Tattoo by AlanisBennett

tatoeëermerk tatoeëren Tattoo татуировка Tätowierung tatouage

By Alanis Bennett 2

Contents 5- Introduction 7- Japan 11- Felice Beato 13- Polynesian 17- Stephan Langdon 19- Russia 23- Arkady Bronnikov 25- Conclusion

This short essay is intended as a companion guide to an exhibition of photographs focused on tattooing cultures across the world. The exhibition hopes to raise awareness of the depth and complexity of different native tattoo cultures across the globe by moving away from the Western World and looking at some the history of tattooing in Japan, Polynesia and Russia. Photographers have been chosen who documented these areas in an almost unbiased way by taking clear portrait style photographs. The curator of this exhibition believes that the native history and cultures of tattooing shown in this exhibition have experienced appropriation in the western world as part of surface level fashion trends. As a result the strong identity that came with these styles of tattooing has been lost. It is hoped that the viewer reconsiders any assumptions they may have around tattoos and also understands how they are one of the oldest, most legitimate and complex art forms.

Japan is infamous for its relationship with tattooing, from its timeless traditional style, to its links to the criminal underworld of the Yakuza. Unknown to many however is a rich and complex tattooing culture rooted in sacred religious tradition, pilgrimage, organised crime, and even in criminal punishment. Irezumi is the Japanese word for tattoo and covers all forms and styles. Over the history of Japan, the opinion, symbolism, and cultural role of tattoos has varied quite dramatically. During the 7th century tattoos were most commonly solid black symbols. These were used as punishments for criminals with different crimes represented by different symbols. The symbols were then tattooed on exposed areas of the body like the hand and even forehead as a way of singling out those who committed crimes and encourage others to ridicule them. The practice was brought to Japan through the Chinese who held influence on Japan during this era, thus turning the word Irezumi into something negative. This association with criminals cemented the belief that Irezumi was the mark of gang members or dangerous people in society, a belief that carries through to the modern day. For example, public baths and spas, a fundamental part of Japanese social culture, exclude any one with tattoos from bathing. As mentioned, there is a sacred and religious side to Japanese tattoo cultural. Centuries before tattoos became associated with criminals, traditional tattoos were a part of the practice of Horimono. The word Horimono refers to the engraved designs on a blade such as a katana or a tanto. However, the word is also used to reference a specific style of traditional tattoo. Those with Horimono tattoos also take part in a yearly pilgrimage to a holy mountain as a part of their religion. During this pilgrimage the people involved climb to a shrine by a waterfall wearing only a Fundoshi, a type of cloth underwear wrap, to expose their tattoos to the gods, or Kami. They are guided on the pilgrimage by someone called a Sendoshi which is the name given to a Japanese priest. When they reach the shrine, they wash under the waterfall and believe themselves cleansed. After completing this ritual they share a meal, trade stories since their last pilgrimage meeting and even add to their tattoos.

The actual designs used in Horimono tend to be of traditional Shinto gods tattooed on then as a reminder to keep their faith, for good luck and as a sign of respect and devotion. For example, many Horimono tattoos may include a design of a samurai warrior which refers to the kami god ‘Hachiman’, a master samurai and protector. It is believed he will protect the person from evil ‘Oni’ spirits in Japanese folklore. Their Horimono will also have things they may aspire to be or to have. For example, designs of koi fish represent fortune and good luck, while dragons are considered another form of protectors. A phoenix would mean rebirth and triumph in the face of difficulty. These tattoos are all believed to be good omens and bring the person closer to the gods but also serve as reminders of their experiences and tough times. This then encourages them to live up to the meanings of the designs and to keep the gods in mind. Currently, tattoos are banned in Japan due to their older associations with crime, but especially because of the modern association with the Yakuza through the influence of film. This led to people having to hide their Horimono in public places such as baths, saunas, swimming pools and gyms. Because of this, people only have Horimono in places that are easy to hide Those with these tattoos have enormous and complex designs covering most of their bodies, but with exceptions made for hands, wrists, neck, head, feet, and middle of the chest along a button line of a shirt. This is so the tattoos can be completely hidden by clothing. Despite the restrictions on tattoos in public and the association with criminal activity, the practice of Horimono still continues.

To investigate further the culture of tattooing in Japan, this exhibition displays the work of Felice Beato. Beato was an Italian photographer born in Venice in 1832 who extensively travelled the Mediterranean and of importance here East Asia. Due to many photographs being signed “Felice Antonio Beato” and Felice A. Beato, It was long assumed that Beato somehow managed to photograph in the same place at the same time such as Egypt and Japan but it was later discovered that “Felice Antonio Beato” represented two brothers, Felice and Antonio, working together and sharing a signature. Felice sometimes worked with his brother Antonio in the Middle East and Asia working on souvenir photographs, which were of high demand at that time. Felice lived and worked in Japan from 1862 to around 1885 extensively documenting an area previously unseen by the rest of the world. After his extensive travelling Beato eventually passed away in Florence, Italy, in 1909. Beato was known around Europe for being one of the first people to take pictures in East Asia and the first to create hand coloured photographs and photographic albums in Japan. As one of the first photographers from Europe to shoot in Japan, Felice’s photographs defined many peoples’ perception and understanding of these foreign lands. Arriving in Japan in 1863, Beato began an intense study into every aspect of the country including religion, culture, social attitudes, and the military of the country which was at the time mostly Samurai Clans. While a lot of his work are considered classic photographs, especially the Samurai works, Beato’s portrait photographs of Japanese tattoo are particularly special. As mentioned, he was one of the first photographers to offer colour photos and in doing so documented the vibrant colours and style of traditional Japanese tattoos. Throughout his career Beato used only one lens he purchased in Paris in 1851. Not much else is known about his setup other than that he shot on film, only known because his work was made in the 1800’s. The viewers’ eyes are instantly drawn to the beautiful vivid colours of these tattoos which contrast the backgrounds. The backgrounds are consistently a similar subdued shade of beige to ensure your focus is on the tattoos at all times. The colour palette of tattoos wasn’t very wide at this time, so blue, red and black were most common as seen in these images. The men in the images are the focal point and all centred, facing the background. It is clear that the most important part of a Horimono tattoo is the back as it holds the most detail and allows for bigger more intricate designs. Despite the images being very similar to each other, the tattoos themselves are all widely different making each image more interesting than the last as the viewer considers the similarities in differences in each design. 11

Polynesia is a blanket name given to a collection of islander communities in the continent of Oceania. The area of Polynesia actually covers over one thousand islands with many different native communities spread across them, but all share strong similarities in their languages, cultures, traditions and beliefs. The largest country in Polynesia is the island of New Zealand, but the area also includes the islands of Samoa, Tonga and Hawaii. It is believed that the word tattoo originated from the Samoan word “Tatau” which translates to “to mark”. It is believed that Captain James Cook, a British colonialist, brought the word to the English speaking world in the 1700’s after exploring the region, and over time it morphed into the word “tattoo” that is commonly used today. In the Polynesian islands a style of tattooing is practiced that is locally known as Pe’a. It is traditionally done by someone called a ‘Tafuga’ or a tattoo master. This style of tattooing is done with two hands using implements made by animal bones, called “Au” with teeth like spikes to pierce the skin and allow the ink to enter. Whilst the tattoo is being dine there are a group of people called ‘Coso’ who are there to assist the Tafuga by stretching the skin to correct tension, wipe away excess blood. Aside from that they are there to generally support the person having the Tatau as it’s an extremely long and can be quite a painful process that can have a heavy physical toll on someone. This is in part because of course no machines are used instead relying on the traditional but slower stick and poke process of tattooing.

in Polynesian culture, Tattoos act as reminders of tradition. It is common to see lots of variations of the same designs all conveying a very similar message. Tatau are usually black geometric shapes that represent plants, animals, and oceans. Many are ocean themed as they represent their ancestors who travelled between islands to island. Certain occasions are marked by a special Tatau on a certain area. After a Tatau is complete, which can in some cases take a week, a celebration is held called a “Sama” where the tattoo is blessed and its meaning celebrated to raise the spirit of the person who has been tattooed. During the celebration respects are paid to gods and ancestors. The Coso who originally helped to Tafuga to perform the tattoo help to shower the person in cold water, then coconut oil is rubbed on the fresh Tatau. Nutritional foods and drinks are also shared to encourage the body to recover. The Polynesian Pe’a style of tattoo became extremely popular outside the region as the Polynesian islands found great success. A great example is in international rugby, a sport that originated in England with a large western supporter base. With New Zealand regularly referenced as the best rugby team in the world, many Polynesian rugby players became extremely popular in the mainstream Western media. Alongside this was the growing fame of actors such as Chris ‘The Rock’ Johnson who had a hugely successful career as a wrestler in America and went on to regularly star in Hollywood blockbusters. This led to many people getting tattoos in this style without understanding the true meaning or context behind the designs or the meaning it has to native Polynesians. The complex culture and style of Polynesian Pe’a is regularly reduced to the word ‘tribal’ in western tattooing. Many Polynesian people have voiced their upset over the casual way in which their culture has been used as a fashion trend, especially in the Western World.

The photographer chosen to represent the diverse cultures in Polynesia is Stephan Langdon. Langdon is a New Zealand based photographer who often works in Australia with a career spanning over 30 years. He specialises in portrait and has a wide range of clients from celebrities to advertising campaigns and sports teams. For this body of work Langdon explores the Tatau style of “Ta moko”, a tribal band on the chin only worn by females in Polynesian countries. These intricate designs represent a person’s social status, tribe and family heritage. They also act as a rite of passage between being a child and being a woman. The images are all set on a black background and add a sort of dramatic and theatrical feel to them. These heart-warming images show these women beaming with pride for their heritage and culture, something that almost died off in the 1900’s but was reclaimed in the 80’s.These close up portraits focus in on these geometrical designs that take up the whole chin and really show the viewer the little details that you could only see up close. A strong light on the subject really enhances their features and brings out the intricacy of these designs.

In the Russian prison system, tattoos are of crucial importance socially. While they have all been convicted of criminal acts, improvised tattooing in Russian prisons is extremely strict, used to show rank in the gangs, crimes committed, and demand respect from other inmates and gang members alike. All symbols have strong and very real warnings or events that have happened attached them, rather than being symbolic of religion or commitments like the other tattoos we have explored. Russian prison tattoos should be thought more of specific codes or badges of rank, much like a soldier would have on a uniform. They serve a very practical purpose in the prisons by setting hierarchy and warnings as well as showing bragging rights for prisoners. To understand the meaning of the tattoos it makes sense to understand the structure of inmates in these prisons. It’s first important to understand that many of the prisoners who have these tattoos will be professional prisoners who aren’t shy of extreme violence. The prison gang “thieves and law” are considered the top of the prison gang hierarchy. They first appeared during the infamous Gulag system. The word Gulag is an acronym for the Soviet government agency that controlled forced labour camps used to ‘re-educate’ and imprison political prisoners in Soviet Russia. The conditions in these camps we’re extremely brutal and in part explain why this gang formed and why its members are so dangerous. At the bottom of the hierarchy inside is the “down casts”, the left-over shamed prisoners who have in one way or another done something to exile them from the gangs higher up the rankings. Once a prisoner is branded with any of the gangs’ symbols, their status is permanent. If a prisoner has no tattoos they are ignored or coerced by gang members until a symbol is earned.

In the past decade Russian prison tattoos have become a more common style amongst those in the Western world. This is because of its simplistic but strong style of simple black lines that contrasts with the person’s skin tones. Where having a tattoo like this in many parts of Russia would lead to them being beaten or killed, people are free from the risk of these kind of attacks in the UK and the United States. Many people seem to get these tattoos as a way of looking more threatening or like they belong to a dangerous culture. Prison tattoos originated in 1846 when guards tattooed the faces of inmates with the word ‘Kat’ which is short for ‘Katorzhnik’ which means “hard labour criminal”. In the early 1900’s inmates started to tattoo themselves and turned tattoos into signs of respect rather than just a tool for the guards. In many ways, they took ownership of the idea of tattooing criminals by wearing it as a mark of pride and identity. The most important of the gang tattoos is known as the “thieves star”, a five-pointed star that can be placed anywhere on the body, but with each location having a slightly different meaning tied to that body part. For example, having a star on each knee forbids the person from ever kneeling in front of another, as sign of strength and self-respect. Having two of these stars on either side of the chest symbolises a very high level of respect and fear of all gang members from your own and rival gangs and is considered an extremely high honour. The very violent nature of the gang members and prisoners enforces these strict rules around the tattoos. As these stars are held in such high regard, having them without earning them will often end in the person being killed, or the tattoos scratched off with a sharp tool and the person severely beaten. Some tattoos did serve other purposes outside of the violent gang structure of the prisons. During the Soviet or communist era of Russia, Gulag prisoners would regularly tattoo portraits of Stalin and Lenin on the chest. They were a popular way of giving their selves a form of protection against firing squads as guards would not shoot at their supreme leaders. Another example is a spider on the neck of the prisoner. These were used to show the prisoners’ intentions for life after prison. A spider or spiders climbing up the side of the neck towards the mouth symbolised their plan to continue with a life of crime after leaving prison and spiders climbing down symbolised the hope to leave it behind when leave. It is in some sense ironic that prisoners would tattoo their neck as a sign of leaving the criminal world but to others this was a legitimate mark to be respected. 21

Arkady Bronnikov, born in 1926, was referred to as ‘Russia’s leading expert on tattoo iconography’. Studying at Moscow Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs for the Soviet Union in the 1950s, he later became a local police inspector thus beginning his interest in criminal tattoos. In 1963 he became a Professor of Criminalistics at the Perm Faculty of the Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs where he regularly helped to solve criminal cases by identifying tattoos on culprits and corpses from his own archive. Bronnikov’s images were originally only intended for police use to further understand the wide and varied meanings of these tattoos, and in doing so, help them understand the prisoners’ lifestyles and values. As mentioned, Bronnikov’s images were never intended to be artistic in anyway because of their practical use in the police force. It is clear that there isn’t any professional lighting used, which makes these images raw and some parts of them difficult to see clearly. These grainy images are much like the subjects, gritty and rough. The subjects are all placed in front of a plain white wall, much like they would be for mug shots, and are the main focus of the images with the photographer shooting only from the waist area and up. The black and white colour palette really bring out the immense detailing in the tattoo, something that would be somewhat lost if colour was incorporated. Because these tattoos are all done in what is called ‘black work’, meaning they are all black, the colour tones of the subjects’ skin might take away the harsh contrast we see here in these images. The closer you look at these images the more you find out about the subjects, whether that be good things or bad. The immense detailing of these designs tell the viewer about almost every aspect of these men. There is also clearly no effort made to hide the identity of these prisoners given that the use of these photographs was to identify the criminals or gang members in them. Ironically however, the gang members are proud of having these tattoos on their skin and the intention was always to show these tattoos. They aren’t ashamed of them in life and are now immortalised in these photos despite their death.

This exhibition has explored the deeper origins of different styles of tattooing and the cultures associated with them. It is clear that, although tattooing in the Western world is associated mostly with fashion trends, the roots of tattooing are in purpose, meaning and belonging. To many they are a key part of their social culture. In some cases these purposes include religion, celebration and worship as we saw heavily in the older tattoo cultures of Polynesia and Japan. In other cases they are warnings or tell of events that have happened to the person with them, both good and bad. This includes the marriage of a woman in Polynesian cultures where they receive a chin tattoo, or the struggle someone overcame in Japanese culture with the phoenix tattoo. Of course this is all the far darker side of crime and punishment, seen in both Japan and the more modern practices in Russia. Interestingly though is how the practice of receiving these tattoos as a punishment for crime is now seen as a way of earning authority and respect, shown by the Russian prison gangs but also by the more well-known Yakuza, whoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tattoos became such a strong symbol that they are banned from revealing them in public. This exhibition has demonstrated how the imagery and iconography or symbolism of tattooing goes far beyond the