typographic principles by alanna scott

typographic principles

a booklet of typographic exercises compiled by alanna scott

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2â&#x20AC;&#x192; typographic principles

typographic principles a booklet of typographic exercises compiled by alanna scott

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4â&#x20AC;&#x192; typographic principles

contents

exercises

Introduction 7

Kerning 8 Leading, Measure and Character Count 10 Paragraph 12 Cropping for Meaning 14 Hierarchy 16 Grid System 18 Tabular Matter 20 H&J and Hanging Punctuation 22

Conclusion 24 Bibliography 24

6â&#x20AC;&#x192; typographic principles

introduction

The purpose of the booklet is twofold. Firstly, it is a demonstration of the typographic principles explored in Clément Vincent’s COMD 210 Core Studio II course. Over the course of eight weeks the class focused on the principles of typographic design such as kerning; leading, measure & character count; paragraphs; cropping for meaning; hierarchy; grid systems; tabular matter; and hyphenation & justification, ligatures and hanging punctuation. It is the goal in designing this booklet that I might put to practice the knowledge I have gained from the exercises completed over the past eight weeks on macro and micro levels. Secondly, this booklet is a way of documenting and gathering the work I have completed from the first part of the semester, to form a small portfolio and record of my learning.

exercise one » kerning Overview The objective is to create visually even and balanced spacing between all of the letters in the word. Interletter spacing and kerning are critical to the aesthetic and legibility of typesetting and lettering. (Vincent/Mazzucca assignment sheet)

Kern consistently and modestly or not at all. Inconsistencies in letterfit are inescapable, given the forms of the Latin alphabet, and small irregularities are after all esential to the legibility of roman type. Kerning — altering the space between selected pairs of letters — can increase consistency of spacing in a word like Washington or Toronto, where the combinations Wa and To are kerned. But names like Wisconsin, Tübingen, Tbilisi and Los Alamos, as well as common words like The and This, remain more or less immune to alteration. (Bringhurst 32)

Meta, 80pt, graphite on vellum

8 typographic principles

“Typefaces with small letterforms require less space between letters than those with large counter forms. If the letterspace is visually larger than median counterforms of the lower case letters the type appears too open.” (Kunz 28)

Cheltenham, 80pt, graphite on vellum

Gill Sans, 80pt, graphite on vellum

exercise two » leading, measure & character count Overview Leading is a term carried over from metal typesetting. It refers to the strips of lead added between lines of lead type. Leading is measured from baseline to baseline. When we say the type is ’10 on 14’, it means 10 point type with a 14 point leading. It is written out like this: 10/14pt. The term ‘setting solid’ refers to a leading that’s the same size as the type, ie 9/9pt. Do not leave your type at auto leading in your typesetting software (Auto leading is usually 120% of the type size). The typeface chosen, point size, x-height, ascender and descender lengths and line length all affect how much leading should be used. Sanserifs typefaces typically need slightly larger leading. What’s important is the lines of type don’t run into each other or too loose that they don’t cohere together. Measure is the term specified for the column width of a paragraph or block of type. Text columns have an optimum measure based on variables such as typeface, point size, ideal “character count” and ideal word count. (Character count is all letters, spaces and punctuation per line of text). Often times a text column measure is confused with “line length”- which is different as the length of each individual line can vary based on the para graphs alignment (i.e. flush left/rag right type will have a varying line length based on word breaks and hyphenation). (Vincent/Mazzucca assignment sheet)

10 typographic principles

A handleable format—which can be held, if possible, in just one hand—thus relatively small and narrow; paper that is soft, flexible, not too heavy and not dazzlingly white; not less than 45 and not more than 65 characters in a line; a readable, timeless typeface, sufficently large in size (but not too big!) and set to the right measure, with correct word-spacing (as small as possible and as large as necessary); sufficient space between the lines; indented first lines, so that sections of text can be recognized; chapter headings, which make a break, but do not disrupt the flow of the whole: a typography that holds itself back as far as possible. And the motto that ‘typography serves’ holds good for almost every book, where it serves with special modesty. Modest, not uncaring: even the simplest typography can be decent, appropriate, yes even beautiful. With the criteria given here and the right page and text-area proportions: what more does one need? The make-up, i.e. the division into separate pages of an endless column of text, does not, at least in theory, pose any great problem for a book of continuous text. But in practice it is sometimes simpler to make up the pages of a strongly structured and heavily illustrated book so that a new page never begins with the last line of a paragraph (a ‘widow’). If the first line of a new paragraph falls on the last line of a page (sometimes called an ‘orphan’), this is tolerable, though certainly not ideal; but an incomplete line at the start of a column should under all circumstances be avoided. The space above and below headings can perhaps be reduced or increased; but then, if nothing else is possible, this mistake should be avoided by spacing out or bringing in the preceding lines. That means that a new make-up of

A handleable format—which can be held, if possible, in just one hand—thus relatively small and narrow; paper that is soft, flexible, not too heavy and not dazzlingly white; not less than 45 and not more than 65 characters in a line; a readable, timeless typeface, sufficently large in size (but not too big!) and set to the right measure, with correct wordspacing (as small as possible and as large as necessary); sufficient space between the lines; indented first lines, so that sections of text can be recognized; chapter headings, which make a break, but do not disrupt the flow of the whole: a typography that holds itself back as far as possible. And the motto that ‘typography serves’ holds good for almost every book, where it serves with special modesty. Modest, not uncaring: even the simplest typography can be decent, appropriate, yes even beautiful. With the criteria given here and the right page and text-area proportions: what more does one need? The make-up, i.e. the division into separate pages of an endless column of text, does not, at least in theory, pose any great problem for a book of continuous text. But in practice it is sometimes simpler to make up the pages of a strongly structured and heavily illustrated book so that a new page never begins with the last line of a paragraph (a ‘widow’). If the first line of a new paragraph falls on the last line of a page (sometimes called an ‘orphan’), this is tolerable, though certainly not ideal; but an incomplete line at the start of a column should under all circumstances be avoided. The space above and below headings can perhaps be reduced or increased; but then, if nothing else is possible, this mistake should be avoided by spacing out or bringing in the preceding lines. That means that a new make-up of lines is achieved, either by losing a line with reduced word-space, or by gaining one through increase of word-space. If this too is not possible, a column of text can exceptionally be reduced by one line, or, if one is dealing with an incomplete last line, then the column may be increased by a line. But on no account should the register–the constant line increment–be altered.

Bembo 6/8 measure: 5p char count/line: 21-26 justification: 90-100-110

Bembo 7/9 measure: 10p char count/line: 40-46 justification: 90-100-110

bembo 8.5/11 measure: 20p char count/line: 67-77 justification: 90-100-110

A handleable format—which can be held, if possible, in just one hand— thus relatively small and narrow; paper that is soft, flexible, not too heavy and not dazzlingly white; not less than 45 and not more than 65 characters in a line; a readable, timeless typeface, sufficently large in size (but not too big!) and set to the right measure, with correct word-spacing (as small as possible and as large as necessary); sufficient space between the lines; indented first lines, so that sections of text can be recognized; chapter headings, which make a break, but do not disrupt the flow of the whole: a typography that holds itself back as far as possible. And the motto that ‘typography serves’ holds good for almost every book, where it serves with special modesty. Modest, not uncaring: even the simplest typography can be decent, appropriate, yes even beautiful. With the criteria given here and the right page and text-area proportions: what more does one need? The make-up, i.e. the division into separate pages of an endless column of text, does not, at least in theory, pose any great problem for a book of continuous text. But in practice it is sometimes simpler to make up the pages of a strongly structured and heavily illustrated book so that a new page never begins with the last line of a paragraph (a ‘widow’). If the first line of a new paragraph falls on the last line of a page (sometimes called an ‘orphan’), this is tolerable, though certainly not ideal; but an incomplete line at the start of a column should under all circumstances be avoided. The space above and below headings can perhaps be reduced or increased; but then, if nothing else is possible, this mistake should be avoided by spacing out or bringing in the preceding lines. That means that a new make-up of lines is achieved, either by losing a line with reduced word-space, or by gaining one through increase of word-space. If this too is not possible, a column of text can exceptionally be reduced by one line, or, if one is dealing with an incomplete last line, then the column may be increased by a line. But on no account should the register–the constant line increment–be altered.

“Longer measures need more lead than short ones. Dark faces need more lead than light ones. Large-bodied faces need more lead than smaller-bodied ones.”

Frutiger 10/13pt measure: 30p char count/line: 76-82 justification: 90-100-100

(Bringhurst 37)

The intent of the digital exercises was to explore optimal settings for typesize, leading and character count within measures of 5p, 10p, 20p, 30p, 40p set in Bembo and Frutiger.

The aim of this exercise is to introduce how the line increments (leading) work in typographic design and compare how different line increments and fonts x-height affect the typographic color of a block of text.

exercise three » paragraph

Overview Paragraphs organise ideas into portions that are easy for readers to comprehend. This in-class exercise explores how paragraphs are indicated and compares how different paragraph indication methods affect how a block of type is read. Paragraph indications that are too subtle might be confusing; if they are too strong, the smooth flow of reading is disrupted. First line indents of extra space between paragraphs are the two most conventional methods for indicating paragraphs. As a typographic designer you have to select a method that’s suitable for the content and meet the readers needs (or challenge expectations). (Vincent/Mazzucca assignment sheet)

“The fuction of a paragraph indent is to mark a pause, setting the paragraph apart from what precedes it.” (Bringhurst 139)

12 typographic principles

Initial sketches to explore possibilities in distinguishing paragraphs.

Notes on paragraphs · units of thought · boundaries between thought · rhythm & proportion · flow of thought · visual indication of new ideas within a whole · too little distinction causes confusion, the much fragments the whole text and derails concept · consider content and what is appropriate most common ways to set paragraphs apart: · indents, outdents (should correspond to leading), pilcrows, droplines and paragraph rules

exercise four » cropping for meaning

Overview Communication designers often shape the message of an image through the use of cropping. They can do this to both direct the content that is essential to the objective of the communication, as well as do address form aspects of the image and the overall composition of a page. A designer may not feel obligated to retain the “purity” of the full frame photograph, and may use principles of content heirarchy by employing simple methods of zooming, rotating, and framing and image for a directed intent and impact. Often this is done in concert with the formal aspects of the image (shape, contrast, direction, scale, etc.) as well as the dynamics with other elements of the page. In essence, the communication designer is an editor of content by the choices of what to show and what not to show to the viewer as well as using form in the image crop and compositional orientation to build the desired image. (Vincent/Mazzucca, assignment sheet)

14 typographic principles

Methods · zooming, rotating, and framing an image for a directed intent and impact Key Ideas · subtraction of elements · reduction to simplify or elicit curiosity · changing context in a visual sense · taking away unnecessary information

By using a cropping tool (two L shaped pieces of illustration board, one side black, one side white) new meanings and messages were explored by creating new croppings at different sizes and rotations.

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exercise five » hierarchy

Overview Communication designers use hierarchy to orchestrate the visual experience of the viewers/readers. Through the use of hierarchy, the attention of the audience is directed, so elements are placed according to their relative importance. Hierarchy often (though not always) works on the macro and micro scales. The dominating element in a piece of communication design might be an interesting image that would entice and engage the audience, or the most important piece of textual information, set in a bold and distinctive typeface, in a vibrant colour. After the viewer’s attention is sufficiently engaged, elements in a smaller scale–text or image–would provide further information. Hierarchy is typically achieved through the use of contrast–of space, scale, weight, colour, texture, etc. An intricate system of hierarchy could then be applied consistently through the use of the principles of proximity, similarity and repetition. (Vincent/Mazzucca assignment sheet)

“Through minimal changes in type size and weight, visual layers can be created. Some elements protrude to the foreground while others recede into the background, establishing a visual hierarchy that is essential to all typographic communication.” (Kunz 99)

16 typographic principles

Notes for the hand-generated exercises. Before I started cutting and pasting each line I tried to identify groupings and the most important information within the text.

Invisible Cities

V C ISIB IT LE IE S

INVISIBLE CITIES

Italo Calvino

Translated from the Italian by William Weaver

li ta eI th m er fro eav ted W sla am an illi Tr y W b

lo ino Ita alv C

Translated from the Italian by William Weaver

arc

H ce

Bra vic

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Spread and book cover designs for the book Invisible Cities by Italo Calvino

CITIES & SIGNS 3

THIN CITIES 2 Now I shall tell of the city of Zenobia, which is wonderful in this fashion: though set on dry terrain it stands on high pilings, and the houses are of bamboo and zinc, with many platforms and balconies placed on stilts at various heights, crossing one another, linked by ladders and hanging sidewalks, surmounted by cone-roofed belvederes, barrels storing water, weather vanes, jutting pulleys, and fish poles, and cranes. No one remembers what need or command or desire drove Zenobia’s founders to give their city this form, and so there is no telling whether it was satisfied by the city as we see it today, which has perhaps grown through successive superimpositions from the first, now undecipherable plan. But what is certain is that if you ask an inhabitant of Zenobia to describe his vision of a happy life, it is always a city like Zenobia that he imagines, with its pilings and its suspended stairways, a Zenobia perhaps quite different, a-flutter with banners and ribbons, but always derived by combining elements of that first model. This said, it is pointless trying to decide whether Zenobia is to be classified among happy cities or among the unhappy. It makes no sense to divide cities into these two species, but rather into another two: those that through the years and the changes continue to give their form to desires, and those in which desires either erase the city or are erased by it.

Invisible Cities

The man who is traveling and does not yet know the city awaiting him along his route wonders what the palace will be like, the barracks, the mill, the theater, the bazaar. In every city of the empire every building is different and set in a different order: but as soon as the stranger arrives at the unknown city and his eye penetrates the pine cone of pagodas and garrets and haymows, following the scrawl of the canals, gardens, rubbish heaps, he immediately distinguishes which are the princes’ palaces, the high priests’ temples, the tavern, the prison, the slum. This–some say–confirms the hypothesis that each man bears in his mind a city made only of differences, a city without figures and without form, and the individual cities fill it up. This is not true of Zoe. In every point of this city you can, in turn, sleep, make tools, cook, accumulate gold, disrobe, reign, sell, question oracles. Any one of its pyramid roofs could cover the leprosarium or the odalisques’ baths. The traveler roams all around and has nothing but doubts: he is unable to distin-guish the features of the city, the features he keeps distinct in his mind also mingle. He infers this: if existence in all its moments is all of itself, Zoe is the place of indivisible existence. But why, then, does the city exist? What line separates the inside from the outside, the rumble of wheels from the howl of wolves?

exercise six » grid system

Overview For complex, extensive assignments, a pre-determined structure—the grid system—is necessary. In contrast to the optically improvised structure, the grid is a closed system that is implemented consistently once the structure has been developed. Modular grids consist of a series of modules separated by a consistent space and organized into columns and row. Modules determine the dimensions and placement of graphic and typographic elements, which may include pictures, headings, text, captions, and page numbers. In this way, the grid system serves as a strong organizational device, providing unity between page elements and the pages themselves, while at the same time allowing for a vast number of variations. The grid functions strictly as an organizational device, one that provides order but is itself invisible. Graphic and typographic elements are guided by, but never subordinated to, the grid. Although it facilitates order, using a grid does not necessarily yield unimaginative and rigid solutions. Like any systematic approach, it can lead to lively results if used with imagination and applied to the right task. (Kunz 58)

18 typographic principles

Brazil

Brasília

Brazil is a federal republic divided into 26 states and the Federal District (Distrito Federal), the latter including the capital city, Brasília.

The plan of the central city has been likened to a bird, a bow and arrow, or an airplane.

Since 1934 the nation has had universal suffrage. In 1988

Brazil promulgated a new constitution—the eighth since the country’s independence in 1822—that abolished many

is emphasized by the Highway Axis (Eixo Rodoviário), which curves from the north to the southwest and links

traces of the military regime (1964–85), defined civil rights,

Brasília’s main residential neighbourhoods, and the straight

and outlined the functions of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. It restricted the president’s power

Monumental Axis (Eixo Monumental), which runs northwestsoutheast and is lined by federal and civic buildings. At the

to legislate, proscribed government censorship of the arts, cond-emned the use of torture, prohibited extradition for po-

northwestern end of the Monumental Axis are municipal buildings, while at the southeastern end, near the middle

litical crimes, set the minimum voting age at 16 years, and

shore of Lake Paranoá, stand the executive, judicial, and

allowed the federal government to intervene in state and local affairs. The constitution has been amended several times

legislative buildings around the Square of Three Powers, the conceptual heart of the city. These and other major

since its promulgation, but some of the changes have been

structures were designed by the Brazilian architect Oscar

temporary, with specifically designated timespans.

Niemeyer. In the Square of Three Powers, he created as a focal point the dramatic Congressional Palace, which is a composition of five parts: twin administrative towers flanked by a large, white concrete dome (the meeting place of the Senate) and by an equally massive concrete bowl (the Chamber of Deputies), which is joined to the dome by an underlying, flat-roofed building. Also in the square are the glass-faced Planalto Palace and the Palace of the Supreme Court. Farther east, on a triangle of land jutting into the lake, is the Palace of the Dawn (Palácio da Alvorada; the

Brasília, Exio Monumental

Itamaraty Palace (the Palace of Foreign Affairs), and the pyramidal Boavontade church.

Brasília, ministerios, cathedral, museum

Both low-cost and luxury housing were built by the government in the central city area. The residential zones of the inner city are arranged into superquadras (“superblocks”), groups of apartment buildings along with a prescribed number and type of schools, retail stores, and open spaces. At the northern end of Lake Paranoá, separated from the inner city, is a peninsula upon which stand many fashion-

“The challenge for a designer is to develop a structure with the appropriate number of subdivisions of space: too few limit the expressiveness of the design; too many increase the difficulty of work, even though they render an often necessary fineness of detail.” (Kunz 64)

able homes; a similar neighbourhood exists on the southern lakeshore. Originally, the city planners envisioned extensive public areas along the shores of the artificial lake, but, during early development of the area, private clubs, hotels, and upscale residences and restaurants gained footholds around the water. Set well apart from the city are suburban “satellite towns,” including Gama, Ceilândia, Taguatinga, Núcleo Bandeirante, Sobradinho, and Planaltina. These areas were not planned as permanent settlements and thus offer stark contrasts to the symmetry and spacing of Brasília. The city has been acclaimed for its use of modernist architecture on a grand scale and for its somewhat utopian city plan; however, it has been roundly criticized for much the same reasons. After a visit to Brasília, the French writer

Congress Building, Brasília, Brazil, by Oscar Niemeyer, 1960.

Simone de Beauvoir complained that all of its superquadras exuded “the same air of elegant monotony,” and other observers have equated the city’s large open lawns, plazas, and fields to wastelands.

Brasília

presidential residence). Between the federal and civic buildings on the Monumental Axis is the city’s cathedral, considered by many to be Niemeyer’s finest achievement (see photographs of the exterior and interior). The parabolically shaped structure is characterized by its 16 gracefully curving supports, which join in a circle 115 feet (35 metres) above the floor of the nave; stretched between the supports are translucent walls of tinted glass. The nave is entered via a subterranean passage rather than conventional doorways. Other notable buildings are Catetinho Palace,

This project is structured to allow you to experiment with the spatial organization of editorial elements, text and images within spreads. The goal is to develop a grid that is appropriate for managing the various levels of content. (Vincent/Mazzucca assignment sheet)

Oscar Niemeyer Oscar Niemeyer Soares Filho Brazilian architect and early exponent of modern architecture in Latin America, particularly noted for his work on Brasília, the new capital of Brazil.

Congress Building, Brasília, Brazil, by Oscar Niemeyer, 1960.

Niemeyer studied architecture at the National School of Fine Arts, Rio de Janeiro. Shortly before his graduation in 1934, he entered the office of Lúcio Costa, a leader of the modern movement in Brazilian architecture. He worked with Costa from 1937 to 1943 on the design for the Ministry of Education and Health building, considered by many to be the first modern architectural masterpiece in Brazil. Le Corbusier, the Swiss-born French architect, was a consultant on the building, which shows his influence. Niemeyer also worked with Costa on the designs for the Brazilian Pavilion for the New York World’s Fair of 1939–40. The plan for Pampulha, a new suburb of Belo Horizonte, was Niemeyer’s first major project on his own. The project, commissioned in 1941 by Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira, then mayor of Belo Horizonte, is notable for the free-flowing forms used in many of its buildings. Other commissions followed, and in 1947 Niemeyer represented Brazil in the planning of the United Nations buildings in New York City. Following his election to the presidency of Brazil in 1956, Kubitschek asked Niemeyer to design the new capital

Brasilia, courthouse

city of Brasília. Niemeyer agreed to design the government buildings but suggested a national competition for the master plan, a competition subsequently won by his mentor, Lúcio Costa. Niemeyer served as chief architect for NOVA-CAP, the government building authority in Brasília, from 1956 to 1961. Among the Brasília buildings designed by Niemeyer are the President’s Palace, the Brasília Palace Hotel, the presidential chapel, and the cathedral. In 1961 Niemeyer returned to private practice and lived in Paris and Israel. In 1966 he designed an urban area in Grasse, near Nice, France, and a building for the French Communist Party in Paris. From 1968 he lectured at the University of Rio de Janeiro. Niemeyer’s other architectural projects included the Ministry of Defense building in Brasília in 1968 and Constantine University (now Mentouri University) in Constantine, Algeria, in 1969. The recipient of many international architectural awards, he was a cowinner (with Gordon Bunshaft) of the 1988 Pritzker Prize. In 1963 Niemeyer received the Lenin Peace Prize.

exercise seven » tabular matter

Overview Tables are commonly used to organize and present data. This presentation of data in a table is often referred to as ‘tabular presentation’. Tables work on two axes – vertical and horizontal, but they don’t all present information in the same way. It all depends on the type of table you use – whether textual (word), statistical, or numerical. (Vincent/Mazzucca assignment sheet)

Important Aspects to Consider Contrast · make key elements of your table stand out from on another by grouping or distinguishing data from each other · remember, “less is more” when it comes to designing effective tables

Spacing · use white space in your table to organize and clarify data, e.g., you should always have enough space around and between text so that it stands out · use white space to separate groups or emphasize them (selected from the Table Anatomy handout)

Alignment · alignment is very important for keeping your table neat clear and easy to understand · use open and clear numerals and lining numerals which provide a clear horizontal axis Ordering · group items that are similar in nature to give a sense of structure and meaning to your table · you should indent subordinate data when it falls under specific column data

20 typographic principles

These two tables were redesigned from the original table designs, in an attempt to make them easier and quicker to read.

Table B-12

(Billions of dollars; except as noted)

Wholesale trade

Retail trade

285.3

349.9

519.0

357.9

122.8

318.1

366.0

927.3

543.2

384.1

135.9

337.4

Working interests in productive wells

389.0

1990

5803.1

4997.8

96.7

84.9

248.5

947.40

542.7

404.7

142.9

347.7

398.8

Gross

Net

957.50

North America U.S Crude Oil

11,533

6,609

2,722

1,313

Canada Natural Gas Crude Oil

1,147

4,458 581

198

Crude Oil

166

Worldwide

Total Worldwide

Mining

5995.9

5138.7

76.0

230.2

540.9

416.6

152.5

360.5

405.5

6337.7

5440.4

99.6

71.3

232.5

996.70

562.8

433.8

157.4

378.9

430.0

6657.4

5729.3

93.1

72.1

248.3

1039.90

593.1

446.8

165.3

401.2

458.0

1994

7072.2

6110.5

174.6

442.7

105.6

73.6

274.4

1995

7397.7

6407.2

93.1

74.1

287.0

1177.30

677.2

500.0

181.5

457.0

514.9

1996

7816.9

6795.2

113.8

87.5

311.7

1209.40

706.5

502.9

183.3

489.1

543.8

1997

8304.3

7247.5

110.7

92.6

337.6

1279.8

755.5

524.3

179.6

521.2

574.2

1998

8747.0

7652.5

102.4

806.9

1999

9268.4

8127.2

93.8

2000

9817.0

8614.3

8869.7

74.8

17,499

11,129

4,035

1,940

21,534

13,069

1118.80

647.7

471.1

493.3

374.4

1343.9

537.0

180.8

542.9

598.6

85.4

406.6

1373.1

820.4

552.7

185.4

577.7

635.5

121.3

435.9

1426.2

865.3

560.9

189.3

591.7

662.4

2001

10128.0

97.9

118.7

469.5

2002

10487.0

9154.1

96.9

104.9

479.1

1347.2

771.9

575.3

210.7

624.9

744.3

2003

11004.0

9604.2

113.9

130.3

501.3

1402.3

798.0

604.4

222.2

645.4

770.5

1341.3

778.9

562.5

202.3

607.1

691.6

Industry value added as a percentage of GDP (percent)

1987

100

86.1

1.7

1.5

4.6

17.1

10.2

6.9

2.6

6.0

7.4

1988

100

86.2

1.6

1.4

4.6

17.2

10.2

7.0

2.4

6.2

7.2

1989

100

86.3

1.7

1.4

4.5

16.9

9.9

7.0

2.5

6.2

1990

100

86.1

1.7

1.5

4.3

16.3

9.4

7.0

2.5

6.0

6.9

1991

100

85.7

1.5

1.3

3.8

9.0

6.9

2.5

6.0

6.8

1992

Natural Gas

Crude Oil

1991 1992 1993

Percent

5,768

International

Natural Gas

89.2

483.8

Non-durable goods

123.0

876.9

244.8

Durable Goods

327.5

232.7

76.0

79.8

Total Manufacturing 811.3

71.4

92.8

Construction 218.2

80.2

4732.3

Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting

71.5

4399.1

5484.4

Total private industries 4080.4

5103.8

1989

Gross Domestic Product 4739.5

1988

Year

Utilities

Private Industries

1987

Natural Gas

Gross domestic product (GDP) by industry, value added, in current dollars and as a percentage of GDP, 1987–2003

100

85.8

1.6

1.1

3.7

6.8

2.5

7.1

15.7

8.9

6.0

6.8

1993

100

86.1

1.4

1.1

3.7

15.6

8.9

6.7

2.5

6.0

6.9

1994

100

86.4

1.5

1.0

3.9

15.8

9.2

6.7

2.5

6.3

7.0

1995

100

86.6

1.3

1.0

3.9

15.9

9.2

6.8

2.5

6.2

7.0

1996

100

86.9

1.5

1.1

4.0

15.5

9.0

6.4

2.3

6.3

7.0

1997

100

87.3

1.3

1.1

4.1

15.4

9.1

6.3

2.2

6.3

6.9

1998

100

87.5

1.2

0.9

4.3

15.4

9.2

6.1

2.1

6.2

6.8

1999

100

87.7

1.0

0.9

4.4

14.8

8.9

6.0

2.0

6.2

6.9

2000

100

87.7

1.0

1.2

4.4

14.5

8.8

5.7

1.9

6.0

6.7

2001

100

87.6

1.0

1.2

4.6

13.2

7.7

5.6

2.0

6.0

6.8

2002

100

87.7

0.9

1.0

4.6

12.8

7.4

5.5

2.0

6.0

7.1

2003

100

87.7

1.0

1.2

4.6

12.7

7.3

5.5

2.0

5.9

7.0

Note.–Value added is the contribution of each private industry and of governmebt to gross domestic product. Value added is equal to an industry’s gross output minus its intermediate inputs. Current-dollar value added is calculated as the sum of distributions by an industry to its labor and capital which are derived from the components of gross domestic income.

Note: Year ended December 31,2004

“If the typeface family used for the text includes a condensed version, this is often chosen for table work because it’s so much more economical of space.” (Felici 243)

exercise eight » hyphenation & justification and hanging punctuation

Overview The freedom and control of the typographic tools in your possession comes with hidden responsibility. The most basic and ignored details of type control are often the aspects that determine the difference between what often constitutes good typography and poor typography. Designers are required to realize and determine both the macro aspects of the page/ typographic design (content, understanding, grid, etc...) - and as wellbe attentive to the typographic details that unite all the parts into a cohesive typographic system. The following aspects are some of the often ignored principles of the type control. It is essential to recognize that by diminishing these details, one’s type control can quickly manifest into a communicative mess-drawing the reader’s attention to the visual errors, rather than the content. (Vincent/Mazzucca assignment sheet)

22 typographic principles

Justification is the process of filling lines of a given measure with type, which comprises both characters and spaces. Hyphenation is a means to that end, allowing words to be broken into fragments that can better fill out the ends of lines, reducing the leftover space on those lines. (James Felici 133)

Characters that extend beyond the margin of a column of text are said to hang. Hanging punctuation is sometimes used with justified margins to give the right-hand edge of the text block a smoother appearance. (James Felici 191)

Ligatures, are joined characters, two or more characters fused into one and set as a single unit. (James Felici 133)

A handleable format— which can be held, if possible, in just one hand— thus relatively small and narrow; paper that is soft, flexible, not too heavy and not dazzlingly white; not less than 45 and not more than 65 characters in a line; a readable, timeless typeface, sufficently large in size (but not too big!) and set to the right measure, with cor rect word-spacing (as small as possible and as large as necessary); sufficient space between the lines; indented first lines, so that sections of text can be recognized; chapter headings, which make a break, but do not disrupt the flow of the whole: a typography that holds itself back as far as possible. And the motto that ‘typography serves’ holds good for almost every book, where it serves with special modesty. Modest, not uncaring: even the simplest typography can be decent, appropr iate, yes even beautiful. With the criteria given here and the right page and text-area proportions: what more does one need? The make-up, i.e. the division into separate pages of an endless column of text, does not, at least in theory, pose any great problem for a book of continuous text. But in practice it is sometimes simpler to make up the pages of a strongly structured and heavily illustrated book so that a new page never begins with the last line of a paragraph (a ‘widow’). If the first line of a new paragraph falls on the last line of a page (sometimes called an ‘orphan’), this is tolerable, though certainly not ideal; but an incomplete line at the start of a column should under all circumstances be avoided. The space above and below headings can perhaps be reduced or increased; but then, if nothing else is possible, this mistake should be avoided by spacing out or bringing in the preceding lines. That means that a new make-up of lines is achieved, either by losing a line with reduced

A handleable format—which can be held, if possible, in just one hand—thus relatively small and narrow; paper that is soft, flexible, not too heavy and not dazzlingly white; not less than 45 and not more than 65 characters in a line; a readable, timeless typeface, sufficently large in size (but not too big!) and set to the right measure, with correct wordspacing (as small as possible and as large as necessary); sufficient space between the lines; indented first lines, so that sections of text can be recognized; chapter headings, which make a break, but do not disrupt the flow of the whole: a typography that holds itself back as far as possible. And the motto that ‘typography serves’ holds good for almost every book, where it serves with special modesty. Modest, not uncaring: even the simplest typography can be decent, appropriate, yes even beautiful. With the criteria given here and the right page and text-area proportions: what more does one need? The make-up, i.e. the division into separate pages of an endless column of text, does not, at least in theory, pose any great problem for a book of continuous text. But in practice it is sometimes simpler to make up the pages of a strongly structured and heavily illustrated book so that a new page never begins with the last line of a paragraph (a ‘widow’). If the first line of a new paragraph falls on the last line of a page (sometimes called an ‘orphan’), this is tolerable, though certainly not ideal; but an incomplete line at the start of a column should under all circumstances be avoided. The space above and below headings can perhaps be reduced or increased; but then, if nothing else is possible, this mistake should be avoided by spacing out or bringing in the preceding lines. That means that a new make-up of lines is achieved, either by losing a line with reduced word-space, or by gaining one through increase of word-space. If this too is not possible, a column of text can exceptionally be reduced by one line, or, if one is dealing with an incomplete last line, then the column may be increased by a line. But on no account should the register–the constant line increment–be altered.

Bembo 6/8 measure: 5p char count/line: 21-26 justification: 90-100-110

Bembo 7/9 measure: 10p char count/line: 40-46 justification: 90-100-110

bembo 8.5/11 measure: 20p char count/line: 67-77 justification: 90-100-110

A handleable format— which can be held, if possible, in just one hand— thus relatively small and narrow; paper that is soft, flexible, not too heavy and not dazzlingly white; not less than 45 and not more than 65 characters in a line; a readable, timeless typeface, sufficently large in size (but not too big!) and set to the right measure, with correct word-spacing (as small as possible and as large as necessary); sufficient space between the lines; indented first lines, so that sections of text can be recognized; chapter headings, which make a break, but do not disrupt the flow of the whole: a typography that holds itself back as far as possible. And the motto that ‘typography serves’ holds good for almost every book, where it serves with special modesty. Modest, not uncaring: even the simplest typography can be decent, appropriate, yes even beautiful. With the criteria given here and the right page and text-area proportions: what more does one need? The make-up, i.e. the division into separate pages of an endless column of text, does not, at least in theory, pose any great problem for a book of continuous text. But in practice it is sometimes simpler to make up the pages of a strongly structured and heavily illustrated book so that a new page never begins with the last line of a paragraph (a ‘widow’). If the first line of a new paragraph falls on the last line of a page (sometimes called an ‘orphan’), this is tolerable, though certainly not ideal; but an incomplete line at the start of a column should under all circumstances be avoided. The space above and below headings can perhaps be reduced or increased; but then, if nothing else is possible, this mistake should be avoided by spacing out or bringing in the preceding lines. That means that a new makeup of lines is achieved, either by losing a line with reduced word-space, or by gaining one through increase of word-space. If this too is not possible, a column of text can exceptionally be reduced by one line, or, if one is dealing with an incomplete last line, then the column may be increased by a line. But on no account should the register–the

A handleable format—which can be held, if possible, in just one hand— thus relatively small and narrow; paper that is soft, flexible, not too heavy and not dazzlingly white; not less than 45 and not more than 65 characters in a line; a readable, timeless typeface, sufficently large in size (but not too big!) and set to the right measure, with correct word-spacing (as small as possible and as large as necessary); sufficient space between the lines; indented first lines, so that sections of text can be recognized; chapter headings, which make a break, but do not disrupt the flow of the whole: a typography that holds itself back as far as possible. And the motto that ‘typography serves’ holds good for almost every book, where it serves with special modesty. Modest, not uncaring: even the simplest typography can be decent, appropriate, yes even beautiful. With the criteria given here and the right page and text-area proportions: what more does one need? The make-up, i.e. the division into separate pages of an endless column of text, does not, at least in theory, pose any great problem for a book of continuous text. But in practice it is sometimes simpler to make up the pages of a strongly structured and heavily illustrated book so that a new page never begins with the last line of a paragraph (a ‘widow’). If the first line of a new paragraph falls on the last line of a page (sometimes called an ‘orphan’), this is tolerable, though certainly not ideal; but an incomplete line at the start of a column should under all circumstances be avoided. The space above and below headings can perhaps be reduced or increased; but then, if nothing else is possible, this mistake should be avoided by spacing out or bringing in the preceding lines. That means that a new make-up of lines is achieved, either by losing a line with reduced wordspace, or by gaining one through increase of word-space. If this too is not possible, a column of text can exceptionally be reduced by one line, or, if one is dealing with an incomplete last line, then the column may be increased by a line. But on no account should the register–the constant line increment–be altered.

Frutiger 5/7 measure: 5p char count/line: 21-27 justification: 90-100-110

Frutiger 7/10 measure: 10p char count/line: 34-41 justification: 90-100-110

Frutiger 8/12 measure: 20p char count/line: 67-77 justification: 90-100-100

These exercises were intended as practice in resolving the issue of too much word spacing when setting text justified, with the use of hyphenation.

The most common ligatures involve the letters f, l and i. In normal settings, the hooks of consecutive f‘s come so close to touching that they may appear to actually do so. An f with a kerning hook (that is one that extends beyond its bounding box) may even overlap an f or an l that follows it. To avoid these unattractive collisions, common sequences of these letters are typically designed as an integrated unit, in which the liaisons among the characters can be resolved in a more shapely way. The most common of these ligatures are fi, ff, fl, ffi, and ffl. (James Felici 133)

Âť conclusion Over the course of the last eight weeks, the knowledge I have gained about normative type principles has been invaluable in completing this booklet as well as in working on projects I am pursuing outside of school. I have gained a more thorough understanding of typographic principles by practicing them through the design of this booklet. Through the process of making this booklet, and especially during the final editing and refining stages, I have identified principles that could benfit from more focused practice. I feel I could use more practice kerning display type. At this point I feel as though I am still guessing when I am trying to kern letters. I would like to become more comfortable desiging more effective grid structures based on the needs of the content. Overall, I feel more confident in tackling projects with these principles to guide my decision making.

Bibliography Kunz, Willi. Typography : macro- and microaesthetics. Sulgen, Switzerland : Niggli ; New York, NY : Willi Kunz Books [distributor], 2000. Baines, Phil. Type & typography. New York : WatsonGuptill Publications, 2002. Bringhurst, Robert. The elements of typographic style. Vancouver, BC : Hartley & Marks, 1992.

24â&#x20AC;&#x192; typographic principles

notes This booklet is set in ITC Mendoza Roman Collage by Alanna Scott Compiled for Clément Vincent’s COMD 210 Core Studio II S004, in the Spring semester of 2007

26 typographic principles

28â&#x20AC;&#x192; typographic principles