A magazine on drylands development and sustainable agriculture / Issue 59, September 2010
Water Management
& Food Security In Africa
EDITORIAL Dear Reader, From the feedback we have received following the merger of Baobab and Kilimo Endelevu Africa magazines, we are glad that readers have enjoyed the new-look Baobab. The editorial team has been working hard to ensure that you read appropriate and relevant articles as new information emerges on improved practices in agriculture and ways of coping with new challenges such as climate change. Internationally, there is a growing understanding that water rights are important and that lack of effective water rights systems creates major problems. Over 70 percent of the water in the world is used in agriculture, most of it for irrigation. Policies on water use and especially for irrigation must aim at developing water management practices that raise productivity, promote equitable access to water and conserve this precious natural resource. In this issue, we focus on access to water for sustainable agriculture and livelihoods, its management and policies, or lack of them, which can regulate its effective and efficient use. In a region that highly relies on rainfall for food production, a lot needs to be done in agricultural water management if food security is to be achieved. Malawi has proved that African countries can be self-sufficient and food secure as is reported in the Theme Overview and on The Subject Of columns of this issue. The country went from food deficiency to supplying the rest of Africa with its surplus as a result of effective water policies. We also highlight what communities in the East African region are doing to counter the shortage of water in areas that receive little rainfall. The Mapela Women Group success story in the Project Focus gives useful insights in rainwater harvesting. The article reports on the pioneering work of this women’s group in Western Kenya in constructing their own water storage tanks using locally available materials. I would like to thank those who have been sending us comments on the last issue of the new-look Baobab. We appreciate them. We strive to ensure that Baobab meets your expectations on information on sustainable agriculture. The theme for the next Baobab Magazine in December will be on Partnerships and Learning. See page 33, on how to contribute to that issue. I look forward to hearing from you on this issue on Water and Sustainable Agriculture and for your articles.
James Nguo
Regional Director
Readers' Pictorial
2 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
Contents
4 8 15 20
THEME OVERVIEW: Agricultural Water Management
ISSN: 0966-9035
Baobab is published four times a year to create a forum for ALIN members to network, share their experiences and learn from experiences of other people working in similar areas.
Editorial Board James Nguo Anthony Mugo Noah Lusaka Esther Lung’ahi Kendi Kiruki - Intern Susan Mwangi – Chief Editor Consulting Editor Wairimu Ngugi
Illustrations
PROJECT FOCUS:
James Mugo
Women Taking Charge in Water Harvesting
Noel Creative Media
NEGOTIATING WATER: Payments for Watershed Services
WATER POLICY:
Malawi - Bringing Back Water to the Fields
Other Pages...
Irrigation as a Means to Fight Hunger in Uganda .................... Pg 12 Stork Story ........................................................................................................................... Pg 18
TECHNICAL NOTE: Underground Water Dowsing ........... Pg 26
Layout and Design
Important Notices Copyright
Articles, photos and illustrations from Baobab may be adapted for use in materials that are development oriented, provided the materials are distributed free of charge and ALIN and the author(s) are credited. Copies of the samples should be sent to ALIN.
Disclaimer
Opinions and views expressed in the letters and articles do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or ALIN. Technical information supplied should be cross-checked as thoroughly as possible as ALIN cannot accept responsibility should any problems occur.
Regional editions ✦ Farming Matters global edition by ileia ✦ LEISA REVISTA de Agroecologia, Latin America edition by Asociacion ETC andes. ✦ LEISA India, by AME Foundation ✦ SALAM majalah pertanian Berkelanjutan by VECO Indonesia ✦ AGRIDAPE, French West African edition by IED afrique ✦ Agriculture, experiences em Agroecologia, the Brazilian edition by AS-PTA ✦ Chinese edition by CBIK
Talk to us The Baobab magazine Arid Lands Information Network, ALIN P.O Box 10098, 00100 G.P.O, Nairobi, Kenya AAYMCA Building, Ground floor, Along State House Crescent, Off State House Avenue, Nairobi Tel. +254 20 2731557Telefax. +254 20 2737813 Cell. +254 722 561006E-mail: baobab@alin.net Website: www.alin.net
About ALIN Arid Lands Information Network (ALIN) is an NGO that facilitates information and knowledge exchange to and between extension workers or infomediaries and arid lands communities in the East Africa region. The information exchange activities focus on small-scale sustainable agriculture, climate change adaptation, natural resources management and other livelihood issues.
GUEST COLUMN: Interview with Patrick Alubbe ................ Pg 28 Baobab Magazine Milestones ...................................................................... Pg 30 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 3
themeoverview
Agricultural
water
Majority of African countries are yet to formulate and implement appropriate policies for agricultural water management in order to achieve optimal levels of agricultural production. This issue of the Baobab highlights the challenges to agricultural water access and some of the experiences and techniques applied in Africa, with a special focus on East Africa. By Susan Mwangi 4 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
Photo: Š ALIN
Management and Food Security in Africa
F
ood
Photo: Kendi Kiruki
security is one of the biggest concerns for development agencies and governments in Africa, where food production is hampered by declining agricultural potential and worsened by ongoing climate change. Additionally, lack of appropriate policies for agricultural water management (AWM) continues to curtail efforts aimed at ensuring adequate supply of water for agriculture that would ensure food security for the continent.
Policy gaps in AWM within Eastern and Southern Africa In the mostly arid and semi-arid East Africa region (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania), AWM has increasingly become urgent in recent years. Droughts have become more frequent, leading to increased water stress and urgent need for governments and other development actors to come up with more strategic water management policies. In addition, population pressure in the region has resulted in declining land size for cultivation and overgrazing of rangelands. Governments in the region have also tended to focus on policy making for drinking water, leading to gaps in policy making for AWM. According to Professor Bancy Mati, a lecturer in Soil and Water Engineering at the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology in Kenya, countries particularly in the Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) region need to do much more in AWM to achieve food security. In a paper presented at a drylands workshop, in December 2009 in India titled: Improving the Productivity of Drylands through Smallholder Interventions in Agricultural Water Management in Eastern and Southern Africa, Professor Mati noted that 69 percent of the land in ESA comprises of arid, semiarid and dry sub-humid zones. Crop and livestock production in these zones is threatened by a multiplicity of natural and humaninduced constraints, including low and erratic rainfall, which ranges from less than 100 millimetres in desert
Prof. Bancy Mati, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology, Kenya.
zones to about 800 millimetres in the Savannah, while the soils are generally highly weathered, of low fertility and prone to erosion. Professor Mati cited research on irrigation policies conducted between 2006 and 2007 and involving nine countries: Eritrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Ethiopia, Sudan, Madagascar, Mauritius and Rwanda. She observed: “In Africa, it is common to have policies which just lie in libraries with no implementation. Only Malawi has had good AWM policies in place and which are adhered to. It is therefore no surprise that Malawi is the most food secure country in Africa. The country has an agricultural policy in place and a separate one for natural water management.� The study which was commissioned by an agency known as Improved Management of Agricultural Water in
In Africa, it is common to have policies which just lie in libraries with no implementation." -Prof. Mati. BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 5
Eastern and Southern Africa (IMAWESA) also indicates that only Sudan and Mauritius had national irrigation policies by the end of 2009. Tanzania ratified an irrigation policy in 2009 and implementation was expected to commence in 2010. In Kenya, an irrigation policy has been in the pipeline for 20 years. Professor Mati was among the experts who assisted in drafting it when she was a programmes officer at IMAWESA under a programme funded by International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). A water policy for Kenya formulated in 1999 and the Water Act, 2002, have since been overtaken by technological changes. “New phenomena such as climate change are not even mentioned in the water policy! A 1966 document that set up the National Irrigation Board (NIB) still guides Kenya on irrigation. A policy gap to address agricultural water in Kenya and in many other African countries therefore still exists,” noted Professor Mati.
Affordable, locally adaptable interventions Water management for agricultural purposes can be improved using various interventions. In a 2007 booklet titled 100 Ways to Manage Water for Small Holder Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa: a Compendium of Technologies and Practices, Professor Mati suggests that these techniques can be summarized into 10 broad categories. Affordable interventions which are locally adaptable in ESA include:
Photo: © ALIN
1. Techniques requiring some level of slope reduction, especially terracing. They achieve soil and water conservation by increasing infiltration and soil water storage by reducing surface runoff, soil erosion and water losses. The technologies could include contour bunds, fanya juu (Kiswahili for “making from the top”) terraces, vegetative strips, stone lines and bench terracing. Many countries have good examples, including Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania.
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2. Utilization of valley bottoms (dambos), through a combination of drainage and water storage techniques to permit irrigation, including fisheries. There are good examples in Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
3. Runoff harvesting from micro-catchments and storage within the soil profile. This comprises a range of within-field water harvesting techniques in which the land is divided into small runoff producing and run-on areas where the soil can hold moisture relatively well. Examples abound in Kenya, South Africa, Uganda and Tanzania. 4. Runoff diversion from larger external catchments such as roads, gullies, open fields into micro-basins for crops, ditches or fields (with storage in soil profile) including paddy production where the profile can hold water relatively well. Examples abound in Tanzania and Kenya. 5. Runoff harvesting and storage in small ponds and tanks, for supplemental irrigation during dry spells. The tanks and micro-dams may be lined with plastic sheeting, clay grouting or concrete. The water may also be used for livestock watering. Good examples exist in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. 6 Spate irrigation in dry areas with high flush floods. The runoff water is diverted through canals or wadis for supplemental irrigation of low-lying lands, sometimes far away from the source of runoff. Good examples can be observed in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Sudan. 7. Conservation tillage has been gaining popularity as a method of reducing labour and enhancing soil moisture conservation. There are examples in Madagascar, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. 8. Diversion of stream flows and utilization in gravity fed smallholder irrigated fields (furrow, basin and simple sprinklers). The practice is common
in many countries especially in Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Swaziland, South Africa, Tanzania and Rwanda. 9. Use of low-head and small-powered petrol and electric pumps, including treadle pumps to lift water from rivers, small ponds and shallow water tables for supplemental irrigation. There are examples in Kenya, Malawi, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania and Zambia. 10. Soil fertility interventions, including the use of fertilizers, manures, mulches and Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) systems have been applied in nearly all the countries. These should accompany any of the “water management� interventions mentioned above.
About the author Susan Mwangi is the Communications Manager at ALIN. E-mail: smwangi@alin.net For further information, Professor Bancy Mati can be contacted on bancym@gmail.com References Mati, Bancy Mbura, (2005), Overview of water and soil nutrient management under smallholder rain-fed agriculture in East Africa. Colombo, Sri Lanka. International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Mati, Bancy Mbura, (2009), Improving the Productivity of Drylands through Smallholder Interventions in Agricultural Water Management in Eastern and Southern Africa. Workshop Paper, India. Mati, Bancy Mbura, (2007), 100 Ways to Manage Water for Small Holder Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa: A Compendium of Technologies and Practices. Improved Management of Agricultural Water in Eastern and Southern Africa (IMAWESA).
...only Sudan and Mauritius had national irrigation policies by the end of 2009."
-Prof. Mati. BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 7
PROJECTFOCUS
Bungoma
Women Take Charge in Harvesting
rainwater Water is a basic necessity yet one of the most challenging resources for communities to access. This article shares experience from the Mapela Christian Women’s Group, Western Kenya, in their efforts to initiate water harvesting from roof-tops through construction of low technology storage tanks as a sustainable approach to water conservation and alternative supply. By Noah Lusaka
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Western Kenya is endowed with plenty of rainfall (over 1,800mm/annum) and water for agriculture and livestock rearing is easily available. However, local communities in Bungoma district face challenges in accessing clean water for domestic use due to pollution of water resources. The situation is exacerbated by lack of knowledge and skills in rainwater harvesting and storage, with women and girls still trekking long distances to fetch water for domestic use. There are also high rates of erosion, siltation of rivers and other unprotected water points. Faced with the challenge of a growing population, increasing cases of waterborne diseases (especially diarrhoea, amoebiasis, schistosomiasis and typhoid) and diminishing water supply, the Mapela Christian Women Group (MCWG) initiated a project aimed at developing new sources of domestic water supply using affordable rainwater harvesting technologies to supplement available water sources.
The group’s main objectives are: ✦ To improve the health conditions of the members. ✦ To build members capacity on household food security. ✦ To initiate income generating activities. ✦ To establish environmental conservation activities. ✦ To enhance water conservation.
The project idea The Mapela Community Water Project started on pilot basis with the aim of constructing water storage tanks using locally available materials. The MCWG developed the project idea in 2008 and resolved to seek for support from a United Kingdom (UK) charity through UK church-based development links.
Photos: Noah Lusaka
The Mapela village “bare foot women engineers” as they are fondly known, have won recognition for
Division of Bungoma District in Western Kenya. Members have been involved in activities aimed at improving the status of women and were awarded a certificate in 1995 as the best bee-keeping group in Bungoma District.
Mapela Christian Women Group members laying stones for a water tank foundation.
An almost complete brick water tank.
pioneering low cost water harvesting and conservation technology in the region. They have demonstrated the power and value of women solidarity by undertaking activities that are mainly viewed as the preserve of men, ensuring access to safe and reliable drinking water for their families.
The Mapela Christian Women Group The MCWG is affiliated to the Anglican Church in Mapela Parish of Bungoma Diocese and was registered as a Community Based Organisation (CBO) in 1990. The group has a membership of 18 (13 women and five men) and is based at Mapela Village, Kamukuywa
Community members draw water from a complete brick water tank.
Through consultations with their technical advisor, Mr. Noah Lusaka and a representative of the UK Charity Mr. Geoff Brown of Peterborough Diocese, a proposal for a pilot project to avail portable water for Mapela community was developed. The group’s priority was to receive training on construction of brick model and Ferro cement tanks of various capacities ranging from 5,000 to 30,000 litres for group members and to demonstrate water harvesting technologies. The group secured support from Wilmslow Wells for Africa (a UK charity) to support construction of 15 water storage tanks in the parishes of Mapela and
BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 9
Kamukuywa. The project was participatory and based on cost sharing. Group members mobilised local resources (bricks, water, sand, poles, gunny bags, stones, gutters and local labour) while the charity met other costs (cement, trainer’s fees and some construction tools).
The ABC of constructing a water tank The three components of rooftop rainwater collection systems include: a) A corrugated iron sheets roofed surface on which the rain falls; b) A storage reservoir (tank); c) Gutters and pipes that convey water from the collection surface and a screen or filter for removing dirt. The most expensive part of the system is the storage reservoir which requires careful attention to design and construction to achieve a durable product. A selected group of MCWG members were trained on construction of the brick type and the Ferro cement tank models. The training included theoretical and hands on sessions covering all tank construction steps including tank construction procedures and calculation of tank sizes in relation to roof catchments surface; good quality materials requirements; making the foundation; wall construction; plastering; roofing; fixing the gutters and tank maintenance. 1. Tank size: This varies depending on the rainfall pattern, roof catchment’s surface and the user group. Households may need a tank size raging from two cubic metres to about 40 cubic metres while schools, churches and hospitals may need tanks ranging from 20 cubic metres up to 100 cubic metres. Good water management techniques (e.g. rationing and use of alternative sources) can significantly reduce the required surface area and tank volume. 2. Material requirements: For surface tanks materials include wood, bricks, stones, barbed wire, cement, clean sand, lime, crushed stones, water, twisted bars, weld mesh, water pipes, elbow, nipple and socket and a tap. The choice of materials depends on local availability and affordability. For example; fired bricks are preferred for construction of tank walls because they are readily available and resistant to internal water pressure when the tank is full. 3. Foundation and floor: The foundation must be solid since it carries the weight of the tank and water. The
10 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
tank should be located at a minimum distance of one metre from the house and the foundation should be dug into firm soil, avoiding anthills, waste pits or tree stumps. 4. Tank walls: The tank walls are made of fired bricks or Ferro cement and should not exceed two metres high to avoid higher pressure that might lead to cracks. Both the inside and outside of the tank wall should be well plastered to avoid leakages. 5. Filter screens: The first rains drain dust, birds’ droppings, leaves and other debris lying on the roof surface, therefore preparation and cleaning of the roof surface before the first rains is a requisite to harvesting clean water. To prevent pollutants and contaminants from getting into the storage tank, the first rainwater should be diverted or flushed out.
Project impact and technical scaling up Members of the Mapela Christian Women Group have shown that with appropriate financial empowerment and training, women can play a critical role in improving their livelihoods. “I didn't know that in my life I will stop going to fetch water from the river. It is unbelievable that I have a storage tank next to my house, something I never imagined of having before,” remarked Mrs. Elizabeth Nyongesa, a tank beneficiary. Group members have acquired construction skills, building a lifetime capacity in water harvesting. The group is now a role model and their experience demonstrates the value of pooling of financial resources and local labour. A newly formed charity (Geoff and Dianah Foundation) is scaling up the technology by supporting the MCWG in skills sharing through construction of 10 additional water tanks in other parishes within Bungoma Diocese. About the author
Noah Lusaka is ALIN Projects Manager. E-mail: nlusaka@alin. net For More info about this project, contact Mrs. Bettina Sikhila, Chairlady Mapela Christian Women Group. P.O. Box 64, Kimilili, Kenya. A DVD on construction of water tanks is available at ALIN on request.
BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 11
irrigation
By Joshua Kato
Mr. Ssebatta Musisi points at one of the water reservoirs in his farm
Fighting
According to the 2009 Least Developed Countries (LDC) report, produced by the 2008 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) held in Accra, Ghana, lack of water has increasingly led to a drop in food production in many African countries. “There are major challenges for sustainable food production in LDCs where water shortages affect both human and livestock consumption and where potential for small-scale irrigation and water harvesting is limited,” the report states.
Irrigation resources in Uganda Due to availability of many water sources, Uganda has high potential for irrigation. Within the eastern part of the country, where the most severe famine occurred this year, water sources occur almost every five
12 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
Photo: Joshua Kato
The water whooshed as it left the pipes and splashed onto the green leaves of the coffee seedlings. Ssebatta Musisi, the farm owner, shook his head with satisfaction at the sound of water flowing into the adjacent coffee gardens. His farm is the pride of Kyoko village in Kingo subcounty, Masaka District, Uganda. He is among the less than one percent of Ugandan farmers practicing irrigation.
kilometres. In Kumi and Soroti for example, potential sources of water for irrigation include the wide River Awoja and several small rivers occurring between Soroti and Kaberamaido, and from Kaberamaido to Lira. “With all these water bodies amidst us, it is a shame that we can even cry of famine and hunger when Egypt with only river Nile practices agriculture throughout the year,” lamented Soroti District Chairman Stephen Ochola. “We are suffering from famine and hunger at the moment because we have failed to adopt the power of irrigation,” said Uganda’s Vice-President Gilbert Bukenya, who recently adopted irrigation on his farm near Kakiri town, 45 kilometres from Kampala city. He added that even without artificial water
h
g
reservoirs, the country has got enough water sources to practice irrigation.
Climate change
However, climate change has affected these seasons, with the rains becoming more unpredictable across the country. For instance, parts of Teso and Karamoja did not receive enough rains in the March-May season, hence the recent drought and famine. “This is the very reason we should start irrigating our crops. We should do more to harvest rain water and use it later when the rains stop. We should also make good use of the water bodies in our midst,” Bukenya emphasized.
Water is power Bukenya admitted that starting irrigation systems across the country would be an expensive venture. He however feels it is tenable. “With irrigation, we can practice agriculture 12 months a year,” he said during a follow-up visit to his farm. “Water is power and we
Photo: Joshua Kato
Bukenya noted that Uganda has traditionally received relatively good rains throughout the year and this is one of the reasons for failure to adopt full-scale irrigation. “In Uganda, we normally have two rainy seasons, from March to May and from October to December,” he explained.
A Wonder Water Pump in use.
capture the city market,” said Bukenya, who earns at least 4 million Ugandan shillings (US$ 2,105) from irrigated vegetables after every three months. When the rains permit, farmers produce vegetables from the Gayaza-Zirobwe-Bamunanika swamps. Yet,
hunger in
Uganda as a country are gifted with so many water sources,” said Bukenya as he supervised irrigation activities on his blossoming one-acre vegetable farm. He grows different types of vegetables all year round, including cabbages, garlic, sukumawiki, carrots, lettuce, chickpeas and okra, among others. A ready market for vegetables exists in Kampala and in the Middle East. “If areas surrounding Kampala, for example Wakiso, Mukono and Luwero are able to produce vegetables all year round, then they can easily
they could use the various streams running through their midst to grow vegetables all year round.
Examples of irrigation systems and cost Ssebatta, whose farm is located 160 kilometres (94 miles) from Kampala, Uganda’s capital city, installed a relatively cheap system. After digging a pit with a capacity of 80,000 litres he lined the walls with tough tarpaulin, which prevents the water from seeping into the soil. He dug tunnels that direct rainwater into the pit which serves as an underground water tank. This simple
BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 13
system enables Ssebatta to grow crops throughout the year, and the tank holds more water than expected. “I have over 90,000 litres in these tanks. I will add another 90,000 litres in the near future because I have realized how important irrigation is. During droughts, I draw out the water for use on my coffee seedlings,” said Ssebatta. Explaining that farmers should not be afraid of adopting this moderately affordable system, he said: “Any farmer who wants to adopt my system can visit me, or call me [See contact address below] and I will assist them harvest water cheaply.” Edward Muwanga, a vegetable grower in Buwambo, has also adopted irrigation. “When I took up vegetable farming, I decided to do it full time, but that was not possible because of the unpredictable rains,” he explained. “I bought three water tanks at 20,000 Ugandan shillings [about US$ 10] each and started watering the vegetables,” he said. Bukenya installed an irrigation system costing around 16 million Ugandan shillings (US$ 8,421), which is too costly for the average Ugandan farmer. He spent six
relatively affordable to medium-scale farmers across the country. It consists of a high performance foot operated, two cylinder equipment. “A farmer can move it from one corner of the farm to the other without any problems because it is light,” said Abdul Mugambe, an irrigation systems trainer. While some of the current systems use motors and fuel, the Money Maker system which depends on human energy is easy to operate. "It is a simple pump that could be the solution for millions of farmers in the country who cannot afford large irrigation systems,” Mugambe explained. Although adoption levels are still low in Uganda, in Kenya more than 6,000 small-scale farmers have adopted the Money Maker system during the last few years. The mobile pump is capable of irrigating at least two acres per day. This means two or more neighbouring farmers can pool funds and buy one pump for sharing. Mugambe urges Ugandan government agencies to help farmers acquire it, just like they are assisting in acquisition of walking (hand held) tractors.
...He opted to use water from a stream near his farm... million Ugandan shillings (US$ 3,157) to create a water reservoir, and 10 million Ugandan shillings (US$ 5,263) to buy other implements, including sprinkling nozzles and circulation pipes. Although the government cannot afford to provide irrigation systems across the country, Bukenya feels that farmers undertaking irrigation should be offered subsidies. “For example, if a farmer buys a water pump for irrigation purposes, it should not only be tax free, but even the cost of fuel that he uses should be reduced,” said Bukenya, who also cited drip irrigation as a viable alternative irrigation system. Another alternative is the Wonder Water Pump, which at a cost of 250,000 Ugandan shillings (US$ 150), is
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Changing climate trends are likely to result in more unpredictable rains, calling for Ugandan farmers to adopt irrigation. According to Vice President Bukenya, “That is where the future of agriculture lies.” About the Author Joshua Kato is a Ugandan journalist covering agricultural issues. Telephone: +256 712 841688 or E-mail: jkato@ newvision.co.ug Ssebatta Musisi can be reached on telephone + 256 772 333 303. The article was adopted from The New Vision Uganda titled "Irrigation: The missing link fighting hunger in Uganda” 26 January 2010.
negotiatingwater
Payments for Watershed Services BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 15
Photo: Dominique Magada
From farmers to hydroelectric power stations, the number of downstream water users is large and diverse. But the quantity and quality of the water they receive depends on upstream activities. Upland communities can get compensation for their role, following business agreements from which everybody benefits.
atural ecosystems produce a
wide range of economically valuable environmental goods and services, like food and non-timber forest products, carbon sequestration and the regulation of water quality and quantity. Conservation of these ecosystems is a critical development issue since it is estimated that during the last 30 years the world has lost between 30 to 40 percent of its biodiversity, basically as a result of urbanisation, industrialisation, or efforts to improve living conditions. Payment for Environmental Services (PES) scheme transfers rewards from beneficiaries of environmental services to providers of these benefits. Beneficiaries include the private sector such as industries or farmers, and public sector institutions like drinking water utilities. PES is increasingly seen as a potential source of improved livelihoods for communities managing land and other resources. Since 2006, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and CARE have been working on “Equitable Payments for Watershed Services” an innovative finance programme with pilot projects in Tanzania, Indonesia, Guatemala and Peru. Equitable PES schemes differ from regular PES mechanisms in that they aim to bring substantial benefits to the poor, for example provision of community infrastructure such as schools, hospitals and roads. Broader benefits may include community empowerment, decreased vulnerability to climate change, and more stable social, cultural and environmental conditions. Equitable PES schemes aim to make payments to the poor in a just and equitable way. This approach to natural resource management processes incorporates the priorities and needs of the poor, local values, knowledge and practices. A change from subsistence practices towards more sustainable land use can improve the livelihoods of poor upland farmers, while simultaneously protecting the environment and providing a reliable and continuous supply of quality water for downstream users.
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Photo: © ALIN
Photo: Dominique Magada
N
Kaimbi club cabbage field with aligned ridges
People carrying water
A business proposition
During watershed services negotiation process, the service providers (“sellers”) and users (“buyers”) establish long-term business agreements. The agreements are based upon baseline studies on hydrology and community livelihoods, as well as legal, institutional and economic analyses. Besides augmenting understanding and justification, these studies help identify potential buyers, such as beverage or hydroelectric companies, associations of water users, or government water utilities. Small-scale farmers in upland communities take a seat at the negotiating table, together with downstream commercial, industrial and domestic users. They talk as equal partners and negotiate a Memorandum of Understanding. The negotiation process aims to help “restore” a watershed system by representing the interests of all the stakeholders. Signing the Memorandum marks the end of the first phase of the project. The second phase focuses on the implementation of the agreed upon land use changes, and the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of the impact of these changes on livelihoods and water services. A third phase would tentatively start with buyers and sellers of watershed services establishing legally binding agreements. It is expected that by this stage local capacity to manage the mechanism will be in place, allowing external agents like donors to leave.
The case of Teculutan watershed (Guatemala, Central America)
The watershed has many water users, including coffee processing units, bottling and paper industries, large and small-scale farmers, and individual consumers, majority in the town of Teculutan. Factors affecting freshwater habitats in the region include farming practices (cultivation of steep hills and cattle ranching), severe pollution from pesticides, fertilisers, domestic and industrial effluents. The Municipality clearly recognised the problem of water quality resulting from sedimentation, pollution and
turbidity, which curtailed availability of water for human consumption, industrial and commercial uses. Changes in land use also resulted in drastic changes in river flows, with high runoff levels in winter and low summer flows. Many communities had little, poor quality water.
have increased while the municipality has more and better quality water.
The process
M&E results of the first phase of the WWF-CARE watershed programme have shown some of the key conditions for equitable PES. Different pilot projects have shown there must be: 1. A clear willingness to pay. 2. Willingness to sell ecosystem services. 3. Well defined property rights. 4. A good understanding of environmental characteristics and linkages. 5. The possibility of reducing transaction costs by concentrating on groups. 6. Mechanisms for regular and contingent payments. 7. Appropriate legal frameworks. 8. Willingness to talk to each other, dialogue and participate.
Identification of communities that were contributing most to the problem: El Astillero, Las Anonas, Las Minas, El Arco, San Antonio and El Oreganal. The total population was 3,000 people occupying 224 hectares, majority cultivating maize and beans in the upper parts of the watershed. They all belong to the Association for Community Development (ADICOMTEC), and all were included in the business agreement as “sellers”. The Municipality of Teculután, which is responsible for providing safe water to approximately 13,000 inhabitants in 18 communities, was included as “buyer” in the watershed business model. One option for solving the city’s water problems was to invest in water cleaning treatment plants and water distribution systems, and to buy water to supply communities in times of shortage or increased sedimentation. A second option was to implement a compensation programme for watershed services, allowing the development of activities based on an integrated management of the watershed. It was argued that changes in the current agro-cultural practices could improve the ground vegetation cover and reduce erosion, decreasing sedimentation levels in surface water. The municipality opted for the second option, a medium and long-term solution. As part of the project, ADICOMTEC which plants trees in a forest area of 400 hectares, set up a tree nursery with over 75,000 native species. Villagers including men and women have received training in forest management and reforestation, and they participate in reforestation, despite the harsh conditions such as the rocky soils and the lack of water sources. A component of the on-going project focuses on agricultural practices, promoting production of high-profit crops like okra, watermelon and oriental vegetables on 35 hectares of land provided by the municipality. Okra is grown on 20 hectares, with women playing an important role in its cultivation and sharing in the economic benefits. A small agricultural experiment demonstrated that high-yielding varieties of maize produced up to seven times more than commonly grown varieties. In 2009 the 35 hectares generated profits of more than US$ 70,000 and better land use practices led to the creation and training of fire control brigades. Farmers’ incomes
An enabling environment
A major challenge in facilitating Payments for Watershed Services is early engagement of the watershed service buyer. To involve potential buyers, the WWF-CARE project developed compelling business cases in which problems associated with land use in the upper watershed are quantified, and rigorous financial costbenefit analyses conducted. Another challenge has been ensuring social justice and equity, since poorer households tend to have little or no land and no influence on decision-making at community level. This calls for continuous attention and identification of supporting factors. Partnering local communities, local and national NGOs, the private sector and government agencies offers a key to success.
Other similar projects
Besides Guatemala, the WWF-CARE project observed interesting results in Jequetepeque river basin in northern Peru, and in Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania (see www.wwf.nl). Other organisations are trying out similar approaches. In Kenya, the World Soil Information Centre (ISRIC) and International Fund for Agricultural Development are collaborating in a Green Water Credits (GWC) programme, in which the hydroelectric company KenGen rewards upstream farmers for sustainable land use in the Upper Tana catchment area (see www. greenwatercredits.info). About the Author
Julio Tresierra is the Global Coordinator of the WWF-CARE-IIED Equitable PWS programme. E-mail:jtresierra@wwf.nl
BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 17
storkstory
Your proposal for constructing a water dam has been accepted
Village committee meeting
Now we have the money so we need to get a contract
My NGO will grant the finances
I suggest we cut cost so we can have a little money left for us
That's perfect we can use the money on other...
I have always wanted us to start a beekeeping project
Cutting corners is my middle name
18 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
Our commitee would like to contract you to construct a dam, can you cut corners
Nice we could even split the remainder between ourselves
Three months later the dam is complete
This dam is the best thing thats ever happenned here
Hey, this water is yummy!
Yes mama Toto we dont have to walk anymore to fetch water
Yes, I agree!
wooiii
A month later
Corruption is wrong. Use money appropriately.
Oh no! What did I do?
BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 19
waterpolicy
Malawi water bringing back
to the fields
Photo: Dominique Magada
By Dominique Magada
20 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
The Government of Malawi recently issued the Greenbelt Initiative, a policy that aims to expand irrigation for crop production throughout the year. The Initiative’s priority is to combat climate change and erratic weather patterns by bringing water to Malawian fields through new and rehabilitated irrigation schemes. Small-scale farmers account for more than 80 percent of the agricultural sector in Malawi with average size plots of 0.4 hectares. They have mostly practiced subsistence farming, growing local maize seeds haphazardly with minimal use of fertilizer and manure. Irrigation was previously largely unknown to these farmers since crops thrived during the long rainy season from December to May. “Irrigation is new to Malawi, which means that it is not known by farmers, especially small-scale farmers who are a majority here,” explains Lilongwe-based Dickxie Verson Kampani, the national coordinator of a large irrigation project co-financed by the World Bank, the Malawi government and the United Nations International Fund for Agricultural Development. The three partners are investing US$52 million in Malawi through a six-year project on Irrigation, Rural Livelihood and Development (IRLADP), which started in 2006.
Project objectives
IRLADP’s main objective is to raise agricultural productivity and net incomes of poor rural households by providing an integrated support package covering irrigation, agricultural/irrigation advice, marketing and post-harvest services. The project covers 11 districts in the country’s northern, central and southern regions. Irrigation schemes are the most visible part of the project although they account for only a quarter of the funds invested. Agricultural support services take up 50 percent of the project with the aim of: a) Helping farmers to grow more productive and more diverse crops; b) Training farmers on how to organize themselves to find more profitable market outlets, develop businesses and manage their agricultural assets and finance. ”We can’t just build the irrigation schemes, it will not work, we have to integrate all the aspects of running a scheme, which means involving farmers in the scheme construction, helping them to manage them, train them to use improved farming techniques for the fields under irrigation and look for markets,” explained Kampani.
Project activities 1) Implementation of irrigation schemes: ✦ Rehabilitation of four disused governmentowned schemes representing a total of 1,800 hectares. Once completed, ownership of the innovative irrigation schemes will be transferred directly to the benefiting farming communities. These communities are fully participating in the construction work and receiving training on scheme management through a Water Users Association (WUA). “A great amount of the project’s resources are currently dedicated to building the farmers’ capacity to manage their WUA,” says Kampani. In addition, the IRLADP project works directly with Malawi’s decentralized authorities such as the District Council, the Traditional Authorities and the Village Development Committees to implement the schemes, and successfully transfer ownership.
An example is the Likangala scheme in the District of Zomba. “We are very happy to become owners of the scheme, we are being trained to run and manage it through our WUA. We’re getting leadership training, conflict management, as well as technical training,” explained Rose Timbo, vicechairperson of the Likangala WUA. The main water source for the 500 hectares scheme is a diverted river. The canals are under construction and part of the scheme should become operational by the end of 2010.
✦ Implementation of other smaller labour-intensive schemes of 10 to 50 hectares designed to employ local people during construction. “The idea is that they learn during construction to be better able to run and maintain the scheme once in operation,” explained Rexy Tolani, agricultural economist for the IRLADP project in Lilongwe. An example is the Windu small-scale irrigation site in the Dedza District; the contractor has employed about 70 local people for canal construction, during which they will learn how to irrigate the 40 hectare scheme. Windu is the biggest natural water spring in Malawi. ✦ Supporting mini-scale schemes of two to 10 hectares totaling 300 hectares. An example is the scheme managed by the Kaimbi Irrigation Club in Lilongwe District. The club received support from IRLADP and started irrigated farming in 2008. They dig canals and divert water from a nearby river, using sand bags to direct it from canal to canal.
BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 21
Photo: Dominique Magada
Challenges
Rose Timbo-vice chairperson of Likangala WUA, Malawi
2) Capacity building ✦ Advising and supporting small-scale farmers on improved agricultural techniques, group management and marketing for crop surplus. ”Growing a crop which is regularly irrigated is a different thing from growing a rain fed crop. Because most farmers have no experience of it in Malawi, they need training.” explained Tolani. ✦ At Kaimbi, members were trained in irrigation techniques, crop production and improvement, group management, as well as accounting. They also received inputs such as enhanced hybrid seeds and fertilizer, and training on improved planting techniques and use of manure. “We got one bag of fertilizer and one bag of urea each as well as 10kg of hybrid seeds,” said Johane Tsoka, secretary of the Club. The inputs are part of Malawi government’s wider programme of supplying farmers with subsidized farm inputs during the first year; however farmers will have to purchase inputs in subsequent years. ✦ Tackling marketing and post-harvest issues such as crop storage for food security, seasonal planning for seeds and fertilizer purchase, organization of marketing committees, sale of farm produce and distribution of the proceeds according to individual production. ✦ Some of the villages participating in the IRLADP project were given a grant to build a storage house and to set up a village grain bank; they also got training on how to manage it. Grain banks work according to a revolving system, whereby farmers in need borrow bags of grain that they repay with a similar quantity plus 10 percent at the next harvest, thus enabling the village bank to grow. 22 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
Initially many of the construction companies in Malawi were not bidding for the project due to lack of experience in that field. “We actually had to organize a workshop to train them how to submit a bid,” said Kampani, explaining that following training the companies presented very sound projects. Noting that specialized engineers are assisting the bid winners Kampani said: “It’s not enough to construct, you have to make sure the water flows at the correct rate.” Another challenge is ensuring sustainability of the schemes and management skills. It is expected that capacity building of farmers will address these challenges.
Project impact
“The project is already having an impact for the poor rural communities of Malawi, once it is completed it will be tremendous,” said Kampali. The Kaimbi Club has a marketing committee responsible for finding commercial outlets and selling the produce, with proceeds being redistributed according to each farmer’s individual production. In addition to maize, the group realized a vegetable surplus which members were able to sell. “We managed to sell cabbage and tomatoes,” said Loyness William, secretary of the marketing committee. The farmers are planning to diversify into Irish potatoes and other vegetables. With the extra income, farmers have been paying school fees, buying basic necessities and items such as bicycles, cell phones, corrugated iron roof sheets and livestock, mainly pigs. “We can also pay for the school fees now,” said Loveness Daniel, a 25-year-old mother of four, who bought iron sheets for roofing her house and her mother’s. Small businesses have developed near the project construction sites, for example at Likangala scheme where villagers who traditionally make bricks noticed the need for bricks; they started making them, boosting their income. The mini-irrigation schemes have so far been a successful aspect of the project, with farmers’ requests for more schemes surpassing the initial project plan. Over 200 additional mini-irrigation schemes have therefore been developed on demand driven basis, representing a total of 1,496 hectares and benefiting more than 20,000 farm households.
About the author: Dominique Magada is a journalist and editor in Malawi. E-mail: dominique.magada@gmail.com
Gender&water
Rural women water scarcity
Photo: © ALIN
bear the brunt of
Access to water has profound impact upon an individual’s quality of life and opportunities for growth and development. It is also requisite to achievement of virtually all the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). A cost benefit evaluation by the World Health Organization (WHO) concludes that the cost of achieving the MDGs for safe drinking water is US dollar 1.78 billion per annum. In East Africa where much of the focus on water issues revolves around policy and politics, there is considerable need to address social issues including gender and the rights of people living with HIV and AIDS in water management.
By Esther Lung’ahi and Kendi Kiruki BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 23
In most societies, women have primary responsibility for management of household water supply, sanitation and health. Women have therefore accumulated considerable knowledge about water resources, including location, quality and storage methods. However, conflicts and emergencies that aggravate water scarcity can double the hardship for women. For instance, when water is scarce, women and girls may have to walk long distances of up to seven or more kilometers to collect and carry water for domestic use. In areas with political or community conflict women are prime targets for assault while in drought prone areas they are exposed to conflict with wildlife that also depends on the few remaining water sources.
Wealth and Gender Inequalities
Water crises reinforce gender and wealth inequalities. The poor often pay relatively more for their water than the better off. This disparity of access is compounded by gendered considerations as women make up the highest proportion of the poor. The role that women play in collecting water also renders them more vulnerable to incidents of gender based violence such as rape or kidnapping. Since women and girls bear the greater burden of domestic responsibilities, they are highly affected by the lack of water and sanitation facilities. However, being closer to the problem, women are often leaders in the struggle to protect water resources in their own communities. Improved access to water leads to improved access to basic health and care in the home; it increases opportunities for girls’ education which in turn further improves family health and hygiene.
Access to Water by People Living with HIV Access to adequate quantities of safe water and good sanitation is vital for people living with HIV and AIDS. Good nutrition, which requires access to water, is the frontline defence and treatment for HIV and AIDS.
Safe and adequate water is needed to administer and respond to medication while access to clean latrines or toilets is important for the care and dignity of patients. Water is needed to keep the living and working environment clean and thus reduce the risk of opportunistic infections. HIV positive infants and other community members also need access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene in order to reduce susceptibility to opportunistic infections. Women continue to be affected by HIV and AIDS,
24 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
both in the levels of transmission and the burden of care. This burden increases when access to water is limited and activities such as water collection and laundry must be conducted far from home. People living with HIV and AIDS have a greater need for water but they are also often poor and marginalized, which means their ability to pay for water services is limited. Additionally, they lack a voice to influence water supply decisions.
The case of Bahi District (Tanzania)
In Tanzania, women play a critical role in the rural economies. A village survey conducted by Flora K. Mumyasya of the Institute of Rural Development Planning, in Bahi-sokoni village (Bahi District, Dodoma region) on household basic access needs, clearly showed the daily water access burden of women and girls in this region. Women bear the largest share of rural domestic and production burden, contributing more than 70 percent of the time used in household work. With regard to travel and transportation of water, the survey showed that: ✦ Walking and head loading make up 95 percent of all rural travel and transportation, with motorised transport contributing only 5 percent. ✦ Transportation of water and firewood and travelling to the grinding mills make up 80 percent of all journeys. The remainder is for other activities such as going to the markets, farms, schools and health centres. ✦ Women undertake 85 percent of all transportation, while men and children undertake 15 percent. ✦ Keeping excess livestock and the lack of destocking causes overgrazing which results in the destruction of possible water catchment areas. Coupled with long periods of dry weather this has caused water shortage that has resulted in women walking long distances to fetch water for domestic use.
The case of Machakos (Kenya)
Due to frequent droughts, there is competition for water in Machakos County, Kenya. In the county’s Yatta Irrigation Scheme, most people do not get enough water to irrigate their crops. Physical attack by thugs is one of the problems experienced by women drawing water from the scheme. The government has set up a community management system, involving user groups and water management committees. However, 85 percent of respondents of a survey conducted by International Development Research Institute said women and children trying to draw water are victims
The survey reflected many general patterns found by researchers who collect gender-stratified data on water access in the developing world: ✦ In total 96 percent of households irrigated their crops three or four times a week, with 44 percent of the labour being provided by women, and only 29 percent by men. The remaining 12 percent was provided by children. ✦ Most (92 percent) of the households irrigated their fields at night. This exposed the women to the danger of attacks by thugs, to difficulties in getting child-care while involved in irrigation activities, and to health dangers caused by the cold night air. ✦ A total of 85 percent of the respondents belonged to a water access group, but few women sat on water management committees. They were either afraid of expressing themselves in front of men or too busy with household chores to attend meetings.
Conclusion
To ensure that the gender perspective is successfully incorporated into the global water and sanitation agenda, it is essential to advocate for the direct involvement of both women and men at all levels, including national governments, regional/ local government, communities and civil society organizations. It would also contribute towards improving the lives of people living with HIV and AIDS. About the Authors Esther Lung’ahi is a Projects Officer at ALIN Kendi Kiruki is an Intern at ALIN
References Siddle, Ben. Access to water; learning for livelihood series no.3. TROCAIRE: www.trocaire.org The Gender and Water Alliance (GWA): http://www.genderandwater.org/page/5792
Photo: © ALIN
of harassment by men and attacks by thugs.
Women drawing water from a dam in Migwani, Kitui County, Kenya.
BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 25
technicalnote
1
2
3
4
Underground Water Dowsing Despite limited rainfall in dry land areas, water is generally available in aquifers underground. Depending on the geology, the nature of the rocks and soil, as well as the climate of the area, water may occur at depths ranging from just a few metres to several hundred meters. Communities in Ng’arua, Laikipia West in Kenya are successfully using a simple water locating technology. By George Kamau Wahome
W
ater dowsing is a
technique used to search for underground water using locally available materials, such as a pair of ‘Y’ shaped sticks, a bottle of soda filled with water or a pair of ‘L’ shaped wires. Egyptians and Red Indians discovered this technology over 1,000 years ago. According to the American Society of Dowsers (ASD) welding wires that can be bent into ‘L’ shape are best for detecting underground streams.
The dowsing process ✦ Site selection: Select the site where you wish to dig a shallow well, e.g. within your compound.
26 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
✦ Using the L wires: To locate underground streams ‘L’ shaped wires are held parallel 1 to the ground as the dowser walks around the target area. The wires remain parallel until when crossing an underground stream. At this time, the wires will cross 2 and the point should be marked. It is possible to identify the number of streams entering the aquifer using the same method. ✦ Using Y shaped sticks: When using the ‘Y’ shaped sticks the dowser tightly holds each side of the stick and points the longer side upwards 3 moving to the targeted site. When he/she reaches the best place for sinking the well, the inverted ‘Y’ sticks points downward 4 due to the pull by the water intensity. The dowser should be careful as the water intensity may pull the stick towards the chest, causing harm.
5
6
✦ Using a soda bottle with water: The bottle is placed on the fingers 5 and the dowser walks towards the targeted area. If one passes an underground stream, the bottle will fall to the ground 6 from the hand. It becomes difficult to control the bottle on the hand depending on the intensity of the water underneath. Communities in western Kenya, who use gourds to fetch water, discovered this method.
How to determine a well using ‘L’ shaped wires After site selection, the dowser should move with the wires until they come together and cross each other at the appropriate 7 place for sinking the well. To determine the level of accuracy, dig a handful of soil from the area where the wires crossed and get someone to hold that soil at a distant of at least 15 to 20 meters while moving around the dowser. Due to the magnetic field in the soil, the wires are supposed to follow the soil as the person holding it moves. This shows that the ground water level is high.
How to determine a stream using ‘L’ shaped wires A well is fed by several streams and the number of streams determines the depth of water. To determine the number of streams feeding into the well, the dowser should move about 5 metres from the point where the well was identified and walk around that area. A stream is found where the wires are pulled and point towards the centre of the well. A stream follows the spaces between the rock and meanders according to the rock formation. After identifying
7 a stream, follow it until the wires bisect each other where other streams join the main stream. The well should be sunk where the water is located before is starts discharging to the streams through the aquifer outlet.
How to identify inlet and outlet streams using ‘L ‘shaped wires
When the dowser moves around the identified site holding the wires, all the inlets point towards the centre of the well; the outlet however points towards a different direction away from the well. The more the inlets, the larger the volume of water.
Determining the depth of the well using ‘L’ shaped wires
The depth is determined by the number of times the wires swing. The dowser stands vertically above the located well. Each swing indicates 10 feet, so if the wires swing 9 times it means the water is 90 feet below the ground.
Determining the volume of the water
The number and size of streams feeding the aquiver determine the volume. The other method is the number of swings multiplied by 5. If the number of swings was 4 it means the water will rise to 20 feet. About the Author George Kamau Wahome has sunk over 200 wells of which about 80 percent were successful. He works for Tree is Life, Nyahururu and can be contacted on E-mail: gkamau@rocketmail.com or telephone number +254 727 767327.
BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 27
Photo: Kendi Kiruki
guestcolumn
Mr. Patrick Alubbe, Regional Director of Water.org
L
ack of sufficient resources and in some cases misallocation and even misappropriation are key impediments to the implementation of good Agricultural Water Management (AWM) initiatives in the East African region. Mr. Patrick Alubbe, the Regional Director of Water. org, an organisation which provides grants and credit for community-based water management initiatives in Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia, said this during an interview with the Baobab. He noted that for quite a long time in Kenya, where the organisation’s regional offices are based, the water sector has not received adequate funding that would enable it to contribute more effectively towards optimal agricultural production. Although the organization mainly focuses on drinking water, Mr. Alubbe pointed out that the three east African countries (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania) have not adequately streamlined their resource allocation towards water management for agricultural use. “Drinking and industrial water accounts for less than 20 per cent of water
28 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
Inadequacy of resources impedes agricultural water management in East Africa By Anthony Mugo withdrawn from all water sources in East Africa. The rest of the water is used for agricultural purposes. In our experience, there is much to be done to improve the management of agricultural water in the region,” noted Mr. Alubbe. His observation is supported by data from The Encyclopaedia of Earth (www.eoearth.org) which indicates the proportions of agricultural water (irrigation and livestock) in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania to be 80 per cent, 90 and 40 per cent respectively (see text box on East Africa Water Withdrawal Facts and Figures on page 24). Mr. Alubbe is of the view that within the East African Region, Uganda provides the best example of efficient management of water resources. The Uganda National Water and Sanitation Corporation utilises a decentralized and professionally run system of water management, devolving decision making to the regions. He also cites Ethiopia as a country that has designed a system where communities mobilize themselves to protect their mountain tops to improve water seepage and ground penetration, preventing excessive runoff and the resultant erosion and siltation of rivers and dams.
East Africa Water Withdrawal Facts and Figures ✦ Kenya: The total water withdrawal is estimated to
be over 2.7 km3. The water demand is projected to increase to 5.8 km3 by the year 2010. Agriculture is the main user of water and currently consumes about 80 percent, while domestic and commercial use accounts for the rest. There are a total of 1,800 domestic water supply schemes, out of which 700 are managed by the Ministry of Water and Irrigation while the communities manage the rest. There are slightly more than 9,000 boreholes, most of which require rehabilitation. ✦ Tanzania: Total water withdrawal in mainland
Tanzania was estimated for the year 2002 to be 5,142 million cubic meters (m3). Agriculture consumes the largest share with 4,624 million m3 (almost 90 percent of total) of which 4,417 million m3 for irrigation and 207 million m3 for livestock, while the domestic sector uses 493 million m3. Total water withdrawal by the domestic sector and irrigation in Zanzibar is estimated to be about 42 million m3. Of this, withdrawal on Unguja Island is 33 million m3 and on Pemba Island it is 9 million m3. Industry in Tanzania consumes an estimated 25 million m3. ✦ Uganda: Total water withdrawal of the country was
300 million m3 in 2002, representing 0.4 percent of total renewable water resources. The greatest water user was the domestic sector with 134 million m3, followed by irrigation and livestock with 120 million m3, and industry with 46 million m3.
Act No. 42 of 1974 as amended by the Water Laws (Control and Regulation) Act of 1997 and the Water Laws (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act of 1999. The new Act is expected to establish a mechanism for more participatory management of Tanzania’s water resources.
Suggested measures for improving water for agricultural use In order to improve the management of water for agricultural use, Mr. Alubbe suggested that decentralization as is the case in Uganda and recently in Kenya would enable different regions in East African countries to come up with unique region specific strategies of water management. In Kenya, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation has created water management boards and given them autonomy to raise their own funds. The Government has also taken firm measures to protect the main water catchment areas namely Mt. Kenya, the Aberdare Range, the Mau Complex, Mt. Elgon and the Cherangani Hills. A Government edict has also been issued requiring farmers to set aside 10 per cent of their land for tree planting in a bid to improve the country’s forest cover which is currently lower than 3 per cent. Mr. Alubbe called for the following measures to be taken towards improving access to resources for AWM: ✦ Increased budgetary allocation for AWM. ✦ Formulation of specific national policies for AWM.
Source: Encyclopaedia of Earth, www.eoearth.org
✦ Decentralisation of water management.
In Kenya where central government funding has been decentralized into a number of devolved funds, management of agricultural water has improved to some extent. This is particularly true with respect to the Constituency Development Fund (CDF), a substantial amount of which has gone towards supporting water and irrigation projects at constituency level. CDF was introduced in Kenya in 2003 through an Act of Parliament. Currently 2.5 percent of the Gross Domestic Product is allocated to each of the 210 constituencies based on population and poverty levels.
✦ Government involvement in educating communities in environmental management.
In Tanzania water management is continuously affected by constraints in resource management and availability. Management of water is governed under the Water Utilization (Control and Regulation)
The writer is the Programmes Director, ALIN. E-mail: amugo@ alin.net
✦ Educating communities on rain water harvesting technologies. ✦ Promotion, information exchange and encouragement of low technology irrigation including use of indigenous knowledge. ✦ Re-afforestation to ensure at least 10 per cent of forest cover in each country. About the author
For further information, Mr. Alubbe can be contacted on palubbe@water.org
BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 29
MILESTONES
Baobab Magazine: the journey across continents, people & cultures By James Nguo Since 1988, Arid Lands Information Network (ALIN) has consistently produced the Baobab magazine, with 59 issues published to date. The story of the Baobab, which has proved to be one of the oldest and most consistent development magazines in the region, compares well to the baobab (Adansonia digitata), a giant tree that dots the African drylands. The tree is attributed with many benefits: • • • • • •
It provides a shade where people in the drylands can meet for religious and social purposes. The seeds are edible and when cooked, they provide a substitute for coffee. The fruits provide a juice that is rich in vitamin C. The husk can be used to make utensils such as calabashes. The big branches provide ample space for birds to put up their nests. The massive trunk can be carved out to create spaces for various uses depending on the community.
Scientists claim that the baobab tree can live between 500 to 5,000 years, while many stories revolve around the tree from one African community to the other. Some attribute the tree’s shape to a dissatisfied angel who was out to discredit a good job and planted the tree upside down while others argue that it was the Baobab Fruit
30 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
hyena who threw it away in disgust and it grew upside down. Either way, the baobab is a tree that can survive where other trees can never do. Just like the baobab tree is synonymous with the drylands, so is the Baobab magazine associated with drylands information and knowledge. The story of Baobab magazine started way back in 1988 when the first issue was published to link the members of the then newly formed Reseau d’Information des Terres Arides - Arid Lands Information Network - (RITAALIN). The name Baobab was agreed upon in a participatory way when majority of network members resolved it was the most suitable. The name was inspired by the tree’s resilience and universal presence in the arid lands.
Dakar, Senegal, 1990 Arid Lands Unit in Oxfam GB becomes ALIN and a decision is made to relocate the main office to Senegal. The first coordinator arrived in Dakar followed by a senior editor. At this point, Baobab identified a Senegalese artist, Sidy Lamine Drame, to start comic illustrations that came to be known as the ‘stork story’.
Nairobi, Kenya, 2000 At the turn of the Millennium, plans were made to continue the English version of the Baobab after the closure of the Dakar office. This was in recognition of the great potential among the Eastern African readership and the need to focus on a smaller geographical area. Issue 30 of the Baobab was the first to be produced in Nairobi in December 2000. This move gave the members confidence that their favourite magazine would continue despite the closure of the Dakar office.
The Hague, The Netherlands, 2009 ALIN and ileia - Centre for learning on sustainable agriculture in The Netherlands - finalise plans to merge Baobab and Kilimo Endelevu Afrika to create the new look Baobab to promote sustainable family farming. Baobab will now join a family of other publications in the AgriCultures network and strive to build knowledge, exchange information and stimulate debate and concerted action among key stakeholders. In this way we promote sustainable family farming, stressing its capacity to address hunger, poverty, environmental degradation and climate change.
Tribute The success of Baobab magazine can be attributed to the network members’ ownership of the information generation process through contribution of articles, ideas, pictures and other content that you find in the magazine. We thank the members, staff, the board, well-wishers and sponsors for the success of the publication. Viva Baobab! About the author James Nguo is the ALIN Regional Director. E-mail: jnguo@alin.net Baobab Readers: Mwende Kitali and Sub-Chief, Paul Kisili Baobab Editorial Team, from left: Kendi Kiruki, Susan Mwangi, James Nguo, Anthony Mugo, Esther Lung'ahi and Noah Lusaka BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 31
How to Water
Baobab Magazine
Introduction The Baobab is a quarterly magazine that is published in March, June, September and December. Every issue has a theme that guides the topic one can write on. Topics for 2009: ✦ January: Livestock ✦ June: Finance ✦ September: Water ✦ December: Partnerships for Learning
How to write: Know what you are writing about in advance and think clearly, carefully reflecting on: WHAT was the initial context and what were the difficulties faced? ✦ WHAT were the reasons for the approach taken to improve the situation? ✦ HOW did they go about it and who took the initiative? ✦ WHEN did all this happen, and to what extent was the timing important? ✦ WHAT happened as a result? ✦ WHY did it work out as it did? (We appreciate opinions/ analysis/conclusions relevant to field level, as well as recommendations for policy makers). ✦ WHERE did the action take place? ✦
Please ensure that you: Thoroughly read the call for articles and check that the article fits well with the theme being covered. ✦ Explain any terms or ideas that may not be understood in every part of the world. ✦ Acknowledge all sources and references used. ✦ Explain any abbreviations used. ✦
Full editorial support is provided. As the articles go through a rigorous editorial process, authors are usually requested to provide additional information or clarifications. We would therefore rather have too much information than too little in the first draft!
Format: ✦
Articles should be about 800, 1600 or 2400 words (one, two or three-page articles) and should be emailed
32 BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010
to baobab@alin.net or smwangi@alin.net as a word document attachment. ✦
Include no more than five references. Each reference should include title, year of publication, name of author, and publisher.
✦
Please provide a current contact address at the bottom of the article. This will also be published in the magazine. We would also appreciate a contact phone number for our own use.
The editor reserves the right to decide whether or not to publish an article or contribution after receipt of the first full draft. Articles that are accepted will be edited to the Baobab house style and shortened if necessary. Contributions edited in this way will be returned to the authors for approval before publication. Articles accepted for publication in the Baobab may be chosen for translation in any of the six regional editions. We will endeavour to inform authors if their article appears in other editions.
Photos: Pictures speak volumes. Two to four pictures relevant to what you have written must accompany your article. Illustrations, drawings, or maps are also welcomed. Please provide the name of the photographer or artist. Please ensure the photos or illustrations are of suitable quality. Send the pictures as attachments in jpeg format of at least 300kb and above. Also remember to include a caption outlining the people or activity in the picture.
Creative commons license: Please note that we use the “Creative Commons License Attribution non-commercial share alike 3.0 unported’’ policy regarding copyright. We encourage free and open exchange of information. As such readers and authors are encouraged to copy and circulate articles from the Baobab quoting the source. In addition, this means that we may use submitted photos or text in our other publications. We will try to contact you and credit your work in accordance with the license.
Call for articles Baobab Issue 60 Theme: Partnerships for learning
Everyday farmers learn something new. It could be from experiments in their farms that work well or not, or from visiting other farms as well as from extension workers or experts in agriculture.
Let us know by SMS!
In East Africa, many farmers belong to associations or networks that foster better farming methods for increased yields. Researchers and policy makers also play a key role, as do farmers’ organisations, traders, multinationals and banks. In one way or another, their involvement shapes the decisions that farmers take. To what extent do these different stakeholders work together? And, does this increase learning? The hunger experienced by many people in the world, and the likelihood that their numbers are bound to increase further due to climate change, gives a sense of urgency to the need to involve different voices in developing a more sustainable approach to farming. The December issue of Baobab Magazine will focus on how all these different stakeholders are learning to work together to make agriculture more sustainable, by developing new ideas and solutions or disseminating them. We want to explore how different stakeholders deal with difficulties, which might be related to a lack of funds or power issues, and whether by working together they are able to find solutions, which lead to better farm practices. We welcome you to share with us your experiences in learning and partnerships that exist in your locality that boost agriculture, challenges, suggestions for articles, articles themselves, photographs, contacts of people you think have expertise in this area or ideas for topics you feel we need to address. Please write to Susan Mwangi, editor on smwangi@alin.net by November 15th, 2010.
Dear reader, The short messaging service (SMS) option of getting in touch with the Baobab editorial team is back! Send us an SMS letting us know what you think about a certain article, suggestion for future articles or any other general comment. To send an SMS, start with your name, gender, age, location, country, E-mail, postal address followed by the letters BB, page number of article then your comment. For example: Mwalimu Juma, M, 43, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, mjuma@yahoo.com, P.O. Box 123 Kwetu. BB. Page 17. I increased my goats’ milk production by following your advice! Or BB. Future article. How to do drip irrigation in an arid place BB. Comment. I received my copy of the Baobab! BB. Question. How can I subscribe to the Baobab? Send your sms to the number + 254 717 032 322.
BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 33
BOOKreviews
Green Water Management Handbook
Water From Sand Rivers
Rainwater harvesting for agricultural production and ecological sustainability
Guidelines for abstraction
The water cycle is partitioned into green and blue flows. Green water constitutes 65 percent of the total precipitation at global scale and blue water the rest. Green water is used in forests, grasslands, wetlands and croplands, while blue water sustains ecosystems. Already, the competition for scarce water resources is intense in many places with river basins not having enough to meet all demands. Lack of water is a major constraint to food production. However, inclusion of the green water potential in the hydrologic equation changes the picture. This handbook highlights the principles and technologies that can be used to harness the huge untapped potential of rainwater. Instead of a stereotyped view focusing only on rivers and groundwater, the book directs readers in recognizing rain as the ultimate source of water for food production and other uses in rural economies across Africa. Attention is given to climatological aspect of rainfall as a key component in the design of water harvesting technologies. The handbook looks at factors that influence rainfall and the effects of climate change. Also covered are technical options for rainwater management for crops, livestock and environmental systems. Gender disparities in irrigated agriculture are also highlighted and their indicators outlined. Issues that marginalize women in rainwater management are also looked at. The handbook is based on practical experience gained by members of the Southern and Eastern Africa Rainwater Network (SearNet). The participatory approach to developing this handbook makes it a useful reference for trainers and others interested in the practical application of water harvesting technologies in the field. For more information contact: World Agroforestry Centre – Eastern and Central Africa ICRAF building, Gigiri. P.O. Box 30667-00100, Nairobi Kenya. Tel: +254 20 722 4000, Fax: +254 20 722 4001; E-mail:searnet@cgiar. orgwww.searnet.org/www. worldagroforestry.org
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The author of the book has undertaken an extensive research and development programme to demonstrate the benefits of the water resource that is held in sand river aquifers in dry land marginal areas. In this book he shares his experience and ideas in the hope that they will inspire development workers in dry lands to review their water supplies and to consider alternative low-cost options. The book sets out to address the issue of dry rivers being often overlooked as a realizable source of water. It promotes the abstraction of water from sand rivers as a viable and affordable option for dry land areas. It enables the reader to assess the potential for abstraction from beneath a dry river bed and provides practical guidelines for doing so. It is a ‘how to’ manual and is essential reading for engineers, technicians, fieldworkers and project planners who are faced with the challenge of providing and sustaining safe and reliable water sources for low-income communities. It is also aimed at providing decision makers in the water industry, commercial, government and nongovernmental organizations with an overview of an alternative, appropriate water supply solution for dry land areas. Published by the Water, Engineering and Development Centre Loughborough University UK , Tel:+44(0)1509 222885 Fax: +44 (0)1509 211079) E-mail: wedc@ lboro.ac.uk www.lboro.ac.uk/wedc/
Dear Editor, Warm greetings from Kisoro District, South West Uganda! I read your July 2010 issue of the Baobab magazine and would like to appreciate the fact that it’s very informative and educative. It was also my first time to learn about the partnership with Farming Matters Magazine (formerly LEISA). I’ve been reading LEISA since 2003 when I started working with Africa 2000 Network-Uganda/Kisoro Field Office.I will be glad to read from you. Joy Samantha Bongyereire, Team Leader Biodiversity Conservation for Rural Development-Uganda. Dear Joy It is great to hear from you and that you appreciate the standard of the Baobab articles. We shall continue to provide our readers with informative and timely articles. Editor Dear Editor, The Project Focus on the Multiple Benefits of Goat Keeping in Mwingi particularly impressed me in the last issue of the Baobab. The two cases from Ngaani and Ngooni villages clearly demonstrate the effectiveness of addressing poverty and in particular food security and livelihood within these marginal areas of the country.
Upcoming Activity !!!
Please keep on highlighting such local situations. Francis Khadudu Were, Butula, Western Kenya.
Dear Francis, The Baobab team is glad that readers like you appreciate articles addressing sustainable small-scale agriculture. We support the eradication of poverty as stipulated in the Millennium Development Goal 1 on Poverty and Hunger. The goal states that 1.2 billion people are living in poverty worldwide. Sharing articles that can enable economic and livelihood enhancement is our pride. Editor Dear Editor, Greetings from Musoma, Tanzania! My heartfelt appreciations for receiving the Baobab Magazine issue number 58 of July 2010. I will be further grateful if I continue to receive this beautiful, elaborate and informative magazine. Since I am receiving it on gratis basis, I am sure there are resourceful people who are supporting this initiative and hence making it possible for us from lowest incomes to access it. It is my prayer that they continue supporting, as the needy are there forever! Kindly pass my profound thanks to them individually and collectively. Jumanne Magiri, Musoma Tanzania. Dear Jumanne, From the entire Baobab editorial team and ileia our supporters, we say thank you! Editor
ECHO East Africa Symposium, February 8-10, 2011 Arusha, Tanzania The Educational Concerns for Hunger Organization (ECHO) based in Florida, United States of America, is a global Christian organization that equips people with agricultural resources and skills to reduce hunger and improve the lives of the poor. ECHO is sponsoring a three day symposium for East Africa in February 2011 that will be held at Arusha in Tanzania. The symposium targets people involved in assisting communities in improving food security drawn from Non-governmental Organizations, Community Based Organizations, government extension agencies, research agencies and Faith Based Organizations. The symposium will bring together key people and organizations directly involved in the fight against hunger in this region. Speakers will share practical solutions to agricultural challenges, personal experiences and strategies for improving the lives of millions of Africans who are threatened by hunger and malnutrition hence presenting a good opportunity for networking. More information can be found online at the ECHO web site www.echonet.org BAOBAB ISSUE 59, SEPTEMBER 2010 35
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”We lived in a land abundant with shrubs, creepers, ferns and trees ... Because rain fell regularly and reliably, clean drinking water was everywhere. There were large, well-watered fields of maize, beans, wheat and vegetables. Hunger was virtually unknown. Professor Wangari Maathai, February 2007; Nobel Peace Prize winner 2004
“Water is personal, water is local, water is regional, water is statewide. Everybody has a different idea, a different approach, a different issue, a different concern. Water is the most personal issue we have.”
Susan Marks; author - Aqua shock: The water crisis in America, October 7, 2009
“Everyone understands that water is essential to life. But many are only just now beginning to grasp how essential it is to everything in life – food, energy, transportation, nature, leisure, identity, culture, social norms, and virtually all the products used on a daily basis.” James Griffith; Managing Director, World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) -
“Groundwater has been used for domestic and irrigation needs from time immemorial. Yet its nature and occurrence have always possessed a certain mystery because water below the land surface is invisible and relatively inaccessible. The influence of this mystery lingers in some tenets that govern groundwater law.” T. N. Narasimhan; principal organizer of California Water Colloquium, University of California
Baobab is published by ALIN with support from ileia - The Centre for learning on sustainable agriculture. ALIN and ileia are members of AgriCultures, a global network of organisations that share knowledge and provide information on small-scale, sustainable agriculture worldwide.