Digital Fingerprint by adam blaney

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Digital Fingerprint Adam Blaney

Digital Fingerprint

Digital fingerprint How has the development and utilisation of technological advancements resulted in a materially efficient and reactive architecture?

Adam Blaney

A dissertation submitted to the Manchester School of Architecture for the degree of the Bachelor of Architecture

Manchester School of Architecture

Manchester University

Manchester Metropolitan University

Contents 1.0

2.0

Introduction 1.1

Overview.............................................................................................................................. 7

1.2

Keywords ............................................................................................................................. 8

1.3

Dissertation question: Aims and Objectives ............................................................................ 9

1.4

Dissertation structure: Explanation of chapters ............................................................... 10 ‐ 11

Methodology 2.1

Research methods .............................................................................................................. 12

2.2

Empirical research ............................................................................................................... 12

3.0

Previous framework systems

3.1

Analogue Tools .................................................................................................................... 13

3.2

Master Builder, Master Builder Architects ............................................................................ 14

3.3

Gaudi’s Catenary arch model ......................................................................................... 15 ‐ 17

3.4

Mass Production and its Failures .................................................................................... 18 ‐19

4.0

Present framework systems

4.1

Digital Fabrication Techniques ....................................................................................... 20 ‐ 22

4.2

Digital Design Methodologies .............................................................................................. 23

4.3

Activated Computers .................................................................................................... 24 ‐ 28

4.4

Master Architect Programmer Builders ......................................................................... 29 ‐ 33

4.5

Breeding Buildings .............................................................................................................. 34

4.6

Formal Complexity ........................................................................................................ 35 ‐ 36

4.7

Self Optimizing Structure ............................................................................................... 37 ‐ 39

5.0

Materialecology

5.1

Materialecology ............................................................................................................ 40 ‐ 44

5.2

Homogenous Materiality ............................................................................................... 45 ‐ 46

5.3

Data Lead Production & BIM .......................................................................................... 47 ‐ 48

5.4

Adaptable Scale ........................................................................................................... 49 ‐ 50

5.5

Static Context ...................................................................................................................... 51

6.0

Extreme Integration

6.1

Digital and Physical Networks ........................................................................................ 52 ‐ 54

6.2

Browsing ............................................................................................................................ 55

6.3

Cybernetics ................................................................................................................... 56 ‐57

6.4

Fun Palace ........................................................................................................................... 58

6.5

Extreme Integration ...................................................................................................... 59 ‐ 61

7.0

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 62 ‐ 63 Appendices ..................................................................................................................................... 64 Illustrations ............................................................................................................................... 65 ‐69 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 70 ‐ 73

Introduction 1.1 Overview This dissertation focuses on production techniques in architecture, which explores the implemented tools and systems, integrated and invented by designers for the design intentions to be physically manifested. It will attempt to address issues raised with regards to traditional construction methods, the possibilities and results of automating construction. This research goes beyond systems and tools in isolation. It looks at the integration of all constituent parts that go into realising a project and how these constituent parts can be integrated into a greater network. This extreme network will streamline the production process and reduce costs through automation. It pursues possibilities of a reactive architecture. Possibilities of an economically feasible reactive environment may emerge, in which information is processed automatically and an appropriate emergent reaction results. The text acknowledges previous research in interdisciplinary fields. It addresses why these ideologies were introduced, such as the possibility of mass‐produced buildings as a result of the automobile (Fordism). It evaluates the potential implications on the consumer, client and the architect. The urban context is organised and created with the implementation of technology and hardware.

1.2 Keywords Tool – A moving entity whose use is initiated and actively guided by a human being, from whom it acts as an extension, towards a specific purpose1 Framework – A basic structure underlying a system, concept, or text 2 Systems – An assemblage or combination of things or parts forming a complex or unitary whole 3 Network – Interconnecting group of people or things4 Optimization – The procedure or procedures used to make a system or design as effective or functional as possible5 Self organising – Ability of a system to spontaneously arrange its components or elements in a purposeful (non‐ random) manner, under appropriate conditions but without the help of an external agency. 6

1996. McCoullough.M. Abstracting craft. The Practiced Digital Hand. Cambridge. MIT Press. p na http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/framework 3 http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/system 4 1991.Collins Shorter Dictionary and Thesaurus. The Book People Ltd. p498 5 http://www.thefreedictionary.com/optimization 6 http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/self‐organization.html 2

1.3 Dissertation Question: Aims and Objectives The proposed dissertation question is; How has the development and utilisation of technological advancements resulted in a materially efficient and reactive architecture? This will explore possible alternate methodologies in contemporary design trajectories, where physical attributes are extended by digital tools. The utilisation of these digital tools explores the increased accuracy over varying scales without compromising design intent. The use of digital fabrication tools and the integration of existing systems have possibilities of leading to limitless uniqueness in reactive forms. This responsive digital nature looks at how automating processes in the stages from design intent to realisation produces mass customisation. This digital nature can be effectively applied over varying scales meeting these demands efficiently. The integration of developing hardware within this digital process of constructed form, a closed loop system may possibly be created. Each stage informs the other. The end result of this is to develop an urban context based on ‘bottom up’ principles. These principles mimic how eco systems are created with materially efficient exuberance. Physical forms are created which respond physically, emergent response are produced based on simple rules forming a complex reactive network. The research will highlight what new skills are required, also the social and economical implications this automation has throughout the construction industry. Research will be based on previous and current implemented technologies and what interdisciplinary fields have been branched into, to physically produce the intention. Individual critical experiments will also be carried out into these areas of interest.

1.4 Dissertation structure: Explanation of chapters Previous framework systems – Research into the development of previous tools and systems and how they were utilised in construction. What the results that these tools, systems and expertise produced. It critically analyses whether it is a viable model for mass customisation, what specific traits are required based on previous models in order to digitally produce reactive mass customisation. This chapter contextualise this research and provides a theoretical position in which to progress and draw valid conclusions. Present framework systems – Explorations into interdisciplinary fields of research coupled with contemporary design methodologies and fabrication techniques. The benefits of this are at least the possibilities of a ‘frame work practice’ that can tackle larger scale design problems. This is due to a responsive design approach, example projects are taken from ETH institute. I will take this opportunity in my own architectural education to explore this methodology in design. The ultimate idea is to set up a framework in which design informs fabrication and visa versa. It explores how automation can free up areas of interest in which one can become an expert and therefore a ‘digital master builder’ to create new periods of exuberance. Material Ecology – Homogenous materiality is revisited but in a modern approach. Physical properties of a material dictate form. What implications and possible results a data lead design approach can have on a reactive homogenous material by examining the work of Neri Oxman and proposed trajectories of Michael Fox. It criticises kinetic design approaches, which are highly flexible and produce static end results that are nonresponsive. It proposes a system that can be extrapolated to meet the demands of design through to production at varying scales.

Extreme Integration – Previous schemes such as the Fun Palace by Cedric Price incorporated cybernetics to realise the design intention, this cross disciplinary design approach aims to achieve responsive intelligent environments. Possibility of responsive intelligent environments arise that are not confined to a singular building, it looks to form an urban network which in turn informs the design procedures and digital fabrication. This system looks to mimic that of an eco system. It will provide a basis in which theoretical trajectories for how a future urban context can be created. Individual experiments aim to analyse the requirements for reactive structures to be produced. These digitally integrated structures can be expanded into greater networks as demonstrated by the research and work of Philip Beesley and his installations also the work of David Benjamin and Soo‐in Yang with ‘Living City’.

Methodology 2.1 Research methods This section of research focuses on current publications in the fields mentioned above, from Gaudi’s catenary arch model to the possibilities of 3d printing structures which have been explored by Neri Oxman and also Enrico Dini’s research into D-printing. It takes core factors and ideologies from these multiple fields and attempts to incorporate them into a system, and the theoretical possibilities that can spawn from this research. 2.2 Empirical research Primary data will be collated form critical experiments. This area of research will be carried out in order to back up a theoretical position that has materialised from literature analysis. It evaluates my own architectural education and how new attributes can be interjected into an individual’s design methodology. This research provides a sound basis to critically analyses possible design repercussions. How design is carried out that addresses material efficiency, maximum customisation and variable scale. It then looks at how they are then physically manifested.

Previous framework systems 3.1 Analogue Tools A tool is the extension of one’s limbs in order to easy the completion of a task, as tools become more sophisticated the tasks that can be completed are more challenging with a greater complexity in their outcome. Tools such as hammers and chisels resulted in the ornamentation of stone work. “Handcrafting of objects leads to creation of unique individual things.7” This unlimited customisation results in exuberance in form but cannot be extrapolated viably to various scales of production, be it through cost implications, time factors etc. This makes handcrafted form ineligible to meet the demands for large scale individuality. The form is only limited by the materials physical properties not the ability or imagination of the craftsman.

Klinger, K.R. N.D. Making Digital Architecture: Historical, Formal, and Structural Implications of Computer Controlled Fabrication and Expressive Form. p 239

3.2 Master Builder, Master Builder Architects “The medieval master builder was a master of stone. The design of the cathedral evolved from an exhaustive knowledge of this specific material8.” This specific knowledge of a singular material and the ability to manipulate its form leads to periods of exuberance in formal expression at various scales, from sculptures to cathedrals, figure 1 and 2. This exuberance is achievable not only because of the knowledge of the material properties but also what specific tools are required at specific stages of the creation process. If every tool at the craftsman’s disposal is inadequate, a new tool or system may be invented so the process of creating continues. This is only possible because of exhaustive knowledge.

Klinger, K.R. N.D. Making Digital Architecture: Historical, Formal, and Structural Implications of Computer Controlled Fabrication and Expressive Form. p 240

Figure 1 – Ecstasy of St Teresa, Bernini’s sculpture represents master craftsman qualities in which the homogenous material has been pushed to its limits at this scale. At this scale it is still materially inefficient due to its reductive process, but is highly effective in its exuberant qualities. The time scale and cost for production is also appropriate for the scale and level of detail that is achieved. Figure 2 – The Sagrada Familia: Essentially the same sculptural processes, tools and systems are carried out in this large scale project as with Bernini’s Ecstasy of St Teresa. The efficiency in construction does not scale up. The project has been going on for over 100 years and is still not finished. Although the structure itself is a master piece, new systems must be developed in order to achieve this level of detail more efficiently with regards to all major construction factors, such as cost, time, material efficiency etc. The main aspect to be highlighted is not that this method of production doesn’t produce final forms that do not react physically, but that this production method has been exhausted. The process has been exhausted because it shown to have reached its limits with regards to scale, it can meet the demands of single sculptures to large scale cathedrals but not effectively. It is also materially inefficient because of its reductive nature.

3.3 Gaudi’s Catenary arch model “When he developed the Catenary string models for his re‐design of arches.... Gaudi's innovation enabled him to achieve complex and demanding specifications which exceed modern technical tools.9” The Catenary string model replicated at scale with great accuracy the induced loads on final structures. The model proves that with extensive knowledge in a particular area, tools or systems can be invented to explore a material’s threshold. This form of prototyping reveals maximum limits and what can be achieved. This extremeness in form resulted in a pinnacle point in a particular construction technique. Once this is optimised, new avenues arise to be explored.

http://www.dearcharmides.com/2009_07_01_archive.html

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Analogue systems that have been developed are isolated from one another, they cannot form a network with other analogue tools that can respond to multiple scales efficiently because they are analogue. Specific systems have to be designed to scale up the operation, these analogue systems can never become greater than their end value. They are maximally optimised from a top down perspective. The following chapters look at digital systems being able to create networks. By setting up a framework these systems self optimise, systems can create systems. Encompassing all aspects of design and construction into a ubiquitous system a new pinnacle may be defined. Mass customisation may be again economically viable. Due to the evolutionary nature of this framework, self optimisation occurs resulting in a more efficient context. 17

3.4 Mass Production and its Failures Significant technological developments throughout history define new processes in production and how products are accepted. Scarcity of resources post WWII resulted in mass consumption, this was a resulting cultural model to protect the future and prevent the reoccurrence of war and conflict. Consumerism boomed dramatically as many individuals did not want to be reminded of the deprivation they experience during the war. Advancements in technology and science were fundamental to a rapid expansion in affordable consumables. These technological advancements included automation in production, initially the industrial revolution redefined work roles, employed production lines and integrated automation in production. Current production methodologies still utilise mechanical automation and production lines. The automobile provided new opportunities of travelling. At first only the rich could own an automobile. The development of automation and production lines streamlined how automobiles were produced (Fordism), this lead to a cultural revelation and allowed for mass consumption. New ideologies in architecture arose, how cities are circulated and boundaries were redefined. Five minute city addresses how cities are circulated by multiple means of transport. The car became pivotal in day to day life therefore it had to be accommodated for by design. As this dissertation focuses on production, the automobile industry lead to a belief that architecture could be produced in the same way. A mass production model resulted in affordable modular units that could be mass consumed. This was based on standardisation as with automobile production. Prefabricated units created off site on an industrial scale resulted in non specialised skills being required to construct architecture. This mass production method provides modular architecture that is affordable to a wider range of consumers. The Bauhaus institute under Gropius’s supervision in 1923 became more technology orientated. Gropius, “was a great believer in mass production and insisted that students master the production process from start to finish, so that their artistic sensibilities would be informed by the possibilities of new technology.10” This mass produced ideology required standardisation which was at the core of a Modernist architect’s approach of how cities can be produced with top down planning.

http://www.open2.net/modernity/4_12.htm

Initially this standardisation resulted in a greater standard of living compared to usual housing standards after the war, evidence of this is can be taken from Sheffield’s Park Hill development which only came under criticism after a political sift as a consequence of the ‘right to buy scheme’. The success of this development resulted in many other mass produced structures being created, these imitations used poor quality mass produced materials. Ronan Point in East London partially collapsed after a gas explosion, this was during the same year of completion, 1968.These schemes were of poor standards due to production technologies, still the failure of Ronan Point severely impacted this standardised mass produced architecture. Mass production of standardised parts does not necessarily result in homogenous building forms. Archigram projects explored mass production of standardised parts, the explorations proved affordable mass customisation to be economically achievable through this method. This is demonstrated in the project ‘Capsule Homes’. Automation in production doesn’t necessarily result in poor quality materials. Recently a resurgence has occurred in the field of architecture with regards to digital production techniques and the possibilities of mass customisation. This topic will be discussed in further detail throughout this dissertation.

Present framework systems 4.1 Digital Fabrication Techniques This chapter explores the development in digital design tools and digital fabrication technologies. The advantages these technological developments present with regards to design and production efficiency when complexity and self organising designs are introduced. CAM: computer aided manufacture. This process of form production is becoming more and more readily available to designers. This process stream lines construction with great accuracy from information generated by digital models. “The alignment between 3d model and constructed end is one of the great advantages of digital fabrication and its expanded application, called building information modelling BIM11”. These technologies provide a basis for which mass customisation can be extrapolated to any scale as it provides an interface between the virtual model and the physical. This ideology will be explored in greater depth in later chapters. The technologies that are shown in the next page are of significance because the corresponding projects could not have been realised or created without the use and adaptation of these digital tools, much like Gaudi’s Catenary arch model which allowed for a maximum deformation in physical arches.

Iwamoto.L.2009.Digital Fabrications. Architecture and Material Techniques. New York. Princeton Architectural Press. p 15

Figure 7 and 8: the method of production explored is ‘sectioning’. The process offsets the form per layer, great accuracy is need which could only be achieved by hand at great cost and expense. The laser cutter has been utilised to streamline production saving money and time. Figure 9 and 10: 5 axis CNC, the method of production explored is ‘Contouring’. The form was created digitally. Each unit is unique from one another whilst still interlocking. Again the digital fabrication technology utilised made this project physically, financially possible. Figure 11 and 12: research carried out by Neri Oxman will be explained in greater detail in later chapters. The project Monocoque 2 has many materiality principles but for the sake of the tool utilised, a 3d printer, the complexity and principles of the structure could never be achieved efficiently manually. Figure 13 and 14: Robotic fabrication. The production ideologies explored in numerous projects by the professorship of F.Gramazio and M.kohler are of particular interest. This project is one of many that truly utilises the possibilities of production being automated. This results in efficient cost effective mass customisation. 21

“The use of computer‐controlled production tools already available but typically underused in construction trades provides new opportunities for a freedom of design that is innovative and adheres to constructional logic at the same time.12” Research carried out by F.Gramazio and M.Kohler utilise existing technologies that are implemented or designed for other industries and applied to architectural exploration. As stated above the results of this research allows for new and more potent design geometries to be constructed by means of automation. The project 'Pike Loop' goes beyond prefabricated production confined to an offsite warehouse, it brings the automated construction process to site. “Pike Loop is a 22m (72ft) long structure built from bricks.... It was designed to be built on‐site with an industrial robot from a movable truck trailer.13” The tools occupational realm is limitless as it is incorporated into a movable truck. This system has been consciously designed but self optimises its movements, resulting in structures that can be created on site with great accuracy. It has the possibility to produce self organising designs physically. The robot is directly linked to the design software therefore no drawings are needed to explore the physical production of complex geometric forms, this reduces workloads and errors. Analogue production would require details on each brick in relation to its neighbours, this renders an analogue production system impossible.

Gramazio.F. 2010. Encoding Material. Architectural Design, The new Structuralism. 80. 4. p 111 http://www.dailytonic.com/pike‐loop‐manhattan‐new‐york‐by‐gramazio‐kohler‐architecture‐and‐digital‐fabrication‐eth‐ zurich/

Continued progression in this field highlights the capabilities and limitations of the machinery. It also reveals the maximum limitations of material properties. These factors are only discovered by experimenting. The very nature of the process allows for bottom up design within the integrated system, this has possibilities of robots creating robots which self optimise; consequently the output continuously exceeds its predecessor limitations. Experimentation is required to understand the machineries output, the project Acoustic Diffusors by Gramazio and Kohler in 2008 unintentionally revealed the machines rate of flow in which the product is dispensed, the end result may be criticised for its appearance but vital knowledge was obtained by carrying out the experiment. This optimisation through automation in constructing reduces production costs, the end result is a far more complex product that is more affordable for the consumer and client then if is it was created by hand. 4.2 Digital Design Methodologies With the introduction of computers into mainstream architectural practices in 1983, the ‘traditional’ role of an architect has not changed. The software packages mainly used just eradicated the use of a drawing board, there was nothing particularly evolutionary in how architecture is designed and created with this digital integration. “The ability to move directly from three‐dimensional modelling to real three‐dimensional output challenges the need for traditional means of representation such as plan, section etc.14” This address the redundancy of this form of representation which harbours back to early methods of construction. Industries such as the automotive and aerospace etc have integrated technology to automate production as much as possible. This automation streamlines and reduces production costs. In the majority, the current use of a computer as a tool is un‐interactive, the computer is not engaged. It is a top down design methodology generating form. The computer is essentially a digital analogue tool, the design cannot respond to multiple scales because of this. What needs to be embraced as a whole are flexible processes in form generation. Certain parametric software’s such as grasshopper and Bentley generative design amongst many others facilitate this approach to a degree. Utilisation of a singular programme in isolation is not a prescribed approach in terms of progression and is far from a solution to the problem. It is merely another

Klinger, K.R. N.D. Making Digital Architecture: Historical, Formal, and Structural Implications of Computer Controlled Fabrication and Expressive Form. p 239

approach that can be incorporated with other digital tools. These software packages have been available for some time and although interesting results have been achieved such as the ‘Land Securities Bridge’ by AKT the software itself does not bridge the gap of digital efficiency to the inefficiency in physical production. This approach does utilise the processing capabilities of the computer as geometry automatically alters when the form is altered. It not only re‐alters is geometry randomly it structurally optimises itself in this new position.

4.3 Activated Computers The computer is another tool at the architect’s disposal. Utilising a computers processing capabilities results in a dynamic and flexible data lead approach to design. “We should not consider the computer as an extension of our mind, but rather a partner in the design process with fundamentally different aptitudes and ways to reason.15” What is meant by an activated tool is that the computer makes decisions based on explicit language, this language (code) can be manually entered by a programmer. A framework can be created in which Meta algorithms occur. Meta algorithms self generate new algorithms, they self optimise. Seymour Papert carried out work with Marvin Minsky and was at the birth of MIT artificial intelligence project. Papert encouraged the use of computers to be engaged with “the learning to use computers can change the way we learn everything else.16” This can easily bridge into the realms of architecture and develops an understanding of how the computer simulates spatial organisation. This is automation in organisation based on rules. “Why play around with the tip of the iceberg, when with a minimum of effort you can interact with the submerged nine‐tenths?17”

15 16 17

Terzidis.K. 2006. Algorithmic architecture. Oxford. Architectural Press. p 8

Coates. P. 2010. Programming Architecture. Oxan. Routledge. p27 Coates.P. 2010. Programming Architecture. Oxan. Routledge. p51

A programming approach has been taken because as a designer you will not be restricted by the programmes interface and a basic knowledge can start to produce endless varied results. “The advantage, however, is that even very simple languages, once defined, can allow us to experiment and generate form because the computer, once we are talking its language, will tirelessly produce sentences in the language.18” Criticism can fall onto this approach in that it is unintuitive that a designer rationalise design intents to sentences of code. Why learn programming when current software packages readily cater form complex geometric form production; these methodologies are static and inflexible in approach as previously mentioned. A programming approach lends itself to a data lead design approach in which bottom up ideologies can be implemented. This bottom up ideology results in self emergent traits and self organising solutions. Design via programming can address urban scale problems to facade configuration with minimal effort, therefore addressing problems of various scales effectively due to this flexible process. This all takes advantage of the computers processing capabilities. In essence a framework is designed in which design solutions are created by the computer. These solutions are critically analysed by the designer. Utilising this process of how computation can generate form can result to expandable systems and designs that can be produced in an instance, this is because only the parameters are altered in which designs are created within. Parameters in terms of code or script are grammatical changes to variables such as (random 0 50) instead of (random 10 40). Below is an experiment taken form Algorithmic Architecture by K.Terzidis, it shows the computers processing capabilities in how spatial arrangement is automated and how infinite forms are created as a result of small changes to code or script.

Coates.P. 2010. Programming Architecture. Oxan. Routledge. p121

Script used to produce Figure 18 All of the above highlighted in yellow are variables, if these are changed different results will be produced, although if they stay the same different results will be produced because of the ‘randomness’ statement. The highlighted cyan statement shows the computer will continuously loop through the algorithm until a solution is found. This has been shown because it describes how basic script can produce multiple spatially organised results almost instantly and the required output is something the human brain would find impossible. Software programmes such as 3ds max and Maya have scripting interfaces, which allows for individual creation of processing tools. 26

Streamlining of production may be utilised by incorporating this tool into a production system, “moreover, the necessity for conversion of architectural intentions into a code to be translated by the contractor will also be tested with these new potentials in fabrication.19” This code does not have to be translated in a literal sense, it can be directly linked to fabrication tools as demonstrated in ‘Digital Fabrication Techniques’ heading. The advantages of this, are digital experiments can be manifested physically simultaneously. This approach does not mean the obsolescence of the designer, far from it, nor is the technology leading the designer, the computer does not have the critical thought of the designer it cannot comprehend the overall product. This method is an avenue that allows for a flexible approach and utilises the tools capabilities to generate a more potent end result more efficiently. The technology is still lead by the design intent, only now a framework of parameters is consciously designed in which designs can be endlessly created within by the computer. Programming is a process that accommodates for emergent traits to be encompassed in the design, something that is not consciously possible. This framework approach is something that has been explored by ETH institute and in Paul Coates Programming Architecture and will be discussed in later chapters. The roles within an architectural office start to encompass many other aspects such as programming. Again this automating in multiple aspects produces more specific and cheaper results that have a higher quality in finish. It can constantly be added into and elaborated on to produce a more sensitive solution. 19

Klinger, K.R. N.D. Making Digital Architecture: Historical, Formal, and Structural Implications of Computer Controlled Fabrication and Expressive Form. p 239

4.4 Master Architect Programmer Builders ETH institute utilise programming and its benefits to realise design intentions with greater sensitivity. This is a dynamic approach that is highly flexible and can account for multiple factors, the designer can tackle any scale of work without increasing work load and without decreasing design quality. Effectively a framework has been designed in which designs are spawned based on specific criteria, this allows for work to be subbed out to other design studios without losing sight of the larger picture. “Today, through the agency of information management tools, the architect can once again become the master builder by integrating the skills and intelligences at the core of the architecture.20” By utilising and consolidating many of the tools that are available to the architect to date, the architect need only design one tool or programme that encompasses all aspects in order to produce exuberance. This is a more effective means of time management as only one issue is addressed in order to meet the demands of many issues with respect design requirements. Ultimately this frees up more time that can be spent purely on conscious design, or allows for other avenues to be explored which further enrich the project and consequently future projects. The later is something ETH does with great success as demonstrated in the project ‘pike loop’ amongst many others. The role of the architect is redefined as to what is defined as design and what needs to be designed, from software to production technology/tools. Gordon Pask explains his vision of an architect’s role from the foreword in ‘An Evolutionary Architecture’, “the role of an architect here, I think, is not so much to design a building or city as to catalyze them: to act that they may evolve.21” All of these factors result in an end product that can be mass customised to specific requirements for a lower cost. This results in the consumer being able to afford a wider variety of products and redefines a client’s design brief. If the framework is created to allow for ‘meta algorithms’ and evolves itself to become optimised, then the products created within will keep exceeding its previous generation. 20 21

Kieren. S and Timberlake. J. 2003. Fabricating Architecture. London. Mcgraw‐Hill. p na Pask. G. In Frazer. J. 1995. An Evolutionary Architecture. London. Architectural Association Publications. p na

Below are examples of automation in the design projects by ETH Institute, this proves architects interdisciplinary collaborations produce more flexible processes with richer end results.

Figure 19: The Organisation of Plots, ETH developed their own ‘Kaisersrot’ programme to distribute the spatial organisation of plots taking into account the requirements of future residents. Figure 20: From Inside and Outside, Collaboration with Herzog & de Meuron, the facades configuration was automated to realise the structural requirements. Figure 21: Bishopsgate, Cities Negotiating, The process looked to flexibly accommodate for multiple competing factors that affected the site. The rules that became defined informed the form. Due to computation these rules could be easily altered. 30

The project Blind Light by Triston Simmonds replicates a foetal figure that is constructed out of various sized steel boxes. A programme called ‘GromBox’ was developed in order to develop “a relational data structure of boxes, faces and connections.22” Again creating specific software to automatically spatially organise the boxes to realise the demands of the design intention reduces the overall time in final form production. This project also utilises digital production techniques carrying through the digital efficiency into production, ultimately “the sculpture is finished well ahead of schedule.23”

This process can now be applied to any form and scale without resulting in additional time. The process stays extremely efficient. It can be mass customised by altering box dimension and numbers. This is due to automation in the design stages, basically it can be applied to anything that wishes to be ‘pixilated’. My thesis was based in Hull. Exploration was carried out in collaboration with Conor Black to develop an understanding of how automation can be achieved in master planning. The thesis duration was over a short period (12 weeks). The end result was a piece of software was designed based on a manipulated digital version of a cellular automata. This is evidence that a sensitive piece of design software can be created with no programming background knowledge whatsoever. This piece of software allows for any individual or existing ideology to be instantly played out, it is a highly flexible process which can have more factors added into it and redefines town planning strategies. Possible applications could result in new town planning methodologies, this is a more flexible approach that can instantly remodel itself based on current financial climate conditions, population stats, etc. It can be efficiently applied over various scales.

22 23

Sakamoto. T. Ferre. A. Kubo. M. 2006. Form Contol to Design. Europe. Ingoprint SL. p 64 Sakamoto. T. Ferre. A. Kubo. M. 2006. Form Contol to Design. Europe. Ingoprint SL. p 66

Each cell tries to become optimised with programme content effecting is neighbourhood’s state, which in turn alters the cells state, one cells state effects all cells. For more information on this please refer to the video provided on the cd and my thesis project ‘Cellular City’

A speculative digital project, Off The Road_5 speed by NOX architects, proves infinite possibilities in form generation as a result of a programming approach. Combined with the technological advancements previously mentioned allows for an economically feasible model for mass customisation in production.

4.5 Breeding Buildings Being even lazier as designers, a system can be put in place in which building forms effectively breed, each generation evolves to optimally meet the design criteria. The design criteria may be altered to generate varied results. An example has been taken from Paul Coates Programming Architecture, where a building form is generated by evolving to meet design criteria as closely as possible.

The significance is each form is different, as it gets closer to the criteria the differences are smaller. If reactive materials were networked or linked to this process of design they could evolve to an optimum form physically based on criteria, physical structures in constant flux. The criteria are determined by the individual. If design can be automated based on this evidence, it addresses what needs to be designed to obtain these results and an architect’s role and the skills needed alter.

If there is no human involvement there is less cost incurred, this ultimately results in services or end products that are cheaper or free. This is a basic introduction into genetic programming, if the computer writes code / one programme is written which endlessly evolves a programme and the designs produced. It self optimises. 4.6 Formal Complexity If spatial organisation can be automated with great accuracy based on a simple set of rules, urban planning need no longer be confined to a single plane. ‘Streets in the sky’ was a term created by the Smithsons. Various projects explore this ideology such as Robin Hood Gardens and Park Hill. These projects are single structures, all be it they are very large. With automated planning, this ideology can be extended beyond solitary structures and become part of the urban fabric, resulting in roads and structures located on multiple planes, this redefines how cities are circulated and what is reachable in terms of a 5 minute city model. Geometric complexity in form can also be explored in terms of tessellation and fractals, this is because these factors are another form of spatial organisation with a few extra parameters. This exploration into geometry is not for the sake of producing complex forms, but reveals material properties under investigation. This leads to material efficiency in a final product, the less material the lower the cost, it is a performance‐based design approach. Certain tessellation configurations will meet criteria better than others. “Perhaps the highest level of performance‐based design is the exploitation of performance data as the driver of evolutionary design process.24” Internal tessellation in a materials make up explores the potentials in nano‐materiality, or the tessellation of modular units to optimise its structural performance can all be automated in both conceptual stages and production stages.

Oxman. R and Oxman. R. 2010. Design, Engineering and Architectural Technologies. Architectural Design, The new Structuralism. 80. 4. p 17

Self organising structures may be formed based on these tessellation and fractal principles. This is something that has been explored by Benjamin Aranda and Christopher Lasch, and their work with crystalline structures, in particular quasicrystalline structures. Quasicrystals are self organising structures, in which each constituent part is different from each other but still self organise to tessellate together. “The aim of this research is to discover how architectural experimentation can learn from strructural and spatial investigations currently being explored by mathmeticians and materials science – soecifically crystallography.25”

These experimentations highlight construction possibilities of how architectural form can be organised in three dimensions and how connections to material occur. All this is geared towards new form and structural possibilities. “Tessellation moves architectural experiments away from mechanistic notions of systems which are used as tools for reproduction of forms, to mechanic notions of systems that determine how diverse parts of an architectural problem interrelate to multiply each other and produce organisations of higher degree of complexity.26” 25

http://www.nso.penndesign.net/sp_alb‐1.htm Moussavi. F. Lopez‐Perez. D. 2009 from Oxman. R and Oxman. R. 2010. Design, Engineering and Architectural Technologies. Architectural Design, The new Structuralism. 80. 4. p 17 26

4.7 Self Optimizing Structure This heading will explore automation in structural analysis. It should be highlighted that self optimising or self organising is not restricted only to this factor. It happens naturally all the time, such as the syncing of fire files but vary rarely if at all in traditional design methods. Many software programmes have been developed which structurally analyse digital designs to create optimal forms. This structural analysis is based on real environmental factors. It can structurally reconfigure its form when severe movement is induced on the structure. This is shown in the Land Securities Bridge by AKT. The whole proposed form can be evaluated almost instantaneously. Integrate these software properties or even coupled with a dynamic process such as programming and digital fabrication methods results in the mass production of structurally sound and efficient forms. This greatly reduces the number of parties included in the initial design stages through to production, again decreasing the costs of mass customised architecture. It also highlights possibilities of physically moveable structures that move within structurally sound parameters. 37

Below is the Island City Central Park Gringrin by Toyo Ito. This demonstrates how the form was rationalised structurally automatically without significant alterations to the initial form. The form evolves over time to become structurally optimised. The production of the finalised form though does not match efficiency in which it was generated.

Figure 32: Final image of The Island City Central Park Gringrin by Toyo Ito Figure 33: left Evolutionary process of the shape alteration (40cm thickness). Right, these figures show the reduction of maximum displacement and strain energy with each evolutionary step. Figure 34: Process of shape evolution, as the shape evolves the overall deformation is dramatically reduced. Figure 35,36 37: Construction sequence, this represents a large skilled work force and multiple materials needed to realise the final form, much of the material will be a waste product of the end result and the final form is non reactive. 38

The form with regards to the Island City Central Park Gringrin project has been structurally rationalised by a process that can be highly dynamic and flexibly efficient. The Florence New Station is another example that grows its structure in the digital environment to optimal structural criteria, again its physical construction does not inherent the same characteristics. This efficiency in the digital process is completely lost in costly production methods along with a large amount of waste materials to realise the final form. The mass customisation available in the digital environment mainly does not transcend into the physical, this is because multiple static materials are needed to produce structurally sound form. The above are kinetic in their approach but the end result is a static one, it does not take advantage of its maximum potential, a intelligent and reactive environment can be created. The programming knowledge can transfer into hardware platforms again proved by ‘pike loop’, the medium in which structures are created needs to be readdressed in order to facilitate this reactive concept or at least how structures are physically made to achieve material efficiency.

Material Ecology 5.1 Material Ecology Materialecology is a term developed by Neri Oxman and her work with the ‘Mediated Matter Group’. “The group is dedicated to the development and application of novel processes that enable and support the design of physical matter, and its adaptability to environmental conditions in the creation of form. Our research integrates computational form‐finding strategies with biologically inspired fabrication.27” A recent resurgence in this field of materiality and material behaviour is being explored in architectural development again. “There is now momentum for the revitalised involvement with sources in material practice and technologies.28” This is due to developments in digital production technologies revealing new production possibilities. These technologies create new structurally efficient forms and reveal material properties that only become apparent with the use of this technology. Research developed by Neri Oxman, “explores how digital design and fabrication technologies mediate between matter and environment to radically transform the design and construction of objects, buildings, and systems.29” This all harbours back to previous material and structural experiments developed by Buckminster Fuller, Frei Otto and many others. Frei Otto’s research with lightweight material structures and structural efficiency, developed structures which can span further with less structural support, along with adaptability in scale without compromising structural efficiency. Developments in tensile surfaces achieve the goal of large spans but in essence cannot perform without structural support, questions proposed by Otto and Fuller were ‘what does a material want to be? what does an environment want to be’? Neri Oxman in particular looks to develop forms from homogenous materials that meet many criteria, this ideology is derived from natural principles of design. “Nature offers not forms but processes to think about form, recipes that mix material and environments together.30” Computationally enabled form finding is a process that Neri Oxman has created. This process takes specific material properties and environmental constraints and combines them to produce form.

27 28

http://web.media.mit.edu/~neri/site/about/about.html Oxman. R and Oxman. R. 2010. Design, Engineering and Architectural Technologies. The new Structuralism. 80.4. p15

29 30

http://web.media.mit.edu/~neri/site/about/about.html http://generativedesign.wordpress.com/2010/02/05/computational‐form‐finding/

This harnesses and maximises specific material properties in specific conditions to obtain in optimised state, this result in less waste and a more efficient end produce. “The designer is an editor of constraints.31” The design process is re‐approached, it starts with environmental analysis, material properties etc. This data lead approach optimises itself throughout the whole process not just at the end. It is more flexible and dynamic in its approach and can encompass more requirements, much like ‘Kaisersrot’ developed by ETH, but this approach addresses material efficiency. Examples of natural homogenous materials that are structurally optimised and meet many criteria because of natures design approach are eggshells or bones among many others. Nature caters for the multifunctional. An eggshell membrane, “the fibres are articulated in such a way that they distribute loads equally, while at the same time allow for food absorption, heat exchange ect. There are a lot of functions incorporated just by controlling those materials and designing them.32” Wolff’s law states micro fibres in bones shatter and repair themselves when regular force is induced upon the overall form. As a result the micro fibres become bigger and stronger, therefore the overall bone is stronger. It adapts to forces regularly induced upon it. Hypertrophy of a muscles and muscle atrophy is another response to regularly induced forces upon itself. This alteration in properties / forms results in the bone or muscle becoming more efficient, no common building system adapts in this manner.

31 32

http://generativedesign.wordpress.com/2010/02/05/computational‐form‐finding/ http://generativedesign.wordpress.com/2010/02/05/computational‐form‐finding/

This mass customisation in form to meet multifunctional purposes is something the industrial revolution rejected for mass production. Mass production enabled affordable goods. Now with technological advancements this mass customisation and multi functional design is an economically viable production method, both for industries and consumers. Production processes such as 3d printing results in significant reductions in waste materials and carbon footprints, composite material are no longer needed as one material can meet the demands of many requirements. The importance of this homogenous material is that it can adapt, by altering certain characteristic it meets the requirements of many demands regardless of scale. Even if this homogenous material was used with current employed design methodologies in architecture it would considerably reduce production cost, assembly time, design requirements and many other aspects. It also provides possibilities of uniqueness in mass production. The UniBodies experiment highlights possibilities of the homogeneous material letting light through because of varying thicknesses whilst maintaining structural integrity, it therefore meets multiple demands. In the projects ‘Carpal Skin’ and ‘Beast’ by Neri Oxman, the material properties rigidity varies helping to reduce carpal syndrome and added support in the chez lounge.

Nature can be improved upon, pumps, wheels and mechanisms are not incorporated into all natural structures, resulting in a maximum limit. This homogenous material exploration is much like previous explorations into a singular materials maximum potential (stone). A result of this previous exploration was exuberance, cathedrals, sculptures and baroque architecture. Now a new era of economically achievable, affordable exuberance may begin. This is a result of multiple fields of exploration which can obtain maximum potential from one material effectively, these digital tools can integrated into the design and production system. Cathedrals and baroque forms can be economically possible with more potency in form due to computation and are more materially efficient. Example projects that achieve modern day exuberance are shown below. Again because of the nature of the system it is not restricted to one scale nor standardisation in modular materials.

Production of form in realtime was explored in the project ‘Soft Site’ by NOX. The form is highly conceptual but is based on data “The idea of soft site is to convert numeric behaviour of changing visitor numbers instantly through a central computer into different shapes.33” This project proves data lead design can produce in form in realtime. Implementing ideologies from Neri Oxman’s ‘Materialecology’ and production into a singular system an eco system model can be produced in which the urban context can be created with improved material efficiency and exuberance. Spatial organisation has already been proven it can be automated very successfully.

Spuybroek. L. 2004. NOX Machining Architecture. UK. Thames & Hudson. p 43

5.2 Homogenous materiality Research that has been carried out by Neri Oxman in collaboration with MIT and Enrico Dini’s work on D‐ printing, demonstrates that structures can soon be printed. This is based on material understanding as shown above; many of Neri Oxman’s experimentations with form and production reveal material properties, also the manner in which Neri Oxman approaches design soon reveals a materials maximum limit. If the homogenous material is sourced externally eg China, it is no different to current building methods sourcing materials from international seas “It has resonated among some in the development community, where monetary carrying costs can be the difference between doing a project and shelving it.34” Due to the nature of a materialecological approach structures require less material to achieve the same goals, refer to figure 47. If the homogenous material is synthetic there would be no need to import it, it could be locally produced or directly integrated into the system, therefore nullifying transportation costs and carbon footprints, again resulting in a cheaper product. This homogenous material and the structures it creates basis itself on material efficiency, material can be saved by altering its internal configuration. This takes ideologies from Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller (structural efficiency). The materials make up may mimic that of a bird of flights skeletal structure, it is hollow inside but maintains great strength, refer to figure 48 and 49. In a rudimentary sense this could be applied to structural components; a beam spanning 20 meters under the same load compared to a beam spanning 10 meters would need more internal structure, effectively materially efficient verandial beam. A homogenous material also results in less material production costs as there is only one. This results in a significant reduction of carbon footprints for the production of buildings. Less connection details are needed or only one if printed or created in constituent parts, construction time would be significantly reduced. This will not be a repeated failure in such schemes as Ronan Point because the technology in production is far superior, and if integrated into an evolutionary system will constantly keep self optimising.

Woudhuysen. J. and Abley. I. 2004. Why is Construction so Backward?. Chichester. Wiley Academy. 163

Figure 47: “Contrary to the traditional design of building skins that distinguish between internal structural frameworks and non‐bearing skin elements, this approach promotes heterogeneity and differentiation of material properties. The project demonstrates the notion of a structural skin using a Voronoi pattern, the density of which corresponds to multi‐scalar loading conditions. The distribution of shear‐stress lines and surface pressure is embodied in the allocation and relative thickness of the vein‐like elements built into the skin.35”

Although the creation process can be specific to structural parts and more efficient, the material itself once in place is still static, it cannot react as it were to human input. Mechanism and hardware need to be incorporated to facilitate movement. This is not just for the sake of movement. If a structure can move and respond effectively within a network it can optimise its state, taking advantage of climatic conditions or providing the maximum possibilities for its inhabitants. It works with its neighbouring structures to optimise itself on an urban scale. 35

http://web.media.mit.edu/~neri/site/projects/monocoque2/monocoque2.html

5.3 Data Lead Production & BIM Traditionally buildings were designed by physical scale models, and then hand drawn visuals. The photocopier was then invented which meant only black pen on transparent paper could be copied. This is a very abstract form of information. Essentially still the same as 2d CAD drawings. 3d modelling software was developed primarily for visual representation. BIM, building information models provide crucial data from these virtual models, the process has almost gone full circle, but the digital model is more flexible to change. BIM’s birth was due to a previous collapse in Finland’s construction industry. A resurgence in Finland lead to 160 projects being produced, this large amount of civil work lead to the idea of streamlining the flow of information and how it is transferred in order to speed up the design to production process. Current methods with reproduction of drawings do not increase the flow of data, it increases the chances of human error. This is because one change has to be carried out manually on multiple drawings. Updating one model automatically updates all required drawings, therefore it is a far more efficient process. If errors are eliminated there is no financial waste, this is an incentive to clients and ultimately all designers. Essentially with BIM an accurate digital detailed model is produced, in which all data is derived, form costing through to service placements. The streaming of live data in which design is created results extreme rapid prototyping, ‘Polymorphism’. This is a conceptual idea proposed by Menges it describes the evolution of such architectural systems as akin to natural morphogenesis. “Hierarchical arrangements of relatively simple material components organised through successive series of propagated and differentiated subassemblies from which the system’s performative abilities emerge.36” Currently firms that employ BIM and integrate it into the design approach on average have a 30% reduction in workload. Less staff numbers are needed on a project, less time spent on a project and less time to document, this results in the ability to take on a greater work load. The project is ultimately provided ahead of schedule which is of great benefit to everyone involved. Ultimately those that do not integrate BIM cannot produce the same accuracy, therefore delays are produced. The client will then not employ the same firm resulting in redundancy. It is again a matter of time before this software is widely accepted into mainstream practice much like digital 2d drafting.

Menges.A 2006. Polymorphism. Architectural Design, Eco Redux. 76. 2. p79

These digital models is created by humans therefore human errors can occur, cloning an object in same copying it in the same position results in invalid costing, because it is digital, tools can be integrated to check for discrepancies, like spell check. This is not possible in current production drawings because they are analogue. This consolidation of all required information to produced architecture generated from one coherent source leads to speculation of probably repercussions when coupled with digital fabrication techniques, such as 3d printing structures and evolutionary design programmes where designers may not be needed. With the automation of almost all fields does it produce a highly consumable architecture at a dramatically reduced cost. Are buildings consumed like cars or clothes with respect to their desired life span, because the homogenous material can back into the system? Is an IKEA form of architecture possible because of a catalogue of data is created which produces mass customisation. This is much like the curtain wall company Permasteelisa Group. “It deploys components from worldwide manufactures, custom assembled to specifications of the architect whose designs it executes.37” Mass customisation is attainable for multiple standardised smaller parts, this standardisation results in cheaper production costs and a lower priced end product compared to bespoke units. 37

Kieren.S and Timberlake.J. 2003. Fabricating Architecture. London. Mcgraw‐Hill. p 134

5.4 Adaptable Scale Efficiency in the adaptability of scale is something that has been explored in formal arrangements such as Waschmann’s diagram and structural efficiency in projects by Frei Otto’s, also Buckminster Fuller’s geodesic domes remain structurally sound at various scales. This is achievable because of geometry and fractals, the advantages of this have been described in the chapter ‘Present framework systems’.

Figure 50: Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome Figure 51: Konrad Waschmannm, adaptable special configurations Figure 52: Analogue adaptable form due to integration of mechanisms.

All of these approaches can vary in scale very efficiently but again are in isolation. Possibilities of a flexible system in production are now attainable with the digitalisation of each process in design. A closed loop systems can be defined in which each stage informs the other. This is possible based on a data lead design methodology as mentioned above, the hardware integrated into urban context collects data which informs the design which informs and is informed by digital fabrication technology.

Figure 56 represents the closed loop system that is created by integrating all the available current technologies into one system. What is termed as a data receiver and how data is then collected from people will be explore in the last chapter ‘Extreme Integration’. This is not the merely the standardisation of construction materials but the tools that create form, an end goal that can create affordable mass customisation in production.

5.5 Static Context The above approaches are flexible in the design process and strive to achieve new methodologies in how architecture is created. The material properties and efficiency in how a new urban context is derived and constructed are also being readdressed, with an end goal that is more efficient in all aspects of design. All of these approaches are defining new areas of exploration which greatly advance and redefine how architecture is approached. This kinetic approach still produces non reactive end results. The integration of hardware into the process will produce physically adaptable forms based on specific criteria to maximise its gains. If all components of a structure integrate hardware coupled with this new materialecology approach a network can be defined on an urban scale, the city is in constant flux. It physically adapts to maintain an optimised state when new and differing requirements are induced on the system. These possibilities will be explored in further detail in the next chapter, the next chapter basis itself on current developments and projects. It suggest possible alternatives for future development based on the existing research. The possibilities are generated towards an urban context mimicking an eco system, buildings are self organised and created based on specific requirements. All of this can be based on simple rules as previously shown but when working together with other system create a far more complex end result. 51

Extreme Integration 6.1 Digital and Physical Networks This chapter concentrates on the potential benefits that physically adaptable structures can provide. It also addresses the interdisciplinary fields of research that have been carried out in order for structure to appropriately respond physically. It looks at the policies needed in order for physically responsive environments to be achieved efficiently. With the utilisation of hardware and integration of previously described possibilities in computation and digital production technologies, it may be possible for a context to be produced in the same manner as an eco system and react physically to become optimised. The introduction of the internet and the development in computer science spawned ‘intelligent environments’. “Intelligent environments are defined as spaces in which computation is seamlessly used to enhance ordinary activity.38” The benefits of an interactive system are that one building is not restricted to a single programme, it can house many. This reduces the need for building demand. The internet facilities the instantaneous flow of various forms of data, interactions are based on this data. The interactions are governed by simple true or false statements; accumulation of multiple systems can produce emergent reactions which could not be consciously conceived. A framework is designed to accommodate these emergent traits.

Fox. M. 2010. Catching up with the Past. FOOTPRINT. p 6

The H2O expo by NOX creates an interactive environment. These interactions are induced by user and the designed technology. The H2O expo doesn’t particularly provide gains but influences how people circulate and interact. “It is the first fully interactive building in which visitors can transform light and sound in the interior through a wide range of sensors.39” Also the structure could not have been created without the use of digital fabrication tools.

Spuybroek.L 2004. NOX Machining Architecture. China. Thames & Hudson. p 18

The availability of technology today is readily accessible. The newer the technology doesn’t necessarily mean better, it is the possibilities it provides for developments and integration, what these possibilities may lead to in other fields. This acceptability of technological advancements aims to enhance day to day life, it rarely enhances architectural production or designed to its maximum possibilities. “The sophisticated organisation of the printed TV circuit, for example, is totally unmatched by the organisation of the dwelling that contains it.40” Spatial configurations do not necessarily have to be as complex as electronic devices but the way in which the context is created can surpass this complexity. It can consolidate all available technology that informs and creates structure into a ubiquitous network. Currently the technology itself does not necessarily act within a ubiquitous network, nor does it particularly inform the physical context. Current devices such as a mobile phone can act as data receivers and providers which in turn have the ability to inform production. This has advantageous possibilities because in certain respects it is an unbiased source of data collection and constantly updates itself. People may also be integrated into these digital networks via micro chips which informs creation, or via RFIDs as described in the text Networked Publics. Responsive environments based on human emotions. Human emotions are a product of chemical imbalances, for example serotonin or adrenalin increases are detected by internal digital sensors. This data is then sent to reactive systems which provide appropriate changes. “People occupying the space determine what is happening and thereby redetermine the architecture. The space is continually reshaped by the changing desires of the inhabitants.41” The context is therefore not designed to meet perceived requirements it adapts constantly to meet these demands, it is not a design intention it is the appropriate reaction.

40 41

Burke. A and Tierney. T. 2007. Network practices. Princeton architectural press. p 39 Burke. A and Tierney. T. 2007. Network practices. Princeton architectural press. p 40

6.2 Browsing Browsing the internet is essentially another market research tool that corporations utilise to collect data for individuals. This is apparent with suggested items by amazon based on previous browsing history. This form of data collection can facilitate and store data for everyone in the world. As explained in previous chapters form and spatial arrangements can be generated based on data, this is another source of data collection that can gather a wide variety of data and is easily integrated into a digital design and production system. Hypothetically a group of people situated in one area travel to a gym 10 miles away. This data is collected digitally based on fuel consumption, product consumption, gym memberships etc. Carbon footprints can be reduced in terms of travelling by creating a gym in walking distance to this cluster of people. This data would be analysed to whether it was worthwhile. This data couldn’t be derived without this system. The user closes the feedback system. A ubiquitous system would be needed in which all information can be accessed by a secure source. This allows accurate character profiles to be built on individuals, neighbourhoods, cities or countries in a faster and more accessible format. It automates analytical research methodologies. The system as previously described can produce hybrid or evolutionary programmes that challenge traditional architectural programmes. Design is based on individual requirements and can be accommodated for with the incorporation of all the tools previously mentioned.

6.3 Cybernetics The development in the cybernetics which began in the early 1960’s provided the basis for interactive architecture as it is know today. In the earlier years it was poorly funded so remained in the realms of theory, also the computational means in these early years resulted in the growth of cybernetic concepts being physically impossible. Essentially cybernetics is an “interactive feedback system related to adaptability.42” Cybernetics is not artificial intelligence it only mimics intelligence, response are governed by set rules that have been consciously put in place. Simple rules govern responses, expansion of these systems result in emergent responses. The implementation of cybernetics has been utilised to explain and manage all forms of systems, from natural development, social behaviour to electronic system among many others. “Gordon Pask’s ‘conversation theory’, served as the basis of much of the architectural development in interactive architecture at the time. Essentially a model was developed in which architects interoperated spaces and users as complete feedback systems.43” The utilisation if cybernetic principles reveal reactive architectural potentials. In this case mechanical parts are needed to induce movement and specific design is needed facilitate movement, sensors are required to detect information to complete the interactive feedback system. “John Frazer posted that architecture should be a living, evolving thing.44” If architecture never stagnates it should never become redundant or need to be demolished. A framework is created in which technological advancements are integrated and enhance the buildings performance because of its ability to meet multiple programmatic needs. The building can also react to its surrounding context appropriately to self optimise. This redundancy in demolishing buildings reduces the need to design new ones. Architectural roles develop framework structures for responsive systems to cater for multiple programmes.

Fox. M. 2010. Catching up with the Past. FOOTPRINT. p 6 Fox. M. 2010. Catching up with the Past. FOOTPRINT. p 6 44 Fox. M. 2010. Catching up with the Past. FOOTPRINT. p 6 43

Installations by Philip Beesley explore the potentials of a physically responsive architecture. Projects such as Hylozoic Soil and Endothelium are designed in a manor to facilitate movement. As a result this maximises growth potentials. Hylozoic Soil reacts physically to human interaction, it could also react to obtain maximum gains from the environment and act as a growth supporting matrix.

The installations can be incorporated into or onto the current urban context. This reactive system can maximise contextual passive gains, such as grey water harvesting. As these reactive structures provided significant gains by passive means there is less need for traditional active systems, therefore reducing energy consumption. 57

6.4 Fun Palace The Fun Palace’s intentions was to encompass multiple programmes and there requirements in one building. The project was proposed by John Littlewood and progressed in design by Cederic Price. The intention was, with the integration of such developing technologies as cybernetics, the structure can meet specific demands of a certain programme because it can react physically. New spatial configurations are automated. It looked to maximise the potential space for each programme. ‘Anticipatory architecture’, the structure reacted by anticipating programme requirements, it was in constant flux to maintain an optimised state for each individual or group, it ‘self organises’. “Central to Price’s practice was the belief that through the correct use of new technology the public could have unprecedented control over their environment, resulting in a building which could be responsive to visitors’ needs and the many activities intended to take place there.45” Technology has always been integrated and informed by design to meet the design intensions.

The project failed in the sense that it was not created but succeeded in revealing possible trajectories of exploration and integration of new technologies along with the collaboration of interdisciplinary fields of research. If one structure can meet the demands of many programmes efficiently at one time, there needs to be fewer buildings created, therefore there are significant financial and environmental gains to be had. 6.5 Extreme Integration

http://www.interactivearchitecture.org/fun‐palace‐cedric‐price.html

Possibilities of self organising, self generating and self demolishing contexts result in a living city. Reactive contexts that can self optimises when requirements are induced. A city can then obtain maximum gains from its climatic, social, physical, geographical and economical conditions etc. This may all be possible by automation of design, production and integrating hardware into structures. The hardware integration reacts to data based on a ‘Network Neutrality’ system governed be a central source. This is the same policy the USA employ with its internet policies. The unrestricted flow and access of allow forms of data incorporated into all design, production and monitoring tools. It needs to be governed by a central source to prevent malicious data being easily distributed or accessed. A digital network that encompasses all these aspects connects all digital components in a structure. This could be applied to the current context, in that all mechanical systems that are digital operated are monitored and controlled be a central source. The benefits of this are that buildings do not work in isolation from one another, they react to each other’s state to obtain maximal gains, this minimises energy consumption and so on. “Our work begins with the premise of a dynamic world. Political and cultural conditions change: what if the walls and windows morphed in response?46”A physically adaptable/responsive city as proposed by David Benjamin and Soo‐In Yang and their project ‘Living City’ (figure 61 and 62). They utilise already available digital networks to transfer data to localised hardware incorporated into structure. Production and design can respond immediately based on current financial, political and social factors. The hardware allows for movement, but because it is digital it can be integrated into a greater system. This allows reactions to occur over very small scales which in turn inform large scale reactions and visa versa. “The rules of response can be very simple and the rules for interaction between each system can be equally simple, but the combination can produce interactions that become emergent and very difficult to predict.47” The system self optimises to a more efficient state that couldn’t have been consciously predicted.

46 Benjamin.D and Yang.S.I. 2010. The Living. Architectural Design. Territory: Architecture Beyond Environment. 80(3). p 61

Fox. M. 2010. Catching up with the Past. FOOTPRINT. p 12

I carried out an experiment represented by figures 63 ‐ 65. It integrates hardware to control a structures state. The structure opens to ventilate a space; the passive gains are controlled digitally to alter temperature. This experiment was carried out in collaboration with Jose who is an electronics specialist. This proves interdisciplinary fields collaborating results in richer end products. It again proves with no background in electronics, design intentions can be achieved by collaboration. Videos of this experiment are provided on the enclosed CD. 60

Adaptable structures that are digitally controlled/monitored in a larger network result in passive gains being optimised. The single structure maximises it possible passive gains for a specific context, this catalyses the whole adaptable system to reconfigure which maximise its gains, a city in physical flux. If this is combined with materiality studies as researched and described above by Frei Otto, Buckminster Fuller, Neri Oxman etc which pursue structural efficiency and lightness in material. The small amount of energy required to run the hardware greatly offset the energy requirements to actively control a single buildings energy consumption. Again because of the nature of this system it can be applied efficiently to any scale and any climate. If the scale of the hardware could make up a material, only one material would ever be needed. It can alter its form based on requirements of the user and adapts to an optimised state within its environment. If one material is only ever needed this is a significant reduction in resources required for production and the resultant environmental effects. “Several transformational materials have already been developed which demonstrates exciting potential, particularly in the area of fabrics and polymers. A new robot developed by ‘iRobot’ for instance, can change its shape and squeeze into tight places...The potential attributes of kinetics working at such a small scale can extend beyond strictly facilitating needs, to simultaneously engage a wide range of human sensory perceptions. These new interactive assembly systems will bring new unprecedented levels of customisation and reconfigurability to the architectural palette.48” With the automation of design and construction and integration of data networks appropriate building properties are produced based on current, economical, social, political, climatic and cultural conditions, something that current architectural procedures cannot do because of the timescale it takes to produce design intents.

Fox. M. 2010. Catching up with the Past. FOOTPRINT. p 16

Conclusion This dissertation looked to address the possibilities in architectural production, with the architect becoming a master builder again. This status is again attainable by the integration of technological advancements into a ubiquitous system. The results are mass customised products that are economically viable for consumption and production. The dissertation question is, ‘How has the development and utilisation of technological advancements resulted in a materially efficient and reactive architecture?’ Re‐exploring ideologies instilled in the Bauhaus under the guidance of Gropius and his interest in production methodologies, this made mass produced architecture possible. This period in exploration produced standardised forms. A resurgence in digital production techniques has resulted in affordable mass customisation. Current digital technologies still act in isolation. Development in digital tools could not have been developed without the knowledge attained from analogue findings. This doesn’t result in all design approaches being digitalised. Each stage of development should be supported by the use of a specific tool to progress through each stage, be it analogue or digital. It has been proven that analogue tools have limits to their potential efficiency. This is because they cannot form greater networks or produce to various scales efficiently. To progress architectural production in terms of efficiency to a minimum, the employment of BIM has been proven to significantly increase production efficiency. Again this is only possible because the tool is digital and can accentuate a greater flow of information. This is only a management tool effectively, it cannot address problems of inefficiency in production itself. Developments in the possibility of automating production have proven to result in greater complexity and accuracy in form production that would not be attainable by hand. This method addresses possibilities of a production system that produces affordable customisation and can efficiently meet the demands of various scales. The architect therefore explores production possibilities to realise intentions, such as the project ‘Pike Loop’. These digital tools can be integrated directly into design software, this facilitates instantaneous physical manifestations of emergent design possibilities. This is comparable to how ecosystems are created with responsive and materially efficient properties. 62

The architect can re‐attain the master builder status with the exploration into autominous production and design technologies. These production technologies are informed and inform all other aspects of design, therefore only one field of expertise is required, much like previous knowledge in stone/masonry resulted in exuberance. The results of these technologies are evident and couldn’t be economically viable by analogue procedures. A framework is defined with facilitates emergent properties, not only in design possibilities but also in digital production techniques. These emergent properties are only possible because a greater system is created which incorporates all tools, the tools inform one another. This develops the emergent possibilities researched within cybernetics. This can result in more materially efficient structures being produced that are optimised beyond conscious ability. The system self optimises. This is a result of how design can be re‐ approached. This data lead approach will not result in a context losing its identity, the data is specific to that context therefore generating unique designs. The architect doesn’t become redundant in this proposed system, as the designer has critical thought, the computer does not understand the whole scheme. The architectural field does not become saturated also, example business models such as Foreign Office architects allowed for diversity in design without loss of identity, there is no reason this cannot be applied to this approach. The architectural field encompasses interdisciplinary research in order to achieve design intents. This redefines what needs to be designed to facilitate design criteria. A physically responsive context and system results in a more sustainable production approach. This is because the structures within a context no longer become redundant. They inform one another’s physical state to become optimised at any one time in a particular context. By integrating all forms of information, design and production technologies into a ubiquitous system; economical, geographical, social and political factors can be accommodated for in an instance. This all streamlines workload. It can significantly reduce fluctuations and provide more stability to what has recently been a sporadic industry. This results in not only job stability for all involved in the construction industry, but also economical, social and political stability in global context. This is based on current digital tools integrated into a greater system and utilised to their maximum potential. 63

Appendix 1 Cellular City 0.1 Cellular automata software developed by Adam Blaney and Conor Black. The potential to automate town planning was explored by manipulating a cellular automata. It can produce new town planning ideologies in an instance.

Appendix 2 Prototype 2.0 The structures state can be manipulated because of hardware integration. Experimentation with arduino made this concept possible.

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Figure 13: Robotic Arm. Available at <http://www.dfab.arch.ethz.ch/web/e/lehre/86.html> (accessed 14th April) Figure 14: ETH Zurich, 2007. Iwamoto.L. 2009. Digital Fabrications, Architecture and Material Techniques. New York. Princeton Architectural Press. p 38 Figure 15: Transporting R.O.B. Available at <http://www.dfab.arch.ethz.ch/web/e/forschung/135.html> (accessed 17th March) Figure 16: Pike Loop. Available at <http://cherrypatter.com/2009/10/pike‐loop‐a‐robot‐built‐installation‐in‐nyc‐ really/> (accessed 17th March) Figure 17: Land Securities Bridge. Available at <http://www.akt‐uk.com/indexTemp.php> (accessed 23rd March) Figure 18: Trezidis. K. 2006. Algorithmic Architecture. Oxford. Architectural Press. p 79 Figure 19: Hovestadt. L. 2010. Beyond the Grid. Germany. Birkhauser. p26 Figure 20: Hovestadt. L. 2010. Beyond the Grid. Germany. Birkhauser. p199 Figure 21: Hovestadt. L. 2010. Beyond the Grid. Germany. Birkhauser. p104 Figure 22: Sakamoto. T. Ferre. A. Kubo. M. 2006. Form Contol to Design. Europe. Ingoprint SL. p 64 Figure 23: Sakamoto. T. Ferre. A. Kubo. M. 2006. Form Contol to Design. Europe. Ingoprint SL. p 65 Figure 24: Picture 4. Available at <http://www.digitalcrafting.dk/?cat=16> (accessed 27th March) Figure 25: Software developed by Adam Blaney and Conor Black. 2011 Figure 26: Spuybroek. L. 2004. NOX Machining Architecture. UK. Thames & Hudson.p 123 Figure 27: Coates.P. 2010. Programming Architecture. Oxan. Routledge P103 Figure 28: Sakamoto. T. Ferre. A. Kubo. M. 2006. Form Contol to Design. Europe. Ingoprint SL. p 198 Figure 29: Dm Johnson. Available at <http://mocoloco.com/archives/004791.php> (accessed 26th April) Figure 30: Grotto. Available at <http://scriptedbypurpose.wordpress.com/participants/arandalasch/> (accessed 5th April) 66

Figure 31: Dzn Modern‐Primitives. Available at <http://blog.vandm.com/2010/09/less‐is‐more‐2010‐venice‐ architecture.html> (accessed 28th April)

Figure 32: Island City Central Park GRIN GRIN. Available at <http://openbuildings.com/buildings/island‐city‐ central‐park‐grin‐grin‐profile‐2817/media> (accessed 5th April) Figure 33: Sakamoto. T. Ferre. A. Kubo. M. 2006. Form Contol to Design. Europe. Ingoprint SL. p 80 Figure 34: Sakamoto. T. Ferre. A. Kubo. M. 2006. Form Contol to Design. Europe. Ingoprint SL. p 82 Figure 35: Sakamoto. T. Ferre. A. Kubo. M. 2006. Form Contol to Design. Europe. Ingoprint SL. p 87 Figure 36: Sakamoto. T. Ferre. A. Kubo. M. 2006. Form Contol to Design. Europe. Ingoprint SL. p 87 Figure 37: Sakamoto. T. Ferre. A. Kubo. M. 2006. Form Contol to Design. Europe. Ingoprint SL. p 87 Figure 38: Eggshell. Available at <http://ming3d.com/DAAP/ARCH719sp11/> (accessed 5th April) Figure 39: Wolffs Law. Available at <http://www.wellsphere.com/exercise‐article/how‐strength‐training‐helps‐ prevent‐osteoporosis/29736> (accessed 29th April) Figure 40: Iwamoto.L.2009.Digital Fabrications. Architecture and Material Techniques. New York. Princeton Architectural Press. p 123 Figure 41: Carpalskin. Available at <http://web.media.mit.edu/~neri/site/projects/carpalskin/carpalskin.html> (accessed 29th April) Figure 42: Beast. Available at <http://web.media.mit.edu/~neri/site/projects/beast/beast.html> (accessed 29th April) Figure 43: Spiller.N. Digitalia – The other digital practice. 2010. Architectural Design, Exuberence. 80. 2. p 21 Figure 44: Computational Architecture. Available at <http://do‐wild‐thing.blogspot.com/2011/04/michael‐ hansmeyer.html> (accessed 3rd May) Figure 45: Computational Architecture. Available at <http://www.fastcodesign.com/1663306/the‐worlds‐most‐ complex‐architecture‐cardboard‐columns‐with‐16‐million‐facets#9> (accessed 3rd May)

Figure 46: Spuybroek. L. 2004. NOX Machining Architecture. UK. Thames & Hudson.p 43 Figure 47: Monocoque2. Available at <http://web.media.mit.edu/~neri/site/projects/monocoque2/monocoque2.html> (accessed 6th May) Figure 48: Hollow Bone. Available at <http://sharonapbio‐taxonomy.wikispaces.com/Animalia‐Chordata‐‐Aves> (accessed 6th May) Figure 49: Bird Bone. Available at <http://www.sciencephoto.com/images/download_lo_res.html?id=801060011> (accessed 6th May) Figure 50: Dome 1. Available at <http://regisworld.wordpress.com/2008/10/25/the‐biohouse‐project/> (accessed 7th May) Figure 51: Burke. A and Tierney. T. 2007. Network practices. Princeton architectural press. p 46

Figure 52: Doubled Surface. Available at <http://www.youtube.com/user/jehc5> (accessed 7th May) Figure 53: Super computer. Available at <http://www.hovied.com/technology/2010/chinese‐supercomputer‐ dwarfs‐all‐others‐15117860.html> (accessed 8th May) Figure 54: The Disintegrated Wall. Available at <http://www.dfab.arch.ethz.ch/web/e/lehre/87.html> (accessed 8th May) Figure 55: Lego Sensors. Available at <http://ai.ia.agh.edu.pl/wiki/mindstorms:description> (accessed 8th May) Figure 56: Blaney. A. 2011 Figure 57: Spuybroek.L 2004. NOX Machining Architecture. China. Thames & Hudson. p 34 Figure 58: Beesley.P 2011. Soil and Protoplasm. Architectural Design. Protocell Architecture. Vol 80. Issue 2. p 86 Figure 59: Beesley.P 2011. Soil and Protoplasm. Architectural Design. Protocell Architecture. Vol 80. Issue 2. p 80 Figure 60: Fun Palace. Available at <http://slcl.ca/blog/wp‐content/uploads/2010/03/Screen‐shot‐2010‐02‐24‐ at‐3.59.53‐PM.png> (accessed 10th May)

Figure 61: Benjamin.D and Yang.S.I. 2010.The Living. Architectural Design. Territory: Architecture Beyond Environment. 80(3). p63 Figure 62: Benjamin.D and Yang.S.I. 2010.The Living. Architectural Design. Territory: Architecture Beyond Environment. 80(3). p62 Figure 63: Blaney. A 2011 Figure 64: Blaney. A 2011 Figure 65: Blaney. A 2011

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Lectures •

http://generativedesign.wordpress.com/2010/02/05/computational‐form‐finding/

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BIM Lecture. Arto Kiviniemi. 2011