Alternative solutions for fossil fuels for the road system

www.piarc.org 2014R01EN

ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR FOSSIL FUELS FOR THE ROAD sYSTEM Technical Committee A.1 – Preserving the Environment

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statements

The World Road Association (PIARC) is a nonprofit organisation established in 1909 to improve international co-operation and to foster progress in the field of roads and road transport.

The study that is the subject of this report was defined in the PIARC Strategic Plan 2007 – 2011 approved by the Council of the World Road Association, whose members are representatives of the member national governments. The members of the Technical Committee responsible for this report were nominated by the member national governments for their special competences.

Any opinions, findings, conclusions and recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of their parent organizations or agencies.

This report is available from the internet site of the World Road Association (PIARC) http://www.piarc.org

Copyright by the World Road Association. All rights reserved.

World Road Association (PIARC) La Grande Arche, Paroi nord, Niveau 2 92055 La Défense cedex, France International Standard Book Number 978-2-84060-342-9 © AIPCR

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This report has been prepared by Working Group Three of the Technical Committee A.1 - Preserving the Environment of the World Road Association.

The contributors to the preparation of this report are: Ian Clarke (United Kingdom), Susanna Zammataro (IRF), Lisa Rossiter (New Zealand), Mpati Makoa (South Africa), William Asigau (Papua New Guinea), Pascal Couillard (Quebec), Cécille Arnaud (France).

The editor of this report was Ian Clarke (United Kingdom) for the English version.

Christine Deneuvillers (France) revised the French version.

The Technical Committee was chaired by Simon Price (United Kingdom) and Agnès Jullien (France) and Lisa Rossiter (New Zealand) were respectively the French and English-speaking secretaries.

The French version of this report has been published under the PIARC reference 2014R01FR, ISBN: 978-2-84060-331-3

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sommaire

Purpose................................................................................................................................................7 What are the problems / drivers – Why do it?...............................................................7 What’s included/ not included.............................................................................................8 Methodology..................................................................................................................................9 OVERVIEW OF PRESENT PRACTICE...............................................................................................10 Highways as a resource ..........................................................................................................10 Highways as an energy user..................................................................................................11 Summary...........................................................................................................................................11 POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND TECHNIQUES......................................................................12 THERMAL COLLECTION USING PAVEMENT METHODS...........................................................12 Description (what it is and what it does)........................................................................................12 Implementation...............................................................................................................................12 Benefits (Climate Change / Safety, etc.)..........................................................................................12 Barriers (Cost / Planning / Maintenance / Environmental / Technical / Life cycle)......................13 PHOTOVOLTAIC COLLECTION.......................................................................................................13 Description (what it is and what it does)........................................................................................13 Implementation...............................................................................................................................14 Benefits (Climate Change / Safety etc.)..........................................................................................14 Barriers (Cost / Planning / Maintenance / Environmental / Technical / Life cycle)......................14 WIND MICROGENERATION.............................................................................................................15 Description (what it is and what it does)........................................................................................15 Implementation...............................................................................................................................15 Benefits (Climate Change / Safety, etc.)..........................................................................................15 Barriers (Cost / Planning / Maintenance / Environmental / Technical / Life cycle)......................16 WATER MICROGENERATION...........................................................................................................17 Description (what it is and what it does)........................................................................................17 Implementation...............................................................................................................................17 Benefits (Climate Change / Safety, etc.)..........................................................................................17 Barriers (Cost / Planning / Maintenance / Environmental / Technical / Life cycle)......................18 EFFICIENT USE OF MATERIALS (SIGNAGE) / NEW MATERIALS (LEDs)...............................19 Description (what it is and what it does)........................................................................................19 Implementation...............................................................................................................................19 Benefits (Climate Change / Safety, etc. ).........................................................................................19 Barriers ..........................................................................................................................................20

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CASE STUDIES.........................................................................................................................................21 THERMAL COLLECTION USING PAVEMENT METHODS...........................................................21 PHOTOVOLTAIC COLLECTION.......................................................................................................24 CASE STUDY – Trial of Highway Noise Barriers as Solar Energy Generators - Junction 9, M27, Hampshire, UK - Solar panels mounted on highway noise barriers....................................24 CASE STUDY – Oregon Solar Highway, Oregon (USA)..............................................................25 WIND MICROGENERATION.............................................................................................................26 CASE STUDY – A6 Paris- Lyon - Autoroute (France)..................................................................26 WATER MICROGENERATION...........................................................................................................27 CASE STUDY – Micro-hydro project for Yukon Highway Maintenance Camp, Fraser, South Klondike Highway (Canada)................................................................................................................27 EFFICIENT USE OF MATERIALS (SIGNAGE) / NEW MATERIALS (LEDS)...............................28 CASE STUDY .................................................................................................................................28 CASE STUDY – Amey Local Government - LED Street Lighting Initiatives (UK).......................29 Analysis..................................................................................................................................................30 Qualitative Analysis of potential technologies and techniques......................................................31 conclusions.........................................................................................................................................32

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Executive summary Highways and their associated infrastructure have the potential to provide opportunities for the production of energy. Highways are also users of energy (in respect of some of the infrastructure) and therefore require energy to be able to operate.

This report looks at the technologies available to generate energy in the highway context and also qualitatively assesses the opportunity to reduce the energy used by existing highways infrastructure. The report focuses on current technologies and techniques and seeks to identify best practice in order to draw some high level recommendations that can be applied by Highways Authorities.

The report has been based on a survey of current practice in a number of countries around the world, as well as a search of relevant literature.

The introduction, pages 7 to 9 of the report provides an introduction to the report and explains the scope of the research. The overview of present practice, page 10 provides an overview of the current situation and context.

Section on Potential technologies and techniques, page 12 reviews a number of potential technologies and techniques and summarises the benefits and barriers to their implementation. This section references a selection of case studies which are presented in the Case studies, page 21.

Section on Analysis, page 30 looks to analyse the potential technologies and techniques and provides a qualitative assessment of their potential use in the context of highways infrastructure.

Overall, the report concludes that highways provide a large opportunity for alternative technologies and techniques and there exists a variety of opportunities for implementation. There also exist a number of opportunities for ensuring that highways reduce their own energy use. However the use of these technologies and techniques need to be balanced with other environmental and social factors. The decision to implement any particular technologies and techniques is often multi-faceted and very often affected by a multitude of other factors. The report suggests that the World Road Association (PIARC) should consider the production of a handbook to explain the range of renewable energy techniques available that are relevant to highways and how these can be exploited to produce operational benefits and savings in carbon.

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Introduction Purpose

One of the key issues identified by the technical committee A.1 “preserving the environment” in the PIARC 2008-2011 strategic plan [1] is the impact of the roads on the environment. This is a very wide topic area and it was decided that this work group would focus on the identification and analysis of techniques and technologies that reduce energy usage or produce energy in the context of operating a highway system and its associated infrastructure. The ultimate aim of the report is to identify areas of innovation in energy generation or energy saving and their applicability to a variety of highway scenarios.

What are the problems / drivers – Why do it?

There are a number of drivers that have influenced this paper.

Firstly the global demand for energy is ever increasing and yet the raw materials that we generally use for generating energy are decreasing. In fact fossil fuels are a finite resource and will eventually cease to exist. There is considerable uncertainty as to the size of fossil fuel reserves such as oil and gas. This uncertainty continues to attract much debate. The debate around reserves – also known as ‘peak oil’ – has intensified in recent years. The uncertainty about reserves means the market does not have perfect information. This, alongside the difficulty in switching to other sources of energy and political influence in oil supply, means that perfect market conditions do not exist, and the market response to falling supplies is likely to differ from that predicted by the simplest economic models.

Secondly as the demand for energy is ever increasing, and the supply of energy is ever decreasing, a greater political emphasis is placed on the security of energy supply. Without secure supplies there is the possibility of significant effects on individual and regional economies. Many industrialised nations have little or no oil/gas resources; others increasingly rely on imported fuel as they have used up most of their natural resources, or what they have can no longer support increasing demand. Only a minority of OECD countries are currently net exporters of energy, including Canada, Australia and Norway. The UK was a net exporter for most of the 1980s and 1990s and the start of this century, but declining North Sea production meant it became a net importer in 2004.

Thirdly climate change is driving us to consider alternative ways of generating energy and minimising the use of energy. This is because it is now widely accepted that atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases must be stabilized at a level that prevents a dangerous change in climate. It has been suggested that to avoid

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such changes in climate, average global surface temperatures should not rise more than two degrees Celsius. Beyond that level, widespread impacts are expected on food and water supplies, weather patterns, ecosystem stability, and, in turn, on national economies. Stabilising the generation of greenhouse gases will require fundamental changes to the way energy is produced.

Underpinning these key objectives is a variety of legislative mechanisms, targets and aspirations. For instance the European Commission currently propose a binding target of 20% of the EU’s overall energy mix to be sourced from renewable energy by 2020. This target requires huge growth in a variety of renewable energy areas including electricity, biofuels and heating and cooling.

These three drivers all contribute to a need to look at innovative ways to either power the infrastructure associated with highway network more efficiently or to make the highway infrastructure actually generate energy and thus become more efficient.

What’s included/ not included

In order to make this work focused and applicable we have limited the scope of the task. In particular we have considered the following items to be “in scope”: • the reduction of energy consumption in the context of highway infrastructure

(for example, variable messaging signage, traffic signals and highway lighting) in order to reduce energy emissions and carbon intensity; or • the generation of energy in the context of highway infrastructure (for example, the use of solar panels in highway structures and pavements) in order to reduce reliance on fossil fuels; • additionally we have specifically identified items that are “out of scope”; • we will not be evaluating overall policy considerations; • we have limited our work to infrastructure and its maintenance (and not the vehicles using the highway networks); • we will not be undertaking primary research and development – we will only review products/services already in the market or close to market.

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Methodology

The task was split into three stages: • data (case study) collection, • data analysis, • case study review.

The data collection exercise was split into two parts. The first being enquiries to a number of Highways Authorities around the world to ascertain what technologies or techniques were being adopted in their area of jurisdiction. The second being the collection of data from international technology providers and researchers. For the second search we worked closely with the International Roads Federation (IRF) to undertake a scan of IRF membership and associated literature to identify both energy usage data not commonly available and appropriate technologies and approaches.

On completion of the first stage, an analysis was undertaken to review what data was available and whether it provided sufficient detail to allow a case study to be formulated. Where the data was deemed to be sufficient then case studies were prepared.

The third stage was completion of case studies into a standardised template.

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OVERVIEW OF PRESENT PRACTICE As discussed in the introduction there are a number of factors that are encouraging the use of novel or innovative techniques to save energy with respect to road infrastructure or to capitalize on the extent of road infrastructure to provide new opportunities for energy generation.

With respect to both areas, our research shows that innovations and approaches to use the highway infrastructure to generate energy and or to use highway infrastructure in a different way to save energy are generally adopted sporadically around the world. Whilst a number of technologies and approaches exist in the market place they are seen as providing marginal benefits and are not well adopted. To date, no single technology or approach has yet to gain sufficient currency to allow road administrations the opportunity to adopt these techniques as part of a standard approach.

In this section we provide some context to the technologies or approaches outlined in later sections of the report to try and provide some scale of the potential for different approaches.

Highways as a resource

It can be argued that highways provide a significant potential resource for innovative energy generation techniques. Highways occupy significant areas of land across the world and, generally, have a greater density in areas of higher population. This, in the context of decentralized energy generation, is useful because the density of highways tend to be greater where the need (for energy by surrounding land uses) is greatest.

Statistics show that in 2008 six countries had in excess of 1 million kilometres of highways ranging from the United States with approximately 6.5 million kilometres of highways to Japan with just over 1.2 million kilometres of highways. Statistics show that another 35 countries had over 100,000 kilometres of highways in use1.

These figures in themselves are impressive but they only provide an insight into the number of linear kilometres in use. If the figures for areas of land under highway use were to be calculated then they would show that many countries have a large area of land mass in highway use. If one assumes that the average width of a trunk road highway is approximately 12 metres, then for every linear metre of highways one can assume twelve square metres is covered. In reality the amount of area associated 1  World Bank World Development Indicators, 2008, http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-developmentindicators

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with highways is often well in excess of this number to allow for land on either side of the carriageways and areas associated with landscaping and landform.

In summary, the area of land directly associated with highways is significant. Areas in highway ownership but not directly associated with traffic movements (e.g. landscaping areas, embankments, verges etc.) is also significant and provides an asset in the context of potential energy generation.

Highways as an energy user

In the previous paragraphs we have explored the potential that highways have in providing land for energy generating uses. Highways are also energy users in the own right – in particular the highway network requires energy for lighting, signage and the operation of a multitude of data collection and other systems.

In the UK it is estimated that there are 5.6 million road lights2. Energy use by this lighting stock varies considerably – but does constitute a significant energy usage.

At present most lighting is powered by electricity derived from the National Grid which in turn generates electricity predominantly from fossil fuels.

Summary

It can be seen from the paragraphs above that the worldwide highway network provides an opportunity to allow other technologies and techniques to be implemented to generate energy on a decentralised basis either for use by highways directly or by neighbouring uses.

In the following sections we review some potential technologies and techniques in the context if the highway network and evaluate their current strengths and weaknesses.

2 http://www.highways.gov.uk/customer/25238.aspx

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POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND TECHNIQUES The following section sets out six different approaches to reducing the consumption of fossil fuels in the operation of a highways system and generating energy within highways land.

THERMAL COLLECTION USING PAVEMENT METHODS

Description (what it is and what it does) Thermal collection involves the absorption of heat from sunlight. In this example the solar thermal collector is the bituminous paved surface of the highway. Plastic tubes, filled with fluid (water) are integrated into the pavement material and provide a medium to provide heat exchange between the pavement and the fluid. The thermal exchange between the pavement and water ensure pavement cooling in summertime and alternatively heating in wintertime. Initially the system was developed to support an improved road maintenance regime during winter months (i.e. de-icing).

Subsequently the system has been developed to allow for thermal exchange for nearby buildings, which, when coupled with other renewable technologies, facilitates the reduction of traditional fossil fuels in the heating and cooling function of buildings.

Implementation Implementation is most effective when carriageway rehabilitation allows the installation of the network of solar collection tubes and the associated heat exchange equipment relatively easily. Construction methodologies need to be modified to allow the installation of the equipment.

Benefits (Climate Change / Safety, etc.)

Key benefits are that the system can be used to supplement and support winter maintenance activities. The reduction in the need for winter maintenance activity reduces the need for gritting vehicle movements (and associated use of fuel) and reduces the use of gritting salt. Additionally the system can be designed to allow heating and cooling of neighbouring properties reducing their dependency on traditional heating and cooling technologies which are mostly reliant on electricity and/or gas.

Anecdotal evidence would suggest that a system such as this will help to improve road safety by providing a road surface that is maintained above freezing temperatures and therefore inhibits the formation of ice. Additionally the reduction in the use of road salt is thought to have a positive benefit for concrete structures as it is believed

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that the temperature control effects will limit expansion and contraction and reduce maintenance requirements. Also, the reduction in use of road salt will reduce the effects of corrosion on signage and barriers, increasing their life span and long term durability.

Benefits may also be realized in the summer months as the system can be used to reduce high pavement temperatures which can consequently lead to rutting and localized deformation of the road surface.

Barriers (Cost / Planning / Maintenance / Environmental / Technical / Life cycle) Barriers to implementation of this technological solution mainly relate to practical issues. The greatest barrier to implementation is that the system requires significant rebuilding of the road structure to make allowance for the installation of the thermal collection pipework and associated heat exchange equipment. On an existing road the works would require closure of the highway whilst this equipment was installed.

Therefore, this technology can be associated with high costs and long installation times leading to delays.

As yet the technology has been tested in only a small number of applications. It is unclear what the ongoing maintenance liabilities may be as the technology ages over time. Additionally the installation of this equipment may limit future expansion or rehabilitation options if associated with a well used section of highway.

PHOTOVOLTAIC COLLECTION

Description (what it is and what it does) Photovoltaic technology allows the direct conversion of light into electricity. Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured within photovoltaic cells, an electric current is produced. Photovoltaic cells are generally encapsulated into water tight modules for protection from moisture and impact and then the resulting assembly is referred to as a photovoltaic panel or module.

Over recent years photovoltaic panels have become increasingly more cost efficient and have been utilised in a number of applications including in, or on, buildings, in solar parks and/or on standalone items of plant and equipment (often in places where access to existing electrical grid supplies is limited). Standalone items of plant and equipment typically include parking metres, emergency telephones, rubbish bin compactors, temporary traffic signs, and remote signals.

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Implementation Later in this document we examine two examples of how photovoltaic cells can be used within the highways context and the advantages they can possibly bring.

In our first case study we review the advantages of using photovoltaics on existing noise barriers. In this case the photovoltaic panels were mounted on an existing section of noise barriers in the UK and the energy generated from them was provided directly to the local electricity network.

In the second study we review documentation in respect of the use of photovoltaic cells and traffic signals equipment at intersections. In this case the energy generated from the cells was used directly to power the signalling equipment

Benefits (Climate Change / Safety etc.)

Photovoltaic installations can operate for many years after their initial set-up, with little maintenance or intervention therefore after the initial capital cost of building any solar power plant, operating costs are extremely low compared to existing power technologies.

Solar electric generation is generally most beneficial economically where grid connection or fuel transport is difficult, costly or impossible. Examples include satellites, island and ocean vessels. In a highways context examples include solar powered road signs, traffic signals and other infrastructure. When grid-connected, solar electric generation replaces some or all of the highest-cost electricity used during times of peak demand (in most climatic regions). This can reduce grid loading, and can eliminate the need for local battery power to provide for use in times of darkness.

Experimental high efficiency solar cells already have efficiencies of over 40% and efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass-production costs are now falling.

Barriers (Cost / Planning / Maintenance / Environmental / Technical / Life cycle) Photovoltaics are generally costly to install. While the modules have typical life spans of 20 years, the pay back periods are relatively long when compared to other technologies.

Photovoltaics are naturally constrained by the amount of daylight / sunlight. As such photovoltaics are less efficient in overcast conditions and do not generate energy

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during the night time. Therefore, in most cases, a storage or battery powered system is required to provide a back up in the event that there is not enough solar energy to generate the necessary levels of energy. As such, the installation of such equipment is very sensitive to the particular latitude of any location and also the immediate geographical location and topography.

Solar photovoltaics produce electricity as direct current (DC) which must be converted to alternating current which generally leads to an energy loss of between 4 and 12%.

WIND MICROGENERATION

Description (what it is and what it does) Wind turbines use blades to catch the wind. Turbines can have blades that rotate vertically around a horizontal axis or horizontally around a vertical axis.

The category of “micro” wind technology tends to refer to turbines that produce less than 10kW. Rated energy outputs are dependent on wind speeds and vary according to particular manufacturers.

Implementation Using micro wind turbines to power infrastructure associated with highways is becoming increasingly popular for remote and hard to reach locations.

Benefits (Climate Change / Safety, etc.)

The benefits associated with this type of technology are as follows: Easy installation – Installation of these types of turbines is relatively simple as generally the main consideration is the placement of a pole or other structure. Apart from the foundations associated with the turbine base there is usually minimal intrusive ground work to be undertaken.

Retrofit – In the highways context there are many opportunities to introduce wind turbines onto structures within the highway itself. For example, micro wind turbines can be introduced onto pre-existing structures, gantries, etc. – as long as wind loadings and other structural and safety requirements can be met.

Mobility – Temporary wind turbines can be introduced for short periods of time to provide power for temporary works (e.g. road works). Temporary installation is a relatively easy operation.

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Costs – Dependent on the installation location, costs of micro wind turbines can be relatively low. Technology advances in turbine technology and rotor design are likely to make these items more efficient over time. Generally speaking, the energy-rated cost increases as the turbine decreases in size; however, this doesn’t account for additional costs such as obtaining planning consent.

Power export – It is possible that sites that are optimally located may be able to feed electricity back into the local electrical distribution network to supplement supplies.

This option is very dependent on location and the ability of the receiving electrical network to accept power from small scale renewable technologies.

Moving traffic – In the context of the highways environment the movement of vehicles themselves have been shown to generate enough air movement to allow specialist micro wind turbines to operate.

Barriers (Cost / Planning / Maintenance / Environmental / Technical / Life cycle) Wind – The key factor in the successful implementation of a micro wind solution is the availability of a good source of wind. All wind turbines rely on a minimum wind speed before they are able to generate power. The majority of micro wind turbines require a minimum of 10mph wind speed.

Localisation – The ability of micro wind turbines to provide useful and reliable electrical energy is a function of localisation. Surrounding trees, buildings, hills and other structures will all affect the amount of electricity that can be generated from wind. This is because surrounding obstacles reduce wind speed and create turbulence.

Ideally wind turbines need to have an uninterrupted wind source.

Environmental factors – Wind turbines can generate noise and also have the potential to disturb ecology in the vicinity. However in the context of the highways network the impact of the introduction of micro wind turbine is often a smaller impact than that of the highway itself.

Visual impact – The visual impact of wind turbines can be seen as a negative impact and is often the reason why planning permission is required for permanent installations.

Efficiency – The efficiency of installations is highly dependent on the location and the consistency of the wind in that location. Turbines generate electrical energy in a direct current (DC) form and once this is converted to alternating current form (AC) there is often a loss in power output.

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Planning Control – in some instances the installation of a permanent micro wind turbine requires planning permission and associated consents which can be time consuming to obtain.

WATER MICROGENERATION

Description (what it is and what it does) Water microgeneration, more commonly known as micro hydro, relies on the potential energy within a mass of water flowing down a pipe or stream to generate electrical energy by utilising a small turbine. The flow of water in the stream will have a certain fall (or “head”). It is the proportion of flow and head that dictate the potential power of the installation.

The definition of micro hydro installations varies widely across the world but it is generally accepted that anything in the 10kW to 200kW range is small scale micro hydro.

In the context of highway networks micro hydro can be used as a power source for a variety of infrastructure associated with highways particularly in inaccessible locations where sourcing suitable grid supplies is not possible.

Implementation Later in this document we review one example of how micro hydro can be used within the highways context.

Benefits (Climate Change / Safety, etc.)

Efficiency – Relatively low flows of water (as little as two gallons per minute) and/ or relatively shallow gradients (head) can still be utilised to generate electricity with micro hydro.

Reliability – Micro hydro is reliable as long as the water keeps flowing. If a consistent flow of water is provided then the generator will provide a continuous and consistent source of electrical energy in comparison to other small-scale renewable technologies.

Generally micro hydro will generate more energy during the winter months when flows are greater which often coincides with when more electrical energy is often needed.

Biodiversity – Following installation micro hydro can often be considered to be low impact on ecological systems because it does not impound waters and prevent them from flowing as normal in the way that larger scale hydropower schemes may do.

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Costs – Dependent on the installation location, costs of micro hydro can be relatively low and maintenance costs are generally low as the basic technology is relatively simple. Technology advances (such as maintenance-free water intake equipment and solid-state electrical equipment) ensure that these systems are reliable in remote areas.

Power export – It is possible that sites that are optimally located may be able to feed electricity back into the local electrical distribution network. This option is very dependent on location and the ability of the receiving electrical network to accept power from small scale renewable technologies.

Barriers (Cost / Planning / Maintenance / Environmental / Technical / Life cycle) Site – Micro hydro requires a number of locational characteristics to be fulfilled to provide an optimal installation. Factors that require consideration include distance from the power source to the location where energy is required, stream size (including flow rate, output and drop), and a balance of system components — inverter, batteries, controller, transmission line and pipelines.

Output - The size and flow of suitable streams at suitable locations limits the power that may be realised. Power output is therefore generally limited by the locational attributes and varies from site to site.

Seasonality – Whilst it is generally useful to have more power during the winter months it is also possible that in the summer months that stream size and flow will fluctuate, and in the worst case scenario dry up completely leaving no power output at all. Advanced planning will be needed to ensure adequate energy requirements are met for the installation proposed.

Construction – Whilst the long term operational impacts of micro hydro schemes is low there is potential for significant impact on local biodiversity and water ecosystems during the construction of micro hydro power installations.

Maintenance – As with any system with moving parts, micro hydro is not maintenance free and there are ongoing maintenance costs to be considered following installation.

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EFFICIENT USE OF MATERIALS (SIGNAGE) / NEW MATERIALS (LEDs)

Description (what it is and what it does) As pressures increase to find better ways to use energy or, more importantly, not to import energy in the context of highway infrastructure, a number of products and technologies have come to the market. In this section we examine two products: • Reflective signage materials – by using higher specification reflective materials

on signage improvements can be made to durability and can help reduce the need for external illumination.

• Light emitting diodes (LEDs) in lighting applications – the use of LED lighting solutions can have a significant energy, carbon and operational efficiency benefits.

Implementation The installation of these two techniques is becoming increasingly prevalent as they are relatively quick and easy to fit in comparison to other technologies discussed in this report.

Benefits (Climate Change / Safety, etc. ) Higher Specification Reflective Signage Enhanced reflectivity – by utilizing signage with enhanced reflectivity, savings in the reduction of external lighting are possible. The enhanced reflective materials allow signs to be seen from different viewing angles and distances and in all weather and light conditions.

Road Safety – the enhanced signage materials allow signs to be seen at greater distances allowing motorists and road users to anticipate road conditions or features earlier.

Longevity – the improved signage materials have a longer life than previous similar materials reducing disposal and ongoing maintenance costs.

Environmental – compared to previous types of reflective sheeting the newer types are less harmful on the environment during the manufacturing process because of the reductions in manufacturing energy and use of harmful chemicals.

LED lighting Precise footprint – LED lighting luminaires have a very precise footprint / distribution which results in the light emitted by the LEDs being directed on to the task area with

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minimal lighting overspill. The footprint has a very clear cut-off both behind the luminaire and in front which mitigates any possible effects from lighting overspill.

Amenity benefits – As LED lighting luminaires are very efficient at directing light to the required areas they reduce light overspill and “sky glow” which are seen to be significant in affecting environmental quality.

Energy Saving – The introduction of LED lighting solutions allow for significant savings in electrical energy as LEDs are much more efficient than traditional luminaires. Installations are anecdotally reported as saving in the region of 50% of energy costs.

Quality of light – LED lighting solutions are efficient in directing light to the task areas. They are also able to generate a whiter light than traditional solutions which results in improvements in the quality of lighting.

Maintenance – As well as the reduction in energy from the use of the LED lighting units, savings also accrue from the fact that LEDs have a greatly reduced maintenance requirement and failure rates are significantly less than when compared to traditional lighting solutions.

Barriers Higher Specification Reflective Signage Costs – The initial costs of higher grade reflective materials is in excess of that for traditional type reflective signage. This has to be offset by the benefits gained of an extended life and a reduction in maintenance costs.

External Lighting – Reducing the need for external lighting on signage is very dependent on the context of the installation and on the relevant highway specifications in the country in question. Often the benefits associated with reducing the external lighting requirements are not realized because of the requirements of the Highways Authority.

LED lighting Costs – The initial capital costs of LED lighting solutions, when compared to more traditional solutions, is higher. This initial cost has to be offset against the reduced maintenance costs, greater reliability and energy saving benefits.

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CASE STUDIES Further to the summary analysis provided in the previous section, a number of case studies have been identified – information on these case studies has been provided in the following section and is supported by some appendices as appropriate.

Each case study has been completed to a standardised format to allow easy comparison and review. All of the case studies are analysed in the final section.

THERMAL COLLECTION USING PAVEMENT METHODS

CASE STUDY – Solar Asphalt – (Road Energy Systems®) - Ooms International Solar energy is collected by incorporating tubes into the pavement.

Brief details Project name

Solar Asphalt – (Road Energy Systems®)

Where & When

2002-2006: first implementations 2005: ‘tZand Industrial estate in the city of Zijpe, Nederlands.

Description

Bituminous pavements, heated by the sun’s rays can reach high temperatures.

Plastic tubes are integrated in the pavement and contain a fluid (e.g. underground water) ensure the heat exchange.

Thermal exchanges between pavement and water ensure pavement cooling in summertime and heating in wintertime.

The system was initially developed to improve road maintenance (de-icing/ winter maintenance, rutting in summertime). It has been extended to include a 3rd thermal exchange level, with buildings, for heating/ cooling purposes.

This improves the benefits from the thermal exchange and reduces CO2 emissions from non renewable energy heating sources.

Benefits

Based on solar energy (renewable & accessible).

Application suitable for building heating/ cooling but also possibly to heat and cool agricultural land (source: Ooms).

No additional visual impact in addition to the road itself (less than wind farms or solar panel, equivalent to geothermal).

Benefits for road management Improvement of winter maintenance (keeping the pavement below freezing).

Concrete structures: Ooms indicates that for concrete structures, temperature control reduces expansion and contraction and can even lead to a jointless/ silent transition “by using water-impermeable bituminous membranes in combination with Road Energy Systems®”. In addition, use of lesser quantities of de-icing products will reduce damage due to corrosion.

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Disbenefits

The road needs to be located close to the buildings that will benefit from the heating/cooling system.

Long term maintenance and pavement recycling.

Needs a heating fluid.

Application may be unsuitable for a heavy-traffic road.

How to deal with improvement works (e.g. widening) if system combined with building heating.

High cost for large-scale implementation.

CASE STUDY – Interseasonal heat transfer facility – Access Road Toddington Motorway Services, Bedfordshire, UK. Brief details Project name

Interseasonal Heat Transfer facility – Access Road Toddington Motorway Services, Bedfordshire, UK – ICAX Ltd

Where & When

2 Year period covering 2005-2007 Access Road Toddington Motorway Services, Bedfordshire, UK Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) Limited ran a trial relating to the use of Interseasonal Heat Transfer systems for the Highways Agency within the UK.

Description

The patented technology involves the storage of thermal energy in ThermalBanks™ in the ground – where heat does not move very far very fast – for release at times when the thermal energy is required.

The performance of the system was monitored over a two year period to allow a full seasonal assessment of the recovery of solar heat from the road surface, and its re-use for ice-free maintenance of the road surface. The technology can also provide winter heating and summer cooling for nearby buildings.

The Interseasonal Heat Transfer system acted successfully throughout the trial to recover solar hear from the asphalt pavement in the summer and store this heat until it was required in the winter months, to heat the roads, to a temperature above freezing.

Benefits

Disbenefits

It has been shown within the report by TRL Limited that the heat transfer system could help to reduce carbon emissions by removing the number of salt spreading lorries needed for winter maintenance or (in the case of electrical powered under road heating) reduce the need for large amounts of electrical energy.

Long term maintenance and pavement recycling.

Application unlikely to be suitable for a heavy-traffic and high speed roads Too expensive for large-scale implementation

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Figure 1 - Toddington – ThermalBankTM for Interseasonal Heat Transfer – (copyright ICAX Ltd)

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PHOTOVOLTAIC COLLECTION

CASE STUDY – Trial of Highway Noise Barriers as Solar Energy Generators - Junction 9, M27, Hampshire, UK - Solar panels mounted on highway noise barriers.

Brief details Project name

Trial of Highway Noise Barriers as Solar Energy Generators - Junction 9, M27, Hampshire, UK.

Where & When

2 Year period covering 2004-2006 Junction 9, M27, Hampshire, UK.

Description

Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) Limited ran a trial for the implementation of a photovoltaic noise barriers to be installed on section of the M27 east of Junction 9 in Hampshire, UK. Two 54 metre photovoltaic noise barriers on the south facing side of the embankment of the M27 were installed to ensure that the maximum amount of sunlight could be utilised by the photovoltaic modules.

Benefits

The study found that the system was efficient in collecting energy. Within the first year of exporting AC energy to the grid, the PV barrier’s output was 6.398 MWh and the energy exported to the grid in the second year was 6.421 MWh. The reliability of the system was maintained over the trial period.

The barriers performed a dual role as a noise barrier and as an energy generator.

Use in very remote and rural locations was thought possible when coupled with battery storage system.

Vegetation control was an important issue to ensure that the panels continued to operate efficiently.

Disbenefits

The trial investigated the payback periods associated with the installation and operation of the panels and concluded that revenue from electricity sales would need to be significantly higher than those achieved to ensure payback of initial investment.

Although the panels were combined with noise barriers there was some evidence of an increase in reflected noise levels.

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CASE STUDY – Oregon Solar Highway, Oregon (USA) Brief details Project name

Oregon Solar Highway

Where & When

Constructed 2008 Oregon, USA

Description

The project consisted of a solar photovoltaic system covering about 8,000 square feet. The 104-kilowatt system produces about 112,000 kilowatt hours a year, or 28 percent of the 400,000 kilowatt hours used to light the adjacent highway interchange.

All generated electricity feeds into the grid during the day, and at night, the equivalent amount of electricity from the grid flows back to light the interchange.

Benefits

Efficient use of land.

• Energy produced is bought by the highway administration as grid sourced energy; • According to the Oregon Department of Transportation the project will save or offset, over its lifetime, 2,900 tons of CO2; • Demonstrates that solar arrays can complement the highways transportation system, and they can be safely installed and operated.

Disbenefits

Siting is key to ensure: • maximum solar efficiency; • most effective connection to the electricity distribution network; • safety of highway users is maintained

Figure 2 – Oregon Solar Highway

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WIND MICROGENERATION

CASE STUDY – A6 Paris- Lyon - Autoroute (France) Brief details Project name

Wind turbine – powered by passing HGVs – Experimental Project

Where & When

A6 Paris- Lyon – Autoroute 2010

Description

This project tested a new type of wind turbine. The turbine is powered by the blast of air (disturbed wind) generated by the passage of trucks past it. This experiment was conducted south of Paris on the A6 Paris-Lyon road where over 5000 trucks use the road every day.

If the experiment proves successful, other wind turbines of this type may emerge to supply remote equipment located on highways that consume less than 2 kilowatts / hour. This type of equipment could be suitable for cameras, weather stations and messaging signs.

Benefits

A wide range of applications Mobile – can be established in hard to reach locations (although requires moving traffic) Simple technology

Disbenefits

Location dependant - to ensure best operation Requires moving traffic to work

Figure 3 – Vertical wind turbine powered by passing HGVs

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WATER MICROGENERATION

CASE STUDY – Micro-hydro project for Yukon Highway Maintenance Camp, Fraser, South Klondike Highway (Canada) Brief Details Project Name

Fraser micro hydro system, British Columbia

Where & When

Fraser, British Columbia is a location on the Klondike Highway in northwestern British Columbia. The hydro system was installed in 1990.

Description

A 250kW hydroelectric plant in Fraser, BC (south of Haines Junction in the Yukon Territory) powers the Canadian border station and the Yukon territorial government highway maintenance camp..

The hydro system is owned and operated by a small private corporation and sells power to the Federal and provincial consumers of power at Fraser.

The Fraser microhydro system has no dam and no overhead transmission lines.

It is a small building sitting over a little stream, close to the Canada Customs building.

The source of power for the microhydro plant is a small glacial lake drained by Bryant Creek. Instead of building a dam, the project punctured the glacial moraine, a natural dam, at the lower end of the lake and ran a three-kilometre pipeline to the small powerhouse at Fraser.

To minimize the environmental impact and help insulate the pipeline, the pipe is buried for most of its three kilometres, emerging only where it crosses the stream.

Inside the powerhouse, water emerging at a pressure of 350 pounds per square inch drives a turbine. The turbine rotates a generator that produces up to 300 kilowatts of electricity. Forty percent of the plant’s electricity is used for heating the buildings at Fraser. The remainder provides all other electrical needs, at a price of nine cents a kilowatt-hour.

Benefits/

Mobile – can be established in hard to reach locations Simple technology

Disbenefits

Location dependant – requires watercourse Flow dependent – requires constant water flow to provide continuous electricity

Figure 4 - Micro hydro system Fraser, British Columbia

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EFFICIENT USE OF MATERIALS (SIGNAGE) / NEW MATERIALS (LEDS)

CASE STUDY - Signage Diamond Grade DG3 micro prismatic retro-reflective sheeting that allows the replacement of illuminated signs without negative impact on driver behaviour.

Brief details Project name

Diamond Grade DG3 micro prismatic retro-reflective sheeting

Where & When

Various worldwide

Description

Diamond Grade DG3 (3M) is a fluorescent reflective sheeting product. It has durable fluorescent properties with high performance at a range of viewing angles and distances. The material has been designed to enhance sign conspicuity during daylight hours, it is especially visible at dawn, dusk, during poor daylight and in adverse weather conditions. In some circumstances it can be used to reduce the need for external illumination.

Benefits

A wide range of applications Can be used on a like for like replacement basis.

Can remove the need for external lighting – which in turn reduces energy use

Disbenefits

Opportunities to use as a way to reduce external lighting often limited.

Figure 5 – Reflective Signage

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CASE STUDY – LED Street Lighting Initiatives (UK) Brief details Project name

Various Contracts across the UK

Where & When

Various across UK

Description

Amey has trialled, LED units in traffic signage and illuminated highway street furniture such as bollards for various local government.

The low energy and reduced carbon emission benefits of LED solutions have proved effective at minimising both outages and maintenance visits.

LED usage is being extended to street lighting applications, specifically within residential applications.

Benefits

Energy efficient Has an exact footprint reducing the number of lighting units required Minimises light spill and glare Longer life – reduced maintenance Can be dimmed remotely to vary lighting outputs according to conditions or requirements

Disbenefits

Higher initial capital cost Figure 6 – LED street lighting

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Analysis This table is qualitative and is designed to give an overview of the strengths and weaknesses of each technology and process. It is not designed to be definitive as each technology has its own merits and its success will be entirely dependent on the context of its application.

In order to provide some objective criteria to the qualitative assessment we have used the following matrix as a guide to the evaluation process.

Table 6.1 – Assessment of Results Indicator

Descriptor

Comments

üü

Very Positive

A large range of advantages or positive effects

ü

Positive

A range of advantages or slightly positive effects

~

Neutral

Imperceptible effects or benefits

?

Uncertain

Uncertain or untested advantages or disadvantages

x

Negative

A range of disadvantages or slightly negative effects

xx

Very Negative

A large range of disadvantages or largely negative effects

N/A

Not Applicable

Not applicable

Barriers to uptake are outlined in the table below with some commentary as to the perceived or real impacts.

Transferability

Key:

üü ü ~ ? x xx

=Very Positive = Positive = Neutral = Uncertain = Negative = Very Negative

ü

üü

Better use of technology (LEDs) ~

üü

x

x x

~ ~

~

x

Geographical applicability

~

üü

ü ü ü ü

Cost (whole of life) Potential Savings

Efficient use of materials (signage)

Water micro generation

Thermal collection using pavement methods Photovoltaic collection Wind micro generation

POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGY/ TECHNIQUE Tested/ Untested

ü

üü

ü ü üü üü

Benefits (how long to realise) x

~

x

x ~

x

Availability

ü

üü

ü ü

~

x

Planning and design implications x

ü

x

x x

x

ü

ü

ü

~

Effectiveness (known/ unknown)

ü ü

Environmental benefits/ disbenefits

üü

ü

ü ü ü ü ?

üü

~

ü

~

ü ü ü

ü ü

Compatibility with existing systems x

Operation and maintenance implications

x

Social benefits/ disbenefits

ü

~

~

~ ~

ü

Reduction in Carbon emissions

üü

ü

ü ü ü ü

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Qualitative Analysis of potential technologies and techniques

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conclusions In summary it can be seen that there exists a variety of different ways in which energy can be generated by innovative use of the existing highway infrastructure or by utilizing the geographical context of highway infrastructure to its full advantage.

Additionally it can be seen that the land holdings associated with highways can in itself provide a significant asset to enable the deployment of decentralized energy generation technologies.

As with all decentralized energy generating techniques there exists a number of barriers to implementation which can, in some cases, be a significant difficulty.

However as decentralized energy production becomes more commonplace and energy security becomes a reality then some of the practical and economic barriers change in emphasis.

Overall the work concluded that: • A range of technologies exist now to enable highways to create energy and/or

reduce energy consumption.

• Technologies will become more viable economically as they become established

but adoption will also need to consider environmental and social factors.

• National Road Authorities and the World Road Association should investigate the

opportunity to increase the public good of the transport corridor by exploiting the potential as a source/site for renewable energy generation.

• The World Road Association should consider the production of a handbook to explain the range of renewable energy techniques available relevant to highways and how these can be exploited to produce operational benefits and savings in carbon.