recognized and understood by audiences.2 Touch is not an illustration of an exact classical figure. Her representation instead encourages viewers to understand her character through classical and medieval theories on women: beautiful and feeble but dangerous, leading a man to foolishness if he lets her. In addition to posing a moral question, the work offers a warning to viewers, a common function of art in this period. Claudine Chartouni Bowdoin Class of 2020 notes 1. Nordenfalk 1985. 2. Wardropper 2004.

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EXHIBITION CATALOGUE

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Context: Race and Periodization in Early Medieval England”, New Literary History 52 (Forthcoming, 2021) Reeve 2007 John Reeve (ed.), Sacred: Books of the Three Faiths: Judaism, Christianity, Islam (London, 2007) Reinburg 2009 Virginia Reinburg, “For The Use of Women: Women and Books of Hours”, Early Modern Women, 4 (2009), pp. 235–40 Riches 2014 Samantha Riches, “Relics of Gender Identity: Interpreting a Follower of Ursula” in Robinson et al. 2014, pp. 143–50 Robinson et al. 2014 James Robinson et al. (eds), Matter of Faith: An Interdisciplinary Study of Relics and Relic Veneration in the Medieval Period (London, 2014) Rowe 2011 Nina Rowe, The Jew, the Cathedral, and the Medieval City: Synagoga and Ecclesia in the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, 2011) Rudolph 2019 Conrad Rudolph (ed.), A Companion to Medieval Art: Romanesque and Gothic in Northern Europe, second edition (Hoboken, 2019) Ruggles 2004 D. Fairchild Ruggles, “The Alcàzar of Seville and Mudéjar Architecture”, Gesta 43 (2004), pp. 87–98 Ruskin 1853 John Ruskin, The Stones of Venice, vol. 2 (London, 1853) Scholten 2016 Frits Scholten (ed.), Small Wonders: Late Gothic Boxwood Micro-Carvings from the Low Countries (Rijksmuseum, exh. cat. 2016) Seasonwein 2012 Johanna Seasonwein, Princeton and the Gothic Revival 1870–1930 (Princeton, 2012)

Shalem 1998 Avinoam Shalem, Islam Christianized: Islamic Portable Objects in the Medieval Church Treasuries of the Latin West, revised edition (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1998) Shea 2019 Rachel Hartigan Shea, “Historian Uses Lasers to Unlock Mysteries of Gothic Cathedrals”, National Geographic, June 22, 2015; updated April 16, 2019, at https:// www.nationalgeographic.com/ news/2015/06/150622-andrewtallon-notre-dame-cathedral-laserscan-art-history-medieval-gothic/. Accessed 31 March 2020 Skeat 1889 Walter W. Skeat (ed.), Chaucer’s Legend of Good Women (Oxford, 1889), pp. 14–15 Skoblow 2012 Jeffrey Skoblow, “The Writings of William Morris”, in Elizabeth Prettejohn (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Pre-Raphaelites (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 196–210 Stamp 2015 Gavin Stamp, Gothic for the Steam Age: George Gilbert Scott (London, 2015) Stanton 1968 Phoebe Stanton, The Gothic Revival and American Church Architecture: An Episode in Taste, 1840–56 (Baltimore, 1968) Steinberg 1983 Leo Steinberg, “The Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art and in Modern Oblivion”, October 25, vol. iv (1983), pp. 1–198, 204–22 Strickland 2003 Debra Higgs Strickland, Saracens, Demons, and Jews: Making Monsters in Medieval Art (Princeton, 2003)

Swenson 2015 Astrid Swenson, “Cologne Cathedral as an International Monument” in Jan Rüger and Nikolaus Wachsmann (eds), Rewriting German History: New Perspectives on Modern Germany (New York, 2015) Trachtenberg 2000 Marvin Trachtenberg, “Suger’s Miracles, Branner’s Bourges: Reflections on ‘Gothic Architecture’ as Medieval Modernism”, Gesta 39, no. 2 (2000), pp. 183–205 Trexler 1993 Richard Trexler, “Gendering Jesus Crucified” in Brendan Cassidy (ed.), Iconograpy at the Crossroads (Princeton, 1993), pp. 107–19 Walker Bynum 1991 Caroline Walker Bynum, “The Body of Christ in the Later Middle Ages: A Reply to Leo Steinberg” in Fragmentation and Redemption: Essays on Gender and the Human Body in Medieval Religion (New York, 1991), pp. 79–117 and 329–43 Wardropper 2004 Ian Wardropper, “The Flowering of the French Renaissance”, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 62, no. 1 (2004), pp. 3–48 Watt 1972 W. Montgomery Watt, The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe (Edinburgh, 1972; reprinted 1994) webster and brown 1997 Leslie Webster and Michelle Brown, The Transformation of The Roman World ad 400–900 (Berkeley, 1997) Wheeler 2014 Katherine Wheeler, Victorian Perceptions of Renaissance Architecture (London, 2014)

White 1962 James F. White, The Cambridge Movement (Cambridge, 1962) Whittington 2012 Karl Whittington, “QUEER”, Studies in Iconography 33 (2012), pp. 157–68 Whyte 2017 William Whyte, Unlocking the Church: The Lost Secrets of Victorian Sacred Space (Oxford, 2017) Wieck 2001 Roger S. Wieck, Time Sanctified: The Book of Hours in Medieval Art and Life (New York, 2001) Williamson 2018 Paul Williamson, The Wyvern Collection: Medieval and Renaissance Sculpture and Metalwork (London, 2018) Williamson 2019 Paul Williamson, The Wyvern Collection: Medieval and Later Ivory Carvings and Small Sculpture (London, 2019) Wu 2013 Nancy Wu, “Medieval Drama at The Cloisters”, September 5, 2013, at https://www.metmuseum.org/ blogs/now-at-the-met/ features/2013/medieval-drama. Accessed 31 March 2020 Yanni 1999 Carla Yanni, Nature’s Museums: Victorian Science and the Architecture of Display (London, 1999) Yvard 2017 Catherine Yvard, “Translated Images: From Print to Ivory in the Late Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century” in Catherine Yvard (ed.), Gothic Ivory Sculpture: Content and Context, (London, 2017), pp. 57–67

PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS All photography by Luc Demers, unless otherwise noted. Fig. 3: Photo: Peter Willi © RMNGrand Palais/Art Resource, NY Fig. 5: © The British Library Board (The British Library, Add MS 4709), 01/01/2020 Fig. 8: Photograph © Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Fig. 16: Image courtesy Strawberry Hill House & Garden/Justin Coe Photography

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Figs 17, 20, 22, 23: © Victoria and Albert Museum Fig. 18: Architectural Press Archive/ RIBA Collections Fig. 24: Alexander Foulkes Fig. 25: © Studio Wim Delvoye, courtesy Sperone Westwater, New York Fig. 26: © Janet Cardiff, image courtesy Luhring-Augustine, image source Art Resource/NY, © Art Resource/ Metropolitan Museum of Art. Sung by Salisbury Cathedral Choir; recording and post-production by

SoundMoves; edited by George Bures Miller; produced by Field Art Projects. The Forty Part Motet by Janet Cardiff was originally produced by Field Art Projects with the Arts Council of England, Canada House, the Salisbury Festival and Salisbury Cathedral Choir, BALTIC Gateshead, The New Art Gallery Walsall, and the NOW Festival Nottingham. Cats 37 and 39: Photograph by Matt Pia

Bowdoin College Museum of Art: Figs 1, 27 and 30: Photograph by Sean Burrus Fig. 33: Photograph by Andrea Rosen Fig. 34: Photograph by Dennis Griggs, Tannery Hill Studios Fig. 35: Photograph by Ellen Tani

INDEX

Italic page numbers refer to illustrations. Abbasid Caliphate, 22, 29–30 Africa Christian art, 26–27, 94 trade networks, 25–27 See also Ethiopian Empire Aksumite Empire, 26, 94 Al-Mansur, 29–30 Armagnac Breviary (cat. 17), 114, 115 armorial gemellion (cat. 48), 23, 33, 138, 139 Art Deco Gothic, 47 Arts and Crafts movement, 44, 50–54 Barnard, George Gray, 55 belt buckle (cat. 4), 107, 107 belt buckle with Christogram (cat. 44), 136, 136 Bentley, Richard, 43, 50 Betancourt, Roland, 31, 33 Bibles Carysfort, 126, 127 Ge’ez Gospel Book, 126, 126 Pentateuch, Haftarot and the Five Scrolls, 21–22, 22 Bodley, George Frederick, 47, 49 Books of Hours, 92 See also Keble-Petre Hours Borland, Jennifer, 34–35 Bowdoin College chapel, 45 Hubbard Hall, 46, 47 Bowdoin College Museum of Art (BCMA), 18, 25, 59, 73 Brancaleon, Nicolo, Diptych with Apostles, and Virgin and Child with Saints, 26, 124, 124 brooches, bow Byzantine, 120, 120 Frankish animal head, 18, 18, 78, 79, 107, 107 Brown, William, 92 Burne-Jones, Edward, 50–51 stained-glass panel, 51–53, 52 Burrus, Sean, 59–74 Butterfield, William, 44, 49

Byzantine bow brooch (fibula) (cat. 23), 120, 120 Cameron, Julia Margaret, 44 Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 44, 51 capital with four heads from Apulia, 28–29, 29 Cardiff, Janet, The Forty Part Motet, 56, 56 Carysfort Bible (cat. 34), 126, 127 Catherine, Saint, miniature altar with, 31, 102–3, 135, 135 ceramics blue-ground dish with floral “Cintamani” designs, 24 bowl, 24 See also lusterware Chaucer, Geoffrey, 44, 51–53 Christianity in Africa, 26–27, 94 Gothic art and, 41–42, 44–45, 47–48 in Iberian Peninsula, 21–22 pyxes, 50, 50 Reformation, 15, 47 Christ’s body, 31–33 Christus, Petrus, Portrait of a Young Man, 90 Cleveland Museum of Art, 34 Cloisters Museum, 54–56, 56 coins, 29–30 Collegiate Gothic, 46–47 Collens, Charles, 55 Comper, John Ninian, 49–50 hanging pyx, 50, 50 conceptual art, 54, 56 copes, 48–49, 48 Cram, Ralph Adams, 41, 47 crosier with the Presentation in the Temple (cat. 45), 136, 136 crucifix with enamel and gems (cat. 32), 125, 125 Crystal Palace, Great Exhibition of 1851, 40, 44–45, 45 Dean, Bashford, 34 Delvoye, Wim, D11 (scale model ¼), 54, 55 Denery, Dallas, 62 digital humanities, 17–19, 38

diptychs with Apostles, and Virgin and Child with Saints (cat. 30), 26, 124, 124 with Saint George, and the Virgin and Child (cat. 29), 26, 65–66, 67, 75, 94, 95, 124, 124 with the Virgin and Child and Saint Jerome (cat. 11), 111, 111 with Virgin and Child attended by Angels, and Crucifixion (ivory) (cat. 20), 25–26, 118, 118 dragon aquamanile (cat. 6), 108, 108 Duchamp, Marcel, 54 Eastlake, Charles Locke, 53 Easton, Martha, 34–35 Ecclesiological Society, 44 Eco, Umberto, 57 enamels. See Limoges enamels; plaques Esplin, Mabel, 53–54 Ethiopian Empire, 26–27, 65–66, 94 Ezana, King, 26 Fatimid Flask reliquary, 82 Fliegel, Stephen, 34 Four Saints from an Altarpiece, 36–37, 37 Frankish animal head bow brooch (fibula) (cat. 5), 18, 18, 78, 79, 107, 107 Fricke, Beate, 21 Fulleylove, Joan, 53–54 Chapel of St Mary & St John Window, 53 Gardner, Isabella Stewart, 15, 34 Ge’ez Gospel Book (cat. 33), 126, 126 gender, 30–31, 33, 84 See also women George, Saint, 96 See also diptychs Gerry, Kathryn, 58, 59–74, 63 glass stained-, 51–54, 52, 53 tazza, 24 Glencairn Museum, 34–35 The Golden Legend, 86, 98 Goodhue, Bertram Grosvenor, 47 Gothic architecture, 17, 18, 55–56 Gothic art, 41–42, 44–45, 47–48

Gothic Revival, 12, 34, 35, 41–47, 48–50, 54–57 Great Exhibition of 1851, 40, 44–45, 45 grisaille ewer with biblical imagery (cat. 8), 109, 109 Hammond, John Hays, Jr., 34–35 Harding, George F., 34 heads, sculptural capital with four heads from Apulia, 28–29, 29 of a king (cat. 12), 112, 112 of a king (cat. 13), 112, 112 of a king (cat. 41), 134, 134 from tomb effigy of a bishop (cat. 46), 128, 137, 137 from tomb effigy of a man-at-arms (cat. 47), 137, 137 Hearst, William Randolph, 34 Heng, Geraldine, 28 Herod, 30 Higginbotham, James, 72 Hubbard Hall, 46, 47 Iberian Peninsula, 21–22, 88 India, 47 illuminated manuscripts, 21–22, 92, 91 Islam Abbasid Caliphate, 22, 29–30 artistic influences, 21–22, 23, 25 in Iberian Peninsula, 21–22, 88 intellectual influence, 20 relations with Christians, 21–22, 28 ivory, 20, 25–26, 63, 84 Jerome, Saint, 35–36, 62–63, 69–70, 98, 111 Jews, 21–22, 28, 30 Joan of Arc (Walker), 73, 73 John the Baptist, Saint (cat. 14), 37, 86, 113, 113 Jones, Adann, 61 Julian of Norwich, 70 Keble, Alice, 92 Keble-Petre Hours (cat. 43), 8, 22, 90, 92, 93, 135, 135 Krebs, Verena, 26–27

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