Tattoo by AlanisBennett

Tattoo

A collection of work on Tattoo culture and stigmas

Page Numbers 1- Felice Beato: Japan 11- Stephen Langdon: Polynesia 17- Arkady Bronnikov: Russia 27- Alan Powdrill: London 29- Mark Leaver: UK

Introduction This piece assists an exhibition studying the varied levels of acceptance and stigmatisation regarding tattoos. It considers the origins of tattooing in Japan, Polynesia and Russia, and how it is documented in academic literature. This process will document historical exploitation and prejudice as well as the significance socially and culturally of tattooing. It is clearly documented that native history and cultures of tattooing exhibited have experienced appropriation in the western world as part of surface level fashion trends. As a result the strong identity that came with these styles of tattooing has been lost. Further, this exhibition considers the roots of stigmatisation individuals face for having tattoos.

Japan has a significant link with modern tattooing. An entire s as ‘Japanese Traditional’ is extremely common in the Western ularised by its perceived links to the criminal underworld of th to many however is a complex history rooted in sacred religiou age. Irezumi, the Japanese word for tattoo, covers most forms Throughout the history of Japan, the opinion, symbolism, and cu has varied quite dramatically. During the 7th century tattoos w solid black symbols. These were used as punishments for crim crimes represented by different symbols.

The symbols were even forehead as a age others to ridic nese who held inf as criminal punis opinions: Irezumi

style of tattoo known world has been pophe Yakuza. Unknown us tradition, pilgrims and styles in Japan. ultural role of tattoos were most commonly minals with different

e then tattooed on exposed areas of the body like the hand and a way of singling out those who committed crimes and encourcule them. The practice was brought to Japan through the Chifluence on Japan during this era. The combination Irezumi use shment and the association with Chinese occupation cemented i was the mark of an undesirable.

Images by Felice Beato

Those with any form of tattoo were assumed to be gang members, thieves, or people to be avoided, a belief that carries through to the modern day. Public baths and spas, a fundamental part of Japanese social culture, still exclude any with tattoos from bathing. This perception ushered in by Chinese occupation has almost entirely buried the sacred and religious side to Irezumi. Centuries before tattoos became associated with criminals, traditional tattoos were a part of the practice of Horimono. The word Horimono refers to the engraved designs on a blade such as a katana or a tanto. However, the word is also used to reference a specific style of traditional, sacred tattoo involving a strictly hand poked process. Even today where typically a rotary machine is used to tattoo these traditional tattoos must be applied using the traditional process.

Those with Horimono tattoos take part in a yearly pilgrimage to a holy mountain as a part of their religion. During this pilgrimage individuals climb to a shrine by a waterfall wearing only a Fundoshi, a type of cloth underwear wrap, to expose their tattoos to the gods, or Kami. They are guided on the pilgrimage by religious figure called a Sendoshi, the name given to a Japanese priest. When they reach the shrine, they wash under the waterfall and believe themselves cleansed. After completing this ritual they share a meal, trade stories and add to their tattoos. In stark contrast to the criminal association with tattoos, the designs used in Horimono tend to be of traditional Shinto gods as a reminder to keep their faith, for good fortune, and as a sign of respect and devotion. 4

Many Horimono tattoos may include a design of a samurai warrior which refers to the kami god ‘Hachiman’, a master samurai and protector. It is believed he will protect the person from evil ‘Oni’ spirits in Japanese folklore. Their Horimono will also have things they may aspire to be or to have. For example, designs of koi fish represent fortune and good luck, while dragons are considered another form of protectors. All Horimono tattoos are ultimately intended to bring the individual closer to the gods. Currently, tattoos are banned in many parts of Japan because the association with criminals has persisted. This contrasts heavily with the popularity of ‘Traditional Japanese’ in the Western world. The bans have excluded those with Horimono tattoos from many public places such as baths, saunas, swimming pools and gyms. It was typical for Horimono tattoos to be large complex designs covering most of their bodies, but these modern laws and social stigma have meant the designs have adapted to be easily hidden. Hands, wrists, neck, head, feet, and a line down the middle of the torso so the tattoos can be completely hidden by clothing. Despite the ongoing stigmatization of this seemingly lost art, as well as the restrictions on tattoos in public and the association with criminal activity, the practice of Horimono still persists amongst a select group in society as a celebration of identity and tradition. 6

To illustrate the tattoos of Japan this exhibition displays the work of Felice Beato, an Italian photographer born in Venice in 1832. Beato extensively travelled the Mediterranean and East Asia. For a large portion of Beato’s career there was much confusion over his identity as there were some images signed “Felice Antonio Beato” and some signed “Felice A. Beato”. People assumed Beato somehow managed to photograph in the same place at the same time such as Egypt and Japan but it was later discovered that “Felice Antonio Beato” was the signature used by Felice and his brother Antonio when they worked together. Felice sometimes worked with his brother Antonio in the Middle East and Asia working on souvenir photographs, which were of high demand at that time. Felice lived and worked in Japan from 1862 to around 1885 extensively documenting an area previously unseen by the rest of the world through his creating hand-coloured photographs and albums. Beato undertook an intense study into every aspect of the country including religion, culture, social attitudes, and its military of Samurai Clans. While a lot of his work is considered classic, especially his Samurai portraits, Beato’s portrait photographs of Japanese tattoos are particularly special. He used only one lens he purchased in Paris in 1851. Not much else is known about his setup other than he shot on film. As one of the first photographers to offer colour photos and in doing so documented the vibrant colours and style of traditional Japanese tattoos.

The viewers’ eyes are instantly drawn to the beautiful vivid colours of these tattoos which contrast the backgrounds. The backgrounds are consistently a similar subdued shade of beige to ensure your focus is on the tattoos. The colour palette of tattoos wasn’t very wide at this time, so blue, red and black were most common as seen in these images. The men in the images are the focal point and all centred, facing the background. It appears that the most significant part of a Horimono tattoo is the back, suggested by its level detail and the bigger more intricate designs. Despite the images in their form very similar to each other, the tattoos themselves are all widely different making each image more interesting than the last as the viewer considers the similarities in differences in each design.

In the Polynesian islands a style of tattooing is practiced that is a ‘Tufuga’ or a tattoo master. This style of tattooing is using imp the tattoo is being done a group of people called ‘Coso’ assist th In past and present Polynesian culture, tattoos are reminders of t plants, animals, and oceans. Occasions are marked by Tatau on s is held called a “Sama” where the tattoo is blessed and its mean and ancestors. The Coso who originally helped the Tufuga to p coconut oil is rubbed on the fresh Tatau. Nutritional foods and

Polynesia is a name given to a collection of islander communities in the continent of Oceania covering over a thousand islands with varying native communities spread across them that share strong similarities in their languages, cultures, traditions and beliefs. The largest country in Polynesia is the island of New Zealand, but the area also includes the islands of Samoa, Tonga and Hawaii. It is believed that the word tattoo originated from the Samoan word “Tatau” which translates to “to mark”. It is believed that Captain James Cook, a British colonialist, brought the word to the speaking world in the 1700’s after exploring the region, and over time it morphed into the word “tattoo” that is commonly used today.

locally known as Pe’a. It is traditionally done by someone called plements made with sharpened animal bones called “Au”. Whilst he Tufuga by stretching the skin and wiping away excess blood. tradition. Tatau are usually black geometric shapes that represent specific areas of the body. After a Tatau is complete, a celebration ning celebrated. During the celebration respects are paid to gods perform the tattoo help to shower the person in cold water, then drinks are also shared to encourage the body to recover. 12

In the late 20th Century, Polynesian Pe’a style of tattoo became extremely popular outside the region as the Polynesian islands. A key example is through international rugby. New Zealand are regularly referenced as the best rugby team in the world and many Polynesian rugby players became extremely popular in the mainstream Western media. Alongside this was the growing fame of actors such as Chris ‘The Rock’ Johnson, a Polynesian actor who had a hugely successful career as a wrestler in America and went on to regularly star in Hollywood blockbusters. This led to many people getting tattoos in this style without considering the culture connotations behind the designs or the significance it has to native Polynesians. The complex culture and style of Polynesian Pe’a is regularly reduced to the word ‘tribal’ in western tattooing. Many Polynesian people have voiced their upset over the casual way in which their culture has been used as a fa ing the phrase name Tatau historical research has also confirm oddities” by Captain Cook.” Stephen Langdon is a New Zealand based photographer who celebrities to advertising campaigns and sports teams. Langdon chin only worn by females in Polynesian countries. These intri ly heritage. They also act as a rite of passage between being a c background adding a dramatic and theatrical feel. These hear their heritage and culture, that could easily have been forgotten and the intricacy of the designs.

ashion trend, especially in the Western World. As well co-optmed the exploitation of tattooed natives exhibited as “human

o specialises in portrait and has a wide range of clients from n explored the Tatau style of “Ta moko”, a tribal band on the icate designs represent a person’s social status, tribe and famichild and being a woman. Langdon’s images are set on a black rt-warming images show these women beaming with pride for n. A strong light is used on the subject enhancing their features 14

In contrast to Ta Moko, tattooed women in Western societ nologist wrote on tattooed women in 1896 accusing them of vanity; contrary to progress”. The tattooing of women was b and connects tattooed women to criminality and soldiers. U historically racist term used to insult and undermine many no given that tattoos are extremely common across the globe b has been disappeared. Research by psychologists Burgess a “Those displaying traditional tattoos being rated as less sui those displaying contemporary tattoos.”

y were seen extremely differently. Lombroso, an Italian crimi“having an inferior sensitiveness” and it being a “gratification of believed to be counter to typical ‘feminine ideals’ of the period Ultimately Lombroso defines tattoos as the work of “savages”, a on-white ethnicities. Opinions have dramatically changed since but it has not necessarily meant the association with criminality nd Clark found that in a controlled job interview environment itable for employment than those who were not tattooed, and

In the Russian prison system, tattoos are of crucial importance socially. While they have all been convicted of criminal acts, improvised tattooing in Russian prisons is extremely strict, used to show rank in the gangs, crimes committed, and demand respect from other inmates and gang members alike. All symbols have strong and very real warnings or events that have happened attached them, rather than being symbolic of religion or commitments like the other tattoos we have explored. Russian prison tattoos should be thought of like specific codes or badges of rank, much like a soldier would have on a uniform. They serve a very practical purpose in the

the prisons by setting hierarchy and warnings as well as showing bragging rights for prisoners. The prison gang “Thieves and Law” are considered the centre of Russian prison tattooing. They first appeared in the infamous Gulag system. The word Gulag is an acronym for the Soviet government agency that controlled forced labour camps used to ‘re- educate’ and imprison political prisoners in Soviet Russia. The conditions in these camps were extremely brutal and in part explain why this gang formed and why its members are so dangerous. 18

In the past decade Russian prison tattoos have become a more common style amongst those in the Western world. This is because of its simplistic but strong style of simple black lines that contrasts with the person’s skin tones. Where having a tattoo like this in many parts of Russia would lead to them being beaten or killed, people are free from the risk of these kind of attacks in the UK and the United States. Many people seem to get these tattoos as a way of looking more threatening or like they belong to a dangerous culture. Prison tattoos originated in 1846 when guards tattooed the faces of inmates with the word ‘Kat’, short for ‘Katorzhnik’ meaning “hard labour criminal ”. In the early 1900’s inmates started to tattoo themselves and turned tattoos into signs of respect rather than just a tool for the guards. In many ways, they took ownership of the idea of tattooing criminals by wearing it as a mark of pride and identity. Early symbols were even noted by the Italian criminologist Lombroso. The most significant gang tattoo is known as the “thieves star”, a five-pointed star that can be placed anywhere on the body, but with each location having a slightly different meaning tied to that body part. For example, having a star on each knee forbids the person from ever kneeling in front of another, as sign of strength and self-respect.

Having two of these stars on either side of the chest symbolises a very high level of respect and fear of all gang members from your own and rival gangs and is considered an extremely high honour. The very violent nature of the gang members and prisoners enforces these strict rules around the tattoos. As these stars are held in such high regard, having them without earning them will often end in the person being killed, or the tattoos scratched off with a sharp tool and the person severely beaten. Some tattoos did serve other purposes outside of the violent gang structure of the prisons. During the Soviet or communist era of Russia, Gulag prisoners would regularly tattoo portraits of Stalin and Lenin on the chest. They were a popular way of giving their selves a form of protection against firing squads as guards would not shoot at their supreme leaders. Another example is a spider on the neck of the prisoner. These were used to show the prisoners’ intentions for life after prison. A spider or spiders climbing up the side of the neck towards the mouth symbolised their plan to continue with a life of crime after leaving prison and spiders climbing down symbolised the hope to leave it behind when leave. It is in some sense ironic that prisoners would tattoo their neck as a sign of leaving the criminal world but to others this was a legitimate mark to be respected.

Arkady Bronnikov, born in 1926, was referred to as ‘Russia’s leading expert on tattoo iconography’. Studying at Moscow Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs for the Soviet Union in the 1950s, he later became a local police inspector thus beginning his interest in criminal tattoos. In 1963 he became a Professor of Criminalistics at the Perm Faculty of the Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs where he regularly helped to solve criminal cases by identifying tattoos on culprits and corpses from his own archive. Bronnikov’s images were originally only intended for police use to further understand the wide and varied meanings of these tattoos, and in doing so, help them understand the prisoners’ lifestyles and values. Bronnikov’s images were never intended to be artistic because of their practical use in the police force. Its evident that no professional lighting was used making these images gritty and parts difficult to see clearly. These grainy images are much like the subjects, gritty and rough.

The subjects are all placed in front of a plain white wall, much like they would be for mug shots, and are the focus of the images with the photographer shooting only the waist area and up. The monochrome palette brings out the immense detailing in the tattoo, something that would be somewhat lost if colour was incorporated. Because these tattoos are all done in what is called ‘black work’, meaning they are all black, the colour tones of the subjects’ skin might take away the harsh contrast we see here in these images. The closer you look at these images the more you find out about the subjects, whether that be good things or bad. The immense detailing of these designs tell the viewer about almost every aspect of these men.

There is also clearly no effort made to hide the identity of these prisoners given that the use of these photographs was to identify the criminals or gang members in them. Ironically however, the gang members are proud of having these tattoos on their skin and the intention was always to show these tattoos. They aren’t ashamed of them in life and are now immortalised in these photos despite their death.

Alan Powdrill is a London based photographer and director wh exhibited here is taken from his project “Covered” ranging from ered up and one exposed revealing their tattoos. His work is inte we change our attitude to the housewife when we discover a huge differently after the massive skull on his chest is revealed?”

Each person is captured outside their own homes to highlight portraits can feel superficial, posed and almost unreal. These b the tattoos. They stand out and glare back at the audience, hig

ho specialises in editorials, portraits, and advertising. His work m 2015-2018. The project uses diptychs of one subject, one covended to explore boundaries and stereotypes, having said: “Do e tiger across her back and bum? Is the suited civil servant seen

these individuals’ normal lives, rather than in the studio where bright and colourful images are heavily saturated and accentuate ghlighting the pressure the subjects feel to keep them covered. 28

Mark leaver is a London based photographer who has earned keting, His work included in this exhibition focuses on face ta bold, honest, and almost emotional with no interference from L tured in their homes or places of work, occasionally with love that person lives – a few include children’s toys and loving pets

Face tattoos are slowly becoming more common in society but career. For some who have facial tattoos for traditional reason, cally limited. It leaves an individual with a choice of either tatt

a spot on the 2019 Forbes 30 under 30 list for media and marattoos and the stereotypes that come with. The portraits are Leaver when posing and shooting subjects. Individuals are caped ones in shot. Often the setting is telling of what kind of live s sharing the subjects living room.

t are no doubt still heavily prejudiced especially when finding a , such as Pe’a tattoos, their employment prospects are dramatitoos or a conventionally successful career. 30

In Leaver’s work you will notice negative Swastika shapes where the tattoo is ‘plus’ signs, but the negative or skin tone between each plus shows the Swastika. This may be attempt by the subject disguise or dog whistle their unsavoury belief. It’s possible that the individuals like the plus signs and were unaware of the negative, but this would be unlikely given how easy it is to spot the shape in the negative space. The traditional Hindu and Jain Swastika represented luck but has been replaced by its association with Nazism. The symbol is considered extremely sinister by most with those baring it likely to be barred from many careers and even run the risk of abuse from antifascist groups – this author believes with fair reason. Its not irrational to say that this is a case of positive stigma and prejudice in that it roots out those with vile opinions. In some twisted way, a religious symbol of peace became twisted to mean the opposite, and even advocates for the extermination of all other ethnicities and religions. Factors like this have no doubt hampered the acceptance of tattoos in the 21st century as designs try to hide their true meaning the average person. Tattoos are an extremely nuanced and complex art form. There are endless meanings and derivations spanning the entire globe. It’s inevitable that modern tattooing has developed into an enormous melting pot that borrows from various traditions and cultures. However, there are still those who are trying to reclaim the lost tradition and meanings. In doing so they face stigmatisation and prejudice due to the complex history of tattooing and ingrained association many make with crime that is yet to pass. The imagery and iconography of tattooing goes far beyond the surface level of fashion. They are complex pieces of art that demand the viewer understand their meanings, their symbolism, and the context, much like any other medium of art. 32