ICEL 2013 proceedings volume 1 by ACPIL

Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on

e-Learning

Cape Peninsula University of Technology,

Cape Town, South Africa

27-28 June 2013 VOLUME ONE

Edited by

Dr Eunice Ivala Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape To Town, n South So th Africa A conference managed by ACPI www.academic-conferences.org

Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on e-Learning The Cape Peninsula University of Technology Cape Town, South Africa 27-28 June 2013 VOLUME ONE Edited by Dr Eunice Ivala Programme Chair Cape Peninsula University of Technology Cape Town South Africa

Copyright The Authors, 2013. All Rights Reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission may be made without written permission from the individual authors. Papers have been double-blind peer reviewed before final submission to the conference. Initially, paper abstracts were read and selected by the conference panel for submission as possible papers for the conference. Many thanks to the reviewers who helped ensure the quality of the full papers. These Conference Proceedings have been submitted to Thomson ISI for indexing. Please note that the process of indexing can take up to a year to complete. Further copies of this book and previous yearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proceedings can be purchased from http://academic-bookshop.com E-Book ISBN: 978-1-909507-28-9 E-Book ISSN: 2049-8890 Book version ISBN: 978-1-909507-26-5 Book Version ISSN: 2048-8882 The Electronic version of the Proceedings is available to download at ISSUU.com. You will need to sign up to become an ISSUU user (no cost involved) and follow the link to http://issuu.com Published by Academic Conferences and Publishing International Limited Reading UK 44-118-972-4148 www.academic-publishing.org

Contents Paper Title

Author(s)

Page No.

Preface

Committee

Biographies

Digital Immigrant Students’ Adoption of Online Community of Inquiry: FUTA Case Study

Peter Aborisade, Titi Fola-Adebayo and Funmi Olubode Sawe

Outcomes of Total e-Learning Application in a Tertiary Academic Institution in Nigeria

Babajide Adelekan

E-Learning in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria Distance Learning Centre: An Evaluation of Opportunities and Challenges

Tinuade Olubunmi Adewale and Cecilia Funmilayo Daramola

Attending to Competency Based Education: New Challenge for e-Learning, Pitfalls and Possibilities

Philip Balcaen

Learner Support in Context of Open Distance and e-Learning for Adult Students Using new Technologies

Gezani Baloyi

Maintaining Course Contents in Consonance With Students' Perceptions

Omar Abdullah Batarfi

Social Higher Education: How Effective is it?

Vladlena Benson and Stephanie Morgan

Extending Technology Acceptance Model in Mobile Learning Adoption: South African University of Technology Students’ Perspectives

Aaron Bere and Patient Rambe

The Dynamics of Offering ICT Training to Pre-Service and InService Teachers in a South African Context

Moira Bladergroen, Wallace Chigona, Andy Bytheway, Chris Dumas, Sanet Cox and Izak Van Zyl

E-Course Development Based on the Model “System Assembly From Reusable Components”

Jekaterina Bule and Larissa Zaitseva

Using Students Response System via Mobile Devices in Large Introductory Psychology Classes

Kevin Chan, Ian Brown, Indie Chor Bun Chung, Lu Hui-Jing and Green Wai-To Luk

Applying System Theory to Develop a Mobile Learning Pedagogical Framework

Pieter Conradie

Cloud Technologies in Technical Education: A Case Study

Eduardo Correia and Ricky Watson

Leapfrogging Pedagogy: A Design Approach to Transforming Learning in Challenging Contexts

Susan Crichton

Fifteen Years of Research on Computers and Education from South Africa

Johannes Cronjé

105

Cultivating Learning Design Thinking With e-Portfolios in a Masters Course

Andrew Deacon and Cheryl HodgkinsonWilliams

116

Could Institutional Virtual Learning Environments be Stifling the Possibilities of Learning?

Jerome Terpase Dooga

125

Enhancing the Postgraduate Experience of Assessment and Feedback in a Learning Community

Martina Doolan

136

Paper Title

Author(s)

Page No.

Opportunities and Challenges: Combining Distance and OnCampus Students in Concurrent Courses

Ralph Ellis, Duzgun Agdas and Xi Zheng

143

Stories of Resistance: Digital Counterstories Among South African Pre-Service Student Educators

Daniela Gachago, Franci Cronje, Eunice Ivala, Janet Condy and Agnes Chigona

149

Project-Based Assessment Influencing Pass Rates of an ICT Module at an ODL Institution

Leila Goosen and Dalize van Heerden

157

An Inter-Independence Collaborative Strategy for Sustainable Transnational Higher Education in the Info-Global Age: A new Science of e-Learning in the Making

Mohamed Ziad Hamdan

165

ICT in Practice at the Durban University of Technology

Anita Hiralaal

176

A new Concept of Study Materials for Machine Design

Martin Hynek, Miroslav Grach, Petr Votapek and Jitka Bezdekova

185

Computer Anxiety, Computer Self-Efficacy and Attitude Towards Internet Among Secondary School Students in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

Akpan Iniobong, Patrick Uko and Theresa Ekanem

193

Online-Offline System of Evaluating Teaching and Courses for Professional Development

Eunice Ivala

199

A Lecturerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Perception of the Adoption of the Inverted Classroom or Flipped Method of Curriculum Delivery in a Hydrology Course, in a Resource Poor University of Technology

Eunice Ivala, Anton Thiart and Daniela Gachago

207

The TPACK-in-Practice Workshop Approach: A Shift From Learning the Tool to Learning About Technology-Enhanced Teaching

Kamini Jaipal Jamani and Candace Figg

215

Lessons Learnt: Building a Foundation for e-Learning in Medical Education in Botswana

Masego Kebaetse, Cecil Haverkamp and Oathokwa Nkomazana

224

Awareness Learning is a Function of Educational Technology in e-Learning

Simon Bheki Khoz

231

Mobile Learning: A Kaleidoscope

Marlena Kruger and Riana Bester

239

Using Facebook to Teach Communication and Academic Literacy Skills: Perceptions of University Students in Botswana

Joel Magogwe and Beauty Ntereke

248

Investigating Factors That Influence the Socially Orientated Instructional Technology Adoption Rate in an Open Distance Learning Institution

Peter Mkhize and Magda Huisman

255

Exploring Onscreen Marking for Expediting Formative Assessment Feedback in an ODL Environment

Jabu Mtsweni and Hanifa Abdullah

264

Cyber Safety Education: Towards a Cyber-Safety Awareness Framework for Primary Schools

Thirumala Naidoo, Elmarie Kritzinger and Marianne Loock

272

M-Learning With WhatsApp: A Conversation Analysis

Abulela Ngaleka and Walter Uys

282

Empowering Educators to Teach Using Emerging Technologies in Higher Education: A Case of Facilitating a Course Across Institutional Boundaries

Dick Ngâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ambi, Vivienne Bozalek and Daniela Gachago

292

Explaining Influences in the Adoption of Blackboard at an Institution of Higher Learning

Vuyisile Nkonki, Siyanda Ntlabathi and Luvuyo Mkonqo

301

Students as Creative Producers

Travis Noakes, Laura Czerniewicz and Cheryl Brown

309

Paper Title

Author(s)

Page No.

Age, Gender, and Computer Self-Efficacy as Correlates of Social Media Usage for Scholarly Works in Nigeria

Maruff Akinwale Oladejo, Olajide Olawole Adelua and Nelson Aderemi Ige

316

Utilizing Online Exams and Human Resources to Improve Student Learning and Minimizing Academic Dishonesty - Finds From Large Section Deployment

Timothy Olson

321

JiFUNzeni: A Blended Learning Approach for Sustainable Teachers’ Professional Development

Brown Onguko

326

Learning Analytics: Online Supports Requirements of Learners Revealed

Shireen Panchoo and Alain Jaillet

337

Optimising the use of Online Technology for Learning and Teaching Science

Joy Penman and Jyothi Thalluri

344

Using Social Embeddedness to Explore Ubiquitous Learning in Mobile Environments at a South African University of Technology

Patient Rambe and Aaron Bere

353

Promoting and Supporting Innovations in e-Learning in a Traditional Environment

Brenda Ravenscroft

363

Enlightening Mobile Computer Aided Learning Assessment Tool

Ahmed Salem

370

Effective use of Social Networks to Enhance Engagement and Interaction in Microbiology

Sibongile Simelane and Dorothea Mathudi Dimpe

378

Dooyeweerd is Watching you: Using Instant Messaging to Prepare for Assessment

Imelda Smit and Roelien Goede

386

Academic Staff’s Challenges in Adopting Blended Learning: Reality at a Developing University

Mswazi Tshabalala, Charity NdeyaNdereya and Tiana Van der Merwe

396

Globalisation and e-Learning: Integrating University and Professional Qualifications for Employability and Lifelong Learning

James Uhomoibhi and Margaret Ross

404

An Open and Interactive Multimedia e-Learning Module for Graphing Kinematics

Carlton Watson and Vernal Brathwaite

409

Enhancing Creative Problem Solving in the Higher Education Curriculum Through the use of Innovative e-Learning Technologies

Denise Wood and Carolyn Bilsborow

416

To Scratch or not to Scratch – a Reflection

Malie Zeeman

425

PHD papers

435

Perspectives on the Integration of Facebook Into Higher Education

Lillian Buus

437

Factors Influencing the Acceptance of Web 2.0 Technologies in the Learning Environment of Nigeria: A Conceptual Framework

Razep Echeng, Abel Usoro and Grzegorz Majewski

444

The Management Practices of ICT Integration in the Curriculum of Primary Schools in Uganda

Stephen Kyakulumbye and Isaac Wasswa Katono

453

Exploring an Empowerment Strategy for Blackboard in a Higher Education Institution

Sibongile Simelane and Sibongile Ruth Ngcapu

462

Masters Research Papers

471

Lecturer Perceptions on the use of Social Networking Services in Education iii

Ricardo da Rocha and Antoinette Lombard

473

Paper Title

Author(s)

Page No.

Greek Secondary School Teachers' Perceptions Regarding ICT and Greek Literature/Language

Olga Despi

479

E-Learning Tools for Public Awareness Programme Education in Disaster Risk Management: Case Study of the City of Cape Town Disaster Risk Management Centre

Martha Kabaka and Juliet Stoltenkamp

488

From Cellphone to Computer: University Students’ use of Technology in First Year

Caroline Magunje and Cheryl Brown

496

Work In Progress Papers

503

WebSci@UHI: Teaching Web Science in a Web Science Fashion

Erik Cambria, Ian Barnes, Elizabeth 3 Brooks and Chris Eckl

505

Foundations for the Reconceptualization of the e-Textbook

David Lamas, Terje Välyataga, Mart Laanpere, Veronika Rogalevich, Arman Arakelyan, Sónia Sousa and Ilya Shmorgun

510

E-Learning of Highway Traffic Flow in Real Time

Ren Moses

515

An Exploration of e-Learning Practices of Teachers at Selected Schools

Osman Sadeck

519

Knowcations: A Meme-Based Personal Knowledge Management System-in-Progress

Ulrich Schmitt

523

Leveraging Engagement and Participation in e-Learning with Trust

Sonia Sousa and David Lamas

528

Facilitating a Constructivist Learning Environment Through Chat Room Dialogue

Kristian Stewart

532

Late Submission

537

Does Assessing E-Skills Competence at an Open Distance Learning, Higher Education Institution Matter? – A Case in Point

Jabulisiwe Mabila, Sam Ssemugabi and Helene Gelderblom

539

Preface This book represents the Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on e-Learning. The conference this year is being hosted by the Cape Peninsula University of Technology in Cape Town, South Africa. It is my pleasure to have the role of Programme Chair, with Professor Christine Winberg from the Fundani Centre for Higher Education at Cape Peninsula University of Technology, as Conference Chair. The opening keynote address is given by Professor Laura Czerniewicz from the OpenUCT Initiative, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa and Laura will address the topic “Disaggregation in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education”. The second day will be opened by Professor Andrew J Bytheway from the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, who will talk about “Managing ICTs in Education – a South African perspective”. ICEL is a well-established platform for bringing together a wide range of stakeholders involved with the challenges of e-Learning in a rapidly changing global society, including academics, innovators and practitioners interested in benefitting from, using and contributing to current research, as well as professionals working in the private and public sector. The conference provides a forum for rigorous and stimulating sharing of ideas about e-Learning today. It is an opportunity for the broader e-Learning community to meet and for overlapping communities of practitioners to join the lively e-Learning conversations. The range of papers will ensure an interesting two days. With an initial submission of 208 abstracts, and after the double blind peer review process, there are 69 papers published in these Conference Proceedings. These papers represent research from more than 20 countries including: Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Botswana, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Ghana, Greece, Hong Kong, Iran, Latvia, Malaysia, Mauritius, New Zealand, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, UK and USA. I hope that you have a stimulating and enjoyable conference. Dr Eunice Ivala Programme Chair Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town June 2013

Conference Executive

Christine Winberg, Cape Peninsula University of Techonolgy, South Africa Eunice Ivala, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Jolanda Morkel, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Agnes Chigona, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Daniela Gachago, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa

Mini Track Chairs

Khalid Alshahrani, King Fahad Naval Academy, Saudi Arabia Eunice Ivala, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Maruff Akinwale Oladejo, University of Lagos, Nigeria Susan Crichton, University of British Columbia, Canada Khitam Shraim, Ministry of Education, Palestine Christina Dinsmore, Southampton Solent University (SSU), Southampton, UK

Conference Committee Members

The conference programme committee consists of key people in the e-learning community around the world. The following people have confirmed their participation: If you are interested in joining the committee for this conference, please click the conference committee button on the right of this page. Mohd Helmy Abd Wahab (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia); Dr Peter Aborisade (The Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria); Dr. Bulent Acma (Anadola University, Eskisehir, Turkey); Dr Chigona Agnes (Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa); Dr Ali Alawneh(Philadelphia University, Jordan); Prof Saleh Alhalalat (King Saud University, Saudi Arabia); Lisa Allen (The University of British Columbia, Canada); NajiAlQbailat (Al-Balqa' Applied University, PAUC, Jordan); Nabeel Al-Qirim (UAE University, United Arab Emirates); Dr Zahra Rashid Said AlRawahi (Sultan Qaboos University, Oman); Kalid Alshahrani (King Fahad Naval Academy , Saudi Arabia); Professor Abdullah Al-Zoubi (Princess Sumaya University for Technology, Amman, Jordan); Dr. Anca-Olga Andronic (Spiru Haret University, Romania); Dr. Razvan-Lucian Andronic (Spiru Haret University,Romania);Dr Ezendu Ariwa (London Metropolitan University, London, UK); Peter Arthur (University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, British Columbia , Canada); Dr William Ashraf (University of Sussex, UK); Dr Kallol Bagchi (University of Texas at El Paso, USA); Prof. Philip Leon Balcaen (University Of British Columbia, Kelowna, Canada); Karen Barnstable (UBC Okanagan, Canada); Dr Tshepo Batane (University of Botswana, Botswana); Dr Gary Bell(London South Bank University, UK); Younes Benslimane (York University, Toronto, Canada); Jennifer Bergh (Eiffel-Corp - (Blackboard partners and resellers), South Africa); Prof Sonia Berman (University of Cape Town, South Africa); Prosper Bernard (University of Quebec, Canada); Dr. Igor Bernik(University of Maribor, Slovenia); Professor Dr Amine Berqia (University of Algarve, Portugal); Karen Bjerg Petersen (University of Aarhus, Denmark); Dr Patrick Blum (inside Business Group, Aachen, Germany); Dr. Mads Bo-Kristensen (Resource Center for Integration, Vejle, Denmark); David Bond(University of Technology, Sydney, Australia); Professor Luis Borges Gouveia (University Fernando Pessoa, Portugal); Lynn Bosetti (University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, British Columbia , Canada); Sheryl Buckley (Unisa, South Africa); Dr Acma Bulent (Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey); Pasquina Campanella (University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Italy); Assistant Professor Dr Phaik Kin Cheah (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Malaysia);Dr Adeline Chia (Taylor's University, Malaysia); Satyadhyan Chickerur (M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, India); Chinnapaka Chitharanjandas ( Bang college of business, Republic of Kazakhstan); Dr Mohammad Chizari (Tarbiat Modarres University, Iran); Chee-Keong Chong (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Malaysia); Hal Christensen (Christensen/Roberts Solutions, Forest Hill, NY, USA); Dr. Jaesam Chung (Ewha W. University, Rep. of Korea); Prof. Delaine Cochran (Indiana University, USA); Dr Glenn Cockerline (Brandon University, Canada); David Comiskey (University of Ulster, Ireland); Dr Caroline Crawford (University of Houston-Clear Lake, USA); Susan Crichton (University of British Columbia , Canada); Johannes Cronje(Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa); Prof. Laura Czerniewicz (University of Cape Town, South Africa); Ramiza Darmi (Universiti Putra Malaysia, Australia); Annemarie Davis (University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa); Dr. Pieter De Vries (Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands); Prof Rhena Delport (University of Pretoria, South Africa); Jack Dempsey (Univ. of South Alabama, USA); Christina Dinsmore (Southampton Solent University, UK); Jerome Terpase Dooga (University of Jos, Nigeria); Dr Martina A. Doolan (University of Hertfordshire, UK); Dr Laurent Dukan (PHD International, France); Dr Bulent Gursel Emiroglu (Eskisehir Yolu Baglica Mevkii, Turkey); Howe Emmanuel (Institute of Development Management (IDM), Swaziland); Dr Judith Enriquez (University of North Texas, USA); Prof. Dr. Alptekin Erkollar (ETCOP, Austria); Prof. Jean-Louis Ermine (Telecom Business School, Evry Cedex, France); Nima Fallah (BETA Strasbourg University, France,); Stephen Farrier (University of Edinburgh, UK); Dr Omid Fatemi (University of Tehran, Iran); Prof Corona Felice (Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Salerno, Italy); Dr Aikyna Finch (Strayer University, Huntsville, USA); Dr Titi Fola-Adebayo (Fed Univ of Tech, Nigeria); Prof Joseph Fong (City University of vi

Hong Kong, China); Marga Franco-Casamitjana(Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain); Daniel Gachago (Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa); Fenella Galpin (Open University, UK);Dr Grisel Garcia Perez (UBC Okanagan, Canada); Prof. Henrique Gil (School of Education -Polytechnic Institution of Castelo Branco, Portugal); Dr Judy Gnarpe (University of Alberta, Canada); Dr Andrew Goh (International Management Journals, Singapore); Gerald Goh (Multimedia University, Melaka, Malaysia); Dr. Andrea Gorra (Leeds Metropolitan University, UK); Jivesh Govil (Cisco Systems Inc, USA); Dr Sue Greener (University of Brighton, UK); David Guralnick (University of Columbia, New York and Kaleidescope Learning, USA); Dr Rajaram Gurusamy (DMI ST. John the Baptist University, Malawi);Dr Rugayah Gy Hashim (Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia); Zuwati Hasim (University of Malaya, Malaysia); Thanos Hatziapostolou(International faculty of the university of sheffield, Greece); Dr. Stylianos Hatzipanagos (King’s College London, UK); Alan Hilliard (University of Hertfordshire, UK); Dr Eun Hwang (Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA); Avi Hyman (University of Toronto, Canada); Dr. Amr Ibrahim (American University of Cairo, Egypt); Professor Rozhan Idrus (Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia); Dr Michael Ievers (Stranmillis University College, N. Ireland, UK); Issham Ismail (Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia); Dr Marina Ismail (Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia); Rubeina Ismail-Allie(Tshwane University of Technology, Gauteng, South Africa); Dr Eunice Ndeto Ivala (Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa); Sheila Jagannathan (World Bank Institute, Washington, USA); Prof Dinesh Chandra Jain (SVITS, India); Dr Jill Jameson (University of Greenwich , UK); KanthiJayasundera (Center for Online and Distance Education, Simon Fraser University,Canada ); Amor Jebali (University of Manouba, Tunisia); Runa Jesmin(Global Heart Forum, UK); Phillip Jones (Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong); Prof Konstantinos Kalemis (National Centre for Local Government and Public Administration, Greece); Dr Michail Kalogiannakis (University of Crete, Faculty of Education, Crete); Pankaj Kamthan (Concordia University, Montreal, Canada); Dr. Haijun Kang (Kansas State University, United States); Saba Khalil Toor (T.E.C.H Society, Pakistan); Dr Mohammad Ayoub Khan(C-DAC, India); Adrian Kirkwood (Open University, UK); Brant Knutzen (University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong); Dr Marlena Kruger (University of Johannesburg, South Africa); Dr Yu-Ju Kuo (Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA); Prof Reggie Kwan (Caritas Institute of Higher Education, Hong Kong, China); Dr Hok Yin Jean Lai (Hong Kong Baptist University , Hong Kong); Kamaljit Lakhtaria (Atmiya Institute of Technology & Science, India); Paul Lam(Centre for Learning Enhancement And Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, China); Dr Maria Lambrou (University of the Aegean, Greece); Dr Mona Laroussi (Institut National des Sciences Appliquées et de la Technologie, Tunisia); Debora Larson (Kaleidoscope Learning, New York, USA); JnoBaptiste Laurelle (OISE/ University of Toronto, Canada); Kenneth Lee (Delaware Valley College, Pennsylvania, USA); Stella Lee (Athabasca University, Canada); Victor Lee (School of Continuing and Professional Studies, The Chinese University of Hong Kong , China); Christine Levy (Kaleidoscope Learning, New York, USA); Dr Rita Yi Man Li (Hong Kong Shue Yan University, Hong Kong); Dr. Ken Li (Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education, HKSAR, China);Dr Ying Liu (Cambridge University, Uk); Jenny Lorimer (University of Hertfordshire, UK); Dr Pam Lowry (Lawrence Technological University, USA); Prof Sam Lubbe (University of South Africa, South Africa); Dr Grace Lynch (University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia); Professor Lachlan MacKinnon (University of Greenwich, UK); Maria Madiope (University of South Africa, South Africa); Dr. Chittaranjan Mandal (School of IT,IIT Kharagpur, India); Robert Manderson (University of Roehampton, United Kingdom); Phebe Mann (University of Reading, UK); Jorge Martins (Information School, University of Sheffield, United Kingdom); Prof Hassan Mathkour (King Saud University, Saudi Arabia); Dr Jeton McClinton (Jackson State University, USA);Dr Cherifa Mehadji (University of Strasbourg, France); DR Sabita Menon (University of West of England, UK); Mandia Mentis (Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand); Dr Cecilia Mercado (Saint Louis University, USA); Bente Meyer (The Danish University of Education, Denmark); SunilkumarMistry (Johnson Group, Ahmedabad, India); Ali Moeini (University of Tehran, Iran); Sahel Mohammad Esa (Kabul Education University, Afghanistan); Dr Gholam Ali Montazert (Tarbiat Modares University, Iran); Dr Jane Moore (Liverpool Hope University, UK); Jolanda Morkel (Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa); Markus Mostert (Rhodes University, South Africa); Molefe Motshegwe (University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana); DilawerMowzer (College of Cape Town, South Africa); Manabu Murakami (Tokyo University of Science, Japan); Dr Minoru Nakayama (Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan); Dr Vincent Ng (The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China); Dr. Dick Ng'ambi (University of Cape Town, South Africa); Grace O’Malley (National College of Ireland, Ireland); Ass.Prof. Birgit Oberer (Kadir Has University, Turkey); Dr Maruff Akinwale Oladejo (University of Lagos, Nigeria); Francisca Onaolapo Oladipo (Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria); Dr Roxana Ologeanu (Universite Montpellier 2, France); Smart Odunayo Olugbeko (Adeyemi College Of Education, Ondo, Nigeria); Assoc. Prof. Abdelnaser Omran (Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia); Dr Jacinta Agbarachi Opara.In (School of Science, Federal College of Education(Technical),Omoku, Nigeria); Dr Addin Osman (Najran University, Saudi Arabia); Maria Osuna Alarcón (Salamanca University, Spain); Mourad Ouziri (University of Paris 5, France); Dr Ecaterina Pacurar Giacomini (Louis Pasteur University, France); William Painter (NCC Education Ltd, UK); Prof Bamidis Panagiotis (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece); Dr Shireen Panchoo (University of Technology, Mauritius, Mauritius); Dr Arna Peretz (Ben Gurion Univeristy of the Negev, Israel); Dr. Beth Perry (Athabasca University, Canada); Dr Donatella Persico (National Research Council, Institute of Educational Technology, Italy); Professor Selwyn Piramuthu (University of Florida, Gainesville, USA); Dr Michel Plaisant (University of Quebec in Montreal, Canada); Paul Prinsloo (University of South Africa (Unisa), South Africa); Zahra Punja (University of Toronto , Canada); Anne Quinney (Bournemouth University, UK); Dr Ronald Robberecht (University of vii

Idaho, Moscow, USA); Dr Melissa Saadoun (MS Institute , Paris, France); Osman Sadeck (Cape Education Department, South Africa); Dr Balasundaram Sadhu Ramakrishnan(National Institute of Technology, India); Dr Florin Salajan (North Dakota State University , Canada); Gustavo Santos (University of Porto, Portugal); Prof. Chaudhary Imran Sarwar (Mixed Reality University, Pakistan, Pakistan); Dr Nima Shahidi (Islamic Azad University - Nourabad Mamasani Branch, Iran); Dr Khitam Shraim (Birzeit University, Ramallah, Palestine); Sibongile Simelane (Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa); Dr Keith Smyth(Napier University, Edinburgh, UK); Dr Yeong-Tae Song (Towson University, Maryland, USA); Dr Elsebeth Sorensen (Aarhus University, Denmark); Dr Mark Stansfield (University of West of Scotland, UK); Juliet Stoltenkamp (University of Western Cape, South Africa); Dr Roxana Taddei (UniversitĂŠ Clermont Ferrand 2, Montpellier, France); Yana Tainsh (University of Greenwich , UK); Dr Ken Takeuchi (Tokyo University of Science, Japan); Dr John Thompson(Buffalo State College , USA); Prof. Ramayah Thurasamy (University Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia); Professor Christopher Turner (University of Winchester , UK); Karin Tweddell Levinsen (Aalborg University, Denmark); Dr Sapna Tyagi (Institute of Management Studies(IMS), India); Duan Van der Westhuizen (University of Johannesburg, South Africa); Dalize van Heerden (Unisa, Pretoria, South Africa); Linda van Ryneveld (Tshwane University of technology South Africa, South Africa); Prof. Dr. Asaf Varol (Firat University, Turkey); Paduri Veerabhadram (Vaal University of Technology, South Africa);Dr Steven Verjans (Open Universiteit of The Netherlands, The Netherlands); Maggy Minhong Wang (The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong); Dr Anita Welch (North Dakota State University, USA); Robert Wierzbicki (University of Applied Sciences Mittweida, Germany); Roy Williams (University of Portsmouth, UK); Shirley Williams (University of Reading, UK); Prof Christine Winberg (Fundani Centre for Higher Education, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa); Dr. Noeline Wright (University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand); Daniel Yakmut (Federal University , Nigeria); Dr Ruth Yeung(Institute for Tourism Studies, China); Aw Yoke Cheng (Asia Pacific University of Technology and Innovation (A.P.U), Malaysia); Dr Nabil Zary (Karolinska Institutet, Sweden); Mingming Zhou (Nanyang Technological University, Singapore); Gwen Zilm (University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, British Columbia , Canada); Dr Mitra Zolfaghari (Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran)

viii

Biographies Conference Chair Professor Christine Winberg is the Director of the Fundani Centre for Higher Education Development at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology in Cape Town, South Africa. The Fundani Centre is responsible for enhancing teaching, learning, and educational research at the institution. Her work involves academic development, policy work, and programme evaluation. She is also the project leader of the Work-integrated Learning Research Unit, which is supported by the South African National Research Foundation. Her research focus is professional and vocational education and technical communication. Previously she lectured in applied linguistics and language education in South Africa and in Sweden. She is chairperson of the South African Association for Applied Linguistics.

Programme Chair Dr Eunice Ivala is the coordinator of the Educational Technology Unit, Fundani Centre for Higher Education and Development, at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT). The Educational Technology Unit is responsible for promoting appropriate use of technologies in teaching and learning at the institution. Her Research focus is in ICT –mediated teaching and learning in developing contexts. She is a team member in a national project on emerging technologies (ET) and their use in South African Higher Education Institutions to improve teaching and learning in the sector and a digital storytelling project in teacher Education, which are supported by the South African National Research Foundation. Previously a project manager at the Media in Education Trust Africa, an educational specialist at the South African Institute for Distance Education and a lecture at the University of KwaZulu Natal.

Keynote Speakers Professor Andy Bytheway. Following a career in the systems and software industry, Andy Bytheway took up an academic post at the Cranfield School of Management in the UK, first as Lecturer and then as Research Fellow. There he pioneered commercially-funded Information Systems research and he taught on the Cranfield MBA programmes in the UK and Singapore. He emigrated to South Africa in 1998, where he took up the Old Mutual Chair in Information Systems at the University of the Western Cape His specific interest in the management of information technology in education arose from a two-year research partnership with the Cape Technikon, which investigated the role of information technology in Higher Education. On his retirement he continued to work at CPUT as Adjunct Professor of Information Management, supervising masters and doctoral research and assisting with funded research projects Associate Professor Laura Czerniewicz heads UCT's open scholarship initiative OpenUCT, and was the founding director of University of Cape Town's Centre for Educational Technology. She has research interests in students' and academics' digitally-mediated practices, open scholarship and the role of ICTs in higher education. She has worked in educational technology, research and publishing in South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Mini Track Chairs Khalid Alshahraniis a lecturer at King Fahad Naval Academy in Saudi Arabia. His research interest includes understanding eLearning in Higher Education from sociocultural perspectives adopting Activity Theory as a theoretical perspective. He is also interested in how eLearning and Distance Learning programs can enhance teaching and learning especially English as a Foreign Language (EFL).

Dr Maruff Akinwale Oladejo is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Educational Foundations, Federal College of Education (Special), Nigeria. He is an expert in Educational Planning and Policy. His research interest is in the Efficiency of Open-Distance Learning. He is currently collaborating in a bilateral research work on ‘Clinicians’ awareness, accessibility and utilization of e-learning and continuous education programme in blood transfusion. He served on the ECEL 2012 Conference Committee, and also currently serving on ICEL 2013 Conference Committee. He is a reviewer to several international referred ix

journals. Dr Susan Crichton has taught in rural and urban K-12 schools. She is a visiting professor with Aga Khan University – Institute of Educational Development, Dar es Salaam,Tanzania and a Fellow of the Commonwealth Centre of Education, Cambridge. Dr. Crichton has worked on development projects in rural western China, and as a consultant with academics in Bhutan and Chile. She is an online mentor for the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) project inAfghanistan. Her research explores innovative uses of technology to foster creativity and imagination. She works with colleagues in challenging contexts exploring ways appropriate technologies can provide access to professional development and learning. Dr Khitam Shraim is an assistant professor of Educational Technology. Currently, she is working as the Head of Planning Center in the Ministry of Education, Palestine. Khitam is one of the Founding Directors of the Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching and the e-Learning Unit at An-Najah National University, Palestine. My research interests revolve around promoting creative learning and innovative teaching in higher education, particularly in the area of technology-enhanced educational change. She has published many papers and presented workshops and seminars in many national and international conferences. Two of her research papers won the best research paper award. Christina Dinsmore (MProf) is a Senior Lecturer (Strategy) at Southampton Business School (SBS) within Southampton Solent University (SSU). She is Course Leader for their BA (Hons) Business Management course, as well as the suite of blended learning Business courses currently running at SSU. Christina was a project member of the Discipline focused Learning Technology Enhancement Academy project ‘Working with e-champions to enhance flexible learning’ which was supported by the UK Higher Education Academy. Currently studying her EdD, she still finds time for SSU’s Blended Learning Action Support Team, the Blended Learning Research Cluster and the Employability Nexus Working Group.

Biographies of Presenting Authors Peter Aborisade lectures EAP at the Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria. His area of engagement is integration of learning technologies into the curriculum; he is heading a Blended Learning Research Group working on the Moodle as a university wide VLE platform. He has presented research findings in Blended Learning in the UK, Canada and Africa. Dr Babajide Adelekan is a Chief lecturer in Agricultural Engineering at Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria. He has authored many papers in renewable energy, which is his main research area. As Chairman of the Research and Development committee he has actively participated in the E-learning adoption process in the College. Makinde Aderemi trained up to the level of a Master Degree holder specializing as an art teacher in one of Nigeria’s earliest teacher education institute, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo. He is presently a graduate student of Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Tinuade Olubunmi Adewale is a Principal Librarian in Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. She holds B.ED in Guidance and Counseling in English and Masters Degree in Library Science (MLS) from University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Her field of specialization is Grassroot Librarianship; Librarianship and Education and, Librarianship and Gender Studies Kolawole Akinjide Aramide is a Research Fellow at the Abadina Media Resource Centre, Faculty of Education, and University of Ibadan, Nigeria. He holds a Master degree in Information Science from the University of Ibadan and is currently doing doctoral research at the same University. His research areas are ICT use in teaching and learning, and library automation, among others. Philip Balcaen is an Associate Professor at in Education at The University of British Columbia in Canada. His general research focus is the pedagogy of critical thinking in mathematics and science education. His educational technology interests include embedding critical thinking pedagogy within elearning environments with an emerging interest in apps development involving teaching “tools for thought.”

Gezani Baloyi taught at several secondary and primary schools in the Mopani District, Limpopo Province. He has nearly 21 years of teaching experience. While working as a teacher, he attended teacher education conferences and workshops. He also presented papers at national and international conferences in teacher education. Taofik Bello is a Librarian at the Nimbe Adedipe Library, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun state. His area of specialization includes cataloguing, classification and reference service. Dr Vladlena Benson is a course director of the MA Management programme at Kingston Business School, and a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Informatics and Operations Management. Vladlena's research interests are in the are of social networking and information security, while her research is recognised by the British Academy of Management ( BAM) and Association of MBA's. Aaron Bere is a Lecturer and an Academic Researcher in the School of ICT at the Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein South Africa. Prior to this, he lectured at various private institutions; he also worked as an Information Processing Offer for Zimbabwean Home Affairs. His research objective is to enhance Higher Education teaching and learning through Mobile Learning. Riana Bester is presently an Educational Advisor (Blended Learning) at CTI Education Group, Johannesburg. She is involved in research as well as professional development of lecturers; with a special interest is the empowerment of “mature” technology users. She is finalizing her M.Ed studies under Professor Geoffrey Lautenbach at the Faculty of Education of the University of Johannesburg. Jitka Bezdekova is a MSc student of Machine Design at the University of West Bohemia. Her dissertation is concerned with the design of a hydraulic press. She is also an employee of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, where she participates in the enhancement of teaching process. Moira Bladergroen graduated from the University of the Western Cape (PhD, 1999). She is now working as Research Coordinator and Post-Doctoral Fellow in the Department of Information Systems at the University of Cape Town. She is a qualified Medical Technologist (Specialized in Hematology) and qualified Pastoral Care and Councilor (MTh from the University of Stellenbosch). Dr Cheryl Brown is a Senior Lecturer in the Centre for Educational Technology at the University of Cape Town. She completed her PhD in Information Systems in 2011 focusing on what technology means to students and how this influences the way they use technology at university. Her research focuses on digital literacy and identity particularly amongst first year university students. Jekaterina Bule is lecturer at Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia. She received her Ph.D. in Computer Science in 2011 with the thesis “Student model-based adaptive e-learning methods”. Her main scientific interests are Computer-Based Teaching and Learning Systems (CBTLS); Distance Learning; Adaptation Methods in CBTLS; Models in CBTLS; Modern Technologies in CBTLS. Lillian Buus is a part-time PhD Candidate in E-learning Lab and head of the E-learning Unit, Aalborg University. In my research I am looking at the learning potentials within the use of Web 2.0 and based on that developing a learning methodology. Kevin Chan is a Research Assistant Professor at the Department of Applied Social Sciences, Hong Kong Polytechnic University. His research foci include personal and academic development in the adolescence and emerging adulthood context, community psychology, and mobile learning in the higher education setting. Patricia Rudo Chikuni is a PhD student at University of Cape Town, Department of Information Systems. She is currently a lecturer at the National University of Science and Technology in Zimbabwe. She has a Masters in Archives & Records Management from the University of Botswana and a BSc Hons Library and Information Science. Gil Cleeton is contributing faculty at Walden University. He was Senior Research Fellow in the Department of Communication and Neuroscience at Keele University in England, developing electronic signal processors for cochlear implants in Europe and America. Lorraine Cleeton has been teaching and conducting research in education for over 30 years. She is contributing faculty at Walden University and mentors Ph.D and Ed.D.students. Her research interests are in learning barriers in online learning,

cognitive style, problem solving and external representations, working memory, dyslexia and dyscalculia and assistive technology. Dr. Pieter Conradie is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) at the Vaal University of Technology, focusing on the use of ICT in education, specifically mobile devices. Eduardo Correia is a senior lecturer in the Department of Computing at the Christchurch Polytechnic Institute of Technology, New Zealand. His particular interest is virtualisation technologies, including VMware, Microsoft Hyper-V on Windows Server 2008 R2 and Windows Server 2012. He and colleague, Ricky Watson, have designed and built TechLabs, a teaching network based on virtualization. Dr Susan Crichton has taught in rural and urban K-12 schools. She is a visiting professor with Aga Khan University – Institute of Educational Development, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and a Fellow of the Commonwealth Centre of Education, Cambridge and has worked on development projects in rural western China. Her research explores innovative uses of technology to foster creativity and imagination. Franci Cronje is an academic entrepreneur with a PhD in Media Studies obtained from the University of Cape Town. She is also a filmmaker and artist. Passionate about Critical Studies, multimodal discourse, Border Crossing Theory with a focus on adolescent cultural identities and the academic argument, she specializes in visual culture as popular communication. Johannes Cronje is the dean of the Faculty of Informatics and Design at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Before that he was a professor in computers and education at the University of Pretoria for 14 years. He has supervised or cosupervised about 100 Masters and 45 Doctoral students and has more than 30 publications Cecilia Funmilayo Daramola is a Librarian at the Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State Nigeria, graduated from University of Ile-Ife now Obafemi Awolowo University holds B. Education/Religious studies and MLS from University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Her research interest is in resource Management, Continuous Education in Librarianship and users services. Andrew Deacon is an educational technologist and learning designer at the University of Cape Town’s Centre for Educational Technology where he works on learning analytics projects, teaches learning design courses and develops online learning activities. He has an MSc in Computer Science and 14 years of experience in educational technology. Olga Despi is currently working as a Modern/Ancient Greek language/literature teacher at Pierce-The American School of Greece. She has studied Greek Philology at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens with a specialisation in Linguistics and she did her MA in ICT in Education at King’s College London. Her research interests focus mainly on Greek Education and ICT. Jerome Terpase Dooga is an innovator in technology for teaching at the University where he teaches English. He co-hosted emerge 2012, presented the first seminar in the emerge Africa Network (2012), and papers at eLearning Africa (2009 and 2010). He won an eLearning Fellowship (2008) and the Melon Scholarship for Educational Technology (2010). Dr Martina A. Doolan is a UK National Teaching Fellow and a Principal Lecturer in Computer Science at the University of Hertfordshire in the UK. Martina's research interests include social, collaborative/community learning, assessment-oriented learning and the use of technology. See madoolan.com, interested in working with me I welcome your email m.a.doolan@herts.ac.uk. Razep Echeng is a 2nd year Ph.D. student in computing school at the university of the West of Scotland, having previously held an administrative position as systems analyst and a Network administrator. She holds a B.Sc. in Computer Science an Msc in Advance computer systems Development from the University of the West of Scotland. Ralph Ellis, Ph.D., P.E. is currently an Associate Professor at the University of Florida, Department of Civil and Coastal Engineering, where he teaches Construction Engineering. In his current position he actively engages in performing research on both regional and national projects relating to infrastructure renewal. Dr. Ellis is a registered professional engineer in Florida Daniela Gachago has worked in the field of eLearning since 2002 and is currently based at the Center for Higher Education Development at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology as a lecturer in Educational Technology. Her research interests are in the use of emerging technologies, such as social media, digital stories and clickers in teaching and learning. Roelien Goede is an associate professor at the Vaal Triangle Campus of the North-West University in Vanderbijlpark, South Africa. Her research interests are systems thinking, education of technology based subjects and data warehousing. xii

Leila Goosen (PhD) is an Associate Professor in the School of Computing at the Muckleneuk Campus (Pretoria) of the University of South Africa. Prof. Goosen is the module leader and designer of the College for Science, Engineering and Technology’s fully online signature module currently being rolled out to an estimated 30 000 students in 2013. Miroslav Grach is a PhD student of Machine Design at the University of West Bohemia. The subject of his doctoral study is the Development of new technologies and methods in the field of reverse engineering and retrofitting. He is an employee of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, where he is involved in the enhancement of teaching process. Kholekile Gwebu is an Associate Professor of Decision Sciences at the University of New Hampshire. His research interests are in e-commerce and decision support systems. His research has appeared in journals such as Decision Support Systems, Journal of Information Systems, Journal of Strategic Information Systems, and Journal of Electronic Commerce Research. Professor Mohamed Ziad Hamdan is Educational Expert at the Arab Bureau of Education for Gulf States, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. He holds a B.A with honors from Damascus University Syria; M.Sc. from Bemidji State University, and Ph.D. from Kent State University Ohio, USA. Ziad Hamdan has forty five years’ university experience in the USA and some Arab countries, and has published widely in Arabic and English Anita Hiralaal is an Accounting lecturer at the School of Education at the Durban University of Technology, the Programme Co-ordinator and Curriculum Champion. She has published an article in the South African Journal of Higher Education on “Students Experiences of Blended Learning” in 2012. She is presently completing a Ph D. Dr Martin Hynek is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the University of West Bohemia. He is engaged in a number of collaborative projects with industry. He is also the project leader of the teaching enhancement project of the Department of Machine Design. Eunice Ivala is coordinator of the Educational Technology Unit, Fundani Centre for Higher Education and Development, at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT). Her research focus is in ICT-mdiated teaching and learning in developing contexts. She is a team member in a national project on emerging technologies and their use in South African Higher Education Institutions to improve teaching and learning. Dr. Kamini Jaipal Jamani is an associate professor of science education at Brock University, Canada. She obtained her B.Ed in Durban, South Africa and her M.Ed and PhD in Canada. Her research focuses on science teaching and learning— how meaning-making occurs from a social semiotics perspective, technology integration in teacher education, and teacher professional development. Iman Janghorban has a BS in Software Engineering. He is interested in Web design and web development. His specialties are in C# language, SQL Server, ASP.NET Frame work, LINQ , Crystal Reports,CSS, JavaScript , JQuery and Photoshop. He is currently employed at the Department of Information & Communication Technology (ICT), Municipality of Isfahan Province, Iran. Martha Kabaka has been working as a researcher assistant since 2010 at the Centre for Innovative Educational and Communication Technologies (CIECT), University of the Western Cape. She holds a BA (Community Dev), Honours (Dev Studies) and has just completed her Master’s in Public Administration). Masego B. Kebaetse, PhD is an Instructional Support Specialist currently working as the Distance Learning Specialist at the University of Botswana School of Medicine. She has been helping faculty and learners use technology for the past 15 years. Additionally, she has been teaching computer literacy, instructional design, and educational technology courses since 1999. Tola Keshinro has a BSc in vocational and technical education from the University of Nigeria. He is senior lecturer and director of the Center for Lagos State Studies, and is currently working with Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Lagos, Nigeria. Simon Bhekimuzi Khoza (PhD) is a Co-ordinator and Lecturer of the Discipline of Curriculum Studies & Educational Technology at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. He coordinates different undergraduate and postgraduate programmes, and teaches and supervises postgraduate research in Curriculum Studies & Educational Technology. He has published in local and international journals. Marlena Kruger is working as Dean of Faculties at the CTI Education Group. She is actively involved with the research project focusing on the provision of e-books on tablet computers to all first year students. She has more than 23 years’ experience in different roles at several South African Universities. She has a doctoral degree in Education. xiii

Stephen Kyakulumbye is an online PhD Candidate in Policy Analysis at Walden University USA, and has MMs Project Planning and Management, PGD Project Planning and Management, Bachelor of Computer Education, Certificate in Education. He is the Assistant Research Coordinator at Uganda Christian University School of Business and Administration. David Lamas currently holds an Interaction Design Professorship at Tallinn University where he heads the Interaction Design Laboratory as well as the international master program on Interactive Media and Knowledge Environments. He also leads and participates in national and international research projects. David also tutors several master and doctoral level students as well as post-doc researchers. Emmanuel Lungile Howe is an Information Technology Consultant. He received his Master's degree in Business Information Systems from Tshwane University of Technology. His academic and research areas are Web 2.0 technologies, mobile and personalised learning in higher education. He is also the Member of the International Association of Computer Science and Information Technology (IACSIT). Jabulisiwe Mabila lectures information systems in the School of Computing at the University of South Africa. Her main area of research is Human-Computer Interaction. She has worked in IT in the banking industry and in government. She holds a P.G.D.E, DipDatametrics, Cert in Business Management (Analysis) and Hons BSc (Information Systems). Caroline Magunje currently works at the Africa University in Mutare, Zimbabwe. She has just completed an MEd dissertation at the University of Cape Town focusing on the role of mobile phones in facilitating learning amongst first year students. Dorothea Mathudi Dimpe is a lecturer at Tshwane University of Technology in the Faculty of Science, Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology. She specialises in Microbiology at undergraduate level. Her interest lies in innovative and interactive technology-enhanced teaching and learning using the emerging technologies such as online learning, clickers, mobile learning and web 2.0. Walter Matli academically holds a four year Cum Laude B-Tech degree in Information Technology (IT) and vice-chancellors academic award from Vaal University of Technology. Research focuses area Education and Information Technology. Rory McGreal is the UNESCO/Commonwealth of Learning Chair in Open Educational Resources (OER) at Athabasca University - Canada's Open University. He is also the director of the Technology Enhanced Knowledge Research Institute (TEKRI). His research interests include OER and mobile learning. Previously, he was Executive Director of Tele-education New Brunswick, a province-wide bilingual (French/English) distance learning network. Luvuyo Mkongo is an eLearning Consultant at the University of Fort Hare in the Teaching and Learning Centre. His primary responsibilities involve supporting academics and students with the use of technology for teaching and learning in the institution. He also provides administration support for the available LMS (Blackboard) across campuses. Portia Mokateko Mathimbi holds a BSc Honours degree in Informatics. She is a Juniour lecturer at the University of South Africa. She is currently studying towards an MSc degree in computing at the University of South Africa. Her topic is Formalisation of information security policies. Dr. Stephanie J Morgan is Associate Dean, Education, in the Faculty of Business & Law, Kingston University, Kingston Hill, UK. She is also a registered Occupational Psychologist. Dr. Ren Moses is a professor of civil engineering at the FAMU-FSU College of Engineering in Tallahassee, Florida, USA. Dr. Moses teaches graduate and undergraduate level courses in highway geometric design, traffic engineering and operations, highway safety analysis, intelligent transportation systems, and advanced traffic flow theory. Dr Jabu Mtsweni is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Computing at University of South Africa. He lectures Honours projects and Database Systems. His research interests are in Internet Computing, focusing on Internet of Services, Web Services, Semantic Services, Cloud Computing, and Mobile technologies. He holds a PhD in Computer Science from UNISA. Kaninda Musumbu is Associate Professor at University Bordeaux, Department of Computer Science, France. Her main research interests are in Artificial intelligence, Static analysis and Systems verification, Formal methods and Modelling, Search Techniques and Heuristics. She received an undergraduate degree in mathematics from UniversitĂŠ Libre de Bruxelles and a PHD from the University of Namur. Mala Naidoo completed her Masters Degree in Information Systems, while teaching Information Technology at Penryn College, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Teachers who attend the Penreach workshops have already experienced her passion for xiv

Computer Literacy, Mathematics and Cyber Awareness. She intends to spread the cyber awareness message to other schools in Mpumalanga. Charity Ndeya-Ndereya is a Senior Lecturer/Researcher in the Centre for Teaching and Learning at the University of the Free State in South Africa. She has a keen research interest in the integration of technology into teaching and learning processes for the benefit of all students including those with disabilities. Dick Ng’ambi is an Associate Professor in the Centre for Educational Technology at the University of Cape Town. He is the leading researcher in low-cost technologies with high educational impact. He holds an MSc in Computer Science from the University of Birmingham, UK, and a PhD in Information Systems from the University of Cape Town. Oathokwa Nkomazana, MD was among the founding faculty of the University of Botswana School of Medicine, which enrolled its first group of medical students in August 2009. She is a College of Ophthalmologists of South Africa certified ophthalmologist, with a Master’s degree in Community Eye Health. Currently, she is the Principal Investigator/Principal Director for three funded projects. Dr Vuyisile Nkonki works for the University of Fort Hare in the Teaching and Learning Centre (TLC) as Manager of the Teaching and Learning Centre, on the Alice campus. His specialty areas are policies governing education, research and development policies, professional development of teachers and lecturers, as well as assessment of students’ learning. Travis Noakes. My PhD in Media Studies explores the e-portfolio design choices that Visual Arts learners make. It draws from my professional expertise in design, internet- and brand management. My ICEL2013 paper on the online creative productions of students results from research assistant work for the Centre for Educational Technology at the University of Cape Town. Siyanda.Ntlabathi is a Teaching and Learning Consultant at the Teaching and Learning Centre of the University of Fort Hare. Her main focus areas are providing support in e-Learning, curriculum development and foundation provisioning. She is currently doing a Masters in ICT in Education (Med). Pius Olatunji Olaojo holds PhD in School Media from the Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan. He is a Research Fellow at the Abadina Media Resource Centre. His research interest areas spans library management, and Library organization, mong others. Gbolahan Olasina is a doctoral student at the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa. Mr. Olasina has authored several publications. He is a lecturer at the Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Communication and Information Sciences, University of Ilorin, Nigeria currently on study leave. Timothy Olson is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Minnesota in the Information Decision Science Department. Tim has been teaching information system courses successfully using e-textbooks and wiki sites for several years. Tim has published several articles and numerous presentations on e-learning, enterprise system implementation and team building projects. Brown Onguko is Assistant Professor at the Aga University – Institute for Educational Development, East Africa (IED EA). Teaching areas: ICT in Education and Educational Leadership. Research interests: Mobile and Blended Learning. Brown earned his PhD at the University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Brown is currently leading the ICT Research and Innovation Group at IED EA. Dr Shireen Panchoo is head of IT department and lecturer at the University of Technology, Mauritius in the School of Innovative Technologies and Engineering. In 2001 she embarked on e-learning and obtained her PhD in 2010 from the CergyPontoise University, Paris. She is an online tutor and online supervisor for distant learners at Masters Level in France. Patient Rambe (PhD.) is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in the Department of Computer Science and Informatics and a former Assistant Director of International Academic Projects at the University of the Free State, South Africa. His research interest is the innovative pedagogical use of social media and appropriation of emerging Web-based technologies in resourceconstrained academic environments. Ms Rolda Rapotu is the Provincial Programme Manager for Information Society Development at the Limpopo Economic Development Agency in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. She is responsible for the implementation of INSPIRE programme in Limpopo. This programme was funded by the Government of Finland and piloted in the provinces of Limpopo and the Northern Cape. She has more than five years’ experience in ICT for socio-economic development in disadvantaged communities

Brenda Ravenscroft, Ph.D., In her position as Associate Dean in the Faculty of Arts and Science at Queen’s University, is responsible for teaching and learning initiatives in the faculty, including a large-scale, outcomes-based blended learning project to transform introductory courses, the expansion of online studies through Continuing and Distance Studies, and quality enhancement. Robertson Reid has a B.Sc (Maths, Chemistry) from Rhodes University, B. Tech from Vaal University of Technology, and is currently doing research for M.Tech I.T. He is a Lecturer in Logic, Programming, Web Design and Management. Previously he worked for 25 years in the corporate world as an Industrial Engineer. Dr. Ilse Rootman-le Grange obtained her PhD in Chemical Biology in January 2012 at Stellenbosch University. In 2012 she was appointed as a post-doctoral research fellow at the institution, where she currently is part of the chemistry education research group. Her current research is focused on the use of ICTs in tertiary chemistry education. Dr. Soveacha Ros is an education and training consultant providing sound principles and strategies to the Division of Human Health, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria. He initiates Educational Quality Assurance for Adult Learners model. In Cambodia, he is an adjunct professor at Royal University of Phnom Penh. He gives consultancy to education institutions worldwide. Osman Sadeck is the Chief Education Specialist: e-Learning in the Western Cape Education Department, South Africa. He holds a MEd (e-Learning) from the University of Technology, Sydney, Australia, and is currently a Doctoral student at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. He has presented papers at numerous national and international conferences. Dr. Ahmed Salem is an Assistant Professor at the faculty of Engineering, King Abdul Aziz University at KAU. He graduated from CMU, PA, USA and he is interested in Active Learning, E-Learning and Excellence in engineering teaching. His contributions include a Design Helping Mechanism for Active Learning Courses that aid in designing learning experiences. Ulrich Schmitt’s career covers IT and management consultancy projects, professorships, and academic management positions in Europe and Southern Africa. He studied Management, Industrial Engineering, Computer Applications, Science and Research Management in Berlin, Cranfield, Basel, and Speyer. Currently, he is setting up an enterprise for Educational Services and Personal Knowledge Management Solutions in Southern Africa (pkm.knowcations.net). Mmafani Serote holds a B-Tech in Commerce Education. She is a Junior Lecturer at the University of South Africa. She is currently a Master’s in Business Information Systems student at Tshwane University of Technology and her topic is Media Richness and Social Presence in an Open Distance Learning Environment. Ngcapu Sibongile is an Instructional Designer at Tshwane University of Technology. She obtained her Master's degree in Computer Based Education at the University of Johannesburg. She is interested in the utilization of technology for teaching and learning and intends to register a research project for the PHD in Computer Based Education in 2013 at the University of Johannesburg. Sibongile Simelane is a DEd candidate in the Faculty of Humanities, Department of Mathematics and Science at Tshwane University of Technology, as well as a senior Instructional Designer at the Department of Teaching and Learning with Technology. Research interests include technology-enhanced teaching and learning, online training and empowerment, eassessment and emerging technologies in teaching and learning. Imelda Smit is a lecturer at the Vaal Triangle Campus of the North-West University in Vanderbijlpark, South Africa. She is subject chair of Information Technology and lectures Systems Analysis and Design to second year students. Her research interests are the philosophy of Dooyeweerd and education of Information Technology subjects. Sonia Sousa holds a PhD in Education from Sheffield Hallam University, UK and an honors degree in Communication Engineering from Universidade Fernando Pessoa, Portugal. She is currently researching the influence of trust in online communities. Her R&D work includes Michigan State University's MIND Lab, United States of America and Universidade Fernando Pessoa Multimedia Research Center, Portugal. Kristian Stewart is a faculty member in the Writing Program and the University of Michigan-Dearborn. In addition, she is also a doctoral student in the School of Education at the same university and currently holds a King-Chavez-Park Fellowship in support of her doctoral work. Juliet Stoltenkamp, Head of the Centre for Innovative Educational and Communication Technologies (CIECT) at the University of the Western Cape, manages the integration and implementation of educational technologies; and cultivates leadership on xvi

a strategic, developmental and operational level. She has worked as an educator; instructional designer; manager; and in academic policy decision-making bodies in higher education institutions. Vusi Tsabedze is a Senior Consultant and Head of Discipline: Business Management & Information Technology. He is an accredited trainer and assessor in the vocational sector through Botswana Training Authority. He holds a MA in Information Studies with University of Zululand. His research interests include electronic records management and e-government. James Uhomoibhi is an academic of international standing; He is a Nigerian LEADS Scholar and a MEX Scholar in the UK. He is a fellow of the BCS, The Chartered Institute for IT, a fellow of the Higher Education Academy and a Chartered Physicist. He is widely published and coordinates E-learning activities in his university. Dr. Patrick Uko is a native of Abak Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. He went through all formal schooling and served as a classroom teacher at various levels of education. He is currently the provost of the College of Education, Afaha Nsit, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Dr. Uko has written and published many articles in national and international journals. Dr Petr Votapek is a lecturer of Machine Design at the University of West Bohemia. His PhD was about the Reducing material and energy demands in the field of curing presses. He is an employee of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, where he is involved in the enhancement of teaching process. Jing Wang is an Assistant Professor of Decision Sciences at the University of New Hampshire. Her research focuses on the areas of IT Outsourcing, Open Source Software, and e-commerce. Her work has been published in Decision Support Systems, Journal of Strategic Information Systems, Journal of Business Research and Journal of Information Systems. Carlton Watson received his baccalaureate and doctoral physics degrees from Prairie View A and M University and The University of Iowa respectively. An experimental condensed matter physicist by training, he has worked in the semiconductor industry in the United States and is currently an associate professor of physics at The College of The Bahamas. Ricky Watson is a senior lecturer in the Department of Computing at Christchurch Polytechnic Institute of Technology, New Zealand. He has a particular interest in virtualisation technologies, having used VMware since 2001 and more recently worked extensively with VMware cloud technologies platform. He and colleague, Eduardo Correia, designed and built TechLabs, a teaching network based on virtualisation. Professor Denise Wood is Associate Head, Teaching and Learning, School of Communication, International Studies and Languages, University of South Australia, and an Extraordinary Professor (adjunct), at the University of the Western Cape, South Africa. Her research focuses on the use of digital technologies to improve learning outcomes and the social participation of young people from disadvantaged backgrounds. Azliza Yacob is a lecturer and a researcher at Terengganu Advanced Technical Institute University College (TATiUC). She holds a Master of Science (Information Technology â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Manufacturing) and a Bachelor of Science (Computer) at University Technology Malaysia (UTM). Her research interests include Computer programming, Quality control, education and computer industry. Her main research concentrates on adapting manufacturing techniques into the learning process. Malie Zeeman is a lecturer in Computer Science at the Vaal Triangle campus of North-West University. She is a Masters student in serious games as teaching tool. Her specific field of interest is computer programming and system design and development.

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Digital Immigrant Students’ Adoption of Online Community of Inquiry: FUTA Case Study Peter Aborisade, Titi Fola‐Adebayo and Funmi Olubode Sawe General Studies Unit, Federal University of Technology Akure, Akure, Nigeria baborisade2002@yahoo.com vinefort@yahoo.com saweff@yahoo.co.uk Abstract: Large parts of sub‐Sahara Africa lag behind in the adoption and integration of digital learning technologies in educational practice. The concept of Community of Inquiry is one way to set up a viable learning experience for fostering critical/reflective thinking. The FUTA case study explains how in EAP course the Blended Learning environment fosters Community of Inquiry. The course adopts project and enquiry‐based method in which students organise themselves in working teams; collaborate to research a general topical theme popularly chosen in class but with each team deciding their perspectives. The online discussion forum affords learners the platform to exchange ideas and leverage one another’s skills and knowledge; suggest solutions, as well as pose and answer one another’s questions. This paper reports the set up, drawing evidence from students’ activities and responses to a Constructivist On‐Line Learning Environment survey on the Moodle VLE using 4 data sets and shows how the Community of Inquiry framework applies in this context. The data were treated using eclectic methods that involved extraction i.e. going through the term papers to identify the topmost headings. The titles are then assigned to a specific focus. Student activities and perspectives in their interactions indicated the development of critical and reflective thinking, even in their foundation year. The paper concludes that indeed in low resourced and technology poor environments, Africa’s ‘digital immigrant’ youth can make critical contributions to sustainable development if educational practices shift the paradigms of teaching and learning. Keywords: community of inquiry, moodle, blended learning, large classes

1. Introduction Changes to the practice of teaching and learning have come in large doses. These reflect in the epistemological and pedagogical spheres, and are manifest in shifts from ‘objectivism’ to ‘constructivism’ and from ‘behaviourism’ to ‘socio‐cognitivism’. In turn, these shifts have found expression in practical methods in the curriculum and the classroom. Perhaps of immense importance for educational change is the incorporation of digital technology and the internet into the learning process. Despite the impact of the explosion in these changes on practice, large parts of sub‐Sahara Africa lag behind. Learning by rote, teacher as oracle and ‘mute’ students in low resourced, technology poor environments are common place. The several constraints of space, large classes and grossly inadequate facilities continue, and teachers have the task to be adaptive and resourceful. For sub‐Sahara Africa to get on the sustainable development track, considerable effort in the development of its human resource through the educational process is required. The challenge of creating suitable learning environments, in spite of obvious constraints, got the team of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) teachers of the Federal University of Technology Akure (FUTA) to begin a process of technology integration to create innovative learning spaces online to foster interaction leading to language proficiency and competence. Results of initial efforts led to the expansion of the goals and adoption of the concept of Community of Inquiry (CoI) for one of the courses (Integrated Reading and Writing). This paper reports the results of a study that investigated the response of digital immigrant fresh students (3000+/cohort) of FUTA, Nigeria to the use of technology for the first time in their learning and attempt to give voice to the ‘voiceless’. The course, apart from aiming to foster language proficiency through various levels of interaction, has the objective of raising students’ meta‐cognitive skills of critical/reflective thinking by blending national and continental concerns into the curriculum and building a sustainable learning ethos that can drive sustainable development. The paper examines the principles that undergird the design of the course within the framework of CoI, discusses the implementation and draws on evidence from students’ activities to determine its impact and promise for changing educational practice.

Peter Aborisade, Titi Fola‐Adebayo and Funmi Olubode Sawe

2. Context FUTA, like most universities in Nigeria, has a General Studies Unit, to cater for the Arts and Social Science subjects as service courses, and the ‘Use of English’ (EAP) courses are aimed to remediate students’ language shortfalls and assist their development of academic skills. All students take the in‐sessional courses in the foundation year. The course grew out of a long established programme that became difficult to manage for two reasons: outdated pedagogy and rising student enrolment. Nigerian universities have triple constraints of few teachers, large classes and grossly inadequate facilities. Enrolment continues to increase with freshmen now accounting for about 3000+ each year, but staff strength has remained low – five. The two EAP courses come one in each of two semesters of the year. Both courses are credit bearing and students need a pass grade in each one to graduate. In the first semester GNS 101 has the objective to equip students with information literacy and study skills, while GNS 102 is ‘integrated reading and writing’ designed to equip students with skills in reading and writing in academic contexts and research skills.

3. Theoretical framework Shea (2006:35) suggests that to make a rational choice about “any pedagogical strategy or approach in teaching and learning, it is helpful to examine the underlying epistemological, philosophical, and theoretical assumptions that such strategies and approaches reflect”. The EAP programme has gone through three distinct phases in pedagogical development (1982 – 1990; 1991 – 2007; 2008 – present). As enunciated elsewhere (Aborisade, 2010), phase one followed the traditional grammar translation and structuralist approach, employing essentially behaviourist drills. Phase two was structured along the tenets of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), a humanist approach that focuses on the learner, their motivations and learning styles. Reports of CLT applications by Robinson (1978), Bloor and St. John (1988) and Hyland and Hyland (1992), among others, provided the principles that informed our practice. The curriculum was tasks‐ and skills‐ focused, and problem‐based. The third phase witnessed the integration of technology and the adoption of a Blended Learning approach with emphasis on socio‐constructivist methods of creating innovative learning spaces, engagement of learners in taking control of their learning, fostering authentic learning through inquiry‐ based projects, and creating opportunities for student‐student and student‐teacher interactions. Initial foundation for this was laid by the works of Beatty (2003) and Dudeney and Hockly (2007) on teaching language with technology, and several hours of professional development. This third phase was necessitated by the non‐interactive and ineffective conduct of the face‐to‐face (F2F) large class situation, the need to extend student contact and engagement with language materials and using the language more in authentic situations. LoCastro (2001), among others, suggests that when a language class exceeds 15 in number problems arise. The course with 3000+ students with five teachers, competing demands on few classrooms and time‐tabling problems required a new approach. The Blended Learning approach, enabled teachers to work within the F2F (faculty’s comfort zone) while they learn to incorporate Web 2.0 in a gradual process. Blended Learning is particularly useful in the current context, as indicated in Rodriguez and Anicete (2010:792), “creating learning tasks for students which involve an online discussion can be particularly effective.” They referred to reports suggesting that students were more successful in the hybrid courses than they were in purely web‐based or traditional courses. When the affordances of a virtual learning environment are well utilised the environment offers opportunities to expand learning spaces, increase student engagement with materials and foster interactions beyond what is possible in F2F environments. Scholars (Applebee, 1984) agree that it is the reflective and explicit nature of written communication that encourages discipline and rigour in human thinking and communication. Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework offers us an opportunity to examine the model of interactions offered by blended learning as described in this study. The concept of “Community of Practice” as elaborated by Lave and Wenger (1991) with characteristics that include the ‘domain’, ‘community’ and ‘practice’ applies, as communities are formed around issues of identity and shared values. But the enunciations of Garrison et al (2000) of CoI offer a framework to explain some of the achievements of the course in this study. Garrison et al’s (2000) model, of ‘teaching presence’, ‘social presence’ and ‘cognitive presence’, is framed mainly for Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) but the indicators as constituents of an educational experience, as in Lave and Wenger’s (1991) ‘domain’, ‘community’ and ‘practice’ apply equally to F2F environment. As such a

Peter Aborisade, Titi Fola‐Adebayo and Funmi Olubode Sawe Blended Learning environment may be said to demonstrate a richer community of inquiry as it offers a fuller experience of both environments. Central to the community is ‘cognitive presence’, the reason for all the processes of cognition – “the extent to which the participants … are able to construct meaning through sustained communication” (Garrison et al., 2000: 89). The second component is ‘social presence’ which has to do with how participants in the CoI project and present themselves as “real people”. The third is ‘teaching presence’, made up of two characteristics: design of the educational experience and facilitation of learning.

4. The course GNS 102 is a foundation EAP course for freshmen undergraduates. It is titled Integrated Reading – Writing and adopts the Blended Learning approach using the open source Moodle VLE. Each year some 3000+ students take the course. Offline students meet in lecture theatres, form project working groups to research an issue. Online, affordances for activities include a general forum, the group forum, group wiki, the teaching materials platform, and micro‐blog and assignment submission platforms. Each year, a topic of social interest is selected by lecturers, discussed and adopted in class. Students narrow the general theme to reflect their group perspectives, research their sub‐themes within the local communities, develop part of the essay on a group collaborative wiki before submitting their finished term papers on the University learning site: http://www.futa.edu.ng/futaelearningdirect.com.

5. Methodology This paper examines samples of activities on the course including online forum postings; essays submitted online and extractable data from the VLE, of three cohorts over a period of three years, 2010, 2011 and 2012. Three data sets of activities and one of a survey were used for this research. The first (SET A) comprises titles of essays on Climate Change written in 2010 by 305 groups from 24 departments spread across five of the six schools in the University. The term papers of students from the three departments in one of the schools of were excluded from this research because the students have greater opportunity of interacting with subject specialists who had exposed them to expert knowledge on climate change prior to the writing task. Data SET B is from 249 essays on HIV/AIDS written by 1245 students in 2011. As in A, the titles of the essays were copied but in addition, the conclusions and/or recommendations of each of the essays was also recorded, as these sections represent their contribution to the discussion of a social issue that has the potential to affect their lives. Data SET C comprises 9699 posts culled from the online General Forum and five Group Forums on the theme ‘Population Growth and Pressure on Resources’. Title extraction was done by going through the term papers to identify the topmost headings. The titles are then assigned to a specific focus, (e.g. what climate change affects) if they contained a pre‐determined keyword such as effect/impact. In the case of forum posts, the subject of the post as indicated by the poster was used to group the posts. For example, posts with such subjects as ‘outline’/’outlining’/’how to write an outline’ are grouped under OUTLINING.

6. Analyses For data set A, the paper analyzed the titles of essays by 305 groups. The analytical approach for Data set B is the same as for A; 249 essays constitute the data for this and the intent was to gauge their awareness and perspectives of a social issue ‐ HIV/AIDS, by looking at their essay topics. For analysing Data set C, postings from the students’ discussion forums were sorted into categories informed by Garrison, Anderson and Archer’s (2000) model which specifies three elements: cognitive presence, social presence and teaching presence. The specific indicators for each of the three elements were obtained from the analysis of computer‐conferencing transcripts. The data set was organized into the three categories and analyzed. For cognitive presence, the phases of critical cognitive inquiry include: triggering an event; exploration, integration and resolution. For social presence, the indicators are emotional expression, open communication and group cohesion; while Indicators for teaching presence include: instructional management, building understanding and direct instruction.

Peter Aborisade, Titi Fola‐Adebayo and Funmi Olubode Sawe

7. Results and discussion Students’ perspectives on climate change Students’ perspectives on climate change are grouped into categories and these are presented in Tables 1 and 2 below. These perceptions are deduced from their essay titles, whether their focus is on the causes, effects, implications or management of climate change. For example, in writing on a cause of climate change, each group would either use the term ‘climate change’ or name a particular phenomenon that they considered to constitute climate change. As the first table shows, rainfall quantity and quality was the most significant indicator of climate change as perceived by the students, followed by rising temperature. This is to be expected of people living in tropical Africa. Only 9.2% of the 305 essays presented information on ways of retarding the progress or minimizing the impact of climate change. Table 2 presents the mitigation strategies identified. Table 1: Indicators of climate change Indicators Rainfall Quality and Quantity indicator not specified Temperature Greenhouse effect Flood/erosion Ocean surge Ozone loss Desertification Humidity Air pollution Total

No 81 73 59 34 16 14 10 08 05 05 305

% 26.5 23.9 19.3 11.1 5.2 4.6 3.2 2.6 1.6 1.6 100

Table 2: Students’ perceptions of the mitigation strategies for climate change STRATEGY PROPOSED Alternative / Renewable Energy

% of essays 5.3

Local efforts

3.9

None

90.8

EXEMPLAR ESSAYS

AUTHOR

Minimizing greenhouse emission in Ewekoro cement factory through the use of wind and solar energy Mitigating the effects of greenhouse emission on the environment through the use of solar/geothermal energy in PZ (Patterson Zocchonis) Industry Lagos 2009. Reducing the effect of greenhouse emission on the environment through the use of ammonia in large cold stores in Lagos in 2008. Minimizing the problems of ozone layer depletion through proper servicing of automobile engine in Agege, Lagos State.

CVE 13

Local contribution to efforts in combating global warming An evaluation of the response of the Lagos State Government to climate change Essay’s focus is not on the strategies for mitigating climate change problems

MEE 19

MEE 6 MEE 16 IDD 12 STA 7

Minimal attention was paid to the causes of climate change and mitigation. The few who wrote on the causes have identified man as the main culprit. The causes identified are correct but show a very narrow viewpoint. For example, bush burning was not identified as a possible cause of CO2 emission that can cause O3 depletion. Yet, this is a common agricultural practice that can be controlled. Similarly, other human activities in which students participate and which could contribute to the global CO2 burden including dependence on generators and unchecked daytime consumption of fossil fuels are not mentioned. Of greater concern is the negligible interest in what can be done to mitigate the effects or to slow down the process. More need be done on educating students in this regard. HIV/AIDS Table 3 presents aggregation of essay titles/perspectives chosen by student‐groups, and suggests their areas of interest. Table 4 shows actual titles, examples of areas of focus, and some of their conclusions or

Peter Aborisade, Titi Fola‐Adebayo and Funmi Olubode Sawe recommendations, representing their own contribution to the social issue that has the potentiality to affect their lives. Students seemed to show more creativity and concern on this subject matter than they did on climate change. This may be because HIV presents more pressing problems. Table 3: Focus of essays on HIV/AIDS (249) Focus Transmission Prevention Mother –to‐child/HIV/AIDS in children Attitudes to PLWHA/Stigmatization Socio‐economic impact/effect Awareness Origin of HIV Signs and symptoms Treatment/management Vulnerability to aids

No 97 41 34 23 13 11 10 7 7 6

% 38.9 16.4 13.7 9.2 5.2 4.4 4.0 2.8 2.8 2.4

Table 4: Typical essay titles on HIV/AIDS and Recommendations FOCUS TRANSMISSION

EXEMPLAR ESSAY TITLE URP01: Life style choices that increase the risk of HIV/AIDS transmission in Nigerian universities AEE01: THE ROLES OF NGOS TO THE CONTROL OF HIV/AIDS IN ADO‐EKITI

CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATION … aristo life style, living couples life, and possession of multiple sex partners has put the risk of transmission of HIV/AIDS on the increase

MOTHER –TO‐CHILD TRANSMISSION/ HIV/ADS IN CHILDREN

ARC07: THE PREVENTION OF MOTHER‐TO‐CHILD TRANSMISSION OF HIV/AIDS IN IJOKA, AKURE, ONDO STATE.

In the rural areas where they find it difficult to pay for hospital services, government should make checking of HIV/AIDS status free

ATTITUDES TO PLWHA/ STIGMATIZATION

ESM‐18: COUNTER–ATTACK AGAINST HIV / AIDS STIGMATIZATION IN YORUBA LAND AGP 13: THE ROLE OF ICT IN HIV/AIDS PREVENTIVE EDUCATION IN ONDO STATE QSV20: IMPACT OF AIDS ON AKURE SOUTH COMMUNITY AREA, ONDO STATE

This occurs where religious leaders are inducing the spirit of complete hatred in their congregation towards those people living with HIV/AIDS through their sermon. Mobile phones have also been used for communicating information on HIV testing places and counseling services This term paper documents the wide‐ranging impacts of AIDS: on population size and growth and national mortality levels; on families and households; the health sector; education, and the community at large… During a group discussion with young girls in Lagos, need for material gain such as latest clothes …

PREVENTION/ CONTROL

AWARENESS

SOCIO‐ECONOMIC IMPACT/EFFECT

VULNERABILITY TO AIDS

IDD15: Vulnerability of girls to HIV in Lagos state

To catch the attention of students during sensitization, the NGOS make use of languages and terms that will interest the students

Forum postings on population and pressure on resources Of a total of 9699 posts made on the carrier content of population and pressure on resources, 54.2% were initiations and 45.8% replies to queries raised. This suggests that slightly over half the population of the class was eager to start the interaction while the rest provided feedback on the issues discussed; the issues raised exceeded the responses given. Further analysis on the nature of the responses shows that real content was 20.7%, carrier content had more posts (34.1%) and non‐academic topics had the largest number of posts (45.2%). Table 5 presents information on the real content of the writing skills course: issues concerned with the writing process, sections of the term paper (product) and grammar (since this is after all a language course), as the skills the students reflected and wrote on. The process of writing, the major concern of the course, engaged the students more actively as the largest percentage of the posts focussed on key issues: writing the

Peter Aborisade, Titi Fola‐Adebayo and Funmi Olubode Sawe introduction (21.7%), writing term papers (15.2%), outlining (11.3%), essay structuring (10.5%) recommendation (6.1%) and thesis statement (5.6%). The forum posts afforded students the opportunity to get started on the assigned tasks, wade their way through the initial confusion of understanding the task, getting a point of view, negotiating meanings and collaborating on the assigned task. Apart from discussing issues that deal with the assignment other topics were mentioned: aspects of grammar, information on group meeting times, plagiarism etc. Table 5: Forum real content: Writing skills Writing Skills Introduction Writing term papers Outlining Essay structure Recommendation Thesis statement GNS 102 course /class Grammar Field experience Conclusion Information on meeting times Interview References Wiki Research question Plagiarism Punctuation Total

Number of items 436 306 227 210 123 112 111 99 94 65 55 55 30 24 22 20 20 2009

Percentage 21.7 15.2 11.3 10.5 6.1 5.6 5.5 5.0 4.7 3 2.8 2.8 1.5 1.2 1.1 1 1 100%

Table 6 displays information on students’ perspectives on the carrier content. Carrier content here refers to the content through which students practise their writing skills, i.e., the subject of their term papers. Through the issues raised in Table 5, students were able to collaborate and think their way through to the points of views in Table 6. Table 6: Forum carrier content: population growth and pressure on resources Carrier Content Overpopulation/Population pressure Deforestation/Forest resources Migration/emigration/immigration Birthrate/death rate Climate change/environmental problems Electricity Abortion Homosexuality Epidemics Total

Number of Items 2135 313 280 197 170 129 60 13 13 3310

Percentage 64.5 9.5 8.5 6 5.1 3.9 1.8 .4 .4 100%

The rest of the analyses are woven round the three elements that are essential to any educational transaction‐ cognitive presence, social presence and teaching presence. A community of inquiry is important in promoting higher‐order thinking as it affords learners the opportunity to negotiate meaning, diagnose problems and challenge accepted beliefs. Evidence of cognitive presence is seen in the forum posts student‐authors made. Table 7 provides examples. The ability of participants in a community of inquiry to project themselves socially and emotionally through medium of communication is crucial in establishing a community of learners. Aside this, a collaborative process where critical reflection and discourse are encouraged and practised should lead to desired outcomes. Table 8 presents examples on students’ active presence online: interlocutors self disclose, send feedback and rejoinders, ask questions, use first name terms, acknowledge posts, disagree with colleagues in a polite way and encourage collaboration through humour.

Peter Aborisade, Titi Fola‐Adebayo and Funmi Olubode Sawe Table 7: Categories, indicators and examples of cognitive presence Categories Triggering event

Exploration

Indicators (examples only) sense of puzzlement, questioning the applicability of course content

information exchange

Sample Statements After the class with Mrs … , i was wondering the folowing.please guys and girls what are the usefulness of summary writing taking a course like Physics102?.. Ojo you mentioned conraddiscountinuity is it a boundary beneath the earth?, if so what boundary does it mark cause this is my first time of reading this.thank you Re: What are the effect of Just google�adverse effect of coffee drinking on the human coffee on the brain� There is no brain? need for words.

Table 8: Categories, indicators and examples of social presence Categories Emotional Expression Open Communication

Indicators (examples only) self‐ disclosure of feelings mutual awareness – response & rejoinder

direct questions, some featuring the use of first names appreciation, agreement with others’ acknowledgement of posts

agreeing, and extending the discussion

emphasizing point of agreement before disagreement

Sample Statements

am not happy with my research location.my group and I have wasted over #2000 on transportation,before we were attended to was another case entirely. discussion initiation with 5 of 94 replies

Should abortion be legalize in Nigeria?what are your views? Legalizing abortion would be inappropraite in controlling population.It is inhuman to abort as it is … Absolute no ,abstinence is the best. Sorry o. Olamipo why do think it should be legalized Tina do you want me to believe you... Abiodun don't you think … Thanks, yes, you are right. You are right Naim Yes, thanks Babatunde, you are right After much delibrationsamongs the class reps of BCH,PHY,CHEM and S.M.A.T..a conclusion was drawn that the GNS102 class is scheduled for 3pm today at LT1(4TH SEPT.2012)please i implore you all to come.Thanks..''(LAMBERT)'' You are right in your complains about population.If you would agree with me china,usa,india are even more populous than our nation nigeria and you find out that they are still living above average …. That is right,a case study helps us to know more about a particular subject area,discipline or topic you are right,butwat can we do? that is right but I don't think the increasing rate of students population is having any side effect on the university health center

Group Cohesion

disagreeing with a colleague in an agreeable way encouraging collaboration using humor calling meetings

I sincerely don't think you are right. Social amenities is not the only reason for Immigration and emmigration. For Instance …. federal university of tension and assignment,true or false? Re: Federal university of tension and agony (futa).true/false there is a new information on the forum now please check it and lets meet By what time can We meet Great hall, by 10a.m. Please no african time. Thanks

Peter Aborisade, Titi Fola‐Adebayo and Funmi Olubode Sawe Teaching presence which can be created and sustained in a virtual learning environment is the binding element in creating a community of inquiry for educational purposes. Continued teacher acknowledgement of student’s work and guidance will increase student’s activity. Table 9 displays contributions from a teacher’s forum posts through which he defines and initiates topics, sets tasks and timelines and regulates topics. One of the students provided information on a link thus indicating that any member of the learning community can provide pedagogic guidance as well. Table 9: Categories, Indicators and examples of teaching presence Categories

Indicators (examples only)

Sample Statements

instructional management

defining & initiating topics

Dear All I'm waiting to read your discussions of your experiences on the field of investigation … .Let everyone join the discussion. 94 replies All Students … should take note that: 1. The following details must be on their Wiki pages: Group Topic, Members' names, matric. Nos., Role in group, Research Questions and Outline of Term Paper 2. Deadline, for all these to be present, is 22nd July 2011 …. (group sizes (of 5 students each) determined by Faculty Dear All, Every student is expected to make a minimum number of posts. On the Individual Lecturer Forum, … no less than 5 posts … On the General Forum … no less than 5 posts on various topics of interest. A post is a discussion, question, comment or answer to a question made in good English. Pidgin is, of course, not acceptable. Please mind what you post on this board. Ensure you focus more on weekly topics and not issues unrelated to your study, such as religion, relationships and politics http://www.google.com/url?q=http://chinweike.hubpages.co m/hub/POPULATION‐EXPLOSION‐IN‐ NIGERIA&sa=U&ei=pTBGUOmZKaWv8AHEnIHQCQ&ved=0CCo QFjAJ&usg=AFQjCNF0Gqo0ICfxcmWF5RhkbGQ2Z8PqGgPls read this link and let’s discuss. A link to the website 'Use of English for Academic Purposes' has been added to GNS 102.The link is right under the News Forum. Each teacher leads a 2‐hour classroom session per week

setting tasks & timelines,

determining groups sizes regulation of topics covered

direct instruction

focusing discussion

provision of instructional materials

use of F2F sessions

Figure 1 below presents part of an evaluation of GNS 102 using the Constructivist On‐Line Learning Environment Survey (COLLES). The survey requires the respondent to indicate a level of agreement or disagreement using a 5‐point Likert scale. The questions are on six parameters, but we are concerned for this purpose about the level of critical/reflective thinking that the student applies to the material in the course. A total of 491 (about 55% of students registered online from the School of Agriculture) responses were received. Students’ perception of their development of critical/reflective thinking is very positive (over 75%). The impact of technology adoption on the students’ attitudes has been reported in studies of this project (Aborisade 2009; 2010), which includes heightened interest and engagement in a course once despised, taking more control of their learning processes, the flexibility of learning wherever and whenever, and leveraging student and teacher support more than they ever before or available in other courses. Students are equally loud about the challenges they face arising from poor technology infrastructure which results in ‘huge’ expenditure on paying for airtime and the increased workload. The same attitudes and reactions were apparent in this study.

8. Conclusion This paper set out to examine the concept of Community of Inquiry within a course offering using the blended learning approach. Drawing evidence from the activities and a survey of three large cohorts it is manifest that considerable change in learning environments fostered a rich experience enabling interaction, collaboration and team work; the development of critical/reflective thinking and indeed meta‐cognitive skills required for understanding problems and giving voice to erstwhile ‘mute’ learners. Students’ involvement in the

Peter Aborisade, Titi Fola‐Adebayo and Funmi Olubode Sawe community of inquiry in our EAP course provided opportunity to reflect on assigned tasks and social issues. The process led to inquiry that underscored critical reflection. Integration of technology with appropriate pedagogy thus helps to get the critical mass of the youth as change agents involved in discussions and contributions to the present and future directions of Africa. The creation of communities of inquiry in higher education is one way to bring about sustainable change. Further studies with smaller cohorts would enable deeper investigation of the dimensions of this approach.

Figure 1: COLLES data – reflective thinking

References Aborisade, P.A. (2010) ‘Initiating Change using Wiki for EAP Writing in Technology‐poor Nigeria’, Humanising Language Teaching, Vol. 12, No. 5, available online at www.hlt.co.uk Aborisade, P. (2009) ‘Investigating a Nigerian XXL‐Cohort Wiki‐Learning Experience: Observation, Feedback and Reflection’ Electronic Journal of e‐Learning, Vol. 7, Issue 3, 191‐202, available online at www.ejel.org. Applebee, A. N. (1984) ‘Writing and Reasoning’. Review of Educational Research 54: pp 577‐596. Beatty, K. (2003) Teaching and Researching Computer‐assisted Language Learning, Essex, Pearson Education Ltd. Bloor, M. and St. John, M.J. (1988) ‘Project writing: The marriage of process and product’ ELT Documents: 129. Modern English Publications in association with the British Council. Dudeney, G. and N. Hockly (2007) How to teach English with Technology, Essex, Pearson Education Ltd. Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T. and Archer, W. (2000) ‘Critical Inquiry in a text‐based Environment: Computer Conferencing in Higher Education’ The Internet and Higher Education, Vol. 2, No.3, pp 87‐105. Hyland Ken and Hyland Fiona (1992) ‘Go for Gold: Integrating Process and Product in ESP’ English for Specific Purposes, Vol. 11, pp 225 – 242. Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation, Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press LoCastro, V. (2001) ‘Teaching English to large classes’ TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 3 pp 493 ‐496 Robinson, P. (1978) ‘‘Projects’ in Pre‐sessional Courses for Overseas Students’ (Proceedings of 1977 SELMOUS Conference) ETIC Occasional Paper, London: The British Council. Rodriguez, Marissa A. and R. C.A. Anicete (2010) ‘Students’ Views of a Mixed Hybrid Ecology Course’ Journal of Online Learning and Teaching Vol. 6, No. 4, pp 791 – 798. Shea, P. (2006) ‘A Study of Students’ Sense of Learning Community in Online Environments’ The Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, Vol. 10, No 1, pp 35‐44

Outcomes of Total e‐Learning Application in a Tertiary Academic Institution in Nigeria Babajide Adelekan Department of Agricultural Engineering, Federal College of Agriculture, Institute of Agricultural Research & Training, Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria jideadelekan@yahoo.com Abstract: The Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan, established in 1921, is the oldest tertiary institution in Nigeria. Being a Federally‐mandated agricultural educational institution, it awards Higher National Diplomas (HNDs) in the fields of Agricultural engineering, Crop production technology, Postharvest technology, and Horticulture, among others. It has a student population of about 1,000 at any given time, an academic staff population of about 50, many having PhDs in their fields of specialization and multifarious support staff of about 150. Over its period of existence and just like many academic institutions in Nigeria, its academic curricula have been traditionally fashioned after the British pattern of education. Recent global trends have compelled the gradual introduction and adoption of the E‐learning concept and ICT in teaching, research, library, administration and other aspects of the total education process in the college in the last 5 years. This paper considers the various aspects of this introduction and adoption process, namely the installation of a campus‐wide wireless internet access, building of an ICT centre, acquisition of access to globally renowned research websites, purchase of excellent global agricultural databases, sponsoring staff to attend software and internet training short courses, creating college websites and email addresses, improving the campus electrical power situation and so forth. As reported in this paper, some significant degrees of success have been recorded in the whole process and crucial improvements have been obtained in the teaching, research and administrative activities of the academic staff, students and non‐academic support staff in the college. Adoption of ICT particularly has tremendously improved the overall productive efficiency of our activities, time schedules are much more quickly met, the majority of our academic goals are achieved within reasonable time, there is a ready access to cutting edge research on the global platform, the quality of research and publications of academic staff has been significantly enhanced, our graduates are sought after in the market place, and learning is enjoyed in a more conducive environment. This paper concludes that knowledge of the wide‐ranging experience at the Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria will certainly be of benefit to similar colleges in the developing world and particularly in Africa which are in the process of integrating E‐learning and ICT into their operations. Foreign academic staff and consultants who also have work to do in academic institutions located in African countries will also benefit from this uniquely Nigerian experience. Keywords: Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan, e‐learning, ICT, Nigeria

1. Introduction Smedley (2010) has observed that continuing professional development practices in today's fast moving work place environment increasingly involve the use of modern technologies as part of the quest to provide a flexible and responsive learning experience. Furthermore, the strategic use of educational technologies in tertiary institutions can enhance learning and teaching (Kwan et al., 2008). This awareness partly accounts for the increasing adoption of relevant technologies in various educational institutions around the world. One of those technologies is known as E‐learning. According to OECD (2005), E‐learning refers to the use of information and communications technology (ICT) to enhance and/or support learning in tertiary education. This definition is broad and covers a wide range of systems, some of which include students using e‐mail and accessing course work on line while following a course on campus, lecturers placing their lecture notes online for direct access by the students, academic programmes offered entirely online in virtual environments and so forth. E‐learning is also described as a learning process in which learners can communicate with their instructors and their peers, and access learning materials, over the internet or other computer networks (Oakley, 2000). Therefore, as noted by Muhsin (2008), E‐learning refers to the use of Internet technologies to deliver a broad array of solutions that enhance knowledge and performance. E‐learning is of different types. One common feature of these types however is that, a tertiary institution is offering the courses, which are made available through the Internet, a Local Area Network (LAN), a Wireless Area Network (WAN), or any other online network. Legitimate users then hook up to these through some form of access they have been granted. Some studies have reported the adoption of e‐learning in various institutions. These include Awidi (2008) which focused on developing an e‐learning strategy for public universities in Ghana, Curran (2004) which considered strategies for e‐learning in universities, Mahmud (2009) which considered the challenges for

Babajide Adelekan implementing e‐learning for higher education in the least developed countries (LDC’s), Kruse (2004) which studied the benefits and draw‐backs of e‐learning and Oye et al (2012) which studied the impacts of e‐learning on students’ performance in tertiary institutions. These researches and others identified the potential benefits of e‐learning to include wider access to research information, ready access to teaching materials by lecturers thereby enriching the quality of teaching, quicker communication with colleagues, convenience of access to learning materials by students such as lecture notes and instructional materials available online, widening of access to educational opportunities to potential students, widening access to continuing education to graduates desiring further study, widening access to the research resources of the institution, overall boosting of academic productivity and all this achieved at reduced costs to all involved. Redding and Fletcher (1996) also pointed out that e‐learning has the potential to reduce the overall cost of higher education. Ahmad (2012) observed that many Nigerian institutions are beginning to incorporate e‐learning into their academic activities. One of those institutions is the Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria. The Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan, established in 1921, is the oldest tertiary institution in Nigeria. Being a Federally‐mandated agricultural educational institution, it awards Higher National Diplomas (HNDs) in the fields of Agricultural engineering, Crop production technology, Postharvest technology, and Horticulture, among others. It has a student population of about 1,000 at any given time, an academic staff population of about 50, many having PhDs in their fields of specialization and multifarious support staff of about 150. Over its period of existence and just like many academic institutions in Nigeria, its academic curricula have been traditionally fashioned after the British pattern of education. Recent global trends have compelled the gradual introduction and adoption of the E‐learning concept and ICT in teaching, research, library, administration and other aspects of the total education process in the college in the last 5 years. This paper reports on the challenges encountered, the successes realized and the constraints still confronting the adoption process.

2. Statement of the problem OECD (2005) has observed that Universities are now thinking through and negotiating the potential contribution of e‐learning to their organisational future. For some institutions, and in some countries, key barriers remain. Infrastructure and funding are among the important ones, but scepticism about the pedagogic value of e‐learning and staff development are probably the most challenging. Institutions are introducing the use and funding of e‐learning into their organisations, and are beginning to contemplate restructuring to take account of e‐learning, in terms of staffing, staff development, course design and student support. In the specific case of Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan, the key challenges which confronted the institution in its bid for total e‐learning adoption in its operations include the following.

Skeletal existing ICT infrastructure and the need to build an ICT centre.

Paucity of finance to upgrade and acquire modern ICT physical infrastructure, computer hardware and software.

Lecturers with low ICT skills which need to be upgraded in the quickest possible time.

The need to have access to world class computer databases and websites in agriculture in order to aid teaching and research.

Challenge of re‐orientating the mindset of the lecturers and students most of whom are used to the conventional way of teaching and learning offline.

Providing uninterrupted power supply to supplement inadequate public supply to run the College ICT infrastructure.

This paper considers the methods used in meeting and overcoming these challenges, especially the various features of the introduction and adoption process of E‐learning in the college. Key aspects of these are the installation of a campus‐wide wireless internet access, building of an ICT centre, acquisition of access to globally renowned research websites, purchase of excellent global agricultural databases, sponsoring staff to attend software and internet training short courses, creating college websites and email addresses, improving the campus electrical power situation and so forth. An ICT committee was set up with the specific terms of reference, principal of which include the design of the physical system and ICT infrastructure for the college to serve the needs of about 50 core academic staff, 1000

Babajide Adelekan students, and 150 supporting staff. Other visiting academic staffs also have access to the College ICT facilities. The approved system and infrastructure was subsequently installed and test run over a period of 2months. The College acquired software which was developed specifically for our use for administration and teaching. This software enables the College to treat enrolment data, students’ scores in courses and final grades electronically. For submission of assignments, course and project materials, students are encouraged to use the e‐mails and the internet. This facilitates online interaction between students, lecturers and administrators.

3. Campus wide internet access Rosenblit (2009) noted that in an e‐learning environment, a variety of tools and technologies are employed, for example, internet mediated teaching, web‐based education, TV and radio broadcast, virtual classrooms and distributed learning. In addition, online learning can be more flexible and often involves more technologies, for example, audio chatting, video conferencing and online discussion (Hrastinski, 2008). In the case of the Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan, it was decided that the setting up of a campus wide internet access was a priority. This constitutes the platform on which other aspects of adoption of e‐learning technologies are built. The Federal College of Agriculture along with the Institute for Agricultural Research and Training, Ibadan have for some decades, had a library which stocked agricultural titles and general knowledge bases like encyclopaedias. As it is with all physically located libraries, ours also had problems regarding currency of information, timeliness of operations, accessibility, and enough space for library users, to mention a few. In view of this, and to keep abreast of evolving global trends, a need for the setting up of an e‐learning infrastructure was identified. The backbone for this infrastructure would be a campus wide internet access and with time an e‐library would be developed and incorporated into this. A campus wide internet access having both line and wireless connectivity was set up. The capabilities of the network are the following. All of them were purchased and installed. Wired Networking Equipment

Linksys Router

32 Port‐ Cisco Standard Switch

Networking cables

RJ‐45 Connectors

Face Plates

Equipment Racks

Wireless Networking

Mickrotik Router

32 Port‐ Cisco Standard Switch

Networking cable

RJ‐45 Connectors

Face Plates

Ubiquity Sector Radio & antenna (2)

Nano‐ Wireless Radio (2.4 GHz)

Bandwidth : ISP – Vodacom Limited (1MB Uplink / 1 MB Downlink)

Central Server Room

Sub‐Base Station

Babajide Adelekan

250 Computers on 4 Block of Address (Both LAN & WLAN)

4. Building of an ICT centre Identifying and acquiring the appropriate infrastructure for ICT development, namely internet, extranet, intranet and LAN networks, is considered one of the biggest challenges in the implementation of e‐learning in higher education institutions, particularly in developing countries (Fares, 2007). Technological obstacles in an e‐learning environment often occur in one of three basic parts, namely hardware, software and bandwidth capacity. Any inadequacies in these strongly affect the process of e‐learning adoption (Vencatachellum and Munusami, 2006). In view of the foregoing, an ICT centre was established in the College as a part of the first step. The centre is ultimately aimed at being able to accommodate 100 users on site with many more users in other parts of the campus wirelessly accessing the main server. A website was developed for the college (www.fcaib.edu.ng) and email addresses were set up. Kunaefi (2006) observed that Higher education institutions need to provide wireless and wired networks with high connectivity bandwidth to avoid higher education e‐learning initiatives being adversely affected. This fact is clearly understood in the College and provision of an infrastructure that adequately meets the requirements of the lecturers, students and administrators is an overriding objective.

5. Access to research websites The Federal College of Agriculture Ibadan, Nigeria made a successful application and now has password for Access to Global Online Research in Agriculture (AGORA) of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and Yale University, Connecticut, USA. The college also has password for Online Access to Research in the Environment (OARE) overseen by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Access to these internet sites have afforded staff and students opportunity to keep abreast of modern trends in global research in the various aspects in the fields of agriculture and the environment. The staff and students of the college have free access to these websites both within and off the campus as well as while on field trips within the confines of the country.

6. Acquisition of qualitative agricultural databases The Essential Electronic Agricultural Library (TEEAL) is possibly the most complete and up‐to‐date of the agricultural databases and electronic libraries available. The Federal College of Agriculture, Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria purchased a TEEAL set from the Albert Main Library of Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA. Courtesy of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, this purchase was at a highly discounted rate for the college. TEEAL is installed on the college LAN and the academic staff, administrative staff and students all have direct access to it from their respective access points. Through this access to TEEAL, there is ready access to up‐to‐date scientific knowledge in journals, research reports and electronic textbooks by all staff and students. Taking out individual subscriptions on these journals and research aids would have cost the college in excess of one million United States dollars. Through access to TEEAL, AGORA and OARE, the academic staff of the college has been able to improve the quality of their teaching, research work, academic papers and project supervision. The students have also been able to learn more, increase the broadness and depths of their knowledge to supplement classroom instruction as well as enhance the contents of their research projects and accompanying reports.

7. Staff training in ICT The Federal College of Agriculture has been collaborating with the Digital Bridge Institute, Abuja, Nigeria in the area of staff training in Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The Digital Bridge Institute is a training organization established by the Federal Government of Nigeria to address the issue of skills shortage in ICT among Nigerian workers. Staff of the college have been sent in batches to attend top notch training of this institute and upgrade their skills in ICT, especially the use of various software. As a result of this, acceptable level of skill in computer usage and ICT has been attained in 80 per cent of all administrative staff and almost 100 per cent of all academic staff. The academic staffs are usually encouraged to make maximum use of ICT in preparing their lecture notes and examination question papers while the students are encouraged to register as students online, conduct their research online, submit their term papers and projects online and also check their results online.

Babajide Adelekan

8. Electrical power boost Public electricity supply in Nigeria is not always reliable and there is therefore usually the need to provide some form of augmentation of power. This was done through the installation of a system comprising diesel‐ powered generators of combined capacity of 400 KVA to power the campus in the event of public electrical power failure. Three back up inverters each of 1500W capacity are directly connected to the servers. These inverters run the main servers seamlessly for up to 72hours in case of power failure before needing electrical power recharge. Recharge can be provided from the generators in case of elongated failure of public supply. Solar roof electrical systems can also be used because of abundant sunshine available in the tropics and the college is already looking at the possibility of installing these systems.

9. Results The following results have accompanied our efforts at incorporating e‐learning into our teaching, research and administrative activities in the college.

Improvements in overall efficiency of our staff. Staff and students conduct their work more effectively with virtually the same amount of resources previously available.

Quicker meeting of time schedules. Communication among lecturers, administrators and students is much faster than before because things are done electronically. There is a campus portal through which information is directly and instantaneously relayed to the phones of all staff and students who submit their numbers to the ICT committee.

Attainment of majority of academic goals. Our academic programmes run seamlessly through the year. Student registration, classroom instruction, course instruction, examinations, research projects, defense of the projects, evaluation and graduation are all achieved on schedule.

Ready access to cutting edge research papers. All staff and students of the college have ready access to TEEAL, AGORA and OARE. This has greatly widened access to top quality journals in all areas of agriculture. The scope and depth of research has increased in the college.

Heightened quality of publications of academic staff. Academic staff of the college have published high quality papers in respected journals worldwide because of online access. Manuscripts are submitted online, reviewed online and published online with possibility of having hardcopies of the papers.

Improvements in teaching, research and college administration. The quality of lecture notes and teaching materials have improved tremendously. The research process is better organised and better executed.

Learning is enjoyed in a more conducive environment. Traditionally, learning was purely conducted in classrooms. But now, the students can go online, access course materials and learn in the comfort of their rooms, homes and peculiar environments.

Graduates of the college are sought after by employers and educationists. Graduates of the college have in the very recent years been sought after by employers to take up jobs, and universities for them to enroll in graduate education. Responses from such outlets maintain that the quality of graduates of our college has significantly improved in the very recent years.

10. Challenges and constraints As observed by OECD (2005), in respect of the adoption of e‐learning, all institutions acknowledged the need to recruit a broader range of staff, such as technological experts, to complement academic staff. The Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan also employed qualified staff in ICT to drive the e‐learning adoption process. Of course, this amounted to extra costs. Another challenge was persuading members of staff to use and adopt e‐ learning techniques such as the use of email, internet, college portal and so forth. In some instances, resistance to the adoption of e‐learning has been identified. In many developing countries, the basic ICT infrastructure still needs further development and wide‐scale adoption. Governments in those countries need to focus on improving on this situation. Many of the following key challenges to adoption of e‐learning in Nigerian institutions elucidated by Ahmad (2012) were also encountered in the case of Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan.

Babajide Adelekan

High cost of ICT and e‐learning hardware, acquiring bigger bandwidth and other internal gadgets like smart boards.

Internet access is mainly through foreign Internet Service Providers (ISPs) with associated cost of access to the internet. w.jnals.sp.org.pk90

Dearth of skilled manpower for implementation of e‐learning and management of ICT infrastructure .

Inadequate training of staff in institutions especially related to educational technology.

Low literacy level in computer technology among personnel.

Cost of installation and maintenance of the gadgets required for e‐learning.

Unreliability in public power supply necessitating provision of alternatives. This has significantly added to the overall cost of e‐learning adoption in the institutions.

Resistance to adoption of e‐learning was encountered in isolated cases, constituting a significant constraint. This resistance to e‐learning by some members of staff was partly be due to their perceptions of the limitations of e‐learning, since that crucial one‐on‐one classroom interaction with students was impeded, the need to commit time to acquire or upgrade individual ICT skills and the insufficiency of computers and other hardware available at the start of the adoption process.

11. Recommendations

Acquisition of ICT hardware and software for e‐learning is capital intensive. The governments need to continually fund the tertiary institutions to enable them improve their capabilities in this crucial area.

In many developing countries, much of the ICT and internet hardware and software are still imported. There is a need for government to institute policies, for example low tariffs which will lessen the final cost of acquisition of such equipment.

Governments and institutions should continue to compel staff to upgrade skills in ICT and concurrently provide funding to achieve this.

The government should improve the overall public power supply in Nigeria so as to able to adequately support the emerging e‐learning and ICT adoption processes in the various institutions.

The supervising bodies such as the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE), National Universities Commission (NUC), Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria (ARCN) and others should continue to set excellent standards in ICT and e‐learning for these institutions and oversee adherence to those standards.

12. Conclusions Knowledge of the wide‐ranging experience at the Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria will certainly be of benefit to similar colleges in the developing world and particularly in Africa which are in the process of integrating e‐learning and ICT into their operations. Foreign academic staff and consultants who also have work to do in academic institutions located in African countries will also benefit from this uniquely Nigerian experience.

References Ahmad, S.A. (2012) Essentialities for e‐learning: the Nigerian tertiary Institutions in question. Academic Research International, Vol. 2, No. 2, March. www.savap.org.pk Awidi, I.T. (2008) Developing an e‐learning Strategy for Public Universities in Ghana, EDUCAUSE Quarterly Vol. 31, No. 2, EDUCASE, 2008, pp. 66 – 69. Curran, C. (2004) Strategies for e‐learning in universities, Research and Occasional Paper Series: CSHE.7.04. University of California, Berkeley, Available at http://repositories.cdlib.org/cshe/CSHE‐7‐04 (accessed February 1, 2013) Fares, A. (2007) ICT Infrastructure, Applications, Society, and Education. Nairobi: Strathmore University. Hrastinski, S. (2008) Asynchronous and Synchronous E‐learning. EDUCAUSE Quarterly, 31(4), pp. 51‐55. Kruse, K. (2004) The Benefits and Drawbacks of e‐Learning. Available at http://www.elearningguru.com/articles/art1_3.htm (accessed February 2, 2013)

Babajide Adelekan Kunaefi, T. (2006) ICT in university teaching/learning and research in Southeast Asia countries: case of Indonesia. Available at http://www.rihed.seameo.org/uploadfiles/ict/ICT_Indonesia.pdf. (Accessed February 4, 2013). Kwan, R. Fox., R Chan F.T. and Tsang P. (2008) Enhancing Learning through Technologies. Research on emerging technologies and pedagogies. World Scientific. New Jersey, USA. Mahmud, K. (2009) ‘Challenges of Implementing E‐learning for Higher Education in Least Developed Countries: A Case Study on Bangladesh’ International Conference on and Multimedia Technology, Jeju Island, South Korea, pp.155‐159. rd Muhsin, H. (2008) The Using of E‐Learning Techniques to Improve the Medical Education, 3 International Conference on Information & Communication Technologies: From Theory to Applications, Damascus, 2008, pp.1‐5 Oakley, B (2000) ‘Learning Effectiveness: An Introduction’. In J. Bourne, (ed.), On‐line Education: Learning Effectiveness and Faculty Satisfaction. Proceedings of the 1999 Sloan Summer Workshop. Nashville: ALN Center, Vanderbilt University. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD (2005) E‐Learning in Tertiary Education. Policy Brief. Available at www.oecd.org/publications/Policybriefs Oye, N. D., Iahad, N., Madar, M. J. and Rahim, N. (2012). The impact of E‐learning on Students Performance in tertiary institutions. International Journal of Computer Networks and Wireless Communications Vol.2, No.2, April. Redding, G. A., and Fletcher, J.D. (1996) US Sub‐Committee on Research and Development for Education and Training – Plan of Action. In A. Dumort and W. Paprotte (eds.), The Road to the Information Society. Brussels: European Commission. DGXII. Pp.52‐66. Rosenblit, S. (2009) Distance Education in the Digital Age: Common Misconceptions and Challenging tasks. Journal of Distance Education, 23 (2), pp.105‐122. Smedley, J.K. (2010) Modelling the impact of knowledge management using technology. OR Insight (2010) 23, pp 233–250. doi:10.1057/ori.2010.11 Vencatachellum, I and Munusami, V. (2006) Barriers to effective corporate e‐learning in Mauritius. Available at http://uom.academia.edu/documents/0073/5832/Barriers_to_effective_corporate_elearning_in_Mauritius.pdf (accessed January 18, 2013).

E‐Learning in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile‐Ife, Nigeria Distance Learning Centre: An Evaluation of Opportunities and Challenges Tinuade Olubunmi Adewale1 and Cecilia Funmilayo Daramola2 1 Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile‐Ife, Nigeria 2 University Library, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria dotunike@yahoo.com funlayodaramola@yahoo.com Abstract: The Universal declaration of Human Rights (1948) Art 26 included the right to education and the equal accessibility to higher education to all on the basis of merit. Yet six decades later it has not happened. In many countries of the world, participation in higher education is still limited on the basis of class, income and geographical location (Spronk 2008). Distance education and developments in e‐learning offer the potential to open more access to higher education. The term e‐learning has come into use since the late 1990s and is often equated with open distance learning. However, it is important to remember that these two terms are not synonymous. Till date, the adoption of e‐learning in higher education institutions has served to enhance the quality of learning for on‐campus students, but has not yet translated into a substantial increase in opportunities for part‐time and distance learners (Mackeogh& Seamus Fox).This paper discusses the opportunities that exist and challenges that hinder the successful adoption of e‐learning technology as a medium of instruction at the Distance Learning Centre (CDL) of Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) Ile‐Ife, Nigeria. The results indicate that e‐learning in this University is still at an infant stage. This research reveals the fact that OAU like other Nigerian Universities had been investing more and promoting administrative software that supports teaching and learning. The participants of this research are the management and teaching staff of OAU centre for Distance Learning Centre. This study recommends that professionals with emphasis on e‐learning pedagogies and establishment of substantive e‐learning support structures are the criteria that can sustain the newly established the e‐learning industry in OAU. These support systems are essential for the development of distance learning centre in OAU as well as other universities in Nigeria. Its aims and objectives of reaching everyone that desire university education irrespective of his/her basic qualification and geographical location will also be achieved. Keywords: distance education, e‐learning, pedagogies, multimedia, centre for distance learning

1. Introduction Education is one of the most important factors in achieving the developmental goals of the country. It is the key to the national development. It is an investment in the human resources. If the fruits of education have to reach the common man, it must be adequately and properly administered. Promoting the development of a knowledgeable society through distance education is one of the strategies increasingly adopted in recent times by governments around the world who want to encourage economic development at the local, state and national levels. E‐learning or the use of technology for teaching and learning is steadily becoming a global platform in education because of its promise of many benefits such as increased learning program flexibility, increases accessibility to study materials, quick feedback from teacher and improve communication between students and teachers. Nigeria has a population of about 150 million out of which 1.5 million are undergraduate applicants annually. 350 thousand (20%) of them are admitted due to limited space and facilities in the conventional universities. There are also new demands from employers for university degrees. The Federal government’s response to the need for distance learning education in Nigeria was the approval to establish the National Open University‐ operating the uni‐mode system. In addition to that, 6 Universities were designated as dual‐mode universities by Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC) and Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) Ile‐Ife is one of them. In Nigeria, the introduction of this form of learning program is relatively new and therefore poses some challenges to all stakeholders in the education industry. It is also well noted that the use of new technologies for learning and teaching in Nigeria is till at a developmental stage. Therefore, this research discusses the opportunities that exist and challenges that hinder the successful adoption of e‐learning technology at the Distance Learning Centre of OAU. This research reveals that the fact that OAU, like other Nigerian Universities has been investing more in and promoting administrative software at the expense of software that support teaching and learning.

Tinuade Olubunmi Adewale and Cecilia Funmilayo Daramola What is E‐ Learning?

2. Theoretical framework Distance Education can therefore be conceptualised as any form of organised educational experience in which teaching and learning take place with the teacher at a distance from the learners most of the time. It is a form of education that enables a limited number of teachers to reach a very large number of learners. This paves ways to reduction in the cost of education and economies of scale (Dodd 1991, Fagbamiye 1999, Oguntimehin and Adeyemi 2000). Furthermore, Chandler (1991) described distance education as a “generic term to comprise all patterns of student‐centred learning process in which the teacher has only a limited role”. Its hallmark is the separation of teachers and learners in space and/or time (Perraton 1988), the volition control of learning by the student rather than by the distant instructor (Jonassen 1992) and non‐contiguous communication between student and teacher mediated by print or some form of technology (Garrison and Shale 1987). Many Universities around the world are turning to the use of ICT as a complement to teacher led tuition on‐campus learning (Hazemi and Hailes 2002) E‐learning in its broadest sense can be defined as instructions delivered in an electronic media including the internet, intranets, extranets, satellite broadcast, audio/videotapes, interactive TV and CD‐ROM (Rosenberg 2001, Garrison and Anderson 2000, Carry and Willis 2001, Hall and Sinder 2000). Carry and Willis (2001) defined e‐learning as any form of learning that utilises a computer or technological network for delivery, interaction of facilitation. Computer programs for e‐learning consist of tools, such as text, three dimensional objects and animation. Virtual classrooms can also be used to broaden education provision (Chitanna et al 2008). Amosa, Adekiigbe and Awotidebe(2010) assert that e‐learning is essentially a learning system that is supported by electronic hardware and software either online (synchronous) or offline asynchronous. They further reiterate that e‐learning does not confine to the boundaries of the online format but also includes the offline format using any form of electronic media to facilitate the teaching and learning process. E‐learning is knowledge acquisition that occurs using the personal computer. There have been two common e‐learning modes; distance learning and computer assisted instruction. However, in the context of this research, distance learning will be considered to mean learning that utilises information and communication technologies to promote educational interaction between students, lecturers and learning communication. It incorporates the printed and written word, the telephone, computer conferencing or teleconferencing to bridge the physical gap between the instructor and learner (Ololube, Ubogu and Egbezor 2007). It may be full time, part time graduate and undergraduate certification or continuing education.

3. Literature review Distance education means that aspect of education wherein education is provided to students sitting at their places through well prepared study material based on course content, supplemented by the audio visual technology, keeping in view the needs and levels of students. The study material compensates the students the absence of the teachers in a classroom. Daniel (1979) mentions that the most important feature characterising DE is how communication between teacher and student who are physically separated is well facilitated. However, Michael More (1973) emphasised that such communication between the teacher and learner must be facilitated by print and electronic multimedia communication approach. The use of media enables the teacher to reach out to learners and on self study. Furthermore, Charles Wedemeyer (1977) argued that independent study is the greatest feature of distance learning. Its purposes are to free on‐campus or internal learners with the opportunity to continue learning in their own environments and developing in all learners the capacity to carry on self‐directed learning; the ultimate maturity required of the educated person. The scope of DE involves much specialised knowledge and competence in a variety of fields such as curriculum development, development and production of educational materials, communication skills related to the material, information marketing, counselling of students, study support and tuition, distribution and delivery of material and organisation of teaching activities often in collaboration with local partners. Distance education accommodates diverse learning styles, provides access to

Tinuade Olubunmi Adewale and Cecilia Funmilayo Daramola remote and normally inaccessible underrepresented groups such as women, as well as persons in rural and remote locations (ajadi et al 2008, adeyemi 2011)

3.1 Impact of e‐learning on distance education According to the UGC Scheme of DE (1983) include distance education include; providing a system of student centred self paced learning which involves a flexible diversified and open system of education. It encourages development by providing wider access to higher education to persons of all ages and sex particularly to working persons and to economically or otherwise handicapped and persons residing in remote areas. Web based learning allows lectures to disseminate up to date course content in no time at all and students can complete course just‐in‐time, giving them the opportunity to apply knowledge in contemporary situations (Teare 2000). It provides easy access to e‐libraries and tutors which was almost impossible in the past (Guri‐ Rosenblit 2005).

3.2 Distance education in other countries One of the oldest distance education universities is the University of South Africa, which has been offering distance education course in 1946. The largest distance education university in the United Kingdom is the Open University founded in 1969. In Germany, the FernUniversitat in Hagen was founded in 1974. There are now many similar institutions around the world, often with the name Open University (in English or in the local language), Asia has witnessed growth of DE. China, India, Korea, Japan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand have all established national institutions dealing with DE. In Latin America, there two well established autonomous distance teaching Universities in Costa‐Rica and the National University in Venezuela. African countries like Burkina Faso, Burunto, Cameroon, Central Africa, Republic of Chad, Gambia, Ghana, Togo, Zaire, Lesotho, Kenya, Botswana, Malawi, Somalia, Swaziland, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia have set up distance education at various levels (Goel and Goel 2001).

3.3 Distance education in Nigeria T. Dodds (1994) survey of story of Distance Education in Africa reveals that it has been a story of hopes, successful experiments, inadequate resourcing and often disappointing long term impact. It is essentially a story of hope differed. In Nigeria, DE has been a centre or a department established in existing universities. In this way, DE has grown both in size and diversity in Nigerian universities, especially in the last three decades. Analyses into the actual operations of various DE programs in many African countries including Nigeria indicate several deficiencies in the existing systems. These problems include excessive enrolment of students, inadequate infrastructures, failure to use multimedia packages, poor quality of course material supplied, poor counselling and guidance, non seriousness in offering student services, lack of innovations, absence of continuous students’ evaluation etc. all lead to fall in the quality of DE. With these problems there is danger of the system becoming stereotyped leading to inertia; until and unless this inertia is removed, the system of DE may deteriorate. Thus, DE requires better planning and implementation as this system has to operate in a challenging and difficult environment of openness.

3.4 Opportunities of distance education According to Goel and Goel (2001) Distance education supplements the efforts of the traditional system in a better way. The student population is increasing at a fast rate. The traditional system has neither the capacity nor the resources to meet the needs of growing number of students. Further expansion of formal education systems would not be possible because of mounting economic constraints. The distance education system can meet this need in a more realistic way and at a much lower cost. It also meets the needs of the students who had to discontinue studies owing to financial difficulties and other constraints. Furthermore, it ensures equality of opportunity. There are many people who cannot pursue higher education due to poor socioeconomic backgrounds and other limitations. These persons were denied the benefits of higher

Tinuade Olubunmi Adewale and Cecilia Funmilayo Daramola education. The Distance Education system offers them a second chance of updating and acquiring higher education. More structured course content designed through careful analysis. Courses of distance education are evaluated at various levels. The bias of the teacher in the classroom is eliminated. The printed materials as well as multi‐media bearing packages designed by the institutes with the help of a number of experts and professionals of respective discipline provide more structured and less flexible formats of course contents (Reddy and Tennets 1983). DE expands the capacity and capability for education in new area. While traditional system provides education within the time frame. Scientific and technological changes are occurring at a fast rate and DE system can meet the needs of people through fresh courses designed for the purposes. Education in Natural Environment Education through DE can be beautifying synthesized with family life and work environment. In this way the students can learn while working as well as living in home environment.

3.5 Challenges of DE The Distance Education system is developing very fast however, it faces constant challenges. These include the low status of Distance Education Institutes. DE departments/centres are functioning within the framework of traditional universities. The authorities in the universities do not provide full facilities to these departments. Hence, the potential of the system remains unutilized. Also, the rigidity imposed by university regulations.DE has to function within the rules and regulation of the university, thus leaving little scope for experimentation. There is also the misconception about their role as an industry to mint money in meeting the deficits of the university. The discrimination against graduates of the DE department remains a challenge. It has been seen in the university and outside that the products of DE are not equated with the products of traditional system in spite of their equal achievements in the same examination.

4. Methodology This study is examining the role of E‐learning in OAUDE in achieving excellent and qualitative performances. The DE t this university is now an industrialised form of teaching and learning. The relevant characteristics of DE as an industry are well highlighted in this paper. The opportunities and challenges facing the usage of e‐ learning in OAU DE are also considered. This research is based on qualitative data. It makes use of the descriptive and critical analytical research methods in analysing the case studies. Recommendations are made on for further studies to DE stakeholders in Nigeria and other developing nations of the world.

5. Analysis 5.1 Overview As earlier mentioned, about 1.5 million qualified candidates seek admission into the Nigerian University system yearly, out of which only about 350,000 are admitted due to constraints of space and inadequate facilities in the universities. This is in spite of the fact that there are currently as many as 124 approved Universities in Nigeria made up of 37 Federal, 37 states and 50 private. Besides, there are many working class people who desirous of acquiring university education but cannot afford to engage in full‐time studies, requiring taking full leave of absence from their jobs. There is the need to devise alternative means of providing university education to these two categories of students. It was in recognition of this need that the Governing council of OAU at its meeting of April 16 and 17, 2002 approved the establishment of the centre for Distance Learning, with the mandate to “facilitate the development and coordinate the delivery of degree and sub‐degree programs by the distance and opening learning mode”. OAU is the leading ICT compliant university in Nigeria. This gave the university an edge in acquiring international funding for an e‐learning centre. The Centre for Distance Learning OAU is one of six Universities which the National Universities Commission has given to recognition to operate the Open and Distance Learning (ODL) mode in addition to the conventional face‐to‐face mode of lecture delivery.

5.2 Case study OAU Centre for Distance Learning (CDL)

Tinuade Olubunmi Adewale and Cecilia Funmilayo Daramola In 2002, the university established the Centre for Distance Learning (CDL) with the objectives of providing opportunities for increased access to education in all branches of knowledge at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels to Nigerians and international community in locations outside the main university campus. 5.2.1 OAU CDL: Available ICT infrastructure for E‐learning.

Connection to the OAU intranet through Fibre optics cable from the University computer centre

Back up internet connection from sky vision which provides a shared bandwidth of 256×64 kb/s by VSAT.

Dedicated server with 500GB hard disk, 4GB RAM with single Intel q9300 Quad Core processor which is remotely located in the USA, but being managed locally in terms of file access, rebooting, backup activities etc. This powers CDL e‐portal through which seamless services like the e‐mail system, website, and other on‐line services like the e‐payment, e‐application, e‐registration (e.g. admissions) and content management are carried out.

Back‐up power supply is provided with a generator and solar panel, the solar panel with being dedicated solely for use by the multimedia unit to ensure continuous e‐portal operation.

Since the launch of the OAU e‐portal in 2008, the total number of hits registered is about ten (10) million. Total number of persons whose data captured is about 1400,000. 5.2.2 Current programs OF OAU CDL The CDL commenced the following programs few years after its inception and some of them have produced quality graduates that can compete with their equals all over the world. Most of these courses are done on part‐time during the weekends and when the university is on vacation. For all these programs the conventional face‐to‐face mode of lecture delivery is being employed. These include degree programs in the field of Education, Nursing and executive postgraduate studies in the fields of management and public health.

5.3 Findings 5.3.1 Reluctance to shift from the traditional face to face The CDL centre faces a major problem in the reluctance of the Nigerian students in converting from the traditional learning system. Majority of students are used to the traditional system and find it difficult using the e‐learning tools. Furthermore, the e‐learning process is considered as a lesser form of education which prevents students from pursuing the distance learning form of education system. 5.3.2 Electricity supply One of the major challenges to e‐learning in Nigeria is the epileptic power supply. Nigeria suffers from a lack of constant electricity supply. This deters the successful dissemination of information via electronic multimedia packages. The OAU CDL generates power through the use of generators. This creates a recurrent expense which makes the cost of running the e‐learning centre impossible. Furthermore, it makes the effective use of e‐learning tools difficult. Although the DE centre has invested in solar energy supply, this is not quite adequate to solve the issues of lack of constant electricity. 5.3.3 Revenue The CDL centre is responsible for generating its own revenue. Also, the CDL has to remit a percentage of its annual revenue to the university accounts. This lack of fund deters the centre from rapid development. Furthermore, it leads to a dearth of courseware. This lack is important as the effective use of e‐learning would be based on the provision of e‐learning tools. The lack in revenue prevents the provision of adequate internet facilities which forms the basis of e‐learning. The internet bandwidth provided by the university for the CDL is inadequate in meeting the needs of the centre. 5.3.4 Literacy Furthermore, the level of illiteracy in Nigeria is a challenge. The inadequate level of computer literacy of students poses a major deterrent to e‐learning. The majority of Nigerian populace is used to the traditional learning process this makes the transitioning to e‐learning very difficult in practice. The e‐learning intends on

Tinuade Olubunmi Adewale and Cecilia Funmilayo Daramola bringing education to the doorsteps of individuals. This seems very impossible as an average Nigerian home lacks the internet facility. The literacy level of individuals in the rural areas is poor, which makes it impossible to assimilate the e‐learning process. The Nigerian education system is also not favourable for the physically and especially the mentally challenged. The needs of this people would be difficult to be met, as providing e‐ learning tools for the able‐bodied students already prove difficult. 5.3.5 Copyright issues The CDL centre trained 200 lecturers for the initial take off of the e‐learning degree programs. However, the centre faces challenges in receiving copyright acceptance of these lecturers in converting their course content in to the e‐learning format. About a third of the lectures (52 out of79) refused to allow the centre use their course content as a reasonable agreement on royalty, IP rights and content fees could not be reached. This has deterred further development in creating multimedia packages.

5.4 Discussion In dealing with the problem of revenue, the CDL centre partnered with Venture Garden Group (VGG) a private consortium. VGG is a foreign organisation based in the US willing to invest in the centre. The OAU CDL acquired Learning Management Systems (LMS) such as Blackboard, Moodle built for e‐learning. VGG would sponsor LMS and Student Information Service (SIS) development. The organisation would be donating low power consumption computer tablets for offline applications in remote areas. This will aid in preparing multimedia packages for e‐learning. Each student would own a tablet with courses already offloaded onto them. These tablets would be able to withhold power for more than ten hours. This aids with the issues of lack of constant electricity and unavailability of internet services in the home especially in the rural areas. VGG would be providing three resource centres in Nigeria, one in the north (Abuja) another in the south (Lagos) and the last in OAU which would be the headquarters. More so, VGG would provide Local Area Network (LAN) in these resource centres to boost internet connectivity and provide links to the university e‐ library. Each resource centres would include a 500 computer work station studio, a two way VSAT equipment as well as equipment for live viewing fully interactive virtual classrooms. Furthermore, VGG would provide corporate retreats and capacity building for lecturers. This may ease the anxiety of lecturers about the introduction of e‐learning and the change from the traditional face to face system. Due to the sensitivity of the nature of the contract it is difficult to gather enough information to ascertain the benefits of this investment. This investment means a huge source of revenue for development and expansion of e‐learning in OAU CDL, however, the problems the centre faces with the university may be transferred to the investor. The plan to continue to receive a portion of profits from the investment in the distance learning may end up deterring the possibility of creating cheap accessible education. The cost of this distance education would invariably increase deterring probable students.

6. Conclusion and recommendation The advantages of E‐learning cannot be overemphasised. Looking at the case study, when successfully developed the OAU CDL e‐learning centre would be able to provide easy access to qualitative education for its students, creating an internationalised experience. Students with jobs can have remote access while still keeping their day jobs. This allows full access to courses without excessive travel cost. Furthermore, lecturers would be able to increase output of efforts. This is exponentially increased by virtue of being able to serve more students and meeting the needs of the Nigerian student population. This increased capacity allows the CDL to teach more courses and accommodate more students. This implies increased revenue, without direct increase in cost. It could also mean a deeper access to global content, foreign guest lecturers and research collaborations for the lecturers. On the contrary, Larreamandy‐Joerns and Leinhardt (2006) argue that online education threatens the very essence of quality education. She suggests that e‐learning is a pedagogical innovation that challenges the traditional classroom teaching. However, considering the great possibilities that could be achieved with e‐learning in an African country like Nigeria, the necessity for e‐learning over rules the challenges. Furthermore, the emphasis of creating easier access of education in Nigeria should not be compromised for money making.

Tinuade Olubunmi Adewale and Cecilia Funmilayo Daramola The study recommends that professional development programs with emphasises on e‐learning pedagogies and establishment of substantive e‐learning structures are the criteria that can sustain the newly established e‐learning industry in OAU Distance Learning Centre. International Cooperation in DE is also of great dimensions. The collaboration among the institutions of Distance Education can promote pooling of resources and exchange of ideas for better planning and administration of these institutions. Recent years have also added the increased activity in international cooperation in distance education. These are visible through the creation of organisations like Commonwealth of Learning (COL), the European Association of Distance Teaching Universities (EADTU) and the European Distance Education Network (EDEN), International Council for Distance Education (ICDE) etc.

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Attending to Competency Based Education: New Challenge for e‐ Learning, Pitfalls and Possibilities Philip Balcaen University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, Canada philip.balcaen@ubc.ca Abstract: In recent years, a move from a focus on mere skills based education towards a more comprehensive competencies‐based one has emerged from kindergarten to medical school in many jurisdictions. Along with this shift to these more complex 21st Century goals comes a substantial challenge for those working to develop effective e‐learning environments: How to move beyond a somewhat atomized, behaviourist approach to take account of this new “deep learning” focus for teaching and learning? The paper outlines the US National Research Council’s framework of cognitive, interpersonal and intrapersonal competency sets as a framework that is useful for e‐learning designers planning to address 21 Century learning goals. The paper then reviews several promises and pitfalls of specific design applications in relation to addressing aspects of teaching one of the competencies—critical thinking (CT). A CT pedagogical framework involving approaches to problematizing content knowledge, use of criteria to make “good” judgements, as well as concepts, strategies and habits of mind supporting CT are outlined in relation to several instructional design related development projects supporting competent thinking. While recognizing the general promise of e‐learning environments to support deep learning the paper encourages a techno‐skeptical approach paying close attention to pitfalls. Keywords: e‐learning, 21st century competencies, critical thinking, habits of mind, student engagement, intellectual tools for thought, assessing rich learning

1. Introduction: Skills‐based education towards a more comprehensive competencies‐ based one A move from a focus on mere skills‐based education towards a more comprehensive notion of learning has resulted in a competencies‐based approach in North America and globally (The National Academies, 2012). During the past 20 years medical schools have used the term competency‐based to refer to what Brooks (2009) and Pimlott (2011) refer to as a measurement of performing “defined tasks or skills”—an early behaviorist notion. Talbott (2004) strongly supports a more “complex view of competency” in medical education including critical reflection, intuition, experience and the higher order competence based on a notion of “expert” practice” (p.92). This paper moves beyond this “expertise” notion of competence towards one associated with the 21centry learning movement that focused on “deep learning—and is central to this paper. Many NA Educational jurisdictions are taking up a more complex notion in moderately different ways (Canadian Ministries of Education various Universities and Colleges in addition to the many US institutions influenced by The National Academies of Science and The National Education Association). The version provided by The National Academies Research Group (hereafter The Academies) in the US, as a comprehensive but by no means universal framework through helping consider the “new view” of competencies. Based on their extensive research in the North American context, The Academies 2012 assign various “21st century skills” to clusters of competencies within three domains. Those considered as important to competent critical thinking within the pedagogical framework are summarized later in this paper. The cluster include:

The Cognitive Domain including three clusters of competencies: cognitive processes and strategies; knowledge; and creativity. These clusters include competencies such as critical thinking, information literacy, reasoning and argumentation, and innovation.

The Intrapersonal Domain includes three clusters of competencies: intellectual openness; work ethic and conscientiousness; and positive core self‐evaluation. These clusters include competencies such as flexibility, initiative, appreciation for diversity, and metacognition.

The Interpersonal Domain includes two clusters of competencies: teamwork & collaboration; and leadership. These clusters include competencies such as communication, collaboration, responsibility, and conflict resolution (Summary, p. 3).

Philip Balcaen The Academies offer the concept of “deep learning”, as the overarching goal supporting development of competencies identified above, where “deep learning” is defined as “becom[ing] capable of taking what was learned in one situation and applying it to new situations (i.e. transfer)” (p. summary, 4). Transferable knowledge includes content knowledge in a domain as well as knowledge of how, why, and when to apply this knowledge to answer questions and solve problems. They relate this notion of transferable knowledge to that of “21st century competency.” At the same time, Parrish, (2004); Kanuka & Kelland, (2008); Doughty et al., (2009) recognize that there is a pervasive spread of digital technologies in the field of e‐learning. This spread has influenced the pace at which instructional designers and instructors at all levels use digital technologies to support teaching and learning while trying to take account of:

the frequency with witch students communicate with each other,

exchange of both information as knowledge and sources of learning opportunities accessed on the Internet,

and use social media world wide to discuss how and what they are learning.

Coupling this widespread use of technology by educators and students with the new focus on “deep learning” leads to a substantial challenge for e‐learning—designing effective resources and environments that take account of this necessary focus on competencies while building on much promise and taking account of pitfalls. This paper argues that critical thinking (CT) is not only a cognitive competency but is also implicated in areas associated with intrapersonal and interpersonal domains as well. Addressing this more comprehensive notion of CT requires 1) a more complex understanding of CT pedagogy (Balcaen, 2012) and 2) the notion that pedagogy needs to be embedded in or at least significantly inform instructional design (Balcaen, 2011). Below are several ICT promises and pitfalls informing ways that CT pedagogy could inform instructional design followed by a brief summary of a comprehensive CT pedagogy.

2. Considering the literature: Promises and pitfalls While there is much debate about the general promises and pitfalls associated with various approaches to supporting e‐learning, the majority of literature tends to focus on “specific” applications (Kanuka & Keiland, 2008; Douughty et al., 2009; Njenga & Fourie, 2010; Garrison & Anderson, 2011). Selected examples of this more focused research are reviewed below including promises and pitfalls as they relate to the challenge of designing e‐learning approaches that address teaching CT. The review takes account of a need for a “techno‐ skeptical” approach to e‐learning related literature in response to the common uncritical stance when discussing the promise of technology‐enhanced education (Njenga &Fourie, 2008).

2.1 Considering the “more is better” assumption and & the “credibility” pitfalls Njenga and Fourie (2008) take up the promise that a dramatically increased access to more information coming from multiple sources will result in improved learning. This promise is based on the assumption that students will be able to “construct” understandings by being exposed to a wider and deeper spectrum of information—an assumption that is not supported by their research. However, they do show that the use of social leaning technologies provides aspects of the connectedness, collaboration and socialization needed to support learning but that this success is dependent on a possible pitfall—the need for a content expert and/or effective mediation to contextualize content and learning. The “more is better” promise is also related to the “credibility” or how students decide what is important and worth recording and understanding pitfall. Sundin and Fracke (2009) undertook an in‐depth ethnographic study of how students in upper secondary schools “negotiate” the credibility of information found on the Internet. The researchers found that the move from “teacher‐controlled” literature to that identified by students puts increasing demands on students’ abilities to assess the credibility of information and related effective use of sources. The study indicates that in the absence of “publisher authority” based on review, as is the case for most books and journals published by “dependable” sources, students tend to depend on finding repetition in multiple digital sources as their sole means of establishing credibility. They do not tend to take account of whether a source has been peer reviewed or by whom, nor do they take account of the posted

Philip Balcaen publishing record available in resources such as Wikipedia. This becomes a serious pitfall for e‐learning unless students learn to exercise critical judgment about how to assess the credibility of both sources used and the information provided. Sundin and Fracke (2009) also found that in the few cases where teachers teach students to assess credibility within e‐learning environments, they fall back on norms associated with hard copy books rather than using the more socio‐technical process required in an ever‐changing Internet learning environment. As Lanks (2008) and Sundin & Fracke (2009) explain, such a “process” approach requires learning to take account of the interplay between content artifacts, information sources, and new ways of interacting with informative artifacts as a means of assessing credibility of content within the context of a digitally supported course. Supporting students to engage in such assessment of content requires the development of a complex set of understandings requiring instructional design based on CT pedagogy. Igo et al. (2006), also examine this “more is better” pitfall by studying the use of technology to support note taking from Internet sources. They found that students taking notes by hand summarized “in their own words” rather than verbatim. This resulted in students developing a greater understanding of what they read when compared with those using technology for note taking as they tended to type verbatim information. Igo et al. see this as being problematic in two ways. First, it took students much longer to use technology because they tended to type verbatim rather than copy/paste and secondly because of their “shallow processing”. The promise of of such technology based note taking appears to be “efficiency” only if students’ use a copy and paste approach coupled with the access to a broader resource set for research. The apparent “better processing” associated with hand written notes, needs to be integrated into students’ use of digital sources by including CT strategies that support assessing credibility and judging what is worthwhile using criteria. Norman (2008) finds that despite the huge investment in digital resources in the Canadian medical education system, several comprehensive studies indicate that, there is no evidence of improvement in achievement (p. 249). Although he finds that there is a significant promise in that there are clear “efficiencies” evident in some e‐learning approaches by comparison to face‐to‐face approaches as students tend to “cover” the required material in a shorter time, however, he does not take account of the need for deeper processing identified by Igo et al. The challenge for instructional designers is developing strategies that better support students to process a large volume of information in ways that lead to deeper understanding while taking advantage of potential efficiencies. Pedagogy focused on competency in CT such as that outlined in section 3 helps with both better processing and deeper understanding—competence.

2.2 Considering several examples of promising approaches to supporting e‐learning (learning objects, learning styles, video, real time, digital modeling) Many researchers report “better engagement” and “improved learning outcomes” associated with use of various media, each one promising much but each with it’s own pitfalls. For example, Wieman (2006) and his PhET team have assessed the effectiveness of more than 50 online simulations (sims) developed within their laboratory. PhET’s research indicates much promise and has found that well designed sims can generate a high level of engagement, greater inclinations to explore” compared to use of laboratory equipment and that students readily relate topics to various real‐world situations. In addition, their research indicates “significant improvements in science concept development”. The pitfalls, from Wieman’s point of view are only technical ones including cost (aprox. US $50,000/sim); the need for development of sophisticated graphics and software codes as well as the required extensive testing and refinements. He does not consider pedagogical concerns. Parrish, (2004) takes up such object oriented instructional design (OOID) as a problem because while such objects may offer engagement “based on novelty”, they also offer a mechanized understanding of education— one size fits all—and do not take account of the diverse natures of learners. Parish observes that while learning objects can offer effective support for concept development the design does not address: 1) different ways that students learn and 2) appropriately locating these objects within a pedagogical framework supporting the development of deep understanding. Norman (2008) also raises this “locating” concern from his studies of medical students’ education.

Philip Balcaen Mohr et al. (2012) picks up on Parrish’s concern by attending to learning styles and choice in instructional approaches. They conclude that designs taking account of both learning styles and choice parameters results in significant contributions to the effectiveness of learning environments indicated by improved engagement and student satisfaction. Several others have addressed various means of providing “effective choice” by studying digitally enhanced approaches to learning environments. For example, Dey et al. (2009) evaluated the use of “high quality” video format lectures to support blended learning and compared these to traditional face‐to‐face settings. Both moderately enhanced up‐take of information as well as resulting in more positive responses to such courses, indicating improved engagement. DeLuca and Lari (2011) cite several studies showing that Internet access to “real world” and “real time” data (data from projects underway outside of the educational setting) is shown to enhance instruction in mathematics, science, and social studies (Dier, Dawson & Garofola,, 1999; Gordin, Polman & Pea, 1994). DeLuca and Lari (2011) report similar effects, within a Science‐Technology‐Mathematics & Engineering (STEM) project, where “real data” not only enhances the level of engagement but also improved quality of learning experiences as indicated by students’ feedback. DeLuca and Lari (2011) studied video used to provide “live modeling” of scientific inquiry as an approach to understanding scientific thinking and found similar positive effects. Wu et al. (2010) provide a particularly compelling example using “air pollution modeling technology” to teach about and promote an understanding of how scientific modeling informs critical decision making about weather and air pollution forecasting. They also argue that such modeling technology coupled with effective interdisciplinary pedagogy offers new possibilities for supporting learning across several disciplines such as STEM project based learning projects. Together such digitally enhanced teaching strategies offer promising positive outcomes of improved engagement and student satisfaction, as well as improved uptake of content and related concept development in some instances. They do not however explain what they mean by “improved” engagement—mere participation or some measure of more thoughtful engagement that might contribute to inter‐and intra personal competencies? These digitally enhanced strategies provide particularly powerful opportunities to engage students in a more critically thoughtful way by asking the “kinds of questions” identified in section 3 and by taking up aspects of the “tools for thought” such as thinking literacy and habits of mind framed by design based on CT pedagogy.

2.3 The importance of assessing for thinking Assareh and Bidokht, (2010) take up the need to not only develop such a variety of strategies to support learning described above in ways that help develop competencies they add and emphasize the need to assess effectively. From their research they conclude that environments offering improved accessibility to knowledge and resources, supported by advances in digital tools used to support learning framed by learner centered pedagogies but involving formative and summative assessment are essential for effective e‐learning (p. 794). Garrison and Anderson (2011) agree and take the position that “the real promise” of e‐learning‐related assessment is its support for collaborative, constructivist and reflective learning. In addition they assert that this requires a radical rethinking of assessment methodologies associated with e‐learning to displace the typical focus on recall of fragmented bits of information. They explain that this shift needs to involve assessment of “collaborative processes” as a means of assessing competency in aspects of CT. For example, they include examples of criteria and standards for assessing aspects of critical reflection that look very promising. The challenge for taking up a complex understanding of critical thinking as a pedagogical framework is designing for such competency‐based assessment where both “deep understanding” and the ability to apply such understanding to new situations are assessed.

3. Considering a coherent approach to addressing CT competency goals Critical thinking is identified as a key competency within the Cognitive Domain. However, I argue below that a comprehensive view of CT must include:

additional aspects from the cognitive domain including concepts from information literacy such as bias assumption or inference; reasoning and argumentation competency including thinking concepts such as criteria for judgment, evidence and credibility among many others as well as use of discipline specific thinking strategies ranging from Venn diagrams to use of the Scientific Method;

Philip Balcaen

areas from the Intrapersonal Domain including implications for intellectual openness such as emphasizing ‘habits of mind’ (i.e. open‐mindedness and critical reflection) informing constructive core self‐evaluation, work ethic and conscientiousness; and aspects of The Interpersonal Domain teamwork and collaboration as well as effective leadership requiring habits of mind such as being flexible, respectful, being inclusive of others.

Many of those involved in e‐learning initiatives support such a more complex notion of critical thinking as essential and that an embedded approach to teaching (CT) should play a central role within the ecology of 21st Century e‐learning environments (MacKnight, 2000; Garrison & Anderson, 2003; Finkelstein et. al., 2006; Garrison & Anderson, 2011). The problem is that when one reviews most versions of instructional design principles, there appears to be confusion about what CT is and seldom is there an acknowledgment that competent CT involves use of at least five categories of intellectual “tools for thought” (Case, 2005; Balcaen, 2012). Instead, what we see is a confused association of Bloom’s 1950s hierarchy of thinking skills and an ill‐ defined operational notion of CT where merely doing activities such as homework, essays, journals, research reports and portfolios are seen as “teaching” CT. Below, I outline a coherent pedagogical model under on‐going development by the Canadain Critical Thinking Consortium (TC2) for twenty years. The model provides for:

engaging students by using six kinds of questions that invite criterion thinking and that help problematize content. These include general question forms that are useful within all content areas or for cross‐ curricular inquiry. The question forms are: Critique the Piece, Judge Better of Best, Rework the Piece, Decode the Puzzle, Design to Specifications and Perform to Specifications. These questions invite students to engage in critical thought about matters under consideration.

teaching five categories of intellectual “tools for thought” supporting students’ competence in critical thinking. The categories are: 1) using criteria to problematize background knowledge; 2) using warranted criteria for judgement to help decide “what to think or what to do” in different situations; 3) developing deep knowledge of thinking concepts that support good thinkmng; 4) using teaching strategies supporting CT and 5) developing Habits of Mind that support CT within interpersonal and intrapersonal contexts.

moving away from assessment practices that focus on content knowledge for the most part and to plan for formative and summative assessment of the “tools for thought” as a means of assessing students CT competence. (Balcaen, 2011 & 2012.)

While this pedagogical framework provides a comprehensive approach to teaching CT competence, at the same time it offers instructional designers an effective means of embedding CT pedagogy into e‐learning environments. I have provided a few examples for each category under the 2.0 heading above and the Critical Thinking Consortium at http://www.tc2.ca has identified many others.

3.1 E‐learning use of the CT pedagogical framework The UBC based design group has taken up four aspects of this pedagogical framework through individual design projects as we work towards a comprehensive approach to embedding CT pedagogy into various e‐ learning environments. The first, Balcaen & Hirtz (2008a) focuses on use of several “habits of mind” to inform developing critically thoughtful e‐learning Communities of Practice (CoPs). This study involved practicing teachers in three small Canadian cities. The participating teachers were working within Blackboard supported professional development project over a two year period. We found positive implications of an explicit focus on such “habits of mind” such as open‐fair and full‐mindedness. Like Garrison and Anderson’s (2011) more substantial work focused one critical reflection, this focus on the “habits of mind” aspect of the pedagogical model shows much promise for supporting and assessing participants’ participation in aspects of inter‐ and intrapersonal competency within social learning contexts. Our second development project funded by Inukshuk Canada, focused on use of the six categories of questions requiring criterion thinking to engage grade seven science students in critical thinking. The twelve digital lessons developed by practicing science teachers as part of a professional learning project are well used within their educational jurisdiction as smart board supported lessons and are seen by students and teachers as being highly engaging. We have not assed there impact on learning (Balcaen, 2008b). The third development project involved designing twelve learning objects intended to support teaching CT in both blended and online environments (Balcaen, 2011). These include:

Philip Balcaen

two “Take Two” videos used to teach thinking concepts (Criteria & Bias) as well as one video illustrating Investigating Images providng access to 9 CT teaching strategies. The Take Twos have been downloaded approximately 5000 times—quite significant for a small user population.

eight interactive learning objects available to participating Western Canadian Universities. We do not have use numbers for these objects as they are not available from the BCCampus SoLR repository. They include Web of Effects, Venn Diagram, Justifying the Decision, The Image Viewer II, The Values Timeline, Comparison Pie Chart & Rating Evidence learning objects. The project did not involve an effectiveness study due to cost. However,

an upcoming research program will prvide opportunites to assess some of the previous development work.

one Moodle Module, The U‐Shape Discussion designed to support teaching and assessing various habits of mind within various social learning situations. The module is in use within the British Columbia distance learning community at the secondary school level and we have yet to assess its effectiveness although we know that it is popular/widely used within the British Columbia Secondary School System.

Finally, in June 2012, the design team completed the first half of an Advanced Placement Physics course, funded by The British Columbia Government. The course involves ten units of study and is our first attempt at embedding CT pedagogy into a complete distance‐learning course. We completed and made this half course available to the provincial distance learning consortium in July 2012. They report that the course material is in use by 46 BC School Districts and that 14, 910 individual users had accessed it by December, 2012. Again, we do not have data showing effectiveness but choice based user evidence suggests great interest in this approach to informing e‐learning pedagogy. While we see much promise in our work so far we also understand many of the pitfalls, several of which we take up below in relation to the literature reviewed. Our next step is the development of a nationally funded series of apps providing for use of many aspects of the CT pedagogy accompanied by a longitudinal study evaluating the educational value of such an approach to begin in June 2014. As the group moves forward with planning, they are paying close attention to aspects of the literature that will inform consideration of promise and pitfalls that will inform our development work, such as those discussed in section 2.

4. Discussion Among the pitfalls that some have identified are the highly seductive and sometimes distracting nature of some digitally mediated environments often leading to shallow engagement. In addition, it is clear that some digital tools are merely vehicles for transmission of large quantities of information while not supporting the deep learning and substantive formative assessment associated with developing competence. Others point out that these pitfalls are related to problems of the primacy of the immediate and the questionable authority associated with knowledge claims both of which are associated with the ease of accessing information— making many e‐learning environments highly problematic and in need of substantive design improvements. At the same time researchers acknowledge that digitally supported learning is promising because of efficient access to current and evolving information offered from multiple sources and perspectives. It is clear that multi‐media and interactive sources can better engage learners although the depth of engagement deserves attention. In addition, such digital tools enable small group or mass connectivity providing opportunities for collaboration and assessment of both inter and intra personal competencies if designed to do so. Such tools also support creation of effective visual and interactive representations, wide dissemination of ideas and ease of revisions in multiple mediums. Taken together these promises encourage innovation and the thoughtfulness needed to develop cognitive, interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies needed for the 21Century. The challenge is to take advantage of such promises while attending to the pitfalls if we wish to effectively address emerging 21 C goals including competency in critical thinking.

References Assareh, A. and BidBidokht, H. (2010) Barriers to e‐teaching and e‐learning. Procedia Computer Science. Vol. 3, pp. 791‐795. Balcaen, P. and Hirtz, J. (2008a) “Developing Critically Thoughtful e‐learning Communities of Practice”, International Journal of E‐learning, Vol. 5, No.3, pp. 173‐182. Balcaen, P. (2008b) “Developing critically thoughtful, media‐rich lessons in science: process and product”, International Journal of E‐learning, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 106‐170. Balcaen, P. (2011) “The Pedagogy of Critical Thinking: Object Design Implications for Improving Students’ thoughtful Engagement Within E‐learning Environments”. (Fall) US‐China Education Review. Balcaen, P. & Gibson, L. (2012) Embedding Critical Thinking Pedagogy into Distributed Problem Based Learning Course Design ‐ The cases of Advanced Placement Physics and Personal Planning Ten. Proceedings of ICEL 2012, pp. 1‐10.

Philip Balcaen Case, R. (2005) “Moving critical thinking to the main stage”, Education Canada, Vol. 45 No. 2, pp. 45‐49. Brooks, M.A. (2009) Medical Education and the Tyranny of Competency. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, Volume 52, Number 1, Winter, pp. 90‐102 DeLuca, V. and Lari, N. (2011) The Grid Project:Developing Students’ Thinking Skills in a Data‐RichEnvironment. Journal of Technology Education. Vol. 23, No.1, pp.5‐18. Dey, E., Burn, H. and Gerdes, D. (2009) Bringing the Classroom to the Web: Effects of Using New Technologies to Capture and Deliver Lectures. Res Higher Educ. Vol. 50, pp. 377‐393. Drier, H. S. Dawson, K.and Garofalo, J. (1999) Technology Mathematics and Interdiscipinary Connections. Educational Leadership. Vol. 56, No. 5, pp. 21‐25. Doughty, H. A., Meeghan, D. E. and Barrett, R. V. (2009) The Political Economy of Educational Innovation. Collge Quarterly. Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 1‐28. 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Higher Education Research & Development, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 329‐341. Kenyon, S. (2011) Transport and Social Exclusion: access to higher education in the UK policy context. Kushnir, L. ((2009) When Knowing More Means Knowing Less: Understanding the Impact of Computer Experience on E‐ learning and e‐learning Outcomes. Electronic Journal of e‐learning. Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 289‐300. Igo, L., Riccomini, P. Bruning, R., Pope, G. (2006) How Should Middle‐School Students with LD Approach Online Note Taking? A Mixed methods Study. Learning Disability Quarterly. Vol. 29, SPRING, pp. 89‐100. Igo, L., Brunning, R, H., and McRudden, M. (2005a) Exploring Differences in Students’ Copu and Past Decision‐Making and Processing: A Mixed Methods Study. Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol. 97, pp. 103‐116. Lankes, R.D. (2008) Trusting the Internet: New Approaches to Credibility tools. In M. J. Metzger & A. J. Flanagan (Eds.), Digital media, youth and Credibility. pp. 101‐122. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Lipman, M. (1991) Thinking in education, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. MacKnight, C. (2000) “Teaching Critical Thinking through Online Discussions”, Educause Quarterly, Vol. 4, pp. 38‐41. Mayer, R.E. (2001) Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. Pimlott, N. (2011) Competency‐Based Education. Canadian Family Physician Vol. 57: SEPTEMBER , p. 981. Mohr, A., Holtbrugge, D. and Berg, N. (2012) Learning Styles Preferences and the Perceived Usefulness of e‐learning. Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 309‐322. National Research Council. (2012) Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century. Committee on Defining Deeper Learning and 21st Century Skills, James W. Pellegrino and Margaret L. Hilton, Editors. Board on Testing and Assessment and Board on Science Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. National Education Association (2012) Preparing 21 Century Learners for a Global Society: An Educator’s Guide to the Four “Cs”. NEA, Washington. Nelson, E. (2010) Elements of Problem‐Based Learning: Suggestions for Implementation in the Asynchronous Environment. International Journal on E‐learning, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 99‐114. Njenga, J. and Fourie, C. (2008) The Myths about e‐learning in higher education. British Journal of Educational Technology. Vol. 41, pp. 2, pp. 199‐212. Norman, G. (2008) Effectiveness, efficiency and E‐learning. Adv in Health Sci Education. Vol. 13, pp. 249‐251. Parrish, P. E. (2004) The Trouble with Learning Objects. Educational Technology Research and Development. Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 49‐67. Paul, R. W. (2004) Our concept of critical thinking. Retrieved from The Critical Thinking Community Website. Stetter, M. and Hughes, M. (2011) Computer Assisted Instruction to Promote Comprehension in Students with Learning Disabilities. International Journal of Special Education. Vol. 26, No.1, pp. 88‐100. Sundin, O. and Francke, H. (2009) In Search of Credibility: Pupis’ Information Practices in Learning Environments. Information Research. Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 1‐19. Swan, k., Shen, J. and Hiltz, R. (2006) Asessment and Collaboration in Online Learning. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks. Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 45‐62. Talbot M. (2004) Monkey see monkey do: a critique of the competency model in graduate medical education. Med Educ. Vol. 38, No. 6, pp. 587‐92. Wieman, C. E. (2006) A Powerful Tool for Teaching Physics. Nature Physics. Vol. 2, pp. 290‐292. Wu, H., Hsu, and Hwang, F. (2010) Designing a Technology‐Enhanced Leanring Environment to Support Scientific Modeling. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology. Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 58‐65.

Learner Support in Context of Open Distance and e‐Learning for Adult Students Using new Technologies Gezani Baloyi College of Education, Department of Adult Basic Education and Training, University of South Africa baloygp@unisa.ac.za Abstract: The recent global growth and popularity of open and distance learning (ODL) has been attributed to its advantages, such as flexibility for students who wish to study while working. Moreover, ODL is an effective tool in extending learning participation to students from less privileged social groups who are unreachable due to geographic location or cannot access higher education due to diverse factors, such as financial constraints or domestic arrangements. Therefore, this study investigated learner support in the Department of Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) at the University of South Africa (Unisa), the largest, dedicated ODL institution in South Africa. A review of literature study identified the Community of Inquiry model proposed by Garrison, Anderson and Archer (2000) as useful in this context. Thus, this model is used as conceptual framework for the empirical inquiry. A mixed method approach comprising two consecutive phases was employed to investigate the research questions. A self‐designed questionnaire was used to gather quantitative data from a random sample of 400 students registered for the ABET Diploma module (Phase One) followed by face to face interviews with selected lecturers and students (Phase Two). The scope of the study was limited to ABET lecturers, ABET diploma students and to selected Unisa learner support systems, such as myUnisa, which includes a web‐ based discussion forum. The findings of the inquiry were presented and discussed under three main headings: the findings of phase one, the findings of phase two and a summary in which the findings of the two phases were integrated where appropriate. The themes that emerged from the questionnaire and the interviews demonstrate clearly that learner support using new technologies in the ABET Department is crucial in ensuring learner success. Many ABET students live in remote areas of South Africa and have little or no access to internet facilities. However, the majority of students agreed that they would like to interact more with other students through new technologies. Lecturers and students agreed that myUnisa was a vital tool in teaching the students online; yet both students and lecturers still regarded contact discussion classes as the most important form of learner support. The findings suggested that the distance between the university and the student still has to be reduced more to ensure that student support reaches all students equitably. The new technologies have a role to play in addressing the problem. Keywords: open distance and learning (ODL), University of South Africa (Unisa), learner support, adult basic education and training (ABET), information and communication technologies (ICT), social media, online learning

1. Introduction and background to the study The concept of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) is very wide and can be defined in various ways. Hence, it is important to point out that it does not have a single all‐embracing definition. Freeman (2004:6) defines ODL as an amalgamation of two approaches, which focus on expanding access to learning. Moon, Leach and Stevens (2005:218) further define ODL as the open learning approaches, which, when combined with distance education methodologies, are often referred to collectively as open and distance learning. According to Commonwealth of Learning (2000) ODL is: “correspondence, home study, independent learning … flexible learning or distributed learning.” In the ODL philosophy and practice, ODL represents approaches that focus on opening access to education and training provision, freeing learners from constraints of time and place, and offering flexible learning opportunities to individuals and groups of learners (Unesco, 2002: 7). Common elements on which many authors agree in their definition are the combination of Distance Education (DE) and Open Learning, access and separation between the lecturer and the learner. Generally, the goal of ODL is to widen participation and to overcome geographical, social and economic barriers (Kelly & Mills, 2007:149). The Ministry of Education in South Africa has identified ODL as a system that should extend educational opportunities and provide access to individuals who do not have the opportunity to study full time. The White Paper 3, the national plan for higher education (DoE, 2001a), advocates an increase in the general participation rate in public higher education in South Africa, with the aim of facilitating lifelong learning, developing the skills base of the country and redressing historical inequities in the provision of education. Other policies and reports promulgated to make ODL a reality are included in publications of Department of Education (DoE) in 1996, Council for Higher Education (CHE) in 2004 and National Council for Higher Education (NCHE) in 1996. Badat (2004) adds that through ODL access is presented to people who would not have the opportunity to study full time because of work commitments, personal and social

Gezani Baloyi circumstances, geographical distance or poor quality or inadequate prior learning experiences. The South African Government aims to broaden the participation rate in higher education even in remote rural areas. In ODL contexts lecturer and learner are at a distance from each other. Consequently, learners experience isolation due to separation from their institution, lecturers and fellow students (Rumble, 2000:1). ODL has been successful in increasing the number of students but unsuccessful in obtaining satisfactory throughput rates. Part of the reason is that students are isolated from their teachers and some students are unprepared for higher education studies. The study investigates the provision of learner support in the Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) programme at a specific university, the University of South Africa (Unisa) in Pretoria. Extensive literature has been reviewed on developing ODL as a mode of higher education provision, the characteristics of ODL, the rationale for ODL provision, the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in ODL, learner support in ODL and the state of ABET in the South African and Unisa contexts. The Ministry of Education has identified Unisa as an ODL institution that should help in widening students’ participation in learning. However, the other ODL institutions are faced with a number of challenges including dropout, student support and so on. Makina (2008:1) suggests that although ODL has been acclaimed for providing access to higher education for students previously denied this privilege, this formal admission has not been matched with adequate learner support strategies to ensure success. The students in ODL often feel isolated as they are studying on their own. Boyle et al. (2010:122) state there can be particularly acute issues in the distance learning environment where students often report feelings of isolation, little sense of connection and belonging and are challenged to maintain engagement in and motivation for learning. Perraton (2000) argue that ODL institutions have high dropout and low pass rates. Yet, according to Daniel et al. (2009:24), ODL is an effective way of reaching out to large student numbers. Against this background, this study investigated Unisa ODL system with specific reference to the provision of learner support and an ABET programme. One of the critical components in ODL is learner support. Learner support has frequently been identified as particularly important for student success in ODL. According to Simpson (2002), Tait (2000) and Thorpe (2002), learner support is a broad term referring to the services provided to distance learners so that they can overcome barriers to learning and complete their studies successfully. Learner support is defined in different ways in the distance and online learning literature (Brindley, Walti & Zawacki‐Richter, 2004). It might cover learning materials, teaching and tutoring, and non‐academic elements such as administrative aspects, guidance and counselling. In this study learner support refers to all kinds of services including face to face teaching during group discussions or tutoring. Dzakiria (2005:95), and Kelly and Mills (2007:149) add that learner support has frequently been identified by open learning institutions as being of particular importance for student success in ODL. All these scholars are of the view that learner support is learner‐centred and crucial for learner success in ODL. In 2008 Unisa introduced an ODL policy which changed the focus of tuition to include technology and multimedia interaction. In responding to the global call, Unisa uses various technologies to reach out to its students and provide them with opportunities to learn through the various technologies. However, a number of challenges face Unisa’s lecturers in using the learner support systems to reach out students. Anderson (2008) and Aluko et al. (2011) argue that ICT can enhance traditional learner support systems.

2. Conceptual framework of the study This study is a descriptive and interpretive case study of learner support in the specific ODL context for the ABET programme. The two theories that have a significant influence on adult teaching and learning are those espoused by Malcolm Knowles and Paulo Freire. Knowles conceptualised the notion of andragogy and Freire, learner‐centredness. The Community of Inquiry (CoI) model, originally proposed by Garrison, Anderson and Archer (2000) served as an additional conceptual framework for the study.

Gezani Baloyi

3. The problem statement According to Rumble (2000) distance education institutions have been instrumental in developing support services that will assist their students to perform. The focus on providing student support services was driven by the need to address the high dropout rates that were associated with correspondence education. The number of students in the department has dropped since the institute became an academic department. One of the major challenges facing distance education institutions is to provide support for “isolated students who are left to fend for themselves (Bridley & Paul 2004:40). The distance education students are separated from the lecturers. The distance between the students and the institution is a worrying factor. The effects of such isolation on distance learners can inhibit any possibility for engagement with teachers, study material and peers (Simpson 2002). The literature reviewed has shown that such isolation of distance students can be broken by proper provision of student support (Ibid.). The ABET diploma students come from mainly rural provinces of the Eastern Cape and Limpopo. Unisa seems to be the only ODL institution in South Africa, which caters mainly for students who come from rural areas. Qakisa‐Makoe (2005:43) says most of Unisa’s African students come from homes where they are first generation learners in higher education. They are learners who are expected to learn and study new material independently and to adjust to new ways of learning in a distance learning environment. Based on this, this is the problem the researcher wants to address in this study.The importance of learner support in ODL is crucial and many scholars reviewed above argue that it has a role to play in increasing the success rate of the students. The relative low pass rate and dropout is a cause for concern to Unisa. The enrolment for ABET diploma students has dropped in recent years. Although there are best practices globally at Unisa, learner support strategies and multiple challenges face the students and lecturers regarding learner support. Unisa uses technology to reach out to its students who are in urban and rural areas. However, problems face students and lecturers in using technology for teaching and learning. This prompted the researcher to explore the perceptions, views, opinions and attitudes of the ABET diploma students on the use of learner support structures. The main research question identified in this study project is formulated as follows: How does ODL systems at Unisa provide for learner support in an ABET programme? To address the research question, it is imperative to answer the following sub‐questions:

What are the common theories and approaches to learner support in ODL context?

What are the attitudes and experiences of Unisa’s ABET students and lecturers on learner support?

What are the challenges of learner support?

What recommendations can one make for improving learner support at Unisa in general and for ABET students in particular?

4. Significance of the study On the basis of the background given above, the study is significant for the following reasons. The literature reviewed indicates that ODL focuses on removing barriers to accessing higher education, particularly with regard to students who live in disadvantaged and rural areas where learner support is central to student success (Badat 2005; Thorpe 2001; Dzakira 2005; Kelly & Mills 2007). The study was informed by ways of learner support through e‐learning in general and makes suggestions for the appropriate use of ICT for providing learner support to ODL in all departments at Unisa.

5. Discussion and analysis This section gives attention to the both quantitative and qualitative empirical findings emerging from the study. The findings were discussed according to the sections of the questionnaire. In phase one, the researcher randomly sampled 400 students from the total number of 1808 enrolled in the Higher Diploma in Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET). They were targeted to participate in the survey to ensure the best possible representation of their experiences of learner support in ABET. However, while the

Gezani Baloyi findings represent the views and experiences of the target population, they cannot claim to be representative of the views and experiences of all ABET and Unisa students. The respondents were scattered throughout the nine provinces of South Africa. The vast majority of the respondents live in the rural areas. There were more female students than male students. This suggests that female students have sufficient time to study at home in spite of their domestic schedules. Interestingly, it would have been expected that men had more time due to less commitment to domestic duties. The majority of respondents (99.2%) were Africans; 0, 8% of the respondents were Coloured and Indians combined. Africans are found mainly in rural areas; most come from poor backgrounds and a disadvantaged schooling system with limited proficiency in English as the medium of the instruction. This means that female students are more concerned about the problems of illiteracy in the rural areas than the male students. They use the ABET programme to regain the time they lost during the apartheid era. During the apartheid era there was no compulsory education in South Africa. This impacted more on women than men. Learner support is developed for students to communicate with the university. The question was asked to find out how they are communicating with the university and in what way they are communicating. The learner support is made to enhance communication between the students and the university. The function of student support entails providing the students with as much assistance as possible in order to enable them to overcome difficulties that are often encountered by distance education students. Student support takes on different forms including the following: Library visit The respondents visit the library per week as follows: once (62, 1%); two times (13, 6%); three times (11, 1%); four times (3, 8%); and five times (9, 4%). Uses of website The students tend to visit myUnisa more regularly. At least 73.5% reported that they visit the website at least once a week while 10.5% of them visit the website more than 5 times a week. On a weekly basis respondents visit the Unisa’s website as follows: one time (73, 5%); two times (7, 1%); three times (6, 3%); four times (2, 5%); and five times (10, 5%). Study groups The respondents meet with their study group on a monthly basis as follows: one time (36, 6%) and two times (12, 2%), Most students use the library not to get resources but as a place to study. Generally, the students regard the library as a quite place to study. In their home communities they do not have those quite places to study. The majority of the students are using the myUnisa for learning. Many of the students reported that they use websites. They also reported that they access Unisa website from their mobile phones. Most respondents (76, 3%) do not have access to the internet; only 22, 2% had access to the internet. The question sought to establish whether the respondents had internet access with particular reference to e‐mail which is the most popular method of communication between the students, the lecturers and the university. The majority of the respondents (72, 4%) were not able to download study material from the internet. Only 25, 7% were able to download study material from the internet. The majority of respondents (66, 9%) were not able to send e‐mails; 31, 1% was able to send and receive e‐mails. The overall response showed that most respondents had no access to the internet which would impact their studies and access to learner support systems. In the Unisa environment, e‐mail method is probably the most

Gezani Baloyi popular communication application of the internet. It is fast and conveys messages and files within a very short time. Unisa is looking into the possibility of going fully online, therefore the researcher wanted to find out how many students have an access to technologies possible for them to go online. About 76.3% of students do not have access to internet and they live in the rural areas and registered for this programme. Only 22.4% students have access to the internet. In the context of this programme, the majority of students do not have an access to the internet and they are still relying on the print based materials. Although Unisa wants to go online and use the e‐learning route, the majority of the students in rural areas will be left out in teaching and learning programme. Students who have access to the internet use it for downloading study materials, sending and receiving e‐ mails. They can still use myUnisa to download learning materials but they are not using it. They seem to use it mainly for administration purposes, for example receiving and sending assignments and so on. The findings suggest that most students do not have an access to internet facilities. Although the majority of students do not have an access, they do seem to recognise the value that it brings to teaching and learning as a means of supporting the students. In phase two, the themes that emerged during the interviews demonstrate very clearly that learner support in the ABET Department is crucial in ensuring learner success. During the analysis of the data we identified several codes. These codes were then clustered into code families. Each of the themes and related issues have been analysed to demonstrate their relevance to the research questions and sub‐questions. It was clear from the lecturers that the use of e‐learning at Unisa is fairly new to them. Thus, some of the lecturers do not have comprehensive understanding of describing what e‐learning or online learning is. This is an issue that Unisa should be aware of and try to address. If lecturers do not have a good grasp of what e‐ learning or online learning is all about, perhaps it is too premature for us to expect that the lecturers effectively use it for teaching and learning. Of the ten lecturers interviewed, five lecturers are using myUnisa for teaching and learning activities. Even though some of them have not started using the myUnisa, they have an understanding about what it can do for students – mainly that it brings the students closer to the department. However, these lecturers acknowledge that rural students do not have an access to internet and other facilities. They understand the importance and the value of myUnisa. They also see it as a networking tool and help to reduce the distance between the student and the institution. However, the lecturers have made claims that they visit myUnisa and attend to teaching and learning activities. Yet 76, 3% of students do not have an access to internet. They cannot download or send and receive e‐mails. Therefore, the lecturer’s teaching could be limited to 22, 2% of the students who have access to internet. The students who do not have access to internet miss teaching and learning activities. The myUnisa could be the useful tool for teaching and learning if it is accessible to all students. The students could network and bridge the distance gap between the students and the lecturers. The attitude of lecturers towards myUnisa was positive. Therefore, they should be encouraged to attend the myUnisa training that the university provides for them. It could be seen that most lecturers have not used the myUnisa for teaching and learning fully. If I have to be honest, this could be attributed to the fact that the university has not gone fully online. Most lecturers are not motivated for various reasons. For example, they do not have the time, and at the moment the use is limited for specific functions. The lecturers indicated that they provided learner support systems through technology. They saw the need to support students who were isolated. The commitment of lecturers to avail themselves in myUnisa learning management would make a difference in increasing student success. However, one can see that there is an improvement since 2007 in terms of student support. The lecturers indicated that they wish to use print and

Gezani Baloyi group discussion classes in future to supplement computer facilities; while encouraging students to visit myUnisa. However, the vast majority of students (76, 3%) do not have access to the internet. Unisa has invested much in learner support systems using computer facilities. Some students have no internet access, or find it too costly to access. This is a cause for concern to students who do not have an access to the internet. The university has invested so much in the internet and there is low number of 22% who have a limited access to the internet. There is a large number of students who do not have an access to the internet. The lecturers interviewed indicated that they still use printed materials to support those who have no access to the internet. The late delivery of study material is a recurring problem in the distance learning environment and a problem that students often approach lecturers about. Therefore, technology is seen as a means of study material delivery. However, those who have an access to myUnisa, use it for downloading study materials, communicating with the university and so on. myUnisa is used for communications with the students specifically, for example, assignment due dates. They communicate with the lecturers on administrative issues, due dates, and there is very little about academic activities. About 90% of the lecturers interviewed did not have formal qualifications in computer literacy. They were not exposed to computer facilities during their professional training and this has implications for learner support systems. The use of myUnisa by the lecturers is associated with trial and error learning.

6. Recommendations While there is increased interest in the integration of technology in learning and teaching, very little is known about the use of ICTs and changing student approaches to learning (Rumble 2000). The new communication technologies, particularly the internet, appear to offer exciting possibilities for overcoming geographical access and cost barriers to learning. The introduction of ODL has been generally understood as a response to the new challenges of increased and diverse demands on supportive learning made on the educational sector (Danarajan 2001; Ipaye 2007). The distance education offered in developing countries has depended largely on first and second generation delivery modes and has relied heavily on print as a form of information dissemination. The technological challenges are often cited as the main reasons for such drawbacks (Alucko, Fraser, Hendrikz 2011:115). Adult education is crucial for social change globally. It addresses socio‐economic problems through empowering people with skills. Although ABET in South Africa is booming in MacGregor’s view (2008), the Project Literacy indicated that South Africa has about 4,7 million illiterate people and these low levels of literacy and numeracy persist. ABET diploma students are diverse and are often found in rural areas without required facilities. Unisa as an ODL institution requires effective learner support to improve throughput and success rates of ABET diploma students. The dropout rate and the inability of many students to use myUnisa is a significant problem. There is substantial evidence that technology can be an effective tool in supporting teaching and learning at a distance. However, challenges face students in the distance education environment who live in rural communities. The literature reviewed revealed that ODL could be an effective tool in widening participation to students from less privileged social groups and those who have traditionally not entered higher education after school. It is important that countries offering distance education should properly address technological challenges and problems. In this regard, technologies, such as the telephone, multimedia, CDs and DVDs, video and audio conferencing, SMS, cell phones, e‐mail and discussion forums via myUnisa have been proposed to offer new possibilities for supporting learning in distance education. The Department should consider the local context when providing learner support strategies. If we know who the learners are, we will be able to respond to their needs instead of regarding technology as the first consideration. Starting from learners’ needs prompts more creative and responsive solutions. For example, in

Gezani Baloyi cases where there is only limited internet connectivity in people’s homes or none at all, there may be internet cafes nearby. An education provider could establish a partnership with the internet cafes and cover some of the learners’ costs in using them, and in this way improve internet access for learners. The implementation of technology in undergraduate courses to facilitate learning is an important part in the ODL learning process. ABET diploma students should be encouraged to make use of technology in their learning experience. According to Unisa (2011), mobile phone access in South Africa is 70%. Thus, student support through mobile phones should be considered to tackle learner support in the department. The lecturers have the responsibility of providing opportunities for all ABET diploma students from across a wide spectrum of diverse backgrounds and abilities. The access to a variety of ICT should be exploited in the teaching and learning activities to meet the needs of learners in a transformative way.

7. Conclusions The value proposition of the study was to find ways to inspire ABET diploma students to complete their studies. This will lead to student success and reduce the dropout rate of the ABET diploma students. The researcher has also noted that even in the urban areas, students’ access is impacted by the cost of accessing the computer facilities. A number of factors impact the student’s access, for example social, political, economic and technological factors. The students register for the ABET modules, qualify and do not write the examination. Thus, several factors in adult students’ lives impact their learning activities. However, the participants showed energetic, innovative and inventive commitment to their teaching and learning. The principles and theories of ODL, ABET and learner support produce student‐centredness. The accessibility and acceptance of the ODL mode in South Africa has been thoroughly embraced by Unisa and the stakeholders. The focus of online education at Unisa seems to take account of the general diverse background of students and the accessibility and affordability of online learning. Although distance education may be criticised and regarded as second‐chance education, Unisa is striving for excellence in its provision. Even though both positive and negative responses were obtained from these participants, learner support in ODL has the potential to improve throughput rate and to ensure successful studies. It can also improve quality education and education for all. Students need support to study better, pass and complete their qualifications.

References Aluko, R.F., Fraser, W.J, & Hendrikz, J. (2011). Transactional distance theory and total quality management in open and distance learning. Africa Education Review, 8(1): 115‐132. Anderson, T. (2008). Towards a theory of online learning. Edmonton: AU Press. Badat, S. (2005). South Africa: Distance higher education policies for access, social equity, and social and economic responsiveness in a context of the diversity of provision. Distance Education, 26(2): 183‐204. Brindley, J.E, & Paul, R. (2004). The role of learner support in institutional transformation‐A case study in the making. In J.E. Brindley, C, Walti, & Zawacki‐Richter (Eds.), Learner support in open, distance and online learning environments, Oldenburg: Bibliotheksund Information system der Universitat Oldenburg: 39‐50. Brindley, J.E., Walti, C. & Zawacki‐Richter, O. (2004). The current context of learner support in Open, Distance and Online Learning: An introduction. In Brindley, J.E., Walti, C. & Zawacki‐Richter, O. (Eds.), Learner Support in Open Distance and Online Learning Environments. BIS–Oldenburg: Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky. Department of Education. (2001). The National Plan for Higher Education. Pretoria: Government Printers. Dhanarajan, D. (2001). Reflections on ten years of the Commonwealth of Learning. Distance Education, 14(2), 1‐18. Dzakiria, H. (2005). The Role of Learning Support in Open and Distance Learning: Learner’s experiences and perspectives. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 6(2): 1‐14. Garrison, D.R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical Inquiry in a Text‐Based Environment: Computer Conferencing in Higher Education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2‐3): 87‐105. Ipaye, B. (2007). Organisation of Dual Mode Distance Education Institutions in Nigeria: Present and future. Lagos: National Open University of Nigeria. MacGregor, K. (2008). South Africa: Boom in adult basic education. University World News. Available at: http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20080314090614219 (Accessed 15 March 2012). Makina, B. (2008). Learner Scaffolding through Dialogue: A Distance Education Case Study. Innovation in Open and Distance Education. Paper presented at the NADEOSA Conference, 18‐19 August 2008 at the University of Pretoria, Pretoria. Perraton, H. (2000). Open and Distance Learning in the Developing World. New York: Routledge. Qakisa‐Makoe, M. (2005). Reaching out: Supporting black learners in distance education. Progressio, 27(1 & 2): 44‐61. South Africa. Department of Education. (2001). The National Plan for Higher Education. Pretoria: Government Printers. Tait, A. (2000). Planning Student Support for Open and Distance Learning. Open Learning, 15(3): 287‐299.

Maintaining Course Contents in Consonance With Students' Perceptions Omar Abdullah Batarfi King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia obatarfi@kau.edu.sa Abstract: In academia, one of the challenging tasks for the success of student's career is the course content. Course content is considered as a unified knowledge between the instructors and the students because it improves the educational capability of the students. Most of the academic courses have more than one section and usually the same course is taught by more than one instructors. To maintain the consistency between the sections, it is important to provide them with equal opportunity of quality education regardless of the teachers. In this contribution, a framework for maintaining consistency is proposed to maintain the alteration done by instructor based on the students' perceptions. The proposed framework is multi‐agent system which is composed of number of interacting agents to detect and transfer the student' perceptions. Keywords: consistency, perception, agent, course content

1. Introduction The traditional teaching module is based on the on‐site delivery and all communication between instructors and students take place in the classrooms. Computers are introduced in the education system for learning process itself and the educational administration and it is known as CBE (Computer Based Education) (Rahkila, 1996). The computer has provided amazing facilities in the education system and the modern CBE has embedded hypermedia to deliver the education and learning. Although CBE has affected positive in the traditional teaching module, but interaction in the CBE is considered a crucial factor for the success of component of educational process (Anderson, 2003). Researchers concerned with CBE have realized three types of interaction between instructors and students that support the education process (MOORE, 1989):

Students interact with course content to increase the clarity of the course content.

Students interact with instructors and receive feedback from them.

Students interact with classmates and engage in discussion among them to understand the content.

It is evident from the literature that most of the researchers have concerned more about the three types of interaction in distance learning education system. The first interaction is interaction between the student and the course content, (Moore, 1989) founded that no education is going to be offered without this type of interaction because education is required the student's intellectual interaction with content for their understanding (MOORE, 1989). In the past before printing technology, interaction with content was only through a direct face‐to‐face which facilitate the transfer of knowledge from the instructor to his students (Dan Bouhnik and Tali Marcus, 2006). The second interaction is the interaction with the instructor. This is the oldest and traditional pattern of communication between the students and the instructors which is commonly observing in the traditional classroom environment. The important interaction in this environment is teacher immediacy and immediacy behaviors such the teacher' verbal (i.e. giving praise) and nonverbal (i.e. eye contact) and the body language of the instructor which can lead to increase learning capabilities of the students (SWAN, 2002). Third Moore's type of interaction is interaction among the students themselves. Latest researches have revealed that the communication between the students (i.e. the ability to ask questions, to share ideas with others, or to disagree with others) is the major factor in the leaning process (Dan Bouhnik and Tali Marcus, 2006). Moreover, interaction with classmates collaboratively may compensate for any lack in knowledge which shows the advantage of learning in a group (Picciano, 2002). In this paper, the presented proposed system aims to adapt the Moore's three types on interaction has discussed to ensure the success and efficiency of the learning process. The proposed system is a framework based on multi‐agent system which is composed of number of interacting agents to detect and transfer the student' perceptions.

2. Related work Work that was accomplished by (SWAN, 2002) was intended to use the Moore's three types of interactions to extract the course design factors, student perceptions, and interactivity in online courses. Moreover to suggest

Omar Abdullah Batarfi some verbal immediacy that may assist in interaction between course participant, between students and content, instructors, and with classmates. This work used SLN infrastructure (The SUNY Learning Network) which is used to support asynchronous online courses for the 64 institution s and nearly 400,000 students of the State University of New York (SUNY) system. In the end spring semester of 1999, 3800 students were enrolled in 264 courses were asked to complete an online survey. For extracting course designing factors, they looked at 22 design features and course variables in a subset of the courses offered in the spring 1999 semester. They decided to examine courses with five or more students which made them to examine 73 courses with1108 respondents. (Donovan, 2006) carried in his research the course evaluation format and it compared the traditional one with pencil and paper and the electronic evaluation format. This work applied on 519 students who enrolled in 22 sections. Each instructor taught two sections of the same course. In the end of the semester, each instructor evaluated one section with traditional method and the other with the electronic method. The study concluded that there is no significant difference in numerical ranking between the two evaluation methods. The researchers found the differences in number and the length of the comments, the ratio of negative to positive comments, and the ration of formative to summative comments. Also the study noted that students with electronic comments wrote more comments and the majority of these comments were formative. In (Hee‐Jeon Suh and Seung‐Wook Lee, 2006) the work was intended to develop a prototype for an agent that supports online collaborative learning. Agents were developed to monitor the process of collaborative learning system and they promoted the collaboration and interaction between students. The researchers mentioned that the monitor agents can coordinate educational components related to group work because monitor agents automatically gather and analyze information on students' collaborative learning activities and the transform it into helpful information explaining the learning situation. Also researchers highlighted that the facilitator agent can take the workload of instructors in controlling web‐based collaborative learning.

3. Architecture description The proposed system in this paper is based on different layers and each layer is composed of multi‐agents that communicate with each other to perform various tasks to administrate and maintain the consistency of course content after alteration it to adapt the students’ perceptions. The proposed architecture shown in figure 1 is able to carry out such problem of different courses contents that were originally unified.

Figure 1: Consistency management architecture Instructor may make changes in the course content during the semester discussed above that the same course might be teach by more than one instructor, therefore, the course content will be differed for the unified courses. The proposed architecture shows the different components of the system to handle the students’ perceptions about the course and the processes to adapt these students’ perceptions to the course content. This system handles the Moore’s three types of interactions to make sure that the education system is

Omar Abdullah Batarfi efficient. In Figure 1, students sit in the class to attend the lecture and they have the ability to access the course content on their machines online in the classroom. Instructors contact direct face‐to‐face with students during the lecture and this interaction goes in the compatibility with the second Moore’s interaction. Moreover students have the facility to indicate their perception level about any part of the course content and this facility stratifies the first Moore’s interaction. The students leave feedback regarding any misunderstanding concept in the course and the feedback agent will handle the task to present the feedback to the instructor. The course instructor will check the feedback to examine its necessity. In the case of the feedback will add clarity or explanation to the noted part, the instructor does alternation to the course content by adding what make the part more clear (i.e. an addition explanation, illustrates an example.. etc). The other facility that matches with Moore’s interaction in the proposed system is the collaborative discussion learning system. This facility is a communication tool to support the exchange of knowledge among the students about the course. Discussion agent continuously forwards the discussion text to the course coordinator and course coordinator has the authority to check the discussion and to extract the useful materials to be added in the course contents. The collaborative discussion learning system will be accessible for all the students who are studying the same course with, it does not matter who teaches the course. The course coordinator can be assigned out of the course instructors. In the case that an alteration is happened, the alteration checking agent will be triggered to check this modification event, if it violates consistency relationship between the multiple course contents (E. Clarence, 1999). The consistency framework supports a cross‐check homogeneous structured of each course content. The alteration checking agent reports the modification event to the maintain consistency agent. The maintain consistency agent is located in the lower layer and it is responsibility to keep the last version of agreed upon course content. The last version of updated course content is compared by maintain consistency agent with the identified altered course content to find out the modified part. After the maintain consistency agent accomplishes the process of checking and allocates the modification, it forwards the altered part delimited by the section tags to delivery agent. Before to maintaining the consistency in all course contents, delivery agent check the following steps first:

Must ensure that other instructors do not already cover the part that has been altered. If this condition is not satisfied the modified part will be rejected.

If the first condition is satisfied, the delivery agent must confirm the acceptance of all instructors for modifying their copies of the course content. If one instructor do not accept, the modification will be rejected

If the modified part rejected, the deliver agent will inform the maintain consistency agent about the rejection. The maintaining consistency agent will resend the last saved copy to the instructor that issued the rejected modification.

If the maintaining consistency agent does not receive a rejection notification from delivery agent, it saves the new copy as the last version of agreed upon course content.

4. System implementation and testing The proposed system is implemented for testing in a lab with 23 computers. The types of these computers are identical, all are Dell computers with processor speed is 3 GHZ and the memory size is 2 GB. All the computers are connected through LAN 10‐100 Mbps and their name on LAN as 611p300 to 611p322 with addresses 192.168.0.1 to 192.168.0.23. For monitoring traffics between computers, Wireshark application is used (Wireshark, n.d.). Aglet platform is used to create agents in java; Aglet was developed at the IBM Tokyo Research Laboratory. The Aglet Software Development Kit (ASDK) is a framework and environment for developing and executing mobile agents (Group, 2009). The Aglet platform has different operations such as create, dispatch, retract, clone and dispose the agent. We dispatched the Alteration Checking Agent after any modification on any replica of the course content. We use Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA‐1) to create the signature of the course content; moreover, SHA‐1 is used to ease the detection process in the case of any modification took place on any of the course content.

Omar Abdullah Batarfi

5. Methodology In this work we are enthusiastic to do descriptive and exploratory study to find the relation and the effect of adapting the Moore’s interaction pillars in the course contents and their effect on undergraduate student's perception. Moore’s three types on interactions are applied on the proposed system with course that has been taught for more than 4 years and the course has twenty undergraduate students. The students have been introduced to use the collaborative discussion learning system to facilitate the discussion in the course topics which will help to exchanging the knowledge among the students in the course. Moreover, Students have understood that the proposed system is intended to provide a comprehensive understanding of the course concepts. Secondly, students were aware about using the feedback facility to contact the instructor for clarity of certain concepts. In the beginning of the term the students were not get used with the collaborative discussion learning and feedback systems and toward the end of the semester, the number of students who became familiar with the system was increased. This case is considered as normal for any new system being applied. At the end of the semester, students engaged in this course were requested to answer the question on an anonymous online questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of multiple‐choice questions. The questions used in the questionnaire are shown in Table 1. Table 1: Student satisfaction questionnaire

6. Methodology A total of nineteen students returned the questionnaire in which two students did not complete their course. The questionnaire results identified a rational because the four student perception variables (course easiness, feedback on the course, classmates' discussion, and instructor cares about feedback) were highly correlated. The other factor that made the explanation of the questionnaire results is reasonable that the researcher who carrying this work is also the instructor of the course.

Omar Abdullah Batarfi

. Figure 2: Level of the course easiness The first question in the questionnaire was: How do you feel about the course? Figure 2 shows the statistics as, the majority of students (32 %) feel that the course is moderate and 5% of students feel that the course is easy. The result is normal since the subject of this course is Information Security and it is considered as an advanced course. It is taken by students who left to their graduation one year. Moreover it is the only course teaching the subject which makes the course some kind of hard course. In the other extreme 21% of the students feel that the course is very difficult. This result matches the percentage of the students who fail the course; therefore, the two percentages are correlated.

Figure 3: Feedbacks role in increasing clarity The second question in the questionnaire was How well does the feedback on the course help in increasing the clarity of the course? Figure 3 shows that the majority of student perception (31 %) agreed that the feedback assist to improve the clarity to a certain extent. Justification of this result refers to the nature of the course because the students are introduced to a new subject that they have not had before. This chart highlights those students who have the full confidence to assist the feedback for improving the clarity of the course are 21% which is correlated with the percentage of students who achieved above 90% of the total grade of the course.

Omar Abdullah Batarfi

Figure 4: Discussion help in understanding The third question was: How well does the discussion with your classmates help you in understanding the course concepts? The students believed that they learned from their classmates because 42% of students perceived this. Students feel comfortable when they engaged in discussion with their classmates which is directly reflected on this question. Moreover, the course grade which assigned for discussion shows that the number of student who got 85% of the discussion grade is 42% which is correlated with the questionnaire findings.

Figure 5: Instructor interaction with the student feedbacks The fourth question was: How well did the instructor interact with the student feedbacks? As an instructor of the course, I was always eager to respond to the students’ feedbacks. After I analyze the feedbacks, I add what is satisfied the feedbacks to improve the clarity of the course. Students answer showed that 42% reported the instructor interacted well with their feedback. On the other hand 16% reported that the instructor had no interaction with their feedback. There is a strong relation between the students’ perception in this question and the students’ perception in question 2 and both results are equal. Students who selected the low level of the instructor interaction with their feedback also selected the lowest level of the feedback role in improve clarity in the course.

Omar Abdullah Batarfi

Figure 6: Students participation in the course The fifth question was: How do you evaluate your participation in the course? Figure 6 shows that all students claimed that they have participated in the course. In this question, students have been asked to compare their participation through the proposed system with the traditional participation in the classroom. Nine students out of nineteen who are the majority said that they had fair participation. It reality that students who active in the course either online or off, they will have more participation and will learn more from them (SWAN, 2002). The finding in this question is correlated with the finding in the question two because the majority of students whose perception agreed about feedback increased the clarity in the course.

7. Conclusion In this paper, the proposed system is purely based on Moor's three types of interaction concept which is intended to maintain the consistency where the course is taught by more than one instructor to adapt the student’s perceptions regarding the course contents. The system has incorporated agents to carry out the task of maintaining the consistency between multiple course contents. Agents are being employed in a collaborative framework; therefore, they are capable of concurrent execution of consistency checks. The detailed design of the proposed system has been evaluated by different experiments and distributed questionnaire for testing the student satisfaction is analyzed.

References Anderson, T., 2003. Getting the Mix Right Again: An updated and theoretical rationale for interaction, s.l.: International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. Dan Bouhnik and Tali Marcus, 2006. Interaction in Distance‐Learning Courses, s.l.: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Donovan, J., 2006. Constructive student feedback: Online vs. traditional course evaluations, s.l.: Journal of Interactive Online Learning. E. Clarence, J. W. G. a. C. S. C. W. I. M. S., 1999. A Modern Approach to Distributed Artificial Intelligence.. G. Weiss, MIT PRess. Group, A. D., 2009. Aglet Software Development Kit. [Online] [Accessed 12 1 2013]. Hee‐Jeon Suh and Seung‐Wook Lee, 2006. Collaborative Learning Agent forPromoting Group Interaction, s.l.: ETRI Journal. Moore, M. G., 1989. Three types of interaction, s.l.: American Journal of Distance Education. Picciano, A., 2002. Beyond student perceptions: Issues of interaction, s.l.: Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks. Rahkila, M., 1996. A COMPUTER BASED EDUCATION SYSTEM FOR SIGNAL, HELSINKI: s.n. Swan, K., 2002. Building Learning Communities in Online, USA: Education, Communication & Information. Wireshark, n.d. [Online] Available at: http://www.wireshark.org/ [Accessed 1 2 2013].

Social Higher Education: How Effective is it? Vladlena Benson and Stephanie Morgan Kingston Business School, Kingston University, London, UK V.benson@kingston.ac.uk Stephanie.Morgan@kingston.ac.uk Abstract: Over the past few years organisations in the public and private sectors have turned to social media in the hope of establishing an effective communication channel with their customers, suppliers and other stakeholders. Following the trend, Higher Education Institutions (HEI) have adopted social media channels for a variety of purposes. Accounts about HEIs' use of social media are plentiful in academic literature. Aiming to meet student expectations and include a popular communication channel into their communication strategy, universities have incorporated social networking into the marketing of their courses, learning and teaching strategy, maintaining alumni connections, and other areas. However, universities remain unclear about the effectiveness of their social media channels, and are even less aware about the resources which social media management requires. HEIs are making ad hoc attempts to employ social media without the appropriate tools or metrics for measuring the effectiveness of their social media communication channels. This research aims to close the gap in the literature on social media applications in higher education and their alignment with university strategic objectives. The paper proposes a framework for aligning social media practices with university goals, taking into account characteristics of individual higher education institutions. It is argued that student recruitment, engagement, achievement and employability can be improved through the integration of social media in higher education. The paper concludes with a discussion of the key areas to consider before launching a social strategy in the new field of social higher education. Keywords: social media, digital marketing, technology ROI, higher education, social strategy, social networking, ICT, learning and teaching strategy, alumni management, student engagement

1. 1 Place of social media: Background According to recent statistics social media is now placed ahead of many other essential online activities (Ofcom 2012). Only three years ago it occupied 25% of online time usage, while current statistics shows a dramatic increase in social networking activity as a share of time spent by users online. There has also been a shift in the demographics of social media usage, while the younger generation appears to dominate Facebook usage, nevertheless 46% of Facebook users are aged over 45. Attracting more and more professionals, Facebook reports that 57% of its users have a college education. Similarly, LinkedIn reports that 50% of its user base have a university degree and 72% of its registrants use the network for business purposes (Onlinemba.com 2012). Commercial presence on social media has also risen over the last five years. Projections for growth of social marketing are quite optimistic, facilitated by the expansion of applications, rise of the mobile device capabilities and diversification of mobile networks (Woodhouse 2012). Woodhouse also cites statistics of the top most popular internet sites, which include Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn amongst the top 12 most visited in the world. The organic growth of social media marketing and convergence of social networking sites offers opportunities for consolidated marketing. Earlier research (see for review Benson, Morgan & Tennakoon, 2012) opened up a discussion of how universities adapt social media, not only for marketing but for relationship building, career management and learning and teaching purposes. This article focuses on the performance evaluation of social media channels for universities, which can bring HEIs a step closer to being able to define their goals and metrics for social media effectiveness. This will enable HEIs to establish a successful, as well as efficient, social media communication strategy and to be in a position to measure the ROI of the new technology investment. We discuss a set of metrics for ROI on social media adopted in business marketing and suggest a framework for aligning strategic objectives of HEIs along with possible social strategies to achieve them. These strategies are applicable in various stages of the student lifecycle, which differs markedly in terms of university goals, students’ expectations and the objectives /involvement of a wide variety of external stakeholders. We discuss a successful application of a mature social media strategy at a UK university, which is located in London and has a network of international links. The social media strategy has been facilitating internal and external communication of the HEI with a wide range of stakeholders. We hope that the article will help bringing HEIs

Vladlena Benson and Stephanie Morgan closer to solving the dilemma of being able to justify investment into social media and to measure effectiveness (or the lack of thereof) of the elusive new technology. The article concludes with a practical social media strategy matrix for the adoption of social media, based on strategic objectives which can be tailored to individual HEIs.

2. Role of social networking in higher education Applications of social media in learning and teaching have naturally attracted significant attention from academics. Using social technologies and media allows learners to communicate and collaborate across national and cultural boundaries, generate academic content, and become active participants and contributors to their learning process. The use of social media has increased across a range of disciplines, as wide ranging as medical, architecture, marketing, and business as well as communications studies. With the proliferation of mobile devices social networking in higher education is likely to continue its successful adoption (Benson & Morgan 2012). As businesses increase their own use of social media as a tool to interact with customers it becomes important to encourage students to make appropriate use of these. Tuten & Marks (2012) suggest that even in marketing education these tools are not yet much used. Barriers cited by staff include lack of time and adjusting to the quantity of tools available. George & Dellasega (2011) discuss the use of fully integrated social media into teaching and coursework in the area of medical education. They argue that this helps students acquire the skills needed for problem solving st and collaboration using technology required in the 21 century. Student feedback has been excellent supporting the value of this approach. The benefits of integrating social networking into the curriculum have been found in a range of studies. Okoro (2012) suggests social media improves the quality of student learning outcomes however does emphasise the importance of selective use of the medium. Blaschke (2012) argues that social media can encourage self determined learning to develop autonomy and capability to learn. Although aimed at distance learning, these aspects can be applied to more traditional learning environments. McCarthy (2010) used Facebook within a blended delivery model and found that today’s digital natives engage readily with this approach. The first year experience of students was considerably enhanced. In a Taiwanese study, Hung & Yuen (2010) found that the use of social media enhanced student’s sense of community, giving a strong feeling of social connectedness which improved their learning experience. Okoro, Hausman & Washington (2012) found use of social media encourages active engagement, collaboration, and participation in class activities. Whilst they agree that social media can be a distraction for students, effective use was shown to sustain quality instruction and skills development. A number of studies support the view that the use of social media increases student independence and autonomy, enabling them to learn methods of assimilating information, and suiting the learning styles of today’s ‘digital natives’. Potential distraction is not the only negative. Hrastinski & Aghaee (2012) found evidence of ‘digital dissonance’ (the divide between personal and educational use, see Clark et al. 2009) although the majority of students did use Facebook to initiate contact with peers and found social media useful to facilitate groupwork. They rightly emphasise the importance of ensuring there is a teaching strategy in place. (This was however a small explorative study). Friesen & Lowe (2012) argue against the claim that social media places the learner at the centre of a network of knowledge and expertise. They argue for the questionable promise of the use of this in learning as in their view social media constrains debate, and therefore learning. Kurkela (2011) emphasised potential for unintended, usually negative, consequences of this technique and argued for the need for a systematic understanding of the purpose of the use of social media. Nyangau & Bado (2012) offer a full review of the literature on marketing through social media in HE and found many HE organisations are using this increasingly for recruitment, although it was still unclear whether social media actually influences student decision making. Benson et al. (2012) outline the advantages of integrating the strategy for marketing and educational use of social media throughout the student lifecycle. We argue that the use of social media for marketing, if strategically integrated with use in the curriculum, may increase student awareness of social media and use within coursework, and thereby reduce digital dissonance. The

Vladlena Benson and Stephanie Morgan question of how to measure effectiveness of social media investment is not straightforward to answer and it is to this we now turn.

3. Measuring effectiveness of social media Assessing success of a social media investment has always presented difficulties in the business world. Coming into the next stage of maturity, social technology is moving away from the phase of inflated expectations and is now expected to deliver real return on investment (Blanchard 2011). Holistic evolutions of social media ROI on the basis of “We have members, so we think it works..." are no longer sufficient to answer management level questions, such as " Social marketing is everywhere, but how can we justify the ROI?” Social return on investment is notoriously difficult to calculate (Anderson 2012). Recent statistics suggest that only a small proportion of companies can measure their social media channel effectiveness; 80% of those investing in social media marketing have no idea of how to measure their ROI. The same study reports that nearly half of marketing managers, for whom social marketing is a priority, are under pressure to report on the ROI of their corporate social channel and quantify the outcomes (Lenskold 2012). These findings indicate the developing trend of social media channel turning from a 'nice‐have' into a 'must‐have', while proven quantifiable KPIs appear unavailable. Sales focused firms integrate social engagement into their sales processes. This type of social activity is centred round the metrics of ‘social conversation’ rate in the context of the sales cycle (Anderson 2012). Social conversation rate, measurable through virtually any social networking site, is obtained from the number of replies and comments per post. This helps to measure whether what the firm is saying to customers translates into business value. Those firms who set brand awareness as their business goal for social media investment, cultivate trust as the basis of their customer relationships and loyalty building, and employ social engagement metrics for community building. For example the number of members or followers and the community growth rate could serve as indicators of increasing brand awareness and expansion of reach on social media. Responses to posts, likes and retweets are treated as social effects which reflect brand influence and therefore have measurable business value (Shaefer 2012). Finally, amplification rate, so called 'spreading the word' through the network in the form of retweets and shares per post, and applause rate, knowing what your audience 'likes', are another set of measurements which are argued to measure ROI of a social media channel. Organisations are not focused on achieving just a single business objective through their social media channels. Very often a combination of objectives drives the choice of social media strategy, necessitating a mix of effective metrics for social media channels (Gallaugher & Ransbotham 2010). The business rate on marketing investment has historically been calculated through econometric analysis of spending and sales, as well as competitor comparison. As higher education would have different objectives for social media strategies, it is difficult to extend commercial firms’ approaches to measuring HE marketing effectiveness. Aligning a firm’s business goals and social media objectives, as well as estimation of available resources are paramount for identifying the right mix of metrics for social investment evaluation. Having a clear view of user/customer journey through the firms’ or HEI’s social channels will help gain understanding of customer expectations and ways to meet them through social engagement.

4. Social media channel integration into communication strategy at Kingston University Kingston University established its presence on social media over five years ago, and has been using a range of social applications to interact with various stakeholders. Twitter and Facebook are key, with LinkedIn being used particularly with the Business School. Since 2010 specific pages were set up on Facebook to target students considering joining the University. This aspect has been developed in scope over time and now covers a full range of support and communication at every stage of the selection, admission and induction process. The main Facebook page has 14,000 ‘likes’, demonstrating a strong acceptance of the social networking site in this area. Twitter has been used for 3 years and the main ‘tweet’ hashtag has just over 11,500 followers, up by 3,000 in the last six months. Many of the ‘followers’ on twitter are journalists, alumni and indeed other Universities. As HE becomes more competitive globally, it is increasingly important to track activities of others in the sector and understand the competitive environment. The central communications team started to integrate the use of social media channels into the communication strategy in a formal way about two years ago, and at first this was slow to take‐off. This is fairly typical of early entrants to new media. Careful consideration had to be given to balance the conflicting needs to make the channel meaningful to the student

Vladlena Benson and Stephanie Morgan (e.g. by having an area dedicated to a specific course) whilst having sufficient activity to make the area appealing and give the feel that the site is worth regular return visits. In the past nine months a much more strategic approach has been taken, with a new member of staff employed centrally, along with additional support in faculties, with a main part of the role to work on the schedule of campaigns linked to pre‐application, post application, joining and then during their time at the University. Important links are also being made with alumni. Clearly this has taken commitment (and resources) but it is starting to succeed in our aims of encouraging relationship development.

Figure 1: Business School webpage centred on social media communication channels

Figure 2a: Multi‐social site presence Figure 2b: LinkedIn Group statistics Adding multimedia seems to enhance social engagement; graduation pictures for example are always popular. Videos are also increasingly used on social networking sites and are the most popular aspects of our course pages. Being able to see and hear other students and the teaching staff talking about the experience of studying at Kingston appears to be very important to potential students. It is vital to tie in to recruitment cycle and student life‐cycle and ensure a coherent and integrated approach. The use of social media cannot just be passive, setting up initial pages is just the first step in a long process, and the integration of the different media needs careful thought throughout.

Vladlena Benson and Stephanie Morgan Not all of the work has to be done by University staff. One of the most successful social media sites we run was started on Facebook (with our blessing) by our students to enable students to easily raise issues and offer ideas to their course representatives, who can then feed this back to the relevant staff. The group has over 450 members, with hundreds of posts and the course teams have learnt a great deal about student views from this. Furthermore they can respond immediately if necessary rather than have to wait for the more formal student committees or feedback forms. However this does require a good relationship with the students’ who set up the space, as twice so far inaccurate statements have been made and we have requested that these statements be deleted or modified and responded to ‘offline’. Without a level of trust and engagement with the students, this could cause difficulties. Social media is also being used increasingly in teaching and coursework. The use of Facebook, blogs, wikis and indeed twitter has enabled staff and students to collaborate and develop communities of practice. Staff in all faculties have set up blogs, wikis and Facebook pages, and many are now encouraging students to use their mobiles in class to access these pages, in an attempt to increase usage. As always, these staff tend to be the ‘early adopters’, who are comfortable with technology and are willing to invest time in developing a clear strategy for the use of social media, ensuring this is meaningful to the students. Analysis so far indicates that the benefits proposed in the literature cited above are being found, with students engaging fully in the tasks and commenting that they feel more confident regarding the use of social media for their discipline.

5. Discussion Starting a new social media strategy for an HEI is not an easy task and many factors need to be taken into account, including allocation of resources and an in depth analysis of external and internal needs and drivers.

5.1 Key areas to consider before launching social strategy

Focus on relationship building rather than sales: Whilst the position of social marketing has recently gained a lot more clarity and understanding, it has yet to deliver the expected benefits as a sales channel, while delivering effectively as a relationship realisation tool.

Multi social networking site presence: Marketing strategists make assumptions that with the growth and diversification of the social media landscape and intensification of use over time, presence in social media becomes vital to any organisation. The social media landscape changes rapidly; therefore the choice of the social platform may be a short term decision rather than a long‐term strategy.

Aligning resources to stakeholder needs: Starting a social media strategy is often associated with initiating multiple profiles on as many social networks as possible. Social media presence should be driven by business objectives and alignment of resources according to the strategy, including the choice of social platform(s).

Single channel social marketing: Choosing one social marketing platform, e.g. LinkedIn or Facebook, offers some advantages, while limiting marketing opportunities. The popularity of social sites tends to vary geographically. While Facebook, Google, etc. have originated in the West and retain popularity in English speaking countries, the emerging markets, e.g. Russia and China, give preference in popularity to other social networking sites, virtually unknown to the rest, such as China’s Renren (Vincos 2012). Also, stable social networking sites have become a platform for fierce competition of developed brands as well as emerging ones. Investigating competitors' presence on social marketing channels should be the initial point for assessment of new social marketing initiatives and identifying whether you can measure up and/or compete with the existing successful brands.

Short term vs. long term campaigns: Social media facilitates relationship building, when deciding on the social strategy marketers need to be aware that a social channel as a successful conversation‐based engagement tool for all stakeholders is difficult to realise, and requires persistence and appropriate resources. However, this ambitious, resource intensive endeavour has the promise to deliver long term strategic objectives, unlike short term campaigns that help test feasibility and determine effectiveness of social channels. Integrating the student lifecycle will also offer benefits; students who interact on social media during their courses are more likely to remain active as alumni.

The promise of social mobile: The long term plans of many social networking sites, including Facebook and LinkedIn, emphasise the future development of the mobile dimension of social networking. The evolution of social marketing onto the mobile platform is on the mind of marketers worldwide. The outlook for

Vladlena Benson and Stephanie Morgan mobile social marketing presents a logical progression from web based to a more convenient on‐the‐go platform, and is anticipated to go mainstream in the next year or so, further strengthening the current standing of social mobile applications (Benson & Morgan 2012).

6. Strategic alignment matrix In order to help universities establish and prioritise their strategic objectives within social media we have summarised key benefits which social media may deliver in the HE sector (see table1).These include both marketing (1‐7) as well as learning and teaching (6‐9) goals, some of which may serve dual roles in the HE context. Those HEIs who are looking to 'test the waters' of social media (1) must conduct an in‐depth analysis of stakeholders, any party that is likely to play a role or be impacted by social media channels, and establish metrics for social effectiveness. It is important to establish KPI monitoring strategy against which the effectiveness of the social media channel for the specific HEI is continually assessed. When the goals of the social media investment for a university focus on stakeholder engagement (2), for example student, business and research community interactions are a priority, then stakeholder analysis needs to drive the HEI communication plan, supported by the diffusion of innovation strategy engaging not only innovators, but also cautious adopters, into the social dialogue. Formation of special interest groups, as in the case described in section 4, promotes growth of the conversation rate and serves as a natural platform for community building. Alumni management (3) is a specific example of relationship management. Well established or professionally oriented social networking sites tend to provide a common platform connecting individuals for professional and leisure purposes, while fostering a sense of belonging to their 'alma mater'. A common driver for social media investment becomes a necessity to keep up with competitors (4), i.e .'they have it, so it should work for us too' approach. This goal is the most risky and may see a university plunge into the social media waters with presence on multiple social networking sites but either lacking resources or a clear strategy. Allocating a social media manager and monitoring of the social channel performance are key actions in this case to avoid this risk.

x x x x x x x

x x x

X X X X

x x x x

Social media monitoring strategy Diffusion of innovation strategy( internal)

Establishing social KPIs

Multi‐channel presence

x x x x x

Allocating social media manager

Test feasibility/effectiveness of social channel Improved Stakeholder Engagement Alumni Relationship Building Keeping up with competitors Building stronger brand awareness Communication Channel ( internal and external) Unifying geographically dispersed locations Learning and teaching applications of social media Life‐long learning facilitating channel

Stakeholder analysis

Strategic Objectives

Establishing communication plan

Table 1: Strategic alignment of HEI objectives and strategies to fulfil them

x x x x x

x x x x

In a similar way to commercial firms, universities are concerned about building a stronger brand awareness amongst their current and prospective students, as well as for maintaining their business image and research reputation with external stakeholders. Brand awareness (5) as a result of social media integration helps build trust as the basis of customer relationships and loyalty building; therefore it is paramount to employ social engagement metrics for community building. This includes number of members or followers, and the community growth rate as discussed in section 4. Responses to posts, likes and retweets are considered to have social effects which demonstrate brand influence and therefore have measurable business value.

7. Conclusion Calculating ROI on the social media investment has been notoriously problematic for organisations in public and private sectors alike. Social media has been widely adopted by higher education institutions looking for innovative communication channels with their stakeholders. However, social media management requires continuous investment, persistent engagement and monitoring of its effectiveness. Strategic business goals commonly sought through the introduction of social media which are emerging in private sector companies, fall into the categories of brand management and sales. KPIs emerging in social media marketing comprise social traffic, social engagement, amplification rate, applause rate and social response rate. However, metrics

Vladlena Benson and Stephanie Morgan for social media effectiveness differ markedly in the higher education area. While quantifiable monetary outcomes are a high priority in the private sector, higher education draws largely intangible benefits from social media presence. The strategic objectives of social media investment in HE may include benefits such as life long learning, alumni engagement, wider community stakeholder management, research interest group community formation and growth, as well as relationship building with and between learners. We have discussed as an example a case of a multichannel social strategy applied at a UK HEI for the past five years. The metrics used for the analysis of the channel effectiveness comprises of marketing, learning and teaching goals. Whether the primary objective of an HEI becomes alumni engagement or marketing of its courses, it is important to consider key issues in the specific context before launching or during re‐assessment of effectiveness of a social media strategy. The choice between single social networking service and multi channel marketing strategy is down to the specific institution and its objectives and resources available. Consequently, a specific set of KPIs must be established by HEIs reflecting their individual needs and strategic goals. We argue that student recruitment, engagement, achievement and employability can be improved by higher education institutions opening a strategic social media communication channel.

References Anderson, B. (2012) Cracking The Social ROI Code: Social media Performance Indicators Demystified. Cambridge Marketing Review, Autumn, issue 4, 2012. pp. 12‐15. Benson, V., Morgan, S. & Tennakoon, H. (2012) A framework for knowledge management in higher education using social networking. International Journal of Knowledge Society Research, 3(2), pp. 44‐54. Benson, V. & Morgan, S. (2012) Student Experience and Learning Management Systems: Issues of Wireless Access and Cloud Deployment. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Wireless Information Networks and Systems (WINSYS), July, 2012, Rome, Italy. Blanchard, O. (2011) Social Media ROI: Managing and Measuring Social Media Efforts in Your Organization. QUE Publishing, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, p. 294. Blaschke, L. M. (2012) Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning: A Review of Heutagogical Practice and Self‐Determined Learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. 13(1), pp. 56‐71. Clarke, Thomas, and Elizabeth Clarke (2009) Born Digital? Pedagogy and Computer‐Assisted Learning, Education& Training, 51 (5–6), pp. 395–407. Friesen, N. & Lowe, S. (2011) The Questionable Promise of Social Media for Education: Connective Learning and the Commercial Imperative. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 28, pp. 183‐194. Gallaugher, J. & Ransbotham, S (2010) Social Media and Customer Dialog Management at Starbucks. Management Information Systems Quarterly Executive Journal, Vol. 9(4), pp. 197‐211. Hrastinski, S. & Aghaee, N. (2012) How are Campus Students Using Social Media to Support their Studies? An Explorative Interview Study. Education and Information Technologies. Vol 17(4). Pp. 451‐464. Hung, H.T. & Yuen, S. C. (2010) Educational use of Social Networking Technology in Higher Education. Teaching in Higher Education. Vol. 15(6), pp. 703‐714. Kurkela, L. (2011) Systemic Approach to Learning Paradigms and the Use of Social Media in Higher Education. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning. Vol 6‐1. Pp. 14‐20. Lenskold, J. & Qaqish, D. (2012) Lead Generation Marketing Effectiveness Study, LenskoldGroup, accessed on 20/01/13, available at : http://www.lenskold.com/content/LeadGenROI_2012.html McCarthy, J. (2010) Blended Learning Environments: Using Social Networking Sites to Enhance the First Year Experience. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. 26(6), pp. 729‐740. Nyangau, J.Z. & Bado, N. (2012) Social Media and Marketing of Higher Education: A Review of the Literature. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology (RCET). Vol. 8, 1, Spring, pp.38‐51. Ofcom (2012) Adults media use and attitudes report 2012. available at: http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/ Accessed on 20/01/13. Okoro, E. (2012) Social Networking and Pedagogical Variations: An Integrated Approach for Effective Interpersonal and Group Communications Skills Development. American Journal of Business Education. Vol. 5(2), pp.219‐224. Okoro, E.A., Hausman, A. & Washington, M.C. (2012) Social Media and Networking Technologies: An Analysis of Collaborative Work and Team Communication. Contemporary Issues in Education Research. Vol. 5(4) pp. 295‐299. Onlinemba.com, 2012 sited in Skelton, A.(2012) Social Demographics: Who's Using Today's Biggest Networks, accessed on 20/01/13, available at: http://mashable.com/2012/03/09/social‐media‐demographics/ Shaefer, M. W. (2012) ROI (Return On Influence): The Revolutionary Power of Klout, Social Scoring, and Influence Marketing. McGrawHill, USA, p.207. Tuten, T. & Marks, M. (2012) The Adoption of Social Media as Educational Technology among Marketing Educators. Marketing Education Review. Vol. 22(3), pp. 201‐214. Vincos (2012) World Map of Social Networks. Accessed on 20/01/13, available at: http://vincos.it/world‐map‐of‐social‐ networks/ Woodhouse, P. (2012) Global Social Networking Version 2.0. Cambridge Marketing Review, Autumn, issue 4, 2012.

Extending Technology Acceptance Model in Mobile Learning Adoption: South African University of Technology Students’ Perspectives Aaron Bere1 and Patient Rambe2 1 Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein, South Africa 2 University of Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa abere@cut.ac.za pjoerambe@gmail.com Abstract: Previous studies on the academic adoption of mobile devices in South Africa have rendered some invaluable insights into the rationale and different ways students adopt mobile technologies in and outside the classroom. However, these studies have often foregrounded social practices of adoption in higher schools that emphasise tutor‐directed, instant messaging‐mediated supply of supplementary tuition/ training in subjects like science and mathematics. Consequently, insufficient attention has been devoted to understanding the dynamic complexities of implementing mobile learning projects in tertiary institutions. This research contributes to this mobile learning discourse by exploring the pedagogical application of WhatsApp, a special‐purpose instant messaging service implemented at a University of Technology (UoT) in South Africa. Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is drawn upon to investigate multiple variables that shape and influence UoT Information Technology (IT) students’ choices and decisions to use WhatsApp for academic purposes. Six latent factors were identified: perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, perceived convenience, behavoural intentions, attitude towards use, and system usage. An online questionnaire was developed and administered to 196 participants. Findings suggest that perceived convenience, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, behavoural intention, attitude towards use and system usage are all deeply impacted in student desire to use WhatsApp for educational purposes. The theoretical contribution of this work lies in its extension of TAM to include additional variables including its interplay with WhatsApp mediated learning. The implications of these findings for mobile pedagogical delivery are deliberated. Keywords: technology adoption, mobile learning technologies, mobile instant messaging, pedagogy, TAM, WhatsApp

1. Introduction As at October 10th, 2011, WhatsApp was delivering approximately one billion messages daily. Ten months later, WhatsApp reported that it was hosting approximately ten billion messages a day, and of this number, four billion were inbound while six billion where out bound (Kuittinen, 2012). As a sign of its global dominance, WhatsApp is currently rated as the leading instant messaging worldwide. In South Africa, WhatsApp is among the most prefered instant messaging applications with a user base of 4.6 million, trailing behind Mxit’s 9.35 million registered users (South Africa Social Media Landscape, 2012). Consequently, mobile instant messaging (MIM) is an emerging social phenomenon in Information technology (IT) with immense potential for redefining information sharing and knowledge construction among technology users. Over the past two decades, the discourses on technology users’ willingness to adopt new technologies was dominantly framed around the perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of these new technologies (Keil, Beranek and Konsynski, 1995; Malhotra and Galletta, 1999). These variables are fundamental salient beliefs that constitute the widely popularised Technological Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1989). Constructs that promote acceptance of new technology are: technology users’ mental dispositions, type of technology, and situated context of technology use. However, testing the acceptance of emerging technologies may require additional explanatory variables beyond the ease of use and usefulness (Moon and Kim, 2000). Moon and Kim’s (2000) argument finds backing from established literature (Davis et al.1989; Davis, 1989) which claims that future technology acceptance researches should foreground the implications of new variables for usefulness, ease of use and user acceptance. Given the nascence of mobile instant messaging (MIM) in pedagogical settings, the dearth of literature on new (additional) variables that motivate technology users’ intention and decision to adopt MIM for academic purposes is unsurprising. The purpose of this study is to extend the Technological Acceptance Model by exploring additional variables and subsequently applying them in MIM (WhatsApp)‐mediated pedagogical contexts. A new variable, namely, ‘perceived convenience’ is proposed to illuminate understanding of Information Technology students’ behavioural intentions and decisions to adopt WhatsApp for knowledge sharing purposes.

Aaron Bere and Patient Rambe

2. Literature review and theoretical framework Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is among the most widely used theories in technology adoption. Davis (1989) proposed TAM by drawing on researches from psychology. TAM has been applied in numerous studies testing user acceptance of information technology, for example, word processors (Davis et al., 1989), e‐ government services (Venkatesh, Chan and Thong, 2012), healthcare systems (Venketesh, Zhang and Sykes, 2011), World Wide Web (Lederer, Maupin, Sena and Zhuang, 2000), e‐Learning (Masrom, 2007), Blackboard (Landry, Griffeth and Hartman, 2006), household technology use (Brown, Venkatesh and Bala, 2006), e‐ collaboration (Dasgupta, Granger and Mcgarry, 2002). TAM can be traced back to the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975), which posits that individual behaviour is driven by behavioural intention where behavioural intention is a function of an individual’s attitude towards the behaviour and subjective norms surrounding the performance of that particular behaviour. TRA is presented in Figure 1 below. Beliefs and Evaluations

Normative Beliefs and Motivation Comply

Attitude Towards Act Behaviour

Behavioural Intention

Behaviour

Subjective Norm

Figure 1: Theory of reasoned action TAM’s relevance to technology adoption lies in its capacity to examine the effects of external variables on belief, attitude, and intention to use new technology. As such, TAM addresses two cognitive beliefs on technology usage, which are perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use (Davis, 1989).Figure 2 presents an original version of TAM (Davis, 1989). Perceived Usefulness External Variables

Attitude towards Using

Behavioural Intention to Use

Actual System Use

Perceived ease of Use

Figure 2: Original version of technology acceptance model In TAM, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are considered to be discrete variables that influence the user’s attitude towards using a new technology. Perceived usefulness refers to the degree to which the user believes that using the technology will improve his or her work performance, while perceived ease of use refers to the user’s perception about the amount of effort required to use the technology. On the one hand, perceived usefulness is hypothesised to directly influence behavioural intention to use technology. On the other, perceived ease of use is believed to directly influence perceived usefulness and attitude towards technology usage. Finally, such attitude towards using the technology determines the behavioural intention to use that technology. Figure 3 depicts the research model employed in the study. It is an extended TAM model, which includes perceived convenience as one of the distinct factors that influence users’ attitude towards using technology.

2.1 Perceived convenience A cursory look into literature suggests that three different kinds of convenient learning exist among university students, which are “just enough learning,” “just‐in‐time learning,” and “just‐for‐me learning”. Just enough learning refers to the ability of the system to minimise the amount of information that can be offered to a learner at any given time to avoid cognitive overload and to render easily digestible learning. Just‐in‐time learning entails “learning on the go”‐the ubiquitous nature of mobile learning that ensure that sufficient and relevant information, support and appropriate feedback are rendered in real time based on the users’ need. In

Aaron Bere and Patient Rambe this regard, learning becomes situated rather than simulated. Just‐for‐me‐learning is defined as the timely access to information in many different ways such that learning can be accessed, creating opportunities for it to appeal to many different learning styles which includes but not limited to text messaging, graphics, video, audio, discussion forums (Schofield, West and Taylor, 2011). Berry, Seiders and Grewal (2002) claim that users consider a product or service as perceivably convenient when it saves time for a user and when it lowers the cognitive, emotional and physical burdens for a user. Chang, Yan and Tseng (2012) defined perceive mobile learning convenience as a level of convenience in terms of time, place and execution that one experiences during mobile learning. The current study’s perspective on perceived convenience identifies with Chang, Yan and Tseng (2012)’s view on the level of convience towards time, place, amount of information available and information format that one accesses during WhatsApp‐mediated learning. In their study on mobile learning for college students, Chang et al. (2012) concluded that perceived convenience should be included as an external variable in the Extended TAM for examining the acceptance of technology in mobile learning environments. Their results suggest that perceived convenience positively affects perceived usefulness and attitude towards using mobile learning. In a similar study, Yoon and Kim (2007) demonstrated that perceived convenience had indirect implications for users’ intention to use mobile learning systems.It is in the same spirit that the current researchers propose that perceived convenience constitutes a presage factor that can influence students attitudes including the actual decisions to adopt MIM in academic contexts as shown in Figure 3 below.

2.2 Model and hypothesis Perceived Usefulness

H3 H4

H8 Perceived convenience

Attitude towards using H5 WhatsApp M-Learning

H1 Behavioural Intention to Use WhatsApp M-Learning

WhatsApp M-Learning System Usage

Perceived Ease of use

Figure 3: The research model (a technology adoption model for m‐learning) Porter and Dontho (2006) argue that, the decision to adopt an innovation lies mainly in the user’s attitude. Therefore, the potential user’s willingness to use Information Communication technologies (ICTs) are derived from her attitude toward usage of that newly introduced (ICT) (Davis, Bangozzi, & Warshaw, 1989). Based on the research model in Figure 3, the following hypotheses of an M‐Learning system are proposed: H1: A student’s behavioural intention to use an M‐Learning system is directly proportional to M‐ Learning system usage. H2: A student's attitude towards M‐Learning adoption positively affects his or her behavioural intention to use an M‐Learning system. H3: The more a student perceives M‐Learning as useful, the more positive the student's behaviour to use M‐Learning system. H4: A direct proportionality exists between perceived M‐Learning usefulness and student’s attitude towards M‐Learning usage. H5: A positive association exist between a student’s perceived ease of use of an M‐Learning platform and that student’s attitude towards M‐Learning usage. H6: Perceived M‐Learning ease of use is directly proportional to perceived M‐learning usefulness to students. H7: A positive association exist between perceived convenience and a student’s attitude towards WhatsApp M‐learning usage.

Aaron Bere and Patient Rambe H8: A student’s perceived ease of use of an M‐learning system has positive effects on a student’s perceived convenience. H9: Perceived convenience of an M‐Learning system positively affects a student’s perceived usefulness of the system.

2.3 Research questions

What are the factors that influence the adoption of WhatsApp instant mobile messaging application for academic purposes among third year Information Systems students at the Central University of Technology?

How can this mobile instant messaging application be harnessed to generate students’ positive attitude towards its academic usage?

3. Methodology This study adopted an explanatory case study approach. The purpose of such a case study is both theory building and testing since casing involves a detailed description of a complex entity or process with a view to inform [pedagogical] policy development (Fouche` and Schurink, 2011). Consequently, the study’s intention was to draw on an existing model to understand its explanatory power, further broaden its constitutive variables and apply them to real world contexts. Such a contribution to theory or (/ model building) and confirmation (testing) is critical to generating theoretical insights closely grounded in real experiences (Fouche` and Schurink, 2011) in contrast to speculative armchair theorising (Thomas, 2004). To explore the motivations behind students’ behavioural intentions and actual use of WhatsApp instant messaging, the researchers adopted this mobile application as a collaborative environment which enabled lecturer‐ student and students ‐ peer interaction outside the classroom. The researchers were interested in exploring individual factors that influence students’ attitude towards academic utilisation of this strategy through understanding post implementation student experiences.

3.1 The study population The study involved 196 registered third year Information Technology students (63 male and 133 females) undertaking an Information Systems (IS) module at University of Technology (UoT) in South Africa. These participants possessed web‐enabled mobile devices capable of downloading and installing the WhatsApp application mobile instant messaging. Participants’ age ranges from 20 to 32 years. About 86% of the participants had used WhatsApp for social networking while only 7% of the population had used it for academic purposes.

3.2 Research procedure The researchers requested all students with Web‐enabled devices (Smart phones, PDAs, iPhones, IPads and tablets) to download WhatsApp to their devices and he randomly grouped students into virtual discussion forums comprising at most 10 participants per cluster inclusive of the lecturer. The 18 clusters (in total) which were created comprised 157 students who consented to participating in the study. The lecturer designed a manual on how to download, install and use WhatsApp. The manual was placed onto the institutionally sanctioned learner management system for easy accessibility to students. The student clusters discussed questions generated in their respective clusters including one question the lecturer posed daily to all clusters. Students directed tough questions they failed to address to the lecturer online or reserved them for lectures where the lecturer would give detailed explanations and feedback to the entire class. The lecturer informed students about his occasional availability on WhatsApp at any time (between 8 am‐10 pm) to address their academic queries, problems and issues. To address perceived knowledge differentials between peers, students were required to log on WhatsApp using their cell numbers (call ID) to ensure their anonymity during intra‐ cluster interactions. The lecturer, however, used his authentic identity for easy recognition by all students.

3.3 Instrument Questionnaire

Aaron Bere and Patient Rambe An online questionnaire was developed and administered to 157 participants. The questionnaire was developed based on the objectives of the study and existing TAM literature. Pilot testing on 20 randomly chosen participants from another faculty was employed to ascertain the construct and content validity of the research instrument. Data for latent variables was collected using a 5‐point likert scale. The responses options were: 1‐5 representing “strongly disagree”, “disagree”, “Neutral”, “Agree”, and “strongly agree” respectively. The measurement of perceived convenience from Yoon and Kim (2007) and Chang, Yan and Tseng (2012) was modified, and the measurement of perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude towards system usage and Intention to use from Davis (1989) were also adjusted accordingly. Table 1 shows operational definitions for latent variables and the measured items. Out of the 157 participants about 73% (115) of the participants successfully completed the survey.

3.4 Statistical analysis procedure Data collected were coded by one of the researchers and were transferred to Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 19 for analytical purposes. Path coefficients and R2 for latent variables were established to ensure the validity of the results. Windows version 8.3 was also employed to test the hypotheses of the study. Table 1: Operational definitions for latent variables and measured items [Adopted from: Chang, Yan, & Tseng (2012)] Latent variable

Operational Definitions

PC1

Convenience

Perceived convenience refers to a level of expediency in terms of time, place and task execution felt by students when using WhatsApp for academic purposes.

PC2 PC3

PC4

Perceived

Perceived ease of use is the reduced cognitive and emotional effort that one feels when using WhatsApp as a pedagogical platform Perceived usefulness explains the student’s feeling about WhatsApp’s capacity to enhance their Information System Understanding

PEU1

I can learn Information Systems at any place using WhatsApp mobile instant messaging Learning Information Systems using WhatsApp is convenient for me WhatsApp is convenient for academic engagement purposes. Learning how to use WhatsApp mobile instant messaging was easy

PEU2 PEU3 PEU4 PEU5 PU1

My interaction with WhatsApp mobile instant messaging was clear and understandable WhatsApp was easy to use in the Information systems virtual clusters It was easy for me to become skillful at using WhatsApp for academic reasons I found WhatsApp mobile instant messaging easy to use Using WhatsApp mobile instant messaging helped me to pass Information systems

PU2 PU3 PU4

My performance in Information systems was improved by the use of WhatsApp mobile instant messaging Use of WhatsApp increased my learning of information systems productively Using WhatsApp mobile instant messaging

Perceived

ease of use Perceived Usefulness

Measure Items WhatsApp allows me to academically engage with peers and lecturer at any time

Aaron Bere and Patient Rambe Latent variable Attitude Toward Using WhatsApp Behavioral Intention to use WhatsApp M‐Learning WhatsApp M‐learning System Usage Latent variable

Operational Definitions

PU5 PU6 Attitude toward using WhatsApp is a positive disposition that one feels toward ATW1 WhatsApp mobile learning. ATW2 ATW3 ATW4 Behavioral intention to use WhatsApp BIW1 M‐Learning refers to a students' willingness to use WhatsApp to learn BIW2 Information systems BIW3 WhatsApp M‐learning system usage refers WSU1 to student’s actual adoption of WhatsApp M‐learning system for Learning Information System WSU2 Operational Definitions

Measure Items effectively improved my learning Information systems Using WhatsApp mobile instant messaging made it easier for me to do my Information Systems assignments I found WhatsApp mobile instant messaging useful in my learning information systems Learning Information systems via WhatsApp is a pleasant idea. Learning Information systems via WhatsApp is a wise idea Learning Information systems via WhatsApp is a pleasant idea Learning Information systems via WhatsApp is a positive idea. In future I will use WhatsApp mobile instant messaging to learn Information systems In future I predict that I will learn Information systems via WhatsApp mobile instant messaging. In future, I plan to learn Information systems via WhatsApp mobile instant messaging I use WhatsApp mobile instant messaging for learning information system. I will not stop using WhatsApp M‐learning to learn Information Systems until I passed it. Measure Items

4. Analysis and results The study sample comprised 157 third year Information Technology students at a University of Technology undertaking Information Systems. As already mentioned the sample was randomly split into 18 virtual clusters. Both experienced and in‐experienced WhatsApp users were included in the sample. On average the respondents gave themselves a score of 3.9 on a scale of 1 to 5 (5 being a frequent WhatsApp user and 1 representing a participant who has never used WhatsApp). The respondents were also asked to rate their experience levels as WhatsApp M‐learning users and a mean outcome of 5.4 was yielded, indicating that most users rated themselves as fairly experienced. All data were analysed using SPSS statistical software package version 19.0. Factor analysis was performed to confirm the proposed hypotheses. Pearson correlation was tested to establish the significant levels of TAM 2 2 constructs. Path coefficients and R for the latent variables were examined. Path coefficient and R represent the matching level between structural data and experimental data. Path coefficients, therefore, measure the relative strength and sign of casual relations while R2 represents the predictability of the research model and it is derived by calculating the percentage of total variance explained of independent variables on dependent variables (Chang, Yan and Tseng, 2012). Path coefficients and R2 for our study results are summarised in the Figure 4.

Aaron Bere and Patient Rambe Perceived Usefulness 2 R = 0.41

PC=0.28

Perceived convenience 2 R = 0.61

PC=0.57

PC=0.44

PC=0.42

Behavioural Intention to Use WhatsApp M‐ Learning 2 R = 0.58

PC=0.2

Attitude towards using WhatsApp M-Learning R2= 0.58

PC=0.35 PC=0.32

PC=0.21

PC=0.27

WhatsApp M‐ Learning System Usage 2 R = 0.63

Perceived Ease of use 2 R = 0.51

TAM related hypothesis Perceived convenience related hypothesis Figure 4: Extended TAM hypothesis Table 2: Structural model analysis result Hypothesis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Path

t‐value

Result

0.27

4.65

0.22

5.21

0.42

6.04

0.57

7.21

0.21

4.88

0.35

5.65

0.44

6.02

0.32

4.45

0.28

4.23

Coefficient

Behavioural intention to use WhatsApp & System usage Attitude towards using WhatsApp & Behavioural intention to use WhatsApp Perceived usefulness & Attitude towards using WhatsApp Perceived usefulness & student's behaviour intention to use WhatsApp Perceived ease of use & Attitude towards using WhatsApp Perceived ease of use & Perceived usefulness Perceived convenience & Attitude towards using WhatsApp Perceived ease of use & Perceived convenience Perceived convenience & Perceived usefulness

Test results for the study hypothesis 1 to 9 were significant. These significant results indicated positive relationship between the following variables: 1. Behavioural intention to use WhatsApp M‐learning and WhatsApp M‐learning System usage. 2. Attitude towards using WhatsApp and Behavioural intention to use WhatsApp M‐learning. 3. Perceived usefulness and Attitude towards using WhatsApp M‐learning. 4. Perceived usefulness and Behavioural intention to use WhatsApp M‐learning. 5. Perceived ease of use and Attitude towards using WhatsApp. 6. Perceived ease of use and Perceived usefulness. 7. Perceived ease of use and Attitude towards using WhatsApp. 8. Perceived ease of use and Perceived convenience. 9. Perceived convenience and Perceived usefulness. 2 R for latent variables in this hypothesis model include system usage, behavioural intention to use, attitude towards use, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and perceived convenience, were 0.63, 0.58, 0.58,

Aaron Bere and Patient Rambe 0.51, 0.51 and 0.61 respectively. The model held good predictability and explanatory power for the acceptance of WhatsApp mobile instant messaging for academic purposes since it explained more that 50% of the total variance in behavioural intentions to use WhatsApp M‐learning and WhatsApp M‐learning system usage. Perceived usefulness, attitude towards using explained about 58% of behavioural intention to use WhatsApp M‐learning system. Perceived ease of use, perceived convenience and perceived convenience explained about 58% of attitude towards using WhatsApp M‐learning. Perceived ease of use and perceived convenience explained about 41% of perceived usefulness while perceived ease of use explained approximately 61% of perceived convenience.

5. Discussion and conclusion In this paper we have an extension to the Technology Acceptance Model. Results will be discussed in two sections as follows: 1). An examination of the perceived convenience hypothesis, 2. TAM’s relative hypothesis. This section will discuss study results for relative perceived convenience hypothesis. The results show that students’ perceived ease of use of WhatsApp M‐learning system positively affected their perceived convenience of this system. Previous researches reported similar findings where perceived ease of use was found to be directly proportional to perceived convenience (Chang et al., 2012; Yoon and Kim, 2007). In this study, it was also demonstrated that perceived WhatsApp M‐learning convenience positively affects perceived usefulness of WhatsApp M‐learning. Chan et al (2012) and Yoon and (2007) reported similar results in their studies. Chan et al (2012) highlighted that perceived convenience positively affected attitude towards using technology, in consistency with our findings in this study. This section discusses TAM’s relative hypothesis. Similar to earlier studies (Lee, Cheung and Chen 2005; Yoon and Kim, 2007; Saade, Nebebe and Tan, 2007), this study confirmed TAM to be a useful theoretical model for understanding and explaining behavoural intention to use new technology. Results revealed that: 1) A student’s behavioural intention to use an M‐Learning system positively affected WhatsApp M‐Learning system usage; 2) A student's attitude towards M‐Learning adoption positively affected his or her behavioural intention to use an M‐Learning system; 3) A student’s perceived usefulness of WhatsApp M‐Learning had positive effects on her behavioural intention to use M‐Learning system; 4) Perceived M‐Learning usefulness positively affected student’s attitude towards M‐Learning usage; 5: A positive association exists between a student’s perceived ease of use of an M‐Learning platform and that her attitude towards M‐Learning usage. 6) Perceived ease of use of WhatsApp M‐Learning positively affected its usefulness to students; 7) A positive association existed between perceived ease of use and student attitude towards the usage of WhatsApp M‐learning. These findings are consistent with Davis (1989) findings, whose findings were also confirmed by subsequent findings (Masrom, M. 2007,& Chang, Yan, and Tseng, 2012). The implications of this study for technology‐enhanced education are trifold: 1. If perceived convenience is taken into account by both educators and instructional designers, more students might naturally be encouraged to meaningfully adopt and productively use conversational technologies for educational purposes. 2. A more vibrant learning culture and authentic on‐task driven learning experience would be nurtured, and ultimately. 3. The discouraging student retention and dropout rates, a perennial feature of UoT academic life, perceivably instigated by uninspiring pedagogical methods, would be effectively reversed. This type of research, however, needs to be implemented in other institutions and learning technology programs since it only covered third year IT students at a single UoT. A possible explanation of the encouraging results could be attributed to the nature of discipline in relation to the crop of students. Since, IT students are naturally encouraged by the IT department to interact and experiment with different technologies, the positive perceptions and affirmations of WhatsApp could be symptomatic of this vibrant IT culture of the departmental staff including the students’ techno‐savvy disposition. As such, the extension of this study to other departments with a relatively low IT appropriation / uptake culture might yield interestingly different results. On the contrary, the replication of the study at different institutions with conditions similar to those of UoT IT departments would potentially yield similar results owing to the representivity our sample and our double confirmation of results through TAM related hypothesis and perceived convenience related hypothesis. However, the use of other conversational technologies within the same institution or across other institutions with similar situated contexts and conditions could also yield significantly similar results.

Aaron Bere and Patient Rambe In summary, the current study contributed to the increasing body of confirmatory studies on TAM by using established TAM variables as a point of departure for examining IT students’ intentions and decisions to adopt a novel mobile instant messaging application, WhatsApp. Given the current limitations of TAM model, the study sought to extend it by integrating a new variable, perceived convenience, to develop a more nuanced examination of student behavioural intentions and actual adoption of WhatsApp instant messaging. Our study results, confirmed the significance of TAM as a theoretical and explanatory tool for explicating student use of new technologies. Finally, the results demonstrated that students’ perceived ease of use of a WhatsApp M‐ learning system positively affected their perceived convenience of this system.

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The Dynamics of Offering ICT Training to Pre‐Service and In‐Service Teachers in a South African Context Moira Bladergroen1, Wallace Chigona1, Andy Bytheway2, Chris Dumas2, Sanet Cox2 and Izak Van Zyl2 1 Department of Commerce, Faculty of Information Systems, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 2 Department of Informatics and Design, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town Moira.bladergroen@uct.ac.za Wallace.chigona@uct.ac.za Andy.bytheway@gmail.com Abstract This paper reflects on the dynamics in offering Information and Communication Technology (ICT) training to in‐ service teachers and pre‐service teachers. The training was presented at six disadvantaged Government schools and two South African Universities. This paper argues that the context in which ICT training happens is the first process which can inhibit or support the integration of ICT in teacher development and information‐rich pedagogical practices. This paper is a reflection on the dynamics in establishing such a course and running it in the South African in‐service and pre‐service context. The data from the study consisted of video clips captured during the sessions, trainers’ reflections and evaluation after each training session. The reflection on the training process and context showed that offering an ICT course at an institution of higher learning had a number of advantages over offering the course to in‐service teachers. The study also noted that the traditional group dynamics affected the learning experience. Also the support and involvement of the institutional management in both settings have a substantial impact on the motivation of the sample groups approach to the ICT training The findings of this study have numerous practical implications for higher education institutions wanting to introduce ICT training for in‐ and pre‐student teachers. Amongst others, the role of facilitator is still crucial despite opportunities and affordances of ICT in education. The findings may also inform policy makers deliberating on how to introduce the ICT skills for teachers in an education system. Especially when the technology‐ and teaching settings is not conducive to learn ‘about’ ICT in education, the ‘use’ of ICT in the classroom will not grasp the possibilities it holds. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: The first section provides an overview of the project. The next section deals with the methodology that is followed by the results followed by the discussion. Keywords: ICT‐training, pre‐service teachers, in‐service teachers, institutions of higher learning, reflection, school integration of ICT

1. Introduction There is agreement that ICTs are a powerful tool for extending educational opportunities to diverse contexts (Jung, 2005; Define & Persico, 2007). Expanding and enriching the learning environment, developing innovative pedagogical processes and developing excellence in management and administrative service delivery is but a click away. Critical thinking, independent development and effective communication can now be stimulated through a number of creative approaches brought about by the use and integration of ICT in Education. Even though the potential value of ICT in education is well understood and accepted, the conflicting ability of ICT as a stimulus for change, but also as an agent of societal conflict is often disregarded. Nevertheless are the use‐and‐integration‐boundaries being pushed by countries in the like of Finland, Singapore and Japan. In contrast the biggest task for developing countries still remains the preparation of societies for globalization and the information and communication revolution (Define & Persico, 2007). More daunting is the indication that educational institutions have not successfully managed to institutionalize digital technology (Cantrell & Visser, 2011). One of the challenges in integrating ICT in teaching and learning in schools is the educators’ lack of the necessary technical skills (Bladergroen et al., 2012). While an increasing number of educators are acquiring these skills, the majority still lack the know‐how on incorporating digital technology for pedagogy. The digital divide also cripples the introduction and integration of ICT in the various education institutions (Tinio, 2003) We posit that the integration of ICT in pre‐service teacher training would st (1) Assist in the acquisition of 21 century skills (Tinio, 2003), (2) Assist with the development of a learner‐ centered approach as underpinned by constructivist theories, and (3) Facilitate educators to build the connection between digital technologies and their pedagogical practices. This connection can be supported through (in‐ and pre‐ service) teachers having the competence and skill to select and use ICT that support the context of the teaching‐learning environment.

Moira Bladergroen et al. Regardless the modes of the training, ICT training can and has contributed to an increase in the quantity of ICT use in teaching (Jung, 2005. Noteworthy is a report by the ministry of Hong Kong indicating that despite effective training in ICT and, despite creating an ideal teaching context to use and integrate ICT in the classroom the traditional challenges still exists. These includes 1. Inability to apply ICT to enhance effective teaching and learning; 2.Training tends towards skills development rather than enhancing of Teaching and learning applications; 3.Classroom management between machine and student remained a challenge; 4.Inflexible network and management infrastructure, weak resource indexing, privately produced resources does not meet the needs of the context; 5.Cognitive and pedagogical divide between teachers continue to exist and the digital divide between students that continues to exist; and 6.The cost of hard‐ and software remains an unattainable subject. The continual professional development of in‐ and pre‐service teachers cannot be disregarded due to the above challenges, but the reality that technology is needed to teach technology contributes to a very complex challenge. In the in‐service scenario training are often hindered by issues pertaining to organization, bureaucracy, time and classroom setting (Delfino and Persico, 2007). This paper reports on two studies of a research project which explores the dynamics of offering ICT training to in‐ and pre‐service teachers. Data analysis indicated that offering an ICT course at an institution of higher learning had a number of advantages over offering the course to in‐service teachers (Yuen, Lee & Law, 2009). It was noted that the majority of pre‐service teachers were motivated to learn about new technologies for teaching. Although they had limited understanding of and experience with the ICT used for training, the data suggest that they had a high self‐efficacy level. It is also noted that the support and involvement of institutional management as well as other lecturers have substantial impact on the motivation and dedication to the training program. The findings of this study offer several practical implications. Firstly for Higher Education Institutions needing to introduce ICT training for student teachers, these findings will help inform them on possible design considerations. Secondly, the findings may inform policy makers deliberating on how to introduce ICT skills for teachers in an education system. Lastly, the results of this study may be of consideration beyond the South African context. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: The first section provides an overview of the project. This serves to justify the need for offering the study to pre‐service teachers. The next section deals with the methodology that is followed by the results followed by the discussion.

2. Background The context of the study is set in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. To help the reader make sense of the study, this section discusses the use of ICT for education in the province as well as the background to the research project.

2.1 ICT in schools in the Western Cape, South Africa South Africa, like most developing countries, is increasingly acknowledging the future prominence of information and communication technologies in teaching and learning. The potential for ICTs was specifically acknowledged in the domain of education as digital technologies could strengthen the processes of teaching and learning in local schools (Bladergroen et al., 2012). The vision of ICTs in education is captured in the White Paper on E‐Education. This resulted on a number of regional initiatives for example the Khanya project, a regional ICT‐for‐education initiative launched by the Western Cape Education Department (WCED) in 2001. This initiative was launched in collaboration with corporate and smaller donor agencies. In line with local and national ambitions toward a knowledge society, Khanya was established to promote learning and maximize educator capacity. This would be achieved by integrating the use of appropriate, available and affordable computer technology into the curriculum development process (Western Cape Government, 2011). However, Khanya was constrained by the very problem it set out to address, namely low technology uptake (among both teachers and learners). On the one hand the ICT skill levels amongst both teachers and learners were very low. For learners it was significantly low in less resourced settings. Also, learners had little or no access to computer facilities at home, and could as a result not practice what they learnt in school. Adding to this was the minimum ICT contact hours provided for at school for both teachers and learners. For learners ICT contact time was limited to an hour per week in the computer laboratory. In addition to this was the notion

Moira Bladergroen et al. held by educators that the current curriculum does not require them to use ICT for curriculum delivery. By implication, the integration of ICT is not perceived as important by the WCED (Chigona et al., 2011). These dynamics have not instilled the massive technology uptake that the Khanya project aimed to produce. Whilst successful in terms of introducing computer facilities, Khanya fell short in the adoption and integration process.

2.2 MELISSA I: In‐service training MELISSA (Measuring e‐learning Impact in Primary Schools in South African Disadvantaged Areas) commenced as an international research partnership between three universities: Cape Peninsula University of Technology and the University of Cape Town in South Africa, and University della Svizzera Italiana in Lugano, Switzerland. It was jointly funded by the Swiss Secretariat for Education and Research and the South African National Research Foundation for a 36‐month period from November 2008. MELISSA had the objective of determining the impact of digital technologies in primary education. The use of ‘disadvantaged’ refers to the fact that these schools are within socio‐economically deprived areas, and may face resource difficulties. In which case it was anticipated that the access to and integration of technologies within these schools would be constrained.

3. A case for pre‐service training The aim of teaching education programs is often to prepare pre‐service teachers to execute various skills and strategies. These include preparation of lesson plans; creating a favorable climate for teaching and learning; using teaching and learning tools (amongst others ICT) effectively; maintaining classroom discipline; diagnosing special needs; and adapting instruction to meet individual needs. These pre‐service teachers should however have the confidence to execute theses skills and strategies. (Gorrell and Capron, 1990). Previous studies suggest that pre service teachers with a high efficacy level showed the potential to have a higher effectiveness potential (Dembo and Gibson, 1985). Also, Delfino and Persico (2007) argues that pre‐service teachers are often mature and autonomous learners which leads to productive‐ and collaborative processes. However, a study done by Pigge and Marso (1990) indicated that there is no significant difference between the efficacy of pre‐service and in‐service teachers. Contrary to this is a study done by Walker (1992) that indicated that pre‐ service teachers viewed themselves as very effective whilst in‐service teachers had a more balanced view about their effectiveness. Teachers' beliefs in their own abilities to use ICT effectively in the classroom may contribute to individual teacher differences in ICT use and implementation. [Teachers, whether in‐service or pre‐service who believe student learning can be influenced by effective use of ICT in the classroom may thus have higher abilities to use ICT to influence student learning, which an extension of MELISSA aims to investigate.] In summary the shortages of resources available for teacher training suggests that pre‐service interventions should be the higher priority. Comprehensive ICT training that focuses on the use and classroom integration for pre‐service teacher can reduce the need for basic ICT interventions at the in‐service level. In addition the barriers associated with resistance to the adoption and/or use of ICTs in the classroom can be lowered.

4. Methodology Since the phenomena under study for this paper is not readily distinguishable from its context, the researchers opted for a case study approach (Delfino and Persico, 2007). The purpose for this study was to compare the salient and explicit dynamics that emerge during pre‐ and in‐service teachers training on the use of ICT in education in the Western Cape. More specifically the researchers were focusing on the impact of sample size, the impact of self–select vs. compulsory exposure, active ‐/ partial involvement of coordinators, availability of resources, motivational level of both trainees and trainers, and contextual constraints. The project also required comprehensive data on the motivation to continue with the course, the learning process and the management challenges faced by both researchers and the students. Data for this paper were subsequently collected through journal entries by the trainers and reflective discussions during researcher group meetings and workshops. No sample students were present during these reflective ‐ and planning meetings.

4.1 Selection of schools The project worked with in‐service teachers in schools in disadvantaged areas. A total of 120 teachers at six schools were trained. The schools were randomly selected and the in‐service teachers were voluntary

Moira Bladergroen et al. participants. Training happened for an hour twice a week after school. The ICT laboratories of the schools served as the training location. The number of trainers varied between one and two per class depending on the specific commitments of the trainers.

4.2 Selection of universities and group of students Due to convenience we required institutions in the Western Cape Province. We also required institutions offering an undergraduate program in education. Two universities, named in the study as UNI‐1 and UNI‐2 met the criteria. Since the long term aim of the project is to follow these students into schools post‐ICT‐training, the requirement was for students who were likely to do their practice teaching in the following academic year. After negotiations with related authorities, we agreed to first year students in both universities. During the second half of 2012 a total of 190 pre‐service students were trained on the use and integration of ICT in the classroom. The project is now in its second phase which involves further ICT training and classroom observations. Results of the second phase can be obtained at a later stage. This paper reports on the researchers’ observations and reflections after the first set of training in 2012. UNI‐1 requested that we train all their first year students and guided the time allocation as it needed to fit in with the existing program and timetable. We needed the training to be as practical as possible; however, we had 190 students and only four small training venues. The university divided the 190 students into two groups based on the students’ English and Afrikaans language preference. The English speaking pre‐service teachers totaled at eighty and the Afrikaans speaking group totaled at one hundred and ten (see table 1) The two groups were divided into the four venues. Students in each venue were divided into two groups. This left us with eight “English” groups of about nine students each and eight “Afrikaans speaking” groups of about thirteen students each. Table 1: Comparison between Uni‐1 and Uni‐2 Training time

Participation No of students Language Involvement of coordinator Members per group

Comparison between Uni‐1 and Uni‐2 Uni‐1 Uni‐2 Half‐hour per activity/group Half‐hour per activity/group i.e. half hour practical ICT use i.e. half hour practical ICT use half hour theoretical exposure half hour theoretical exposure Compulsory Self‐select 150 43 Bilingual (English and Afrikaans only Afrikaans) Fully involved Fully involved 10 students per group

7 students per group

UNI‐2 could not accommodate the training within the existing first year program and timetable. It was decided to offer students the opportunity to voluntarily participate in the research project. Upon negotiation with the 43 respondents classes were scheduled for one hour during their lunch time break. The UNI‐2 students were divided into 6 groups of about 7 students each and then split between three training venues (i.e. 2 groups per venue).

5. The training program 5.1 In‐service training program: Initial assessment of the teachers’ technological skills revealed that the majority of the teachers were digital natives. Training therefor required that the teachers be taught from identifying the hardware and there uses on the basic level of typing information and saving a word document. Progress was painstakingly slow, often requiring lessons to be repeated three to four times.

5.2 Pre‐service training program The initial training program (see appendix 1) was developed by one of the researchers in line with the tertiary institutions’ existing curriculum on ICT training. Through peer review and research group discussions the training program was adjusted in agreement with the coordinator of the pre‐service practical training to suit the needs and competency levels of the students. The training program was limited to six exposure sessions of one hour each. The aim of each training session is presented in table 2.

Moira Bladergroen et al. Table 2: Training sessions Session One Two Three Four Five Six

Training sessions Activity Introduction to program Practical activities Practical activities Video demonstration on the correct use of ICT Practical activities Practical activities

At Uni‐1 the first session involved the entire group of 150 students and the 80 students at Uni‐2. During this session the research project was introduced, the training process was explained and positioned within their course work. The next two session involved practical group applications with guided instructions. This was followed by a half an hour theoretical component also done as a group. The theoretical component involved articles which discussed the role of ICT in education. As the training progressed the researchers allowed the context to dictate the activities and time spend on a specific activity. For example, the article analysis activity was redesigned and repeated to accommodate the level of understanding and engagement with the theory by the students. After the first two practical sessions, students agreed to view a demonstration. A video recording of the first activity was prepared and shown to the students to affirm what should have been done if they followed the instructions correctly. The practical activities of the next two practical sessions were also show cast. A new dimension now developed. Students started to integrate technologies for example they used their mobile devices to record the video to consult during their next practical training sessions.

6. Reflection on the process 6.1 Planning the training sessions Contacting and negotiating time and space with the schools were often very difficult. Logistical problems such as messages not being delivered timeously; or in prompt meetings, Government training for teachers or sport activities were not often relayed to the researchers and time were lost in the process. Only one of the five schools were always on time and he entire staff took part in the training including the principal. The internet was often off‐line due to limited bandwidth. Training was thus limited for the in‐service teachers. Two of the computer laboratories had no air‐conditioning and the heat became unbearable in the computer laboratories. Two of the computer rooms were well maintained and air conditioned. At one school the teachers were not very enthusiastic and were often sending messages through the short message system or were making small talk during the training sessions. At another occasion the Telecom box outside of the school were stolen , leaving the entire neighborhood and the school with no telephone or internet services. Training was disrupted for four weeks. The teachers had no laptops for use to continue the training. It was also observed that the older in‐service teachers would consult their children at home (of ages ranging from eight years old to twenty one year olds) to assist them with their skills development. Societal conflicts appeared to have little impact on in‐service teachers attending the training sessions. The universities (unlike the schools in MELISSA I) were well organized, computers were in a good working condition and technical staff were readily available to assist. Communication with the coordinators and students occurred via email and the training session occurred uninterrupted. At Uni‐1 the students’ involvement ranged from very enthusiastic to a complete disregard for the training. Managing the groups was rather challenging. At Uni‐2 the students were all highly motivated, and well organized. The smaller groups were easy to manage and individual help could be offered on request. Discussions were more organized and peer‐assistance occurred in a more connecte4d way. We further noted that the group sizes affected participation. In the larger groups members lost interest more easily while waiting for their opportunity to maneuver the ICT tool. The larger groups also took longer to organize themselves and get started with the activities. This observation was similar to what we observed in offering training to in‐service teachers. Noteworthy is that with the in‐service teachers training the effectiveness of the training was between schools, and not between groups within schools. Two of the well managed schools progressed better and faster than the two schools were management were not directly involved in the use and integration of ICT in the school.

Moira Bladergroen et al.

6.2 Levels of motivation In the sample of in‐service teacher there was a considerable generation gap. The older teachers were very enthusiastic to learn how to use the computer, and so were the younger teachers. However the older teachers lacked confidence to manipulate the technology, requested assistance more often than the younger teachers and had low recall ability during a follow‐up lesson. Attendance was good, but progress was very slow. The pre‐service teachers were variedly motivated, depending on their own perceived technological skills. However, where help was needed students tended to assist each other before approaching the trainer. The assistance would often come from the leader(s) who emerged out of the group. The emerging leaders could be identified as those students 1. Who presented themselves as highly confident in the use of the tedchnology, 2. Were selected by the group to take control, and, 3. Those students who were more confident in using the technologies. The overall group performance of the pre‐service students also varied. The two groups who performed better and completed the task within the allocated time frame projected good inter‐personal relationships. Since participation was compulsory for UNI‐1 students, not all of the students were enthusiastic at the start of the training. A few students remained uninterested until the end of the training sessions. Although low in number they preferred their social activities on the cell phone more than the preparation toward the use and integration of ICT in the classroom. We were also interested in observing the level of motivation of our sample groups we noted that the level of enthusiasm was no different between in‐service and pre‐service teachers. With the pre‐service students the levels of enthusiasm were heavily influenced by a wide range of factors of which some were beyond the control of the project. For example a negative encounter with a lecturer before the practical impacted negatively on the motivation of the students, i.e. they took longer to organize themselves in their groups, and to focus and/or remain focused. Technical issues also appeared to affect the level of motivation by both in‐ and pre‐service teachers. For example, the sample groups became frustrated when they could not log in or the computers were not working. Incidentally we found that progress was also dependent on the experience during the previous session, for example where students found the previous session valuable more enthusiasm were expressed during the following training. Students were visibly less enthusiastic during the last session, which was also the last day of the academic year. It was also noted that students were less enthusiastic about the article analysis and lesson planning activities and more enthusiastic about the ICT activities.

6.3 ICT use With all participants (both pre‐ and in‐service teachers) different behaviors were observed when groups or individuals were not sure how to perform a given instruction. These reactions include self‐help, i.e. continue to struggle until they could complete the activity successfully; calling the trainers for assistance; passing the instructions on to another member of the group and/or becoming completely stuck and could not proceed without intervention from the facilitators. It appeared as if the in‐service teachers were more elated in their approach to the technology, i.e. they were not able to adapt to the versatility of the technology. They hold vivaciously onto what they are being told/ demonstrated to them, and did not want to make new discoveries for themselves. For example finding other routes to achieve the same outcomes. The in‐service students on the other hand were more fluid in their approach to the use of the technology. Through peer guidance and communication they would develop an approach to a specific outcome, thereby discovering the diversity in the use of the technologies.

7. Conclusion This paper sought to reflect on the trainers observations during the ICT training of pre‐ and in‐service teachers. Although obvious, it cannot be understated that logistics around access to venues, equipment, group organization and group management must be carefully planned. Although it is necessary to continue training in‐service teachers in the use and integration of ICT in the classroom, it appears that the logistics is more conducive for the training of in‐service teachers. Groups need to be small enough in order for all members to take part actively. This affirmed existing problems in our education system, i.e. too few ICT equipment for too many students. The minimum that could be accommodated was 12; but this proofed to be ineffective. Students became inactive, disinterested and started withdrawing from the group focusing on their cellular phones. Traditional thinking around the sizes of the groups appears to be applicable to current growing use of ICT tools for information access and communication.

Moira Bladergroen et al. The sample groups were given clear instructions as to what was expected. Even so, we found that the sample groups did not always understand the given instructions. The role of facilitator is still crucial despite opportunities and affordances of ICT in education. Unless students re‐think the current notion of multi‐tasking the applications offered by new technologies (Whatsapp, BBM, Facebook to mention but a few) they will always experience a dependency on facilitators for activities they could collectively find the solutions for. The facilitator however continues to play a key role in inspiring enthusiasm and interest among the groups by the way they stimulate discussion and respond to queries. We also observed that all sample groups were more easily motivated when they understood the aim of each activity. The basic learning needs and processes of any student remain unchanged from a traditional perspective. Training should be done at a time where in‐ and pre service teachers are more receptive to learning. We found that the end of the year was not conducive to optimal learning. In addition training must be well planned, focused, with practical implementation. When the technology and teaching setting is not conducive to learn about ICT in education, the use of ICT in the classroom will not realize the possibilities it holds.

Acknowledgements The research team acknowledges financial support from the National Research Foundation (South Africa) and the Swiss Secretariat for Education and Research (Switzerland).

Appendix 1: Planned training sessions and activities Session 1 (1H50) WHOLE GROUP

Comment

Welcome – About MELISSA 2. ICT in Education 2.1. Introduction Brainstorm your experience of ICT in schools Brainstorm group opinions re ICT 2.2. ICT and Education: Overview Potential of ICT to improve Learning (Video clip) Terminology Partnerships within education ICT integration The IWB as a teachingtool 2.3. Interactive PowerPoint Demonstration 3. Conclusion (20 min) 3.1. Way forward Group Information

The purpose of this session was to engage with the students around ICTs for learning and teaching as an introduction to working with the IWB as the selected technology.

SESSION 2‐5 (50 min each) SMALL GROUPS 1. Interactive White Board (Practicals ‐ 25 minutes) 2. Theoretical Component (25 Min) 2.1 TPCK Article analysis 2.2 Lesson Plan Development

SESSION 6 (1H50) WHOLE GROUP 1. Feedback and demonstrations from small groups (90 min) 1.1. Our lesson 1.2. Our alternatives 2. Post intervention survey & Conclusion (20 min)

In each training venue, one group would begin with a practical activity on the IWB, while the other group worked on a written activity setup around a table in the same venue. After 25 minutes, the groups rotated. IWB practical were designed to afford each group member the opportunity to interact with the board. Each group would now have the opportunity to briefly share their lesson ideas with the rest of the students.

Moira Bladergroen et al.

References Bladergroen, M.C., Chigona, W. Bytheway, A., Cox, S., Dumas, C., & Van Zyl, I. (2012). Educator discourses on ICT in education: A critical analysis. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT), 8(2): 107 – 119. Cantoni, L., Fanni, F., Rega, I., & Tardini, S. (2009). Fostering Digital Literacy of Primary Teachers in Community Schools: The BET K‐12 Experience in Salvador de Bahia. In Marshall, S., Kinuthia, W., & Taylor W. (eds.), Bridging the Knowledge Divide. Educational Technology for Development, Information Age Publishing, Charlotte (NC), pp. 415 – 433. Cantrell, S. & Visser, L. (2011). Factors Influencing the Integration of Technology to Facilitate Transfer of Learning Processes in South African, Western Cape Province Schools. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 12(4): 275 – 285. Delfino & Persico (2007) Online or face to face? Experimenting with different techniques in teacher training Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 23 (5), 351‐365. Dembo, M. & Gibson, S. (1985). Teachers’ sense of efficacy: An important factor in school improvement. The Elementary School Journal, 86 (2), 173‐184. Fanni, F., Rega, I., Van Zyl, I.J., Cantoni, L., & Tardini S. (2011). Investigating Perception Changes in Teachers Attending ICT Curricula through Self‐Efficacy. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies and Development (ICTD ‘10), 13 – 16 December, London, United Kingdom. Fanni, F., Rega, I., & Cantoni, L. (2012). Using Self‐Efficacy to measure primary school teachers’ perception of ICT: results from two studies. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT), pending publication. Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. (1984).Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(4), 569‐582. Jung, I. (2005). ICT‐Pedagogy Integration in Teacher Training: Application Cases Worldwide. Educational Technology & Society, 8 (2), 94‐101. Pigge, F.L. & Marso, R.N. (1990). A longitudinal assessment of the affective impact of pre‐service training on prospective teachers. Journal of Experimental Education, 58 (4), 283‐ 289 Tinio, V. (2003). ICT in Education. UNDP Asia‐pacific Development Information Programme (UNDP‐APDIP). Retrieved 04 February 2013, http://www.apdip.net/publications/iespprimers/eprimer‐edu.pdf Western Cape Government. (2011). KHANYA PROJECT: Western Cape Department of Education. Retrieved 04 February 2013, http://bit.ly/UrRt2x Yuen, A.H. K., Lee, M. W. & Law, N. (2009). School leadership and teachers’ pedagogical orientations in Hong Kong: A comparative perspective. Education Information Technology Journal 4:381–396.

E‐Course Development Based on the Model “System Assembly From Reusable Components” Jekaterina Bule and Larissa Zaitseva Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia Jekaterina.Bule@gmail.com Abstract: The paper describes an e‐Course development process based on the software engineering model “System assembly from reusable components” principles. The main stages of the process are outlined in details: 1) e‐Course scenario development, which includes exploring of reusable LO repository and making a list of proper LOs; 2) chosen reusable LOs adaptation to the needs of an e‐Course being developed considering the structure of available LO (LOM) and the one of the e‐Course; 3) if there is a need – development of new LOs, providing the different kinds (LO‐information and LO‐task) and types (multiple choice, word, sentence, etc.); 4) newly developed and adapted LOs integration to an e‐Course; 5) defining of evaluation algorithm and adaptivity level (or dialogue scenario); 6) e‐Course testing by a tutor/developer and students. The advantages and disadvantages of this approach are shown. Keywords: e‐course, system assembly from reusable components, reusability, learning object

1. Introduction Computer‐based (especially Internet‐based recently) learning has become a very popular way of organizing the teaching process of individuals or in educational institutions. Many scientists are involved in development of new technologies and standards of adaptive learning, the development of universal and specialized computer systems and programs, the research of adaptability and adaptivity algorithms. Various platforms and portals are used to organize and support computer‐based training (Blackboard; Moodle; TopClass; WebCT; coursera, etc.). Mostly these e‐Courses are implemented as separate materials providing information in various ways – text, video or other multimedia, which means that every developer makes his/her own learning objects (LO), not considering nowadays available big repositories or at least the ones that are available at the institution. So, the main goal of this paper is to describe in details an e‐Course development process in respects of the model “System assembly from reusable components” principles.

2. E‐course development process Every e‐Course can be researched according to software life cycle models. Since it is useful to include in a course some information that is already developed and available in various sources, then one of the ways to consider engineering process is from the point of view of the model “System assembly from reusable components”. In this case reusable components are learning objects (LO), which have been developed before and are kept in the reusable LOs repository (Fig. 1). Depending on LOs availability and e‐Course goals time spent on a process of preparing and applying the new course can be significantly decreased. The main stages of it should be as follows: 1. e‐Course scenario development – includes the investigation of Reusable LOs repository considering properties and features needed for an e‐Course being implemented, which gives as a result a Reusable LOs list. 2. Reusable LO adaptation, if necessary. Sometimes information is available in another form or language than it is planned to be included in a new course. 3. New LO development, if necessary. Usually a tutor wants to give some additional information also from him/herself, own research results, etc. 4. LO integration into the e‐Course – develop a course and/or topic models, including available (reusable and new) LOs. 5. Evaluation algorithm defining – a tutor should decide how to organize a knowledge control process. 6. e‐Course testing – before applying an e‐Course for a wide public, it should be tested by developers, then it can be made available and according to received feedback from users there may be a necessity to get some enhancements.

Jekaterina Bule and Larissa Zaitseva e-Course scenario development

2 Reusable LO adaptation

New LO development

LO integration into eCourse

Evaluation 5 method defining Reusable LO list

e-Course testing

Reusable LOs

Figure 1: E‐course development model based on reusable components More detailed description of each stage is given below.

3. E‐course scenario development The very first stage of an e‐Course developing is to define what is a purpose of implementing it, what pedagogical strategy will be applied – whether it is planned to be offered for self‐learning, the main tool in a teaching process or additional tool (Zaitseva, Bule 2011): 1. Self‐learning. This strategy ensures fully independent acquisition of a course. Such approach is specific to distance education, open education and Life Long Learning. If exploiting this strategy, a tutor involvement in a whole teaching process is minimal. 2. The main tool of a teaching process (a part of it). This strategy means different ways of e‐learning courses applying:

self‐learning on a definite topic of a course. e‐Courses are usually developed exactly for this purpose. In this case there are two options: totally self‐learning or after a short inaugural lecture. This way is recommended for topics that are not very significant.

training courses as a part of a teaching process ensure skills formation by means of performing practical tasks. It is advisable for solving tasks of specific category/‐ies and for students’ unassisted work.

self‐control e‐learning courses. In this case e‐course is used to strengthen knowledge obtained in a class and/or to gain practical skills. This approach is useful for students to get ready for tests and exams.

knowledge control (testing) allows determining student’s knowledge and skills level. There are different control forms and methods (Zaitseva, Boule, Prokofyeva 2005). Knowledge control can be organized on one or on several topics as well as on a whole course during classes or at any time convenient for a student. This approach always should be used in one way or another.

3. Additional tool that is not obligatory. Such approach of e‐learning courses using helps students to master a learning material and is particularly useful for “weak” students. According to the chosen strategy tutor defines LOs that are appropriate for the goals of the e‐Course. The authors can use various options – prepared earlier and used in other courses LOs or develop the new ones. To facilitate a course implementation it is advisable to research first what is available by searching through the reusable LO repository, choosing what is adequate.

4. Reusable LO adaptation and new LO development To make it possible to use and reuse learning objects, all of them have to meet requirements of existing standards, which describe the LO metadata – LOM (IEEE 2002, Wang 2008). According to this standard there are over 40 different parameters (IEEE 2002, Table 1).

Jekaterina Bule and Larissa Zaitseva Table 1: Learning object metadata Component Resource Relation Classification Annotation TaxonPath Taxon General Lifecycle Technical Educational

Rights Meta‐Metadata Identifier Contribute Requirements OrComposite

Parameter Description Kind Purpose, Description, Keyword Entity, Date, Description Source Id, Entry Title, Language, Description, Keyword, Coverage, Structure, Aggregation Level Version, Status Format, Size, Location, Installation Remarks, Other Platform Requirements, Duration Interactivity Type, Learning Resource Type, Interactivity Level, Semantic Density, Intended End User Role, Context, Typical Age Range, Difficulty, Typical Learning Time, Description, Language Cost, Copyright and other restrictions, Description Metadata schema Catalog, Entry Role, Entity, Date Type, Name, Minimum Version, Maximum Version

To reuse LOs a tutor sometimes has to make some minor changes to adjust them to a course strategy and goals. The main modifications are usually as follows:

Language – necessary translations;

Time for acquisition/performing a task or a test;

Defining the level of adaptation to a student (whether to show or not for students with different background knowledge levels);

Defining the level of detailing – there can be situations, when additional information is essential. In this case two options are available – to expand an existing LO or to make a new one;

etc.

While developing a new LO it has to be considered that learning object (LO) can be of two types: learning object information (LOI) and learning object task (LOT). LOs have complex structure (Bule 2008). Thus, LOI can store information of various types and detailing levels: short information on a concept; explanatory example; detailed information on a concept; detailed explanation of an example. The main metadata of LOIs that should be considered is the following:

type (main, example – exm, explanation – exp). exm and exp are optional/additional LOIs of different detailing level (exp, exp2, exp3). The type depends on what kind of information is included in a concept description (Fig. 3);

minimal/maximal time (time that is needed to acquire provided information);

kind (definition, example, rule, structure);

specialty.

LOTs are for knowledge control with the following metadata (Zaitseva, Boule, Prokofyeva 2005):

type (multiple choice, word, number, etc.);

significance;

difficulty;

time (a tutor can define restriction on solving time);

number of tries (> 1, if the LOT is just for training mode, otherwise the value is 1);

the mode of using (control and training);

the purpose (what is being tested – knowledge or skills).

Jekaterina Bule and Larissa Zaitseva In addition LOT can consist of two parts – general task (G_TASK) and individual task (I_TASK). The general task is the same for all students and individual task is generated for each student separately. Every LOT according to a type has one (word, number) or several answers (multiple‐choice). These answers are also referred as learning objects – LOAs. Each correct and partly correct answer has an appropriate mark. As well there can be included comments for LOTs in general and every LOA particularly – LOC – of two types: short (correctness) and full (explanation). LOT type is the same as of LOI‐MAIN that is being checked. The LOT structure is shown in Figure 4. LOI

Definition

Example

Structure

Rule

LOI

MAIN

LOT EXP3

EXM

LOT EXP

EXP2

Figure 3: LOI structure LOT

Definition

Example

Structure LOI LOT

Rule

LOA ANSWER_C

TASK G TAS

ANSWER_V

I TASK LOC

Student answer

RIGHT

LOI LOT

SHORT FULL Figure 4: LOT structure

Jekaterina Bule and Larissa Zaitseva The described structure of LOs (both LOT and LOI) makes it possible to use and reuse them for different e‐ Courses and topics coverage. All the LOs that are developed from the beginning as well as the reusable ones are stored in the database. It is possible to employ e‐learning system’s database (as built‐in database), but best practice is to have separate.

5. LO integration To organize learning process according to developed e‐Course scenario a topic and/or course model/‐s should be implemented. For a course structure detailed representation a hypertext mathematical notation can be used (Morozov, Tikhomirov, Khrustalev 1997): MVT = (T, I, S, Q), where T – course thesaurus that shows all the relationships among LOs; I – includes content of learning objects; S – LO list (both reusable and newly made); Q – the main topics covered by LOs. A graphical model example is shown in Figure 5 and the relationships are described in Table 2. Table 2: Graphical notations of relationships Notation

Notation

Description Metaprocess‐process (exam‐test)

Description Kind‐type (LOI‐main, LOI‐exm, LOI‐ exp) Type‐kind ([LOI ,LOT]‐LO) Part‐whole (concept‐topic, LOT‐KC)

Whole‐part (KC ‐ LOT) Process‐metaprocess (test‐exam)

Consequence‐reason (LO sequence) Equality (LOs for the same concept with different media) Reason‐consequence

LOI3

LOT1

LOI1

LOT 4

LOI5 LOI4

LOT 2

LOI2

LOT 5

LOT 3

Figure 5: Fragment of e‐learning course thesaurus The thesaurus allows developing the most proper dialogue scenario for e‐Course because of it shows different types of relationships among LOs, which facilitates algorithm implementation based on it.

6. Evaluation methods As it was mentioned earlier e‐Courses can be used as an additional tool during the teaching process, as a self‐ learning tool or training. All of these options involve knowledge control (KC). There are different KC approaches, which can be divided into three groups (Zaitseva, Boule, Prokofyeva 2005) (Fig. 6):

not adaptive don’t take into account student model SM (Bule, Zaitseva 2007);

partly adaptive ensure that some of student characteristics and tasks parameters are considered;

adaptive regard all the information from the student model and the course, or learning material, model (LMM).

Not adaptive methods are as follows:

fixed sequence – a tutor prepares LOTs (including LOCs and LOAs) for a KC and saves them in a repository as well as defines their sequence. The fixed sequence method provides all the students with the same sequence of the same LOTs.

random selection – LOTs are taken from repository randomly and the sequence is defined directly before a KC for each student individually. This method is the most popular.

Jekaterina Bule and Larissa Zaitseva

combined method accumulates two afore described methods in such a way that a tutor appoints some LOTs, which should be necessarily included in a test and other tasks/questions are selected randomly. Control methods

Not adaptive

Partly adaptive

Adaptive

Fixed sequence

RS with student characteristics

Considering SM

Random selection (RS)

Considering student answers

Considering SM and LMM

Combined

Considering LMM Module-range method

Figure 6: Knowledge control methods Partly adaptive methods regard information from student model and/or learning material model to choose according LOTs from a repository. This group includes the following methods:

random selection considering student model’s parameters is an improvement of not adaptive selection and combined methods. It takes into account such parameters as student background knowledge and skills level and learning ability, which ensures different questions and tasks for every student allowing decreasing psychological stress.

test considering student answers ensures LOT generation according to the correctness of an answer. This method is realized using branched system, when in case of wrong or not precise answer a question of lower or the same difficulty level is offered to a student, but in case of correct – the higher or the same depending on an algorithm.

knowledge control considering LMM is realized in the following way – LOTs are generated for controlling knowledge and skills for each LOI included in LMM. The improvement of this method is LOT generation according to students knowledge and skills level (Bule, Zaitseva 2007);

module‐range method is similar to the previous one. Learning material is divided into modules and for each of them a set of LOTs is prepared. A student has to answer questions for the first module and gets a range for it, which influences the following steps.

Adaptive approaches consider as much information as possible from student model and learning material model. The methods are as follows:

knowledge control considering SM takes into account different parameters that describe student (Bule, Zaitseva 2007, Baker 2012, Milan E., Loboda T., Perez‐de‐la‐Cruz J.L. 2010): knowledge and skills level to define tasks’ difficulty; representative system for media (text, picture, audio, etc.); personal orientation to formulate tasks; memory type to define time and difficulty; answer correctness to choose the next task/question; etc. Control scenario usually is generated automatically during the process, but also various scenarios can be prepared earlier.

considering SM and LMM method regards the same parameters as the previous, but in addition it also checks learning objects parameters and links between LOs.

Thus, there are available many knowledge control approaches that can be somehow rated as adaptive and used to realize control aspects.

7. E‐course testing The results of applying an e‐Course depend on all the described steps. And to enhance a learning process it is useful to have a feedback about provided possibilities. The testing stage includes two main approaches to

Jekaterina Bule and Larissa Zaitseva define whether the course gives any benefits: first (in the means of time, when it can be performed as well) is the questionnaires and the second is using mathematical statistical methods. The questionnaires can help to figure users’ total satisfaction and thoughts. And in this case the users are both tutors and students. Tutors can give a feedback on how convenient is a process of preparing a particular course based on including reusable LOs. As for the students, they indicate the usefulness, convenience and other similar characteristics of a course. The real results of a course engagement come and can be rated after several times of using it. The statistics should be gathered for longer period and processed by mathematical methods, e.g., Student criteria method, considering the students’ marks before, during and after the e‐Course. As well the statistics can show the influence of each LO on the results.

8. Advantages and disadvantages of the approach The approach of using principles of system assembly from reusable components model has the following major advantages:

a tutor can use existing learning objects with no or minor adaptations. The main modifications can include translations (if a course is meant for student groups and study programs of various spoken languages, like at Riga Technical University for local students it’s Latvian and the same courses for foreign students with studies in English), time restrictions (some LOs can be used for different level of background knowledge), additional information (if a tutor considers that there is not enough detailing level of existing LO), etc.;

while investigating LOs repository it is possible to find some new results that can be useful for further developments and researches;

since reusable learning objects are used, less time is spent to implement a new e‐Course;

there can be LOs of various media on the same topic are available in a repository that broadens facilities of e‐Course adaptivity to an individual student, i.e., ensuring personalized learning.

As disadvantage it can be mentioned that adapting existing LO to the course needs can consume more resources than developing a new one, especially if other media are used to spread information.

9. Conclusion Reusability today is a very popular trend due to its usefulness, wide possibilities and availability. Therefore the system assembly from reusable components model’s principles are the most appropriate approach to develop new e‐Courses that allows a tutor to prepare adaptive course with less usage of resources. As further work we plan to make the researches on implementation technologies for repositories and learning management system to make the development process more convenient.

References Baker R.S.J.d. (2012) “Mining Data for Student Models”, [online], http://www.columbia.edu/~rsb2162/Baker‐for‐AITS‐ v8.pdf Bule J. (2008) “The e‐Learning Course: „Software Implementation" Development”, Proceedings of the 11th IASTED International Conference on Computers and Advanced Technology in Education. Crete, Greece. September 29 ‐ October 1, pp. 126 ‐ 129. IEEE 1484.12.1‐2002 (2002) “Draft Standard for Learning Object Metadata”, [online], Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., http://ltsc.ieee.org/wg12/files/LOM_1484_12_1_v1_Final_Draft.pdf J.Bule, L.Zaitseva (2007) “Student Model Development for E‐learning Systems”, Proc. of the IADIS International Conference e‐Learning 2007. Lisbon, Portugal., 343 – 345. Milan E., Loboda T., Perez‐de‐la‐Cruz J.L. (2010) “Bayesian networks for student model engineering”, [online], Computers & Education, Vol. 55. Issue 4, pp 1663‐1683, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131510002022 Morozov V.P., Tikhomirov V.P., Khrustalev E.Y. (1997) Hypertexts in economics. Information technology of modeling. М., Финансы и статистика (in Russian) S. Wang (2008) “Ontology of Learning Objects Repository for Pedagogical Knowledge Sharing”, Interdisciplinary Journal of E‐Learning and Learning Objects, Vol. 4 Zaitseva L., Boule C., Prokofyeva N. (2005) “Knowledge control approaches in computer‐assisted education”, Proceeding of The Eighth IASTED International Conference on Computers And Advanced Technology In Education ~CATE 2005~ August 29‐31, Oranjestad, Aruba, p. 453 – 456. Zaitseva L., Bule J. (2011) “Pedagogical Strategies and models for E‐learning courses applying”, Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference e‐Learning 2011. Rome, Italy. July, pp. 166‐170.

Using Students Response System via Mobile Devices in Large Introductory Psychology Classes Kevin Chan1, Ian Brown2, Indie Chor Bun Chung1, Lu Hui‐Jing1 and Green Wai‐To Luk2 1 Development of Applied Social Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, HKSAR 2 Educational Development Centre, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, HKSAR sskevin@polyu.edu.hk ian.brown@polyu.edu.hk indieinlife@gmail.com hjllu@polyu.edu.hk wtluk@polyu.edu.hk Abstract: Introduction: Students Response System (SRS), also known as “Clickers”, is a powerful tool to engage students’ active learning, particularly in large class size environments. In recent years, implementation of SRS has shifted from disseminating designated devices to encouraging students to respond with their own mobile devices. SRS with mobile devices, in which students use their own devices to submit responses in real‐time, allows instructors to facilitate active learning by registering aggregated student responses while displaying such responses during class for discussion and illustration. The current study explored implementation of Students Response System (SRS) via mobile devices embedded in a blended learning environment in a series of large introductory psychology classes with 640 students. Methods: Implementation of SRS in the current study was evaluated with an online quantitative 36‐item instrument on various aspects of SRS implementation with 5‐point Likert‐type and non‐Likert type questions. Regarding the ease of use and usefulness on classroom engagement and learning, students reported their attitude towards the SRS implementation in terms of their self‐reported efficacy and barriers in operating the SRS, perceived integration with pedagogy, quality of SRS delivery in class, students’ engagement in class and course effort, and the perceived benefit of SRS on learning. Quantitative data derived from this instrument was analyzed with factor analysis for the aligning the SRS attitude constructs and bivariate correlations for association between perceived effectiveness and attitudes towards SRS implementation. Results: The SRS assessment instrument was administered to 636 First‐Year students at a university in Hong Kong, with a return rate of 73%. From the 466 responding students, about 82% of the respondents reported ownership of mobile devices (i.e. smartphone or tablet) for active blended learning with students’ own devices. Results from student data suggested that perceived effectiveness of the SRS implementation was correlated with the seamless administration and integration of SRS with lecture content, students’ efficacy in logging into and operating the SRS, perceived benefits in enhancing course material understanding, and perceived classroom engagement through SRS activities. Implication: Results from this study suggested that students related the effectiveness of SRS implementation with mobile devices in large classes to enhancement in classroom engagement, mastery of course content, and elevated interested in the subject matter. Effectiveness of delivering SRS appeared to be contingent upon students’ ease of accessing the SRS system software and hardware, rather than perceived usefulness or positive attitude toward SRS. Keywords: mobile learning, active learning, students response system (SRS), e‐learning adoption, e‐learning implementation and cognitive styles

1. Introduction Students Response System (SRS), also known as “Clickers”, Audience Response System (ARS), or Personal Response System (PRS), is a powerful tool to engage students’ active learning, particularly in large class size environments. An ample amount of evidence has illustrated the benefits of SRS and its effect on classroom engagement and environment, students’ learning processes, as well as interactive formal assessment (Gok, 2011, Hepplestone et al., 2011, Kay and LeSage, 2009). From teachers’ perspectives, evidence suggests that use of SRS facilitates contingent teaching (Draper and Brown, 2004) by iterating teaching strategy based on instant feedback or collecting data for instant demonstration (Cleary, 2008) and just‐in‐time‐teaching (Novak, 2011), improvement on class engagement (Stowell et al., 2010), students’ attendance and retention of knowledge(Caldwell, 2007, Campbell and Mayer, 2009, Kay and LeSage, 2009). Particularly, the use of clicker technology for teaching and learning of psychology has been widely extensively evaluated (Poirier and Feldman, 2007, Cleary, 2008, Morling et al., 2008, Campbell and Mayer, 2009, Stowell et al., 2010, Acuña et al., 2011, Anthis, 2011, Karpicke and Grimaldi, 2012, Shapiro and Gordon, 2012). However, few studies have teased out the relationship between attitude towards SRS and actual SRS use. Furthermore, evidence for the association between SRS usage and academic achievement remains inconclusive (Morling et al., 2008, Poirier and Feldman, 2007, Shapiro and Gordon, 2012).

Kevin Chan et al. In recent years, implementation of SRS has shifted from disseminating designated devices to encouraging students to respond with their own mobile devices. SRS with mobile devices, in which students use their own devices to submit responses in real‐time, allows instructors to facilitate active learning by registering aggregated student responses while displaying such responses during class for discussion and illustration. Understanding adoption of clicker technology – the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) One of the models for understanding adoption of clicker technology is the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis et al., 1989). The TAM is a framework for understanding the personal acceptance of IT use. The TAM has been widely used to understand technology acceptance of mobile learning in the education setting among teachers (Zhang and Xu, 2010, Holden and Rada, 2011, Agbatogun, 2012) as well as students (Pituch and Lee, 2006, Park, 2009, Wu and Gao, 2011, Park et al., 2012). Based on the theory or planned behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), this model attempts to explain acceptance of technology in terms of perceived usefulness and ease of use about the technology being adopted, which in turn influence attitude and behavioral intention to adopt the technology, and ultimately actual behavior in using the technology as intended. In the active blended learning context, perceived usefulness can be defined as the extent to which a university student believes using clicker technology will enhance one's learning, and perceived ease of use refers to the belief that using clicker technology will be low, if not free, on one's cognitive effort. The current study explored implementation of Students Response System (SRS) via mobile devices embedded in a blended learning environment in a series of large introductory psychology classes with 636 students.

2. Research questions This paper proposes that participation in SRS sessions could be explained with the Technology Acceptance Model, with the following hypotheses about perceived ease of use of SRS (PE), perceived usefulness of SRS (PU), attitude toward using SRS (AT), actual behavior in using SRS (AB), and overall course achievement: H1. PE is positively associated with PU. H2: PU is positively associated with AT. H3: PE is positively associated with AT. H4. PE is positively associated with AB. H5: PU is positively associated with AB. H6: AT is positively associated with AB. H7: SRS Use (AB) is positively associated with overall course achievement.

3. Methods Design The current study explores attitude toward and adoption of Student Response System (SRS) with an observational research design embedding self‐reported survey data and objective data from students’ course records. Participants A total of 636 students from 4 classes of introductory level psychology course at a university in Hong Kong were enrolled in this study, with a response rate of 73% yielding 466 valid survey responses. Table 1: Enrollment and response rate on SRS survey LEC001 LEC002 LEC003 LEC004 Total

Enrollment 134 181 186 135 636

n 90 138 151 86 465

% Response 67.16% 76.24% 81.18% 63.70% 73.11%

Kevin Chan et al. Procedures Interactive responses were deployed and collected using the student response system Turning Technology ResponseWare (Turning Technologies, 2012). With the majority of students using their own registered mobile device for class responses, the remaining students participated in the SRS session with transmitter keypads on loan from the university. To use the SRS, the instructor poses a question in multiple‐choice, true‐or‐false, or open ended text formats and sets the software to receive student answers. Students answer by the touch‐screen interface or keyboard on their responding mobile devices or by pressing a button on the numeric/alphabetic keypad, which then transmits a signal through wireless internet connection (Wi‐Fi) or radio‐frequency (RF) signal to the RF receiver mounted on the laptop computer in classrooms. Total responses for each SRS session, comprising both responses transmitted through Wi‐Fi and RF keypads, are collected by the Turning Point software that registers, processes, and aggregates the signals. Results are displayed immediately in the form of a histogram of answers and proportions of correct response, if applicable. In addition, student answers are saved in a session files database, which instructors incorporate directly into their grading. All courses in this study were conducted at large auditorium‐style classrooms. Instruments Implementation of SRS in the current study was evaluated with an online quantitative 36‐item instrument on various aspects of SRS implementation with 5‐point Likert‐type and non‐Likert type questions. Regarding the ease of use and perceived benefits / barriers on classroom engagement and learning, students reported their attitude towards the SRS implementation in terms of their self‐reported efficacy and barriers in operating the SRS, perceived integration with pedagogy, quality of SRS delivery in class, students’ engagement in class and course effort, and the perceived benefit of SRS on learning. Usage data of SRS in class was extracted from session records among participating classes. Overall course achievement was derived by summing the total mark on this course, including marks earned on written assignments and formative assessments, net the maximum of 10% earned from SRS participation to avoid collinearity of the predictor and response variables. Data Analysis Quantitative data derived from this instrument was analyzed with factor analysis for the aligning the SRS attitude constructs and bivariate correlations for association between perceived effectiveness and attitudes towards SRS implementation. Items for constructs in the Technology Acceptance Model on SRS adoption in this study are extracted from an exploratory factor analysis on the SRS survey items, using principle component analysis and varimax rotation method for optimization of obtained solution. All data analyses were performed with the SPSS 20 statistical package.

4. Results and discussion The average enrollment for these classes was 159 students. All but 3 students (99.5%) in this study were first‐ year students studying in their first semester. Majority of the responding students were female (62%) and major in business, humanities, or social sciences (88%). Table 1 enlists the enrollment and response rates from these classes. From the 466 responding students, about 82% of the respondents reported ownership of mobile devices (i.e. smartphone or tablet) for active blended learning with students’ own devices. The high rate of mobile device ownership observed in this sample is comparable with other international samples drawn from recent studies (Dahlstrom, 2012, Song and Lee, 2012). The TAM parameters reported by respondents were extracted with an exploratory factor analysis. The 3‐factor model adopted in the present study accounts for 66% of variation in the observed data and conforms to the TAM constructs of perceived usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PE), and attitude toward using the SRS (AT). Behavioral intention construct from the TAM was excluded in this analysis and substituted with actual behavior of using the SRS in class, measured in terms of the average number of participation in SRS activities

Kevin Chan et al. over the span of 3 lectures with 10% of the overall mark in this course attached to students’ SRS participation. Table 2 lists the items on the TAM constructs. Table 2: Technology acceptance model (TAM) constructs – Items and reliability Construct

Item Description

Reliability (α)

Perceived Usefulness

Students Response System (SRS) is useful.

0.84

Students Response System (SRS) enables the instructor to provide timely responses according to our class responses

Students Response System (SRS) enables the instructor to clarify concepts that tend to cause confusion in students

Perceived Ease of Use

The Students Response System (SRS) were frustrating to use (R)*

0.76

The Students Response System (SRS) were easy to use

The technology used in this course worked well

Attitude Toward Using

Students Response System (SRS) contributed significantly to my interest in the course material

0.88

As a result of the Students Response System (SRS), I felt more involved in the lecture

As a result of using the Students Response System (SRS) in this course, I learn more about other students' responses

As a result of using the Students Response System (SRS) in this course, I am having more interaction with other students

As a result of using the Students Response System (SRS), I felt more engaged and involved

As a result of using the Students Response System (SRS), I felt more inclined to participate in class discussions

*(R) = Item is reversed for analysis

Correlations between TAM Constructs, SRS Use, and Overall Course Achievement Table 3: Correlation results

Ownership of mobile electronic device Gender Streams of major study Perceived Usefulness Perceived Ease of Use Attitude Towards Using SRS SRS Use Net Overall Course Marks

Ownership of mobile electronic device

Perceived Usefulness

Perceived Ease of Use

Attitude Towards Using SRS

SRS Use

Net Overall Course Marks

‐.042

.094*

.178**

.150**

.236**

‐.038

‐.019

.060

‐.035

‐.003

‐.062

‐.138**

‐.042

‐.019

.154**

.029

.147**

‐.051

.060

.094*

.060

.154**

.326**

.711**

‐.024

.047

.178**

‐.035

.029

.326**

.487**

.119*

.092

.150**

‐.003

.147**

.711**

.487**

.016

.064

.236**

‐.062

‐.051

‐.024

.119*

.016

.241**

‐.038

‐.138**

.060

.047

.092

.064

.241**

Gender

Streams of major study

‐.031

Kevin Chan et al. *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2‐tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2‐tailed). † Gender: Reference Category = Female †† Streams of major study: Reference Category = STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) Table 3 entails the correlation coefficients between the TAM constructs, actual use of SRS, and overall course achievement. Constructs of the TAM featured in this study, including PU, PE, and AT, were all significantly associated with each other with moderate (PU & PE: r = .326, p < 0.01) to strong (PU & AT: r = .711, p < 0.01). The results of the hypotheses 1‐3 analyses demonstrate that attitude toward SRS could be effectively conceptualized with the Technology Acceptance Model among students in this study. Perceived ease of use in implementing the SRS in class, as well as the usefulness about SRS in terms of class engagement and content mastery, are positively correlated with attitude toward using SRS in class. Nonetheless, the TAM constructs are insufficient to fully account for actual behavior in using SRS in class as retrieved from system records. Results of the hypotheses 4‐6 between TAM constructs and actual use of SRS revealed that only the perceived ease of use construct (PE) is significantly associated with actual use (PE & AB: r = .119, p < 0.05), while the associations with perceived usefulness and attitude toward using SRS did not reach statistical significance. Observed association between the ease of use about SRS with actual behavior in using SRS and the lack‐there‐of between perceived usefulness and actual behavior contradicts with the revision by Davis on the TAM in which the ease of use construct was hypothesized to effect on subsequent attitude and behavior through the perceived usefulness construct. It also echoes the findings in Zhao (Zhao et al., 2005) study suggesting that Asian students are less inclined to engage in active and collaborative learning activities, such as asking questions in class or discussing ideas with others in classes or outside classes. Results to test hypothesis 7 on the association between actual use of SRS and overall course achievement suggests a moderate correlation between SRS use and overall course achievement. Evidence from the current study suggests that SRS participation is significantly associated with course academic achievement, with a correlation coefficient of 0.24 (p<0.001) between average SRS session participated and overall marks excluding the 10% of overall marks attached to SRS participation. The evidence for SRS use and academic achievement observed in the present study, might not be solely contributed to the adoption of SRS. With a multitude of videos, online reflection and discussions, as well as lecture slides with audio delivered in these classes, the role of SRS may be embedded in facilitating the overall active blended learning pedagogy being adopted in these classes as a catalyst (Morling et al., 2008).

5. Limitations Respondents on the SRS survey are biased towards students with higher course achievement (Equal variances not assumed: t=5.602, df=231.755, p<0.01). Attitude towards SRS among respondents could have been negatively skewed and overestimated. Casual relationships and directions between TAM constructs, SRS use, and academic achievement has yet to be fully analyzed with reference to the TAM model and subsequent empirical adoptions (Davis et al., 1989, Davis et al., 1992, Park, 2009, Park et al., 2012, Wu and Gao, 2011).

6. Conclusion Results from this study suggested that students related the effectiveness of SRS implementation with mobile devices in large classes to enhancement in classroom engagement, mastery of course content, and elevated interested in the subject matter. Effectiveness of delivering SRS appeared to be contingent upon students’ ease of accessing the SRS system software and hardware, but not as much as perceived usefulness and attitude towards SRS. SRS use, however, was significantly correlated to academic achievement. Further research in this project will examine the current findings with a full structural equation model on these parameters, that would extend and clarify the relationships between these factors on SRS use and its effect on learning

References Acuña, S., García Rodicio, H. and Sánchez, E. (2011) Fostering active processing of instructional explanations of learners with high and low prior knowledge. European Journal of Psychology of Education, Vol 26, No. 4, pp.435‐452. Agbatogun, A. O. (2012) Improving communicative competence with 'clickers' acceptance/attitudes among Nigerian primary school teachers. Education 3‐13: International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education, Vol, No., pp.1‐15. Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (1980) Understanding attitude and predicting social behavior, NJ: Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall.

Kevin Chan et al. Anthis, K. (2011) Is It the Clicker, or Is It the Question? Untangling the Effects of Student Response System Use. Teaching of Psychology, Vol 38, No. 3, pp.189‐193. Caldwell, J. E. (2007) Clickers in the Large Classroom: Current Research and Best‐Practice Tips. CBE‐Life Sciences Education, Vol 6, No. 1, pp.9‐20. Campbell, J. and Mayer, R. E. (2009) Questioning as an instructional method: Does it affect learning from lectures? Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol 23, No. 6, pp.747‐759. Cleary, A. M. (2008) Using Wireless Response Systems to Replicate Behavioral Research Findings in the Classroom. Teaching of Psychology, Vol 35, No. 1, pp.42‐44. Dahlstrom, E. (2012) ECAR Study of Undergraduate Students and Information Technology 2012. Louisville, CO, Educause Center for Applied Research. Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P. and Warshaw, P. R. (1989) User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A Comparison of Two Theoretical Models. Management Science, Vol 35, No. 8, pp.982‐1003. Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P. and Warshaw, P. R. (1992) Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation to Use Computers in the Workplace. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol 22, No. 14, pp.1111‐1132. Draper, S. W. and Brown, M. I. (2004) Increasing interactivity in lectures using an electronic voting system. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, Vol 20, No. 2, pp.81‐94. Gok, T. (2011) An Evaluation of Student Response Systems from the Viewpoint of Instructors and Students. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, Vol 10, No. 4, pp.67‐83. Hepplestone, S., Holden, G., Irwin, B., Parkin, H. J. and Thorpe, L. (2011) Using Technology to Encourage Student Engagement with Feedback: A Literature Review. Research in Learning Technology, Vol 19, No. 2, pp.117‐127. Holden, H. and Rada, R. (2011) Understanding the Influence of Perceived Usability and Technology Self‐Efficacy on Teachers' Technology Acceptance. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, Vol 43, No. 4, pp.343‐367. Karpicke, J. and Grimaldi, P. (2012) Retrieval‐Based Learning: A Perspective for Enhancing Meaningful Learning. Educational Psychology Review, Vol Online First, No., pp.1‐18. Kay, R. H. and LeSage, A. (2009) Examining the benefits and challenges of using audience response systems: A review of the literature. Computers & Education, Vol 53, No. 3, pp.819‐827. Morling, B., McAuliffe, M., Cohen, L. and DiLorenzo, T. M. (2008) Efficacy of Personal Response Systems ('Clickers') in Large, Introductory Psychology Classes. Teaching of Psychology, Vol 35, No. 1, pp.45‐50. Novak, G. M. (2011) Just‐in‐time teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, Vol 2011, No. 128, pp.63‐73. Park, S. Y. (2009) An Analysis of the Technology Acceptance Model in Understanding University Students' Behavioral Intention to Use e‐Learning. Educational Technology & Society, Vol 12, No. 3, pp.150‐162. Park, S. Y., Nam, M.‐W. and Cha, S.‐B. (2012) University students' behavioral intention to use mobile learning: Evaluating the technology acceptance model. British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol 43, No. 4, pp.592‐605. Pituch, K. A. and Lee, Y.‐K. (2006) The influence of system characteristics on e‐learning use. Computers & Education, Vol 47, No. 2, pp.222‐244. Poirier, C. R. and Feldman, R. S. (2007) Promoting Active Learning Using Individual Response Technology in Large Introductory Psychology Classes. Teaching of Psychology, Vol 34, No. 3, pp.194‐196. Shapiro, A. M. and Gordon, L. T. (2012) A Controlled Study of Clicker‐Assisted Memory Enhancement in College Classrooms. Applied Cognitive Psychology, Vol 26, No. 4, pp.635‐643. Song, Y.‐S. and Lee, J.‐M. (2012) Mobile device ownership among international business students: A road to the ubiquitous library. Reference Services Review, Vol 40, No. 4, pp.574‐588. Stowell, J. R., Oldham, T. and Bennett, D. (2010) Using Student Response Systems ("Clickers") to Combat Conformity and Shyness. Teaching of Psychology, Vol 37, No. 2, pp.135‐140. Turning Technologies (2012) ResponseWare. Youngstown, Ohio. Wu, X.‐Y. and Gao, Y. (2011) Applying The Extended Technology Acceptance Model To The Use Of Clickers In Student Learning: Some Evidence From Macroeconomics Classes. American Journal Of Business Education, Vol 4, No. 7, pp.43‐ 50. Zhang, W. and Xu, P. (2010) Do I have to learn something new? Mental models and the acceptance of replacement technologies. Behaviour & Information Technology, Vol 30, No. 2, pp.201‐211. Zhao, C.‐M., Kuh, G. D. and Carini, R. M. (2005) A Comparison of International Student and American Student Engagement in Effective Educational Practices. The Journal of Higher Education, Vol 76, No. 2, pp.209‐231.

Applying System Theory to Develop a Mobile Learning Pedagogical Framework Pieter Conradie Vaal University of Technology, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa pieterc@vut.ac.za Abstract: The dramatic effect of information technology on society is undeniable. In education, it is evident in the use of terms like active learning, blended learning, electronic learning and mobile learning (ubiquitous learning). Applying system theory to explore the micro‐, meso‐ and macro level systems in an educational institution, this study evaluates the perceptions of 54 learners regarding the use of mobile devices in a third year module. Forming part of a project to develop a mobile learning pedagogical framework, semi‐structured interviews were utilized. Results indicate that mobile devices have a positive impact on learner motivation, engagement and enjoyment. In addition, consistency of learning material, and the convenience and flexibility (anywhere, anytime) of learning were improved. Of concern to learners when utilizing mobile devices were user‐interface limitation (small screen size), mobile network bandwidth and cognitive overload. The use of cloud based resources like Youtube and Google Docs (Google Drive), through mobile devices, positively influenced learner perceptions, making them prosumers (both consumers and producers) of education content. Ubiquitous learning thus promises new and exciting ways of delivering education content to learners with measurable benefits. Keywords: mobile learning, ubiquitous learning, active learning, education, system theory, organizational theory

1. Introduction Education is entering a period of major change based on the use of information technology (Al‐Fahad 2009). Designated in educational literature under various terms (e.g. Internet mediated teaching, web‐based education, online education, computer assisted learning, virtual classrooms, electronic learning, mobile learning, web‐based learning, virtual learning), a cacophony of vernacular, the use of information technology in education is best designated by the term electronic learning (e‐learning) (Catoni et al. 2004). The use of e‐ learning, defined as learning with the use of information technology devices (Ktoridou and Eteokleous 2005; Lan and Sie 2010), promises specific advantages. These include the reduction in educational cost, higher cost‐ effectiveness and scalability (Gilbert et al. 2007). Research, as a consequence, has focused on technical (technocentric), administrative and financial characteristics of e‐learning, while less attention has been given to didactic approaches best suited to e‐learning (Amhag and Jakobsson 2009; Simuth and Sarmany‐Schuller 2012). Didactic is the science of teaching, focussing on practical elements like curriculum, teaching, instructional and assessment methods (Hedberg, and Freebody 2007; Ullrich 2008). Pedagogy, the more frequently used term, can be defined as the art and science of teaching (de Boer and Collins 2002). Different pedagogical approaches can be identified in literary, which are again based on specific learning paradigms. Some of the most well‐known learning paradigms include behaviourism, cognitivism, social learning theory, humanism and constructivism (Gredler 2008; Keskin and Metcalf 2011). Traditional pedagogical approaches like objectivism (lecturer‐centered), based on behaviourism, will not be appropriate for e‐learning (Lan and Sie 2010). It is, however, vital that the implementation of e‐learning is not based on financial or scalability motivators, but rather on the improvement of instructional practices. Amhag and Jakobsson (2009), in investigating advancement in instructional practices for e‐learning, considered collaborative learning. Reporting positive results, collaborative learning can be defined as the engagement of learners with their peers through social interactions, cooperating together in learning. Other pedagogical approaches relevant in the area of e‐learning include blended learning and active learning. Blended learning (b‐learning) combines normal classroom instruction with e‐learning and mobile e‐learning (mobile learning or m‐learning), while active learning is the instructional method used to engage learners actively in the learning process (Ocak 2010). Granic et al. (2009) extends this definition by stating that active learning incorporates the concepts of knowledge acquisition (e.g. constructivism), management of learning activities (e.g. b‐learning) and importance of the social element (e.g. collaborative learning). Constructivism, based on the behaviorist and experimental learning theories, signifies an instructional method where learners create their own knowledge and meaning, based on their own prior knowledge and experience (Ullrich 2008). Socio‐constructivism incorporates social interaction (cooperation, collaboration), taking into account social parameters. Information technology directly provides the tools required by e‐learning, thus

Pieter Conradie enabling active learning. Ktoridou and Eteokleous (2005), specifically considering mobile devices, identified two techniques of tool implementation which can be generalized to e‐learning. The first is as a supportive tool, for example, to assist communication between lecturer and learner or between learners. The second is as an instructional tool, where the mobile device becomes actively part of the instructional method. Specific characteristics of mobile devices that make them suitable for these roles include portability, instant connectivity and context sensitivity (Churchill and Churchill 2008). These characteristics directly influence the pedagogical approaches that can be followed. For example, mobile devices support individualized learning (learner can pass learning at own speed), situated learning (learn in an authentic context), informal learning (learn outside of classroom) and collaborative learning, generally utilized in the active learning approach. Based on a bibliometric analysis of new technology research trends in education (Martin et al. 2011), social web is designated as the highest impact technology, followed by mobile devices, augmented reality and immersive environments (e.g. games and virtual worlds). Research on pedagogical approaches best suited for the use of mobile devices in education is thus relevant, not only based on the projected role of these devices in education, but also on the essential role of mobile devices in the daily lives of learners (Liaw et al. 2010). In this study, factors impacting on learners’ perceptions (microlevel system) regarding the use of mobile devices as a supportive and instructional tool in active learning, incorporating social‐constructivism, b‐learning and collaborative learning, are considered. Specific factors explored include motivation, enjoyment, consistency, engagement, convenience and flexibility (Catoni et al. 2004; Dimitrova et al. 2004; Granic et al. 2009; Hayward et al. 2008; Ocak 2010; Kelly and Bauer 2004; Oliver 2005; Ozdamli 2011; Passey et al. 2008; Punie 2007; Volery and Lord 2000). Although research on the effectiveness of mobile learning are numerous, only a limited number of studies considered perceptions of learners regarding the use of mobile devices for educational purposes (Al‐Fahad 2009; Baya’a and Daher 2009; Wu et al. 2012). The aim of this study is to add to the discourse by elucidating the perceptions of learners regarding the use of mobile devices. This is performed by means of semi‐structured interviews including open‐ and closed‐ended questions. It is postulated that by exploring the perceptions of learners regarding the use of mobile devices, a better insight into factors impacting the pedagogy of mobile devices in education can be obtained. In the next section, a background on system theory and current research related to the use of mobile devices in education will be provided, followed in section three by a review of the research method employed. Section four outlines the results and in the final section, closing remarks are provided.

2. Theoretical framework 2.1 System theory System theory is proposed as an effective framework for understanding both the human‐constructed and natural worlds (Chen and Stroup 1993). Based on a holistic approach to scientific research, it in effect moves away from the tradition reductionism (analytical approach). Introduced in main stream science by Von Bertalanffy (1973) in the 1950s, it became known as General System Theory (GST). Unlike the traditional scientific method of study which explores the elements of a system individually, GST focuses on the relationships between elements of a system and the system and its environment, illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: System theory

Pieter Conradie System theory thus serves as metatheory or organizational conceptual framework (organizational theory) (Friendman and Allen 2011). A system can be defined as an organized whole consisting of elements that interact and which endures over time. A familiar separation of systems is that of micro‐, meso‐, and macro level systems, general based on system size. Microsystems are small, for example individual learners. Mesosystems are larger, for example a faculty. Macrosystems relates to even larger systems, for example a higher education institution. As an organization theory, system theory provides the scaffold for developing a mobile learning pedagogical framework in the research project.

2.2 E‐learning The use of e‐learning has the potential of transforming education by making it truly interactive (Dirckinck‐ Holmfeld and Lorentsen 2003). This implies that information technology serves as an agent of change, allowing the introduction of new pedagogical approaches, more input from learners and more collaboration between learners than ever before. This is enabled by a societal change based on information technology, one in which the world has transformed from an industrial society to a knowledge‐based society (Punie 2007). This change is causing a shift from lecturer‐centered education (traditional education) to learner‐centered education, focusing on learner innovation and growth. However, instruction and guidance from lecturers are still paramount, especially regarding relevant learning content and assessment standards. This theme of e‐learning not replacing the lecturer, but in effect supporting both lecturer and learner, can be identified in numerous e‐ and m‐learning studies (Amhag and Jakobsson 2009; Chen 2010; Simuth and Sarmany‐Schuller 2012). An integrative (additive) approach is thus recommended, integrating traditional education and e‐learning, in effect b‐learning. It is crucial to note that education is introduced to countless new information technologies, which leads to research in how they can provide solutions to educational challenges (Goodyear and Ellis 2008). It is, however, preferable to focus on how best to incorporate these new information technologies with what already exists. Thus, the focus should be on the exploration of current and novel pedagogies to incorporate these new information technologies in the educational context. Lecturers are currently faced with insufficient pedagogical understanding of how best to include information technology in their classrooms (Mishra and Koehler 2006; Motiwalla 2007; Simuth and Sarmany‐Schuller 2012). This is evident based on the fact that e‐ and m‐learning general requires a change in the teaching approach followed, requiring adaptation in instructional methods (Hedberg and Freebody 2012). Two approaches to manage adaptation can be identified. The first is the disruptive pedagogy, which implies replacing the established pedagogy with a new pedagogy, which incorporates new information technologies. The second is the additive pedagogy, in which information technology is integrated to support and adapt an established teaching pedagogy. If literature regarding mobile devices in education is reviewed, two broad categories can be identified. The first relates to the development of mobile educational systems (Chen and Hsu 2008), while the second relates to the effectiveness of mobile learning (Al‐Fahad 2009; Baya’a and Daher 2009; Evans 2008), closely linked to perception studies of e‐ and m‐learning. Al‐Fahad (2009) surveyed the attitudes of higher education learners towards mobile learning effectiveness, reporting that mobile learning improved retention. Similarly, Baya’a and Daher (2009), utilizing an experiment, studied the effectiveness of using mobile phones in a middle school. Again, positive results were reported. Evans (2008), employing observations, considered the effectiveness of mobile learning implemented by means of podcasting. Results indicate that learners preferring podcasts above learning aids like textbooks. Even though positive results are reported in literature, the use of mobile devices is still limited in education (Granic et al. 2009). Reasons reported for this observation are: a lack of mobile device integration in curricula and information technology in general, and a combination of low access to information technology, teacher motivation and the absence of a validated mobile learning pedagogy. This is highlighted by Granic et al. (2009), emphasizing the need for a mobile learning pedagogy with clear didactic objectives. The development of a mobile learning pedagogy, whether disruptive or additive, must consider the perceptions of learners regarding the use of mobile devices in education. This is the aim of this study, by investigating the perceptions of learners, it is postulated that more informed decisions regarding pedagogical objectives and approaches can be made. If the perceptions of learners are negative towards the use of mobile devices, it is unlikely that any novel mobile learning pedagogy will be successful.

Pieter Conradie

3. Research method 3.1 Research context The data presented in this study is derived from learners completing a third year information technology module. This module is presented in the second semester, traditionally with face‐to‐face (f2f) lessons. For the study, however, the use of mobile phones was introduced as a supportive and instructional tool, following an active learning pedagogy. This incorporated elements of social‐constructivism, b‐learning and collaborative learning (Hayes 2007; Granic et al. 2007). Implemented by means of a web‐based platform which allows blogging (micro‐blogging), wikis, creation, retrieval and submission of educational material, it was available both from non‐mobile devices (e.g. personal computers) and mobile devices. As such, it served two purposes. Firstly, it provided learners with a repository of module content. Secondly, it provided an additional communication channel between lecturer and learner, as well as learner to learner. It is important to note that learners utilized blogging, wikis, video recording, document creation, not only consume mobile education content, but also create and re‐create (produce) mobile educational content, actively becoming prosumers.

3.2 Participants In total, 54 learners participated in the study, all part of a group which completed an information technology module in 2012. This necessitated the use of convenient sampling, a nonrandom sampling technique (Creswell 2004).

3.3 Data collection Implemented as a single case study, semi‐structured interviews (n=54) were performed utilizing a questionnaire with both open‐ and closed‐ended questions. Interviews, compared to surveys, are generally more suited to explore social phenomena, since it allows a more in‐depth exploration. Respondents were briefed that participation was totally voluntary, the importance of answering truthfully and assured that their responses would be anonymous and confidential. However, since one of the researcher’s was the lecturer for the module, this may have influenced the answers provided. In general, findings based on a small sample or only one case are not generalizable, as it is not representative. However, utilizing a five‐point Likert scale for close ended questions, the questionnaire provided a framework to evaluate specific factors, namely motivation, enjoyment, flexibility, consistency, engagement, convenience, learner ICT competence, lecturer ICT competence and pedagogy employed, each described in Table 1. Table 1: Factors measured Factor

Description

Referring study

Motivation

Does the use of mobile devices lead to higher motivated learners?

Passey et al. (2008)

Enjoyment

Does the use of mobile devices lead to higher enjoyment of educational content for learners? Do learners find the learning more flexible, allowing learning to occur at anytime and anyplace?

Hayward et al. (2008)

Flexibility

Dimitrova et al. (2004)

Consistency

Do learners find the learning material to be more consistent, thus more relevant and trustworthy?

Catoni et al. (2004)

Engagement

Do learners engage with learning material more readily?

Ocak (2010)

Convenience

Do learners find the use of mobile devices more convenient for educational purposes than non‐mobile devices?

Kelly and Bauer (2004)

Learner ICT competence

Do learners feel competent in using mobile devices for learning?

Volery and Lord (2000)

Lecturer ICT competence Pedagogy

In the learner’s opinion, does the lecturer have the required competence to use mobile devices in education? Does the pedagogy used by lecturer support/promote the use of mobile devices in the module?

Hayward et al. (2008)

Granic et al. (2009)

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3.4 Data analysis Data analysis was performed by means of descriptive statistics (e.g. mean, standard deviation) for closed‐ ended questions and thematic analysis for open‐ended questions. Validation and reliability of data for closed‐ ended questions were based on Cronbach’s alpha and the comparison of standard deviation with average mean. Open‐ended questions were analyzed by employing the strategy proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006). Initial codes were identified as features of the data by hand, using colour markers. After the initial reading and coding, the main themes were identified. Data extracts that substantiated or best illustrated the main themes (verbatim quotes) were subsequently identified. Table 2: Strategies employed to ensure rigor Approaches to rigor Credibility Transferability Dependability

Strategy(ies) applied

Goal

Triangulation, Member checking Detail descriptions Audit trail, Reflexivity

Soundness of study (link to participants) Generalizable to other settings Description of context methods and procedures applied

Confirmability Authenticity

Audit trail, Reflexivity Verbatim quotes

Findings can be collaborated by others Representing voice of participants

To ensure rigor and thus trustworthiness, the strategies suggested by Lincoln and Guba (2000) were adopted, listed in Table 2.

4. Results There were in total 30 (56%) female and 24 (44%) male participants, which mirror the general ratio of female to male learners in the higher education institution. Participants’ ages ranged from 20 to 28, with the mean age being 23. All respondents (100%) had access to a mobile device, specifically a web‐browser enabled mobile phone, classified as either feature‐ or smart mobile phones. The most popular mobile phone owned by learners was Blackberry at 48% (n=26), followed by Nokia at 39% (n=21), Samsung at 13% (n=7), Sony at 4% (n=2) and LG at 2% (n=1), depicted in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Mobile phone by manufacturer In Figure 3, mobile phone application usage is depicted. Web‐browser and media player are both at 100% (n=54), followed by social network application Facebook (93%), Whatsapp (83%) and Mixit (59%). Short Messaging Service (SMS) is at 57%, BlackBerry Messaging (BBM) at 54% and Twitter at 35%. Mobile phone games, LinkedIn and 2Go (messaging service) are at 31%, 18% and 11% respectively.

Pieter Conradie

Figure 3: Mobile phone application usage In Table 3, the factors measured by means of closed‐ended questions are listed, with their mean and standard deviation (SD). Table 3: Mean and standard deviation Factor

M (n=54) 3.72 3.80 4.18 3.28 3.94 3.83 4.30 4.16 2.82 3.78

Motivation Enjoyment Flexibility Consistency Engagement Convenience Learner ICT competence Lecturer ICT competence Pedagogy Average

SD 0.79 0.83 0.76 0.90 0.84 0.72 0.62 0.81 1.30 ‐

The factors flexibility, learner ICT competence and lecturer ICT competence rates the highest, while consistency and pedagogy employed rates the lowest. Variability was low with the overall SD equal to 0.84, which are less than a ¼ of the average mean. This serves to affirm that the measures were homogeneous. Internal consistency was confirmed by the calculation of Cronbach’s alpha for each factor, depicted in Table 4. Table 4: Cronbach’s alpha values Factor

Cronbach’s alpha

Motivation Enjoyment Flexibility Consistency Engagement Convenience Learner ICT competence Lecturer ICT competence Pedagogy

0.82 0.73 0.77 0.85 0.71 0.81 0.78 0.85 0.74

All values calculated were above 0.7, confirming internal consistency (Creswell 2004). Based on thematic analysis performed for open‐ended question, three themes were identified. The first theme relates to user‐interface limitation, which was specified in narratives as: “The input screen is very limiting (learner 8).” “Mobile phone screen is too small (learner 41).”

Pieter Conradie “I struggle to understand some concepts using the mobile phone, I constantly need to scroll up and down (learner 36).” All learners participating in the study only had access to mobile phones. None had access to other mobile devices like tablet computers or notebooks. This directly affects the screen size available, which is a concern to learners. The second theme relates to network speed, which was specified in narratives as: “When I try to download audio or video clips, it takes forever (learner 34).” “Big files take too long to download (learner 12).” “Network speed is too slow, the browser is always giving me a timeout (learner 14).” Network problems are related to mobile network capacity (bandwidth) and can be a problem if 3G is not available in a specific area. When Wi‐Fi connections are utilized, the bandwidth barrier is of less concern: “The Wi‐Fi connection works better than the cellphone network (learner 27).” “I prefer to use the Wi‐Fi connection at the university, it’s faster (learner 43).” The third theme relates to cognitive overload. Mobile devices are mostly used for communication (e.g. voice, messaging) and entertainment (e.g. games, music) (Evans 2008), not for accessing educational content. By providing educational content on a mobile phone, it constitutes an additional resource, above and beyond learner guides and textbooks. This can result in cognitive overload, observed in the narratives: “I’m not sure which material I should study (learner 8).” “Is the mobile content as good as the textbook or slides (learner 34).” “I already have so many personal apps on my cell, I don’t want class work on my cell (learner 17).” From the analysis, it can be reported that learners may have abundant non‐educational content on their mobile phones and do not wish to include educational content as well.

5. Discussion and conclusion Although the use of mobile devices is relevant to all forms of education, it is especially appropriate for higher education, based on the ubiquity of mobile devices on university campuses. Used in this research project specifically as a module content repository and an additional communication channel for collaborative learning, it implemented active learning in a real‐world setting. Although reported in literature that the implementation of m‐learning faces challenges based on social, cultural and organizational factors (Simuth and Sarmany‐Schuller 2012), these specific challenges were not identified in this study. All learners had access to mobile phones, considered as an essential part of being socially active. Goodyear (1999) postulated that to develop a pedagogical framework, it is necessary to understand educational activities in an institutional setting. Educational activities relates to the different systems in the institution, including the learners, lecturers, faculties and the institution itself. As a first step in the development of a mobile learning pedagogy framework, the initial results are favorable. Factors that were found to be relevant regarding learners included: motivation (learners are more motivated when they have access to module content via mobile devices; M = 3.72), enjoyment (learners enjoy mobile access to module content; M = 3.80), flexibility (anywhere and anytime access is an important contributing factor; M = 4.18), consistency (related to reliability and trustworthiness; M = 3.28), engagement (based on flexibility, learners interacted with module content more often; M = 3.94) and convenience (also based on flexibility, module content were easy to access; M = 3.83). Both learner ICT competence (M = 4.30) and lecturer ICT competence (M = 4.16) were also rated high. Appropriate pedagogy to m‐learning was, however, low (M = 2.82). This indicated that learners feel that the way mobile learning was implemented in and outside the classroom was not conducive. Further research to adapt active learning for m‐learning is thus recommended, substantiating the need for a mobile learning pedagogical framework. However, focusing on whether learners welcomed the use active learning, the result is positive, similar to the result reported by Philip (2007). Specific themes identified in the open‐ended questions related to screen size, bandwidth and cognitive overload. The difficulty of limited screen size of mobile phones are being address by mobile phone manufacturers, based on the observed increased screen size of newer models, related to ergonomic influences. As data usage on mobile networks increase, mobile network providers are improving their network

Pieter Conradie bandwidth capabilities. In relation to cognitive overload, the development of a mobile learning pedagogy must address this concern to ensure optimal educational value for mobile learners. Connectivism, proposed by Siemens (2004), is a new learning paradigm that postulates that learning does not exist in individuals, but resides both in the individual and the networks to which the individual belong, including their connections. This is contrary to traditional learning paradigms like constructivism, which subscribes to individualism. Even the socio‐constructivist learning theory, with interaction between members of a social grouping, remains an individualized vision of learning. Limitations of this study include the relative small sample, only one case constituting 54 learners, focusing on the micro‐level (learner). Results cannot be generalized to other learners or higher education institutions. Furthermore, since learners’ perceptions change over time as they gain more experience with m‐learning, it is proposed that a series of studies over time will deliver more informative results. In conclusion, the implementation of mobile devices in higher education is a complex issue, with technical and possibly cultural challenges that may be faced. With advances in mobile computing power, many technical limitations will be solved, including small screen size and network bandwidth. However, if an ethos of m‐ learning is to be established in education, special attention must be given to learner perceptions (micro‐level), faculty perceptions (meso‐level) and education institution perceptions (macro‐level), systems which interact in the different levels of the modern educational system. Current results, which elucidate learner perceptions on the use of mobile devices by employing active learning, can assist lecturers and higher education institutions to evaluate the future impact of m‐learning.

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Cloud Technologies in Technical Education: A Case Study Eduardo Correia and Ricky Watson Christchurch Polytechnic Institute of Technology, Christchurch, New Zealand eddie.correia@cpit.ac.nz ricky.watson@cpit.ac.nz Abstract: Virtualisation has found widespread acceptance in industry as an efficient means of utilising expensive computer hardware. As a result of the development of this set of technologies by VMware and others, it is now feasible for even relatively small educational institutions to create their own private cloud. This paper outlines the case of TechLabs, a set of computer suites and server room that is used to teach mainly operating systems and networking at a tertiary educational institution in New Zealand. The authors have initiated the shift away from the current successful model of workstation virtualisation for student work and server virtualisation for infrastructure to a computer laboratory that is accessible through the internet by students at any time and from anywhere. The paper examines the rationale for moving in this direction, the initial use of this type of environment and its possible future development. Keywords: cloud, virtualisation, VMware, vCenter, ESXi, networking

1. Introduction As a concept and a practice cloud computing is poorly understood. A service such as a Google Mail or Face Book is not cloud computing at all, as many people believe. Cloud computing is not simply a term for anything that involves delivering hosted services over the internet, though hosted services may make use of cloud computing. Rather it is the manner in which resources are deployed and managed that differentiates a cloud service from a web service or application. It is not so much about what the physical computing infrastructure is as what can be done with it. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (2012) provides a good definition of cloud computing: Cloud computing is a model for enabling convenient, on‐demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. In other words it is how the computing resources are provisioned and managed that sets cloud computing apart from other modes of operation. It may make use of the internet and often does but one can have a cloud that does not make use of the internet. What is required is a network and some form of software designed to manage computing resources. Who owns the physical infrastructure and where the data is actually stored is immaterial, at least in terms of the model because these can easily change, and the change‐friendly nature of the cloud is its real strength. The adoption of the cloud does involve a change of focus from being “asset‐based” to “service‐based” (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2011). One other important consideration is whether one should make use of a public or private cloud; in other words, make use of a third‐party provider cloud environment or create one’s own cloud. Tertiary educational institutions can make use of either approach but in contrast to other literature that refers to endeavours that involve a third‐party provider (Nunez, 2010; Rindos, Vouck, Vandenberg, Pitt, Harris, Gendron and Danford, 2010; Mikroyannidis, Rizzardini and Schmitz, 2012), this paper outlines the establishment of a private cloud at one tertiary institution. The authors established a specialised lab environment called TechLabs at the Department of Computing at Christchurch Polytechnic Institute of Technology (CPIT). As an environment, TechLabs has grown and evolved over the years. Originally one classroom of twenty computers and four servers, it now comprises of four classrooms and a server room with over seventy student and staff workstations and twelve physical servers. The basic configuration of the environment has proven to be a flexible and robust vehicle for teaching operating systems, networking, and programming. It is based on a self‐service model, where students create new virtual machines, copy specific virtual machines or copy virtual machines that upon start up become unique. This kind of laboratory has been called “remote labs” (Ma and Nickerson, 2006; Winckles, Spasova, Rowsell, 2011), “distributed learning labs” (Winer, Chomienne and Vazquez‐Abad, 2000), “virtual labs” (Ko, Chen, Chen et al, 2000; Burd, Seazzu and Conway, 2009; Powell, Davis, Johnson et al, 2007; Winckles, Spasova

Eduardo Correia and Ricky Watson and Rowsell, 2011) and even “hands‐on labs” (Zimman, Roberts and van der Walt, 2012). What is important is that the learning environment makes it possible to do not just basic tasks but also intricate, complex ones that more closely resemble a conventional production network, and TechLabs has always achieved this through the use workstation‐based virtualisation. The current design, though, does have a number of limitations and constraints that could be overcome through the use of cloud technologies. This case study describes the rationale for and use of a private cloud for hosting student machines based on the VMware server virtualisation platform, and then goes on to explore possible future developments of the platform and how it may take shape in future.

2. Virtualisation and the cloud What sets TechLabs apart from others of its kind is that it is based on virtualisation first adopted in 2001 at a time when many people in industry were not even aware that these technologies existed. Since then virtualisation has become an accepted technology in industry and today is regarded to be the conventional means of utilising expensive hardware efficiently (Cisco Systems, 2012). TechLabs has used workstation virtualisation for student work and server virtualisation for infrastructure. In terms of implementation, the cloud presupposes some form of virtualisation and then overlays it with another management layer through further abstraction of computing resources. In order to understand cloud services therefore one needs first to understand the concept of virtualisation. Laverick (2010, p xxviii) has used the analogy of a hotel to describe virtualisation in non‐technical terms. In the past, the server was like a very expensive hotel. It was the worst kind of hotel. It had only one big room, and only one person could stay there. However, each employee – whether he was the CEO or copyboy – had to stay there when he was away on business. This is like the guest operating system being installed on a physical server. Half the time, the hotel occupant was out doing other things, asleep, or just lying on the bed…. This is like when Linux or Windows is idling and using only 5% to 10% of CPU or memory. It became too costly to build such hotels, considering that filling them with one occupant was very wasteful. That occupant consumed heat, water, and power and, most of the time, either wasn’t there or was asleep! So some bright spark thought of a better hotel – one divided into a series of rooms that could be of different sizes and offer different qualities of service. It didn’t matter what one guest did in one room, as it could not affect other guests. Laverick (2010, p xxviii) concludes by saying that whereas the old hotel was so expensive only the seriously wealthy could afford to stay there, the new type of hotel enables everyone to find a room that is adequate for their needs. This analogy stresses the importance of making efficient use of expensive hardware resources and the partitioning of services through guest systems, though, as the NIST definition above suggests, its use has expanded to include other computing resources, such as networks and storage. Many in industry can now hardly imagine a solution that does not involve virtualisation of one kind or another. The truth is that these days the vast majority of businesses use some form of virtualisation so that a single physical machine is partitioned into multiple virtual machines (Cerling, Buller, Enstall and Ruiz, 2010). In fact in one study only just over 5% of respondents stated that they do not use virtualisation technologies at all (Zenoss, 2010). This is reflects the value and efficacy of virtualisation, which now enjoys a proven track around the world. All kinds of organisations have employed virtualisation to reduce the number of physical servers and with it lower energy and operational costs Goldworm and Skamarock, 2007; Uddin and Rahman, 2011). With the increasing capability and power of current hardware, it is likely that most if not all servers that host only a single operating system will stand idle most of the time. At the same time the additional overhead for virtualised servers has reduced to a negligible 5% or even less (Microsoft, 2009). Besides these gains in the efficient use of hardware resources, virtualisation also enables systems to be agile and portable. This means that it is possible to allocate hardware resources across servers at a higher, aggregated level as well as move an entire machine, with its operating system, application(s) and data from one place to another, with little or no downtime. In fact, reliability or what is commonly termed “high availability” in the industry is possible due to the capability of virtualisation platforms to detect a virtual machine that is no longer accessible and take

Eduardo Correia and Ricky Watson automatic action to fail over to another instance of that virtual machine within seconds. These benefits of virtualisation are widely acknowledged (Gillen, 2008).

3. Virtualisation and technical education The value of virtualisation for providing students with experience of implementing a variety of “real” systems has gained some level of acceptance in many institutions of higher learning, including polytechnics in New Zealand. Some academics have harnessed the power of virtualisation to teach operating systems, networking and programming. McEwan (2002) points out that teaching courses that make use of a range of operating systems are a “constant technical battle to administer and maintain” (McEwan, 2002, p 57) and proposes the use of VMware as a solution as well as the open source User‐Mode Linux, which he was actively involved in at the time. The entire design of TechLabs is based on the notion of harnessing the power of virtualisation, by combining VMware Workstation with a range of physical‐separate virtual networks, something that was expanded in later years through the introduction of VMware ESX and then ESXi Server (Correia, Watson and Morrison, 2007; Correia and Watson, 2008). Others have implemented virtualisation as well in different ways (Dobrilovic and Odadžic, 2006; van Aardt and Mossom, 2009; Lunsford, 2009; Winckles, Spasova and Rowsell, 2011; Zimman, Roberts and van der Walt, 2012). On the whole, though, academics were not as quick to adopt virtualisation as their counterparts in industry. One reason commonly given for making virtualisation a standard approach for providing students with a practical means of implementing technologies is that it enables a single physical machine to run many virtual machines with the ability to place these virtual machines on the same or different network segments. The current solution enables teachers to provision virtual machines and give students extensive rights and privileges to the systems they use to learn on without affecting the physical lab environment or risking anyone else’s learning environment. In addition, virtualisation accommodates the wide range of systems and technologies that form a standard part of learning in a technical course. Much of this has now been fairly well documented (Dobrilovic and Odadžic, 2006; van Aardt and Mossom, 2009; Lunsford, 2009; Winckles, Spasova and Rowsell, 2011). In the case of TechLabs, students have access to VMware Workstation on their workstations, whereas the physical infrastructure for the environment makes use of VMware ESXi and vCenter. While Microsoft Virtual PC is also utilised so as to support the delivery of older Microsoft Official Curriculum labs, it is rapidly disappearing as Microsoft standardise instead on their improved Hyper‐V platform. This approach does, though, impose certain constraints and limitations, including

Workstation Capacity Limit. The capacity of each workstation limits the number of machines the student can deploy, limiting the size of the project when using one machine, or forcing the student to use multiple machines (with or without a partner).

Classroom Capacity. TechLabs has only four rooms and this is becoming an issue with more classes in existing courses, and new courses wanting to use the facilities. Traditionally only second and third‐year networking and operation systems classes have utilised TechLabs, but now programming classes and first‐ year classes are using TechLabs. There have been some timetabling challenges, especially with classes needing multiple sessions each week require the use of same room each time.

Managing Data. The volume of data created by students is difficult to manage, each room has 40TB of storage that is not backed up, and a large proportion of the data is duplicated.

Accessibility. Student behavior and expectations have changed. Ten years ago physical access was expected for project or lab work, but now students are looking to work from their own devices and access their machines from anywhere.

4. Implementing cloud technologies VMware vCloud Director was selected since it was the most well established platform for simplifying and automating the provisioning and management of a virtual infrastructure. The software, first released in February 2011 and updated in March 2012, this software delivers as VMware put it “cloud infrastructure on‐ demand so end users can consume virtual resources with maximum agility” (VMware, 2013). TechLabs already contained a number of VMware vCenter servers and any one or more of these could be enlisted under the direction of vCloud Director so that tasks could be further automated, and resources more easily managed. In the past administrators have had to provision the virtual machines for users. vCloud allows users to provision their own machines but with control of the resources they can consume.

Eduardo Correia and Ricky Watson The initial deployment of cloud technologies comprised of two phases: the first the installation and basic testing of vCloud Director to gauge functionality and performance, the second to use the TechLabs cloud for actual course delivery and then developing documentation aimed at teaching staff unfamiliar with the details of implementation. The software was first installed with the goal of understanding the components that comprised vCloud Director and how it interacts with vCenter. No major problems were encountered due to the software being well written and the careful adherence to documentation supplied by VMware and its community. The initial installation was created purely for the purposes of evaluation, so as to test the software and to better it. The two pre‐packaged virtual machines were installed on an ESXi host within the TechLabs environment. Both machines were configured easily and then added to the student vCenter server. (This vCenter has five servers and is used for student projects.) Once the evaluation vCloud Director system provided by VMware was successfully tested, vCloud Director was installed on a Red Hat server in accordance with VMware recommended practice and then connected to a Microsoft SQL Server 2008 system. Using an external database allowed easier future expansion for load balancing if required and adding a Red Hat Linux‐based iSCSI target to the environment provided an inexpensive solution the question of shared storage. As for task automation, while vCloud Director supports Microsoft’s PowerShell, and has a number of commands, the current version still lacks a number of important functions. VMware offered a REST (REpresentational State Transfer) interface and a .Net framework API library allowing the easy use of Visual Studio to create applications, and one of the authors created an application that enabled the mass provisioning of machines based on existing templates and classes. Phase two involved seeing how both teaching staff and students would utilise the vCloud environment. The implementation of the private cloud was tested on three technical courses, a first and second‐year course on Linux, and the part of a third‐year course that covered server‐based virtualisation. This involved building the vCloud environment: creating catalogues, uploading operating system software, creating vApps and vApp templates, and finally testing the virtual machines. This was successfully implemented but the use of vCloud Director for teaching virtualisation did encounter a significant problem, partly to do with the limited capabilities of the available hardware and partly the way in which a particular feature (vMotion) was configured. While these issues were ultimately addressed at the end of the first class, given the time constraints and risk to obstructing student learning, it was decided that the class would revert to workstation‐ based virtualisation for the rest of the topic in the course. Using the vCloud environment to support the teaching of virtualisation, pushed the system to the limits, as the class would be setting up virtual hosts to run virtual machines, on top of virtual hosts. The complexity of such a structure was supported by the fundamental virtualisation host software but vCloud Director itself does not allow the creation of such virtual machines. The issue was solved by creating the vApp outside the vCloud environment and then importing the vApp into the vCloud. The imported vApp had all the correct settings and functioned correctly within the vCloud environment. An underlying problem within the server subsystem configuration occurred when the class first tried to run the virtual machines that would form the basis for students’ virtualisation learning environment. Only some student virtual machines would run while others would not. The students first to get their machines started had no problems performing the lab, but later other students were unable to start their machines. The class had access to four physical servers and the system was meant to assign their virtual machine to one of those physical servers. On inspection it became clear that the student machines were being assigned to just one virtualisation server only. The issue was because a feature within the virtualisation server environment, called vMotion, had not been enabled correctly. Once correctly enabled, the virtual machines automatically evenly distributed across the physical hosts as they were meant to do in a correctly configured vMotion environment. In addition vCloud Director as required students to reconfigure their web browser, this was adequately addressed through the use of instructions handed out to students briefly describing the changes they needed to make to their browser.

5. Conclusion Organisations that employ graduates in systems administration, networking and programming expect a certain level of practical technical skill. The question is how tertiary institutions can best provide students with opportunities to practise and improve their technical skills, without spending too much on hardware

Eduardo Correia and Ricky Watson infrastructure. Virtualisation meets these needs. It is a cost‐effective solution capable of meeting a wide range of requirements, from basic first‐year courses through to final‐year courses, from courses in operating systems and networking through to courses in database management, and indeed courses in programming and software development. Ideally, the learning environment should provide access to a variety of systems and networks (including the Internet) as well as offer students the opportunity to install any other operating system of their choice. For the staff at tertiary institutions this delivery infrastructure should minimise administrative effort and intervention. One way of doing this is to provide network resources that enable students to choose to network virtual machines or isolate them completely from other machines on the physical network or even other machines within their physical machines. Students need to be able to work on their own networks without having to constantly liaise with teaching staff and therefore need to have the extensive rights and privileges that learning demands. For it to function well, the learning environment must maximise choice for students and minimise administrative effort for staff. The current student workstation virtualisation solution achieves all this but it does make it difficult for staff to monitor and respond quickly to student activity, and does not satisfy the demand for students to be able to work from anywhere at any time, though currently a limited remote access is available. The challenge is offering students all the current benefits of workstation virtualisation with none of the constraints. The solution envisaged does make it possible for teaching staff to easily and effectively manage the virtual environment, as it increases the scope for automation when vCloud Director is used in conjunction with vCenter. The major hurdle is the technical complexity of a server‐based virtualisation solution that incorporates an effective management software layer. While the use of cloud services is still uncommon in public institutions of higher learning, it is what is required, since it enables staff to shape the learning environment for the courses they teach, while maximising student access and flexibility. It also enables teaching staff to monitor student work and activity more closely, as they can access student machines easily and respond to questions more quickly. Moreover, implementing cloud technologies raises the spectre of courses or parts of courses to be offered remotely and makes it easier for teaching staff at different educational institutions to collaborate and share a wide range of resources.

References Correia, E. and Watson, R. (2004) “A Virtual Solution to a Real Problem: VMware in the Classroom”, Proceedings of the 17th NACCQ Annual Conference, pp. 250‐253. NACCQ, Christchurch, New Zealand. Correia, E., Watson, R., and Morrison, N. (2007) “Doing the route thing: Connecting virtual machines to virtual networks”, in V. Grout, D. Oram and R. Picking (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Internet Technologies and Applications, pp. 191‐200. Centre for Applied Internet Research, Wrexham, Wales. Correia, E. and Watson, R. (2008) “Techlabs Virtually Four Years On”, Proceedings of the 21st NACCQ Annual Conference, pp. 31‐36. NACCQ, Auckland, New Zealand. Burd, S. D., Seazzu, A. F. and Conway, C. (2009) ‘Virtual computing laboratories: A case study with comparisons to physical computing laboratories’, Journal of Information Technology Education: Innovations in Practice, Vol. 8, pp. 55‐78. Cerling, T., Buller, J., Enstall, C. and Ruiz, R. (2010) Mastering Microsoft virtualisation, Wiley, Indianapolis, IN. Dobrilovic, D. and Odadžic, B. (2006) ‘Virtualisation technology as a tool for teaching computer networks’, Transactions on Engineering, Computing and Technology, pp. 126‐130. Gillen, A. P. (2008) Business value of virtualisation: Realizing the benefits of integrated solutions, IDC, Framingham, MA. Goldworm, B. and Skamarock, A. (2007) Blade Servers and Virtualization: Transforming Enterprise Computing While Cutting Costs, Wiley, Indianapolis, IN. Ko, C. C., Chen, B. M., Chen, S. H., Ramakrishnan, V., Chen, R., Hu, S. Y. and Zhuang, Y. (2000) ‘A large‐scale web‐based virtual oscilloscope laboratory experiment’, Engineering Science Education Journal, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 69–76. Laverick, M. (2010) vSphere 4 implementation, Macgraw‐Hill, New York. Lowe, S. (2009) Mastering VMware vSphere 4, Wiley, Indianapolis, IN. Lunsford, D. (2009) ‘Virtualisation technologies in information systems education’, Journal of Information stems Education, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 339‐347. Ma, J. and Nickerson, J. V. (2006) ‘Hands‐on, simulated, and remote laboratories: A comparative literature review’, ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 1‐37. McEwan, W (2002) ‘Virtual machine technologies and their application in the delivery of ICT’, Proceedings of the 15th annual conference of the NACCQ, pp. 55‐62. NACCQ, Hamilton, New Zealand. st Mikroyannidis, A., Rizzardini, R. H. and Schmitz, H. (Eds.) (2012) Proceedings of the 1 International Workshop on Cloud Education Environments. WCloud 2012, Antigua, Guatemala. National Institute of Standards and Technology (2012) NIST Cloud Computing Program. Retrieved from http://www.nist.gov/itl/cloud/ National Institute of Standards and Technology (2011) NIST US Government Cloud Computing Technology Roadmap Volume III: Technical Considerations for USG Cloud Computing Deployment Decisions. Retrieved from

Eduardo Correia and Ricky Watson http://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki‐cloud‐ computing/pub/CloudComputing/RoadmapVolumeIIIWorkingDraft/NIST_cloud_roadmap_VIII_draft_110311.pdf Nunez, E. (2010) ‘The Development and Deployment of a Remote Virtual Lab based on Amazon Cloud for Networking Courses’, MS thesis, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY. Powell, V. J., Davis, C. T., Johnson, R. S., Wu, P. Y., Turchek, J. C. and Parker, I. W. (2007) VLabNet: the integrated design of hands‐on learning in information security and networking. Retrieved from http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1409918&dl=GUIDE&coll=GUIDE&CFID=84416006&CFTOKEN=28037476# Rindos, A., Vouck, M., Vandenberg, A., Pitt, S., Harris, R., Gendron, T. and Danford, T. (2010) ‘ The Transformation of Education through State Education Clouds’. IBM Global Education White Paper. IBM, Somers, NY. Rottenberg, H. (2009) Managing VMware Infrastructure with Windows PowerShell, Sapien Press, Napa, CA. Uddin, M. and Rahman, A. A. (2011) ‘Virtualization implementation model for cost effective & efficient data centers’, International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp.69‐74. van Aardt, A. and Mossom, M. (2009) Using virtualisation in teaching in a software laboratory. Proceedings of the 22nd NACCQ annual conference, pp. 121‐124. NACCQ, Napier, New Zealand. VMware (2013) Private Cloud Computing. Retrieved from http://www.vmware.com/cloud‐computing/private‐ cloud/private‐cloud‐solutions.html Winckles, A., Spasova, K. and Rowsell, T. (2011) ‘Remote Laboratories and Reusable Learning Objects in a Distance Learning Context’, Networks, Vol. 14, pp. 1‐13. Winer, L. R., Chomienne, M. and Vazquez‐Abad, J. (2000) ‘A distributed collaborative science learning laboratory on the internet’, American Journal of Distance Education, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 47‐62. Zimman, A., Roberts, C. and van der Walt, M. (2012) ‘VMworld 2011 Hands‐On Labs: Implementation and Workflow’, VMware Technical Journal, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 70‐76.

Leapfrogging Pedagogy: A Design Approach to Transforming Learning in Challenging Contexts Susan Crichton University of British Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada susan.crichton@ubc.ca Abstract: At a time of substantial change, globalization, and ubiquitous access to information, educators struggle to change even the most basic aspects of their classrooms. This is especially true for those in challenging contexts where many continue to perpetuate the “mind numbing” practice of rote instruction. This paper describes an ongoing, collaborative partnership among academics as they develop Innovative Learning Centres (ILC) in their respective institutions to leapfrog pedagogy in imaginative ways. Keywords: transformative pedagogy, appropriate technology, design thinking, learning environments, challenging contexts

1. Background While educators have always worked in challenging times and varied contexts, it is acknowledged that currently society is in an unprecedented time of substantial change due to a variety of circumstances including globalization and ubiquitous access to information. As other sectors seem to adopt innovative practices and embrace change, educators tend to struggle to change even the most basic aspects of classroom practice, and it is well recognized that teachers typically teach in the ways in which they themselves were taught (Britzman, 1991). As Dewey noted “If we teach today’s students as we taught yesterday’s, we rob our children of tomorrow.” Teachers working in challenging contexts face even a more daunting task. Crichton and Onguko (2013) define challenging contexts as settings in which individuals, due to a variety of circumstances, conditions or environmental constraints, do not have

Access to consistently available and affordable electricity

Access to reliable, unfiltered or uncensored Internet

Access to previous formal learning and / or opportunities for ongoing formal learning that support individual learning needs

Access to non‐formal, yet appropriate learning opportunities

Access to or participation in learning activities due to cultural or religious reasons

Access to transportation and mobility

Access to prior learning

Other access situations linked directly to poverty (health, fees, low wages, inappropriate clothing, etc.).

1 That list is not exhaustive, and thanks to the contribution of educators in Mombasa, Kenya , additions have been made, including

Access to clean water and adequate sanitation

Access to fair and just leadership

Access to adequate nutrition and safe food supply

Access to a safe environment free from hostilities and violence

Access to support for the disabled.

The conditions identified above are, unfortunately, all too commonly experienced in many parts of the world today. They require initiatives that first recognize the constraints and then attempt to ameliorate them by providing simple solutions that minimally disrupt the learners’ lives.

The author shared the initial list with students in a certificate course offered by Aga Khan University, Institute of Educational Development, East Africa. Students were then asked to brainstorm conditions / constraints that should be added.

Susan Crichton

2. Introduction Sir John Daniel (2010) explains that education in the 21st century should lead to the “nurturing of human capabilities that allow [students] the freedoms to lead worthwhile lives” (p. 6). It should not merely train individuals to become the human capital required for economic production. Further, contemporary education must address the issue of school retention and quality by fostering student engagement and making classwork more relevant and interactive. The overarching question guiding the work shared in this paper is how might the development of an Innovative Learning Centre (ILC) in an Institute of Educational Development, or a Faculty of Education, help educators in challenging contexts improve pedagogy and encourage teachers and their students to escape from the “deadening tradition of rote learning” (p. 31). A related question is how might a change in pedagogy help educators imagine contextually and culturally relevant innovations that might improve classroom practice? This paper describes an ongoing, collaborative partnership among academics as they develop Innovative Learning Centres (ILC) in their two institutions. The author designed the initial ILC at the University of British Columbia and is currently working with her former doctoral student to develop an ILC in his institution within the Institute of Educational Development – East Africa, which is part of the Aga Khan University. Crichton (2012) explains the role of an ILC is to bring academics, educators, and industry together to imagine and create transformative pedagogical practices, using appropriate technologies in a design based, research informed, studio based learning environment. She suggests the ILC can be used to leapfrog existing paradigms constraining innovative practice. Leapfrogging, in the context of sustainable development, is a term used to describe the accelerated development of an intervention by “leaping over” conventional approaches and/or technologies and moving directly to a more appropriate, and often more advanced, one. An often‐cited example is found when regions skip over the installation of landline telephony and move directly to mobile phone connectivity, leapfrogging the lack of phone access by embracing the newer, more appropriate mobile phone solution. A pedagogical example of leapfrogging in challenging contexts would be the adoption of an inquiry approach to teaching and the authentic use of the environment as a teaching resource. Rather than spending time and money trying to catch up by equipping schools in configurations favouring a teacher‐centric delivery, the ILC suggests finding regional partners and developing resources, tools and strategies that address contextual issues with local solutions. This approach would help leapfrog traditional classroom practices, both the pedagogy and physical design of the actual learning environment, allowing educators to embrace the change suggested in the literature, including UNICEF’s Child‐Friendly School (CFS) standards (Irvine & Harvey, 2010). CFS is one example of an educational reform initiative developed for challenging contexts, and while there are many others, its standards provide a valuable framework for the development of an ILC in East Africa. The CFS standards were developed to offer specific ways to accomplish the inter‐related six Education For All dimensions expressed in the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2010):

Expanded early childhood care and development (ECCD) provisions;

Universal access to and completion of primary or basic education;

Improved levels of learning achievement;

Reduction of adult illiteracy;

Expanded basic education and training for youth and adults; and

Enhanced life‐skills for sustainable development through traditional and modern communication (p. 3).

Child‐Friendly Schools encourage a strong connection between schools and the communities they support by providing greater access to an inclusive learning environment. They provide a “child‐centred pedagogy fostering more independent thinking, entrepreneurial skills, and professionalism among teachers and attention to the all‐round development and welfare of individual children” (p. 4). The United Nations recognizes that achieving the CFS standards of practice will not be easy, and more tacit agreement in principle rather than meaningful actual practice will probably happen. However, universities

Susan Crichton must play a major role in championing these standards by acknowledging them in their curricula and developing innovative learning centres where faculty, students, and other participants could come and imagine, develop, test, and try new ideas, tools and approaches. Interestingly, the seven quality areas identified by the CFS initiative create a structure for thinking about ILC projects by questioning how educators might:

Create friendly, rewarding and supportive learning atmospheres in their schools

Support cooperation and active learning as an integral approach to teaching and learning activities

Ban physical punishment and violence and institute positive ways of interacting

Stop bullying, harassment and discrimination

Develop creative activities and imaginative learning opportunities

Connect school and home life by involving parents in school activities

Promote equal opportunities and participation in decision making for all members of the school community – school leaders, teachers, students and parents (p. 5).

Developing answers to these areas will take creative thinking and imagination. Educators know there is no shortage of policy documents, initiatives, and good idea about education reform; what is in short supply is innovative practice that is sustainable, scalable and relevant to educators in challenging contexts. The innovation behind the ILC rests in the collaborative partnership of academics, educators, and industry in a reciprocal and iterative approach to the design and development of educational tools, software and interventions. It moved policy into practice by situating the work within the post secondary institutions with Faculties of Education.

3. Thinking behind the ILC design In Fall 2011, the initial ILC, located at the University of British Columbia Okanagan campus (http://blogs.ubc.ca/centre/) was designed. The university granted it centre status so it would be eligible for external funding and a director could be appointed and an advisory committee formed. The model was built on the principles generally guiding the popularized notion of 21st century learning as well as Dewey’s original work describing experiential learning (Dewey, 1938). Dewey argues for “the importance of the social and interactive processes of learning,” noting the challenge is to create learning experiences that are “fruitful” organized in a progression that guide students’ learning. He states “Educators must think about the experiential continuum—[a] continuity of experiences” (p. 32). Dewey goes on to critique traditional school structures, suggesting they are “insular environments” that rarely interact with the world and therefore lack the potential for an understanding of the world and a context for richer learning opportunities, noting that everything must have a context in order to be an educational experience. Setting the stage for our contemporary thinking about authentic learning and active engagement, 75 years ago Dewey suggested students must feel a sense of purpose in their learning to avoid mental slavery, explaining there “no defect in traditional education greater than its failure to secure the active cooperation of the pupil in construction of the purposes involved in his studying” (p. 28). Dewey was particularly concerned with the role of the educator in providing the continuity of experiences required for a thoughtful education and felt the difficulty in doing so would rest with the educator’s ability to continually adapt subject matter to the growing sphere of individual experiences as students progress. Of course, this concern is addressed beautifully by Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of proximal development (1978). Contemporary writers such as Trilling and Fadel (2009) suggest learners need opportunities to learn in authentic and social settings; create mental models, work with their multiple intelligences, and develop internal motivation. They draw on brain research, suggesting it offers an important revolution in our understanding of how people learn” (p. 30). They describe authentic learning as the context or the condition in which students learn, noting “the people, objects, symbols, and environment, and how they all work together to support are much more influential than previously thought” (p. 31). They suggest students need “more real‐ world problem solving, internships or apprenticeships in real work settings, and other authentic learning experiences that make learning last and be useful” (p. 31).

Susan Crichton The creation of mental models allows learners to evolve their thinking over time. While initially a child might consider the boundaries of their world to be their own neighborhoods, in time, through the use of tools like Google Earth, maps on school walls, or globes, they can begin to understand their place in a larger global community. It is through the creation of these models that we use our learning to shift our thinking and expand our understanding through both virtual and physical representations. Using visualization software (i.e. Google Earth, Gephi ‐ https://gephi.org), emerging multimedia tools, and physical models made from found objects in the natural environment, we support the development of our multiple intelligences when we personalize representations of our individually constructed learning. Gardner’s work (1983), while continually mis‐referenced to suggest that we have one dominant intelligence, explains the need to hone our multiple and varied intelligences to support our diverse learning styles and learning activities. Use of Universal Design for Learning approaches to support students as they develop their own knowledge are added by the thoughtful and appropriate uses of technologies (Rose, Meyer, Strangman, & Rappolt, 2002). Trilling and Fadel (2009) note internal motivation is critical for active and engaged learning, suggesting it is fostered when people, “have an emotional connection to what is being learned – a personal experience or question” (p. 33). Increasingly we are seeing emotional connections being supported through online social interaction, but we need to remember that in‐class conversations, discussion groups with community experts and elders, promote active, engaged learning, both informally and formally. As stated earlier, the ILC is built on the principles of experiential learning and brain based research. The ILC is a studio based learning environment that encourages experimentation, engagement with materials and resources to make personal meaning. By including academics, educators, and industry into the learning space, the authentic, contextual learning that Dewey, Papert, Trilling and Fadel and others describe is possible. Those working in the ILC are encouraged to tinker and explore together and design new ways of knowledge building. John Seely Brown describes tinkering as constructing / playing / wrestling with objects by appropriating, transforming and personalizing them for one’s own learning and practice (Brown & Duguid, 2000). Inherent in the ILC design is a space to construct – build, collaborate, modify, and test ideas. It is designed to draw on the best of Papert’s notions of constructionism (Resnick, 2012). “In Papert’s view, children should be able to design, create, and express themselves with new technologies” (p. 42). Inexpensive alternatives to computers, such as Cambridge’s recent development ‐ Raspberry Pi (Mullins, 2012) allows children to do more ‘than just interacting with animations, games, and simulations, children should learn to program their own animations, games, and simulations— and, in the process, learn important problem‐solving skills and project‐design strategies” (Resnick, 2012, p. 42). The ILC also incorporate ideas from the Reggio Children’s Network that offer ways of thinking about oneself in terms of authentic questioning, documentation and exploration of the local environment. (Reggio Children, n.d.). The Reggio approach does use digital tools to support children’s work, but fundamentally it provides support for using one’s environment as an additional teacher and rich resource for teaching and learning.

4. One design – two contexts Imagining a studio based design space within a Faculty of Education is a lovely challenge. To get it right, one must consider the types of environments in which creativity and imagination might be fostered while considering the types of pedagogical approaches that might enable learners from various contexts and backgrounds to come together and collaborate. Since the very beginning of the design process for the ILC at UBC O, I have seen the space as a learning lab – a place for people from a variety of ages and stages and a range of professions, vocations, avocations and experiences to come together and form a knowledge building collective for innovative thinking. In conversations with my very supportive dean, Professor Lynn Bosetti, we agreed that in a time of substantial change, globalization, and ubiquitous access to information Faculties of Education needed to step up and lead pedagogy and the creation of learning environments. Our views parallel those of Thomas and Seely Brown (2011a,b), who call for a new culture of learning based on the following assumptions:

The world is changing faster than ever and our skill sets have a shorter life

Understanding play is critical to understanding learning

The world is getting more connected that ever before – can that be a resource?

In this connected world, mentorship takes on new importance and meaning

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Challenges we face are multi‐faceted requiring systems thinking and socio‐technical sensibilities

Skills are important but so are mind sets and dispositions

Innovation is more important than ever – but turns on our ability to cultivate imagination

A new culture of learning needs to leverage social and technical infrastructures in new ways

Play is the basis for cultivating imagination and innovation.

Play and tinkering are the core business of the Innovative Learning Centre. If academics, both faculty and graduate students; educators, both preservice and K‐20, working in both formal and informal settings; and industry are to thrive, they must be together. To quote Einstein, “We can’t solve problems using the same kind of thinking we used when we created them.” Using the Child‐Friendly School’s seven quality areas as a starting point for design thinking, those working in the ILC can begin to create tangible options to move beyond rote teaching and begin to support inspired and engaged thinking and learning. The ILC contains spaces to support the creative design cycle – imagining, creating, playing, sharing, and reflecting … an iterative, Möbius strip of design thinking (see Appendix 1). The ILC has both a physical and virtual space. The virtual space will continue to morph and grow, and currently exists as a blog (http://blogs.ubc.ca/centre/). Apart from the learning studio, there is a breakout room, accommodating eight people that can be used to host meetings and collaborative sessions with industry and education colleagues. Space is required for storage of IT equipment as the success of the ILC is its ability to be “off the grid” of the university’s network regulations and standardized software and hardware requirements. In December 2012, the design for a second ILC, situated in Aga Khan University ‐ Institute of Education Development (AKU,IED) in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, was proposed (see Appendix 2). This paper reports on the design and development of the two ILC spaces, focusing on the Tanzanian model and will share initial thoughts as to how the ILC might support academic, education, and industry partners leapfrogging current practices and develop learning innovations to encourage pedagogical change in challenging contexts. 4.1.1 Work space layout for learning studio While the learning studio incorporates spaces to support the design cycle (see Figure 1), it is recognized that users of this space will work where they feel most comfortable and the most appropriate tools are available. To paraphrase Sullivan’s notion form follows function, the design of the ILC suggests physical spaces invite creativity and imagination. Until people start working in the spaces, we will not know how fluid the design is and how effective the areas will be in fostering innovation. What is assumed is an entirely different pedagogical approach and design will be developed to attract people and encourage risk taking and creativity.

Figure 1: Creative design cycle ‐ ILC The area to encourage Imagination occupies about a quarter of the room. It is furnished with soft seating to support informal conversations. The furniture should be locally sourced, wooden sofas and tables than can be easily moved to accommodate different activities and groupings. Cushions should be comfortable and made

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Susan Crichton from local kitenge fabric to set a regional tone for the room. This area is designed for approximately eight people at a time. Writeable black walls surround it so people can use colored chalk to brainstorm and image their ideas. People can use their cell phone cameras to capture / document their ideas. The Collaboration area utilizes the majority of the Learning Studio. There are seven wooden tables that match the wood in the soft seating. Stools will be used to encourage people to get up and move around – the seating should not be too comfortable or too fixed. The tables can be pulled together for large collaborative activities or kept separate, seating groups of three people. Total seating in this area is 21. The white wall in this area serves as the projection screen. The bulk of the wall area surrounding this area will be painted black so people can write on it with coloured chalk. The area for Creating occupies one wall of the studio space. There will be four wall mounted computer stations (iMacs or large screen displays for Windows or Linux machines). The counter surface should be continuous so it is also a workspace. Wireless mice and keyboards are required. Tinkering / testing can be done on the iClass table (https://www.cushing.org/iclass). This interactive table runs on open source software and can be easily made with inexpensive components. It is a horizontal version of an interactive whiteboard. Four people can sit around the table to tinker and test their ideas and work. Of course, Play will take place throughout the room. It is assumed that people will move from location to location depending on the aspect of a task on which they are grappling. Obviously, faculty using this studio space will need to change their pedagogy to embrace the notion of knowledge building and creative design for learning. The room is design to accommodate forty people which is consistent with the stated class size of many K – 12 classrooms. While it is well known that many classrooms in challenging contexts may have upwards to 60 or 70 students, the ILC is designed to accommodate 40 people with the potential to have small stools and floor seating on mats to accommodate more. The learning studio is to be used to imagine innovations in pedagogy and model changed practice. It is designed with the belief that members of AKU, IED community can transfer best practices from the ILC into their work with teachers and educators in the field.

5. Next step – how will we know if the ILC design has made a difference? It is still early days for both the ILC designs. The ILC at UBC is underway. Five industry partners are currently working with academics and educators to design apps and web resources for Math, Physics, and holistic assessment. By the time of the ICEL conference in Cape Town in June, the ILC at UBC will have been in use for a full academic semester. Users of the UBC ILC will sign ethical consent forms so their activities, challenges and approaches can be studied. The basic design of the ILC has been discussed with innovative academics within East Africa, and a report on progress in its development will be shared at the conference. A grant supporting Citizen Science is being drafted, and both ILCs would be involved in the development and testing of kits for elementary schools in Tanzania. Research into the efficacy of the ILC design will follow an iterative design research approach. Ideas informing the ILCL design were gained from a review of the literature, visits to sites recognized for supporting innovation, creative and / or knowledge‐building, online collaboration with colleagues, and field notes. Argyris and Schön’s (1978) gap analysis approach was used to analyze the evidence and inform the design.

6. Conclusion – the start of the beginning This paper shares the thinking behind the ILC concept and the value placed on the cultivation of partnerships among institutions in order to build models of practice and create places for pedagogical exploration and educational change. The interactions and knowledge sharing among faculty at Aga Khan University, Institute of Educational Development and the University of British Columbia Okanagan has been essential, and it has been both collaborative and collegial. Faculty members have had much to share from their lived experiences, research, understanding context and sharing of networks. What brought the colleagues together four years ago was an understanding of the potential and promise of appropriate technologies to support learning; what keeps them together is a belief that “Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited to all we now know and

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Susan Crichton understand, while imagination embraces the entire world, and all there ever will be to know and understand” (Einstein, 1931). The Innovative Learning Centre is designed to foster change and leapfrog the existing practices found in so many schools. The one planned for East Africa will do the same, drawing heavily from UNESCO’s Child‐Friendly School initiative as well as other projects and ideas relevant to its context.

Appendix 1: ILC conceptual drawing for institute of educational development, EA – Aga Khan University

References Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1978) Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective, Addison Wesley, Reading, MA. Britzman, D. (1991). Practice makes practice: A critical study of learning to teach, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY. Brown, J. S. & Duguid, P. (2000). The social life of information, Harvard Business School Press, Cambridge MA. Crichton, S. (2012). The centre: a very innovative learning centre. Retrieved from http://blogs.ubc.ca/centre/ Crichton, S. & Onguko, B. (2013). Appropriate technologies for challenging contexts. In S. Marshall & W. Kinuthia (Eds.), Educational design and technology in the knowledge society, Information Age Publishing, Charlotte, NC. Daniel, J. (2010). Mega‐schools, technology, and teachers: Achieving education for all, Routledge, New York. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education, Kappa Delta Pi, New York. Einstein, A. (1931). Cosmic religion: With other opinions and aphorisms, Covici‐Freide, New York. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences, Basic Books, New York. Irvine, J. & Harvey, C. (September 2010). Final draft set of child friendly schools standards and indicators for teacher education: A synthesis and self‐evaluation tool. Prepared for the Commonwealth of Learning to support the UNICEF/COL Child Friendly Schools Project. Retrieved from http://www.col.org/progServ/programmes/education/teachEd/Pages/cfs.aspx

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Susan Crichton Mullins, R. (2012). Raspberry pi. Retrieved from http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/projects/raspberrypi/ Reggio Children. (n.d.). Reggio children research. Retrieved from http://www.reggiochildren.it/activities/ricerca/?lang=en Resnick, M. (2012). Reviving Papert’s dream. Educational Technology. 52:4, p. 42 – 46. Rose, D., Meyer, A., Strangman, N., & Rappolt, G. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age: Universal design for learning, ASCD Alexandria, VA. Thomas, D. & Brown, J.S. (2011a). A New culture of learning: Cultivating the imagination for a world of constant change, CreateSpace, Lexington, KY. Thomas, D. & Brown, J.S. (2011b) A new culture of learning: Cultivating the imagination for a world of constant change. Retrieved from http://www.newcultureoflearning.com/newcultureoflearning.html. Trilling, B. & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skills: Learning for life in our times, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., San Francisco, CA. United Nations. (2010). Millennium development goals. UN Web Services Section ‐ Department of Public Information. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/index.shtml Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

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Fifteen Years of Research on Computers and Education from South Africa Johannes Cronjé Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa Johannes.cronje@gmail.com Abstract: This article presents an overview of research into computers and education undertaken the University of Pretoria since 1995. It seeks to explore the patterns that have emerged and to indicate potential directions for future research. In response to a call for research in the field to be taken seriously the article identifies the main themes that have been researched over fifteen years, considers how it resonates with the research categories of Computers and Education and determines how the research fits into Burrell and Morgan’s (1979) sociological paradigms. The analysis shows that the main themes addressed are issues of teaching and learning, and learning environments. The research is focused mainly on the application of computers in education, and shows a bias towards functionalist research. Finally the paper recommends the development of a taxonomy of terms to be used in the classification of research on computers and education.

Keywords: country‐specific developments, media in education, lifelong learning

1. Introduction This article responds to Heller, Tsai and Underwood’s (2010) reflections on fifty volumes of Computers & Education and their vision for the way forward. The canon of reported research that forms the basis of this article consists of masters’ theses and half‐theses, as well as doctoral dissertations prepared under my supervision or co‐supervision from 1995 to 2010. The aim of the article is to explore the patterns that have emerged over the past fifteen years. This aim is in direct response to their statement that “(w)hile prototypes, case students and student surveys are useful to prepare the field for deep research, we must take research seriously...” (Heller, et al. 2010, p.1). This article is the first step in an attempt to take a serious look at the way in which the field has been researched by a particular longitudinal cohort of students. Three questions drive the study:

What themes have been addressed by the students over the past fifteen years?

How do these themes resonate with the research agenda of Computers & Education?

How can these themes be classified in terms of socially responsible research?

The rationale for this research is that it should contribute to our understanding of the research agenda of a select group of students in the context of an over‐arching design research project undertaken by students under one supervisor. The keywords and themes of the journal Computers and Education were selected since the journal is the most prominent that covers the exact field of the post graduate studies under discussion. The research that will be analysed in this article falls into what Tom Reeves calls the product of “isolated researchers, most often doctoral students and new faculty members, who conduct individual studies that are rarely linked to a robust research agenda” (Reeves 2001, p. 4). Traditionally in the South African university system a student is assigned a single supervisor or advisor, rather than an advisory committee as is done in the USA. Students are assigned to the supervisor by the head of the academic department. In the cases described here most students were recruited by the supervisor who then requested the departmental head to assign them, or the students requested the head to assign the particular supervisor. In a few instances I was asked to act as co‐supervisor to assist a new first‐time supervisor. This article thus is an ex post facto attempt at extracting a research agenda from the students under my supervision, to see what the implicit connecting threads may be, so that a more robust research agenda might be suggested.

2. Conceptual framework This research is inspired by Reeves’s (2001) explanation of socially responsible research, as well as Reeves, Herrington and Oliver’s (2005) description of design research. For research to be socially responsible it needs to be concerned with both a search for understanding, and with usefulness (Stokes 1997 – see Figure 2 ).

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Research inspired by a quest for fundamental understanding

Johannes Cronjé Research inspired by considerations of use

Bohr

Pasteur

Edison

Figure 1: Pasteur's quadrant – Stokes, 1997 One test for such relevance would be that the themes being researched resonate with others in the field. For this reason the first and second classifications in this article are based on the recommended keywords in the “Author Information Pack” of Computers and Education (2010) and the “Personal Classifications” required by the same journal. The rationale is to gauge the resonance between the research under discussion and the greater research agenda as described by the journal, and the third classification is based on a development of Roode’s (1993) process‐based research framework for information systems, which, in turn is an application of Burrell and Morgan’s Sociological Paradigms and organisational analysis (1979). For Reeves, Herrington and Oliver “...at some level, all instructional technology research can be said to focus on questions of how people learn and perform, especially with respect to how learning and performance are influenced, supported, or perhaps even caused by technology” (2005, p. 100‐101). They further identify the following six characteristics of design research:

A focus on broad‐based, complex problems critical to higher education,

The integration of known and hypothetical design principles with technological affordances to render plausible solutions to these complex problems,

Rigorous and reflective inquiry to test and refine innovative learning environments as well as to reveal new design principles,

Long‐term engagement involving continual refinement of protocols and questions,

Intensive collaboration among researchers and practitioners, and

A commitment to theory construction and explanation while solving real‐world problems.

(Reeves et al. 2005, p. 103) It can be argued that the 32 keywords suggested to authors in Computers and Education (2010) as well as the 63 categories and sub‐categories of the “Personal Classifications” (n.d.) can be loosely classified in terms of the questions and characteristics of Reeves et al. It is for this reason that the keywords and the classifications were selected as a code book to analyse the corpus of research reported on here. Reeves points out that “One of the primary problems many IT researchers, especially novices, have is distinguishing between research goals and research methods” (2001, p. 5). He then explains that “The research goals held by any given IT researcher are influenced by many factors including the epistemological views of the investigator, his/her research training, and the dominant research paradigms within his/her line of inquiry.” (2001, p. 5‐6). He then identifies six major types of research goals commonly pursued by instructional technology researchers [as] ... Theoretical goals, Empirical goals, Interpretivist goals, Postmodern goals, Development goals, and Action goals” (2001, p. 6‐7). In order to assist novice researchers with the alignment of goals and methods Dewald Roode (1993) suggests that “the student, should explicitly utilise the different paradigms and the accompanying assumptions to view the problem at hand deliberately from different perspectives. Only in this way can the uniqueness of each problem situation be appreciated holistically to arrive at appropriate ‘solutions’” (Roode 1993, online). This resonates with Reeves’ suggestion that “Rather

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Johannes Cronjé than sticking to one preferred method, development researchers select methods as tools to accomplish specific tasks, and they engage in continual refinement of research protocols. Development researchers are also committed to constructing design principles and producing explanations that can be widely shared. Instructional technologists engaged in development research are above all reflective and humble, cognizant that their designs and conclusions are tentative in even the best of situations” (Reeves 2001, p. 11). Roode (1993) proposes the use of Burrell and Morgan’s classification of social science research. They use an orthogonal plane (Figure 1) that ranges from subjective to objective on the horizontal axis, and from radical change to regulation on the vertical, thus producing four quadrants that they call Radical Humansit, Radical Structuralist, Interpretive and Functionalist. It could be argued that Reeves’ six categories can be mapped onto these four.

Subjective

Sociology of radical change Radical Humanist Radical Structuralist Interpretive Functionalist Sociology of regulation

Objective

Figure 2: Four paradigms for the analysis of social theory. Source: Burrell & Morgan (1979:22) The radical humanist paradigm considers the subjective experience of the individual in a radically changing world. This should map onto Reeves’s (2001) postmodern goals. His interpretive goals resonate with the similarly‐named paradigm of Burrell and Morgan which, although still subjective, is concerned with a more practical hands‐on approach to regulation. The functionalist paradigm, which resonates with Reeves’s (2001) developmental and action goals views the world as an objective reality and aims at arriving at practical solutions. The radical structuralist perspective takes an objective look at the interrelationships between elements and resonates with Reeves’s (2001) empirical and theoretical goals. Although Burrell and Morgan are criticized particularly by Deetz (1996) for their argument that the paradigms are mutually exclusive, it is this very exclusivity that makes it a useful model for the classification of the research products to be analyzed in this article.

3. Method This article is my own subjective reflection on research done under my supervision in a rapidly‐changing field. As such it falls into Burrell and Morgan’s (1979) radical humanist, or Reeves’s (2001) postmodern paradigms. The research aim was to explore rather than to describe. It is hoped that the topography that emerges may be useful for future researchers to develop an understanding of the emerging themes that are uncovered from this exploration. My role in this research is that of a reflective practitioner, reflecting upon the outcome of research supervision over a number of years. As such I am the principle source of bias, which I have to admit. Nevertheless, given that the goal is not to defend any position the outcome of the research does not affect me in any way and thus I am protected, in a sense, from discovering what I want to find, since I am simply looking for patterns and not for specific shapes or sizes. The research procedure was to do a search through the University’s digital library for all the half theses, theses and dissertations done under my supervision. Once that was done the keywords and the abstracts were copied into a spreadsheet to enable further classification. Three different methods were used to answer the three sub‐questions. To answer question one and identify the themes that have been addressed by the students over the past fifteen years the keywords supplied by the students in their theses and dissertations were sorted alphabetically and mapped onto the 32 keywords of Computers and Education. Three problems occurred here. Firstly, not all the students actually assigned keywords to their studies. Secondly they did not assign the same number of keywords each. Thirdly, the students could use any keywords they liked, which meant that the keywords did not necessarily line up with those of the journal. The unequal distribution of keywords (some students assigned three, others as many as seven) means that the picture that emerges is of the themes rather than of the actual studies. A more accurate formulation of the question might be “Which keywords from Computers and Education resonate with keywords that were generated by the students?” To address the third problem I had to decide between two options – developing my own codebook, or sticking to the Computers and Education codebook and grouping the keywords where they seemed to fit best. I took the second option, as it allowed me not only to consider the first research question, but also to take an initial stab at the second.

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Johannes Cronjé The matter was further complicated by relatively neutral words such as “Internet”, “computer” or “technology”. These words I put under the Computers and Education keyword of “Media in education”. Likewise “computer‐based education” “educational technology” and “interaction” went under “Interactive learning environments”. In cases where I was unsure of where best to put a certain word I double‐checked against the abstract. Nevertheless I have to admit that the mapping is dependent upon my subjective interpretation of the relevant words. To answer the second question ‐ how do these themes resonate with the research agenda of Computers and Education? ‐ I considered the abstracts of all the studies, and reflected from my own memory of how those studies played out. Then I asked myself “If I were to submit this research to Computers and Education and if I were allowed to select one category only, which would it be? Sometimes the decision was quite difficult, as in the case of a student whose M.Ed. thesis was about the integration of computers at a certain high school. One might say that it could be classified under either “Implementation experiences” or “Secondary schools”. Here the abstract, as well as my own knowledge of the thesis led to the decision that the thesis was about implementation first – in fact it develops an implementation model – and on schools second. It was therefore classified under the former. On the other hand, the same student’s doctoral thesis on how learners in secondary schools deal with digital information was conducted at the same school, but this time was specifically concerned with the learners in the context of a high school, and thus was classified under “Secondary schools”, although it may also have fitted quite well under “Human factors”. It was classified under schools, however, since “Human factors” could be interpreted to deal more with aspects such as conation, motivation, intelligence, etc. Nevertheless one has to admit that in some of the borderline cases another researcher may well have classified some theses differently, which is why this article is labelled, from the outset, as subjective and abstract and therefore exploratory rather than definitive. To answer the third question – ‘how can these themes be classified in terms of socially responsible research?’ the abstracts, introductions and research methods chapters of the various theses and dissertations were scrutinized in an attempt to classify them into Burrell and Morgan’s four quadrants. The authors’ self‐ positioning in terms of subjective‐objective dimension, as well as their concerns with the regulatory nature of society or it tendency towards radical change, were considered as well as their stated objectives. The aim of the analysis was to determine if they wished to explore (radical humanist), explain (interpretive), develop (functionalist) or describe (radical structuralist) their chosen research situation. To do this the investigation considered various synonyms to these verbs, or for sentences that could be paraphrased to that effect.

4. Discussion 4.1 What themes have been addressed by the students over the past fifteen years? The synthesis of the student keywords into the keywords of Computers and Education is shown in Figure 3 The figure shows that themes such as gender, intelligent tutoring systems, interdisciplinary projects, and navigation were not covered. Only one study covered any form of interdisciplinary work, and that was one that investigated a “theme day” at a high school where teachers from all disciplines worked together on creating a technology‐enhanced learning experience across subject borders. Nevertheless the study concentrated more on the integration of the technology than on the integration across disciplines. Not surprisingly pedagogical issues took centre stage, with 103 synonyms, followed by improving classroom teaching with 42. From there onward there seems to be no clear distinctions between groups, and it was necessary to group the keywords further. Thus the keywords of Computers and Education were grouped into eight classes, as shown in Table 1. The keywords pedagogical issues, improving classroom teaching, teaching/learning strategies and cooperative/collaborative learning were grouped together under “Teaching and learning”. Similarly distance education and telelearning, learning communities, computer‐mediated communication and distributed learning environments were collapsed into “Learning environments”, etc. To answer the question then, the keywords that were gathered together from those theses that had keywords could be grouped into eight themes, as shown in Figure 4. The themes addressed by the students were, in

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Johannes Cronjé order of frequency, teaching and learning, learning environments, applications, systems, evaluation, educational levels, culture, and access and usability.

Figure 3: Keyword frequencies Table 1: Keywords from computers and education Keywords Computers & Education pedagogical issues improving classroom teaching teaching/learning strategies cooperative/collaborative learning elementary education secondary education lifelong learning adult learning postsecondary education distance education and telelearning learning communities

Total 103 42 21 18 3 13 3 7 11 36 34

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Category Teaching and learning Educational levels Learning environments

Total 184 37 88

Johannes Cronjé Keywords Computers & Education computer‐mediated communication distributed learning environments media in education applications in subject areas programming and programming languages evaluation of CAL systems evaluation methodologies interactive learning environments architectures for educational technology system multimedia/hypermedia systems virtual reality. simulations authoring tools and methods cross‐cultural projects country‐specific developments human‐computer interface public spaces and computing navigation interdisciplinary projects intelligent tutoring systems gender studies

Total 7 11 37 28 7 10 31 23 15 18 2 1 2 12 12 10 5 0 0 0 0 522

Category Applications Evaluation Systems

Total 72 41 61

Culture Use

24 15 522

Figure 4: Themes These results are what can be expected of a university of education where computers in education resorts under the department of “teaching and learning studies” (previously known as the department of Didactics, and also as the department of curriculum studies). The department’s strong focus on classroom practice would lead to the consideration of learning environments and the application of computers in various learning scenarios. A number of students who had studied computer science or information systems at undergraduate

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Johannes Cronjé level, or who were computer science teachers, accounted for applications and systems. “Systems” and “Environments” were distinguished from each other in that the former related to primarily technological elements, while the latter was used to classify the human elements of learning environments.

4.2 How do these themes resonate with the research agenda of Computers and Education? The research agenda of Computers and Education was inferred from the Personal Classifications (n.d.) as specified by the journal on its website. These classifications consist of 12 sections with differing numbers of sub‐sections (shown here in brackets) The sections are Applications (8), Design and environments (5), Discipline areas (3) , Education (4), Evaluation and measurement (1), Experimentation (0), Infrastructure, management, technology and techniques (7), Languages (2), Legal, economic and ethical aspects (6), Pedagogy (7), Security (1) and Teaching and Learning (7). To answer the question the titles and abstracts of all the theses and dissertations were scrutinized to select one category that was considered most appropriate. The results are tabulated in Table 2 . Table 2: Personal categories Applications Interactive learning environments Multimedia/hypermedia applications Research perspectives WWW‐based course sites & learning resources Design and environments Design principles Human factors Usability / user studies Education Primary Secondary Tertiary Infrastructure, management, technology and techniques Design of distance learning systems Multimedia/hypermedia systems WWW‐based course‐support systems Pedagogy Constructivism Cooperative/collaborative learning Implementation experiences m‐learning Teaching and learning Communities Improving classroom teaching Instructor training and support New roles for teachers/learners Strategies Total

26 7 1 2 16 18 4 13 1 6 1 3 2 7 1 1 5 20 3 2 13 2 14 2 3 1 3 5 91

In Table 2 the sections and sub‐sections that were not selected, have been removed. Unused sections include Discipline areas, Evaluation and measurement, Experimentation; and Legal, economic and ethical issues. This, of course, does not mean that these issues were not covered in the research, they simply did not form the single most important main thrust of any thesis or dissertation. Figure 5 shows the main categories that were represented, and the number of theses or dissertations that fell in those categories. The categories have been roughly grouped into those that are more educational by nature and those that are more technological by nature.

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Figure 5: Personal categories From Figure 5 it can be seen that 40 theses fall in the primarily educational category, while 51 fall into the primarily technological category. It should be noted though, that those that are in the technological category still have an educational focus. Most of these theses are about developing, implementing or evaluating the educational aspects of some technology. Of importance here, for instance, is that the largest category is that of Applications (26) confirming that, even the research about technology is still focused on educational aspects. A possible reason for the emphasis on application may lie in the nature of South Africa as an emerging country where researchers focus on technology for development. Given that technology is expensive there is strong motivation to do it properly, which is the reason for an emphasis on socially responsible research.

4.3 How can these themes be classified in terms of socially responsible research? Socially responsible research (Reeves, et al 2005), that falls into Pasteur’s quadrant (Stokes 1997), is focused both on considerations of fundamental understanding and on considerations of use. The theses and dissertations under discussion here all fall in Pasteur’s quadrant, since it was part of the initial intent of the Masters ‘ and Doctoral programmes that the research should be both academically grounded and useful. Within the quadrant, however, there was a degree of variation in terms of the specific aims of the research. An analysis of the titles and abstracts of the various theses and dissertations, together with personal reflection on the individual studies as well as their authors resulted in the classification shown in Figure 6. The figure shows the classification in terms of Burrell and Morgan’s four quadrants of research in the social sciences.

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Figure 6: Classification according to Burrell & Morgan's paradigms Again unsurprisingly, Figure 6 shows that the majority of studies fall into the functionalist quadrant. This resonates with the rationale of the course to look for solutions. The second highest representation is in the Radical Humanist quadrant. There may be two reasons for this. Firstly, since the field of computers and education is relatively new, and very new in South Africa, the number of exploratory studies can be expected to be high. This should also be seen in conjunction with the appointment of a new dean of the faculty in 2001. This new dean was a strong proponent of the radical humanist agenda, and as a charismatic leader was able to sell it to both staff and students alike. In contrast the radical structuralist quadrant is considerably under represented. This had been the domain of the previous dean, and his views were not shared by the supervisor or the students, thus it was almost in rebellion that the paradigm was shunned. The new dean’s dislike of the paradigm, of course, was a strong contributing factor too. The high representation in the interpretivist paradigm can be explained by the fact that many students initially started working in the functionalist paradigm, and then realized that it was necessary to understand before they could solve. They then changed the aim of the study accordingly, and instead of actually developing solutions, simply considered the elements to consider in the development of future solutions. The strong representation in the interpretivist quadrant lies therein that students were encouraged to understand problems rather than to try and solve them. Many proposals were for functionalist studies, but, through negotiation between student and supervisor the research problem and research questions were adjusted towards the interpretive rather than the functionalist paradigm. Of the 31 functionalist studies 10 were at the doctoral level, while the other 21 were Masters’ studies. Doctoral supervision in South Africa is a very intimate process and the supervisor and candidate get to know each other very well. Upon reflection it would seem to me, as supervisor, that the selection of the functionalist paradigm by those doctoral students had much to do with their own “can do” attitude to their studies, and to life generally. It may well be the material for an interesting study to compare the personality type, or learning styles of doctoral candidates and their choice of research paradigm. The larger number of masters’ studies that chose this paradigm can be accounted for firstly by the fact that there were simply more masters studies in the sample but also because the philosophy of the masters’ and doctoral course is that the solving of problems is more akin to the masters level, while doctoral studies should rather try to explore, explain or predict. The short answer to the last question then, is that the studies are fairly evenly distributed across three of the four paradigms of Burrell and Morgan, while the radical structuralist paradigm is under‐represented, since it is more likely to yield the kind of “abstract” results, which is often regarded as less “useful”.

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5. Conclusions and recommendations 5.1 Methodological reflection This study is primarily the result of the personal reflection of one person on a canon of 91 theses and dissertations presented at one university. As such it is influenced by the biases of the person doing the reflecting. This is of specific relevance in the matching of the keywords that the students generated from an almost infinite list with the finite set provided by Computers and Education. The main threat in the study is to reliability, in that another person, with another mindset, may well come up with another classification. Nevertheless the appendices are presented for control purposes. The article is an exploration of the themes under investigation, rather than a statistical analysis of the theses themselves. The number of times a theme is addressed gives an indication of the popularity of the theme, rather than of its relative importance. Moreover some studies had more keywords than others thus the keyword totals tell us more about the themes than about the theses.

5.2 Reflection on the findings These findings indicate that the theses and dissertations investigated in this article are strongly biased towards the themes of education and pedagogy, which is in keeping with the generally held view that teaching with technology should be about teaching, rather than about technology. The research agenda of Computers and Education is strongly supported in that 51 studies were about computers, and 40 about education. This statement has to be qualified though by emphasising that those studies that were about computers, focused on the educational use and value of computers. The emphasis of socially responsible research has led to an underrepresentation of radical structuralist research and a heavy focus on functionalist research. In conclusion the following trend emerges. Masters’ and doctoral students in this programme have tended first to investigate the educational application of new technologies as they emerged, then have tried to improve their educational effectiveness, and sometimes to add value by the development of software or courseware, in a few instances the research has reached the level of evaluating existing implementations and their success.

5.3 Recommendations for improved policy and practice A weakness of this research lies in the vague nature of the keywords that were assigned by the authors to their research projects. This is exacerbated by the equally vague nature of the proposed keywords of Computers and Education. In further research it may be wise to combine some of the keywords from Computers and Education under a somewhat broader term to allow a smaller variety with possibly larger differences.

5.4 Recommendation for further research For further research it would be useful to develop a taxonomy of terms for computers and education and to standardise such terms. Research leaders could then encourage their cohorts to stick to this taxonomy, and in this way a very clear picture of the key issues and trends in the field would emerge to satisfy Heller et al.’s exhortation that we should “work to define our terms, our methodologies and critique our findings carefully” (Heller et al., 2010, p.2). Once such a standard exists it would also be useful to investigate the relationship between research leaders’ personal characteristics, such as learning style, motivation and even philosophical stance, or other demographic variables, and the profile of research done under their supervision. On a micro level one could also research the relationship between individual characteristics and the nature of the study produced by such a student. Much is done at school and undergraduate level about considering individual variables such as learning style and motivation on student success, but more could be done at the graduate level.

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Johannes Cronjé Finally, of course the findings of this research can assist supervisors to guide their students into research directions where more research is needed, or to steer them away from over‐researched areas.

References Burrell, G. and Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological Paradigms and organisational analysis. London: Heinemann. Computers and Education. (2010). Author Information Pack – 20 Dec., [online], www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu. Computers and Education. (n.d.). Personal Classifications, [online], http://ees.elsevier.com/cae/SelectPersonalClassifications.aspx (Login required). Deetz, S. (1996). Describing differences in approaches to organization science: Rethinking Burrell and Morgan and their legacy. Organization Science, 7 (2): 191‐207 Heller, S., Tsai, C and Underwood, J. (2010) Computers and Education: Looking back and looking forward. Computers and Education 54 (p. 1 – 3). Reeves, T.C. (2001). Enhancing the Worth of Instructional Technology Research through “Design Experiments” and Other Development Research Strategies, [online], http://it.coe.uga.edu/~treeves/AERA2000Reeves.pdf Reeves, T.C. Herrington, J, and Oliver, R. (2005). Design Research: A Socially Responsible Approach to Instructional Technology Research in Higher Education. Journal of Computing in Higher Education., 16(2), 97‐116. Roode, J.D. (1993). Implications for teaching of a process‐based research framework for information systems. In Smith, L. (Ed.) Proceedings of the International Academy for Information Management Conference. Orlando, Florida. Stokes, D. E. (1997). Pasteur’s quadrant: Basic science and technological innovation. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

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Cultivating Learning Design Thinking With e‐Portfolios in a Masters Course Andrew Deacon and Cheryl Hodgkinson‐Williams Centre for Educational Technology, University of Cape Town, South Africa andrew.deacon@uct.ac.za cheryl.hodgkinson‐williams@uct.ac.za Abstract: There is strong interest for qualifications in educational technology, a field that investigates how new technologies can be effectively matched to addressing learning needs within educational contexts. Students registering for the University of Cape Town Masters’ level course on ‘Online Learning Design’ come from diverse backgrounds and are employed in schools, universities and in business. Typically their roles in designing educational technology interventions represent a significant yet comparatively small part of their jobs. Over the last four years we have developed and adopted this course to the needs of people who, for the most part, are keen to apply learning design skills in their work contexts. The course thus aims to develop learning design thinking and provide practice with a broad range of pedagogic strategies, theories and technology tools. In keeping with design thinking, we used electronic portfolio assessment rather than formal essays, the conventional form of assessment in Masters’ level courses. We draw upon the principles of design‐based research (The Design‐Based Research Collective, 2003) and Engeström’s Activity Theory (2001) in describing the evolving learning context and our design choices. Using data from the 58 students who have attended the course over the past 4 years, we focus on key tensions that have emerged in the use of electronic portfolios to capture the students’ learning design thinking as they develop online learning activities and we endeavour to provide feedback on complex design issues. We distinguish between four student groups, which are permutations of students with and without formal educational and technology backgrounds. Students most closely associated with each of these groups tend to respond differently to the curriculum and learning activities. These varying responses have been instructive in identifying aspects of the course requiring redesign and developing a theoretical account of how students best develop ‘learning design thinking’. Keywords: learning design, design thinking, electronic portfolios

1. Introduction The University of Cape Town has been offering a Masters level programme in educational technology since 2009. Here we focus specifically on the ‘Online Learning Design’ course within this programme which aims to develop professional skills and connections with theory to support the diversity in students’ backgrounds and their intended career trajectories. Drawing on student reflections in their e‐portfolios (electronic portfolios) and curriculum documents, we relate these to course design choices and highlight apparent contradictions with which we have grappled in the process of developing and redesigning the course over the last four years. Our aim in offering the course is in essence to cultivate learning design thinking among the graduates. Learning design best practice emphasises the necessity of analysing learners’ needs within the learning context. As this is what we teach, we need to be applying this to our own practice. Students registering for the course are working in schools, universities, non‐governmental organisations (NGOs) or for commercial companies. The diversity in academic background, career trajectories and experience with educational technology presented us with a number of challenges each year. Typically their role in designing educational technology interventions represents a significant yet small part of their wider responsibilities. They display a range of prior knowledge about educational matters including curriculum development, pedagogical and assessment strategies. Likewise they exhibit a wide range of skills in using various technologies. To best develop their skills we required them to develop a context‐specific online learning activity using which ever technology or group of technologies most appropriate to this context. We deliberately selected an e‐portfolio as a means of assessment to accommodate different prior experience and workplace interests. To be flexible for people working full time, the course is offered in a blended mode with online pre‐course tasks, a six‐day intensive face‐to‐face session and then approximately five weeks of online post‐course activities, which includes the development of a small‐scale online learning activity and an e‐ portfolio which explains the design decisions made in this online activity.

2. Learning design thinking The term ‘design thinking’ is traditionally associated with the arts and engineering education (Huei, 2012). More recently this has applied in the educational field (Razzouk & Shute 2012) and specifically in the online

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Andrew Deacon and Cheryl Hodgkinson‐Williams learning design discourse as evidenced by blog posts and conference themes. In reviewing the educational literature, Razzouk and Shute (2012:330) found design thinking to be “generally defined as an analytic and creative process that engages a person in opportunities to experiment, create and prototype models, gather feedback, and redesign”. Looking more narrowly at the skills needed by educators and more specifically learning designers, Jonassen highlights the necessity of “problem‐solving” in the design of education and extends this notion as a “complex problem‐solving task … because in most situations no clear, predetermined solution or goal and direct solution path exists, and information from multiple sources must be integrated” (Jonassen 2000 cited in Dabbagh & Bannan‐Ritland, 2005:110). For the purposes of our course, we define ‘learning design thinking’ as a complex, iterative process of problem‐defining and problem‐solving of ill‐ defined learning needs that requires a creative and analytic approach through iterative prototyping based on formative feedback. To deepen understand the nature of design thinking, Razzouk and Shute adapted a broader conceptual map conceived by Owen (2007) that contrasts content and processes of thinking in various fields (see Figure 1). The horizontal Analytic‐Synthetic axis: “classifies the fields by process (i.e. the way they work). Fields on the left side of the axis are more concerned with finding or discovering; fields on the right are concerned with making and inventing” (Razzouk and Shute 2012:333). The vertical Symbolic‐Real axis divides the upper part of the map into fields concerned with the “abstract, symbolic world” (ibid.) while the lower part of the map represents fields that are concerned with the “real world and the artifacts and systems necessary for managing the physical environment” (Owen 2007:18).

Figure 1: Conceptual map of the type of content and the type of thinking processes, adapted from (Razzouk and Shute 2012:334) This conceptual map locates the synthetic‐real “design‐type” thinking that the course hopes to cultivate in the quadrant in the lower right corner. This potentially is a way of mapping the types of prior content and thinking processes that students bring to a course and what design thinking process will need to be developed.

2.1 Online learning design course The core aims of the course are similar to those in instructional design and learning design courses offered elsewhere (e.g., Dabbagh and Bannan‐Ritland’s 2005). We drew on the Dabbagh and Bannan‐Ritland’s (2005) textbook to provide the learning design framework that introduces students to design processes. This framework provides a common reference point and in essence is a variant of the older and widely adapted Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (ADDIE) framework (Gustafsen & Branch, 2007). The design cycle Dabbagh and Bannan‐Ritland (2005) adopt iterates over three phases, exploration, enactment and evaluation towards developing a cohesive learning design solution. A feature of Dabbagh and Bannan‐Ritland’s framework is the placing of the learning designer at the centre of the design cycle. The motivation being that the learning designer is responsible for making sense of every phase in the design cycle, which is appropriate for small scale online learning design projects. The same framework, with exploration, enactment and evaluation, is also used as a loose structure for the course (Horwitz & Hodgkinson 2010).

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Andrew Deacon and Cheryl Hodgkinson‐Williams The course assessment requires the development of a small scale online learning activity and an e‐portfolio describing the design that must additionally reflect on the design process (Horwitz & Hodgkinson‐Williams 2010). Portfolios, paper‐based or digital, are widely used in education programmes as they can provide opportunities for self‐assessment, reflection and skills development (Abrami & Barrett 2005). Key assumptions underlying all these uses of portfolios is the value of making tacit knowledge explicit, irrespective of whether this knowledge was gained in formal educational settings or informal environments. Peet et al. explain that tacit knowledge is “the unconscious knowledge, skills and capacities embedded within a particular context or relationship” and suggest that this knowledge can be made explicit through “meta‐reflection (the ability to think about the process of learning) through dialogue with others” (2011:15‐16). We argue that the use of an e‐portfolio assists students to make their learning design thinking explicit as a mechanism for integrating and reflecting upon their prior knowledge about designing learning activities and the best practice recommended in the educational technology literature with which they engage in the course.

2.2 Unit of analysis Activity theory (Engeström 2001), as a conceptual framework, is well suited to investigating the interactions of students and lecturers in the context we describe. Activity theory helps identify the unit of analysis, referred to as an activity system. In our case this involves students (i.e. subjects), who used conceptual, dialogue and software tools (i.e. mediating artefacts) to reflect on the design of an online learning activity in an e‐portfolio (i.e. object). Cultivating learning design thinking among graduates is then an intended outcome from this activity (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Activity system for the e‐portfolio task in the online learning design course The analysis aims to highlight the key tensions that have emerged in the use of e‐portfolios (i.e., object) to capture the students’ learning design thinking as communicated through developing the learning activity and e‐portfolio (i.e., outcome). Using this activity system we look specifically at how collectively students with different prior knowledge and skills have developed and reflected in their e‐portfolios. Our intention here is to improve our developing theoretical account of how the students develop ‘learning design thinking’ and practically to identify the contradictions in order to redesign the future course.

3. Methodology We adopt a qualitative case study (Stake 2005) of the 58 students who completed the Online Learning Design course of the Masters in Education (MEd) Information Communication Technology (ICT) between 2009 and 2012. Four of these repeated the course. Of the 58 individual students there was a roughly even gender split with 27 female and 31 male students. Their ages range from 25 to 62 with the majority in their late thirties, representing a mid‐career stage. This course offers a Mellon Foundation scholarship to students working in higher education institutions in Africa. There were 33 students from other African countries, 22 from South Africa and the remaining three were working in African countries but from Europe and North America. Prior qualifications ranged from admission through a Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) to students with Doctoral‐level qualifications in other disciplines. Online design skills ranged from students who had no prior experience of educational technology to those employed to develop online learning activities. More than half of the students (36) were from higher education institutions, with 9 working in the schooling sector, 7 in the corporate sector, 5 in the non‐governmental sector and 1 in a government education department.

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Figure 3: Classification map distinguishing four quadrants of prior experience For our analysis we identified two characteristics of our students’ background that likely impact their engagement on the course. The first is prior academic qualification in education, specifically related to learning. The second is experience using educational technology, specifically related to designing online learning activities. These capture some of the considerations when admitting students, however they are not the formal basis for admission. Using these two axes as in Figure 1, we created the classification map in Figure 3. We allocated each of the 58 students to a quadrant based on what they knew about designing learning activities (what we refer to as ‘learning thinking’) and the use of educational technology when they first started the course. There were roughly even numbers in each quadrant, with slightly more in quadrant A than in the remainder. The allocation is not necessary fixed as some students were not easily characterised. Our interest was to ascertain students’ knowledge and experience of learning design and educational technology to better support each group attain the course outcomes. Our classification map for incoming students is linked to that used by Razzouk and Shute (2012:333) to characterise people who have developed design thinking. Razzouk and Shute (2012) developed their conceptual map from an observation that people doing creative tasks tend to work two different ways; either as ‘finders’ or as ‘makers’. This would be difficult to infer without access to design documents such as an e‐ portfolio. Thus we have started by characterising our understanding of incoming students’ prior knowledge and skills to consider how they may develop design thinking. Our classification map is intended to initiate our analysis and contrast groups of students. Specifically it captures some of the expectations both we and the students had about developing learning design thinking.

4. Interpretation We created four composite characters loosely based on students on the course with the four permutations of these classification categories (Students A, B, C & D). While some details are changed to ensure anonymity, the actual quotations are extracted from student e‐portfolios and reflect their experiences on the course. As an additional measure of the extent to which learning design thinking has been demonstrated, we will use the final course score. The course score captures how well each section in the e‐portfolio addressed the learning design has been presented. The narrative below draws on reflections by the four composite students on their process of developing an online learning activity and documenting the process in an e‐portfolio. This serves to surface and sometimes challenge our assumptions about how students develop learning design thinking as seen in their e‐portfolios. We begin with Dina’s reflections as when the programme was first conceived, people similar to Dina were considered the ideal students. We anticipated they would find it easy to build on their foundational educational knowledge and practical exposure and raise their theoretical knowledge and practical skills in relation to new thinking in educational technology.

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4.1 Student profile D: Dina’s reflections Dina is the director of a Malawian university’s educational technology unit. She has academic qualifications in sociology and has done a short course in educational technology at an Australian university. For a number of years she has overseen and promoted the development of various educational technology projects, focused around supporting the Moodle learning management system. As director, Dina has had few opportunities to engage with learning design issues directly, this work being done by others in her unit. Dina, in contrast to our initial assumptions, struggled to engage deeply with the learning design course material despite her apparent familiarity with the concepts. Dina’s reflection in the first e‐portfolio identifies a key tension: “The development of a portfolio also requires one to keep reflecting on what was actually done. This again was not possible to achieve to my satisfaction. This gap became apparent when I was looking at the teaching strategy.” She identifies a contradiction that she only recognised towards the end while writing up the section on pedagogic strategies. Afterwards we could see that the learning design presented in the e‐portfolio had no real coherence, with descriptions of the learning problem, theory of learning and teaching strategies not making reference to each other or the learning problem she had identified. To her dismay, Dina final mark of 55% for this module was much lower than what she achieved on other modules requiring an essay. To continue in the Masters’ programme she had first to repeat the Online Learning Design module and achieve a minimum of 60% to continue into the minor dissertation component. Dina returned the following year with greater purpose. Her new e‐portfolio introduction was much more detailed and thoughtful, indicative of a deeper conception of the process of design and the value of evidence to substantiate development: “An E‐Portfolio is regarded as highly effective learning tool ... This is achieved through personal reflection so as to create an archive of the stages I have gone through in the development of the learning activity I designed.” Here Dina displays more synthetic thinking and acknowledges the complexity of teacher beliefs as she endeavours to find synergies between the literature and her practical engagement with the teacher for whom she is developing an online learning activity: “The literature on the pedagogical models ... is quite diverse. In reality this is embedded in a lecturer’s belief on what works. The lecturer adjusts according to the students’ ability, interest, time, need and the extent to which he/she intends to delve in the subject matter and may not necessary follow any systematic pattern. My interview with the lecturer gave me this insight.” Dina reflects more critically on the learning design literature, contrasting abstract models with the ‘real’ situation encountered for which there was no ‘predetermined solution’. She further reflects on the realisation of the iterative nature of learning design had implications for what is developed: “Reading the definition of Instructional Design ... and looking at the readings which were given in this module, instructional design is made to appear to be linear and sequential. This is rather difficult for me to follow because in my intervention, there was a need but this need could have been addressed differently depending on the urgency of the situation …” Dina did much better in her repeat year and successfully completed the Masters’ minor dissertation afterwards.

4.2 Student profile C: Chris’ reflections Chris works in Johannesburg for a Non‐Governmental Organisation (NGO) that develops educational materials and curricula for poorly resourced schools. More recently a computer lab was established and the NGO begun to focus on integrating their various activities with the school curriculum. This role sparked Chris’ interest in curriculum and pedagogic issues. While Chris had no prior post graduate qualifications in education, he had many years of experience in a teaching support role and experience with educational technology. He required an RPL admission to the programme and was admitted.

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Andrew Deacon and Cheryl Hodgkinson‐Williams Chris reflected on how he drew on his existing curriculum design skills to inform the development of his online learning activity: “I do feel that much of what I was doing in designing the activities and their sequence, was grounded in what I do as a teacher, rather than what I have learnt in the course about technology so far”. His expectation was that online learning design would privilege technological considerations. The course, in fact, endeavoured to do the opposite and privilege pedagogical design decisions. Chris spent considerable time reading the literature provides, as this was unfamiliar. Although Chris seemingly undervalued his prior curriculum design thinking, he astutely acknowledged that this might “not be a problem” noting that: “What it means is that my starting point was usually not the technology (what can I do with this?) or the web‐based resources (What activities can I design around this?) but rather adapting what I have already used in my teaching.” Chris implied that more knowledge and experience might help him design more creative online learning activities indicating a desire to move from an ‘analytic’ way of dealing with content to a more ‘synthetic’ and integrative way of engaging with activities. “I suspect that if and when I develop more online activities, this might shift. Hopefully this will mean activities that are more creative than I have at present. But in this online activity it was definitely a case of using the known to venture into the unknown.” Chris’ e‐portfolio was praised by the lecturers and external examiner. He had created a complex online activity overcoming limitations of the available technology tools to support the pedagogical strategy he imagined. This had involved considerable work and becoming familiar with new concepts such as learning theories and design models. Chris’ success on the course justified his RPL admission.

4.3 Student profile B: Bem’s reflections Bem is a lecturer in the Education Faculty of a Nigerian university. He qualified as a school teacher and has since completed a Masters degree in Media Studies. He now is responsible for a language and communication course. While familiar with the educational literature, he had almost no prior experience using educational technology. In contrast to Chris, Bem had more formal qualifications in education. Bem was accustomed to the academic genre and engaged with the readings well, but was overwhelmed by the sheer range of technologies. He eventually adopted a single online learning strategy involving WebQuests, which matched his own skills while addressing many of his students’ needs. This narrow pragmatic focus though made it difficult for Bem to articulate his almost implicit pedagogical assumptions: “I also faced moments of being lost and confused. Sometimes I got confused and wondered whether I was really on the right track especially when it can to certain sections of the e‐portfolio and the prototype WebQuest intervention. “ He was initially unsure about articulating his design choices that needed to be explained and justified: “However, I must confess the lecturers provided enough feedback about the e‐portfolio and WebQuest prototype that enabled me gain confidence and get back on track.” His lack of technological skill seemed to make him nervous and so he reached out to his classmates to seek advice and reassurance; a strategy we had explicitly encouraged: “My classmates also sent me e‐mails, text messages and phone calls to clarify issues that were not clear. And also, I looked at other peoples' e‐portfolios and interventions and this guided me on how I could go on with mine.” As each student’s online learning activity was context specific and employed varying technologies, we encouraged students to share their developing e‐portfolios as a way of exploring different online learning designs and ways of justifying the associated design choices. Bem graduated and afterwards registered for a PhD.

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4.4 Student profile A: Alice’s reflections Alice is a Kenyan national working in South Africa. After completing an economics degree she joined a financial services company in Cape Town. One of her multiple roles is to support staff in her division to qualify with financial services board exams. Alice, while academically strong and working in a competitive work environment, has had no prior academic qualifications in education, nor any experience in using educational technology. Her work does not involve using online learning strategies and she is undertaking this course on her own initiative to address the growing needs she perceives both within her company and in society. Alice draws on her newly acquired theoretical insights to explain her design ideas: “This intervention leans heavily on the concept of the community of practice (CoP), as communities are often developed around things that matter to people (Peltonen & Tuija, 2004). … My thinking has also been greatly influenced by the Vygotskian idea that the human mind is not merely a product of biological evolution but instead a product of our active interactions and social history (Kozulin, 2001).” Alice identified the value of being able to understand how the various learning theories, pedagogical strategies and learning technologies interact and that this “constituted another aha! moment for [her].” Like Chris, Alice reveals her desire to move from an ‘analytic’ way of dealing with content to a more ‘synthetic’ and integrative way of engaging with activities. Alice recognises the value of the e‐portfolio as an “opportunity to put almost everything I have learnt in the Master’s program into use”. Alice goes on to explain: “For instance, I first came across the Bower’s (2008) affordance framework in the first module, and I have always been thankful that I did! In the second module, I was exposed to various learning theories including community of practice (CoP), critical discourse analysis (CDA), Actor Network Theory (ANT) and authentic learning, among many others. In the third module, I was made to understand and see innovation and other worthwhile interventions, as a series of activities.” Not only does Alice indicate a move from an ‘analytic’ way of dealing with content to a more ‘synthetic’ way of engaging with activities, but she also shows a desire to engage with the ‘real’ context: “I have learnt that it is very important to first understand the context of the users, the problem to be addressed, the affordance requirements of the task to be prescribed as well as the underlying principles and pedagogies in order to effectively provide an intervention.” Alice, who had worked outside the educational technology field was able to recognise how the design thinking emerged in the field by looking for common themes. She could see how technology tools came to be used. In recognising opportunities she remarked that she is “considering developing e‐portfolios for my work projects” as the value of reflection if often overlooked. Alice graduated with a distinction.

4.5 Course performance As a way of mapping our expectations of the students’ performance (as characterised in the four profiles) to their actual performance, we systematically assigned each of the 58 students as A, B, C or D on our map. This involved assessing their prior exposure to academic educational knowledge and technology design skills using the course documentation. As an indicator, we then summarised the course performance within each of the four quadrants. Considering the average performance and number if students, there was little difference across the four quadrants, other than for the A quadrant. The mean score for A was 66%, while B, C, and D clustered between 71% and 72% (Figure 4). The course score serves a summary measure of the quality of students’ e‐portfolio. Students who had already shown a strong academic ability and high motivation succeed independent of their prior academic educational knowledge and technology design skills. While a small sample and acknowledging we cannot capture other issues influencing students success, it suggests we could accommodated the diversity of student backgrounds. The A quadrant included some exceptional students but overall these students were more at risk. We had originally imagined larger differences might existed, given some of the concerns raised when conceiving the course.

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Figure 4: Back‐to‐back histograms of course scores for the four categories of students undertaking

5. Discussion Activity Theory emphasises the value in identifying “contradiction” (Engeström 2001) as part of a necessary process of identifying underlying course design problems and developing new solutions. The contradictions we identified involved the ‘Subject’ node (i.e., the students), and the diverse set of prior knowledge and educational technology skills that they brought to the course. We had originally anticipated that students who matched the “Student D” profile would find the course relatively easy as their prior qualifications and practical experience placed them directly in the Synthetic‐Real map. Students in the B, C and D quadrants mean scores are very similar (all between 71% and 72%), and only the students in the A quadrant were achieving slightly lower overall (mean of 5 percentage points less). This does not account for their prior performance in the preceding courses as the A quadrant students could be generally weaker. We checked for differences in prior performance and there was no real evidence for A quadrants being generally weaker. It appears some students experience difficulties developing their e‐portfolios which were not recognising this early enough during the course. We have included a draft submission deadline with detailed feedback to help identify such difficulties sooner. The difficulties students in the D quadrant experiences present some challenges to us. We as lecturers may not have engaged enough in the course with apparently experienced students because they appeared to demonstrate sufficient competence in creating online learning tasks and explaining their design decisions. A second factor may be that students in managerial roles might have had less experience of the ‘real’ context that is being expected of them on the course. A third possible explanation is that a strong personal work‐ethic is more important in explaining success. This last point is only something we can encourage. We must avoid overlooking students familiar with online learning who may need to be challenged to avoid potential complacency. For those in the A quadrant, limited exposure to the educational literature and technology skills does appear to make the more vulnerable. Typically they struggle with the more abstract and scholarly literature and find it difficult to link this to their established practices. The range of technologies can compound their difficulties. Several overcome these difficulties and performed exceptionally well. Anticipating these were possibly our most vulnerable students, the specific scaffolding and coaching does not entirely respond to the needs of this quite diverse group.

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Andrew Deacon and Cheryl Hodgkinson‐Williams Some students categorised as C in our map similarly struggled. We deliberately provided specific prompts to students to assist in making links between theory and practice more explicit. This scaffolding was seemingly easier for the C profile students to use. With an academic qualification in education but no prior experience using educational technology, we expected B profile students to struggle with the technology issues. While they often found exposure to different technologies overwhelming on occasions, they tended to cope by narrowing the possible technologies to fit in with their preferred pedagogic practice. They were able to draw on support from others to ‘make’ the technology do what they wanted pedagogically. We had anticipated these students’ need for technical support and it confirms that this additional support is important.

6. Conclusion The ‘Online Learning Design’ course has the aim to develop learning design thinking. This can be difficult to assess in traditional academic Masters programmes with students from diverse backgrounds. The paper highlights the need for lecturers of online courses to be sensitive to students’ diverse backgrounds and to constantly monitor their progress and not assume that prior qualifications or educational technology experience equate to learning design thinking’. It is rewarding to observe that prior experience does not necessarily predetermine success. The strategies we used included the use of e‐portfolios, formative assessment of draft e‐portfolios and a series of class‐based pedagogical interventions. These are intended to accommodate much of the diversity and identify conceptual misunderstandings at an early stage. This paper hopes to stimulate further research on the role of such pedagogic strategies in blended courses.

References Abrami, P.C. & Barrett, H. (2005) Directions for research and development on electronic portfolios. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 31(3) [online] cjlt.csj.ualberta.ca/index.php/cjlt/article/view/92/86 Dabbagh, N & Bannan‐Ritland, B (2005) Online learning: Concepts, Strategies and Application. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Engeström, Y. (2001) Expansive Learning at Work: toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization. Journal of Education and Work, 14(1), 133‐156. Gustafsen K.L. & Branch, R.M. (2007) What is instructional design? In RA Reiser, & Dempsey JV (Eds) Trends and issues in instructional design and technology. (pp 10‐16) Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Horwitz, D. & Hodgkinson‐Williams, C.A. (2010) Exploring freeform portfolios for postgraduate teaching. Presentation at the Sakai 2010 Conference, Denver, Colorado, 15 June. [online] www.slideshare.net/cherylhw/exploring‐freeform‐ portfolios‐for‐postgraduate‐teaching Huei, C.J. (2012) Design thinking engineers. Innovation, 11(1), 42‐47. [online] www.innovationmagazine.com/innovation/volumes/v11n1/coverstory3.shtml Jonassen, D.H. (2000) Toward a design theory of problem solving. Educational Technology Research and Development, 8(4), 63‐85. Owen C. (2007) Design thinking: notes on its nature and use. Design Research Quarterly, 2007(2):16–27. Peet, M., Lonn, S., Gurin, P., Page‐Boyer, K., Matney, M., Marra, T., Himbeault‐Taylor, S. Daley, A. (2011). Fostering Integrative Knowledge through e‐portfolios. International Journal of e‐portfolio, 1(1), 11‐31. Razzouk, R. & Shute, V. (2012) What Is Design Thinking and Why Is It Important? Review of Educational Research, 82(3), 330‐348. Stake, R.E. (2005) Qualitative Case Studies. Denzin, N. K. (Ed); Lincoln, Y. S. (Ed) The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.) (pp. 443‐466) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd. The Design‐Based Research Collective (2003). Design‐based research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 5‐8.

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Could Institutional Virtual Learning Environments be Stifling the Possibilities of Learning? Jerome Terpase Dooga Department of English, Faculty of Arts, University of Jos, Nigeria zwakausu@gmail.com Abstract: Technology has a positive role to play in education, yet this role and its impact on learning are not necessarily either well established or well understood. Higher educational institutions around the world are embracing its use in various forms to support learning. African universities, both residential and distance learning institutions, are embracing these new technologies and the associated learning opportunities. To support both the practice and research of this adoption of new technology for teaching and learning, seven universities in six African countries, namely Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania and Uganda each received support through the Partnership for Higher Education (PHEA) Educational Technology Initiative (ETI) from 2009 to 2013. This paper reports on an inter‐institutional survey to determine to what extent institutional e‐learning platforms such as Moodle contribute to growing possibilities of learning; also, how social media applications and tools such as Facebook and Twitter, as well as other emerging technologies are being used to support learning in the ETI‐supported universities. The analysis is based on data from 36 respondents across the seven institutions. The survey was administered online using Survey Monkey. The aim is to assess how the various changes relating to the use of technology for teaching which were brought about or facilitated by the ETI have affected technology adoption in these institutions. Data was gathered and analysed using content analysis methodologies. Selective reduction was used to determine significant themes embedded within the survey response data. The data was read, coded and categorized by drawing out words, phrases and segments. These categories were then analyzed to highlight patterns emerging from the data.

Keywords: virtual learning environments (VLE), learning management systems (LMS), Moodle, higher education, institutional policies, social media networks

1. Introduction In higher education, using e‐learning systems is believed to be one of the most crucial developments due to the use of IT in this arena in the last decade (Alsabawy, Cater‐Steel, Soar, 2011; McGill & Klobas, 2009). The past few years have experienced an upsurge regarding the contribution of ICT in redressing Africa’s educational challenges (Hollow and ICWE 2009). In particular, African Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) have witnessed the rise of Learning Management Systems (LMS). Almost a decade ago, when LMSs were much fewer, their use was limited to institutions in Europe and the United States and their functionalities were still in their infancy, Coates, James and Baldwin (2005) noted that “there is something so seductive about LMS that, despite their complexities and risks, almost every university seems compelled to have one” (23). They identified key drivers to the eager adoption by institutions. One of these drivers, was the promise of enriched student learning, especially the view that online learning would reinforce and enhance a diverse suite of constructivist pedagogies by allowing students to access a greater range of resources and materials. This expectation has survived to this day. But even in its early days, there were those who doubted that the LMS was a pedagogically appropriate platform for learning. Coates et al (2005) observed that LMS are not pedagogically neutral technologies. By their very design, they argue, LMS influence and guide teaching as they shape and even define teachers’ imaginations, expectations and behaviours (27). A report by Unwin et al. (2010) on the use of LMS across institutions in 25 African countries, based on a 2007 study, concluded that “while there are some enthusiastic advocates of such systems, the reality is that most African educators as yet have little knowledge about, or interest in, their usage.” The report identified lack of donor funding to create opportunities for staff training, inadequate bandwidth and the absence of institutional e‐learning policies as principal factors that were hindering the spread of LMS in Africa. The present study is more narrowly focused, involving seven universities in six African countries. These institutions have drawn on donor funding from the Partnership for Higher Education in Africa Educational Technology Initiative (PHEA ETI). Nearly all of them have some form of institutional e‐learning strategy or policy and nearly all use Moodle. By e‐learning we mean not merely email and surfing the web, as was the case in the Unwin study, but have included all forms of educational technology in learning and teaching. This raises important questions around the impact on learning of the growing access to technology at these institutions.

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Jerome Terpase Dooga There is limited educational research into the pedagogical impact of LMS in African Higher Education. There is even more limited research into the extent to which LMS contribute to the possibilities of learning, especially in the light of emerging, alternative media such as social network applications. In order to identity topics for research, there have been many small scale descriptive case studies, mostly in South African institutions which examine the impact of ICTs in teaching and learning. Often, these studies isolate specific technologies or the application of ICTs in a particular course. One such study was conducted by Scheepers and Delport (2010) on the level of use of clickUP, the LMS at the University of Pretoria. After installing and using clickUP for about a decade, a 2007 audit of modules on the system found that “80% of these modules used only the most basic functions within the system” (1065). Therefore, the Scheepers and Delport (2010) study set out to gauge perceptions on the educational value of a Learning Management System at the University of Pretoria, a residential South African university. The research sought answers to questions similar to those proposed by Hall (2010) regarding the dissemination of an innovation. Hall proposed four questions, namely:

Is it being used?

How well is it being used?

What factors are affecting its use/non‐use?

What are the outcomes?

Especially regarding the question of how well the system is being used, the research concluded that “the University of Pretoria has not yet made cost‐effective use of the considerable resources invested in clickUP” (1065). In a more recent study, Venter, Jansen van Rensburg and Davis (2012) examined the determinants of usage of a Learning Management System by fourth level business students at the open and distance learning programme of the University of South Africa (UNISA). Using the Technology Acceptance Model as a theoretical base, the research confirmed that, by and large, perceived usefulness (PU) of a system is the principal determinant to its use. Regarding the use of social media, Kohn and Maier (2009) conducted a research based on Eight inter‐national and cross‐national case studies of e‐learning initiatives in developing countries conducted between 2005 and 2007 and published in the “International Journal of Knowledge and Learning,” “International Journal of Education using ICT” and “Globalized Learning and Cultural Challenges.” The study examined, from the published case studies, what social software is used in e‐learning initiatives in developing countries. The research found that “developing countries still are lagging behind in the use of social software within learning environments” (32). Barriers to use of social software were identified in the study as technology‐based as well as culture and skills. More globally, several studies in recent times have focused on the use of social media in educational contexts. For instance, Luehmann and Tinelli (2008) investigated the use of blogging among 15 practicing secondary school science teachers enrolled in a Research One university in Western New York. These reform‐minded teachers used blogs to support their efforts to develop reform‐based practices. Selwyn (2009) examined the content of the Facebook pages of undergraduate students who were studying at the Coalsville University School of Social Sciences in the UK. The results of the study showed that much of students’ education‐related use of this social networking application was based around either the post‐hoc critiquing of learning experiences and events, the exchange of logistical or factual information about teaching and assessment requirements, instances of supplication and moral support with regards to assessment or learning, or the promotion of oneself as academically incompetent and/or disengaged (157). The paper concluded that ‘Facebook use must be seen as being situated within the ‘identity politics’ of being a student... providing a ready space where the ‘role conflict’ that students often experience in their relationships with university work, teaching staff, academic conventions and expectations can be worked through in a relatively closed ‘backstage’ area’ (157). A similar study was conducted by Madge, Meek, Wellens and Hooley (2009). The study showed that Facebook “is more for socialising and talking to friends about work than for actually doing work” (141). Most of the suggestions of respondents in the study regarding the educational value of Facebook “were not to do with the pedagogic aspects of teaching and learning but more to do with departmental or module‐related administrative arrangements” (150). Even so, research suggests that Facebook has the qualities to be a tool for promoting desirable academic practice. Madge, et al cite suggestions made by Mason (2006) and Selwyn (2007) to support this view. Among

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Jerome Terpase Dooga other things, the utility of Facebook “lies in its reflective qualities, its mechanisms of peer feedback and its collaborative models of Learning” (148) according to Mason (2006). Selwyn (2007, quoted in Madge, et al) furthermore notes that “its attractiveness lies in its ease of education‐related interactions between students, albeit often in an informal way” (148). More broadly, Ray, Kalvaitis, Wheeler and Hirtle (2011) investigated the attitudes, behaviours and opinions of teachers to social media use. The 20 respondents were enrolled in a master of education degree program at the University of Hawai’i at Hilo. All subjects were teaching either at elementary school, middle school, high school, or college level. One noteworthy finding from the study was that “teachers believed that the major benefit of social media was staying in touch with others, while the major challenge was time” (867).

2. Background to the study In 2009 the Partnership for Higher Education in Africa (PHEA) supported seven African universities located in six countries to help them make increasingly effective use of educational technology to address some of the underlying educational challenges facing higher education in Africa by implementing an Educational Technology Initiative (ETI). The benefiting universities were, the Catholic University of Mozambique, Kenyatta University, Makerere University (Uganda), University of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), University of Education Winneba (Ghana), University of Ibadan and University of Jos (Nigeria). The partnership was a joint project of Carnegie Corporation of New York, The Ford Foundation, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, and the Kresge Foundation. The initiative had three strategic objectives, namely to:

Support teaching and learning initiatives which integrate educational technology;

Get core institutional systems to work so that they support teaching and learning more directly; and

Research and report on educational technology activity in African universities by means of a long term project (see the PHEA ETI homepage).

To achieve these objectives, capacity development programmes were initiated across the participating institutions in order to sustain effective utilization of technology for learning. ICT systems had to be installed or strengthened, and a major component of these systems was the installation of a Learning Management System, mainly Moodle. Institutional frameworks were also developed or strengthened to directly support the utilization of technology for learning and teaching. Thus, existing institutional strategies or policies on technology integration had to be revised to directly address issues of technology for teaching and learning. In some instances, these documents had to be drawn up from the scratch with technical support provided by the South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE). The third objective is ongoing and includes the present study. The ETI created awareness within participating institutions of the need for inter‐institutional research on e‐learning. The initiative also actively encouraged collaboration and the need to leverage on the platform created by the partnership to achieve such inter‐institutional research. From 2010 when the Part B of the initiative took off in the seven institutions to the time of this report when it has reached its closing phase, a lot has changed. e‐learning has been established or enhanced in all participating universities, policy frameworks have been put in place, or at least initiated in all the institutions and a Learning Management System (LMS) has been installed and is in use. Above all, technology has also evolved rapidly, presenting new options for engaging with learners, especially through Web.2.0 technologies.

3. Research questions According to Mason (2006) as cited in Selwyn (2009), “social networking applications share many of the desirable qualities of good ‘official’ education technologies – permitting peer feedback and matching the social contexts of learning such as the school, university or local community” (158). With these developments in mind, the paper will consider the following research questions:

To what extent is the LMS being used?

How is it being used: what specifically is it used for?

To what extent do e‐learning policies/strategies support opportunities for teaching and learning with technology?

How are social media applications/tools used to support learning?

What are the outcomes of using various technologies for learning in these institutions?

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4. Research methods An inter‐institutional survey was developed and aligned to the research questions. The instrument contained items that had a closed form such as checklist items, items with 5‐point Likert scale, as well as ranked items. Some open‐ended questions were also posed to allow participants to report other opinions not captured within the closed questions. The survey was subjected to a rigorous standardization process involving specialists at the South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE) and the Centre for Educational Technology (CET) at the University of Cape Town (UCT) to ensure that the items were explicit. Selective sampling was used for the survey which was distributed online using the Survey Monkey tool. Participants in the ETI in the seven participating institutions who were using technology for teaching and learning were encouraged to complete the survey and to forward the link to colleagues in their institutions who were also known to be using technology for teaching. Participation was voluntary. A total of 36 respondents completed the survey. These were made up of 24 males and 12 females. The average age of respondents was between 41‐50 years (19). Nine were below 40 years and two below 30. Only one respondent was above 60 years. The respondents were mostly academic staff: 21, lecturers, three teaching assistants, four technicians, one librarian and seven in other categories. The academic qualifications of respondents ranged from a master’s degree (17), doctorate (11) and professorial cadre (4). This was a very good response, given the many limitations around the data collection. For instance, responses were required within two weeks, which was apparently too short to effectively obtain data online, especially from a busy audience. As a result of the limited time frame, most of the respondents were actually people who were involved in the ETI project in some way. Finally, the survey specified that responses were requested from those using the LMS. This meant that others who were using technology for teaching, but who were not using the LMS, were excluded. Thus the opinions here analysed are those of a minority of practitioners in these institutions and may not adequately represent the picture in African higher education in general or even of all the PHEA ETI colleagues using technology for teaching. They however provide an insight into the use of technology for learning in the ETI‐ supported institutions.

5. Interpreting survey results 5.1 To what extent is the LMS being used? How is it being used: what specifically is it used for? We began by asking whether an LMS was installed. If the answer was yes, we then asked what software was used and then the more specific question concerning how it was being used, and which activities it was used for. Nearly all the institutions said they had a LMS installed (34). The LMS of choice was Moodle (33), followed by Blackboard and Muele (both used in Uganda). Of the 36 respondents all but one made use of their institutional LMS. A different survey would need to be used to identify levels of use. The survey asked how the LMS was being used and what specifically it was used for. Figure 1 shows that the LMS are mostly used to support class administration, such as providing access to course materials and administering assessments.

Figure 1: Range of activities performed on the LMS

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Jerome Terpase Dooga The chart shows the LMS usage within the eight categories by survey respondents. The most frequent use of the LMS is for course notes (29 respondents) and in relation to lecturers involved in the PHEA project, seven have developed and are using multimedia simulations. The level of use of multimedia simulations within this group is an indication of a complex use of educational technology for learning in some of these African institutions and a major departure from results obtained in earlier studies (see Unwin 2007, 2010). The figures show a much higher use of the LMS for course notes and might suggest an emphasis on course management over student learning. Coates, et al (2005) identify one of the key drivers to the eager adoption of the LMS by institutions as the promise of enriched student learning, especially the view that online learning would reinforce and enhance a diverse suite of constructivist pedagogies by allowing students to access a greater range of resources and materials. In addition one respondent uses the LMS “to provide a platform for students to socialize.” Even so, there might be a correlation between course type and the nature of resources and activities engaged in. This may demonstrate that the course creators and instructors have created educationally responsive interventions.

5.2 To what extent do e‐learning policies/strategies support opportunities for teaching and learning with technology? The seven institutions all have some form of policy in place, given that at least one respondent from each institution indicated they were aware of an ICT or e‐learning policy. Interestingly different respondents from the same institution did not have consensus about what policies were in place. The table below illustrates the range of responses for each institution. This suggests that while each institution has some form of policy, active users of technology as represented by the survey respondents, are not necessarily aware of these policies or understand their purpose. Table 1: Showing the availability of institutional policy in the 7 institutions Institution

ICT Policy e‐learning Policy e‐learning Strategy

Catholic University of Mozambique

Yes

Kenyatta University

Yes

Makerere University

Yes

University of Dar es Salaam

Yes

University of Education Winneba

Yes

University of Ibadan

Yes

University of Jos

Seemingly the active users of technology are not all aware of the institutional policies that regulate the practice. For example, some respondents from the University of Jos indicated ‘Yes’ for all three while others from the same institution were unaware of any. This interpretation is substantiated by a subsequent question which asked about the extent to which the institutional policy supports the use of social media such as Facebook, for learning. Figure 2 summarises these responses.

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Figure 2: Respondents’ understanding of institutional policy Ten out of the 34 who responded to this question did not know whether or not “the institutional policy on e‐ learning totally forbids the use of social network (such as Facebook and Twitter) on its network,” representing 29.4% of total responses. Similarly, 12 respondents, or 35.3% of respondents did not know whether or not “the institutional policy permits the use of social media only after work hours.” When asked to indicate whether “there is no statement in the policy permitting or forbidding the use of social media on the institutional network,” 13 out of the 35 respondents, or 37.1% did not know. However, the 23 respondents who disagreed that “the institutional policy on e‐learning totally forbids the use of social network (such as Facebook and Twitter) on its network” representing 67.7% indicate that institutional policies have helped to facilitate, rather than hinder the use of e‐learning in majority of the institutions. At the University of Jos, the policy is silent about whether or not Facebook and similar applications should be used on the institutional network. However, the ICT Directorate arbitrarily decided to block its use along with Skype. Commendably, these services were restored when key members of the directorate (who are also academic instructors) were asked to respond to the survey for this study.

5.3 How are social media applications/tools used to support learning? Asked whether they used social media, 31 said they do. This correlates with their personal views of the usefulness of social media as learning tools, since 28 respondents affirmed the usefulness of social media for learning. The perception of others in their departments regarding the usefulness of social media applications as learning tools was also seen by 24 respondents to be positive. Following is the description of specific learning activities respondents performed using social media. These have been grouped into 7 broad themes. Research for professional self‐development

Searching for professional information to boost my knowledge

Research collaboration

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I manage three interactive learning pages on Facebook: English Language Clinic forum; Nigerian English Phonologists; Scholars of English Linguistics

Provide more information on a topic

Circulation of summaries of lectures/highlights

Sharing of online resources with my class

Discussion on Facebook and collection of artefacts using Diigo

Send course information

Assignments

assignments, course work, quizzes etc

Students are given assignments online and must search for information online

Instruction in the use of ICT

I teach my students how to use Library and Information platforms

Learner interaction and collaboration

Online class discussions

I get learners to collaborate online

Communication and socialising

Interacting with my students through my custom built website, Youtube,

interaction and communication with friends

emails

Demonstration

Simulations

General Interest Learning

Video Conferencing using WebEx

Professional exams

CISCO

Are any social network applications integrated into the learning management system as add‐on tools? Although 20 respondents answered this question in the affirmative as against 15 who said No, 22 also said they perform online activities outside the LMS. Evidently, the social network applications that respondents use most were not integrated into the LMS. The chart in Figure 3 shows that by far the most used social network application from the data was Facebook, with 26 respondents which accounts for 83.9% of total respondents in the survey and Google voice as the least used social media application. In contrast to the LMS usage, teaching and learning is not the dominant function of social network applications by respondents. Here academic networking and social integration have a stronger role as can be seen from the responses to the survey as shown in Figure 4.

5.4 What are the outcomes of using various technologies for learning in these institutions? There were six strands designed in the survey to enquire about what has been achieved. Following are the responses for each strand: What has been the result of using social software? Respondents’ comments revolved around such issues as access, interactivity, flexibility, innovation, social links, learner equality or balance and just hype. These eight themes are here isolated.

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Figure 3: Pattern of social media applications used by respondents

Figure 4: Primary functions performed with social media applications Ubiquitous access: “You get connected to other people around the world.” It leads to “increased access to information.” “It provides valuable resource material to augment learning materials.” Interactive: Social media affords “quick responses from students.” Informal: “It has increased my students’ interest in learning—making learning less formal and enjoyable.” “It is where the students are, so it is easier to find them in their favourite terrain.” Flexible: ‘It enables personalized learning, affords easy communication and easy text creation by learners and instructors’ thus encouraging collaborative learning. Innovative pedagogy and best practice: One respondent said “it has improved my teaching and learning productively to a large extent. . . . Helping learning to develop effective structures for managing online information, including information personal to them, without invading learners’ personal space” has been rewarding. Social: “It enables me to establish links with friends I have lost touch with.” Provides a level playing field for learners: ’It allows even introverts to contribute in discussions. This makes them feel engaged in constructing knowledge.’ What are some unintended/unexpected positive consequences of using social media (i.e. its seductions and pleasures)?

Keeps people connected

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It links school to wider social interaction, instead of the alienating outlook of normal academic discourses.

Students extend learning boundaries beyond classrooms and lesson hours.

Improved teacher‐student relationship

Its provide strong inter‐student actions (fosters peer‐to‐peer relationships)

More interaction with students

What are some negative unintended/unexpected consequences of using social media (i.e. its problems and anxieties? In other words, what, in your experience are the disadvantages of using social media)?

Fraudsters are always looking for means to hack my Yahoo Box

Distracting and time consuming

Students get too attached to the interactional aspect of social media, gradually losing the discipline to sit down and read books for long periods of time!

Technophobia

Addiction and dependency on technology

Give examples of the learning that actually takes place from the use of social software applications.

Multimedia learning materials: maximize learning perceptions and understanding of concepts

Interactive/collaborative learning: My Cisco Students use Facebook to share network design and troubleshooting processes; where others post comments and recommendations for best practice. Able to hold online class discussions.

Scaffolding: Clarification of simple study related questions and sharing of learning materials.

What would you say social media is making possible that was not possible before?

Many‐to‐many instant collaboration

Flexibility in learning: Students can reflect on their learning anytime and ask questions anytime anywhere. A good medium to manage large classes.

Social and academic networking: social and academic networking without physical interaction. It is also a platform to relax.

6. Discussion Significant progress has been made in instituting e‐learning in the seven universities in our study. It is more difficult to provide evidence for institution‐wide adoption. Hall and Khan (2002) observe that, “unlike the invention of a new technology, which often appears to occur as a single event or jump, the diffusion of that technology usually appears as a continuous and rather slow process” (2‐3). In the three years since the start of the ETI interventions it would be unrealistic to expect the rate of adoption to have moved from innovators to early majority. According to Rogers’ (1995, cited in Surry 1997) Individual Innovativeness theory, the percentage of innovators is expected to be small. Rogers’ bell shaped distribution of Individual Innovators proposes a 2.5% of adoption for innovators in the diffusion process. Even so, the response rate within the group studied is very significant, showing a rather rapid rate of adoption. But in the 2007 report, Unwin had observed: The fact that e‐learning involves active engagement with various online tools for learning and knowledge sharing is not widely understood. Among those who had regular access to the Internet, it was predominantly used for carrying out basic functions such as sending e‐mails and surfing the web. The full potential of LMSs as an educational tool remains, in many cases, unrealised (e‐learning Africa News Portal). This begs the question of what is realistic in e‐learning adoption. Unwin (2010) identifies the lack of funding to create opportunities for staff training, inadequate bandwidth and the absence of institutional e‐learning policies as principal factors that are constraning the spread of LMS usage in Africa. The present study shows clear evidence of full utilization of LMS as a tool for teaching and active engagement with learners. Our study also shows that these same institutions have adopted institutional policies which give teeth, as it were, to more focused, systematic e‐learning practice. The value of such policies is well recognised. Schneckenberg

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Jerome Terpase Dooga (2006) recommended that “as a pre‐condition for any successful e‐learning integration ... the university has to develop an ICT strategy that aligns learning with its core business processes and suits its specific context and conditions” (204). There remains a concern, as the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) (2008 cited in Bozalek 2012) argued, that institutions and policy makers may be unable to keep pace with the rapid evolution and advancement in technologies and the options they present for e‐learning. The result would be that administrative policies may slow down or halt adoption. If policies and strategies were outdated or overly restrictive, this then might be seen in how institutional policies respond to emerging social media platforms for example. In our study, we found that although e‐learning policies and strategies in the affected institutions are relatively new, some policies had failed to reflect and account for the place of social media such as Facebook. In some of the institutions, Facebook, Twitter, Skype and similar applications cannot be accessed using institutional networks. The study showed that, although 35 out of the 36 respondents use the LMS, 20 reported social media applications being integrated into the LMS, which is 55%. However, a follow‐up to this question reveals that the social media incorporated into the LMS in these institutions is basically Googledocs and does not include Facebook. Even so, 22 respondents performed the greater part of their online activities outside the LMS and sometimes outside the university network. Such constraints could limit the possibilities of online engagement for learning. One respondent gave the following reason for not using social media: “It is not integrated into the University LMS.” Cultural barriers and individual perceptions continue to play a role in the use/non‐use of social media. One respondent said: “The nude pictures I see on Facebook puts me off.” Another added: “I consider it a waste of time; it does not generate the kind of information I would require for teaching.” Still another complained: “Sometimes I end up achieving very little in my researches when I am on Facebook as I end up chatting with friends that takes my attention from the researches I would have done online. That experience makes me keep away from the social networks.” Finally, this study highlights that, while respondents overwhelmingly (28 out of 36) felt that social network applications are suitable for learning, their practice showed very little use of these applications for formal learning tasks. They tended to be used more for professional and social networking as well as to provide administrative support for learning activities, thus tending to complement the use of the LMS. The flexibility in adopting and supporting appropriate educational technology seems very important if institutional virtual learning environments are not to stifle the possibilities of learning.

Acknowledgements The author wishes to acknowledge with much gratitude the contributions of the following: Monica Mawoyo of the South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE) and Andrew Deacon of the Centre for Educational Technology (CET) University of Cape Town (UCT) for helping to fine tune the survey instrument; Monge Tlaka (SAIDE) for setting up the survey on Survey Monkey and for generating all the charts; and to SAIDE for providing the platform for this research.

References Alsabawy, A. Y.; Cater‐Steel, A.; and Soar, J. (2011) "Measuring E‐Learning System Success (Research In Progress)." PACIS 2011 Proceedings aisel.aisnet.org. Bozalek, V. (2012) “Introduction to Innovative Pedagogical Practices.” Authentic Learning and Emerging Technologies in South African Higher Education. http://www.slideshare.net/vbozalek/authentic‐learning‐and‐emerging‐technologies‐ final Coates, H., James, R., and Baldwin, G. (2005) “A Critical Examination of the Effects of Learning Management Systems on University Teaching and Learning.” Tertiary Education and Management 11: 19–36, 2005. Hall, B. H. and Khan, B. (2002) “Adoption of New Technology.” elsa.berkeley.edu/~bhhall/papers/HallKhan03%20diffusion.pdf. Hall, G.E. (2010) “Technology’s Achilles Heel: Achieving High‐Quality Implementation.” Journal of Research on Technology in Education, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 231–253. Hollow, D. and ICWE (2009) “e‐learning in Africa: Challenges, priorities and future Direction.” www.gg.rhul.ac.uk/ict4d/workingpapers/Hollowe‐learning.pdf. Kohn, T. and Maier, R. (2009) “Using Social Software in E‐Learning Initiatives in Developing Countries.” www.uibk.ac.at/iwi/research/phdprojects/.../wm2009.pdf

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Jerome Terpase Dooga Luehmann, L. and Tinelli, L. (2008) “Teacher professional identity development with social networking technologies: learning reform through blogging.” Educational Media International Vol. 45, No. 4, December 2008, 323–333. Madge, C., Meek, J., Wellens, J., and Hooley, T. (2009) “Facebook, social integration and informal learning at university: ‘It is more for socialising and talking to friends about work than for actually doing work.’” Learning, Media and Technology Vol. 34, No. 2, June 2009, 141–155. McGill, T., & Klobas, J. (2009) “A task‐technology fit view of learning management system impact.” Computers & Education, 52(2), 496‐508. Partnership for Higher Education in Africa (PHEA). http://www.oerafrica.org/phea/PHEAETIProjectHome/tabid/170/Default.aspx Ray, J., Kalvaitis, D., Wheeler, C. and Hirtle, J. (2011) “Teachers' Attitudes, Behaviors, and Opinions Related to Social Media Use.” editlib.org › ... › ELEARN › Volume 2011, Issue 1. Scheepers, M.D. and Delport, R. (2010) “Perceptions on the educational value of a Learning Management System in a residential South African University.” ICL 2010 Proceedings 1065‐1073. Schneckenberg, D. ( 2006) “ECompetence in European Higher Education—ICT Policy Goals, Change Processes and Research Perspectives” in Mac Labhrainn, I., McDonald Legg, Selwyn, N. (2009) “Faceworking: exploring students’ education‐related use of Facebook.” Learning,Media and Technology Vol. 34, No. 2, June 2009, 157–174. Surry, D.W. (1997) “Diffusion Theory and Instructional Technology.” Instructional Technology Online. www.gsu.edu/~wwwitr/docs/diffusion/ Unwin, T. (2007) “African learning management systems: reality lags behind enthusiasm.” www.e‐learning‐ africa.com/.../african‐learning‐manage. Unwin, T., Williams, L. M. O., Alwala, J., Mutimucuio, I., Eduardo, F., & Muianga, X. (2010) “Digital Learning Management Systems in Africa: rhetoric and reality.” www.unesco.org/fileadmin/.../uk%20784_sv_en_08‐09.pdf Venter, P., Jansen van Rensburg, M. and Davis, A. (2012) “Drivers of learning management system use in a South African open and distance learning institution.” Australasian Journal of Educational Technology 2012, 28(2), 183‐198.

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Enhancing the Postgraduate Experience of Assessment and Feedback in a Learning Community Martina Doolan School of Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire, UK m.a.doolan@herts.ac.uk Abstract: Assessment is an important aspect of student learning and may be used to help reinforce the expected standards. This paper focuses on formative assessment and feedback practice in and out of class designed to support students whilst undertaking an assessment. Students uploaded their mini‐projects online to a group site on the university managed learning environment for presentation in class. The class based feedback was extended as students engaged in the online discussion forum. The learning opportunities were intended to support students in understanding the assessment criteria, share conceptions and misconception and receive prompt feedback from the tutor and students alike whilst engaged with the assessment. Tutor observations captured in and out of class highlights the importance of clarifying assessment criteria using terminology which can be understood by students, how providing formative assessment opportunities enhances the students’ interest in the subject, develops skills and encourages appropriate study behaviours. Student feedback on the experience was captured in the discussion forum. There are some interesting findings including how engaging students in a dialogue about their learning leads to a learning community albeit driven by the assessment design. Keywords: formative assessment, learning design, feedback, community, engagement, learner experience

1. Introduction – theoretical framework Ecclestone (2012) claims that summative assessment fails to engage students in learning given students focus on the grade (Yorke, 2003).This study concentrates on formative assessment or assessment FOR Learning were students attend to the process of learning rather than assessment OF learning or summative assessment; where students concentrate on their mark/performance. While evidence of performance is required in both of types of assessment (William; Black, 1996), Nicol and Mac‐Farlane, Dick (2006) claim that formative assessment is a means of empowering and enabling learners to self‐regulate. This implies that students take control of their own learning. Thus, formative assessment in this context can be used as an evaluation tool by students to measure their own understandings in order to move forward in their learning to reach their desired goals. This may be situated in a blended social learning context. Doolan (2013) describes this social paradigm in the form of the dialogic shamrock and views the social and cultural context of learning as crucial and a central tenet of learning itself. It is argued that designs for learning that encourage participation, reciprocity, dialogue and mutual engagements whilst learners are engaged in an active learning experience, knowledge is socially constructed and skills are developed. Similar to Vygoktsy’s (1978) work, social interaction is a key component of situated learning theory. However, what is uniquely different is that, rather than looking at learning cognitively as knowledge construction, it is argued that co‐ participation is the key to the acquisition of knowledge. Similarly, situated learning theory (Lave and Wenger, 1991) is based on the premise that learning is in the coming together of people, in the conditions that bring people together, situated in space and time and situated in activity, in the context and learning environment. And, in the conversations that people have with each other. It is also, in the observations people make of themselves, others and in the learning environment. The learning environment whether online, offline or a blend of both is perceived as one that is learner‐centric and organic; growing and developing collectively with learners over time (Doolan, 2011a). Learner centric models tend to have specific traits that focus on learning rather than teaching, with an emphasis on authentic context‐specific learning such as solving ‘real world’ problems, providing opportunities for learners to build their own understandings and skills. The learner centric model in Higher Education places emphasis on the educator supporting learners as they socially construct knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978), collaboratively (Dillenbourgh, 1999), in groups (Lewin, 1951) where learning is socially situated (Lave and Wenger, 1991) within a community of practice ((Wenger, 1998). In communities of practice learning is embedded within social activity, social context and a social culture where meaning is constructed and formed through dialogic negotiations with others through these social experiences within the community of practice.

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Martina Doolan Wenger’s (1998) work talks of practice within the community as developed over time, shared and maintained by engagement in knowledge and in the sharing of ideas and artefact. In this way, learning is not simply carried out by individuals but is socially constructed and situated, as, for instance, in a classroom. Participation is a key component in the acquisition of knowledge and takes place between educator and learner and learner and learner. Hence the socio cultural model places emphasis on the fundamental role that social interaction plays in the process of learning, knowledge creation and skills development. And, on the fact that social learning precedes development of higher order thinking, given that this takes place internally following the social interaction. According to Vygotsky (1978), people use mechanisms that develop from a culture, such as discourse, to mediate their social environments and to communicate, after which this development is internally build upon. Thus, knowledge acquisition is context dependent rather than abstract and general. And, the process of learning is situated in social interactional contexts such as a class discussion on and/or offline. It is important when undertaking research to acknowledge and understand one’s own values and interests, decisions and rationales (Lincoln and Guba, 2000) and the impact these have on one’s research. In this study, this is important given; the author is the researcher, course tutor and leader. Robson (1993; 2002) claims this approach brings clarity and credibility to the research. With this in mind, the tutor’s own observations were documented as notes in a journal. These comprised the learners’ experiences of assessment and feedback in and out of class; focusing specifically on the learner experience of assessment FOR learning or formative assessment via the three mini‐projects presented by learners in class. Attention was also paid to learner experiences of using the online discussion forum for formative assessment purposes. Additionally, the student’s own voice on their lived experience (Van Manen, 1990: 35) was captured on the discussion forum and presented verbatim. This is “seen as a process of discovery, concentrating in the first instance on each individual as a separate case, a possibly unique world” (Ashworth 1997:12) and perceived as “unobtrusive observation” (Robson, 2002:310).

2. Practice: The course and assessment design The practice took place on a Human Computer Interaction course; an elective chosen by postgraduate learners studying a Masters in Computer Science. The primary motive is to provide an insight into the concepts, tools, techniques, standards and guidelines needed to evaluate and build interactive systems. Learners undertook practical application, evaluation and design projects. The course was delivered over one semester. There was one group based assessment which was supported by three in class mini‐projects and online resources in the form of a private group site and a cohort discussion forum. These were housed on the university’s managed learning environment and were intended to be used as a resource to provide prompt and timely feedback on the assessment, clarify the assessment criteria, conceptions and misconceptions. The content delivered in class was reduced to enable the three mini‐project sessions. In support of this, from the outset, the discussion forum was utilised and seeded with activities to encourage learners to engage and develop subject based knowledge beyond the classroom thus delivery was blended. Prior to presenting the mini‐projects learners were expected to upload their work to their private group site on the university’s managed learning environment and encouraged to engage in the online discussion forum with their cohort. In this study, these are deemed to be formative assessment opportunities therefore, no marks were awarded. Rather the intention was to shift student’s mindset away from focusing on a mark, to attend to the process of learning and to, gain feedback on work as it progressed thus, formative assessment or assessment OF learning, The assessment specification was designed to align with the topics delivered on a weekly basis in the lectures. The three mini‐projects were designed to align with the assignment specification. Crucially, this design was intended to accommodate learners who would be at different stages in completing the assessment. Tasks were designed to distribute effort amongst learners, to be equally divisible within groups and authentic. At the same time, the assessment was designed to promote reciprocity, dialogue, participation and mutual engagement within and between groups of learners. The mini‐projects were presented in class by learner groups to showcase part of their work as this progressed.

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Martina Doolan The assessment specification was delivered to learners in the first week of the semester and due for submission at the end of the semester. Learners were given the opportunity to work in groups of 3 or 4 of their choosing. Out of a total of the 31 Learners studying the course, 3 chose to work alone although for the purposes of this study were classed as a group. Thus there were 11 learner groups named Group A to Group K. The assignment specification comprised a mix of individual and group tasks, the assessment criteria are listed below:

The ability to ground their work on a suitable scholarly research, to make an informed and critical choice amongst the main streams, standards, guidelines and traditions available, to justify and explain the approach they have taken, and to refer consistently to bibliography and other references by adopting the Harvard Referencing style which is accepted for scientific publications [individual].

The ability to perform and report suitable user and usage modeling. For each usage, any proper task analysis will also be assessed [group]

The ability to identify and report functional and not‐functional requirements against findings from the above point 2 [group].

The ability to design usable interfaces (by adopting proper design techniques and by providing storyboards and screenshots or sketched drawings of representative and relevant screens) and to explain how they relate and are relevant to requirements, as found from above point 3 and related to interface research [group].

Each individual group member is responsible for providing 2 A4 pages of the work that they undertook in order to help complete the group based assessment, this must be signed by all group members. [individual]

Learners were introduced to the assessment and the three mini‐projects in the first lecture this was intended to ensure that learners were adequately briefed and understood the requirements of the assessment and formative assessment opportunities on offer. The lecture room was the most appropriate setting to address the cohort and any potential problems and respond to feedback from learners. This was in keeping with the student centric and predominately social learning approach practiced by the tutor. To help encourage a group dynamic (Lewin, 1951) and a sense of belonging to a community (Wenger, 1998) learners were provided with time in the lecture to introduce themselves to others and choose their group members. Learners were also provided with the opportunity to continue group formation over the following week so as to include all learners. Those who formed groups outside of the class were expected to email the tutor with their group composition. The tutor allocated a group letter A...K and the corresponding group site on the university’s online managed learning environment was set up. This comprised features such as a wiki, blog, discussion forum, calendar etc. – a resource intended to support the groups undertaking the assessment. Only the group members and the tutor had access. Learners were expected to upload the three mini‐projects to their group site. This was intended to streamline the download of the mini‐projects whilst presentations of the work were taking place in class and at the same, time act as a mutual negotiated repository of learning. Uploading the mini‐projects in this way, meant that time was not taken up in class by inserting and removing external devices. The final group list was attached to an online discussion post accessible by all. Tasks were based on the development of a social network application chosen by the learners for the assessment. Out of the five tasks on the assessment specification and listed above two were individual. For the group tasks learners were expected to organise the division of labour bearing in mind that they would all receive the same mark for the group components of the assessment, if disagreements arose learners were informed that a viva would take place, this was made clear on the assessment specification. The tutor observed that the group sites were active and that engagement in this way, promoted a shared dialogue, an ethos of collaborative/community learning and a “safe” supportive learning environment in which to develop knowledge and skills. In the group sites learners shared artefacts such as group rules, technology, products, documents, ideas, stories and crucially knowledge as developed over time, shared and maintained over the period of the one semester period of the assessment. Additionally, study behaviours were transparent. Learners contributed on a daily basis to the discussion forum and at least twice weekly to the private group spaces. Engagement was generally consistent throughout the duration of the assessment with increased levels of engagement to the group sites the day prior to mini‐project presentations in class.

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Martina Doolan The use of the discussion forum was facilitated by the tutor twice weekly to provide learners with time to reflect on work undertaken in the class and to explore further concepts. The time resource on the tutor was limited as it was noted that as learners grew in confidence overall, they themselves responded to postings acting as facilitators. Additionally, as learners grew in confidence and developed in subject knowledge learners practiced and consolidated the concepts introduced in class. Using the discussion facilities in this way afforded the tutor the opportunity to reaffirm the learning outcomes and clarify the assessment criteria in a safe learning environment. This reduced the tutor time otherwise, spent with individual questions as the assessment progressed. It was clear to see that learners’ confidence levels were increased by providing a safe and sheltered environment both within the class based setting and online as they freely shared and aired their misconceptions. In this way, community development was obvious. Wenger (1998) describes some of the components of a community of practice as mutual engagement and a shared repertoire Feedback on each other’s work was posted by learners on a daily basis. Students extended the dialogue by seeking clarification on their posts, this demonstrated to the tutor that learners were trying to make sense and meaning of the feedback provided in order that learners could move forward in their understandings and with the assessment. The commentary provided by peers and the tutor alike offered advice on how the work could be developed. At times, this related to an item or a topic, and/or the overall assessment To assist learning, learners were directed to further study, to read materials, links to research was shared as well as, hints and general suggestions on the topic. It was evident to the tutor that learners were reflecting on the feedback provided and actively engaged with the feedback. This was obvious both in class and via the online discussion forum. Individual learner engagement in the three mini‐projects was shown to provide an opportunity for the tutor to clarify the marking criteria and reinforce the required standard especially given that there was only one assessment delivered on the course. Moreover, the tutor provided explanations in non‐academic terms and crucially, helped to focus the learner’s attention back to learning. It was evident that the mini‐projects acted as a chauffeur to drive the learning process. After the first mini‐project, levels of engagement increased in class, this was evident as learners developed in confidence, and more and more learners participated in providing feedback to their peers. Those who received feedback provided further clarifications demonstrating their own understandings of concepts discussed in class. It was evident in class that learners through engagement in the mini‐projects were empowered and took ownership of their learning. Additionally, engagement with the mini‐ projects presented an opportunity for the tutor to provide feedback to the whole cohort rather than individuals reducing staff effort.

2.1 Learner feedback Insights into the students’ lived experience (Van Manen, 1990: 35) were gained using learner responses to the following tutor post in the discussion forum. “We have engaged in 3 mini‐projects with the intention to provide feedback to help you progress with your final assessment, thank you again to all those who participated in these "learn and share" opportunities. I am keen to hear your feedback on this, whether you found the "learn and share" opportunities helpful or unhelpful and the reasons why. Please let me know by responding to this post, email or simply write on a piece of paper and leave this for me at Computer Science reception (no need to put your name on it)” [sic]. 22 responses to the post were received out of a possible 31, 3 (email) and 19 (discussion forum). Of these; 8 posts are included below (S1‐S8) chosen to provide an insight into the range and depth of learner feedback and presented verbatim. “Hello Dear Martina

In my opinion, it was very helpful because, sometimes we are not sure about a part of the coursework but; in the class we found the best answer for it. Also, the good thing is: we can get many ideas and choose the best sample of any part in order to do our final assignment. Not only because we have to do this coursework and that is it, but also we have to do our dissertation in the near future which is the most important part” [S1, sic]. “It is really more than helpful. First, it is a chance for the groups to assess their work, thus they can correct any mistakes. Second, it is a big opportunity to the students to discuss and share knowledge with other students. Last, as master's students, it is not the objective to get a certain

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Martina Doolan amount of knowledge. Rather how they process the knowledge and become a better critical thinker. Is it possible to add one more mini project?” [S2, sic]. “They are very helpful and provide us postgraduates with the opportunity to expand our knowledge by presenting to the group as well as seeing what ideas and concepts other groups have come up with. But because as groups share in class then outside of class there isn't an opportunity to see the ideas or concepts anymore as it is not visible to all students unless shared by the group that presented it. There isn't really an opportunity to copy each other’s work because not 1 group is doing the same kind of social media application/website” [S3, sic]. “It is for me the best way to learn, regardless of anything else, and I know very well that there are those who learn from different other ways, it is a matter of learning approach methods” [S4, sic]. “Yes, that project in class is important and useful. I can know what we need to do and change for our own project. It gives me a clear idea” [S5, sic]. “It gives an opportunity for constructive criticism so we can better ourselves. We spend the entire semester coming to class and listening to the teacher, there is no learning if we can't get feedback and corrections to confusions and mistakes” [S6, sic]. “I think it is helpful and the time allocated is just right. If a group has to take slightly above 5 minutes to get clarity on something they have been learning for weeks and don't understand then this is ok and essential for learning. I also agree that it would be very beneficial if previous semester's projects were presented” [S7, sic]. “The three mini‐projects are very helpful to us, because of the feedback, we know how to amend our group's tasks, so far, my group K almost finish the report, thank you very much for your help and other students' help” [S8, sic].

3. Discussion and conclusion Assessment practice demands a rethink of methods to support both individual and group activities. This study has shown that assessments which emphasise authentic context‐specific learning may provide opportunities for learners to apply and build their own understandings and skills. In this study the role of the tutor was found to be a key factor in enabling this to happen and driven by the assessment design. An assessment design which focuses on learner engagement in assessment and feedback practice with an emphasis on the process of learning has been shown to be of value to learners. A learner comments “It gives an opportunity for constructive criticism so we can better ourselves. We spend the entire semester coming to class and listening to the teacher, there is no learning if we can't get feedback and corrections to confusions and mistakes” [sic]. “It is for me the best way to learn, regardless of anything else, and I know very well that there are those who learn from different other ways, it is a matter of learning approach methods” [sic]. And another learner comments “Yes, that project in class is important and useful. I can know what we need to do and change for our own project. It gives me a clear idea” [sic]. Some learners perceived the mini‐projects as an opportunity to share yet at the same time to protect their work and valued the opportunity to engage in meaningful feedback. A learner comments “The three mini‐ projects are very helpful to us, because of the feedback, we know how to amend our group's tasks” [sic]. At the same time, there are tensions with sharing work, a learner comments “...But because as groups share in class then outside of class there isn't an opportunity to see the ideas or concepts anymore as it is not visible to all students unless shared by the group that presented it. There isn't really an opportunity to copy each other’s work because not 1 group is doing the same kind of social media application/website” [sic]. Were learners self‐regulated? Yes, this was shown by the wealth of shared artefact in and out of class. The concept of a self‐regulated learner in assessment is supported by Nicol & Macfarlane‐Dick (2006). This was clearly evident in those groups who identified their own need to seek and find information to help them in undertaking the learning activities beyond the resources and expectations of the tutor and relevant to their learning experience. Assessment designs which focus on learner‐centric approaches embedded within social activity, social context and a social culture and, demands social interaction between learners and the tutor supports knowledge construction. A learner comments “They...provide us postgraduates with the opportunity to expand our

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Martina Doolan knowledge by presenting to the group as well as seeing what ideas and concepts other groups have come up with...” [Sic]. This is supported by Doolan and Morris (2010) and Doolan (2010b) in their previous work. Engagement with the assessment was shown to be encouraged through dialogic negotiations within groups and across groups in and out of class. Overtime, the tutor observed how learners grew in confidence and provided feedback to their peers, clarified understandings and misunderstandings, and shared artefact such as documents, ideas, stories and crucially knowledge. These are deemed components of a learning community (Doolan, 2006; 2007a) and a community of practice (Wenger, 1998) and evident in this study through the mutual engagement, mutual negotiations and shared repertoire of resources within groups using the groups sites, across groups in the discussion forum and in class. This study has shown that learning is not simply carried out by individuals but is socially constructed and situated. Participation was a key component in the acquisition of knowledge. As reported by a learner “...First, it is a chance for the groups to assess their work, thus they can correct any mistakes. Second, it is a big opportunity to the students to discuss and share knowledge with other students. Last, as master's students, it is not the objective to get a certain amount of knowledge. Rather how they process the knowledge and become a better critical thinker [sic]. This is supported by the socio cultural theorists who describe the fundamental role that social interaction plays in the process of learning, knowledge creation and skills development (Dillenbourgh,1999; Doolan, 2010a; 2013; Vygtosky, 1978, Wenger, 1998). In summary, the formative assessment was shown to enhance the postgraduate experience of assessment and feedback. Crucially, the tutor was provided with insights into learner’s understandings and misunderstandings and was able to take the appropriate action promptly and to tailor or personalise individual feedback. In support of this, information about learner performance was accumulated during the mini‐projects which provided useful feedback in order to respond to learners and monitor learner performance. Formative assessment has been extraordinarily influential in this tutors practice and in support of students learning. The tutor observed student study behaviours thus was enabled to monitor student progression and support the development of co‐ constructed knowledge and skills. Learners themselves highly valued this practice. Black and William’s (1998) have also shown that comprehensive analysis of formative assessment highlights the significant positive impact that feedback can have on learning

References Ashworth, P. D. (1997) ‘The variety of qualitative research’. Nurse Education Today. 17 pp.215‐224. Beatty I.D., Gerace W. J., Leonard W. J., & Dufresne R. J., (2005) Designing effective questions for classroom response system teaching. American Journal of Physics, 1‐11. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998) Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education, 5 (1), 7–74. Dillenbourg, P. (1999) What do you mean by collaborative learning?. In: Dillenbourg, P. (Ed.) Collaborative Learning: Cognitive and Computational Approaches. Advances in Learning and Instruction Series. New York, NY: General Learning Press Doolan, M. A. (2006) ‘Effective Strategies for Building a Learning Community Online using Wiki’. In: Proceedings of the 1st Annual Blended Learning Conference 2006, 15 June. Hatfield, Hertfordshire: University of Hertfordshire pp.51‐63. Doolan, M. A. (2007a) ‘Collaborative Working: Wiki and the Creation of a Sense of Community’. In: of the 2nd International Blended Learning Conference 2007, 14 June. Hatfield, Hertfordshire: University of Hertfordshire p.70. Doolan, M. A. (2010a) Developing Pedagogy: The Role of the Tutor in Enabling Student Learning through the Use of a Wiki. In: Wankel, C. (Ed.) Educating Educators in Social Media. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd p. 189‐206. Doolan, M. A. (2010b) Pedagogical and Innovative Practice: Using technologies to support Assessment and Assessment Feedback in real‐time In: Proceedings of 9th European Conference on e‐Learning. Doolan, M. & Morris, P. (2010) Developing principles in practice: a dialogue in assessment and feedback In: 5th International Blended Learning Conference 2010, "Developing Blended Learning Communities". University of Hertfordshire, p. 38‐45. Doolan, M. A. (2013) A Pedagogical Framework For Collaborative Learning in a Social Blended E‐Learning Context in Wankel, C. (Ed.): Web 2.0 and Blended Learning Technologies. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd. Ecclestone K (2012) From testing to productive student learning: implementing formative assessment in Confucian‐ heritage Settings. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 19(2) 255‐276. Gibbs, G. Simpson, C. (2005) Conditions under which assessment supports students learning. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education. Issue 1, 2004‐05. Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Lewin, K. (1951) Field Theory in Social Science. New York, NY: Harper and Row.

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Martina Doolan Lincoln, Y. S. & Guba, E. G. (2000) Paradigmatic controversies, Contradictions, and emerging confluences. In: Denzin, N. K. & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.) Handbook of Qualiative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc pp.163‐188. Nicol D.J. & Macfarlane‐Dick D. (2006) Formative assessment and self‐regulated learning learning: a model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education 2006, 31(1) 199‐218. Palloff, R. M. & Pratt, K. (1999) Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace: Effective Strategies for the Online Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass. Robson, C. (1993) Real world research: A resource for social scientists and practitioner researchers. Oxford: Blackwell. nd Robson, C. (2002) Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and practitioner ‐Researchers. 2 Ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. William D. & P. Black (1996) Meanings and Consequences: a basis for distinguishing formative and summative functions of assessment? British Educational Research Journal, 22(5) 537‐548. Van Manen, M. (1990) Researching Lived, Experience: Human Science for and Action Sensitive Pedagogy. New York, NY: State University of New York. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in Society. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Wenger, E. (1998) Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Yorke M. (2003) Formative assessment in higher education: Moves towards theory and the enhancement of pedagogic practice. Higher Education, 45(4) 477‐501. Other resources: If you wish to learn more and/or share resources go to: http://madoolan.com [accessed February 2013].

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Opportunities and Challenges: Combining Distance and On‐Campus Students in Concurrent Courses Ralph Ellis, Duzgun Agdas and Xi Zheng University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA relli@ce.ufl.edu duzgun@ufl.edu wether@ufl.edu Abstract: Through its Electronic Delivery of Gator Engineering (EDGE) program, University of Florida (UF) offers online master’s degrees from participating departments within the UF College of Engineering. Each master’s degree requires 10 courses (3 credit hours each). One interesting and unique aspect of the EDGE program is that distance learners are registered concurrently in the same courses with traditional on‐campus students. This paper examines the specific challenges involved in integrating distance students into on‐campus courses, including communication, interaction, access to resources, and equal grading practices. Keywords: distance learning, asynchronous learning, concurrent classes

1. Introduction The College of Engineering at UF began offering distance‐learning courses through its Graduate Engineering Education System (GENESYS) program in 1964. The initial distance‐learning program offered live course broadcasts to remote classrooms that were often hosted by UF industry partners. More recently, the distance program has evolved into a web‐based learning platform. Currently, UF offers online master’s degrees from participating departments within the UF College of Engineering, through its EDGE program. Each master’s degree requires 10 courses (3 credit hours each). Each department within the College of Engineering participates in the distance program. Table 1 presents the course offerings by engineering department. Table 1: Distance courses offered in the EDGE program Engineering Department Biomedical Engineering Civil and Coastal Engineering Computer and Informational Sciences and Engineering Electrical and Computer Engineering Environmental Engineering Industrial and Systems Engineering Material Sciences and Engineering Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Nuclear and Radiological Engineering

Number of Courses Offered 4 11 12 6 8 4 8 12 1

The asynchronous instruction by the EDGE program provides schedule flexibility for distance students who are often employed full time. The EDGE program is administered by a director, three program assistants, and four technical specialists that support the video production. Full‐time UF faculty teach the courses. The lectures are recorded in a studio classroom, and student assistants operate the cameras during the recordings. The program currently produces 53 courses per year (note that some courses are offered more than once during an academic year). The interesting and unique aspect of the EDGE program is that distance learners are registered to take the same classes concurrently with traditional on‐campus students. On‐campus students attend the live lecture session, whereas distance students view the classroom sessions as streaming video on a class website. In general, distance students and on‐campus students share identical course materials (lecture notes, drawings, etc.), assignments, and assessments. The same classroom grading scale is applied to distance and on‐campus students. This paper focuses on the integration challenges of courses offered by the Department of Civil and Coastal Engineering (CCE), in which the authors have considerable experience. There are currently 72 students in the civil engineering distance master’s degree program. A typical course will register approximately 35 on‐campus students and 25 distance students. Thus, the data from the CCE students provide a large enough sample on which to conduct statistical analyses to support the conclusions of the research team.

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2. Curriculum and course design 2.1 Program structure The Civil Engineering distance master’s degree curriculum is equivalent to a general civil engineering degree as it includes courses from several practice areas. Table 2 presents the Department of Civil and Coastal Engineering course offerings by practice area. Table 2: Department of civil engineering course offerings by practice area Civil Engineering Practice Area Transportation Engineering

Courses Transportation Engineering Highway Capacity Deep Foundations Slope Stability and Retaining Structures Construction Engineering I‐II International Project Management Engineering Project Management Advance Engineering Cost Estimating Design of Temporary Structures

Geotechnical Engineering Construction Engineering

Structural Engineering

It should be noted that faculty participation in the distance program is voluntary. The course offerings, therefore, are limited by the ability to recruit faculty to participate in the program. Students are given some flexibility to include additional elective courses in their degree programs. As a result, they typically take one or two courses outside of civil engineering. The typical distance student takes two courses per semester and completes the master’s degree in two years.

2.2 Instruction All of the courses are originally campus‐only courses with a traditional delivery structure that included in‐class lectures, homework assignments, team projects, quizzes, and tests. For the most part, the EDGE courses are structured with the same elements. The instructors present their lectures to the on‐campus students in studio classrooms, usually via slide notes projected on a screen, and often provide in‐class student work activities. Within 24 hours, these in‐class lectures are video‐taped and made available to distance students on a class website.

2.3 Assessments Course instructors give weekly quizzes that cover the previous week’s material. On‐campus students take the quizzes during the regular class session; distance learners remotely access and complete the same quizzes after they are posted on the class website. Distance learners are generally given the same amount of time as on‐campus students to complete the quizzes; however, they are given a time frame (generally a week) after the original lecture to access the quizzes. Tests are usually given using the assessment feature on the class website. Given the relatively large class sizes, automatic grading is a significant benefit. Available question formats include multiple choice, matching, true or false, and short answer. On‐campus students take the tests in a computer lab or in class in a traditional exam format. If a test does not permit the use of books and notes, distance students must use a designated proctor. If the test is “open notes,” distance students login to the website and take an identical test. Distance students are given the same amount of time to complete the test but have only one week to access the exams.

2.4 Assignments Both on‐campus and distance students receive short term, weekly homework assignments. An assignment feature on the class website distributes the assignments and acts as a mechanism to facilitate the students’ submission of assignments. On‐campus and distance students have the same due dates to complete these assignments.

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2.5 Team projects and presentations The engineering profession is team‐oriented. Thus, team project and presentation requirements are built into the EDGE program’s courses. Although experimental at the beginning, assigning on‐ and off‐campus students to the same teams has proven to be a successful initiative. Perhaps the role of technology and the adaptability of the students are the most significant factors in the initiative’s success. After the teams complete their projects, the student team members must deliver in‐class presentations of them.. Distance learners are not required to actively participate in these presentations; however, they are required to contribute to the presentation preparation via a pre‐recorded video or a live connection, such as Skype.

2.6 Course management tools Another logistical issue in combining distance and on‐campus students in concurrent courses is how to facilitate the collaboration between groups and between instructors and students. Communicating through traditional mail and telephone is still effective, but online communication tools have become more favorable and efficient. Improving this type of collaboration and course delivery requires an advanced online course management system platform. In Spring 2011, UF replaced Blackboard, its old learning management system (LMS) system, with Sakai, which features a set of software tools designed to help instructors, researchers, and students collaborate on course instruction, research, or general projects online. The courses in this study have been delivered online through the UF e‐Learning program using the Sakai software application. Other Sakai tools used include the LMS’s announcements feature, its class agenda calendar feature, and its resources folder for storing and sharing lecture notes and course materials. These tools have facilitated the delivery of courses and helped publish key information on a timely basis. Additionally, features such as Chat Room and Discussion have proven helpful for real‐time communication between instructors and students and between distance students and on‐campus students.

3. Performance comparisons The question is whether the performance of distance students matches that of on‐campus students. In our case, the comparison is particularly valid because both categories of students take the same courses concurrently and receive the same instruction albeit through different media. Many studies have compared on‐campus and distance student performance. The prevailing consensus has been that there is no significant difference in performance (for example, Allen et. al, 2002; Aragon et. al, 2002; DeTure, 2004; Lim et. al, 2008; McLaren, 2004; Morris et. al, 2005; Neuhauser, 2002). However, contradictory findings from individual studies have also been reported (Jahng, 2004). One possible reason for the former findings is that the distance‐ learning environment has been greatly improved with the progress of information technology and Internet applications. Allen et al. (2002) and Jahng (2004) conducted meta‐analyses to synthesize existing research for comparison with conclusions suggesting little difference between the achievement of both types of students and little difference in satisfaction between distance education and on‐campus education. We conducted a similar analysis on the performance of distance and on‐campus students in civil engineering distance/on‐campus courses. Data were collected from three graduate‐level courses for civil engineering students over 11 semesters. Each course had different sections, typically including one traditional on‐campus section and two distance sections. The sections in each course were taught by the same instructor, used the same course materials, required the same student activities, and implemented the same grading schemes. Table 3 shows the enrollment components of on‐campus and distance students for each of the 11 semesters. Overall, a total of 664 students effectively enrolled in one of the sections across the three courses, of which 47% were distance students and 53% were on‐campus students. We found that in the United States, more students (59% on average) preferred to enroll in distance sections during the summer semesters. Table 4 provides an overview of the final total course grade points according to different student categories. The overall averages across all of the 11 semesters were close between distance students (89.5) and on‐ campus students (89.7). However, the standard deviations of the final total points for distance learners were larger than those for on‐campus students, except for the spring semester in 2009. A possible reason might be that traditional face‐to‐face instruction in classrooms are standardized and streamlined (e.g., active interaction between faculty and students, office hours) whereas distance learning depends on the distance students’ own initiatives. Further quantitative comparisons will be provided in later sections.

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Ralph Ellis, Duzgun Agdas and Xi Zheng Table 3: Overview of course enrollment

Course

Semester

Number

Percentage

Number

Percentage

Total

Percentage

Fall 2008

39.3%

60.7%

100%

Fall 2009

44.4%

55.6%

100%

Fall 2011

41.5%

58.5%

100%

Fall 2012

35.5%

64.5%

100%

Average

23.3

40.2%

35.0

59.8%

58.3

100%

Spring 2008

37.5%

62.5%

100%

Spring 2009

29.4%

70.6%

100%

Spring 2010

61.8%

38.2%

100%

Spring 2012

40.0%

60.0%

100%

Average

23.5

42.2%

32.0

57.8%

55.5

100%

Summer 2008

48.5%

51.5%

100%

Summer 2010

60.0%

40.0%

100%

Summer 2012

69.7%

30.3%

100%

Average

41.3

59.4%

28.3

40.6%

69.7

100%

Total

311

46.8%

353

53.2%

664

100%

CGN 6155

CGN 6156

CGN 6905/ 6150

Distance

On‐Campus

Total

Table 4: Overall student performance (final total points)

Fall 2008

Fall 2009

Media n Mean Std Dev Media n Mean Std Dev

Distanc e

OnCampu s

89.7 89.1

89.5 89.2

5.47

4.04

83.1 84.3

83.6 83.5

5.36

5.23

Spring 2008

Spring 2009

Spring 2010

Fall 2011

Fall 2012

CGN615 5 Summar y

Overall

Media n Mean Std Dev Media n Mean Std Dev Media n Mean Std Dev Media n Mean Std Dev

90.5 89.9

92.6 92.1

4.8

3.25

92 89.7

88.9 88.3

9.48

5.07

89.7 88.4

89.4 88.7

6.74

5.21

91.5 89.5

90.7 89.7

7.5

6.05

Spring 2012

CGN615 6 Summar y

Distanc e

OnCampu s

88 84.3

90.1 87.7

12.18

8.49

85.4 84

83.3 83.6

5.33

6.18

89.7 87.9

91.5 90.1

7.37

6.3

87.1 88

90.3 91.2

7.07

3.5

Media n Mean Std Dev Media n Mean Std Dev Media n Mean Std Dev

Media n Mean Std Dev Media n Mean Std Dev

146

87.6 86.5

89.2 87.9

8.44

6.96

Summer 2008

Summer 2010

Summer 2012 CGN690 5/ CGN615 0 Summar y

Media n Mean Std Dev

Media n Mean Std Dev Media n Mean Std Dev

Distanc e

OnCampu s

94.7 92.1

94.1 94.1

7.82

4.18

93.4 92.4

93.8 93.3

5.24

2.62

94.3 93.1

94.8 94.4

5.35

1.94

94.1 92.6

94.1 93.9

6.03

3.24

Ralph Ellis, Duzgun Agdas and Xi Zheng Final course letter grades, which are the basic judgment criteria for student performance, are also listed for each semester and separated by student categories, as shown in Table 5. Intuitively, the overall performances of distance students and on‐campus students were similar. However, one of the graduation requirements is that the students achieve a minimum 3.0 GPA in the major area. This typically means that a graduate student must maintain a B or above letter grade for each course that he or she takes. Thus we consider a course grade of B‐ or below as unqualified. Only 3 (or 0.8%) of the on‐campus students received unqualified grades across the 11 semesters compared with 12 (or 3.9%) of the distance students. Table 5: Overall student performance A

Grade Distance

Category

AOn-Campus

Distance

B+ On-Campus

Distance

On-Campus

% Total % Total % Total % Total % Total % Total Number Number Number Number Number Number Distance Oncampus Distance Oncampus Distance Oncampus Fall 2008

45.8%

43.2%

0.0%

37.5%

43.2%

Fall 2009

20.0%

16.0%

10.0%

24.0%

20.0%

Fall 2011

33.3%

36.8%

29.6%

31.6%

18.5%

28.9%

Fall 2012

50.0%

17.5%

9.1%

27.5%

27.3%

30.0%

Spring 2008

38.1%

51.4%

0.0%

38.1%

34.3%

Spring 2009

53.3%

41.7%

0.0%

26.7%

30.6%

Spring 2010

29.4%

42.9%

20.6%

9.5%

8.8%

28.6%

Spring 2012

29.2%

36.1%

12.5%

22.2%

16.7%

36.1%

Summer 2008

60.6%

65.7%

0.0%

24.2%

31.4%

Summer 2010

31.1%

36.7%

37.8%

36.7%

15.6%

20.0%

Summer 2012

41.3%

45.0%

17.4%

25.0%

28.3%

30.0%

121

38.9%

139

39.4%

15.1%

15.6%

22.8%

109

30.9%

Sum

Grade Category

B Distance

B- and below On-Campus

Distance

Total

On-Campus

Distance On-Campus

% Total % Total % Total % Total Number Number Number Number Number Number Distance Oncampus Distance Oncampus Fall 2008

16.7%

13.5%

0.0%

Fall 2009

45.0%

32.0%

5.0%

8.0%

Fall 2011

14.8%

2.6%

3.7%

0.0%

Fall 2012

9.1%

25.0%

4.5%

0.0%

Spring 2008

9.5%

14.3%

0.0%

Spring 2009

20.0%

27.8%

0.0%

Spring 2010

35.3%

14.3%

5.9%

4.8%

Spring 2012

37.5%

5.6%

4.2%

0.0%

Summer 2008

12.1%

2.9%

3.0%

0.0%

Summer 2010

13.3%

6.7%

2.2%

0.0%

Summer 2012

10.9%

0.0%

2.2%

0.0%

19.3%

13.3%

3.9%

0.8%

311

353

Sum

We completed an independent t‐test to measure significant differences between the overall performances of distance students and on‐campus students. The independent t‐test is a commonly used statistical tool to compare mean responses (or final point totals) of two independent (on‐ and off‐campus students) variables (Mendenhall and Sincich, 1996). We assume unequal variances because we have seen that the standard deviations of total points for distance learners appeared larger than those for on‐campus students (see Table 4). Yet, the results reported in Table 6 were found to be insignificant, indicating that the final point totals of on‐ and off‐campus students are not significantly different.

4. Opportunities and challenges Although not without its challenges, offering courses concurrently for distance and on‐campus students has many advantages. The distance‐student component produces significantly more revenue with only small additional production costs. Moreover, most of the distance learners in the EDGE program are working professionals who bring real world experience to our combined classroom, which significantly benefits our on‐ campus students. In addition to the connection that on‐campus students develop with distance learners through our distance‐degree program, long‐term relationships develop between the EDGE program faculty and distance‐learners’ employers, which increases the visibility of the program.

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Ralph Ellis, Duzgun Agdas and Xi Zheng Table 6: Student final total points comparison Mean Variance Observations Hypothesized Mean Difference Degree of Freedom t Statistic p (one‐tail) p (two‐tail)

On‐Campus 89.66 36.51 353

Distance 89.50 56.21 311

0 595 0.295 0.384 0.768

Although distance learning has its benefits, it also has limitations that complicate the delivery of courses. The disadvantage resulting from the absence of hands‐on experience in virtual laboratory‐type courses still persists (Ogot et al. 2003). In the EDGE program, there are no laboratory courses; however, in the case of undergraduate engineering courses, laboratory courses cannot be avoided. In some cases, the demands of a distance student’s employment can also be an issue. There have been numerous military personnel enrolled in the EDGE program who serve in remote locations with significant time differences and limited Internet access. So far, we have been able to accommodate their circumstances using common sense and flexibility in each situation. Given that our program is voluntary for faculty, finding incentives to encourage faculty to accept the additional administrative responsibilities can be challenging.

5. Conclusions UF’s experience indicates that combining distance and on‐campus students in a single course is successful. Detailed statistical analyses indicated that neither the point totals, nor the letter grades showed significant difference between on‐ and off‐campus student groups. The reasons for why little difference was found can be attributed to a combination of LMS functionality, student adaptability, and faculty flexibility in meeting the additional demands of the distance learners. With little additional administrative efforts, course enrollment increased significantly, and additional revenue streams were created. Moreover, distance students add to the learning experience of the on‐campus student component by bringing their industry experience to class, and increasing the overall knowledge diffusion.

References Allen, M., Bourhis, J., Burrell, N. and Mabry, E. (2002) “Comparing Student Satisfaction with Distance Education to Traditional Classrooms in Higher Education: A Meta‐Analysis”, American Journal of Distance Education, Vol. 16, Issue 2, pp 83‐97. Aragon, S.R., Johnson, S.D. and Shaik, N. (2002) “The Influence of Learning Style Preferences on Student Success in Online Versus Face‐to‐Face Environments”, American Journal of Distance Education, Vol. 16, Issue 4, pp 227‐243. DeTure, M. (2004) “Cognitive Style and Self‐Efficacy: Predicting Student Success in Online Distance Education”, American Journal of Distance Education, Vol. 18, Issue 1, pp 21‐38. Jahng, N. (2004) “A meta‐analysis of the effectiveness of online distance education compared to face‐to‐face education”, [online], The University of British Columbia, https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/15556 Lim, J., Kim, M., Chen, S.S. and Ryder, C.E. (2008) “An Empirical Investigation of Student Achievement and Satisfaction in Different Learning Environments”, Journal of Instructional Psychology, June, Vol. 35, Issue 2, pp 113‐119. McLaren, C.H. (2004) “A Comparison of Student Persistence and Performance in Online and Classroom Business Statistics Experiences”, Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, Spring, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp 1‐9. Mendenhall, W. and Sincich, T. (1996) A Second Course in Statistics: Regression Analysis, 5th ed., Pretice‐Hall, Inc., New Jersey. Morris, L.V., Finnegan, C. and Wu, S. (2005) “Tracking student behavior, persistence, and achievement in online courses”, The Internet and Higher Education, Vol. 8, Issue 3, 3rd Quarter, pp 221‐231. Neuhauser, C. (2002) “Learning Style and Effectiveness of Online and Face‐to‐Face Instruction”, American Journal of Distance Education, Vol. 16, Issue 2, pp 99‐113. Ogot, M., Elliott, G. and Glumac, N. (2003) “An Assessment of In‐Person and Remotely Operated Laboratories”, Journal of Engineering Education, January, Vol. 92, pp 57–64.

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Stories of Resistance: Digital Counterstories Among South African Pre‐Service Student Educators Daniela Gachago, Franci Cronje, Eunice Ivala, Janet Condy and Agnes Chigona Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa gachagod@cput.ac.za franci.cronje@gmail.com ivalae@cput.ac.za condyj@cput.ac.za chigonaa@cput.ac.za Abstract: Although racial integration has happened since 1994 in South Africa’s classrooms, social and cultural integration is still lagging behind. Firmly established beliefs and assumptions continue to impact heavily on students’ (non)engagement across difference. This study reports on an on‐going project in a pre‐service teacher education course, in which final‐year students reflected in the form of a digital story on the notion of difference and how it affected their journey into becoming a teacher. A digital story is defined as a first person’s narrative, combining voice, sound and images into a short video. While digital storytelling has entered Higher Education as a vehicle to reflect on issues of identity and difference, there is a paucity of research framed by a critical perspective, unpacking underlying power structures in a classroom. Drawing on theories of resistance, counterstorytelling and multimodality, five of these digital stories, students’ reflective essays and a focus group were analysed to investigate types of resistance in students’ narratives, their perceptions on functions of counterstorytelling and the role multimodality played in the telling of these counterstories. Results of the study showed students’ intent to develop so‐called ‘counterstories’, defined as stories that challenge social and racial injustice and are usually not heard in education. Students also perceived the telling of counterstories as useful to building communities among marginalised students, acting as model stories, providing an alternative window into the world of students of colours and a space for healing. Findings furthermore revealed the affordances of the multimodality of digital stories to facilitate the telling of often painful stories. However, only one story could be defined as portraying ‘transformational resistance’, which carries the highest potential for social change. Furthermore the multimodal analysis of the stories revealed contradictory elements in the various modes of the digital stories, highlighting the difficulty for students to resist dominant discourses. We suggest that engaging students in a multimodal analysis of their own stories could facilitate a nuanced conversation on consciously and unconsciously held beliefs and assumptions, and an awareness of themselves that may lead to questioning the dominant discourse they have been socialised in. More research is also needed on the use of these digital counterstories to draw students’ communities, especially members of dominant groups, into this conversation, for social justice to happen. Keywords: digital storytelling, counterstories, multimodal pedagogy, multimodal discourse analysis, social justice education, higher education, South Africa

1. Introduction After nearly 20 years of independence, the effects of a deeply unjust and divisive history of Apartheid can still be felt in South African Higher Education (HE) classrooms. Since 1994 South African HE has undergone major transformations, driven by the twin imperatives of racial transformation and pressures for efficiency (Department of Education 1997). However, the 2008 Ministerial Committee into Transformation and Social Cohesion in Higher Education (MCTHE) drew a dire picture of the state of South African HE context, confirming the pervasiveness of race and racism in people’s lives and a lack of student engagement across racial, social and cultural backgrounds (Soudien et al. 2008). This situation makes it important to engage educators and learners in a conversation about difference and inherent power structures that are attached to specific students’ backgrounds. Young (2003, p.349) claims that avoiding difficult topics in education is ‘a reflection of a societal denial that cultural factors matter and that such things as sexism, racism, and White privilege exist’. One way to overcome this resistance to engaging critically with students' historically situated and culturally mediated lived experiences is the telling of stories (Aveling 2006). Digital storytelling, the process of developing a first person’s narrative, combining voice, sound and images into a short video (Lambert 2010), has entered HE as one vehicle of facilitating students’ engagement across difference (Kobayashi 2012; Walters et al. 2011; Sleeter & Tettegan 2002). However, there is a paucity of studies which explore digital storytelling from the perspective of critical pedagogy, concerned with issues of power and oppression in education (Ladson‐Billings & Tate 2006). This study, which is set in the School of Education and Social Sciences at a large South African University of

149

Daniela Gachago et al. Technology, aimed to address this gap and add into the small but growing body of knowledge on the use of digital storytelling for facilitating the telling of counterstories; defined as stories that challenge social and racial injustice and are usually not heard in the classroom (Delgado 1989; Delgado‐Bernal 2002; Solorzano & Yosso 2002). Framed by theories of resistance, counterstorytelling and multimodality, this study is guided by the following research questions:

What types of counterstories/stories of resistance did students decide to tell?

What are the functions of these counterstories?

How can the emphasis on a multimodal pedagogical approach enhance the telling of counter‐stories?

2. Literature review 2.1 Critical storytelling Storytelling in critical pedagogy aims to give voice to normally silenced people and subjugated knowledge, in order to provide ‘a way to communicate the experiences and realities of the oppressed, a first step on the road to justice’ (Ladson‐Billings & Tate 2006, p.21). Storytelling is valued as a means for expressing and documenting experiential knowledge (Delgado 1989) about the particular experiences of those at the margins of society (Lynn 2006). Within critical storytelling there are two types of stories: stockstories and counterstories. Stockstories, also called masternarratives or majoritarian stories (Rolon‐Dow 2011), generate from a legacy of racial privilege, from stories in which racial privilege seems natural. They maintain this privilege and ‘carry layers of assumptions that person of positions of racialized privilege bring with them to discussions of racism, sexism, classism, and other forms of subordinations’ (Solorzano & Yosso 2002, p.28). Counterstories, on the other hand, ‘challenge social and racial injustice by listening to and learning from experiences of racism and resistance, despair and hope at the margins of society’ (Yosso 2006, p.171). Counterstories are stories of resistance. Resistance theories emphasize students’ agency to ‘negotiate and struggle with structures and create meanings of their own from these conversations’ (Solorzano & Delgado Bernal 2001, p.315). Solorzano and Delgado‐Bernal (2001, p. 316) differentiate between four different types of student oppositional behaviour: (a) reactionary behaviour, (b) self‐defeating resistance, (c) conformist resistance, and (d) transformational resistance. Figure 1 explains the four types and their relation to social justice and social oppression. Transformation resistance is characterised both by a desire to critique oppression and motivation to fight for social justice and as such shows the highest level of student agency.

Figure 1: Defining concepts of resistance, from Solorzano and Delgado Bernal (2001, p.318)

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Daniela Gachago et al. Counterstories thus have distinct functions for the marginalised group telling these stories: they build community, challenge perceived wisdom, open up new windows into reality of those living at the margins, and teach others that another reality can be constructed which is richer than the one we are living in (Solorzano & Yosso 2002). Furthermore, Yosso (2006) and Delgado (1989) refer to the potential of healing through the communal hearing of counterstories. As stories of resistance, however, they also aim for social transformation (Solorzano & Delgado Bernal 2001; Delgado 1989), to shake dominant groups, the story‐listeners, out of their complacency, rattle their worldview and may provide a means of ‘overcoming otherness, of forming a new collectivity based on the shared story’ (Delgado 1989, p. 2438).

2.2 Multimodal pedagogy and critical digital storytelling Vasudevan (2006, p.208) maintains that not only are different stories needed, but also different ways of telling these stories: ‘the call for counterstories intersects with the possibilities of multimodal composing wherein new digital technologies can be used to create not only new kinds of texts but also new kinds of spaces for storytelling and story‐listening’. Multimodal texts consist of different kinds of multimodal meanings. A number of design elements feature in the multiliteracies theory, namely linguistic, visual, audio, gestural and spatial meaning. These design elements are essentially an employment of multimodal discourse. How multimodal social semiotics gets integrated and incorporated into formal as well as informal learning environments, is seen as multimodal pedagogies: ‘Pedagogic processes can be understood as the selection and configuration of the semiotic resources available in the classroom’ (Stein & Newfield 2006, p.7). st Digital storytelling, a multimodal pedagogy, has gained increasing interest as a tool for engaging 21 century learners in Higher Education. This study is heavily influenced by the digital storytelling model developed by the Center for Digital Storytelling (CDS) at the University of Berkeley. The digital storytelling model, promoted by the CDS, had as its main objective to fight for social justice by giving marginalised groups a voice. The CDS sees digital storytelling not as an individual process, but foregrounds the importance of communal sharing of stories in a story circle (Lambert 2010). Their model of creating digital stories is specific and involves a 3‐4 days workshop, in which participants collaboratively develop their stories. The communal sharing of stories is the main element in the process of digital storytelling, which they call story circle. There are plenty of examples in which digital storytelling has been used to explore issues of difference in students (Kobayashi 2012; Sleeter, & Tettegan 2002; Walters et al. 2011), however few studies are underpinned by a critical pedagogy perspective and even less focus specifically on the telling of counterstories. Rolon‐Dow’s (2011) account of using digital storytelling with coloured high school students in the US is one example of the use of digital storytelling for telling counterstories. She argues from a critical race theory (CRT) perspective and analyses digital stories in terms of stockstories and counternarratives, with a particular focus on stereotypes and microaggressions. She concludes that ‘digital storytelling in combination with a CRT framework, can provide a window into understanding the ways race operates in the lives of youth and the microaggressions that students of colour face in today’s educational contexts’ (p. 170). Another example is Vasudevan’s study (2006) on African American adolescent boys, who through the medium of a digital story authored counterstories: ‘new selves that challenged what they asserted as negative assumptions from other adults in their lives’ (p. 209).

3. Context of the study This study is set in the context of South African pre‐service teacher education in the School of Education and Social Sciences in a University of Technology in South Africa. Students in this course are differently positioned in terms of gender, age, race and language and come from highly diverse economic, social and cultural backgrounds. In 2010, digital storytelling was introduced in a course entitled ‘Professional Course’. In this course, final year students developed reflective teaching portfolios, traditionally as paper‐based portfolio, and more recently in form of a digital story. Students attended weekly workshops and were guided through the process of creating a digital story. The brief for the digital stories was to reflect on one critical incident they encountered in their

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Daniela Gachago et al. teaching practice in which they experienced or witnessed difference and how this critical incident impacted on their own teacher identity. The final digital stories are short (3‐5 mins.) digital movies, based on a written script of maximum 500 words, including digital images, which are either created by the student him/herself or sourced from the Internet. A background sound provides the ambience. For examples of digital stories produced in this project see http://www.youtube.com/user/cputstories. A final screening completes the digital storytelling process.

4. Methodology This study falls into the field of qualitative research. Data were collected through students’ digital stories, their reflective essays and one focus group conducted at the end of the project. Participants of this study were drawn from 62 students, who produced digital stories as part of their professional course in the 2012 academic year. Out of these 62 stories, five were purposively selected based on their narrative which showed some elements of ‘counterstories’ and which narrated experiences of resistance against dominant discourses or majoritarian stories (Solorzano & Delgado Bernal 2001). It is important to note that we see counterstories as not only focusing on racial privilege, but also privilege that is based for example on gender or class (Solorzano & Yosso 2002). Data analysis of the written narratives, reflective essays and one focus group interview was done deductively (Maxwell 2008), whereby relevant data were mapped to the constructs found in the literature review, such as the functions of counterstorytelling. The digital stories were analysed by way of multimodal discourse analysis (Jewitt 2010; Baldry & Thibault 2006). Baldry and Thibault (2006) define multimodal discourse analysis as the way in which different semiotic systems such as language, gesture, music and movement etc. are described and analysed in relation to each other, in a certain instance. Jewitt defines multimodality as approaching ‘representation, communication and interaction as something more than language’ (2010, p.1). Shortly, theorists agree that multimodality describes the practice of using a collection of modes to communicate a message in our contemporary society (Jewitt 2010; Kress & Van Leeuwen 2001) while Baldry and Thibault promise that a multimodal perspective ‘may well encourage a critical rethinking and reformulation of the relationship between texts and society’ (2006, p. 1). This study was concerned with the linguistic meaning (language in the cultural context), visual meaning (everything seeing and viewing) and audio meaning (hearing and sound) and how these emerge in a digital story. All of these individual modes are described and analyzed individually in the context of the modes used and decided upon, and how these decisions impact on the ultimate meaning. The scope of this paper, however, does not allow a detailed description of multimodal analysis used for the study. Ethical clearance was sought through the Research Committee of the School of Education and Social Sciences at the institution. Names of students were changed for reasons of confidentiality.

5. Findings and discussion The focus of this study was to explore the interplay of counterstorytelling and multimodal pedagogy in a pre‐ service teacher education course in the form of five digital stories. After a short overview of these five stories we discuss them following the three research questions guiding this study, namely 1. the types of resistance in these narratives, 2. the functions of counterstories as identified by students, and 3. the role the multimodal pedagogy played in producing these counterstories. Student narratives Students address various issues of power in their stories, challenging accounts that justify ‘the world as is’ (Delgado 1989, p.2421), telling stories of resistance against dominant discourses (Solorzano & Delgado Bernal 2001). These stories are examples of ‘personal narratives’ (Solorzano & Yosso 2002, p.32), recounting individual’s experiences with various forms of racism, classism and sexism, and how these forms of oppression intersect (Solorzano & Delgado Bernal 2001). Four of the five stories are told by students of colour from formerly disadvantaged communities, namely Duduzile (Black African female), Lebogang (Black African female), Shaheed (Coloured male) and Vanessa (Coloured female). The fifth story is produced by a female White student, Paula, who comes from a formerly advantaged background.

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Daniela Gachago et al. All five stories deal with difference and disadvantage: Lebogang’s story (Striving towards my success) and Duduzile’s (Struggle for a better life) focusing on race and financial disadvantages and their personal journeys in overcoming these challenges. Vanessa’s story (Breaking Free) deals with sexual abuse of children. Shaheed’s story (Against the Tide) comments on teachers and their responsibilities towards their learners. Paula’s story (Swept under the rug) is the only one borne out of the perspective of a member of the dominant group, while she discusses her own position as privileged White woman in the current South African educational environment. Types of resistance in counternarratives Solorzano and Delgado Bernal (2001) argue that there are multiple strategies of student resistance, some more overt than others. While in some of these narratives students decide to actively resist dominant discourses, others’ resistances might be more subtle and silent in an attempt ‘to prove others wrong’ (ibid, p. 319). Shaheed for example sees himself as having strong morals and values and this pushes him to publicly defy his tutor teacher. This teacher abuses his position of power as the vice principal by neglecting his teaching duties, letting the student teachers ‘babysit his learners, while he is busy with other school and personal responsibilities’. Shaheed decides to report him to the school authorities, as he explains: Everyone at the specific school that I spoke to about this incident or about this specific person … They always just said oh it’s a teacher who has been here for years and it’s not going to change and because coming back to role models and values … I couldn’t just stand by and leave it… I went against the tide. Something that I guess not all people will do because it’s inconvenient. Duduzile, on the other side, tells a story of her silent but stubborn rebellion against the view that as a black woman: You are not just a human being… you must be put in a certain box and you are expected to act in a certain way… Even if it’s against your convictions or your personality but because you are a woman people are expecting certain things from you. She tries to find a way to go against these expectations and while meeting some of those expectations, such as getting married and having children, she hangs on to her dream of empowering herself through University Education and when finally achieving this, proclaims proudly: Today I am not just a teacher; I am an inspiration to others, to my family and friends, who all have gone back to institutions of learning, not allowing anybody anymore to tell them what is possible and not possible for a black person in this country. Whether openly or silently, the students’ stories are a critique of social oppression. However, their focus on social justice is not equally strong. While Shaheed’s story is about his fight to better his students’ lives by openly attacking established power structures, Duduzile’s, Lebogang’s and Vanessa’s stories are what Yosso would call ‘resiliance stories’, placed at the intersection between conformist and transformational resistance (Yosso and Delgado Bernal 2001). These are stories about students’ own survival in dominant structures, about the strategies they employ, which ‘leave the structures of domination intact, yet help the students survive and/or succeed’ (Yosso 2000, p.181). This points to the multi‐layeredness and complexity of privilege and oppression in the classroom: in this case it allows Shaheed an agency, as the only male in this group, to openly fight an oppressive system, seemingly less accessible to his female colleagues. The purpose and function of counterstories Counterstories are per definition stories that are not usually told (Solorzano & Yosso 2002), and the building of communities among marginalised students (Solorzano & Yosso 2002; Solorzano & Bernal 2001).This emerges strongly in students’ comments. Lebogang, for example, explains that for her the digital storytelling project provided a safe space for telling ‘untold’ stories that are usually not told for ‘insecurities and fear of consequences’. Similarly Vanessa emphasizes that the digital storytelling project gives her a platform to ‘voice her story’, a story of sexual abuse, something that is usually not encouraged: When I started voicing my story to people I think I was 19 or 18 when I finally spoke up and a lot of people – most of the people I spoke to told me not to say anything…We have so many stories to tell and I think we all just needed a platform. Each one just needed a platform and in these

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Daniela Gachago et al. four years we did so much talking in front of each other and so many orals and presentations but what really mattered to us personally we didn’t have a platform to air it. Another function of counterstorytelling is the building of communities among marginalised students (Solorzano & Yosso 2002; Solorzano & Bernal 2001) and in the students’ reflections we find evidence of this. Lebogang mentions, that through the project, students get to know each other in different ways, and what really matters to particular students. Vanessa describes the strengthening of her class community through the digital storytelling project: Because of all the stress of the years we just lost each other. We lost ourselves and this just kind of brought us back together and reminded us who we were and what we meant to each other. During the screening of the stories, these stories also act as model stories for other students, a window into a world that is different from what they expect, modelling possibilities for life other than the ones they usually hear or experience (Solorzano & Delgado Bernal 2001; Delgado 1989), as Duduzile’s explains: I think as a person you are not just in gender or your colour. You are much more … and you are allowed to be outside the box. Your role is not only limited – from being a girl child to being a mother or a woman, a wife… you can be much more than that and you can choose if you want to have children or don’t want to have children. It’s not something that should be expected of you and if you cannot fulfil it you are made to feel bad about it because even if you have children or you don’t have you still have – you are much more than what the society puts in a box… you can be anything. By sharing these counterstories, students realise that they are not the only ones facing specific challenges, as Duduzile continues to explore: Ja because you think, no man, you are the only person who is going through this…other people are happy and they’re not facing the kind of problem that you are having. So when you talk together you see oh this is not only me. We are all like this. By telling counterstories there is potential for healing (Delgado 1989; Solorzano et al. 2000). Students experiences the sharing of these often painful stories and offering their vulnerability to their peers, as liberating and healing. In the following quote Paula expands on how ’Swept under the rug’ helped her come to terms with the feeling of guilt that comes with being White in South Africa: I didn’t want to feel that guilt anymore but I wanted to express it and now that I have actually expressed that guilt I don’t feel it so much anymore. In similar fashion Vanessa describes ’Breaking free’: ‘I wanted my story to feel uncomfortable for me because I’m breaking free from my conformity and free from my silence. ‘ Employing a multimodal pedagogical approach to enhance the telling of counterstories Students reported that the multimodality helped themselves express their stories, as Lebogang explains: ‘ [using] images, sounds and music…made it easier for one to express him/herself as it made the whole project to be fun and real’. Students are proud of the creativity and individuality that their digital stories afforded them, as Shaheed’s comment shows: My friends and family know me for being slightly different. You will notice in the video, ranging from the music that I used in the video to colour….The colour of the pictures or the type of pictures that I used. It’s all there for a reason. Multimodality implies that the combination of different modes will result in different meanings. As an example, the background sound of digital stories can alter the meaning of a digital story. This means analysing these various modes/modalities incorporated in a digital story, such as the narrative, narration, images and sound, but also transitions and animations for their either complementary or contradictory meaning and how their individual modalities make up the bigger picture (Kress & Van Leeuwen 2001). Although a detailed multimodal analysis exceeds the scope of this paper, we can identify some interesting preliminary results. What we find, for example, when analysing students’ digital stories, is that in some instances the different modes of a digital story contradict each other. For example, Paula’s story, ‘Swept under the rug’, stands out among these students’ stories. Apart from a significantly bigger variation of image, the information value

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Daniela Gachago et al. within the corpus of images seems to be manipulated to a level where not only emotion is effectively conveyed, but also includes irony, multiple narrative levels and a sophisticated connotational use of object in images. This more established use of image combined with sophisticated verbalisation of emotions and concepts seems to be a double‐edged sword. While Paula’s written story is a story of rebellion against white people’s silence around their racial privilege, her pictures tell a different story of racial stereotypes. This resonates with Rose Brushwood’s (2009) study, in which she analyses the tension between the written script and the images her participants selected for her stories, which both ‘undermined and enriched by various ruptures, contradictions and gaps that emerge through the juxtaposition of sound and image.’ (2009: p. 212). She argues that it is specifically this juxtaposition which can show us our ‘unconscious and its ambivalences and resist the often tidy confines of our conscious telling’ (Milner cited in Rose Brushwood 2009: p. 212).

6. Conclusions Drawing on theories of resistance, counterstorytelling and multimodality, this study set out to explore five pre‐ service teacher educators’ perceptions on types of resistance, functions of counterstorytelling and the role multimodality played in the telling of these counterstories. These five students told different stories of disadvantage and oppression, based on students’ race, gender, age, economic and hierarchical status. The particular set‐up of this project in a highly diverse classroom allowed the hearing of stories that are usually not told and proved a useful way of unearthing these resistance stories (Solorzano & Delgado Bernal 2001). By telling these stories, students constructed their own counter realities (Delgado 1989). Findings show that students perceived the telling of counterstories as useful to building communities among marginalised students, acting as model stories, providing an alternative window into the world of students of colours and a space for healing. However, only one story could be classified as ‘transformational resistance story’, which has the greatest potential for social change (Solarzano and Delgado Bernal 2001). This raises important questions about what we as educators could do to improve students’ agency to tell more stories that are ‘political, collective, conscious, and motivated by a sense that individual and social change is possible’ (ibid, p.320). The multimodal element of this project appealed to students and allowed them to tell often painful stories in different modes, expressing their individuality and creativity in different ways. A multimodal analysis of the digital stories, showed the extent to which individual modes allowed for a meaning‐making that differed from and exceeded what would be possible through single or fewer modalities (Hull & James 2007). However, it also revealed how sometimes different modes could contradict each other. For example, while a student may have aimed to tell a counterstory on shedding the guilt that is associated with her White privilege in her narrative, the images she chose for her story told a story of racial stereotypes. Engaging students in a multimodal analysis of their own stories, could facilitate a nuanced conversation on consciously and unconsciously held beliefs and assumptions, which is otherwise difficult to achieve. This awareness of themselves may represent a first step for students to start questioning the dominant discourse they have been socialised in (Noel 1995). Although the findings of this study are preliminary and this is research in progress, they indicate, that bearing in mind the possibilities and challenges of multimodality, this type of multimodal pedagogy could suitably complement the telling of counterstories. Particularly in this setting, in which students from highly diverse backgrounds, created ‘new kinds of spaces for storytelling and story‐listening’ (Vasudevan 2006, p.208), one question remains: what impact did this project have on the students listening to these stories? Delgado (1989: p. 2415) argues, that social change can only happen when dominant groups join the marginalised in their fight for social justice. Have these stories managed to shake students identifying with privilege out of the complacency of dominant stories? Similarly to other studies (Rolon‐Dow 2011), we acknowledge the need to explore the use of these stories to engage students and their community in a conversation around issues of oppression and privilege that can lead to social change, in order to place this pedagogical intervention firmly in the context of social justice education.

Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the institution Research in Innovation in Teaching and Learning grant that funded this study and in particular the five students who took part in this project.

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References Aveling, N. (2006) “Hacking at our very roots: rearticulating White racial identity within the context of teacher education”, Race Ethnicity and Education, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp.261–274. Baldry, A. & Thibault, P.J. (2006) Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis, London: Equinox. Delgado, R. (1989) “Storytelling for Oppositionists and Others: A Plea for Narrative”, Michigan Law Review, Vol. 87, No. 8, pp.2411–2441. Delgado‐Bernal, D. (2002) “Critical race theory, Latino critical theory, and critical raced‐gendered epistemologies: Recognizing students of color as holders and creators of knowledge”, Qualitative Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp.105–26. Department of Education (1997) Education White Paper 3: A programme for the transformation of Higher Education, Pretoria: Department of Education. Hull, G.A. & James, M.A. (2007) Geographies of hope: A study of urban landscapes and a university‐community collaborative. In P. O’Neill, ed. Blurring boundaries: Developing wirters, researchers, and teachers: A tribute to William L. Smith. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, pp. 250–289. Jewitt, C. (2010) The Routledge Handbook of Multimodal Analysis , in C. Jewitt, ed., London: Routledge. Kobayashi, M. (2012) A digital storytelling project in a multicultural education class for pre‐ service teachers. Journal of Education for Teaching, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp.215–219. Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen, T. (2001) Multimodal discourse ‐ the modes and media of contemporary communication, London and New: Bloombury Academic. Ladson‐Billings, G.J. & Tate, W.F. (2006) Toward a critical race theory of education. In A. Disxon & C. Rousseau, eds. Critical Race Theory in Education: All God’s Children Got a Song, New York: Routledge, pp. 11–30. Lambert, J. (2010) Digital storytelling cookbook, Berkeley, CA: Center for Digital Storytelling. Lynn, M. (2006) “Race, culture, and the education of African Americans”, Educational Theory, Vol. 56, No. 1, pp.107–119. Maxwell, J.A. (2008) Designing a Qualitative Study. In L. Bickman & D. J. Rog, eds. The Sage handbook of applied social research methods. pp. 214–253. Noel, J.R. (1995) “Multicultural Teacher Education: From Awareness Through Emotions to Action”, Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 46, No. 4, pp.267–273. Rolon‐Dow, R. (2011) “Race(ing) stories: digital storytelling as a tool for critical race scholarship”, Race Ethnicity and Education, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp.159–173. Rose Brushwood, C. (2009) “The (Im) possibilities of Self Representation: Exploring the Limits of Storytelling in the Digital Stories of Women and Girls”, Changing English, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp.211–220. Sleeter, C. & Tettegan, S ( 2002) “Technology as a tool in multicultural teaching”, Multicultural Education, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp.3–9. Solorzano, D.G., Ceja, M. & Yosso, T.J. (2000) “Critical Race Theoy , Racial Microaggressions , and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students”, The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 69, No. 1, pp.60–73. Solorzano, D.G. & Delgado Bernal, D. (2001) “Examining Transformational Resistance Through a Critical Race and Latcrit Theory Framework: Chicana and Chicano Students in an Urban Context”, Urban Education, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp.308– 342. Solorzano, D.G. & Yosso, T.J. (2002) “Critical Race Methodology: Counter storytelling as an Analytical Framework for Education Research”, Qualitative Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 13, pp.23–44. Soudien, C. et al. (2008) Report of the Ministerial Committee on Transformation and Social Cohesion and the Elimination of Discrimination in Public Higher Education Institutions, Pretoria: Department of Education. Stein, P. & Newfield, D. (2006) “Multiliteracies and Multimodality in English in Education in Africa: Mapping the terrain”, English Studies in Africa, Vol. 49, No. 1, pp.1–21. Vasudevan, L. (2006) “Making Known Differently: engaging visual modalities as spaces to author new selves” [online], E‐ Learning, Vol. 3, No. 2, p.207, http://www.wwwords.co.uk/rss/abstract.asp?j=elea&aid=2784&doi=1 Walters, L.M. et al. (2011) “From Heads to Hearts: Digital Stories as Reflection Artifacts of Teachers ’ International Experience”, Issues in Teacher Education, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp.37–52. Yosso, T.J. (2000) “A critical race and LatCrit approach to media literacy: Chicana/o resistance to visual microagressions”, University of California, Los Angeles. Yosso, T.J. (2006) Critical race counterstories along the Chicana/Chicano educational pipeline, New York: Routledge. Young, G. (2003) Dealing with difficult classroom dialogues, in P. Bronstein & K. Quina, eds. Teaching Gender and Multicultural Awareness ‐ Resources for the Psychology Classroom. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 347–360.

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Project‐Based Assessment Influencing Pass Rates of an ICT Module at an ODL Institution Leila Goosen and Dalize van Heerden School of Computing, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa GooseL@unisa.ac.za VHeerme1@unisa.ac.za Abstract: This paper introduces research related to aspects of project‐based assessment ‐ these were investigated in response to a call for improved student pass rates, especially in Information Communication Technology (ICT) modules at an Open Distance Learning (ODL) institution. A literature review explores the opportunities and challenges for ODL in an era of e‐learning, and interprets the learning styles of ODL students. What types of tools can be used for improving the teaching and learning of computer programming typically found in ICT modules? We also investigated students’ attitudes toward virtual learning environments, based on a constructivist approach. This led to project‐based assessment being introduced into the ‘Introduction to Interactive Programming’ module in 2009. As part of the summative assessment in this module, students were required to create a website for a small business in their local community. Quantitative data from the University of South Africa assessment database were used to determine how the implementation of project‐based assessment influenced the module pass rate. The research populations consisted of all students registered for the module in the first and second semesters from 2009 to 2011. Results show how averages for the written examinations remained below the pass rate requirement of 50% throughout these six semesters. Conversely, students’ averages for their project‐ based assessment improved from the first implementation until 2011, progressively exceeding the pass rate requirement. More qualitative results provided students’ opinions obtained on issues such as whether the practical project gave them an opportunity to show what they have learnt in the module, and whether they enjoyed doing the practical projects. The paper includes recommendations and implications for the possible future use of project‐based assessment with similar projects and related modules. The conclusion summarises how the use of project‐based assessment could influence the pass rates of ICT modules, including those offered at ODL institutions. Keywords: project‐based assessment, pass rates, ICT, ODL

1. Introduction This paper provides research‐based results of how project‐based assessment positively influenced students’ pass rates in an Information Communication Technology (ICT) module at an Open Distance Learning (ODL) institution. These could offer innovative opportunities to lecturers for improving e‐learning across many spectra. ICT1512 (Introduction to Interactive Programming) is an undergraduate module in the National Diploma Information Technology presented at the comprehensive ODL University of South Africa (UNISA). The module introduces students to programming through the use of the programming language JavaScript. After studying the theory and completing practical exercises and hands‐on‐projects in this module, students should be able to:

use logical programming skills to design and develop introductory working computer programs, using industry process systems and organizational information systems that conforms to specific standards that are user‐friendly and robust, solution specific and to the satisfaction of the client;

think conceptually to recognize the design rules, techniques and components to develop such solutions; and

extend their knowledge, skills and values to levels needed to add interactive functionality to programs and websites through structured object‐oriented programming.

As part of formative assessment, students complete small projects based on requirements as set out in their prescribed books. Unfortunately, little can be done to ensure the authenticity of this assessment and therefore it does not contribute much (only 10%) to students’ final results. UNISA requires students to write invigilated examinations to ensure the authenticity of results. Prior to 2009, such an examination was the only summative assessment for students in this module. As part of this assessment, they wrote small pieces of code. In this scenario, neither the formative nor summative assessment could adequately determine whether a student has acquired adequate programming competencies and skills.

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Leila Goosen and Dalize van Heerden It was decided to include a practical project of limited scope as part of students’ assessment. Project‐based learning (PBL) represents “a model that organizes learning around projects” (Goosen & Van Heerden, 2013, quoting Thomas). To ensure that PBL was implemented authentically, the curriculum, instruction and assessment of the module itself were redesigned to include PBL, as opposed to simply adding project‐based assessment into the existing module (Goosen & Van Heerden, 2013, citing Barron and Darling‐Hammond). Students are now required to contact a small business in their area and obtain permission to create a simple website for the business. This can be a hair or beauty salon, service station or any small business in their area. They are not allowed to use a big business that already has an established web site. The website for the business must have the following pages:

A home page with an introduction to the business and what the business is about. This page must also contain the current date in the format day, month, year, e.g. 19 May 2012.

A page containing information about the services and products offered by the business. Each service and/or product must be described in full detail and a price list must also be included.

An order form where patrons can order and/or request a product and/or service from the price list. The order form should calculate the total amount of the products/services requested, together with calculating the amount of VAT payable, and add that to get the final amount.

A forms page that can be completed to request information from the business about their service and/or products. The information completed on the form must be verified and implement cookies.

Although students may add any additional pages, the four pages above are the minimum requirements.

This module is presented at first level and only covers front‐end aspects of web programming ‐ more advanced aspects are only presented in subsequent modules. Activating a business website on the World Wide Web involves certain security issues, which these students have not yet mastered. Some of the projects submitted by students are also not of high enough quality to allow these to be publicised. A further concern is the number of students who complete the projects: connecting more than 500 websites per examination period to the limited number of examination markers available is a time consuming task. Due to these reasons, it is both safer and more practical to have the students submit their projects in printed format, which they submit on the day that they write their examination for this module. Some of the questions in the examination are based on students’ projects, to ensure the authenticity of code. Next, we will provide a literature review exploring the opportunities and challenges for ODL in an era of e‐ learning. What types of tools can be used for improving the teaching and learning of computer programming typically found in ICT modules? We will also investigate students’ attitudes toward Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs), based on a constructivist approach, and interpret the learning styles of ODL students. Quantitative data from the UNISA assessment database will be used to determine how the implementation of project‐based assessment influenced the module pass rate. The research populations consist of all students registered for the module in the first and second semesters from 2009 to 2011. Results will show how averages for the written examinations remained below the pass rate requirement of 50% throughout these six semesters. Conversely, students’ averages for their project mark improved from the first implementation until 2011, exceeding the pass rate requirement. More qualitative results provide students’ opinions obtained on issues such as whether the practical project gave them an opportunity to show what they have learnt in the module, and whether they enjoyed doing the practical projects. The paper will include recommendations and implications for the possible future use of project‐based assessment with similar projects and related modules. In conclusion, a summary will be provided of how the use of project‐based assessment influences the pass rates of ICT modules, including those offered at ODL institutions.

2. Literature review We agree with Schultz and Schultz (2011:19) that the emergence of Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) has generated innovative strategies, which has resulted in e‐Learning being able to compete with more traditional modes of teaching for student enrolment ‐ learning “is no longer restricted by space and time”. Kromrey et al. (2005:1) concurred that the delivery of tertiary modules “via the Internet continues to gain momentum.” However, because of these trends, it has become necessary to start interpreting the learning styles of ODL students.

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Leila Goosen and Dalize van Heerden The module discussed in this paper is offered at first year level to ODL ICT students, is worth 12 credits (meaning that the average student will spend around 120 hours in total to complete it) and is based on a 6 month semester. Similarly, the module investigated by Wilson and Ferreira (2011:2) “allows geographically wide spread distance learners, in particular, who do not have face‐to‐face interaction, the opportunity to” experience PBL within an Information and Computer Science context. Also similar is that their students’ projects centre on students gaining “practical experience of independent learning and reflective practice” and applying “advanced principles and techniques to solve problems”. However, their module was at final (third) year level, and counted “60 CATs points … equivalent to 600 hours of self‐study … over a period of 9 months”. Linking to practical skills aspects mentioned earlier in this paragraph, Beddoes, Jesiek and Borrego (2010:7) pointed out that PBL is becoming increasingly common, “especially given the growing recognition of both the benefits of active learning and the importance of … students developing robust professional skills.” West (2011:135) also looked at “increasing student learning and support” within the context of mitigating “the impact of distance education on” students in general, and more specifically related to “student autonomy, cognition, social learning” and satisfaction. Although Forsyth, Pizzica, Laxton and Mahony (2010:15) also investigated the challenges and opportunities of ODL education in an era of e‐Learning, their research was conducted in the context of a campus‐focused institution. Because the growth of e‐Learning “technologies has blurred the boundaries of educational modes to a point where distance education programs can be offered” by such institutions too. These authors found it necessary to “identify organisational structure and culture as critical success factors for quality in distance education, with technology a, perhaps surprisingly, minor consideration.” According to Huang, Rauch and Liaw (2010:1171), finding authentic methods of assessment in Higher Education, especially in the case of ODL, is a question of good pedagogy. This is even more so the case when it comes to more practical modules such as programming. To be considered competent as programmers, students need to be able to practically demonstrate that they are able to design and program code according to user specifications. Getting large numbers of students together in computer laboratories to demonstrate their skills in an ODL environment is practically not possible, due to the demographic distribution of the students. Lecturers presenting programming modules through ODL, attempting “to find theoretical guidelines or instructional principles that could assist” their students in developing and applying the required skills, seem to prefer “constructivist learning as the pedagogical engine driving” their teaching. Park Rogers, Cross, Sommerfeld Gresalfi, Trauth‐Nare and Buck (2011:893) looked at a first year implementation of a PBL approach. Lecturers expressed a sense of PBL “being compatible with their goals, and the specific challenges with which they struggled.” All lecturers “wanted their students to be successful; however, different definitions of success led to quite different approaches toward teaching”. While Can (2010:1550) specifically investigated making the assessment of students’ achievement in e‐Learning more effective, Esteves, Fonseca, Morgado and Martins (2011:624) provided an analysis of how the “teaching and learning of computer programming at the university level could be developed” and improved. By identifying the problems hampering lecturers’ interventions, they managed to detect solutions for these problems, in that certain environments were found to produce increased effectiveness in successfully teaching and learning computer programming. When Scanlon (2011:97) investigated potential solutions for helping to “meet the challenges of incorporating practical work in” ODL modules when teaching at a distance, she found that another “challenge is related to the logistics of the development of the practical skills necessary for successfully studying” programming. From students’ perspectives, results obtained by Baturay and Bay (2010:43) “indicated that students who worked on problem‐based projects felt much more ‘connected’ to other class members when compared to the control group. They achieved higher scores in the post‐tests although their online midterm and final examination scores did not indicate any difference between the groups.” Yukselturk and Baturay (2011:357) similarly looked at critical issues, dynamics “and challenges related to PBL from” the perspectives of 49 students. The effects of PBL were examined qualitatively with an open‐ended questionnaire, observations and by studying the submissions of students “who were taking an online certificate course.” According to their results, “students thought that an online PBL course supports their professional development with provision of practical knowledge, enhanced project development skill” and self‐confidence.

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3. Conceptual framework Along with Baturay and Bay (2010:43), we believe that PBL is underpinned by the constructivist approach to teaching and learning, which forms the basis of project‐based assessment. Ling Koh, Herring and Hew (2010:284) explained that project‐based “learning engages students in problem solving through artefact design.” With respect to this engagement, “when critical thinking or deep learning is promoted through reflective and applied activities” by students (Yukselturk & Baturay, 2011:357), PBL is “characterized by more advanced levels of knowledge construction, where ideas were rationalized and integrated into plausible solutions.” Learning is enhanced when students take up actively involved roles “in their learning, since they not only absorb information, but also” build their new knowledge in steps that depend on connecting “it with previously assimilated knowledge” (Scanlon, 2011:97; Huang, Rauch & Liaw, 2010:1173). Huang, Rauch and Liaw (2010:1173, referring to Dewey) believe “that students should learn in a real situation by doing, so students could improve their skills through practice on realistic tasks. … learning should be real and applicable for daily life. Piaget and Dewey believed that the” lecturer’s role was to shape students’ real experiences “and to understand what surroundings tend to promote positive learning experiences”. Students therefore need to be empowered by providing them with learning and assignments that reflect real‐life contexts and experiences, in “real world, case‐based environments for meaningful and authentic knowledge” to be developed (Huang, Rauch & Liaw, 2010:1173). However, in this regard, Hung (2011:529) warned that the “success of an intervention depends not only upon its theoretical soundness, but also on proper implementation that reflects the guidelines derived from its theoretical conception.”

4. Results 4.1 Project‐based assessment compared to written examinations Overall, Figure 1 shows that over the period under investigation in this paper, students’ marks for the written examination fairly constantly remained very low, while the project results increased steadily.

Figure 1: Average marks for written examinations and projects 2009 through 2011 In 2009 and 2010, the project contributed 30% towards students’ final mark, while the written examination made up the remainder. In 2009, there was no significant difference between the project mark and the written examination mark. This is attributed to the assessment format still being new to both the students and the lecturer, not enough information being communicated to the students and the study schedule not providing for proper time management. In 2010, the study material was adapted to provide a detailed description of the requirements for the project and the study schedule was designed to give clear guidelines to the students as to when they are supposed to complete each of the requirements. This lead to a significant improvement in the quality of the projects, with

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Leila Goosen and Dalize van Heerden much better results obtained. Despite the improvement in the results for the project, the results of the written examination remained very low. As a result of the improved marks of the projects, it was decided to increase the percentage that the project contributed to a student’s final result to 50% ‐ the project and the written examination paper now contribute equally to the final mark of the student.

4.2 Students’ opinions regarding project‐based assessment 4.2.1 Sample demographics Although the number of students who participated in this survey is very small (7.7% of the students registered for the module), the demographics of those who did take part correspond fairly well with the population of students who had been registered for this same module in the first semester of 2011, as described by Van Heerden and Goosen (2012): The current sample had fairly much the same gender composition (70% male in this research) as that population (71% male), although the majority in terms of race had been a bit higher in that study (79% Black) compared to 61% Black in this research. The demographics of the sample also makes it clear that students taking this module tend to be older than the traditional first year level student, with more than a third each of respondents being either between 20 and 23 years of age (35%), or 28 years or older (38%). 4.2.2 Quantitative data describing students’ opinions regarding project‐based assessment The overall impression from Table 1 is that for the first eight of the statements provided to students, the largest percentage in each case agreed most strongly with these statements (students selected a 10 on the scale). For the last two items on the survey, just the opposite was true: the majority of students selected a 1 on the scale, indicating that they strongly disagree with those two statements.

Almost two‐thirds of respondents strongly agreed with the statements ‘The practical project gave me an opportunity to show what I have learnt in the module’ (33; 62%) and ‘The practical project contributed towards my studies’ (32; 60%) respectively. However, the next highest percentage (12%) for the first item on the list reflected a neutral stance from students, while one of the second highest percentages (9% each) for the second item lay right at the opposite end of the scale.

Just on half of students (49%) ‘enjoyed doing the practical project’, with additional support of a slightly less enthusiastic nature lower down the rating scale.

Students’ opinions on whether ‘All practical modules should be examined through a practical project’ vary considerably: Although the highest percentage of just more than a third of them very strongly agreed, there were pockets of minorities across the spectrum, including right at the negative end of the rating scale.

Although almost a third of respondents (16; 30%) strongly agree that they ‘prefer doing a practical project rather than having to write an examination about the theory’, ten (19%) of them have a neutral attitude towards this statement.

Although more than half of respondents (58%) fairly strongly agreed with the statement ‘I would like to do the planning of my project beforehand, get feedback from the lecturer and then write the code during an examination session at a Unisa computer lab’, more than a quarter of them ‐ (6; 13%) each ‐ either indicated that they have a neutral attitude towards this statement or strongly disagree with it. Opinions are therefore fairly divergent on this issue.

The item ‘I am very proud of myself for what I have achieved in doing the project’ received one of the most diverse ratings from students: Even though almost half of them (43%) gave this the highest possible rating, the next highest percentage (12%) occurred at the exact opposite of the scale.

Just more than a third of participants (35%) ‘experienced some time management issues in keeping up with (their) studies and completing the practical project’. Together with the next two highest percentages rated for this item, just less than two‐thirds of them fairly strongly agreed with this sentiment.

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Leila Goosen and Dalize van Heerden Table 1: What are students’ opinions regarding project‐based assessment? What are students’ opinions regarding project‐based assessment? Strongly disagree Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. The practical project gave me an 4% 0% 2% 0% 9% 6% 6% 8% 4% opportunity to show what I have learnt in the module. 2. The practical project contributed 9% 0% 4% 0% 4% 4% 6% 4% 9% towards my studies. 3. I enjoyed doing the practical 6% 2% 4% 2% 8% 6% 10% 8% 6% project. 4. All practical modules should be 12% 2% 6% 2% 8% 12% 8% 4% 12% examined through a practical project. 5. I prefer doing a practical project 13% 2% 2% 0% 19% 8% 4% 9% 13% rather than having to write an examination about the theory. 6. I would like to do the planning 13% 4% 4% 0% 13% 9% 15% 17% 9% of my project beforehand, get feedback from the lecturer and then write the code during an examination session at a Unisa computer lab. 7. I am very proud of myself for 12% 0% 4% 0% 8% 4% 10% 8% 10% what I have achieved in doing the project. 8. I experienced some time 6% 2% 0% 4% 10% 8% 8% 14% 14% management issues in keeping up with my studies and completing the practical project. 9. I experienced some problems in 31% 6% 8% 2% 12% 8% 8% 6% 8% finding a business that would allow me to create a website for them. 10. The requirements for the 27% 8% 12% 8% 12% 8% 10% 4% 8% practical project were unclear and I did not understand what was required of me.

10 62%

60% 49% 37%

30%

17%

43%

35%

10%

Finally, just less than a third each of respondents strongly disagreed with the statements ‘I experienced some problems in finding a business that would allow me to create a website for them’ (15; 31%) and ‘The requirements for the practical project were unclear and I did not understand what was required of me’ (13; 27%) respectively. However, the next highest percentage for both these statements reflected a neutral stance from students, with the last item on the list receiving another such a high in the middle of negative territory.

5. In conclusion Currently, both the written examination and project‐based assessments are being used, even though they provide such different results. UNISA requires the examination, in order to be able to answer to claims regarding the authenticity of results. However, this does not adequately address the issue of proving that the students are competent programmers who can practically demonstrate that they are able to design and program code according to user specifications ‐ the project‐based assessment provides a more valid picture of what students can actually do in terms of the module outcomes as detailed at the start of this paper. The responsible lecturer is therefore also, for instance, investigating an automated grading system, which will check the code for authenticity and ensure that no plagiarism occurs. Once the authenticity of students’ project‐based assessment can thus be better ensured, it is proposed that students in this module will no longer be required to complete a venue‐based written examination. As a consequence of increased student pass rates resulting from project‐based assessment, assessment in the module is currently again being looked at. It is being considered to have the formative assessment purely as self‐assessments and all assessments the student submits form part of their summative assessment. Students

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Leila Goosen and Dalize van Heerden will in future be required to submit their design documentation as their first assignment. They will then be given detailed feedback and requested to make any recommended changes. As their second assignment, they will be required to submit the original document, with the feedback, the improved document and their logical design of the project. They will again be given detailed feedback, together with a request to make recommended changes. As their third assignment, they will have to submit all previous documentation, with feedback and improvements, along with the code they wrote. Results from the three assignments will be combined to form the final summative result for the student, with assignment 1 contributing 20%, assignment 2 contributing 30% and assignment 3 contributing 50%. This paper introduced research related to aspects of a project‐based assessment approach, investigated in response to a call for improved student pass rates, especially in ICT modules at an ODL institution. A survey of related literature explored the opportunities and challenges for ODL in an era of e‐learning, together with the types of tools that can be used for improving the teaching and learning of computer programming typically found in ICT modules. We also investigated students’ attitudes toward VLEs, based on a constructivist approach, and interpreted the learning styles of ODL students. This led to project‐based assessment being introduced into the ICT1512 module in 2009. As part of the summative assessment in this module, students were required to create a website for a small business in their local community. Quantitative data from the UNISA assessment database were used to determine how the implementation of project‐based assessment influenced the module pass rate. The research populations consisted of all students registered for the module in the first and second semesters from 2009 to 2011. The project results over the years clearly showed how averages for the written examinations remain below the pass rate requirement of 50% throughout these six semesters. The authors are convinced that these poor results indicated problems related to the inability of the written examination to adequately assess students’ practically acquired skills. The fact that students’ averages for their project mark improved from the first implementation until 2011, exceeding the pass rate requirement, proves that there is no problem with the module; rather, this form of assessment provides students with a valid way to show their competencies. More qualitative results provided students’ opinions obtained ‐ that the practical project gave them an opportunity to show what they have learnt in the module and they enjoyed doing the practical projects. These results have the implications that (1) project‐based assessment can improve the pass rate of programming modules and (2) the possible future use of project‐based assessment with similar projects and related modules should be explored. Along with Kromrey et al. (2005:1), we believe that the implementation and application of a systematic approach to project‐based assessment will provide students with the “formative feedback on the processes and products” that they need. These results are therefore particularly important for those who are considering activities that involve project‐based assessment and/or students who are about take such a module (Yukselturk & Baturay, 2011:357). We make the recommendation that other (similar) modules investigate and implement project‐based assessment. A summary was thus provided of how the use of project‐based assessment could influence the pass rates of ICT modules, including those offered at ODL institutions.

References Baturay, M.H. and Bay, O.F. (2010) “The effects of problem‐based learning on the classroom community perceptions and achievement of web‐based education students”, Computers and Education, Vol 55, pp 43–52. Beddoes, Kacey D., Jesiek, Brent K. and Borrego, Maura. (2010) “Identifying Opportunities for Collaborations in International Engineering Education Research on Problem‐ and Project‐based Learning”, The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem‐based Learning, Fall, Vol 4, No. 2, pp 7–34. Can, V. (2010) “An investigation on evaluation of students’ achievement in on‐line teaching”, Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol 9, pp 1550–1555. Goosen, L. and Van Heerden, D. (2013) “Project‐based learning and assessment of an IT module in an ODL context”, South African Journal of Higher Education, Vol 27, No. 6. Esteves, Micaela, Fonseca, Benjamim, Morgado, Leonel and Martins, Paulo. (2011) “Improving teaching and learning of computer programming through the use of the Second Life virtual world”, British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol 42, No. 4, pp 624–637. Forsyth, Hannah, Pizzica, Jenny, Laxton, Ruth and Mahony, Mary Jane. (2010) “Distance education in an era of eLearning: challenges and opportunities for a campus‐focused institution”, Higher Education Research and Development, Vol 29, No. 1, pp 15‐28. Huang, Hsiu‐Mei, Rauch, Ulrich and Liaw, Shu‐Sheng. (2010) “Investigating learners’ attitudes toward virtual reality learning environments: Based on a constructivist approach”, Computers and Education, Vol 55, pp 1171–1182.

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Leila Goosen and Dalize van Heerden Hung, Woei. (2011) “Theory to reality: a few issues in implementing problem‐based learning”, Education Tech Research Dev, Vol 59, pp 529–552. Kromrey, Jeffrey D., Hogarty, Kristine Y., Hess, Melinda R., Rendina‐Gobioff, Gianna, Hilbelink, Amy and Lang, Tom R. (2005) “A Comprehensive System For The Evaluation Of Innovative Online Instruction At A Research University: Foundations, Components, And Effectiveness”, Journal of College Teaching and Learning, June, Vol 2, No. 6, p 1. Joyce Hwee Ling Koh, Herring, Susan C. and Khe Foon Hew. (2010) “Project‐based learning and student knowledge construction during asynchronous online discussion”, Internet and Higher Education, Vol 13, pp 284–291. Park Rogers, Meredith A., Cross, Dionne I., Sommerfeld Gresalfi, Melissa, Trauth‐Nare, Amy E. and Buck, Gayle A. (2011) “First Year Implementation of a Project‐Based Learning Approach: The Need For Addressing Teachers’ Orientations in the Era of Reform”, International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, Vol 9, pp 893‐917. Scanlon, Eileen. (2011) “Open science: trends in the development of science learning”, Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e‐Learning, Vol 26, No. 2, pp 97‐112. Schultz, Marian C. and Schultz, James T. (2011) “Interpreting the Learning Styles of Traditional and Distance Learning Students”, Journal of College Teaching and Learning, Vol 1, No. 5, pp 19‐28. Van Heerden, D. and Goosen, L. (2012) “Using Vodcasts to Teach Programming in an ODL Environment”, Progressio, Vol 34, No. 3. West, Richard E. (2011) “Insights from Research on Distance Education Learners, Learning, and Learner Support”, American Journal of Distance Education, Vol 25, No. 3, pp 135‐151. Wilson, T. and Ferreira, Giselle. (2011) “E‐Learning and support tools for Information and Computer Sciences”, 7th China – Europe International Symposium on Software Industry Orientated Education, University of Northampton, United Kingdom, 23‐24th May. Yukselturk, Erman and Baturay, M.H. (2011) “Online Project‐Based Learning: Students’ Views, Concerns and Suggestions (Chapter 16)”, p 357 [online], IGI Global, www.igi‐global.com/chapter/online‐project‐based‐learning/54164.

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An Inter‐Independence Collaborative Strategy for Sustainable Transnational Higher Education in the Info‐Global Age: A new Science of e‐Learning in the Making Mohamed Ziad Hamdan Education and Educational Psychology, Van Holland University, Holland mhamdanz@yahoo.com Abstract: Due to the accelerating developments of globalization, digital information and communication technologies… the nature, mission, and academic identity of higher education have been changed. As a result, a new form of higher education has emerged. That is “transnational higher education (TNHE)". However, in addition to the direct influence of info ‐ global advances on TNHE, additional internal factors such as economic and academic concerns are interring the scene, governing consequently with other factors, the goals, processes, resources, and directions which TNHE is apt to pursue. Moreover, TNHE is facing as any forming science, several challenges related to: incongruent missions and / or priorities, problem of accreditation, insufficient resources, inappropriate methods of teaching and learning, mismanagement, lenient governance and regulations, and biased attitudes. To counteract above shortcomings and contributing to the advancement of TNHE, this article is introducing two working principles: inter‐independence and collaboration. And then produced two operational mechanisms: the first, a strategic inter‐independence collaborative model by which each TNHE partner could achieve its academic and professional needs, and the second, a quality audit / evaluation framework that could help each TNHE institution focusing on achieving its priority goals. Keywords: transnational higher education, inter‐independence, collaboration, inter‐independence collaboration, inter‐ independence collaborative strategies, inter‐independence collaboration model, information age, globalization

1. Introduction Man, who had limited his schooling from the era of Plato to needs within confined borders on earth, had entered by the mid‐nineties of the twentieth century the cyberspace age. As a result, the psycho‐social, economic, physical and educational means and priorities for a productive schooling seem to have changed. The reason beyond this shift in schooling priorities stems from the fact that the cognitive as well as the behavioral fields in which man operates have extended to infinity (Hamdan1987). Information and communication technologies (ICT) are altering who we are, how we think, what we believe, and how we behave. The human race is in essence developing a new humanity. By digital ICT means, it becomes possible to communicate, interact, and learn‐ receive information instantly (Hamdan2007; Papp and Alberts1997; Stewart1997; Kupfer1997). ICTs are enabling humans and institutions to go cyber space, thus changing profoundly many facets of doing things, including the ways of Transnational Higher Education TNHE (International Research Center 2006; Kok 2006; O’Donoghue and Others 2000). Globalizing ICTs, have caused a massive flow of information and innovation throughout the globe. They, the two together are seen by this Writer, to represent a decisive operational factor of current TNHE. In fact, the streaming of human resources, programs, skills, expertise, academic and professional exchange across the world, indicate the decisive role of Globalizing ICTs for the advancement of TNHE (Answers Corporation1997; Burbules and Torres 2000; Cogburn 2012; UNESCO2007). It follows therefore, that continuing schooling within restricted classroom walls or specific school or local borders means simply gearing priorities of educational system backward to outdated conventional knowledge, preparing generations at best to live the persisting past, since isolated educational institutions can't empower learners to develop themselves for living the open Space Age as much as to be attached to memories, folklores and obsolete epistemology (Hamdan1992). Further, while institutions could keep their individual identities, academic integrity and the independence of in‐house decision making, they could at the same time initiate new interactive relationships that are professional, equitable, productive, and responsive to institutional needs. These intents and processes resemble what this writer calls here inter‐independence collaboration.

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2. Transnational higher education based inter‐independence collaboration‐ a new science of e‐learning is in the making Transnational (cross‐border) Higher Education "TNHE" is generally practiced in three forms: student /academic mobility, program mobility, and institution mobility (Naidoo 2006 in Yi Cao2011). TNHE came strongly to the fore of educational scene twenty years ago due to the pressures of globalization and constant demands of info technologies and knowledge economy that urged international States to launch a series of educational plans since the mid‐1990s, to:

create new valuable markets by expanding education into new geographies.

promote reform and quality of TNHE,

boost Global academic rankings,

get economic revenue by globalizing the business of higher education,

be recognized as exporters of higher education research and services (KPMG International Cooperative2012; Mok,2009):.

In fact, expanding direct governmental backing and financial support to foreign higher education institutions in forms of tax deduction benefits, educational grants and land concessions, are expected to reinforce more collaborative transnational initiatives and as well encouraging civic society gurus to empower universities to address sustainable development challenges of the twenty‐first century (Koehn 2012). To achieve optimized consequences of these info‐global factors and to neutralize their possible negative side effects, TNHE institutions need to adopt two operational principles: the first is inter‐independence which enables them individually and as joint venture groups to interact with a sense of responsibility toward one another, and the second is collaboration which allows each partner to maintain equitable agreed upon needs. For TNHE as recognized a new schooling trend has transformed the concept and practice of local isolated higher education institutions to global collaborating learning‐ teaching networks in which “learners are located in a country different from the one where the awarding institution is based” (Vignoli 2004). Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam, Australia, and UAE, among others, are notable cases in which the states have explicitly declared intentions to make their territories regional hubs of such new type of education. Thus leading to dramatic developments of today’s TNHE as part of the states’ coping strategies (Ka Ho Mok 2009). In fact, “One in five TNHE branch campuses in the world is hosted by the UAE”, and China doubled student enrollment from five million post‐ secondary students in mid‐1990s to more than 34 million in 2010 (Koehn 2012). Consequently, TNHE institutions are established with no apparent limitations; special governance laws are introduced; distinctive methods of learning, instruction, assessment, human and professional communication techniques are formed and practiced; TNHE graduate study programs are offered; new terms such as: transnational education, “glocals”, eStudent, education mobility, and internationalization were coined; specific types of literature and research have emerged; and specialized forums and conferences are convened (Choudaha2012; Connelly and Others 2010; Coverdale‐Jones 2012; Drew and Others 2008; Naidoo2009; Mok 2009; Ong and Chan 2012;The University of Nottingham 2013; Wilkins and Balakrishnan 2013; Yonezawa2009; Yoshino 2004).. hence, a new educational science: Transnational Education, is borne However, TNHE as any newly forming science, and in lieu of its highly compelling pace of developments, is facing several technical and practical problems; and understanding of its real status on the ground is still incomprehensible due to lacking of systematic study statistics (Naidoo 2009).New and more detailed governance and regulatory regimes for steering the growing number of TNE providers and programs are still urgently needed. For example, the Sino‐UK TNE partnership was initiated without specific organizing formula but personal connections. Thus, a need was observed to work out a precise form of partnership and its associated financial implications for both parties, while cultural diversities and differences in educational tradition, curriculum challenges, communication style and organizational practices are among factors affecting the operation of a

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Mohamed Ziad Hamdan TNE partnership over time. Changes in macro‐economic factors such as exchange rate can also lead to termination of a TNE project ( Zhuang 2009; Wenying2007) Quality Assurance issues to regulate effectively TNHE, to ensure its quality, to promote mutual recognition of academic / professional degrees or qualifications, have all become the concern of governments and international organizations. More work is evidently needed to improve current external quality assurance systems in regard of quality audit, professional accreditation and mutual recognition of academic and professional attributes (Social Science Paper 2012). The last part of this paper is dealing with issue. Moreover, economic preference in terms of generating revenue over other human and academic merits that determine the cause of collaborating TNHE institutions, has added immensely to its persisting problems. Hence, it is essentially expected from TNHE providers to adopt strategies which ultimately differ from the business model to reflect the intrinsic value of higher education whose main goal is to serve the human cause (Altbach 2010).

3. The concepts and roles of inter‐independence and collaboration in TNHE To negate above shortcomings or at least to ease their negative effects on TNHE institutions, two philosophical organizational principles are proposed for partnership: inter‐independence and collaboration. The concept of inter‐independence was firstly coined by this Writer in a work published in Arabic at 1987 and then in English at 1992.With inter‐independence, the organization may appear more aware of its strengths, limits and needs and those of others. it is expected while maintaining a highly integrative own profile and mutually exclusive identity, tends without apparent reservations to share own qualities and shortcomings for the sake of achieving better independence which is free of dismay, threat, or uncertainty. Working with the concept of inter‐independence is expected to maintain an educational process by which every organization can maintain equitable relations with others, and explore its uniqueness then develop it and share it without the sense of being hopeless or the risk of being overtaken, subdued, or offended by others. Collaboration on another hand, is a behavioral paradigm, and a well‐defined relationship performed by two or more higher education institutions (or individuals) to achieve mutual strategic goals (ETC‐ Education Transition Choices1997). For collaboration to succeed however, it calls for a relationship built upon commitments to: the concept of mutual relationships and goals, a sense of shared ownership, jointly developed tasks and joint responsibilities, mutual authority and accountability for success, and sharing of resources and rewards (Bishop1993). Further, a real feeling of mutual trust among partners of TNHE should be available to motivate working together without too many risks. THE collaborating institutions by utilizing the philosophy, working principles and techniques of inter‐independence, will help them in neutralizing emerging risks and balancing them against academic and professional vulnerabilities (Ruohomaa and Kutvonen 2008).

4. Proposed systemic strategic model for inter‐independence collaboration of TNHE TNHE has conventionally handled issues of students' learning and academic programs. It is strongly advocated by this Writer however, that the mission of Inter‐independence collaboration of TNHE institutions should be extended to all other factors and processes, since educational institutions are in reality Gestalt operating systems built upon "inputs‐ processes‐ outputs". Hence, students' learning and academic programs are not operating in isolation of other components of the TNHE system. Rather, they are affecting and being affected by all factors within the system. Thus, TNHE institutions, in order to be effectively responsive in their inter‐independence collaboration strategies and succeeding consequently in their learning ‐ teaching missions, are required to customize, transform, or develop their human, academic, professional, educational, psychological, physical, regulatory laws, and other support services, whenever deciding to initiate the transnational collaborated efforts. Needless to indicate that without this Gestalt systemic operational approach, TNHE may turn into a "trial‐ error" risky endeavor, failing students as well institutions whenever any shortcoming may emerge.

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Mohamed Ziad Hamdan The strategic Systemic Model of Inter‐independence Collaboration is depicted in the following diagram. Identity Analyses* Collaborative Tasks Processes Products Keep

Share & Develop when Essential

1‐ Private/ Confidential

2‐ Academic, Professional Adapt&share1 (The Core)

3‐ Alternatives/ Support Services

Collaborate/Develop Thoroughly Collaborate

Adapt & share2

&Develop

Corporate Updating

Corporate Development Corporate Improvement

Feedback/ Audit 3 Feedback/ Audit 2 Feedback/ Audit 1

Identity Analyses of Higher Education Institution

Figure 1: A proposed strategic systemic model for inter‐independence collaboration in transnational higher education (developed by author)

5. Structure of the systemic model The model in figure 1, is composed of three major elements‐inputs, processes and outputs, which are briefly illustrated as follows: A. Inputs of the Systemic Model which form the academic and professional identity of higher education institution (HEI). These are sorted in three categories, briefed as follows (inputs are based on a comprehensive review of several university sites): 1. Private / confidential elements which the HEI keeps as a special concern that are rarely shared with outsiders, except in extremely emergent cases. Examples of these elements are the following: Faculty and Staff Personal Information‐Students’ personal and academic records

Human resources records

University Financial Records

Organizational security practices and controls, and

classified information.

2‐ Academic/ Professional elements which represent the core of Institutional every day Inter‐independence collaboration. A sample of these:

Instructors ‐ academic and professional qualifications

Study plans and programs

Curricula and academic content

Instruction and methods

Learning techniques and alternatives

Assessment and evaluation

Degrees and accreditation

3‐ Alternative/ Support Services. These represent all the factors and activities which help in transforming above academic /professional elements from paper or online documents into real actions with more concrete

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Mohamed Ziad Hamdan effective results. Collaborating institutions share and improve these elements when educational and management contexts and operations call for more development and better outcomes. A sample of alternative/ support services is in the following:

Faculty & Staff services, e.g. Alumni Association, Office of Development, and Office of faculty affairs.

Physical support services. e.g. University enterprises, Facilities, University affairs office, mental health advisory services, The counseling services, and Student health services.

Academic support services. e.g. Library services, Undergraduate study support technology services,

Technical support and services

Education support services. e.g. Campus programs, Outreach programs, Parents role related services.

B. Processes of the Systemic Model Inter‐independence Collaboration institutions inquire their own needs, searching for more effective achievements, locating willing parties, designing joint plans and efforts to achieve priorities, initiating mutual exchange of experiences and knowledge, and accomplishing collaborative missions as stated. They adopt here three tasks:

Keep confidentially their private identity elements, or sharing them and developing when deem essential.

Adapt & share academic and professional elements, collaborate with other fellow institutions and develop thoroughly as much as possible.

Adapt & share support services elements, collaborate with other fellow institutions to develop for more improvements.

C. Outputs of the Systemic Model Inter‐independence collaboration empowers TNHE institutions to develop their academic as well professional knowledge and operations services, and to achieve effectiveness in their delegated responsibilities by:

Exploring, testing, and refining own purposes, strategies, and actions in light of priority outcomes.

Seek ultimate corporate updating of private identity elements whenever needed, confirm thorough development of academic and professional elements, and maintain corporate improvement of support services for better productivity.

Revising Inter‐independence collaboration plans and processes according to observed quality of results, by means of auditing and assessment feedback.

6. Implementation stages of inter‐independence collaboration within the systemic model Three consecutive Stages (Torbert & Others2010) are involved in the Systemic Model (figure1): Stage 1: Individual Institution Perspective– analysis of status, priorities and needs, by means of:

Observing ongoing actions and the effects, strengths and weaknesses in inputs, processes and outcomes, academic and professional satisfactions / dissatisfactions, and needs still to be realized.

Proposing protective alternatives against becoming subsumed by ‘collaborative institutional group’, their norms or own personal ‘official stories’.

Stage 2: Collaborating Transnational Institutions Perspective ‐ analysis of status, priorities and needs of collaborating institutions as individual units, inter‐groups, and as a gestalt collaborating partnership, by means of:

Initiating collaborative tasks as generated in Stage 1 which are (figure 1):

keep private elements, or share and develop as essential;

share academic and professional elements, collaborate and develop thoroughly for more progress;

share, collaborate, and develop selectively support services for institutional improvement.

Encouraging mutual auditing of attributions and assessments in real practices, and generating mutual critical and constructive implications for collaboration and change.

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Mohamed Ziad Hamdan

Proposing mutual protective alternatives against becoming limited by own institutional perspective, or become overwhelmed in unproven assumptions and norms.

Stage 3: Collaborative Data Perspective–Steering the future of institutional Inter‐independence collaboration, by means of:

Using collaborative generated data to establish ‘objective’ perspectives that are highly strategic, rational and more productive for all partners.

Protecting collaborative partners, individually and as a group against becoming overly subjected by their own proclaimed prejudices.

7. Observed barriers to effective systemic inter‐independence collaboration Torbert and Others (2010) stated in this regard seven barriers, appear as follows: 1. Chauvinism: some higher education institutions are observed in need to be seen as source of knowledge and competence; ignoring consequently the academic as well professional priorities and conditions of other member institutions, and the educational values imbedded in the concept of inter‐independence collaboration. 2. Close‐ mindedness: when having fixated mind.. Being locked onto a particular issue, perspective, methodology, a specific time schedule or a way of collaboration. 3. Academic nagging: appears in showing‐off a personal or academic view, persisting subjectively on talking or asking for specific idea or demand, debating a point endlessly, and seeming unsatisfied regardless of authentic facts or the logic involved in the situation.

8. An authentic example of above three barriers The Author of this article had experienced the above three barriers during the academic year 2005‐2006 as professor and head of the psychology and education department (PED) at a private university in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Briefly, the real story happened as follows: the University Administration asked the Head of (PED) to develop a master's degree program in educational administration and supervision (EAS) directed to serve teachers, supervisors, and principals of the (UAE) Ministry of Education schools who are eligible to study the EAS graduate program.. The accreditation system adopted by the (UAE) Ministry of Higher Education requires referring the new programs to a critical review by an academic committee of two “experts” from a western country such as USA. So, two academicians (man and a woman) were invited from two American universities on the expense of the University who owned the graduate program. The two external examiners and this Writer as the designer of the program and head of the (PED) had long sessions discussing along two days every detail of the program. Then the committee met separately with faculty members of the program. At the end of the appraisal week, the reviewers suddenly pressed for the issue of English language as a first medium of instruction of the (EAS) program. Needless to point out that reversing the role of English as a second language to the first one for a graduate program dedicated to Arab trainees with Arabic cultural and educational backgrounds; belonging to Arab schools, students, local environments, values, traditions, and history; teaching and supervising Arab pupils, curricula and activities in Arabic; fostering strategic goals to better future for Arab generations.. Seemed extremely abnormal, chauvinistic, close‐ minded, and academic nagging! It was felt at the time that those academicians appeared overwhelmed by a sense of military psychology assuming they are invading an underdeveloped, helpless, low‐ quality higher education institution (which is in reality not the case). Their proposal was resisted by this Writer since Arabic was seen a sovereign identity issue. And at last, the program was failed! as an example of inter‐independent collaboration. 4. Self‐depreciation: some collaborating parties seem lacking professional confidence, feeling somewhat inferior or incapable of contributing anything of value. Hence resist revealing their own vulnerability, insecure academic status, or receiving judgments.

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Mohamed Ziad Hamdan 5. Behavior‐ rushing as institutional collaboration is resulted from short‐sighted work plans, speedy decisions, and careless performance. 6. Day‐ dreaming: collaborating member institutions appear here absent‐ minded, task‐ disoriented, inattentive, uninterested, occupied by other things than collaboration, or listening without hearing. Hence the mission of inter‐independent collaboration could not be realized. 7. Withdrawal opposition by means of ignoring collaboration without vocalizing, negligent performance, procrastination of assignments or tasks.

9. Proposed brief meta audit and evaluation frameworks for quality assurance of TNHE Three meta audit and evaluation frameworks are offered, they are briefly as follows: A Inter‐institutional Meta Audit and Evaluation Framework: TNE collaborating institutions that form in reality a regional or international league, could set up an internal quality assurance agency, a tribunal, or a steering committee, to:

handle auditing and quality issues related to processes and outcomes of inter‐independent collaboration partnerships,

handle auditing and quality issues of inter‐institutional and regional accreditation, academic and professional qualifications of graduates.

help in setting up quality standards, practices and inter‐relations needed by individual members to improve their “TNE” missions.

serve as a liaison body who helps in settling disagreements that could emerge between collaborating institutions. However, this agency is expected further to fulfill the following specific tasks (Bennett and Others 2004):

"Monitoring the activities of imported transnational education providers;

Liaising with providers (and countries of origin) when problems arise;

Reporting bogus institutions to appropriate national and international authorities;

Seeking bilateral solutions to TNE problems;

Providing advice and information to the public associated with imported TNE".

B External Meta Audit and Evaluation Framework This framework focuses primarily on institutional quality accreditation, and usually is administered by professional governmental local agencies, and/or regional and international accreditation associations. These official affiliations provide “TNE” institutions with the following services (Bennett and Others2004):

Establish, or encourage the establishment of a comprehensive, fair and transparent system of registration or licensing for cross‐border higher education providers wishing to operate in their territory.

Establish, or encourage the establishment of a comprehensive capacity for reliable quality assurance and accreditation of cross‐border higher education provision which involve both sending and receiving countries.

Consult and coordinate amongst the various competent bodies for quality assurance and accreditation both nationally and internationally.

Moreover, Baird added for issues of recognition and accreditation of programs, degrees, and “TNE” institutions, the following tasks:

Provide accurate, reliable and easily accessible information in regard to criteria and standards for registration, licensure, quality assurance and accreditation of cross‐border higher education, their consequences on the funding of students, institutions or programs, and their voluntary or mandatory nature.

Contribute to efforts to improve the accessibility at the international level of up‐to date, accurate and comprehensive information on recognized higher education institutions /providers.

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Mohamed Ziad Hamdan

Consider becoming party to and contribute to the development and /or updating of the appropriate UNESCO regional conventions on recognition of qualifications and establish national information centers as stipulated by the conventions.

develop or encourage bilateral or multilateral recognition agreements, facilitating the recognition or equivalence of each country’s qualifications based on the procedures and criteria included in mutual agreements (Baird 2006).

10. A proposed brief meta audit and evaluation framework In a competitive open market for higher education, coupled with the profound effects of globalization, communication and information technologies, source countries have an interest in ensuring that the standards of their transnational programs at least maintain those of programs offered at parallel professional facilities (Baird, 2006). For “HEI” institutions, to insure tentatively a quality Inter‐independence collaboration with fellow partners, they could build own mutual endeavors on two criteria: priority needs and mission standards. Each institution should know exactly what it needs the most (a sample is in above auditing form) , and the operational attributes and outcomes that should be observed at each formative stage of inter‐independence collaboration, and then the mechanisms and steps by which each collaborating partner will be held accountable. Table 1: A quality audit and assurance searching grid for improving transnational higher education (*S. S= support services) Tentative "TNHE" Topics

Specifics &Criteria of Program Owner

Students Instructors Learning Teaching Programs Facilities Equipments Human S. S.* Educational S.S. Psycho S. S. Technical S. S. Managing S. S. Financial S.S.

Specifics& Criteria of Program Collaborator Notes:

Observed Differences (+ / ‐)

Improvement decisions

Comparing intended inputs and processes with observed outcomes, will simply reveal the minus and plus differences (as indicated in above form) which in turn will lead to required auditing and accountability sessions necessary for maintaining more quality inter‐independence collaboration.

11. Epilogue By the advent of Transnational Higher Education ( TNHE) some twenty years ago, students are freed from the confined residential schooling geography to across borders and cyber infinity. Hence new grand theory and framework of learning are emerging. These are cyber, comprehensive, mutually inclusive, highly responsive to students, educational, and institutional needs regardless of time, place and surrounding conditions. However, Since digital education came to existence some years ago by means of digital information, knowledge and communication technologies, it is transforming into a new academic field; hence an urgent need appears to standardize the terms we use. One central in this regard is virtual. The point here is what we do , behave, learn, teach, and fail or succeed,, are all real but existing in another non‐physical sphere: the cyber space. it is a new way of thinking, learning, teaching and doing things, just like other tasks and activities in daily life. However, we could bless the term virtual if it derived from virtue, which reflects upon e‐learning to be excellent, meaningful, and highly productive for the growth of human being.

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Mohamed Ziad Hamdan On another hand, what seems urgently needed to actuate TNHE is closing the observed gap of digital divide between students who are savvy in digital technologies and professors who are unqualified to lead learners in the cyber space of TNHE , especially in using mobilization, BOYD , tablets, Chrome books and *Adaptive learning and many other technologies (*Langmead, March 29th, 2013). It’s hard for staff to provide quality guidance and support for techniques and devices they never learned or used, so training on the job for the new technologies deems mandatory if e‐learning and TNHE missions are to succeed. What this offensive situation calls for urgently, is initiating well organized professional development workshops, micro‐ training sessions and continuing education programs to upgrade the digital knowledge and technology skills to the standards required for quality e‐education. Robbie Melton in this regard, as Associate Vice Chancellor for Mobilization and Emerging Technology for the Tennessee Board of Regents, confirmed that “the digital divide is between the faculty and the student. Actually, most of the students‐‐about 92 percent‐‐are coming to us with the latest, top‐of‐the‐line phones, while you see most faculty still using rather outdated phones (and that often means outdated by five years or more).. When you can match one of these faculty with similarly equipped students, it's like a match made in heaven.” (Grush, April 201313). Moreover, TNHE still needs to succeed is to have available Sophisticated groups of Technologists and well qualified teams of IT professionals, to work on specific problems related to used technologies and daily TNHE tasks. And also essentially needs to establish a new set of organizational and operational rules for elearning governance as a new regulatory framework for quality assurance, accreditation and recognition (Van Damme, September 2001)

References Altbach, Philip G. (2010). “Why Branch Campuses May Be Unsustainable.” International Higher Education 58 (Winter): 2‐3. Answers Corporation. Marek, (best answers, 1997). The effect of globalization. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/. Baird, Jeanette, Editor (2006). Quality Audit and Assurance for Transnational Higher Education. Austria. Universities Quality Agency.www.auqa.edu.au/quality Bennett, Paul and Others( February 2004). Quality Assurance in Transnational Higher Education. ENQA, Workshop report 11. Helsinki, Finland, 2010.www.enqa.eu/.../ENQA Bishop, K. K. (1993). Family/Professional Collaboration for Children with Special Health Needs and Their Families (Monograph), Burlington, Vermont: Department of Social Work, University of Vermont. Burbules , Nicholas C. and Torres, Carlos Alberto (2000). Globalization and Education: An Introduction. Published In, Nicholas Burbules and Carlos Torres, eds. Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives. 012 http://faculty.education.illinois.edu/ global.html. Cogburn, Derrick L. GLOBALIZATION, KNOWLEDGE, EDUCATION AND TRAININGIN in THE INFORMATION AGE. http://www.unesco.org/http:// .Retrieved July 13, 2012. Connelly, Stephen. And Others (2010). , A Transnationality Index for Higher Education Institutions. Choudaha, Rahul (2012) . The rise of 'glocal' students and transnational education. Thursday 21 June 2012. Higher Education Networkhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/higher‐education‐network/blog/2012/jun/21/opportunities‐in‐ transnational‐education Coverdale‐Jones, Tricia (2012). International Approaches to Transnational Higher Education (TNHE). 12,（2012）http://www.cshe.nagoya‐u.ac.jp/publications/journal/no12/11.pdf Drew, Sue and Others (2008). Trans‐national Education and Higher Education Institutions: Exploring Patterns of HE Institutional Activity. DIUS Research Report 08 07, Sheffield Hallam University 2008 ETC‐ Education Transition Choices (1997). Project of the Utah Parent Center. Interagency Collaboration and Transition. PACER Center, http://www.pacer.org/. Grush, Sarah .Strategic Mobilization: A Model for the Future. A Q & A with Robbie K. Melton. Campus Technology digital magazine. 04/03/13). Hamdan ,M. Z. (1987). Clinical Schooling‐Toward an approach for the education of personal inter‐independence”. Damascus: Modern Education house, (in Arabic). Hamdan ,M. Z. (1992). “Re‐Schooling Society with a Clinical Approach for the Education of Global Inter‐Independence”. Damascus‐ Syria: Modern Education house. Hamdan, M. Z. (July, 2007). The Rise and Fall of Conventional Schooling in Light of the Information Age. www.hamdaneducation.com

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Transnational Higher Education and Sustainable Development: current initiatives and future prospects, Policy Futures in Education, 10(3), 274‐282. http://dx.doi.org/10.2304/pfie.2012.10.3.274 Kok .Jacobus C (2006). The Information Age and a New Humanity: The Effects of IT on Whom We Believe We Are. Fourth International Conference on New Directions in the Humanities ‐ 2006 info‐H06@commongroundconferences.com, in, Kok. Jacobus C. (2006).The Information Age and a New Humanity: The Effects of IT on Whom We Believe We Are. Fourth International Conference on New Directions in the Humanities ‐ 2006 Fourth International Conference on New Directions in the Humanities. Kupfer , Andrew. Chapter 5: Alone Together: Will Being Wired Set Us Free? In, David S. Alberts and Daniel S. Papp (Editor). CCRP Publication Series. 1997; KPMG‐ Global. The growth of transnational education. http://www.kpmg.com/global/../ /growth‐transnational‐ education.aspx Langmead, Sarah . Assistant Editor. 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ICT in Practice at the Durban University of Technology Anita Hiralaal School of Education, Durban University of Technology, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa anitah@dut.ac.za Abstract: The potential of ICT enabled learning can only be realised if it is embedded in an institutional context that is open to innovation and supported by a favourable ICT environment. The implication is that the key outcomes for any professional development in the area of e‐learning must be to increase teacher confidence in their ability to facilitate student learning with computers, along with the provision of stronger pedagogical motivation for teachers to integrate ICT into their teaching. This study was conducted at the Durban University of Technology (DUT) with the Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching (CELT), an academic development department that is tasked with professional development of faculty members in the area of e‐learning. The results of the study did indicate that the pedagogical thinking in the institution has advanced in parallel with technological advances and that all attempts have been made to support and train faculty members to increase their proficiency in integrating computers into their teaching activities. In order to provide an understanding of ICT use at the level of pedagogical engagement, teacher‐educators at the School of Education at the Durban University of Technology participated in this study and provided data on changes in their pedagogical practices that focused on how their teaching and learning strategies have evolved with the use of ICT, their proficiency levels in relation to ICT and their stages of integration of ICT into their teaching activities. The results of this investigation revealed that the majority of teacher‐educators were using ICT mainly for informational, organisational, lesson planning and administrative purposes rather than for pedagogical purposes. This was attributed to a lack of confidence and training in the use of ICT. However they were positive about professional development in the use of ICT. Keywords: pedagogical practices, teaching strategies, professional development

1. Introduction The phenomenal expansion of online learning across all sectors of higher education means that virtually every tertiary educator must be prepared to design and teach courses that will be partially or totally online (Allen & Seaman, 2010). South African higher education institutions have invested enormous resources in providing teachers and students with access to one or more learning management systems (LMS) such as Blackboard software ( a commercial product sold by a private profit‐generating company) or Moodle (an open‐source program distributed freely and with easy‐to‐use online tools for presenting content, distributing assignments, enabling discussions and conducting assessments in ways that promote learning (Czerniewicz, Ravjee & Mlitwa, 2005). As far back as the National Research and Technology Foresight ICT Report (2000) and the Draft White Paper on e‐Education (Department of Education, 2003), it was claimed that using ICTs will variously add value to education, improve teaching and learning, encourage innovation and contribute to transformation (Czerniewicz & Brown, 2005). Similarly, Wagner (2001) as well as Garrison and Anderson (2003) argue that ICT integration enhances and improves the quality of teaching and learning. In fact, on many campuses, lecturers are required to use the LMS provided by their institutions if only to provide students with access to a syllabus, academic calendar or their marks (Garrison & Vaughn, 2008). Many universities provide lecturers with access to instructional designers through a centre for teaching and learning or a similarly named unit (Reeves & Reeves, 2012).It is for this reason that the Durban University of Technology has been quick to seize the opportunity to improve teaching and learning by embarking on a rigorous campaign to support and promote e‐learning. The institution aims to have at least 50% of the courses with an e‐learning component in place by 2014 (DUT 2010). For the purposes of this study, the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) will be referred to as e‐learning. Consequently e‐learning can be defined as, “the use of any new technologies or applications in the service of learning or learner support” (Laurillard 2005 p1). In order to promote and implement e‐learning in the various programmes offered by the university, the Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching (CELT), an academic development department that is tasked with professional development of faculty members at DUT established itself as the key player in e‐learning innovation at the DUT. As a lecturer in the School of Education of DUT and also a curriculum champion (the title given to the faculty member responsible for curriculum development in specific departments) undertook

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Anita Hiralaal an investigation with CELT to deepen my understanding of how the institution is developing and promoting innovative e‐learning strategies. Part of my responsibilities as curriculum champion is the promotion of e‐learning in the School of Education and to achieve this I need to establish an environment that will encourage e‐learning. The rationale behind my study aligns with the view expressed by the Draft White Paper on e‐Education (2003) that the potential of ICT enabled learning can only be realised if it is embedded in an institutional context that is open to innovation and supported by a favourable ICT environment (Department of Education 2003). Hence, I have focused the first part of my study on investigating how the Durban University of Technology is responding to the challenge of using ICTs to help develop the skills and knowledge of the lecturers so that they can transform their teaching practices. In turn, they will be able to confidently and creatively encourage their students to become lifelong learners and to fully participate in the global community (Department of Education 2003). In addition, the Draft White Paper on e‐Education (2003) requires that, “the use of ICT as a set of flexible tools for teaching and learning, be integrated into the Initial Professional Education of Teachers and Continuing Professional Teacher Development” (Department of Education 2003, p2). As the curriculum champion in the School of Education, I identified this study as an opportunity to investigate the pedagogical dimension of ICT integration into professional teacher development as reflected in the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa (Department of Education, 1997 pp 2‐3). To this end, the study underpinning this article investigated how lecturers in the School of Education experienced changes in their pedagogical practices. The study focused on how their teaching and learning strategies have evolved with the use of ICT, their stages of integration of ICT into their teaching activities as well as their proficiency levels in relation to their use of ICT.

2. Literature review There is a move towards a new kind of knowledge society for which ICT is a basic requirement. This new knowledge society will require people with knowledge, skills, and the ability to deliver ICT services (Council on Higher Education CHE 2006). Mapwa (2011) suggests that in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), the lecturing staff are there to implement the new educational policies adopted by the institution. So when ICT’s services are introduced, the lecturing staff should be the people with the knowledge, skills and the ability to deliver these ICT services. However, in order to do this they will need training support to orient them to the use of the new technology. Volery (2000, p 57) maintains that technical expertise on its own is not of great value unless lecturers conceive effective ways to utilise it. Lecturers will always play a key role in the effective delivery of e‐learning initiatives, as it is the lecturer, not the technology that facilitates the students’ learning experience. Wilson (2001, p 8) suggests that three characteristics of the lecturer will control the degree of learning: attitude towards technology, teaching style, and the control of technology. Cook, Holly and Andrew (2002, p 117) concludes that students will experience a more positive learning experience if guided by a lecturer who retains a positive attitude towards traditional learning whilst promoting e‐learning methods. Given the pivotal role that lecturing staff play in the adoption and execution of e‐ pedagogy, it becomes necessary to continuously equip them with more knowledge through training and refresher courses as a way of creating confidence in them.. Recent studies indicate that the success of e‐ learning methods in higher education can only be measured according to the effectiveness of delivery while training staff may be regarded as a major challenge in the adoption of e‐learning initiatives (O'Donoghue, Singh, and Dorward 2001). Charlesworth (2002, p 179) adds that contemporary lecturers are not resistant to training in the use of technological applications; they are simply confused as to how to implement such into lectures or more formal teaching methods because of lack of understanding and confidence in the new technological innovations. The evidence suggests that staff training is a central concern for universities implementing any form of learning methods. It is essential that the opportunity to redesign and improve university teaching practises

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Anita Hiralaal through e‐learning is not usurped by a focus on training lecturers how to use the hardware and software (Shapiro 2000, p 56). Inadequately trained lecturers using e‐learning in educational environments can become an obstacle which can, in the perception of students, lead to more problems in the application and use of ICTs (Volery 2000, p 8). According to the Strategy for Information and Communication Technology in Education (Departments of Education and Communication November 2001, p.25), “there is a need to ensure that the new generation of teachers emerge from higher educational institutions with an understanding of how to incorporate and use ICTs in their school teaching. This in turn would imply that their higher education experience would take place in a congruent environment”. In agreement is Elton (1999) who claims that “new ways of learning require new forms of institutional management” (p 219). Consequently, if universities want to bring about a change in their teaching methods, they will need a management structure that is capable of supporting innovation. ICT and e‐learning at other institutions of Higher Education in South Africa The South African Institute for Distance Education (2007) undertook a review on the state of e‐learning in higher education in South Africa which culminated in the Status Report on ICT’s and Higher Education in South Africa, 18 May 2007 authored by Moll, Adam, Backhouse and Mhlanga (2007). The team utilised selected case studies and research papers as well as telephonic and e‐mail interviews to provide an overall picture of the e‐ learning landscape in a number of institutions of higher learning in South Africa.. The table below is a summary of their findings. Table 1: E‐learning projects at institutions of higher learning in South Africa Institution University of South Africa (UNISA)

University of the Free State(UFS) University of the North West (UNW)

University of Johannesburg (UJ) Stellenbosch University University of Pretoria

University of the Witwatersrand(WITS)

Description of the e‐learning project UNISA uses a “customized delivery system” for e‐learning that has two areas namely a web environment which provides general information on programmes and courses and a dedicated/secure environment that provides access for staff and students and support staff. Lecturers Online is a personalised environment which allows lecturers access to online course resources, students’ details, student feedback, support and teaching tools. My Unisa is a learning environment which provides the students with access to course materials, library resources, e‐mail to lecturers and queries. They use eDegree which provides technology support and management functions as well as lecture notes, online quizzes, tests and online discussions. The university provides the academic content and ensures quality standards. Uses a Telematic Learning System which provides online access to tertiary qualifications. The course uses a CD‐ROM, online learning materials, downloadable study guides, e‐mail and online discussions. Programme material is sourced from universities with similar programmes in the USA and Europe Adopted the WEBCT LMS with online study guides, a CD‐ ROM, Powerpoint lecture slides and quizzes. Lecturers are supported by a central team that develops the online course materials Incorporates all university business in electronic ICT systems. They use WebCT Vista for teaching Has a long –range institutional strategy related to e‐learning. While Web CT is the main Learning Management System (LMS) in use, a wider range of technologies including multimedia is delivered on CD‐ROM which provides electronic materials to students. There is a studio for analogue and digital video conferencing facilities Wits adopts a blended learning approach in which ICT’s are used mainly to supplement traditional face‐to‐face interactions. Despite the fact that there is a rich ICT environment for students like computer laboratories and access to the Internet, on‐line library resources with the Oracle Student System providing all students with e‐mail addresses and calendar software. Overal,l computer‐mediated learning is not very widespread in the university

(Adapted from the Status Report on ICTs and Higher education in South Africa, 2007) What has emerged from the information provided about the status of ICT’s in institutions of higher education in South Africa is that ICT’s are now very much part of the higher education landscape and it is encumbent on not only the institutions but individual faculty members to incorporate ICT’s into their teaching and learning in

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Anita Hiralaal an educationally sound way. Equally important is the fact that the success of e‐learning implementation depends on the institutional structures that institutional leaders create within their institutions in preparation for the incorporation of any new technological innovations for improving the efficiency of their lecturers and the effectiveness of the pedagogical methods that lecturers use in disseminating educational material to learners. It is therefore necessary to explore HEI organisational structures that enable the adoption of e‐ learning. This study was therefore undertaken at the Durban University of Technology to firstly provide an understanding of how the institution is preparing their staff to incorporate ICT’s into their teaching practices. Furthermore this paper examined teacher‐educators experiences of changes in their pedagogical practices that focused on how their teaching and learning strategies have evolved with the use of ICT, their proficiency levels in relation to ICT and their stages of integration of ICT into their teaching activities.

3. Research design A qualitative research methodology was used to elicit the required data for this study. Firstly, document analysis was employed to gather data from the policy documents on staff training for e‐learning at the Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning at the Durban University of Technology. Document analysis is a systematic procedure for reviewing documents both printed and electronic. Document analysis requires data to be examined and interpreted in order to elicit meaning, gain understanding and develop empirical knowledge (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Standardised open‐ended interviews were conducted with 22 teacher educators in the School of Education representing the different focus areas since interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind participants’ experiences according to McNamara (1999). Hence the teacher‐educators were interviewed about their experiences of changes in their pedagogical practices. This focused on how their teaching and learning strategies have evolved with the use of ICT, their proficiency levels in relation to ICT and their stages of integration of ICT into their teaching activities.

4. Results of the study An examination of the printed documents and electronic versions of documents of CELT revealed the following data. CELT was initially known as the Centre for Higher Education Development (CHED) and was established in 2002 when the Natal Technikon and M L Sultan Technikons merged to form the Durban Institute of Technology. The aim of CHED was to assist academics in the development of teaching and learning strategies. CHED established the “Pioneers On‐Line” project which supports lecturers in developing online learning spaces and materials. However, ‘Pioneers On‐Line’ arose from a student‐run news website which provided a voice for students and offered a training ground for student journalists. Lecturers were able to spot opportunities for interdisciplinary projects for their students. Like many other universities, DUT has explored and developed many e‐learning opportunities. Over the last 10 years the focus has been on services to academics establishing an interdisciplinary e‐learning community of practice and the use of learning management systems (LMS). DUT currently uses Blackboard CE version 8.1 which is at the end of the licence period and is now migrating to Blackboard Learn 9.x (Bb 9.x). It is expected that Bb 9 .x. will go live across the institution from January 2013. Lecturers who have an interest in e‐learning have attended e‐learning training on a voluntary basis. CHED is now called CELT, the Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning and the Pioneers On‐Line is termed “Pioneers Online, the DUT short course in web‐based learning”. Staff members who complete this course successfully obtain a DUT Short Course Certificate, indicating that the course is developed against the Level 7 Unit Standard “Design and Develop web‐based learning”. The aims of the pioneers course is as follows:

The training is a personal investment that makes participants marketable internationally.

Through project activities and socials, participants have the opportunity to exchange ideas with innovative peers from other faculties.

The course enables participants to explore technology solutions to educational problems and write draft conference papers.

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Anita Hiralaal Over the years the unit has seen 350 staff attend the Pioneers course with many lecturers applying e‐learning in creative ways, focusing on solving educational problems. In preparing learners for the 21st century world of work, lecturers use e‐learning tools to stimulate learner motivation and engagement with the learning process, creating opportunities to interact with content and collaborate within learning communities. E‐learning also has many benefits for lecturers in other ways not related to distance education per se, e.g. by automating assessments and time‐consuming classroom management tasks. It involves blending the best of face to face education and online tools. CELT is exploring mobile learning (mLearning) which involves pushing online content to cell phones, a commodity most learners already own and depend on. It will take a while, though, to test the waters of the “M‐Learning Podcasting Project: Toward Readiness for Mobile Learning”. Towards Readiness for Mobile Learning (l‐Learning) is a pilot project

exploring the feasibility of mLearning within the blended learning approach. Podcasting allows lecturers and tutors to record and upload mp3 (audio) or mp4 (video) files online for students to download. Educational Podcasting is particularly appealing because its portable nature allows you to listen to a podcast at your convenience, and as frequently as you please. The School of Education offers a four year Bachelor of Education

Degree in 3 specialisations namely Economic and Management Sciences (EMS), Natural Sciences and Technology together with core subjects and fundamental subjects that constitute the curriculum. The different areas are called focus areas and interviews were conducted with staff members from each focus area. The results are presented as per focus area as each focus area has individual subjects being taught by different lecturers. During the interviews three key questions were posed to the participants and the responses were written down, analysed and reported as follows. Table 2: Responses from the economic and management sciences focus area Key Questions

Accounting

Business Studies

Economics

How has your teaching and learning strategies evolved with the use of ICT?

Lectures have become more student‐centred, more participation from students, students are better prepared, increased pass rate Very good, have attended all CELT training sessions

The pace has been slow but since my subject is very content based, having online activities breaks the monotony

Have never used ICT for teaching, use the computer for typing lecture notes, recording marks and lesson planning

Average, have attended one training session

Fully integrated, my subject is offered on line in Blackboard with every relevant aspect available to students on‐line

I would say I am at least half‐way there as my notes and student guides are on‐line but I still have to load assessment activities

Very poor, I am nearing retirement and do not see the need to burden myself with ICT training I have never used Blackboard at all

What are your proficiency levels in relation to ICT?

What stage are you in the integration of ICT into your teaching activities?

Computer Applications Technology Have never used a LMS but teach students the basics of end‐user computing and how to teach this in schools Excellent with basic computer skills but not with an LMS

Well, my subject requires me to use ICT but as for the LMS at this stage nothing

Table 3: Responses from the Natural Science focus area Key Question How has your teaching and learning strategies evolved with the use of ICT?

Mathematics Mathematics is a problem subject and having Blackboard supplementing my lectures means that students do not pressure me so much, there is less contact time and students are taking responsibility for their own learning, they can learn at their own pace in their own time

Life Sciences I have never used Blackboard

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Chemistry I am still at the very early stages of using Blackboard so for now there has not been much changes except that study guides, timetables and lecture notes are available online

Physics I am still becoming familiar with using Blackboard as I am from India and there we used other online methods of teaching

Anita Hiralaal Key Question What are your proficiency levels in relation to ICT?

Mathematics I have attended the Pioneers Online Learn 8 but I need to become familiar with the new version Learn 9 or something like that

Life Sciences I know how to use a computer but not for teaching

What stage are you in the integration of ICT into your teaching activities?

I have all my lecture notes, student guides, timetables and activities but I need to learn how to get students to do online assessments

I have never used e‐ learning

Chemistry I have attended the Pioneers course for the Blackboard Learn 8 and I can use the electronic classroom but I am told that Learn 9.1 has new things I am trying very hard but for now I use Blackboard mainly for administrative purposes

Physics I would say very good generally but I am still getting familiar with Blackboard

At the introductory phase

Table 4: Responses from the technology focus area Key Question

Mathematical Literacy

How has your teaching and learning strategies evolved with the use of ICT?

I have not used Blackboard for teaching so I cannot give a valid comment here

What are your proficiency levels in relation to ICT? What stage are you in the integration of ICT into your teaching activities?

I am fully computer literate but not in the skills of Blackboard I would say no integration at this stage

Engineering Graphics and Design Although my subject requires me to teach using the computer, the software takes the form of packaged programmes, but I have not used Blackboard for actual teaching

I use the computer extensively for teaching CAD but I have not used Blackboard Not much integration

Mechanical Technology

Electrical Technology

Civil Technology

I use Blackboard extensively as a supplementary teaching tool and I find that I can provide my students with much more than in a normal lecture, they are motivated to learn and more prepared, I do not spend so much trying to explain things as I can refer them to the weblinks in the online classroom I am very proficient in the use of ICT

I only started using Blackboard last year but I see the benefit because I was away from campus for a while as I was involved in an accident but I still had contact with my students and they had the lecture notes etc

I am still getting used to using Blackboard as I am new to this institution and I used a different LMS at my previous job

I can use computers and other electronic devices proficiently

Average

Fully integrated

I do have my course registered and other materials like study guides, lecture notes and assessments but I need to develop skills to offer my students more benefits

Very beginning

Table 5: Responses from core subjects focus area Key Question How has your teaching and learning strategies evolved with the use of ICT? What are your proficiency levels in relation to ICT? What stage are you in the integration of ICT into your teaching activities?

Education Still becoming familiar with using Blackboard but I do have notes etc in my electronic classroom Have attended the Pioneers course but do not get much time to experiment with it Some of my materials are loaded in the classroom but I still need time to be able to build my classroom

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General Subject Didactics I am fairly new to DUT so I am still learning about Blackboard Average, I am trying At this stage I will say I do use the computer for very basic things like lecture notes

Anita Hiralaal Table 6: Responses from fundamental subjects focus area Key Question

Skills and Life Orientation

How has your teaching and learning strategies evolved with the use of ICT? What are your proficiency levels in relation to ICT?

My entire course is online using Blackboard and I will have it no other way, I do not lecture at all except to teach the students to use Blackboard Excellent

What stage are you in the integration of ICT into your teaching activities?

Fully online

Communication in Languages I have used blackboard initially after I went for the training but lost interest after a while I can use a computer and use it all the time for my administrative work but I think I need to brush up on Blackboard skills Very initial stages

5. Analysis of results and recommendations Results from both investigations reveal that e‐learning is not widely used at the School of Education despite efforts being made to encourage adoption through the Pioneers training programme. Despite the fact that 350 staff members have attended the Pioneers course, only 10‐15% are actively engaged with e‐learning as the results from the School of Education indicate. Regarding the first part of my investigation with CELT on whether the institution has advanced in parallel with technological advances, examination of the documents from CELT indicate that the gradual growth in e‐ learning has been accompanied by an overall increase in IT awareness. The infrastructure provision has seen accelerated progress with enhancement to the broadband network infrastructure and plans to establish wireless provision across the university is indicative of the fact that DUT is acknowledging the importantance of incorporating ICT into teaching and learning. These are prerequisities to the broad adoption of technology which DUT recognises and is progressing as a priority (DUT 2012). Within CELT, the Educational Technology team of four run and support the e‐learning environment and training for academic and other staff. However the training is voluntary and left to those who show an interest in e‐learning. If the University wants to have the majority of its courses offered online by 2014, then training for e‐learning should not be a voluntary practice. A more systematic approach needs to be adopted where an effective institution‐wide model for training and support is provided. This support needs to be focused on academic staff and delivered in a timely way by staff who not only understand the technology and application but also learning and teaching, the needs of the learner and the academic staff, the learning environment and the unique requirements of the different disciplines. What has emerged from the results of the study at the School of Education is that the transition to the new version of Blackboard is causing confusion and anxiety amongst staff who as yet, have not become familiar with using Blackboard despite training but are now faced with new software. DUT needs to address this issue as academics already struggle with burdened workloads and are reluctant to take on additional e‐learning developments. Out of a total of 22 lecturers, only 3 indicated that they are proficient in using Blackboard and are using e‐ learning and ICT in their practices. This represents only 13.6% of the total staff compliment. However the results reveal that only 2 staff members have no knowledge of Blackboard and have never tried or used e‐ learning. These staff members are nearing retirement and do not feel the need to become familiar with e‐ learning. Despite this, every member of staff has indicated that they have used ICT’s at some stage even if not for teaching. Also 11 of the 22 staff which represents 50% have at some time attended the Pioneers training and although they all are not using the LMS to teach, they have some knowledge of the functions. None of the staff members indicated that they are not comfortable using technology but rather that they are lacking the necessary skills to use Blackboard. This can be attributed to the fact that the training is voluntary and some staff do not have the time or the inclination to attend the training. Should the management lay down e‐

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Anita Hiralaal learning training as compulsory, then maybe staff will become more proficient in incorporating ICT into their practice. This will contribute to the growth and development of e‐learning.

6. Limitations of this study The study conducted with teacher educators in the School of Education involved only 22 participants. Since the sample is exceptionally small, the results of this study will not be significant. However the aim of this study was to provide the researcher with data that will contribute to creating an environment that will encourage e‐ learning specifically at the School of Education at the Durban University of Technology. Hence the results of the study are significant to the researcher but not to the broader e‐learning and ICT community.

7. Conclusion The results of this study indicate that while e‐learning is a tool that will help the institution achieve its broader objectives, the adoption of e‐learning across the institution is not evenly spread with individual departments and staff members taking the initiative whilst others showing no interest at all. However what has emerged is that while CELT has been making every effort to train staff at DUT, the centre is also responsible for the enhancement of the quality of learning, teaching and assessment across all academic programmes. Also within CELT there is no assigned operational leader with overall responsibility for planning, coordinating, and managing the development of e‐learning across the institution (DUT 2012). As a result of this there is a degree of complacency about e‐learning as is indicative by the results of the study conducted at the School of Education. To date, the LMS has been used for administrative and organisational purposes rather than for teaching and learning and this issue needs to be addressed. In conclusion, it can be said that academic staff will require significant support, training and encouragement if they are to proactively engage with e‐learning and incorporating ICT into their practices. In addition, appropriate skills development needs to be carried out across the university to support the growth of e‐learning. To achieve this the university will need a well‐managed process to establish and deliver an effective e‐learning plan for change.

References Allen, E. & Seaman, J. (2010). Class differences: online education in the United States. Needham:MA. The Sloan Consortium. Charlesworth, A. (2002). Computer Tutor, PC Advisor, pp. 177‐181. Corbin, J. & Strauss, A. (2008) Basics of Qualitative Research, Sage Publications Ltd, London. Czerniewicz, L. & Brown, C.(2005). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) use in teaching and learning practices in Western Cape higher education institutions.http://www.emerge2005.net. Accessed 12 May 2013 Czerniewicz, L., Ravjee, N. & Mlitwa, N. (2005). Mapping the landscape of ICTs in higher education In South Africa. Report for the Council for Higher Education Department of Education (DOE). (2001). The National Plan for Higher Education Online Accessed at: http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/higheredu Department of Education (DOE). (2003). Draft White paper on e‐education. Transforming learning and teaching through Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) Government Gazette. NO. 26734 Department of Education (DOE), (2007). Guidelines for Teacher Training and Professional Development in ICT. Government Printer, Pretoria Durban University of Technology. (2010). Strategic Goals and Objectives 2010‐2014 Durban University of Technology, (2012). ELearning Strategic Planning and Deployment Report, Blackboard Consulting Durban University of Technology, (2009). Policy Document for ELearning at CELT. Elton, L. (1999). New Ways of Learning in Higher Education: Managing the Change. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands st Garrison, D. R. & Anderson, T. (2003). E‐Learning in the 21 Century: A Framework for Research and Practice, Routledge Falmer, London Garrison, D. R. & Vaughan, N.D. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: framework, principles and guidelines. San Fransisco: Jossey‐Bass Cook, J., Holley, D. & Andrew, D. (2007). A stakeholder approach to implementing e‐learning in a university, British Journal of Education Technology, 38 (5), September. Council on Higher Education, (2006). ICTs and the South African Education Landscape.CHE, Pretoria Laurillard, D. (2005). E‐Learning in Higher Education. Changing Higher Education, Routledge, Falmer Mapwa, J. (2011). Dealing with challenges to learning in Higher Education Institutions through e‐learning, University of Western Cape. McNamara, C. (1999). General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews. PHD unpublished thesis

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Anita Hiralaal Moll, I., Adam, F., Backhouse, J & Mhlanga, E. (2007). Status Report on ICTs and Higher Education in South Africa. South African Institute for Distance Education, Braamfontein O'Donoghue, J., Singh, G., & Dorward, L. (2001). Virtual Education in Universities: A Technological Imperative. British Journal of Educational Technology, 32(5) 517‐530. Reeves, T.C., & Reeves, P.M. (2012). Designing online and blended learning. Melbourne: Acer Press Shapiro, L. (2000). Evolution of Collaborative Distance Work at ITESM: structure and process. Journal of Knowledge Management, 4(1) 44‐55. Volery, T. (2000). Critical success factors in online education. The International Journal of Educational Management, 14(5) 216‐223. Wagner, A. D. (2001) IT and Education for the Poorest of the Poor: Constraints, possibilities, and principles. echKnowlogia, July/August, 48‐50 Wilson, J. (2001). Lessons of a Virtual Timetable: Education. The Economist, (17 February), p. 1 (CD‐ROM).

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A new Concept of Study Materials for Machine Design Martin Hynek, Miroslav Grach, Petr Votapek and Jitka Bezdekova Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czech Republic hynek@kks.zcu.cz grach@kks.zcu.cz pvotapek@kks.zcu.cz bezdekov@kks.zcu.cz Abstract: Machine design is one of the most promising fields of study in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the University of West Bohemia (FST) regarding the demand for specialists in this field. The primary goal of FST is to graduate students well equipped to meet that demand. Nowadays, the main issue of higher education in the Czech Republic related to mechanical engineering is the lack of opportunities for students to acquire practical knowledge and experience in the field during their studies. One week of practice in a mechanical engineering company is insufficient compared with the German method of regularly alternating teaching of theory with practice. Therefore the study of Mechanical Engineering in the Czech Republic has been isolated from the praxis in engineering companies and the competitiveness of graduates has been reduced (Vavreckova 2009). In addition, the feedback from the engineering industry provided by employed graduates confirms that providing real projects to students should be the priority of FST. This research aims to develop a new concept of Machine Design study materials as a part of the solution to the issues described above to support the teaching process by providing a basis for student teamwork as well as individual work. Choosing the electronic form for creating the study materials is beneficial thanks to the technology of displaying three‐dimensional computer‐aided design (CAD) models in regular portable document format (PDF). It is also possible to include a large amount of additional information in these models. Traditionally this additional information is transferred to students in an ineffective written form. By creating a PDF file containing CAD models enhanced with additional information, it is possible to deliver it to students in a new interactive way. There are also many aspects which need to be described in Machine Design study materials along with each design project. The main aspects are the design process, assembly process, manufacturing process, economic aspects and interconnections between them. As this list is far from being comprehensive, it is obvious that Machine Design is a highly specific field related to the teaching and learning process. Considering the need of making available the real projects to students, design projects provided by local engineering companies were selected as a form of study materials. The sample study material was created and made available to students through the Courseware of the University of West Bohemia, which is being used as a platform for e‐learning on FST. The main purpose of this paper was to describe the form and the structure of the study materials. Keywords: machine design, design projects, study materials, CAD models

1. Introduction “Although universities have additional purposes, few students would study engineering without expecting their education to help them prepare for engineering work.” (Male 2010). Several studies have appeared questioning the alignment between engineering education and engineering work. In the last few years, there has been a growing interest in this issue. Wulff states, “many of the students who make it to graduation enter the workforce ill‐equipped for the complex interactions, across many disciplines, of real‐world engineered systems.” (Wulf 2002). Industry requires adequate preparation of engineering students for their future engineering jobs. Radcliffe points out, “much of the energy in teaching and learning in universities is still focused on developing the observable skills and knowledge dimension” (Radcliffe 2005), rather than the less easily observable skills required by industry. Anderson offers another point of view suggesting that both initial and developmental competencies must be provided by engineering education: “The challenge of engineering education is to simultaneously prepare students for their first job and their career 25 years later.”(Anderson in Bodmer 2002, p.11). The lack of opportunities for engineering students to acquire practical knowledge in the field during their studies is the main issue of higher education in the Czech Republic. The study of Mechanical Engineering in the Czech Republic has been therefore isolated from praxis in engineering companies. As a result, the competitiveness of graduates has been reduced (Vavreckova 2009). It is necessary for engineering students to get access to real projects within the learning process. The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the University of West Bohemia (FST) has no archive of real projects available to students at this time. Therefore, it is hard for students to get to real projects during their studies at FST. This is also a problem for academics, as they cannot offer practical examples to students. The only way for engineering students to acquire practical knowledge is praxis in an engineering company.

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Martin Hynek et al. This paper presents a new concept of Machine Design study materials as a part of the teaching process enhancement made by FST to face the issues described.

2. Requirements for the new concept of study materials 2.1

Competencies required by design engineers

First off, competencies required by design engineers had to be defined. Competencies required by Engineers were defined by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) as follows: Graduates should have:

an ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering

an ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data

an ability to design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs within realistic constraints such as economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety, manufacturability, and sustainability

an ability to function on multidisciplinary teams

an ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems

an understanding of professional and ethical responsibility

an ability to communicate effectively

the broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering solutions in a global, economic, environmental, and societal context

a recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in life‐long learning

a knowledge of contemporary issues

an ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering practice.

(ABET 2011) Alternatively, the competencies were defined by the European Network for Accreditation of Engineering Education (ENAEE) as the European‐stipulated outcomes (ENAEE 2008). Competencies have been scarcely investigated from the point of view of Machine Design. The author has fifteen years of experience in training design engineers. Based on his experience in engineering education the following field specific competencies must be considered regarding design engineers (Machine Design graduates):

an ability to use CAD software

a knowledge of the mechanical design process

a knowledge of manufacturing processes

a knowledge of economic aspects of production

experience with real applications

an ability to express their thoughts unequivocally

an ability to communicate in foreign languages

technical creativity

an ability to analyse and formulate technical problems

a knowledge of total quality management principles

Knowledge of the mechanical design process and manufacturing processes, experience with real applications and the ability to use CAD software are the most valuable competencies required by Machine Design graduates according to the author’s experience in engineering education. These competencies cannot be

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Martin Hynek et al. gained by learning the principles only. It is necessary to get to real applications to gain these competencies and therefore the new concept of study materials is focused on providing real applications.

2.2 Requirements specification The mechanical design process is a complex multi‐step process including technical specifications, conceptual design, preliminary design, detailed design and manufacture. It is essential for the study material to provide information related to the design project in an interactive way so that students can explore the design project and work with it. The study material must serve students as a base for creating their own design projects and thus the students can practise the conceptual, preliminary and detailed design. In addition, the issue of manufacture and manufacturing processes has to be included in the study materials as a crucial part of the mechanical design process. Real design projects need to be delivered to students to reduce their isolation from praxis in engineering companies. The design projects have to be obtained from engineering companies and to be reworked for study purposes. It is crucial to determine the form and the structure of the study material as all aspects of the design project have to be described. Information about the mechanical design process has to be delivered to students and it has to be easy to work with. The core of each study material has to be the CAD model containing the design project. The CAD models need to be integrated into the study materials. Student licenses for major CAD software are not generally available free of charge. CAD software is therefore available to students only on the FST computers. This does not allow students to study at home on their personal computers and therefore it is not suitable for the new concept of study materials. It is crucial for the study materials to be used anywhere at any time, therefore it is necessary to find a way to make this possible. It is essential to distribute the CAD models to students together with the study materials in a different way so that all students can use them on their own personal computers. Every student needs to be able to rotate the CAD models, to hide parts of the models and to explore them in different ways.

3. Study material introduction Considering the need to make real projects available to students, design projects provided by local engineering companies were selected as a form of study materials. The design projects were provided by local engineering companies and reworked by FST. Every design project fully describes the provided tool (or machine) and explains fundamental facts related to it.

3.1 Structure of the study material The design projects are presented to students in the form of PDF files. The PDF files contain interactive CAD models exported from major CAD systems. The CAD models form the core of each study material as there is a lot of engineering know‐how included in them. The CAD models are a great source of information regarding the design process, but they have to be supplemented by additional information regarding the manufacturing processes and technologies, function of the tool (or machine) and its components and economic aspects. This additional information was inserted into the structured PDF file together with CAD models and technical drawings. The general structure of the PDF file is depicted in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows the structured PDF file containing the CAD models, technical drawings and additional information regarding the mechanical design process, manufacturing processes, economic aspects and the tool description. Information related to component functions, manufacturing processes and materials is already included in the CAD models.

3.2 Form and content of the study material 3.2.1 Tool description This part of the study material is crucial to the students’ insight into the tool design process and therefore it has to be well illustrated to be comprehensible. It describes the functions of important components, principles and conditions regarding the described tool and the boundary conditions of the tool design process. The tool description sample page is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 1: The general structure of the design project PDF file

Figure 2: Tool description sample page The hot oil distribution system is depicted In Figure 2 as a sample of the tool description. Important information regarding the distribution system helps understanding of the basic facts and functions. The text information is accompanied by pictures of the hot oil distribution system in order to be comprehensible.

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Martin Hynek et al. 3.2.2 Technical specifications This part of the study material is concerned with the main technical specifications. Definition of technical specifications is the first step of the mechanical design process. The form of the technical specifications is crucial as it has to be clearly arranged, unambiguous and all important requirements and conditions related to the design project have to be included in it. It is a good habit to write the technical specifications as a multilingual document. Czech, German and English languages were selected for the new concept of study materials due to the importance of these languages in the region. The sample page of technical specifications is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Technical specifications sample page

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Martin Hynek et al. Figure 3 shows a section of the design project technical specifications. The first column contains the row numbers. The second column contains the row titles. In the third row, requirements and conditions related to the second column are defined and annotated. 3.2.3 CAD models CAD models are a great source of mechanical engineering knowledge for students of Machine Design. The CAD model can be viewed easily within the PDF file. It is possible to rotate it, zoom it, explore it, create cross‐ sections, change transparency and set the light conditions. There are many parameters regarding each component one might need to know such as the part number, assembly number, materials or weights. This information can be found in technical drawings, but it is quite inconvenient to search for it, therefore these parameters are implemented directly into the CAD model and can be displayed by selecting the component, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: CAD model viewed within the PDF file Figure 4 is divided into three main sections. The Model Tree showing the structure of the tool can be seen on the upper left side of the figure, the parameters regarding the selected component are displayed on the lower left side of the figure and the CAD model imported to the PDF file is located on the right side of the figure. A dual colouring system is used for colouring the CAD models. The first type of colouring is based on the component’s function, as it is helpful for the student to recognize the function of each component without reading the additional text or viewing the technical drawings. The second type of colouring is based on the manufacturing processes, as the students of Machine Design have to distinguish different manufacturing processes and technologies. Figure 5 gives an example of the second type of colouring.

Figure 5: Colouring based on the manufacturing processes Figure 5 shows different colours assigned to different manufacturing processes. The left side of the figure is the legend and a coloured sample part is shown on the right side of the figure

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4. Contribution to students and academics The main purpose of the study materials is to provide support to the education process, as they provide the mechanical engineering know‐how from industry to the students of Machine Design and academics at FST. The new concept of study materials shows a way of using the available technology to get the CAD models to students of Machine Design in the form of interactive study materials. Students are able to view and explore the CAD models to learn how to design different types of machines and tools. By importing the CAD models to the PDF format it is possible to view them on most computers and therefore every student is able to use the study materials on his own computer. This way it is possible to use the study materials for many purposes such as a basis for students’ individual work, teamwork, assignments or theses. Technical specifications of each design project can be easily modified by academics to create altered technical specifications for students’ assignments, theses or projects. Students can study the original design project and make the modifications to it according to the altered technical specifications to create their own design projects. In this way they acquire experience in the field and their design projects are close to real projects made in engineering companies. Another contribution of the new concept is the dual system used to colour the CAD models. The first type of colouring allows the function of each component of the CAD model to be distinguished while the second type of colouring allows identification of the manufacturing processes used to create surfaces. Machined, drilled or cut surfaces of the CAD model can be recognized by the colour. In the same way guide elements can be distinguished from transport elements. Overall, the colouring helps orientation in the CAD models. The new study materials provide an archive of real design projects available to all students and academics at FST. The design projects can be used for multiple purposes to improve different parts of the teaching process at FST. Project‐based subjects obtain valuable know‐how and academics can apply their knowledge to real design projects to enhance different subjects at FST.

5. Conclusion and future work It is clear that universities need to cooperate with engineering companies to produce highly skilled graduates. In the Czech Republic there is a lack of opportunities for Machine Design students to acquire practical experience in the field during their studies. The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the University of West Bohemia is therefore concerned with enhancing the teaching process by providing real projects to its students. As a part of the solution to this problem, FST has developed a new concept of study materials based on the cooperation of FST with the industrial sector as a part of improvements to the Machine Design teaching process. The main purpose of this paper is to describe the form and the structure of the new concept of study materials for Machine Design. At first, specific requirements for the Machine Design study materials were identified. The project‐based concept of the study materials was introduced and designed as a structured PDF file containing CAD models and technical drawings together with additional project‐related information. Particular attention was paid to the CAD models. They were imported to a PDF file in order to be viewed and worked with on any computer regardless of the installed CAD software. Further, the structure, form and content of the new concept of study materials were presented and its main parts were described. Future work will involve a questionnaire survey to identify any major drawbacks of the study materials and to check the percentage of technical difficulties related to displaying the CAD models. After evaluation, more projects will be prepared to cover the following topics: acoustic parts, casting and forging, sheet metals, plastic parts, milling machines, lathes, hydraulic presses and tyre presses to cover different branches of Machine Design. Further, an analysis of students’ attitudes to the new concept of study materials will be integrated into the Quality of Teaching system of the University of West Bohemia. Further research will be required to verify the influence of the new concept of study materials on the competitiveness of graduates.

References ABET (2011) Criteria for accrediting engineering programs, [Online], Available: http://www.abet.org/uploadedFiles/Accreditation/Accreditation_Process/Accreditation_Documents/Current/eac‐ criteria‐2012‐2013.pdf [22 Jan 2012]. Bodmer, C., Leu, A., Mira, L. and Rütter, H. (2002) SPINE: Successful practices in international engineering education, pp 92‐ 102, [Online], Available: http://www.ingch.ch/pdfs/spinereport.pdf [22 Jan 2012].

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Martin Hynek et al. ENAEE (2008) EUR‐ACE Framework Standards for the Accreditation of Engineering Programmes, pp 4, [Online], Available: http://www.enaee.eu/wp‐content/uploads/2012/01/EUR‐ACE_Framework‐Standards_2008‐11‐0511.pdf [22 Jan 2012]. Male S. A. (2010) "Generic Engineering Competencies: A Review and Modelling Approach", Education Research and Perspectives, Vol. 37, No.1, pp 25‐51. Male S. A., Bush M. B. and Chapman E. S. (2009) “Identification of competencies required by engineers graduating in Australia.“, 20th Conference of the Australasian Association for Engineering Education: Engineering the Curriculum, pp 882‐887. Radcliffe, D. F. (2005) “Innovation as a meta graduate attribute for engineers”, International Journal of Engineering Education, IJEE Special Issue:The Entrepreneurial Engineer, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp 194‐199. Vavreckova, J. (2009) “University‐educated specialists, the demand for them and their standing on the Czech labour market”, Acta Oeconomica Pragensia, Vol 5, pp 20‐35. Wulf, W. A. and Fisher, G. M. C. (2002) “A makeover for engineering education”, Issues in Science and Technology, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp 35.

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Computer Anxiety, Computer Self‐Efficacy and Attitude Towards Internet Among Secondary School Students in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria Akpan Iniobong, Patrick Uko and Theresa Ekanem College of Education, Afaha Nsit, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria finiobong@yahoo.com patikkaka@yahoo.com tercyufrank@yahoo.com Abstract: This study was conducted to determine the influence of computer anxiety and computer self efficacy on the attitudes of students to internet in selected model secondary schools in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Students’ attitude towards the use of internet has been an issue of great concern to teachers of computer science. Three hypotheses were stated to guide the researcher in the course of the study. An expost facto design was used and the population of the study consisted of all senior secondary 2 students of model secondary schools in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. This consisted of Six hundred students drawn using the stratified random sampling technique. Students Computer Anxiety, Computer Self‐ efficacy and Attitude to Internet Questionnaire (SCASEAIQ) was the instrument used to collect data for the study. The questionnaire was divided into three sections. Section one was computer anxiety rating scale, section two was computer self‐efficacy scale and section three was students’ internet attitude scale. Each of these sections consisted of twenty items. The researcher visited the students and personally administered the instrument. Data analysis was done using Pearson Product Moment Correlation and multiple regression analysis. All the hypotheses were tested at .05 level of significance. Findings revealed that there is a significant positive relationship between students’ computer anxiety and attitudes towards internet. There is a significant positive relationship between students’ computer self‐efficacy and attitude towards internet. Computer anxiety and computer self‐efficacy significantly influence students’ attitude towards internet. It was concluded that students’ computer anxiety and computer self‐efficacy influenced students’ attitudes toward the internet. It was recommended among others that teachers through their teaching should help students develop positive attitude towards computer and internet as these could exercise great influence on their success in the study and use of computer. Keywords: computer education, anxiety, self‐efficacy, internet, attitudes, students

1. Introduction Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has gained global acceptance within a short space of time (Etuk, 2007). Most developed and developing countries now see major benefits of using ICT and mastering the basic skills and concepts of ICT as a major part of their academic programme, alongside reading, writing and numeracy. Also ICT is very essential for the economic, socio‐political and cultural development of any country. The world has become a global village and Nigeria’s human resources need to be developed in the area of new technologies to fit into the heart beat of the moment. Every one needs to become familiar with information processing and computing whether in the home, office, school, colleges or factory. Nigeria needs a new generation of students who should not only be experts in their fields, but also computer literate. The use of computers in the classroom has been proved to be advantageous in many ways. Not only has it been found to facilitate students’ learning, but it has also been found to develop students’ ability to learn independently, analyse information, think critically and solve problems (Chavez, 1997). Kulick (1984) asserts that there is a steady increase in students study speed across studies of computer‐assisted instruction. Frizler (1995) notes that even though they will never sideline teachers, computers tend to give excellent and fairly inexpensive supplementary materials to enhance instruction. The appearance of the internet in education has helped students to communicate and share project data. The internet is the rich, multi‐layered, and complex over‐changing textual environment for teaching and learning. It is relatively fast, with its advantage of being accessible at all times and can be used from an individual owner’s computer. The internet provides an opportunity for academic work. More and more students are doing their assignments exclusively through the internet (Etuk, 2007). It is a mechanism for information dissemination and a medium for corroborative interaction between individuals and their computers without regard to geographical limitation of space.

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Akpan Iniobong, Patrick Uko and Theresa Ekanem In Nigeria, computer education has been made compulsory at both the primary and secondary levels of education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). Computer skill is an all‐purpose tool and can be applied throughout life. It is difficult to imagine a world without the computer (Ekwueme, 2006). Considering the importance of the computer, Igwe (1991) asserts that the development of computer education of high standard is imperative. Fafunwa (1987) on his part remarks that we now live in a world where science and technology have join the arts and humanities as dominant cultures and so it has become mandatory for all our young people to be computer literate if they are to lead a satisfying and happy life. Surprisingly, despite the widely acknowledged importance of computer and computer education and inspite of the efforts of government and private school proprietors to encourage computer education, there is enough evidence to show that secondary school students are under‐achieving in computer education (Balogun, 1992; Adebowale, Adediwura & Balla, 2009). What makes the situation totally demoralising is the result of the first and second International Studies on Education (ISE). These studies revealed that African Secondary School Students are lag behind in science and mathematics including computer science (Rossie, 1990). It is sad to note that in the th th second ISE Science Study (SISS) in 1983‐84, Nigeria came last and second to the last at the 10 and 14 year old level in mean science achievement, including computer (Rossie, 1990). This situation does not favour the country’s move towards developing scientific and technological culture, including computer literacy. Several factors have been identified as contributing to students poor utilization of the computer in schools after being exposed to these computers. A review of the literature shows that among others, computer anxiety, computer self‐efficacy and attitude towards computer and internet exert great influence on students’ performance in using computer (Chavez, 1997). Howard and Smith (1986) defined computer anxiety as the fear of intending interaction with a computer that is disproportionate to the actual threats presented by the computer. Self‐efficacy is the perceived ability to accomplish a task rather than simple component skills (Compeau & Higgins, 1995). Computer self‐efficacy represents a comprehensive judgement of ones ability to perform a task using the computer. Self‐efficacy is not a static or stable trait, but rather a situation‐specific; dynamic judgement that changes with acquired information such as the change of environmental setting or the change of task conditions and feedback (Gist & Mitchell, 1992). Computer anxiety has been found by Howard and Smith (1986), Igbaria and Chakraberti (1990) to cause some individuals to avoid using the computer to complete some tasks. The presence of computer phobia and anxiety of people in the workplace can lead to serious problems including sabotage, increase in mistakes, decline in motivation, poor work quality and morale, absenteeism as well as interpersonal conflicts. Sam, Abang and Zaimuarrifudden (2005) found in their study that high computer anxiety made students to have negative attitudes towards the use of internet. Durndell and Haag (2002) found a significant zero order correlation between lower computer anxiety and more positive attitude towards internet. Computer self‐efficacy has been found to have a strong positive correlation with computer attitude (Compeau & Higgins, 1995; Harrison & Rainer, 1992; Igbara & Chakraberti 1994). Computer self efficacy was also found to be positively related to computer experience (Busch, 1995). Pauli, Gilson and May (2007) found that students with moderate levels of computer self efficacy had high level of attitude towards the internet. The correlation matrix also supports the strong positive relationship between computer self efficacy and attitudes towards the internet. These studies were conducted outside Nigeria, and there is no such studies known to the researcher that have been conducted in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The problem then is to assess the influence of computer anxiety and computer self efficacy on the attitude of students towards internet in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.

2. Hypotheses (i) There is no significant relationship between computer anxiety and students attitude towards the internet. (ii) Students computer self‐efficacy skills do not significantly relate to their attitude towards internet. (iii) Computer anxiety and computer self efficacy have no significant influence on students’ attitude towards the internet.

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3. Methodology Research Design This study is an expost facto research as the researcher does not have a direct control of independent variables since their manifestation have already occurred (Kerlinger, 1986). Population of the Study The population of the study comprised all senior secondary 2 students in all model Senior Secondary Schools in Akwa Ibom State. They were used as they were expected to have had enough computer experience based on their exposure to the computer from their junior Secondary Level. Sample and Sampling Technique A sample of 600 students was selected using the stratified random sampling technique. The basis of stratification was the local government area. Thirty model secondary schools were selected using a table of random numbers, and from each of them, two schools were selected and from each of the two schools selected, 20 students were selected using the simple random sampling method. The first twenty ss2 students whose serial numbers first appeared in a table of random numbers were selected for the study. Instrumentation A questionnaire titled Students Computer Anxiety, Computer Self efficacy and Attitude to Internet Questionnaire (SCASEAIQ) was used to collect data for this study. The first section of the questionnaire entitled students’ computer anxiety rating scale (SCARS) was used to collect data on students’ level of computer anxiety. It was a 20‐item, four point Likert‐type self‐reported computer anxiety scale that was adapted from the work of Heinssen, Glass and Knight (1987). The scale has items such as “I hesitate to use a computer for fear of making mistakes that I cannot correct.” The second section of the questionnaire was students’ computer self‐efficacy scale (SCSES) adapted from the work of Murphy, Coover and Owen (1989). This was a 20‐item scale which began with the phrase “I feel confident.” The scale has items such as “I feel confident working on a personal computer.” The third section of the questionnaire was Students’ Internet Attitude Scale (SIAS). This was a 20‐item self reported questionnaire from the computer attitude scale developed by Nickell and Pinto (1986). In SIAS, the word “computer” was replaced with “internet” on all the items in the scale Results The data were analyzed by calculating Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Multiple regressions. The calculated results of the variables are as shown on the tables below Table 1: Pearson product moment correlation analysis of students’ computer anxiety, computer self‐efficacy and attitude towards internet (N=600) Variables Computer Anxiety

600 65.412

∑x ∑y2

7.369

32527.318

∑xy

Sig

13753.303 .486* .000

Computer Self Efficacy 600 93.660 13.908 115858.140 23185.960 .460* .000 Attitude to Internet

600 60.157

6.414

24645.273

Table 2: t‐test analysis of the influence of computer anxiety and computer self‐efficacy on students’ attitude towards internet Variables Computer self efficacy Computer Anxiety

N 600 600

X 93.660 65.412

* P<. 05; df = 598; critical‐t = 1.96

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SD 13.908 7.369

t‐calculated 43.932*

Akpan Iniobong, Patrick Uko and Theresa Ekanem The result in table 1 on students’ computer anxiety and attitude towards internet shows that the calculated r‐ value is .486 which is significant at .05 level of significance. This means that there is a positive and significant relationship between computer anxiety and students attitude towards the internet. It suggests that students attitude towards the internet becomes more positive as their computer anxiety increases and vice versa. The result in table 1 on students’ computer self efficacy and attitude towards internet shows that the calculated r‐value is indicating that there is a positive and significant relationship between students’ computer self efficacy and their attitudes towards the internet. This observed positive relationship implies that as students computer self efficacy increases, their attitude towards internet also increases. The result in table 2 shows the t‐test analysis of the influence of computer anxiety and computer self‐efficacy on students’ attitude towards internet. The result shows that the mean computer self‐efficacy score is 93.660 with a standard deviation of 13.908 while the mean for computer anxiety is 65.412 with a standard deviation of 7.369. The calculated t‐value is 43.932 at .05 level of significance. Since the calculate t‐value is greater than the critical value of 1.96 at .05 level of significance, it means that the calculated t‐value is statistically significant. This implies that there is a significant influence of computer anxiety and computer self‐efficacy on students’ attitude towards internet. In other words, the mean of computer self‐efficacy and that of computer anxiety differs significantly. Specifically, computer self‐efficacy has a significantly higher influence on students’ attitude towards internet than computer anxiety. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected

4. Discussion of findings The first finding that computer anxiety has a significant relationship with students' attitude towards the internet means that the students’ attitude towards the internet becomes positive as their computer anxiety increases. This finding corroborates that of Bozconelos (1997) and Bradley and Russel (1997) who found that computer anxiety impacted positively on students’ use of the internet. This result implies that the students display favourable disposition towards internet possibly based on their past experiences with computers in their earlier stage in life, some preferably at the elementary schools. This result has empirical evidence to support the saying that “the more is better” since there is a positive relationship between computer anxiety and attitude towards internet. This is also in agreement with the saying that computer anxiety would become less a factor in attitude to internet as time went on because each year students are finding computer a mere “normal” part of their lives. The above findings also suggest that computer anxiety may not disappear as computer and internet experience becomes more universal. Computer anxiety is created, it is not a birth defect needed to be healed. Thus, despite the positive attitude developed, anxiety may still be there. Attitude can also explain students’ acceptance or rejection of the internet. Moreover, positive attitudes are pre‐ requisite guarantee for efficacy skills which may likely reduce anxiety. Students with a positive attitude are more successful in internet‐mediated tasks aside from working more efficiently. Attitude affects people in everything they do and in fact, reflects what they are and hence is a determining factor of people’s attitude to the task. Generally, increase in attitudes towards internet as a result of increase in computer anxiety may be attributed to the school environment. This is because model secondary school students are expected to be computer literate before leaving the school. Therefore, increase in anxiety increases their attitude towards internet. The second findings of the study that computer self‐efficacy had a significant relationship with students attitude towards the internet implies that as students computer self efficacy increases, their attitude towards the internet also increases or becomes more positive. This is supported by earlier work of Gist and Mitchell (1992), Compeau and Higgins (1995) and Smith‐Jentsch, Jentsch, Payne and Sales (1996) that confirmed the existence of a positive relationship thus demonstrating that as the level of computer self‐efficacy increases, the attitude towards internet increases. This shows that increased computer self‐efficacy could reduce the effect of computer anxiety if anxiety negatively affect an individual use of internet. Through positive specific usage experience it would seem that the effect of computer anxiety can be controlled. This supports the argument that the effect of emotional arousal change self‐efficacy beliefs, that the primary determinant of behavioural intentions is self‐efficacy beliefs. Also based on self‐efficacy theory, students with strong self‐ efficacy beliefs exert a greater positive attitude to the internet while those with weak self‐efficacy beliefs exert negative attitude to the internet. This means that the higher the level of self‐efficacy skills of the students the higher the positive attitude towards the internet and vice versa. It is also believed that mastery experiences,

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Akpan Iniobong, Patrick Uko and Theresa Ekanem modeling and actual use of computer can positively affect a person’s computer self‐efficacy which will in turn help to reduce avoidance of internet use. On the contrary, Stojikovic and Luthans (1998) found out that an individual’s level of self‐efficacy is affected by situational factors such as environmental contexts which may negatively influence self‐efficacy and attitude to the internet by increasing personal anxiety through thought of failure. This emotional arousal may be perceived by the individual as signs of vulnerability to poor attitude. However, this emotional arousal is only one portion of the factors affecting self‐efficacy and attitude to the internet thus can be control. The third finding indicates that computer self‐efficacy and computer anxiety influence internet attitude. The more self‐efficacy skills one has and anxiety the user feels about the internet, the more positive attitude the user seems to have towards the internet. The implication may suggest that attitude towards the internet may be influenced by the user level of self‐efficacy and anxiety. For improved attitude towards the internet, the user may adopt user‐friendly interface, easy navigation, and appealing interaction. This finding corroborates an earlier finding by Marcoulides, Mayes and Wiseman (1995) that people could pick up computer skills quicker when they are less anxious and computer self efficacy enhances attitude towards the internet. Self‐efficacy theory suggests that those who feel their capabilities are inferior to the task they are confronting would cease their effort prematurely, while those with stronger self‐efficacy are willing to persist in coping with difficulty and achieving their goals (Bandura, 1977). This study is indirectly in support of this self‐efficacy theory that students have a positive attitude towards the internet only when they perceive themselves to be capable of dealing with this new tool. To meet the challenge of the digital economy, schools need to get on the cyberspace bandwagon and understand the intricate tapestries of the intangible culture and patterns in the usage of the internet. The capability to adapt quickly to this new cyber space culture would have advantages for students’ computer self‐efficacy which is a contributor to students’ attitude towards the internet. Thus both computer anxiety and computer self‐efficacy influences significantly students’ attitude to the internet although their variables do not influence equally the variance in students’ attitude towards the internet. However, the deference in the level of influence by the variance may be in the level of exposure of these students to the internet. From the result it is seen that computer self efficacy has a higher mean value than computer anxiety. This implies that computer self efficacy exerts a greater influence on students’ attitude towards internet than computer anxiety. Integrating the internet in their daily computer exposure may bring about a positive attitude towards the internet through reduced anxiety. This fact is supported by Spielberger (1966) trait‐state anxiety theory which states that high anxiety is detrimental to task performance while moderate anxiety serves as an emotional drive and hence is incremental.

5. Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made;

Computer teachers should strive towards reducing computer anxiety among their students. They should work to identify those with very high computer anxiety and intervene early.

The teacher should introduce educational games or word processing into classroom computer instruction

The state government should liaise with ICT professionals to ensure that computer peripherals and network facilities are supplied in all public secondary schools.

More practical work should be included in computer science lessons to help students acquired more skills that will enhance their computer self efficacy

6. Conclusion Computers and the internet play a great role in learning and national development. Students have to become computer literate if they must contribute meaningfully to national development. Computer anxiety, computer self efficacy and attitude towards internet can influence their performance in computer science. Teachers have to take steps to reduce anxiety in students and enhance their computer self efficacy in order to improve their competence in internet use.

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References Adebowale, O. F. Adediwura, A. A. and Balla, T. A. (2009) “Correlates of Computer Attitude among Secondary School Students in Lagos State, Nigeria,” International Journal of Computing and ICT Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, (online) http:file119:ifa%206inht. Balogun, T. A. (1992) “Science, Society and Science Teaching Effectiveness in Nigeria.” Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN), Vol. 2 No. 10, pp 14‐20. Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff, N. J. Bozonelos, N. (1997) “Psychology of Computer Use. XLV Cognitive Spontaneity as a Correlate of Computer Anxiety and Attitude towards Computer Use” Psychology Reports, No. 80, pp 395‐402. Bradley, G. & Russel, N. (1997) “Computer Experiences, School Support and Computer Anxiety,” Educational Psychology, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp 25‐28. Busch, T. (1995) “Gender Differences, Self‐Efficacy Attitudes towards Computer,” Journal of Educational Computing Research, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp 27‐37. Chou, H. W. (2001) “Effect of Training Methods and Computer Anxiety on Learning Performance and Self‐Efficacy,” Computer in Human Behaviour, No. 17, pp 51‐69. Chavez, C. (1997) “Student take Flight with deciduas: Learning Spanish in a Network Classroom” Foreign Language Annual, vol. 30, No. 1, pp 27‐37. Compeau, A. & Higgins, C. (1995) “Computer Self Efficacy: Development of a Measure and Initial Test,” M/S Quarterly, pp 189‐211. Durndell, A. & Haag, (2002) “Computer Self‐Efficacy, Computer Anxiety, Attitudes towards the Internet and Reported Experience with the Internet by Gender in and East European Sample,” Computer in Human Behaviour, No. 18, pp 521‐535. Etuk, E. N. (2001) Globalization as a Curriculum Theory for Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Education in st Nigeria in the 21 Century: Focus and Imperatives. Access Brief in Honour of Professor Mbong A. Udofot, Abaan, Uyo. Ekweme, C. O. (2006) “Errors in Teachers Characteristics and Students Academic Achievement in Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination in Mathematics in South Eastern State of Nigeria,” Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of Nsukka. Fafunwa, B.(1987) The Role of Technology in Nigeria Educational System. The Guardian, June 9, p. 34. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education, NERD, Lagos. Gist, M. E & Mitchell, T. R. (1992) “Self‐efficacy; A theoretical analysis of its determinants and Malleability,” Academy of Management Review, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp 183‐211. Heinssen, R. K.; Glass, C. R. & Knight, L. A. (1987) “Assessing Computer Anxiety: Development and Validation of the Computers Anxiety Rating Scale,” Journal of Computers in Human Behaviour, No. 3, pp 49‐59. Howard, G. S. & Smith, R. (1986) “Computer Anxiety in Management,” Management Myth or Reality Communications of the ACM, No. 29, pp 611‐615. Igbaria, M, & Chakraberti, A. (1990) “Computer Anxiety and Attitude towards Micro Computer Use,” Behaviour and Information Technology, No. 9, pp 229‐241. Igwe, G. O. (1991) “Impact of Behavioural Objectives, Cognitive Entry Behaviour and Lucus of Control Paradigm on Students Learning Outcomes.” Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. rd Kerlinger, F. N. (1986) Foundation of Behavioural Research (3 ed), Holt Richard and Winston, New York. Marcoulides, J. T, Mayes, B. T. & Wiseman, R. L. (1995) “Measuring Computer Anxiety in the Work Environment,” Educational Psychology Measurement, Vol. 55, No. 5, pp 504‐810. Murphy, C. A; Coover, D. & Owen, S. V. (1989) “Development and Validity of the Computer Self‐Efficacy Scale,” Educational and Psychological Measurement, No. 49, pp 893‐899. Nickell, G. S. & Pinto, J. N. (1986) “The Computer Attitude Scale,” Computer in Human Behaviour, No. 2, pp 301‐306. Pauli, K. P.; Gilson, R. L. & May, D. R. (2007) “Anxiety and Avoidance the Mediating Effects on Computers Self‐Efficacy on Computer Anxiety and Intension to use Computer,” Review of Business Information System, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp 57‐64. Rossie, M. (1990) “International Comparison on Science Education Studies,” Studies in Science Education, No. 18, pp 87‐ 104. Sam, K. S; Abang, E. A & Zaimurijuddin, S. N (2005) “Computer Self‐efficacy, Computer Anxiety and Attitude towards Internet: A study among Undergraduates in Unimas,” Educational Technology and Society, Vol. 8, No.4, pp. 205‐219. Smith‐Jentsch, K. A; Jentsch, F. G; Payne, S. and Sales, E. (1996) “Individual Differences in Learning” Journal of Applied Psychology, No. 81, pp. 110‐116. Spielberger, C. D. (1966) “The Effect of Manifest Anxiety on the Academic Achievement of College Students, Mental Hygiene, 46, 420‐426. Stajikovic, A. and Luthans, F. (1998) “Social Cognitive Theory and Self‐Efficacy: Going beyond Traditional Motivational and Behavioural Approaches.” Organizational Dynamics, No. 26, pp. 62‐74. Wilfgong, J. (2004) “Computer Anxiety and Anger: The Impact of Computer Use, Computer Experiences and self‐Efficacy Belief,” Computer in Human Behaviour. (online) http:file://G,ifa%zobinth.

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Online‐Offline System of Evaluating Teaching and Courses for Professional Development Eunice Ivala Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa ivalae@cput.ac.za Abstract: Increasingly in higher education institutions (HEIs), students are being asked to make judgments on the quality of teaching and courses. While the students’ feedback could be used for professional development (improvement of the lecturers teaching and the quality of the courses), the onus of interpreting the feedback is left to individual lecturers, most of whom have no teaching qualification, and hence lack some aspects of pedagogical content knowledge needed to improve their teaching and courses. Drawing from Kolb’s experiential learning cycle and Larrivee’s four levels of reflective practice, this paper reports on the extent to which student feedback on teaching and courses at Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT), is effectively solicited and effectively acted upon by both lecturers and the institution, and on how a process of gathering student feedback on teaching and courses, using an online ‐offline system, encouraged or inhibited reflective practice, which may affect professional development of the participating lecturers. Qualitative methodology and mixed methods of collecting data were utilized. Data consisted of recordings of in‐depth interviews with five lecturers who voluntarily participated in the study; notes taken by the researcher during the participant observation; and analysis of reports compiled from the student feedback data. Data analysis was done using inductive data analysis strategy. A significant finding was that most of the participating lecturers operated at more than one level of reflective practice, with all of them operating at pre‐reflection, surface reflection (low reflective practice) and pedagogical reflection levels, and a few of the lecturers operating at the critical reflection level (high levels of reflective practice). Reasons for the lecturers operation at a low reflective practice are highlighted and suggestions for improving the lecturers’ reflective practice are given. Results presented in this paper highlight the importance of using student feedback on teaching and courses for staff development on reflective practice and could be of value to practitioners looking into practising reflective practice in their profession. They could also help HIEs in designing staff development interventions which encourage reflective practice. Keywords: reflection, reflective practice, Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, Larrivee’s foul levels of reflective practice, pedagogical content knowledge

1. Introduction In South Africa, national policy requires universities to assure quality of the teaching and learning experiences they offer to students (CHERTL Rhodes University 2005). The policy does not prescribe a universal system of evaluating quality of teaching and courses, neither does it dictate what means should be used by Universities to ensure quality. As a result, context‐based systems of ensuring quality are adopted in the 23 South African Universities. However, recent research shows that the use of questionnaires was the most used means of evaluating teaching and quality of courses in most HEIs globally (Powell, Hunt &Irving 1997; Seldin 2010). Research evidence has shown that students’ feedback on teaching and courses could be used for professional development (improvement of the lecturers teaching and the quality of the courses) (Seldin 1993; Watchtel 1998). Thus, this paper considers the extent to which student feedback on teaching and courses at CPUT is effectively solicited and effectively acted upon by both lecturers and the institution. Additionally, the paper reports on how a process of gathering student feedback on teaching and courses, using an online‐offline system, encouraged or inhibited reflective practice, which may lead to the professional development. The following questions guided the study:

How was the gathering and use of student feedback on teaching and courses carried out at CPUT?

To what extent was the online‐offline system of gathering student evaluation of teaching and courses effective for professional development?

A significant finding of the study was that most of the participating lecturers operated at more than one level of reflective practice, with all of them operating at pre‐reflection level, surface reflection level, pedagogical reflection level and a few of the lecturers managing to operate at the critical reflection level.

2. Literature review Student evaluation of teaching and courses

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Eunice Ivala Research on student evaluations and factors which may affect them dates back to 1920s (Centra 1993; Watchtel 1998) and vast literature exists on student evaluation of teaching effectiveness (Marsh &Dunkin 1992). Seldin (2010) pointed out that student evaluation of teaching and courses were the most used means of evaluating teaching and quality of courses in most HEIs globally. The reliability, validity and usefulness of student evaluations has been sufficiently established (Beran & Rokosh 2009; Centra 1993; Lemos et al. 2010; Seldin 1993; 2010). Arguments put forward for supporting the use of student evaluations/ratings include that: “the feedback can help to improve instruction; student ratings will increase the likelihood that excellence in teaching will be recognized and rewarded; student ratings are positively correlated with students learning and achievement i.e. students rate most highly those instructors from whom they have learned the most; students and faculty generally agree on what are the components of effective teaching and their relative importance; and students ratings are positively correlated with ratings by alumni” (Watchtel 1998: 192‐193). Although evidence exists for the usefulness of student evaluation of teaching effectiveness and courses, they are considered to be marginally valuable in enhancing instruction (Beran & Rokosh 2009). At CPUT, at the time of doing this research, that is, 2009 to 2010, it was not clear how student evaluations were being used. Where students’ feedback on teaching and courses was being gathered, it was reported that student feedback results were with the Head of Departments (HODs), who did not cascaded the feedback to the lectures’ concerned. In cases where the lecturers concerned received their student feedback from their HODs, the onus of interpreting the feedback information was left to the individual lecturers, most of who have no teaching qualification, and hence lack some aspects of the pedagogical content knowledge (Pedagogical content knowledge includes the knowing of the subject matter, curriculum, pedagogy, learners and schools/universities (Niess 2011)). The lecturers lacked the knowledge of the art of teaching and learning and the learners they teach, knowledge vital for improving their teaching and courses. Hence, there was a strong need to investigate the extent to which student feedback on teaching and courses at CPUT was effectively solicited and effectively acted upon by both lecturers and the institution, and how a process of gathering student feedback on teaching and courses, using an online ‐offline system, encouraged or inhibited reflective practice, which may affect professional development.

3. Methodology Qualitative methodology and mixed methods of collecting data were utilized due to the methods strength for identifying values, assumptions, expectations and behavior (Goetz & LeCompte 1984).

3.1 Participants and context The study was conducted in 2009 to 2010, in collaboration with Rhodes University, South Africa. Rhodes University allowed CPUT to pilot their Evaluation Assistant (EA) tool, a tool for collecting student feedback on teaching and courses. The project participants were 5 volunteer staff members derived from different faculties at CPUT. There were: one staff member each from the Faculties of Health and Wellness Sciences, Engineering and Applied Sciences; and 2 staff members from the Faculty of Informatics and design. One mentor from Fundani Centre for Higher Education and Development, facilitated the project with the help of two staff members from Rhodes University (one staff member trained CPUT staff on the use of EA tool, while the other assisted with data capturing and analysis). A total of 250 students participated in the evaluations.

3.2 Data collection and analysis Data consisted of recordings of in‐depth interviews with the five lecturers who voluntarily participated in the study. Interviews with lecturers were carried out to examine the extent to which student feedback on teaching and courses at CPUT was effectively solicited and effectively acted upon by both lecturers and the institution before the implementation of the online‐offline system of student evaluation of teaching and courses, and how effective the process of using the online‐offline system enabled or inhibited reflective practice. To enhance the quality of data, descriptive field notes (DeWalt& DeWalt 2011) based on the mentor’s observation and conversation with the participants during the participant observation of the participants training and administration of the questionnaires were used as a source of data. Analysis of reports compiled from the student feedback data were done to examine what the students liked and disliked about their lecturers teaching and courses.

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Eunice Ivala Data analysis was done using inductive data analysis strategy, which leads to themes that are grounded in the data, focusing on using techniques such as clustering, and making contrast and comparisons (Miles & Huberman 1994). Trustworthiness of the data was ensured through member checks of summary reports, percentage type feedback and interview transcripts by the participating lecturers which promoted validity. Activities carried out during the study were negotiated with the participants and informed consent was sought from every participant in the study. Participants were also assured anonymity.

4. Gathering student feedback on teaching and courses using an online‐offline system 4.1 Context The project begun in April 2009, with gathering of baseline information on the practice of evaluating teaching and courses at CPUT and how effectively student feedback was used. Results of the baseline showed that there was a multiplicity of evaluation instruments in use at the university, with quality management directorate, some faculties and lecturers having their own instruments, and very rarely data gathered was analysed and hence results of the evaluation were not communicated to the relevant lecturers, HoDs and students. Thus, most student feedback was not used to improve the quality of teaching and courses. The baseline data gave a clear picture of the environment where an online‐offline system of gathering student feedback was to be implemented.

4.2 Implementation of the online‐offline system of gathering student feedback on teaching and courses 4.2.1 Process, findings and discussion Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (see fig.1) and Larrivee’s four levels of reflective practice (reflective practices are practices ranging from analyzing a single aspect of a lesson to considering the ethical, social and political implications of the teaching practice. Practice refers to one’s repertoire of knowledge, dispositions, skills and behaviours (Larrivee 2008)), were used to understand and explain how a process of gathering student feedback on teaching and courses, using an online ‐offline system, encouraged or inhibited reflective practice.

Figure 1: The experiential learning cycle (adapted from Kolb 1984): Source Stevenson and Sander (1998)

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Eunice Ivala This was done by explaining how the participating lecturers at CPUT, with the help of a mentor, actively improved their own teaching and courses by: providing learning experiences; collecting feedback on the learning experiences; reflecting back on what the learning experiences and feedback gathered meant; and planning improvement to the delivery of the learning experiences based on reflections on student feedback (see fig.1). The thinking behind having a mentor was informed by situated cognition view that cognition is not an isolated event that takes place inside one’s head, but a distributed phenomenon that goes beyond the boundaries of a person to include environment, artifacts (technology), social interactions and culture (Hutchins & Hollan 1999).Thus, the mentor’s role was to mentor lecturers into designing appropriate student feedback questions, interpreting the student feedback information and designing appropriate interventions to address any student concerns. 4.2.2 Providing learning experience phase Informed by the baseline data, the mentor embarked on negotiating with a staff member at Rhodes University, the university which has developed the EA tool for gathering student feedback on teaching and courses, to allow and assist CPUT with piloting the tool. Rhodes University allowed CPUT to use its system for the pilot, with the understanding that if CPUT found the tool useful, it would invest in buying the tool and the accompanying equipment. The implementation of the online‐offline system begun in April 2009 to October 2010. The option of implementing an online‐offline system was chosen because less than 50% of lecturers’ at CPUT offer courses online (Ivala 2011) and the perceived low response rate to online means of gathering student feedback (Powell et al. 1997). Training on the use of EA tool, a web‐based tool hosted in a Moodle platform was offered to ten CPUT staff members in mid‐October 2009. Participating CPUT staff members were given usernames and passwords by the trainer in order to be able to access the tool when necessary. The EA tool has a bank of questions on evaluation of teaching and courses. Some of the questions require a ranked response, requiring students to respond to a statement by selecting the following options: 1) strongly disagree, 2)disagree, 3) neutral, 4) agree, 5)strongly agree and 6)not applicable; while some require an open‐ended response. To construct questionnaires, lecturers selected questions from the bank but also set and submitted their own questions into the tool when the questions in bank did not meet their needs. The mentor was available to support staff members in the process of developing their questionnaires to ensure that the questionnaires were of good design and fit for purpose. The lecturers designed the questionnaire online, and notified the mentor who in turn examined the questionnaires to ensure that it was appropriately designed. Overall, 5 of the 10 trained lecturers participated in the project to the end. 4.2.3 CollectingfFeedback phase Once there was an agreement between the lecturers and the mentor that questionnaires were well designed, the mentor printed them out and made an appointment with the particular lecturers for administration of the questionnaire to students. Timetabled class time was used for administration of the questionnaire as this ensured a high response rate. The mentor administered the questionnaire because we thought students would be more open and honest in their responses if questionnaires were administered by an outside facilitator other than their lecturers. Two evaluations of teaching and courses were carried out for each participating lecturer. The first evaluation was in May 2010 and the second evaluation was in October 2010. The evaluations were carried in the months indicated above in order to ensure that participating lecturers had been given enough time to reflect on their teaching and courses based on the student’s feedback, and to design and implement appropriate interventions to address issues raised by students. During the administration of the questionnaire, students were assured that anything they mentioned would be treated confidential, and that the lecturer would provide and discuss the evaluation results with the students in an effort to come up with solutions to the issues of concern. The filled‐in questionnaires were then couriered by the mentor to Rhodes University for capturing into EA tool and analysis. The ranked questions generated a percentage type feedback which gave the lecturers a broad indication of students’ perceptions, while the open‐ended questions required students to respond in their own words to a question. Open‐ended questions were qualitatively analysed and often provided more detailed feedback. Once the data was analysed, the mentor accessed all the results for the particular courses and compiled a summary report. In the reports, mentor highlighted the positive and negative feedback on teaching and

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Eunice Ivala courses for each subject, with the aim of making students perceived problems explicit to the lecturers. Students’ feedback on the lecturers teaching and quality of the courses varied from lecturer to lecturer. In general, all the lecturers received very good feedback on their teaching and the quality of their courses (It is not possible to give feedback on what students said about each lecturers teaching and quality of the courses, but will highlight some of the common negative aspects of their teaching and quality of the courses raised, and report on how lecturers responded to some of these issues). Some of the negative issues raised by students were that lecturers were: insensitive to student needs; gave unclear explanation of the course content/assignments and complicated notes; teaching too fast; gave inadequate time for doing assignments and gave few tutorials. After writing the summary reports, the mentor sent an email notification to the lecturers advising them to access their reports and percentage type feedback online. 4.2.4 Reflection on what it [students’ feedback] means phase and planned improvement learning experience phase Due to the interconnectedness of these two phases, findings and discussion will be presented under one heading. On receiving their reports online, lecturers were supposed to engage with the feedback, inform students of their feedback and together with the students come up with interventions to address issues raised. The lecturers were also encouraged to consult the mentor if necessary for assistance in designing appropriate interventions. This was deemed necessary because “real reflective practice needs another person as a mentor, who can ask appropriate questions to ensure that reflection goes somewhere and does not get bogged down in self‐justification, self‐indulgence or self‐pity” (Antherton 2011:1). Broudy, Smith and Burnett (1964) argue that apart from replicating and applying knowledge principles in new situations, professional practice also requires active judgment that relies on interpretation and metaphoric association, on ways of seeing and imaginatively understanding what is required in practical changing situations. The mentor gave the lecturers’ ample time (3 months) to engage with the feedback, before she formally made interview appointments. The lecturers were interviewed on how they had utilized the student feedback and the effectiveness of the online ‐offline system of student evaluation of teaching and courses for professional development. The participating lecturers opined that they found the gathering of student feedback process valuable as they were able to get detailed reports from the mentor, percentage type feedback per question, and were able to identify the strengths and weakness on their quality of teaching and courses. Unlike the evaluation practices done in their faculties where students filled the questionnaires and the lecturers were never given feedback: ...what I appreciate was the fact that you get a detailed report and you get, question by question...I could see...like a negative thing, why it was negative and if I find something negative then I work to make it positive, to fix it...so I do find it valuable and also I want to put them into my teacher’s portfolio (Engineering lecturer). Staff members also liked the fact that an external person did the evaluation, which they thought made students give honest opinions on their teaching and courses, as evidenced in the following: I liked the fact that an external person came in and did it. That it wasn’t me giving the students a form like we have to do every year from CPUT... and also the fact is that the students felt that they were talking to you [the mentor] and so I think they would write more honestly talking to you than they would write talking to me (Informatics and Design lecturer A). Furthermore, lecturers liked the fact that the EA tool was online, had a bank of questions on teaching and courses they could choose from and add on. To most of the lecturers participating in this study, the evaluation feedback gave them insights into their teaching and courses, as stated in the following quote: ...this kind of feedback does give you homework. ...it helps us think about ourselves. About how we do things. This is a mirror... and I am sure we need the mirror to constantly improve on what we are doing (Informatics and design lecturer B).

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Eunice Ivala The above findings from the Engineering lecturer and the Informatics and Design lecturer B, shows that student feedback enabled these lecturers reflective thinking which included a process of analyzing and making judgment about the student feedback to give a situation [their teaching practices and courses] new meaning (Collins, 1991). Although cultivation of the capacity to reflect in action (while doing something) and on action (thinking back on what we have done) is an important feature of professional training programmes (Hatton & Smith 1995; 2008; Shön 1983; Van Manen1995), all the lecturers participating in this study reflected‐on‐ action, although student feedback was gathered formatively. Reflection in action did not take place in the classroom because life in the classroom is “contingent, dynamic, ever‐changing, and every moment, every second is situation specific… and one should literally act in a flash. This does not permit a reflective stepping back from or out of the situation in order to consider various alternatives and consequences of those possible alternatives in concrete ever‐changing situations” (van Manen 1995: 6). However, the lecturers had the knowledge of the subject matter, teaching skills and curriculum programme, and some had knowledge of educational theories. These lecturers operated at the pre‐reflection or non‐reflection level (Larrivee 2008), “reacting to students and classroom situation automatically without questioning and adapting their teaching based on students’ responses and needs” p. 342. Based on the student feedback received, some of the lecturers indicated that they constantly reflected on their teaching practice with the intentions of designing interventions to address the negative issues raised by students. One of the lecturers indicated that students had stated that there were few tutorials in his subject. Although the lecturer was co‐teaching the subject with another lecturer, and did not have a chance to meet the students after the evaluation, he indicated that he had added extra tutorials into the curriculum delivery of the course for 2011 (Applied Sciences‐Chemistry lecturer). This lecturer, in addition to operating at the pre‐ reflection level, also operated at surface reflection level‐the lowest level of reflective practice (where “reflection focuses on strategies and methods used to reach pre‐determined goals, while values, believes and assumptions that lie ‘beneath the surface’ are not being considered)” (Larrivee 2008: 342‐343). Additionally, this lecturer also operated at pedagogical reflection, whereby he “applied the field’s knowledge base and the current beliefs about what represents quality practices, the teaching practices affecting students learning and how to enhance learning experiences” (Larrivee 2008: 348), a higher level of reflective practice than surface reflection by incorporating more tutorials for the 2011 curriculum delivery. Another lecturer revealed that students felt that she was insensitive to their needs. This assertion by students motivated the lecturer to take the initiative to know the students better. As a result, she designed assignments which allowed the students to open up and voice their fears and needs. And through this intervention the following issues arose: …I gave them an essay to write, looking at their journey of being at CPUT, at the beginning of the year up to now. What made them come here? What is helping them cope? What are the issues that they are challenging and it was a very, very personal essay. After reading it I was forced to go back to class and kind of motivate them because these were personal issues. Social issues. There was no way that anyone could have been sensitive to those. Not unless you had insight.... after being involved and getting full insight, I’m no longer taking late coming as an insult or disrespect to me or others in the class. I have found a different way of dealing with it....one student is looking after his siblings. Two of them have no home and none of them have got food... (Informatics and design lecturer B). Through these insights, the lecture started a project which she involved her colleagues at work and at the church to contribute money for transport and food for the above students. For the students with no home, the lecturer found accommodation for the student at the campus residence. The above lecturer operated at the four levels of reflective practice, pre‐reflection, surface reflection, pedagogical reflection and critical reflective practice. As she reflected “inwardly at her own practice and outwardly at the social conditions in which these practices are situated. She acknowledged that classroom and school practices cannot be separated from the larger social and political realities” (Larrivee 2008: 343, 348). The lecturer understood that social issues affected students’ academic performance and took the initiative to assist.

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4.3 Reasons why some lecturers may have operated at low levels of reflective practice and suggestions for improvement It is vital to note that the lecturers who participated in this project had teaching experience in HE ranging from 7‐ 35 years, hence the low levels of reflective practice cannot be attributed to lack of experience. Low levels of reflective practice can partly be attributed to an institutional culture of not sufficiently encouraging reflective practice and not using student evaluations of teaching and courses to promote reflective practice, and the fact that majority of the lecturers in this institution do not possess a teaching qualification and hence lacked some aspects of pedagogical content knowledge. On the issue of the institutional culture, I suggest that the academic staff development centre (Fundani CHED) ensures that in its academic development programmes, a culture of reflective practice is promoted. The University should also take student evaluations of teaching and courses seriously for this purpose and introduce other ways of measuring teaching effectiveness and promoting reflective practice. Pertaining the lack of some aspects of pedagogical content knowledge by majority of the lecturers, the mentor echoes the participants’ suggestions that lecturers need to understand the kind of students they are teaching, and those with no teaching background needed to re‐think their way of teaching. I suggest that the staff development and support in the institution needs to cater for both existing and new academic staff. Currently, the teacher development programme (TDP), a non‐credit course caters only for newly employed lecturers at CPUT. Probably customised workshops offered at faculty level can cater for existing lecturer or opening up the TDP to existing lecturers.

5. Conclusion Findings of the study showed that a multiplicity of instruments for evaluating student feedback on teaching and course were in use at CPUT, and the feedback gathered was not communicated to the lecturers and hence not used for improving teaching and learning. Results on the use of an online‐offline system of gathering student feedback showed that most of the participating lecturers appreciated the system and operated at more than one level of reflective practice, with all of them operating at both pre‐reflection and surface reflection level (low reflective practice) and a few of the lecturers managing to operate at pedagogical reflection and critical reflection levels (high levels of reflective practice). Some reasons for varied reflective practices were an institutional culture which does not encourage enough a culture of reflective practice and the fact that most of the lecturers lacked some aspects of pedagogical content knowledge (understanding of the students they teach and lack of pedagogy). This means that the institutions staff development programmes need to inculcate a culture of reflective practice and train staff on pedagogical content knowledge. Results clearly demonstrated that the process and the use of the online‐offline system of gathering student feedback on teaching and courses has the potential to promote lecturers reflective practice on their teaching and courses. Particularly, the presence of the mentor in the process was invaluable for the lecturers. Furthermore, the study introduced a possible alternative tool for evaluation of teaching and course at CPUT, and encouraged active participation of students and lecturers in negotiating ways of addressing student concerns on teaching and courses.

References Atherton, J.S. (2011). “Learning and teaching: reflection and reflective practice”, [Online] http://www.learningand teaching.info/learning/reflecti.htm. Beran, T.N & Rokosh, J.L. (2009). “Instructors’ perspectives on utility of student ratings of instruction”, Instr Sci, Vol. 37, 171‐184. Broudy, H., Smith, B. and Burnett, J. (1964). Democracy and excellence in American secondary education, Rand McNally, Chicago. Centra, J.A. (1993). Reflective faculty evaluation, Jossey‐Bass, San Francisco. CHERTL Rhodes University. (2005). Evaluation of teaching and courses: Brief Guide Series, Rhodes University, South Africa. Collins, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship and instructional technology, In: L. I dol & B. F. Jones (Eds.), Educational values and cognitive instruction; implications for reform, (pp.121‐138), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, N.J. DeWALT, B.R and DeWALT, K. M. (2011). Participant observation: a guide for fieldworkers, second edition, Altamna Press.

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Eunice Ivala Goetz, J. P and LeCompte, M. D. (1984). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research, Academic Press, Orlando, FL. Hatton, N and Smith, D. (1995). “Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 11, No. 1, 22‐49. Hutchins, E., and Hollan, J. (1999). COGSCI: Distributed cognition syllabus, [Online] http://hci.ucsd.edu/131/syllabus/index.html. Ivala, E. (2011). Implementing Blackboard: A case study of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa, In the peer reviewed Proceedings of Distance Education and Teacher Education in Africa (DETA) Conference, University of the Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. Larrivee, B. (2008). “Development of a tool to assess teachers’ level of reflective practice”, Reflective Practice, Vol. 9, No. 3, 341‐360. Lemos, M.S., Queirὀs, C., Teiseira, P. M. and Menezes, I. (2010). “Development and validation of a theoretically based, multidimensional questionnaire of student’ evaluation of university teaching,” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, vol., 1‐22. Marsh, H. W. and Dunkin, M. J. (1992). Students evaluations of university teaching: A multidimensional perspective, In: J.C. Smart (Ed.) Higher education: Handbook of Theory and Research, VOL. 8, 143‐233. Agathon Press, New York. nd Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2 ed.), Sage, Thousand Oaks. Niess, M.L. (2011). “Investigating TPACK: Knowledge growth in teaching with technology”, Journal of Educational Computing Research, Vol,. 44,No. 3, 299‐317. Powell, A.M., Hunt, A. and Irvin, A. (1997). “Evaluating of courses by whole student cohorts: A case study”, Assessment and evaluation in Higher Education, Vol. 22, No. 4, 397‐404. Seldin, P. (1993). “The use and abuse of student ratings of professors, Chronicles of Higher Education”, Vol. 39, (46), A40. Seldin, P. (2010). Comparison of use of student feedback today versus sometime ago, Keynote speech at HELTASA conference, University of Limpopo, South Africa, Nov. 23‐25. Shön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner, Basic Books, New York. Van Manen, M. (1995). “On the epistemology of reflective practice”, Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, Vol. 1, No. 1, 33‐50. Watchtel, H. K. (1998). “Student evaluation of college teaching effectiveness: a brief review”, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol. 23, N. 2, 191‐212.

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A Lecturer’s Perception of the Adoption of the Inverted Classroom or Flipped Method of Curriculum Delivery in a Hydrology Course, in a Resource Poor University of Technology Eunice Ivala, Anton Thiart and Daniela Gachago Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa ivalae@cput.ac.za thiarta@cput.ac.za gachagod@cput.ac.za Abstract: The core business of any higher education institution (HEI) is to provide quality learning to its students by facilitating deep learning. More often than not, this goal is not fully achieved in most HEIs globally. This is in part due to over‐reliance on the lecture method of delivering instruction, a method which is not particularly an effective medium for promoting deep learning. The delivery of instruction in Civil Engineering at a University of Technology, South Africa, is predominantly via the lecture method. As a result, an alternative method of delivering curriculum in this field maybe needed in order to improve student learning. Informed by a modified technology acceptance model, this paper presents a lecturer’s perceptions on the adoption and benefits of the inverted classroom method (ICM) of delivering instruction in a hydrology course, in the Civil Engineering field. A qualitative approach of collecting data was used and the data consisted of recordings of an in‐depth interview with the lecturer and a workshop facilitated by the lecturer to introduce the ICM to 11 lecturers from various disciplines in the university. Data analysis was done deductively whereby relevant data were mapped to the constructs given in the conceptual framework. Some key findings were that the lecturer implemented the ICM due to his self‐efficacy, technological self‐efficacy and perceived usefulness of the ICM of curriculum delivery. The study also highlights the challenges experienced in, and effective ways of implementation, of the ICM of curriculum delivery at the university. Findings of this study will give insights and ideas on the adoption and benefits of the ICM of curriculum delivery in an engineering field at the university and also in other resource‐poor contexts, particularly in the African continent, where there is limited research and use of the ICM for instruction. Keywords: inverted classroom or flipped method of curriculum delivery, technology acceptance model, the lecture method of curriculum delivery, teacher self‐efficacy, technological self‐efficacy

1. Introduction The main business of any higher education institution (HEI) is to provide quality learning to its students, which can be facilitated by deep learning. More often than not, this goal is not fully achieved in most HEIs globally. This is in part due to over‐reliance on the lecture method of delivering instruction, a method which is not particularly an effective medium for promoting deep learning (Johnson et al. 1991; Bates & Galloway 2012). Drawing from a modified technology acceptance model (Chigona et al. 2012), this paper presents a lecturer’s perceptions on the adoption and benefits of ICM of delivering instruction in a hydrology course, in the Civil Engineering field, at a University of Technology, South Africa. The study was guided by the following questions:

What factors influenced the lecturer’s adoption of the ICM of curriculum delivery?

What was the lecturer’s perceived benefits of implementing ICM to himself and his students?

Some key findings were that the lecturer implemented the ICM due to his self‐efficacy, technological self‐ efficacy and perceived usefulness of the ICM of curriculum delivery.

2. Literature review Teaching and learning in higher education Institutions Most teaching in higher education is by the lecture method (Bates & Galloway 2012; Koller 2011), with the main emphasis being on coverage of content (Strayer 2007). Johnson et al. (1991) reports on several studies that show lectures are a relatively ineffective way of promoting learning (see also Bates & Galloway 2012). In the lectures, students are introduced to the materials or concepts, process the information, solve problems and practice with the course concepts and reach conclusions outside of the class (McDaniel & Caverly 2010; Talbert 2012). In Engineering education, Nguyen and Toto (2009) and Lord and Camacho (2007) report that majority of the classrooms still rely on the lecture model of delivery of course content. While this format has

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