DISCRIMINATION IN EUROPE: The psychosocial background and the possibility of prevention

Prejudice is a type of the attitude that is usually without a rational basis, with a positive or negative connotation, consisting of a general attitude and its affective component (Aaronson, Wilson, Akert, 1997). Each attitude has three components: affective/emotional (it includes the emotions related to the attitude (anger, cordiality) and posture saturation (moderate anxiety, open hostility)); cognitive (beliefs or thoughts) and behavioural (that is, someone's actions, how the attitude manifests itself outside). Prejudices are based on stereotypes, that is the change-proof generalizations referring to the group, in which identical characteristics are assigned to all members regardless of the differences between them. Gordon Allport (1954) concluded that stereotyping is the usage of cognitive abbreviations based on simple beliefs in order to limit the cognitive effort put into everyday thought processes. The usage of such simplifications may be helpful and significantly facilitate everyday functioning, but it can also limit the cognition and make it impossible to see individual differences between members within a given group. This in turn can lead to the unfair treatment and discrimination, that is the unjustified negative or harmful action against members of a group just because they belong to certain group (Weiner, 2005). Prejudices are therefore a side effect of how we simplify and categorize the world by relying on abnormal shortcuts in the thinking process and repeating them regularly.

The first step to create prejudices is to divide people into groups - "us" and "them" by means of distinguishing specific characteristics of one group and contrasting the other with different traits. Such categorization is cognitively close to us, because every day we group similar stimuli and contrast them with the different ones, based on similar situations in the past that affected the present (Wilder, 1986). We are not able to get rid of social categorization it is necessary for the effective learning, although it also has negative implications.

As a result of grouping, we begin to favour our group and discriminate the other, that is foreign and different. Henri Tajfel (1982) ascribes such behaviour to the need to establish one's own self-esteem by identifying with a specific social group and perceiving it as superior

to other groups. Tajfel's experiments have shown that we evaluate members of our group as better than those from other groups, even when the differences are minimal. Together with the group-based successes, there is an increasingly stronger identification with one's own group, and this results in the overstated perception that the foreign group is more homogeneous than one's own (Linville, Fischer, Salovey and Ouattrone, 1986). Stereotypes largely reflect cultural beliefs - they are widely known to many members of the community and even if someone is not prejudiced, the stereotype in his group can be activated under the influence of the opinion represented by the group (Aaronson, Wilson, Akert, 1997). Cultural norms that change and shift along with the changes in the attitudes of the society also effect the formation of prejudices. A very important source of prejudice is the competition - if there is a conflict, for example on the ground of the mutually exclusive goals, it is more likely that the factor of the intergroup discrimination will appear. Negative attitudes are also stronger when group members, who do not have enough resources, feel threatened by members of a foreign group, and also when people are frustrated and unhappy, because they tend to blame guilt and aggression into groups that are less-favoured, distinctive and relatively vulnerable.

The cognitive component is responsible for the formation of prejudices. Once shaped attitude alters the way information is processed, which excludes the possibility of adopting an objective point of view and hinders the change of attitude even when one is faced with rational argumentation, because of the strong connection with the emotional component (Allport, 1954). Information that is in line with our ideas will be even better remembered and harder to change (Wyer, 1988).

Another form of consolidation of the stereotypical thinking is the apparent correlation (Chapman,

1967),

which

is

seeing

interdependencies

where

they

do

not

exist.

This phenomenon occurs especially where objects stand out from the typical setting to which we are accustomed (Hamilton, 1981). If one distinctive person takes a particular action, it can automatically be assigned to the entire group with which this person will be associated.

Such correlation may not necessarily appear through the direct contact, but also through an image created in the media or stories told by friends.

An additional factor that affects the creation of prejudices is the basic error of attribution (the belief that people behave in a certain way because of their personality and are not affected by external factors). The way a member of a given group behaves is attributed to his characteristics, not the situation he has found himself in. People who have a strong faith in justice in the world, believe that people experience evil only when they deserve it (Lerner, 1980). This results in blaming the victims and claiming that they are being punished for being guilty. There is also the element of self-fulfilling prophecy, that results in the fulfilment of our expectations regarding the situation simply because we influenced it. If prejudiced person is rude and repulsive towards the person whom those prejudices concerns, it will cause a negative reaction of the recipient. This negative reaction asserts the prejudiced person is right in his judgement and the vicious circle is complete.

Europe, like other continents, faces discrimination. This may be for example negative attitude towards many groups, such as older workers (ageism), homosexuals, followers of particular religions or national, ethnic and racial minorities. The discrimination of the latter group is all over the news. There are many signs that indicate the presence of xenophobic behaviours, and the immigrants who come especially to the Western Europe, face a number of difficulties - from problems with finding a flat and employment, through not receiving an adequate education, small chance of finding help in legal and administrative issues, to open manifestation of dislike and hate speech (Wencel, 2011; Olmińska, 2017; Urban, Piotrowicz, 2012; Klaus, 2016; Mikulska, 2009). In Poland in 2008 and 2009, respectively 7% and 10% of surveyed foreigners admitted that they have been victims of discrimination (Wencel, Klaus, 2010). Researches carried out in Europe show that immigrants are more often victims of thefts, assaults, threats and human trafficking than other representatives of the population. [1, 2].

It is unknown how big the scale of those problems is, because the data comes from the police reports and most of the crimes remain undisclosed (Urban, Piotrowicz, 2012; [3]).

By introducing the Race Directive (Directive 2000/43 / EC), the European Union addressed the issue of discrimination on grounds of race and ethnicity. The document concerns both the direct discrimination (a situation when people are treated worse because of their ethnic background), but also indirect (when a person with a different ethnic background or race is disadvantaged by a seemingly neutral act or doing). Efforts were also made to harmonise criminal law in order to fight more efficiently with racism and xenophobia since they violate basic human rights. The Polish national provisions that regulate discrimination are primarily controlled by the Constitution of the Republic of Poland (R.2). It emphasizes (Article 32, points 1 and 2), the right to the equal treatment and forbids the discrimination in political, social or economic life, gives racial and ethnic minorities the right to liberty of behaviour and development of their own culture, language and customs (Article 35, point 1). The issues of ethnic, racial and national hate are also regulated by, for example, the penal code and penalisation of the so-called "Hatecrimes."

Actions aimed at reducing the discrimination of minority groups in Poland are also conducted by non-legal organizations. The Education Development Center (ORE) created an anti-discriminatory Educational Package; regular actions are undertaken by, for example, the CZULENT Association - national and ethnic minorities; Roma Association in Poland; Polish Society for Anti-Discrimination Law; Association for the Integration of Multicultural Society NOMADA; Interkulturalni.Pl, or the student organization AEGEE that operates at the European level.

The results of the research show that we can effectively influence the change of attitudes, even the negative ones. Patricia Devine (1989) believes that this is a matter of a two-stage model of cognitive information processing:

when automatic, it provides

information, but if controlled, it can repel or omit some information. But when we are dealing

with something else or are not able to perform such an operation - we remain at the automatic level and do not reject it. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure the continuous control of incoming and outgoing information. Webber and Crocker (1983) showed that the change of stereotypes is effectively influenced by the book-keeping style of information (information that contradicts the stereotype gradually changes its content), and the model of lower-order stereotype (stereotypes that allow the existence of examples that are inconsistent with the stereotype and it will in turn slowly change the overriding prejudice). Research (Pettigrew, 1958) also showed that recurring contacts with members of a foreign group have a positive effect on stereotypes and prejudices. The reduction or a complete disappearance of negative attitudes is observed among groups that have the same status (which is strengthened by social norms), are striving for common goals while maintaining informal friendly relations (this leads to perception that the prejudices are false) and have mutual interests and aspirations. The change in the method of categorisation proved to be effective in many studies in which the perceptions and emotions of "own" and "foreign" were measured (Dovidio, Gaertner, 2010).

In conclusion - discrimination can be caused by variety of reasons and be manifested in a different way. However, as the research shows, one can influence the change of negative attitudes primarily by presenting biased information and effective intergroup contact. This proves that the activities carried out by governmental and non-governmental organizations are not pointless and doomed to failure. Raising public awareness and warming the image of discriminated groups may gradually affect the reduction of prejudices and translate into a decrease in the level of discrimination in Europe.

Index: [1] Report on Human Trafficking prepared by the US Department of State, Office for Monitoring and Counteracting Trafficking in Human Beings. http://wiadomosci.ngo.pl/wiadomosci/36453.html (19/10/2011).

[2] Roszkowska G.. Opinions of representatives of the police and border guards on the phenomenon of child trafficking in Poland and the situation of unaccompanied foreign children staying on the territory of Poland. Nobody's Children Foundation 2007.

[3] Statistics - crime of foreigners. Foreigners suspected of committing crimes and / victims in Poland http://statystyka.policja.pl/st/wybrane-statystyki/przestepczosccudzozie/50867,Cudzoziemcy-przestepczosc.html

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Chapman, L.J. (1967). Illusory correlation in observational report. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 6, 151-155.

Devine, P.G. (1989). Automatic and controlled processes prejudice: The roles of stereotypes and personal beliefs. W: A.R. Pratkanis, S.J. Breckler, A.G. Greenwald (red.), Attitude structure and function (s. 181-212). Hillsdale: Eribaum.

Gaertner, S.L., &Dovidio, J.F. (2000). Reducing intergroup bias: The Common Ingroup Identity Model. Philadelphia, PA: The Psychology Press.

Hamilton, D.L. (1981).Illusory correlation as a basis for stereotyping. W: D.L. Hamilton (red.), Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior. Hillsdale: Eribaum.

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Lerner, M.J. (1980). The belief in a just worid: A fundamental decision. New York: Plenum.

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About the author: Gabriela Tokarczyk – twenty-two years old student of the fourth year of Psychology and the first year of Cultural Studies at the Jagiellonian University. Her interests include psychology (especially fields related to the intercultural aspect), UX, art and crafts, travel, literature, photography and good cuisine. On a daily basis she finds fulfilment in the Research Group of Students of Psychology - in the Judicial and User Experience sections and also as a scoutmaster of the girl scouting team 'Project 0'. In the future Gabriela would like to work as a cultural psychologist (hopefully for Disney) to experience the world while doing something for both science and people

Translated and edited: Barbara Drewniak