3
MENDOTA: AGRICULTURAL THINK-TANK
125
An agricultural think-tank seeks to understand the dynamics of agricultural sectors ad suggest remedial measures for rehabilitation of such areas, improving performance based output and sustainable development of agriculture sector.
Previous page, source: Pruning Raisin Vineyard. Fresno County, California Special Collections, Henry Madden Library, California State University, Fresno 126
PRECEDENTS
The selection of case studies was based on identifying regions around the world that have successfully overcome environmental difficulties in order to generate more productive landscapes. While doing so, a great number of principles and interventions have been developed. Such techniques try to create new design strategies for keeping water sensitive regions livable with minimal impact on the environment.
127
Source: https://www.google.com/maps/place/ 128 Negev/3478e9b056cc687d
WATER TECHNOLOGIES FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN ISRAEL
BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN AVAILABLE WATER AND WATER DEMAND Israel is located in an extremely arid region. Yet, despite its ongoing population growth, it does not suffer from desertification; the average water availability in the Middle East reaches a mere 1,400 m3 per person per year. Agricultural production thrives in Israel, despite the fact that water availability amounts to only 225 m3/ person/year, a total of 1,800 million m3/year for less than 8 million people. Despite its relatively small area, it contains a diversity of desert types, all of which have been cultivated. If we look closely, the entire Northern Negev desert is no longer in fact a desert; it is cultivated semi-arid and arid land. This is thanks to cutting-edge innovation and technologies that bridge the gap between available water and water demand. Serving like this as a good example for the rest of the global desert belt.
STREAMS RESERVOIRS URBAN DEVELOPMENT
129
Irrigation Control PVC-mesh covered greehouses form the primary system for cultivation in the desert. Drip irrigation and, more recently, subsurface, pulse-responsive drip irrigation are used to eliminate evaporation from soil and conserve water usage. Israel has managed to make several particular adaptations to drip irrigation system. 1. The top soil is lined to avoid soil moisture evaporation. In addition to this, an impermeable lining is introduced beneath the crops to prevent deep percolation of irrigation surplus, not only conserving water, but conserving the precious soil itself. 2. To improve the growing microclimate, plastic airbags are used during peak daytime heat to cool the greenhouses, and at night to circulate warm air and create optimal growing conditions. 130
In most cases, plans are irrigated only when they are ready to photosynthesize and transpire. This means that the plants are irrigated, not the soil. This responsive irrigation system, which includes subsurface drippers with almost no drainage and no deep percolation. Each farmer can therefore configure his or her own isolated growing environment and formulate the appropriate and profitable mĂŠlange of water qualities.
Field Crops With scarce water, Israel’s field crop farmers have been concentrating on new varieties that produce the same or higher yields, with less or no irrigation. Moreover, that irrigation increasingly consists of recycled wastewater. Some 220,000 hectares are devoted to field crops in Israel. Of these, 160,000 ha. are rain-fed winter crops such as wheat for grain and silage, hay, legumes for seeds and safflower for oil. The remainder is planted with summer crops such as cotton, sunflowers, chickpeas, green peas, beans, corn, groundnuts and watermelon for seeds, mostly irrigated.
Aquaculture Israel imports about two-thirds of the fish it consumes. Demand at home is steadily rising: from 11.7 kilograms in 1994 to 12.9 kgs. in 1996, a rise of 10%. Growing demand - both local and worldwide - is prompting Israel to step up fish production, especially in the arid southern part of the country. One of the main pond methods currently being developed and rapidly increasing in volume is the use of covered ponds fed by oxygenation, with water passing to and from the ponds via a reservoir/bio-filter. Such systems have been yielding production increases as high as 400%, from 0.5 kg. per cu. meter in an open pond to 20 kg. and more in a covered tank.
Groundwater Recharge and Desalination Groundwater in the desert is replenish naturally by stream infliltration during floods. However, in many instances, this surface runoff contains 30-35% sediment and does not percolate. This is mitigated by constructing attenuation dumps that alow sediments to settle and clean water.
From top to bottom By using walls to channelize and collect floodwaters, ancient farmers made the most of scant rainfall to grow crops in the desert. These techniques are still used today, like in this vineyard near Sede Boqer, Israel. One of the main pond methods currently being developed and rapidly increasing in volume is the use of covered ponds fed by oxygenation, with water passing to and from the ponds via a reservoir/bio-filter. Such systems have been yielding production increases as high as 400%, from 0.5 kg. per cu. meter in an open pond to 20 kg. and more in a covered tank. Timna Mine water reservoir is used to collect runoff for aquifer recharge and irrigation. 131
Source: https://www.google.com/maps/place/ 132 Negev/3478e9b056cc687d
WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND RECLAMATION IN ISRAEL
JEWISH NATIONAL FUND [JNJ] AND MEKOROT Site: State of Israel Annual Precipitation: 30-900mm Year: 1970s Status: Ongoing Water Volume/Day: 270 million m3 Israel’s nationwide treatment and reuse strategy uses wastewater in place of conventional (potable) water for irrigation or other purposes that do not require water of drinkable quality, releasing some of the pressure on conventional water resources. Approximately 92% of the wasterwater in Israel is treated, and around 75% (35 million m3) of this is used for agricultural irrigation. Reclaimed wastewater is also used for artificial groundwater recharge, another component of the national water management plan. Such programs have succeeded in restoring higher groundwater levels to Israel’s Coastal Aquifer. Reclaimed wastewater is very reliable due to its relatively constant supply during the year and from year to year, with an increase over time. This allows for investments in intensive agriculture, which are not feasible with infrequent precipitation in semi-arid regions. 133
Jezreel Valley - kishon River Watershed
The initial treatment of wastewater takes place in wastewater treatment plants throughout the country and typically includes four stages: pre-treatment, followed by primary, secondary and tertiary treatments. These treatments include oxidation ponds, activated sludge, and mechanical bioreactors. Treated effluent is then distributed to over 200 open-air reservois for additional polishing by means of settling and oxygenation processes. The reservoirs are designed for both storage and treatment. In the case of the Jezreel Valley, the most productive agricultural valley in Israel, 20-28 million m3 of affluent per year enables the irrigation of 20,000 hectares. The goal of storage is to bridge the gap between the continuous supply of sewage and seasonal irrigation needs, which are higher in the summer.
URBAN AREAS JEZREEL VALLEY KISHON RIVER AND TRIBUTARIIES
Maa’le Hakishon Reservoir 134
PIPES RESERVOIRS URBAN DEVELOPMENT
Mekorot Reservoir There are two main technological approaches for wastewater treatment. In the first, intensive sewage treatment systems such as activated sludge are optimized for biological oxygen deman (BOD) removal, but not for the removal of detergents, heavy metals, xenobiotics, and pathogens. Thus, intensive systems alone cannot achieve the requirements for agricultural irrigation and have to be followed by polishing treatment systems, which can be achieved in two ways: The addition of advanced intensive treatment units, including disinfectation units, membrane filtration, activated carbon treatment. The addition of extensive treatment units such as stabilization reservoirs or constructed wetlands. The second approach to wastewater treatment involves extensive sewage treatment systems, such as stabilization ponds and reservoirs, constructed wetlands, and so on.
135
SOLAR SHARING PROJECT 136
JAPAN NEXT-GENERATION FARMERS CULTIVATE CROPS AND SOLAR ENERGY
The coexistance of installation of photovoltaic (PV) systems on existing crop-producing farmland is know as “Solar Sharing” in Japan. Concept originally developed by Akira Ngashima in 2004, who was a retired agricultural machinery enggineer who later studied biology and learned the “light saturation point” The rate of photosynthesis increases as the irradiance level is increased; however at one point, any further increase in the amount of light that strikes the plant does not cause any increase to the rate of photosynthesis. By knowing that too much sun won’t help further growth of plants, Nagashima came up with the idea to combine PV systems and farming. He devised and originally patented special structure, which is much like a pergola in a garden. He created a couple of testing fields with different shading rates and different crops. The structures he created are made of pipes and rows of PV panels, which are arranged with certain intervals to allow enough sunlight to hit the ground for photosynthesis
Source: “Japan Next-Generation Farmers Cultivate Crops and Solar Energy.” - Renewable Energy World. Accessed January 25, 2016.
137
CULTUURPARK WESTERGASFABRIEK 138
Location: Amsterdam, The Netherlands Size: 11.5 ha Status: Completed 2004 Landscape Architect: Gustafson Porter Architect: Francine Houben, Mecanoo Engineer: Arup, Tauw Structural Engineer: Pieters Bouwtechniek Contractor: Marcus bv Project Manager: Northcroft Belgium sa Management: Tauw Consultants: (Specification writer) Bugel Hajima WHAT IT WANTS? The Westergasfabriek develops and rents out spaces for creative, cultural and innovative entrepreneurs. inspires a broad public and provide leisure opportunities in an exciting, sustainable and friendly environment. WHAT IT DOES? The Westergasfabriek encourages the use of its spaces for creative events, ensuring the area keeps its exciting and refreshing atmosphere. Participates in cultural projects and support collaborations between our business tenants.
Source: https://www.google.com/maps/place/Westergasfabriek/ http://www.gustafson-porter.com/westergasfabriek/ http://www.westergasfabriek.nl/en/westergasfabriek-en 139
CONTEXT
1. Aerial photo taken by KLM, 1927 2. View of the Haarlemmervaart and the Westergasfabriek near the later Westerpark. 3. The railway between Amsterdam and Haarlem. 4. The Westergasfabriek c. 1885, a bird’s-eye view from the southeast. Drawing W.J. Jesse. 5. Extension to the Stokerij with the railway for bringing 140 up coal in the foreground.
Source: http://www.project-westergasfabriek.nl/english#
PARK PLAN
Almost immediately after the granting of the concession to the Imperial Continental Gas Association (ICGA), in 1883 a start was made on developing the site of the Westergasfabriek. The director, Julius Pazzani (18411888), undertook the technical planning of the production process and the site. The Amsterdam architect Isaac Gosschalk (1838-1907) was brought in to design the buildings.
1885
1885
1885
1996
1885
1885
1903
1903
Regulateurshuis Baker’s Shop
Zuiveringsgebouw The halls can also be hired for events. The western lime-quencher houses Pacific Parc
Machinegebouw For parties, small events and dinners.
Western Eastern Meterhuisje.
Bazenwoningen (Bosses’ Houses) Playground
Kantoorgebouw The Westerpark district council is still located in this building.
Ketelhuis The building houses The Ketelhuis cinema.
Gasholder
1904
1960 - 1996
1974
1935 - 1996
Transforma- Stokerij (demol- Gasholders Watertoren torhuis ished) (demoland Laboratorium The Gas1960s the eastern ished) (demolholder can The Trans- Stokerij and the ished) be hired as a formatorhuis coal sheds were location for can be hired pulled down, as events, parties for parties were the conand theatre or theatre densers and the productions. productions scrubbers
141
Clean up In the 1980s the zoning plan was laid down for the Overbraak polders, which include Westerpark and the Westergasfabriek. The site was to serve a green and recreational purpose. It was to be expected that after years of industrial use the site would be polluted, and so soil studies were carried out. Various toxic substances, such as tar, mineral oils and cyanide, are released during the production of gas 1. Isolation - Plus Variant 2. Cleaning up Gasholders 3. Vapor - Proof 4. Blanced books 5. Measurements
142
Source: http://www.project-westergasfabriek.nl/english#
MENDOTA In the 1980s the zoning plan was laid down for the Overbraak polders, which include Westerpark and the Westergasfabriek. The site was to serve a green and recreational purpose. It was to be expected that after years of industrial use the site would be polluted, and so soil studies were carried out. Various toxic substances, such as tar, mineral oils and cyanide, are released during the production of gas
Source: https://www.google.com/maps
143
DESIGN STRATEGIES
Source: A Developed orchard. Tulare County (San Joaquin Valley), California. Special Collections, Henry Madden Library, California State University, Fresno
145
0 mi
1
3
INTEGRATED SYSTEMS OF AGROECOLOGY Agroecological techniques requires a deeper understanding of the complex longterm interactions among resources, people and their environment. [UC Berkeley, Agroecology in action] Their application has been made according to specific soil and water conditions. Zai pits, located by the water recharge area, allow to increase water harvesting. A rotational that includes trees, crops and livestock reduces the stress put into the soil giving it time to regenerate from agricultural mediations previously done.
INTERCROPPING GRAZING ZAI PITS KERMAN ECOLOGICAL RESERVE MENDOTA WILDLIFE AREA FRESNO SLOUGH GRAZING ACACIA TREES BLACKWALUT, PECAN TREE
147
SUBSURFACE REMEDIATION Above ground interventions seek to create continuous regenerative solutions to current soil and water conditions. The principles applied have the potential to improve salinity levels resulting in soils with better qualitites to grow more mature crops, in addition to expanding the groundwater recharge area.
WATER RECHARGE [2016] W.R [2050] W.R. [2100] SOIL REMEDIATION [2035] S.R. [2050] S.R. [2100] CURRENT GOOD SOILS CURRENT EXCELLENT SOILS FRESNO SLOUGH SAN JOAQUIN RIVER CALIFORNIA AQUEDUCT HIGHWAYS COUNTY LIMIT UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD WILDLIFE AREA
149
MAN-MADE AND NATURAL WAYS As complement to a man-made system of infrastructures, a network of trees is located along natural phenomena and flows to create an above ground scenario of the region’s concealed characteristics –soil and water. By applying agroforestry interventions, such as alley cropping, farm income can be diversify, improve landscape aesthetics, enhance wildlife habitat and provide protection and conservation benefits to crops. [USDA National Agroforestry Center 2012]. New research centers are located in the previously depopulated towns, specializing in particular agroecology techniques according to current environmental conditions. Firebaugh- solar energy, Mendota - soil remediation, Kerman - water harvesting. HIGHWAYS COUNTY LIMIT UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD BIKE LANES TOPOGRAPHIC LINES ACACIA TREES BLACKWALNUT AND PECAN TREES SECONDARY ROADS SAN JOAQUIN RIVER CANALS RESEARCH CENTERS 151
B-B
C-C
0 mi
152
0.25
1
A-A
THINK TANK - SOIL REMEDIATION Due to poor quality soils, Mendota serves as a great case study for a research center for specialized remediation techniques. Rhizodeposition, bio-drilling, agroforestry, silvopasture.
FRESO SLOUGH FISH PONDS DUCK PONDS WETLAND VEGETATION CAMPGROUNDS CLEARINGS OPEN GREEN SPACES ALMONDS CROPS BOARDWALK GRAZING [ROTATIONAL DESIGN] BUCKWHEAT, BARLEY CROPS [SEASONAL CROPS] DAIKON, CANOLA, OILSEED CROPS [BIO-DRILLING] MENDOTA WILDLIFE AREA PINE FOREST [AGROFORESTRY] ACACIA TREE BLACKWALNUT AND PECAN TREES CANALS RESEARCH CENTERS
153
0 mi
154
0.25
1
Networks As a strategy to create more accessibility in the region, a network of bike paths was established. Such paths are located following roads, the railway and water systems [canals, Fresno slough, San Joaquin River].
FRESO SLOUGH BOARDWALK BIKE PATH HIGHWAYS UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD SECONDARY ROADS PEDESTRIAN PATH CANALS URBAN TREES
155
Bio-drilling Crop rotation 1/8”=1’
156
Agroforestry Crop rotation 1/8”=1’
157
Dry and wet conditions 1/8”=1’
158
159
UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD GRAZING BIKE PATH
AGROECOLOGY AND AQUACULTURE
FISHING AREA
UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD
160
ROTATIONAL DESIGN
PUSH AND PULL SYSTEM
ZAI PITS
INTERCROPPING
DUCK PONDS BIKE PATH
161
162
LATE FALL
EARLY FALL
SUMMER
Rhizodeposition Agroforestry Research center Agroforestry
AGROFORESTRY Crop rotation 1/8”=1’
BOARDWALK
JUGLANS NIGRA
BOARDWALK_DG
DECOMPOSED GRANITE_WOODEN PEDESTRIAN PATH
OLEA EUROPEA
AVENA SATIVA
PRUNUS DULCIS
FICUS CARICA
BRASSICA NAPUS
HORDEUM VULGARE
163
164
CONCLUSION
Source: Sheep in shade of Poplars. San Joaquin Valley, Cal. Special Collections, Henry Madden Library, California State University, Fresno
165
The global existence of food deserts, lack of access to nutritious food and appropriate use of resources, makes food availability an issue of social justice. “Famine, drought, hunger and malnutrition, biodiversity and the transfer of large expanses of land from poor nations to wealthy and powerful ones are just some of the thousands of macro-issues that make the role of food in the future of the world a critical one.”1
On the one hand there is the high-input, commercial monoculture, which contributes to climate change, malnutrition and ecosystem degradation. It has promised to feed the world, but has not delivered.
Agroecology on the other hand, besides maintaining productive agriculture, seeks to fight climate change and poverty. The principles of agroecology help protect soil and water, while maintaining health, liveable communities According to the most recent FAO statistics, more than eight hundred million and local economies. people are chronically malnourished. “Pretty much everything that happens In my design research project, different principles of agroecology have in this world, sooner or later, affects our food”2. With the increasing impacts been employed across western Fresno County after rigorous analysis of of climate change and dwindling resources, more food than ever is needed to soil and water characteristics. support a rapidly growing population. The application of intercropping principles will be located in the northern “The world will need to feed nine billion people by the year 2050. A sobering part to of the region. The middle portion will be directed to both 70 percent increase in global agricultural production will be necessary to intercropping and grazing, creating a system of rotational agriculture that feed them”3. Because of the increase in these numbers, many of the earth’s will allows soils to regenerate. The eastern portion is dedicated to water essential resources are being depleted faster than natural processes can harvesting, applying systems that can expand the recharge the aquifers in replace them. the area. As the population grows, the demands of food and water quality increases along with them. This means an increase of areas where produce more Following the urban relocation of the population from the [re] Charge food—to do so we would have to sacrifice forests, water and habitats. Fresno 2100 vision, three of the five incorporated towns located on the The world will soon reach levels of “water stress” conditions. “Water West area of the county will be reactivated as agricultural research centers, shortages and scarcity are already a major issue in the U.S”4, mostly due to its each of them with specialized programs according to their territorial increasing use for agriculture. characteristics. The ability of the environment to support the population has already resulted in unsound farming methods and overuse of land in some places, stripping the soil of its ability to grow crops, leaving behind barren and unproductive land. In addition, the built environment of cities and suburbs are expanding onto land once used to grow food. Luigi Guarino, on his essay A Space for Landraces, notes that “The growing demand of food is asking us to come up with new strategies for agricultural production, and to find a way that allows us to satisfy a steadily growing demand. Recognizing the value of crop diversity is the only way to preserve the natural habitat, and at the same time to grant the preservation and supplying of 166 resources to future generations”5.
Mendota will have a center to study methods of soil remediation, Kerman have a think tank to focus on water harvesting and Firebaugh will have a center of research and development that follows the design created by Yi Bai, Master of Landscape Architecture Candidate whose focus is in solar energy. San Joaquin and Tranquillity on the other hand, will be left to die their natural death due to their extreme deprived social conditions. Meanwhile, the Union Pacific Railroad, which cuts through all the towns, will be reactivated to serve as a regional cargo and passenger infrastructure with stations in all three towns; the portion connecting San Joaquin and Tranquillity will be left as a local network.
By identifying four different phenomena and flows – the 100 year flood, limit between rich and poor soils, water recharge and topographic changes - a system of alley cropping was applied with the purpose of making visible the invisible. Such lines create not only rhythms in the landscape, but also frame agricultural crops and generate plots that mimic more natural forms. As a strategy to create more accessibility in the region, a network of bike paths was established. Such paths are located following roads, the railway and water systems [canals, the Fresno slough and the San Joaquin River]. Mendota, located in one of the areas with poorest soil for agriculture, became a case study for soil remediation with dedicated centers in rhizodeposition, agroforestry and bio-drilling. Experimental plots are located near them for educational purposes in order to introduce communities and workers to the principles of agroecology. The Fresno Slough is turned into an active recreational space by expanding camping, fishing and hunting. The slough is connected to the reactivated fish and duck ponds by a network of paths and bike lanes. “The agrarian landscape is a relatively recent acquisition in our way of thinking. Before, there were fields to be cultivated, the landscape to be contemplated. From Ledoux to LeCorbusier to the present day, the landscape is everywhere and its food-related nature appears to us in myriad forms, form the oldest ones of the vineyards… to the many new methods in which the quality of the design and agricultural production overlap”6.
Source: Ciorra, Pippo, and Alessio Rosati. Food Dal Cucchiaio Al Mondo. Macerata: Quodlibet, 2015
1
Agroecology helps satisfying the need for crop diversity in order to protect the pristine natural habitats, and creates more availability for farmers to deal with fluctuations in production, grow more mature crops, minimize risks and safeguard livelihoods.
2 Guarino, Luigi. A space for Landraces. Ciorra, Pippo, and Alessio Rosati. Food Dal Cucchiaio Al Mondo. Macerata: Quodlibet, 2015. Print. Pg, 205
Land and Food Security. World Bank. Accessed May 05, 2016. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/land-and-food-security. 3
Landscape architecture design interventions along with principles of agroecology, create new agricultural models that minimize environmental and socio-economic impacts of modern technologies while developing new hybrid programs for an expanded public realm.
Global Demand for Fresh Water Set to Exceed Supply. CBSNews. Accessed May 05, 2016. http://www.cbsnews.com/news/global-demand-forwater-set-to-exceed-supply/. 4
5 Guarino, Luigi. A space for Landraces. Ciorra, Pippo, and Alessio Rosati. Food Dal Cucchiaio Al Mondo. Macerata: Quodlibet, 2015. Print. Pg, 205
Ciorra, Pippo, and Alessio Rosati. Food Dal Cucchiaio Al Mondo. Macerata: Quodlibet, 2015
6
167
APPENDIX
Lexicon 1.
Agricultural experiment station: (AES) is a scientific research center 6.
Ethnoecology: is the cross-cultural study of how people perceive
that investigates difficulties and potential improvements to food production
and manipulate their environments. It has traditionally focused on linguistic
and agribusiness. Experiment station scientists work with farmers, ranchers,
analyses of terms for plants, animals, habitats, and other ecological
suppliers, processors, and others involved in food production and agriculture. phenomena in attempts to reveal underlying structures of the human mind 2.
Food security: The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food
that influence human behavior.
security as existing “when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, 7. nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life�. Commonly, the concept
Agroecosystem: plant diversification and enhancement of beneficial
fauna. A spatially and functionally coherent unit of agricultural activity
of food security is defined as including both physical and economic access to which includes the living and nonliving components involved in that unit food that meets people’s dietary needs as well as their food preferences.
as well as their interactions.
3.
8.
Greenhouses: can collect significant amounts of solar energy, but in
the summer much of this is ventilated away to prevent overheating, while 9.
Agroecological redesign: optimization of the use of space. Intercropping: is an agricultural practice in which two or more crops
in winter many greenhouses are heated, using large amounts of energy to are grown together in the same field. This practice is ancient, as numerous maintain suitable temperatures for growing. 4.
records from human societies all over the world indicate. Intercropping
Agricultural Think-tank: think tank addresses the issues of volatility persisted in agrarian societies after being rejected by the Western world
of agricultural prices, the instability of agricultural markets, agricultural with the advent of highly mechanized farming. policies and the readability of agricultural strategies. (Momagri think-tank, 10. movement for a world agricultural organization) 5.
Cover crop: crop planted primarily to manage soil erosion, soil
fertility, soil quality, water, weeds, pests, diseases, biodiversity and wildlife in
Agroecology: Agroecology is a scientific discipline that uses an agroecosystem. Grown for the protection and enrichment of the soil.
ecological theory to study, design, manage and evaluate agricultural systems 11.
Polyculture: the simultaneous cultivation or exploitation of several
that are productive but also resource conserving. Does not have a consensual crops or kinds of animals. definition, but it represents a new conceptual space in which to think about 12. agriculture sustainability through strong interactions between science and society with a wealth of new concepts, questions and tools. 168
Food sovereignty: the right of people to determine their own food
and agriculture policies; the democratization of food and agriculture.
13.
Permaculture: Permaculture is a system of agricultural and social
design principles centered on simulating or directly utilizing the patterns and features observed in natural ecosystems. Layers: canopy, understory, shrub, herbaceous [many culinary and medicinal herbs], groundcover/ soil surface, rhizosphere, vertical layer. 14.
Landrace: a more diverse selection of crops bred by farmers and
passed down the generations of a particular place, in a particular land, to cope with its unique conditions and to serve the often wonderfully idiosyncratic purpose of the people who live there. 15.
Vernal pools: Vernal pools are a type of temporary wetland. Vernal
pools are depressions in areas where a hard underground layer prevents rainwater from draining downward into the subsoils. When rain fills the pools in the winter and spring, the water collects and remains in the depressions. In the springtime the water gradually evaporates away, until the pools become completely dry in the summer and fall. 16.
Zai Pits: is a sustainable agriculture and food security technology
which is widely practiced in Sahel West Africa, a densely populated semiarid region bordering the Sahara desert. Rain water harvesting. The Zai pit technology ensures soil water retention allowing crops to grow to maturity after the rain ceases without additional water. Make Pits measuring approximately 60 cm deep x 60 cm diameter as follows digging the holes at alternate positions behind each other to allow adequate catchments area for sufficient run off to be produced. 169
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