The voices of the sediments and Disaster Archaeology

THE VOICES OF THE SEDIMENTS AS GEO-ARCHIVES OF PAST CATASTROPHES Amanda Laoupi (Archaeoenvironmentalist / Disaster Specialist) Centre for the Assessment of Natural Hazards and Proactive Planning - NTUA alaoupi@gmail.com

Abstract Environmental changes, either expressed as periodical phenomena with moderate character or as sudden, violent, and highly dangerous events, transform the natural ecosystems, rebuild the landscapes and forge new dynamics in human societies, by influencing the demographic stability, the socio-economic profile, the cultural trends and many investment strategies. This paper aims at : a) the filtration of various geological data / information before they reach the questionnaires of Disaster Archaeology’s topics, b) the elaboration of a flexible and reciprocal methodological framework within which both parts may function separately as well as synergistically. This framework should consist of several common hermeneutic ‘tools’ shared by both disciplines (stratigraphies, accretion, taphonomy, destruction layers, destruction markers/indicators). Complex geological mechanisms (i.e. volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, subsidence, soil liquefaction, landslides, pedogenesis, lacustrine, fluvial and deep-sea deposits) along with hydrometeorological and hydrogeological phenomena (i.e. tsunami, storms and hurricanes, glaciations, formation of peat bogs, sapropels, loess and karst, alluvia) either function as sedimentation’s formers, or as triggering factors for sediments’ redistribution into extended geographical areas. Finally, the authors suggest a more thoroughly organized approach and evaluation of disaster information hidden within the formation, spatio-temporal distribution and transformation of sediments, which may be of varied origin. This information should be grouped in four main categories (geological, paleontological, biochemical - physical). The fourth (archaeological - philological and historic- artistic - mythological) deserves special mention, because past disasters have been totally ignored by the majority of archaeologists and used in an uncritical way without being related to cultural change.

Keywords:

Disaster Archaeology, destruction layers, archaeoenvironments, Sedimentation

1. Introduction: The links between Environmental Sedimentology and Disaster Archaeology The composition, texture and structure of sediments from the areas within or nearby archaeological sites contribute significantly to the reconstruction of paleoclimates, being also an invaluable source of information on archaeoenvironments, past human activities, subsistence-settlement patterns and environmental changes (Fekri, 1978; Barham and MacPhail , 1995). On the other hand, multidisciplinary projects around the globe have contributed to our knowledge of the processes involved in the formation and destruction of archaeological sites, entire civilizations and empires from Pleistocene Era onwards.

Although sediment matrix is the more abundant element in archaeological sites, archaeologists are not fully aware of the real potential of sediment analysis. Even more, information on local or regional past phenomena (hazardous events, environmental changes or changes in the socio-economic structures that reflect environmental upheaval) is fragmented within hardly accessible data bases that are not easily retrievable. The afore-mentioned reality often leads to an unfortunate lack of ‘dialogue’ between archaeologists and geologists, or to a misunderstanding of sediments’ significance.

The purpose of the present paper is to elaborate a flexible scheme of catalogued information on the potential of sediment analysis for disaster archaeologists (Torrence and Grattan, 2002), as sediments reflect a number of processes, including aeolian, fluvial, colluvial, biogenic, glacial, marine and human activity. This overview includes a methodological framework that groups various phenomena and mechanisms that produce and transport sediments, as well as it groups various indicators of past catastrophes trapped as geological information within the sediments. Moreover, examples for sedimentrelated disasters in cultural landscapes are presented, in order to elucidate their role and dynamics in the

evolution of past landscapes, along with their role to the preservation of archaeological sites and structures.

Finally, we should notify that a variety of phenomena is registered under the umbrella of the term ‘disaster’, such as internal or external oscillations in the human ecosystems (disturbances / perturbations / changes / uncertainties / hazards / stress / shock / disaster-driven collapse of past societies) caused either by natural or human-induced phenomena.

2. Elaborating a methodological framework Contemporary archaeologists stand amazed in front of a plethora of data derived from a huge spectrum of disciplines, but they need further evaluation and organization in order to reconstruct the archaeoenvironments.

2.1. Phenomena and mechanisms related to sedimentation In brief, the main phenomena and mechanisms that produce and transport sediments or enrich already existing sediments with disaster information in the form of ‘time-capsules’ are : i. volcanic eruptions, ii. tsunami, storms and hurricanes, iii. earthquakes , iv. climatic changes , v. impact phenomena and structures, vi. karst environments, vii. alluvial processes , ix. geohazards such as landslides, subsidence and soil liquefaction, x. anthropogenic environmental degradation such as soil erosion and intensive forestry. Further analysis of the afore-mentioned categories, being merely geological, is beyond the scope of this paper.

2.2. Categories of disaster indicators in sediments 2.2.1 Geological indicators a. palaeohumidity indices Wetlands are included in the Natural Heritage’s list of every country in the world and are protected via the Ramshar Convention. Except from romantic, aesthetic and cultural reasons, the protection of biodiversity / biotopes is a necessity for the future sustainable development of nations.

Lands with shallow fresh, brackish or saline waters are characterized as wetlands, including the marshes, lakes, lagoons, rivers, streams, peat bogs, bushes, shallow coastal zones, mangroves, meadows covered by waters, estuaries, springs, salinas and rice fields. Potable water, water for irrigation needs, lush vegetation, abundance of game animals, increased food -gathering possibilities, neighbouring pasture lands, were the main reasons of why the first sedentary human societies preferred similar environments to live and reproduce. Myths and legends, customs and technical works related to the wetlands, all testify their role in human civilization.

Wetlands are hugely important environments to ecosystems’ health and to human societies, yet increasingly threatened by a wide range of natural processes (i.e. sea-level rise, climatic changes) and human activities (i.e. pollution, overexploitation). Many wetlands are characterized by thick deposits of sediment, because in waterlogged conditions decay processes occur relatively slowly. The layers of mud, peat and muck form a valuable sedimentary archive that functions as a record for the development of the wetland and its surroundings. Thus, when wetland archaeologists dig down into a peat bog, they go back in time. The sediments of the wetlands consist of various archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological remains once lived around the wetland, along with other materials brought in by run-off, streams and floods, carried by wind and rain or left by animals and humans, intentionally or accidentally .

Bog Stratigraphy and Peat Humification Records of Paleomoisture with their periodic patterns may contribute significantly to our knowledge of palaeoclimatic conditions, paleosoils’ biochemistry and subsoil geomorphology (i.e. aquifers), changes in land use over the past millennia, evolution of paleofauna and paleoflora, even natural or human-induced phenomena such as wild fires and slopewash.

Especially, the Blytt (1876) -Sernander(1908) classification of the Holocene based on peat stratigraphy is widely used by prehistoric and disaster archaeologists (Woillard, 1978; Anderson, 1998; Baker et al, 1999). b. tephra Many tephra layers are used as time markers in establishing a chronology for the Quaternary, because they occur within very short intervals of time over wide areas (Simkin and Siebert, 1994). Progress in characterization techniques for identification and dating methods has made possible a long-distance correlation between tephras.

Studies of multiproxy data from distant cores offer narrow constraints to the timing and sequence of the major Holocene climate events in the circum-Mediterranean region, that may help in re evaluating the

chronologies of the archaeological records (Manning, 1988 and 1992). The 10cm thick ash layer from the Minoan eruption of Santorini (3.57 ± 0.08 Kya B.P.) in the SE Aegean core LC21 and its correlation with GISP2, is a useful example (Rohling et al., 2002). Another is the core AD91-17 recovered in the Otranto Strait - S. Adriatic Sea, the sediment of which consists of hemipelagic mud with intercalated tephra layers. These layers correspond to the tephra of Campanian volcanoes and their eruptions, ‘Agnano’, ‘Mercato-Ottaviano’ , ‘Agnano Monte Spina’, ‘Avellino’, and the historical paroxysm of Vesuvius at A.D. 472 (Sangiorgi et al., 2003). Marine Tephrochronology has a lot to offer not only to the reconstruction of volcanoes’ explosive activity (Paterne et al., 1988; Cioni et al. in McGuire et al., 2000), but also to the correlation of chronostratigraphies to prehistoric / historic events and socio-cultural changes.

One stimulating example of the afore-said correlation dating back to the Upper Pleistocene, is the Toba case in Indonesia. The timing of the Toba eruption, which was the largest explosive eruption of the last few hundred thousand years, and a putative marked reduction in the population of human ancestors based on genetic studies, suggested a connection with the environmental aftereffects of the eruption. This 'bottleneck' in human population, estimated by some to have involved a reduction to less than 10.000 individuals for a period of up to 20.000 years , was eventually followed by a population explosion and possibly migrations of modern humans. The Toba ignimbrite deposits have been dated by the K/Ar method at 73.500 ± 3.500 yr BP, and 40 Ar/39 Ar age determinations give 73.000 ± 4.000 yr BP. The Toba ash layer occurs in deep-sea cores from the Indian Ocean at the time of the OIS 5a-4 transition, estimated at 73.910 ± 2.590 yr BP. The duration of continuous fallout of Toba ash over the Indian Ocean has been estimated at two weeks or less (Rampino and Ambrose, 1999). c. turbidites New methodologies applied to submarine sediments may provide scientists with sequences of Holocene seismic events that are in agreement with onshore palaeoseismic data. The case of Cascadia Subduction Zone nad N. San Andreas fault seems interesting. Stratigraphic evidence demonstrates that 13 earthquakes ruptured the entire margin from Vancouver island to at least the California border since the accumulation of the Mazama ash 7700 years ago, extending the record of past earthquakes to the base of the Holocene, at least 9800 years ago. The margin cores from N. California show a cyclic record of turbidite beds that represent past events, one of them being a magnitude (Mw) 9 subduction earthquake of January 26, 1700, which caused a tremendous upheaval offshore in Oregon and Washington, and generated a tsunami locally 10 -12 m. high (Goldfinger et al., 2003). Submarine landslides are candidates for turbidite paleoseismology, for turbidites are used as paleo-earthquake proxies. Similar attempts have taken place in Puget Sound, Japan, Dead Sea, a Swiss lake, the Artcic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea (i.e Kastens, 1984; Anastasakis and Piper, 1991). On the other hand, the most extensive paleoseismic record of subduction events on land is found in buried marshes, tsunami runup and washover deposits of thin sand layers with marine diatoms that are interbedded within estuarine or lake muds Even more, turbid flow generation may have another triggering mechanisms, storm wave loading, tsunamis, sediment loading, crustal and slab earthquakes, aseismic accretionary wedge slip, hyperpycnal flow and gas hydrate destabilization, all of them reflecting extreme natural phenomena. In fact, seismo-turbidites may be distinguished sedimentologically (Adams, 1990; Nakajima and Kanai, 2000; Shiki et al., 2000). d. Paleosols / Loess Strata of paleosols (process of pedogenesis) and loess (typical or weathered) succeeding one another in geological sequences, are a common phenomenon in many areas of the world. Usually, these stratigraphies need to be cross-checked with other similar samples derived from other geographical regions or continents. The case of Central Europe’s paleosol sequences is indicative. Sequences from several sites of Central and Eastern Asia completed the existing gaps, and offered to the scientists the opportunity to reconsider the climatic phases, not only of the Holocene, but also of the Pleistocene.

Biochemical, geographical and geological analyses can determine respectively, the glacial and interglacial cycles through the sequences of loess and paleosols, helping archaeologists to understand major socio-economic, demographic and paleoanthropological issues (i.e. abandonment of settlements and agricultural land and massive movements of people). The 8 m. of soil sequences in Tsechia, may exceed the 60 m. of Upper Pleistocene sediments in the Loess Plateau (province of Saanshi , N.W. China) that trigger an annual runoff of 1.200.000.000 tons of deposits to the Sea of China (Faugères, 1977; Pye, 1987; Tsoar and Pye, 1987; Pye and Johnson, 1988; Pye and Zhou, 1989; Borja et al., 1999; Shi et all, 2001)!

Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) has also contributed to the distribution of aeolian dust during the past.

The 3 My record of aeolian dust supply into the E. Mediterranean Sea derived from magnetic properties

of sediments from site 967, reconstructed the correlations between various hydroclimatic mechanisms , such as precession and insolation minima / maxima, sapropels / marls deposits, fluvial runoff and SST. N. African environmental conditions are mirrored into hese fluctuations, explaining some crucial archaeological and palaeoanthropological topics (Larrasoa•a et al., 2003). e. karst formations Cave deposits are complex sequences derived from multiple sources and numerous processes which often operate simultaneously. Caves act like efficient sediment traps where accumulation characteristically excels over erosion. Analyses of cave sediments, speleothems (i.e. stalactites/stalagmites) and cave pearls may provide excellent markers of past climatic changes, oscillations in the sea-level (when the caves are coastal or in riverine valleys), acting often like prevention mechanisms for archaeological remains, that can be further dated with modern techniques (see the case of the Petralona man, Chalkidiki N. Greece). These remains, are of high paleoanthropological and archaeological importance, for cave environments were the main dwelling places of the palaeolithic and mesolithic man . The d-bases made out of multiproxy analyses based on cave sediments are constantly enriched worldwide, giving sequences for periods over 500.000 years. especially, the famous Devil’s Hole- Core (S. Nevada, USA) contributed to the re examination of the chronostratigraphic series of the Vostok Ice - Core (E. Antarctica) and the re evaluation of the climatic patterns that triggered the Ice Ages (Atkinson et al.

1978; Harmon et al., 1978; Latham et al., 1987; Latham and Schwarcz, 1992; Baker et al., 1993 a & b; Baskaran et al., 1993; Bar-Mattews et al., 1996; Barnes and Gilmour, 2000; Zhou et al., 2000; Frappier et al., 2002). f. glacial deposits Alpine glaciers activity (expansion or depression), deposits formed by the distal outwash of large glaciers and major meltwater streams that crossed the lowlands are three main mechanisms triggering fluctuations in sedimentation rates observed in the Pleistocene environments. Sediments dated to that era may include coarse -to-fine -grained alluvium, lahar deposits, tephra, peat and other organic remains, reflecting in this way, many different episodes of hazardous phenomena, climatic phases and environmental surroundings (i.e. Porter, 2003 for the Glaciation and Sedimentary environments in the Pacific NW during MIS 3).

On the other hand, the collection of cores from deep-sea sediments or glaciers are the main targets of many expeditions that seek geochronological sequences reflecting climatic changes and other natural phenomena (i.e. volcanic eruptions of colossal magnitude, impact events, flux of cosmic ‘dust’).

Moreover, ice layers entrap valuable evidence of paleowind patterns, paleoceanic circulation and sediments’ drift along great distance (terrestrial or marine), that permit scientists to detect even minor differences among the various glacial phases. German scientist H. Heinrich calls attention to North Atlantic ocean sediment layers composed primarily of rock grains of continental bedrock origin that had been transported distances of up to 3000 kilometers prior to their deposition. Generally speaking, sedimentation systems from rivers, wind or ice, react very fast to temperature variations of the atmosphere and the oceanic waters (Heinrich, 1988; Bond et al., 1992; Dansgaard et al., 1993; Gwiazda et al., 1996 a & b; Blazauskas et al., 1998). Knowing, also, various details for past glaciations’ patterns is extremely useful to prehistoric archaeologists, for the retreat of of ice-sheets opened new corridors for human migrations across the continents. g. varved sedimends / flood sediments Annually laminated sediments (< Swedish varv = circle, periodical iteration of layers) provide a unique tool for the study of archaeoenvironments on an absolute time-scale ranging from single years to seasons.

Even more, past events of short duration such as floods, fires and forest clearances, and other short-term anthropogenic activities can be traced, as well as the biotic responses to them (Lotter, 1989; Raukas in S. Hicus et al., 1994; O’ Sullivan in S. Hicus et al., 1994; Merkt & Müller in S. Hicus et al., 1994; Wright and Clark in S. Hicus et al., 1994).

In the W. Hemisphere, Digital Sediment Colour Analyses (DSCA) and Time Series Analyses of the rhythmically laminated sedimentary records from the west coasts of American continent disclosed the periodic climatic oscillations of the Holocene, the phases of the El Ni•o, the impact of moon-driven tides and solar irradiation, even the percentage of the annual rates of runoff and productivity. Marine, fluvial/ deltaic or lacustrine, the sedimentary sequences all over the world, help geologists to differentiate several successive phases of paleochannels, while the study of undisturbed thin sections permit scientists to understand river dynamics and to unravel the anthropogenic impact on the natural sedimentation.

Seasonal geoclimatic variations and perturbations of natural vegetation are two of the many features that can be detected by multidisciplinary research (geophysical prospecting, remote sensing techniques, geochemical and geomorphological analyses) aiming at the reconstruction of beds’ and lake shores’

evolution, along with the detection of fluvial archaeological sites (i.e. Berglund, 1983; Antczak, 1985; Bjorck et al., 1996; Stanley and Hait, 2000; Magny et al., 2005). In Greece, the pollen record from a 423.000 - year undisrupted lacustrine sequence at Ioannina, Epirus provided the chronostratigraphy needed for the reconstruction of paleoclimatic dynamics during glacial and interglacial cycles. Moreover, glacial landforms and sediments disclosed the occurrence of Pleistocene glaciers on Pindus mountain (Tzedakis, 1994; Hughes et al., 2006).

On the other hand, flood sediments from Northern coastal Peru narrate also the Holocene history of the El Niâ&#x20AC;˘o phenomenon (Wells, 1990; Sandweiss et al., 1996). The reconstruction of ancient hydrological events as paleofloods involve various disciplines including geology, geomorphology and ecology, and is based on the analysis of stratigraphic sequences and sedimentary deposits (Saint-Laurent, 2004).

Pleistocene and Holocene fluvial sediments record episodic depositions, their sequences being often dominated by gravel facies that indicate deposition by a high-energy, gravel-bed rivers. Fine-grained organic sediment bodies within the sequences yield palaeoenvironmental and biostratigraphical data from various biospecies (i.e. mollusca, insects, vertebrates, pollen and plant macrofossils).Their analysis reconstruct the past climatic phases contributing to the worldwide d-bases of paleoclimatic data (Fairbridge, 1963; Beven and Carling, 1989; Starkel, 1990; Inbar, 1992; Smith, 1992; Velichko et al., 1992; Baker et al., 1993; Guiot et al., 1993; Kehew et al., 1994; Lewis et al., 2006).

The above-mentioned climatic changes played a crucial role in the fate of several civilizations , the Sahel, Maya, S. American,, Scandinavian and circum-Mediterranean being among them. Another note worthy parameter is that bodies of water, like rivers, lakes, estuaries and coastal environments have always been the strongest attractors for human populations, so the geomorphology of such areas interferes with archaeological research (Butzer, 1980; Adamson et al., 1986; Fagan, 2000).

Additionaly, magnetostratigraphic studies along with cosmogenic burial dating may reveal the spatiotemporal distribution of Pleistocene and Holocene cataclysmic flood deposits recording events as old as 1.1 Mya. These techniques may be applied throughout the stratigraphy of drill cores from palaeosols around extended river areas (i.e. Pluhar et al., 2003 for the Cosmogenic Burial Dating and Magnetostratigraphy of Early and Mid-Pleistocene Missoula flood sediments).

On the other hand, paleotsunami deposits are excellent cases for interdisciplinary research with archaeological destination. A prominent example is the tsunami generated by the LBA eruption of Santoriniâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s volcano. Newly identified tsunami deposits have been found on E. Thera, N. and E. Crete (e.g. Gouves, Amnissos and W. Turkey (Didim and Fethiye). Another interesting geoarchaeological example from Greece is the case of tsunami deposits (high-energy marine layers) in Phalasarna harbour, W. Crete, generated by a devastating earthquake that affected the entire E. Mediterranean in 21 July A.D. 365, and reported by over 30 ancient writers (Pirazzoli et al., 1992; Dawson and Shi, 2000; McCoy and Heike, 2000; Dominey-Howes et al., 2006; http://yalciner.ce.metu.edu.tr/thams/key-results.htm).

2.2.2 Paleontological indicators a. sapropels The Sapropels consist of mineral and organic parts. The mineral part originated from water solutions due to formation of sediments consisting of fragments of ash food of biomass, clay, sand, etc. The organic part resulted from anaerobic biochemical decomposition of biomass and its subsequent resynthesis by microorganisms. Consequently, these episodic, dark-coloured, organic- rich sedimentary deposits are an expression of monsoonal circulation and the general hydrogeological patterns of past climatic phases in the oceans and open seas of our planet.

Especially, Mediterranean Sea, being the cradle of many old civilizations, offers an excellent example of a complex natural system (patterns of water circulation, water mass density, SST, sea surface salinity, exceeding runoff from significant rivers, influence of the monsoons and the NAO). Sedimentological and organic geochemical analyses of sediments along various drill sites document the occurrence of sapropels of Plio-Pleistocene and Holocene throughout the Mediterranean Sea. Two hundred and seventeen well-dated sapropel events are found at W. Mediterranean sites ranging in age from 0.01 to about 3 Mya (Paul et al., 2001).

Respectively, high sedimentation-rate marine cores with suppressed bioturbation effects, from sites of Eastern Mediterranean, echo the distinct cycle of cooling events during the Holocene. These events typically lasted for several centuries, and t they were associated with increased aridity in the Levantine/NE African sector. In fact, several of these episodes coincide with cultural reorganisations (eg. cattle domestication, new technologies) and populationsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; migration during that periods (Higgs et al., 1994; Passier et al., 1997; Geraga et al., 2004; Geraga et al., 2005). b.floral / faunal proxies

Skeletal remains of phytoplankton (coccolithophores or calcareous nanoplankton, planktonic & benthicdiatoms, dinoflagellate cysts) and fossils of zooplankton (planktonic & benthic foraminifera, pteropods, radiolaria, ostracods) contribute vast amount of knowledge about past changes in the water column and the sea-floor. Furthermore, pollen and spores from land-plants, transported by wind and rivers over vast distances, are accumulated in lakes, soils and marine sediments. These records are sensitive indicators of climate change and its impact on terrestrial ecosystems. The long history of the afore-mentioned indicators on our planet provides scientists with strong chronostratigraphical sequences, as foraminifera exist for the last 360My, dinoflagellate for 260 My, coccolithophores for 210 My, pollen plants for 80 My an diatoms for 65 My (Lyle et al., 1988; Bonadonna and Leone, 1995; Andrén, 1999; Stoermer and Smol, 1999; Poska and Saarse, 2002, Bar - Matthews et al., 2003; Rohling et al., 2004).

One controversial example refers to the areas of Black Sea, N.E. Aegean and Marmara Sea. The reconnection of thefirst two mass water bodies during Holocene sea-level ris, e have interesting implications for European and Middle Eastern Archaeology, Paleoceanography and Paleoclimaotlogy.

The main explanatory schemata are the ‘Flood Hypothesis’ (Ryan and Pitman, 1999) and the ‘Outflow Hypothesis’ (Aksu et al., 1995 and 2002; Yaltirak et al. 2002; Yanko-Hombach et al., 2007). Meanwhile, seismic, geochemical, sediment, microfossil and palynological data try to reconstruct the archaeoenvironments of the above-mentioned areas, providing support for the late agricultural onset in the Black Sea / Marmara region, according to which pastoral and agricultural settlement in the littoral areas was not encouraged by environmental conditions prior to the Bronze Age, commencing 4600 years ago (Muddie et al., 2002).

2.2.3. Biochemical -Physical indicators Various chemical elements (i.e. C, O, N, H, S, Mg, K, Na, Cl, Ni, Ca, Fe, Mn, Sr, Ba, noble gases, trace elements), found in geological formations and sediments either as isotope fractionations , ratios or as concentrations of organic compounds, may speak of past bioclimatic oscillations and changes that have been associated with major disruption in civilization. The afore-mentioned chemical elements may be function as proxies for solar variability, cosmic rays’ activity, variations in the geometry of Earth’s orbit, seasonal and geographical distribution of incoming radiation, volcanic aerosols and past levels of greenhouse gases , or mirror anthropogenic activities such as the rise of human population, deforestation and burning of fossil fuels (Coplen et al. 1994; Maasch et al., 2005).

In addition, recent experiments have uncovered evidence that a Supernova exploded near the Earth about 3 myr ago, as, apart from the existence of noble gases, for example Helium-3 (Amari and Ozima, 1988), radioactive iron atoms have been traced in ancient samples of deep-ocean material, likely being the debris of that explosion. For the first time, sea sediments are used as a telescope for the detection of a serious past disaster that opened the way to the evolution of human species due to climate changes in Africa after that severe cosmic ray flux. That seriously damage ozone layer, provoked or contributed to the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary marine extinction (http://www.astro.uiuc.edu/~bdfields/NearbySN/evidence.html; http://www.bioedonline.org/ news/news.cfm?art=1353; http://www.nature.com/news/2004/041101/full/041101-5.html; http://dsc.discovery. com/news/briefs/20041101/ supernova.html). Ellis, Fields, and Schramm (1996; see also Fields and Ellis, 1999; Benitez et al, 2002) predicted that an unusually high level of radioactive atoms in geological strata represents the ‘gold-plated signature’ of a nearby supernova, and found ‘Supernova Archaeology’.

Three years later , the pioneering work of Knie, Korschinek, Faestermann, Wallner, Scholten, & Hillenbrandt ( in July 1999 Physical Review Letters 83(18)- electronic version), presented the first evidence of just such a signature. These results were obtained in a lab at Technical University of Munich, in Germany. The new study by Knie et al (2004) is a high-precision assay of ancient, deep-sea material: a crust of manganese and iron deposits formed over millions of year on a rock in the deep ocean. The scientists estimated that a supernova exploding at that time, in a distance of about 120 light years from Earth. The basic method was similar to the original 1999 results, but used a different crust from a different location in the Pacfic. The 28 layers contained the iron-60 atoms are isolated in a single layer 2.8 My old, at a depth of 5.200 m. This particular crust was taken from an area a few hundred kilometres S.E. of the Hawaiian Islands in 1980. In 2002 (Benitez et al) proposed the Scorpius-Centaurus OB association, a group of young stars, as possible destructors which have generated 20 SN explosions during the last 11 Myr. A number of radioactive isotopes are also identified as possible diagnostic tools, such as Be-10, Al-26, Cl-36, Mn-53, Fe-60, and Ni-59, as well as the longer-lived I-129, Sm-146, and Pu-244, in the cases of the 35 and 60 Kyr-old Be-10 anomalies observed in the Vostok antarctic ice cores. In fact, present

techniques of high precision encourage searches for the very rare and heavy radioactive species halfnium182 and plutonium-244, produced by the mechanism known as the "r-process" in SN. R. Firestone (U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), conducted a research with Arizona geologist Allen West, willing to prove the theory of space-induced disasters of Pleistocene mega-fauna, according to which the debris from a supernova explosion coalesced into lowdensity, comet-like objects that wreaked havoc on the solar system long ago (http://news.mongabay.com/2005/0924-berkeley.html).

They found evidence of this impact layer at several archaeological sites throughout North America where Clovis hunting artifacts and human-butchered mammoths have been unearthed. They also found evidence of the SN explosion’s initial shockwave in the 34.000-year-old mammoth tusks, from Alaska and Siberia, that are peppered with tiny impact craters apparently produced by iron-rich grains. These grains may have been emitted from a supernova that exploded roughly 7.000 years earlier and about 250 light years from Earth. Firestone and West found magnetic metal spherules in the sediment of nine Clovis sites in Michigan, Canada, Arizona, New Mexico and the Carolinas. Their composition is very similar to lunar igneous rocks, known as KREEP, which were discovered on the moon by the Apollo astronauts, and have also been found in lunar meteorites that fell to Earth in the Middle East an estimated 10.000 years ago. In addition, the potassium-40 detected in the Clovis layer is much more abundant than potassium-40 in the solar system. The physical evidence discovered at Clovis sites and in the mammoth tusks coincide with radiocarbon peaks found in Icelandic marine sediment samples that are 41.000, 34.000 and 13.000 years old. These peaks, which represent radiocarbon spikes, being highly above modern levels, can only be caused by a cosmic ray-producing event such as a supernova explosion.

Of course, similar cosmic phenomena that caused turbulence on Earth are long ago predicted by P. la Violette, a pioneering American scientists who proposed a unified Superwave Theory (1983, 1985, 1997 and 2005). Many years of astronomical observations confirmed that the center of our Galaxy explodes about every 10. 000 years with these events each lasting 100 years or so.Similar events trigger a lethal ‘Galactic superwave’. La Violette suggested that a volley of Galactic cosmic rays had bombarded the Earth and solar system toward the end of the last Ice Age (ca. 14.000 B.P.). Later on, he was confirmed by the largest acidity spike in the entire Antarctic ice core record, which was of extraterrestrial origin.

Also his findings suggested that other such superwaves had passed us at earlier times and were responsible for triggering the initiation and termination of the ice ages and mass extinctions. So, he was the first to suggest recurrent highly-frequent cosmic ray bombardment of the Earth. Moreover, his hypothesis that large amounts of interstellar dust and frozen cometary debris lie outside the solar system just beyond the heliopause sheath, forming a reservoir of material that would have supplied large amounts of cosmic dust during a prehistoric superwave event, was recently confirmed. In addition, he was the first to measure the extraterrestrial material content of prehistoric polar ice. Using the neutron activation analysis technique, he found high levels of iridium and nickel in 6 out of the 8 polar ice dust samples (35.000to 73.000 B.P.), an indication that they contain high levels of cosmic dust. Finally, satellite observations, along with geoarchaeological evidence (i.e. Ussello horizon, a black layer found in AllerΩd sediments in S. England and in the Great Lakes Region) confirmed that a giant solar coronal mass ejection engulfed Earth and Moon near 16.000 B.P. 2.2.4. Archaeological indicators Sedimentation is an important parameter of the archaeological process. Destruction layers may preserve evidence of human occupation and artefacts from subsequent damage and be unearthed almost intact.

Towns like Akrotiri (Cycladic island of Santorini), Pompeii and Herculaneum (Italian peninsula), were rapidly engulfed in voluminous tephra and pyroclastic ejecta. Besides the inescapable surface exposure and degradation, the buildings and artwork were buried in their original context, so their spacial and functional relationships remained largely undisturbed. Respectively, other key examples are the shipwrecks laid in anaerobic environments or antiquities buried beneath water-logged sediment s (e.g. on the floor of Black Sea, under alluvial deposits in rivers’ deltas ) and sites covered by sand after flooding (e.g. Itatsuke, Yayoi - Japan, ca 3rd cent. B.C.).

Basic criteria of preservation mechanism is the depositional environment, main soil and sediment types, some typical conditions and environmental indicators, such as pH , the anoxic, toxic or oxic conditions of sediments and the presence of buried soil . For example, aerobic environments with pH 5.5 - 7.0 in the temperate zones, containing gleys and brownearths fully ventilated and evidently stratified, and laying on areas with sedimentary deposits, are indicative of rich archaeological evidence. The same happens also in the case of aerobic environments with pH >7.0, containing rendsinas, lake marls, tufa, alluvium and

shell - sand fully ventilated, and laying on areas with steppe conditions, mollisols or karst formations.

Moreover, anoxic or toxic conditions in lacustrine sediments, peat formations and buried environments, such as tar pits, permafrost soils and salt quarries (i.e. Chile, Siberia) preserve intact many archaeological and palaeontological evidence.

On the other hand, ancient myths, symbols, artistic representations, traditions, official archives and narrations often describe similar phenomena of sedimentation or echo their impact on the survival of human communities. In fact, testimonies from ancient scribes , who act like ‘disaster reporters’, may be proved excellent sources of information. Observations, comments, descriptions and any other form of indirect information may help in the dating, evaluation or even identification of past events.

3. Sediment-related disasters in cultural landscapes 3.1. Natural phenomena a. volcanic ejecta Volcanic eruptions have always played a crucial role in the evolution of human civilization. Their most evident impact on human communities were the massive death of unprepared people, like the Plinian eruption of Vesuvius (August of A.D. 79) which devastated the flourishing centers of Pompei and Herculaneum, killing over 3.600 victims (Sigurdsson et al., 1985; Allison, 1999). Nevertheless, other long-term impact caused more destruction in the flourishing communities of prehistoric Aegean after the Minoan eruption of Santorini’s volcano in 1627 - 1600 B.C. Tephra layers have been found dispersed not only in the sea floor of E. Mediterranean / Black Sea and the lacustrine sediments of S. Turkey, but also in depositional terrestrial sequences and archaeological strata in the Greek islands (i.e. Anaphe, Kos, Rhodes, Crete), the Nile valley, inland Anatolia, Syria and Israel. Apart from the generated tsunami that swept the coast of E. Mediterranean, swarm earthquakes and the rainfall of volcanic ejecta, disastrous effects on vegetation and loss of cultivated land, death of animals, abrupt climatic changes, acidic contamination of aquifers, disruption of sea corridors between the states of the Bronze Age, plague, famine and socio-economic upheaval devastated the equilibrium of natural and human ecosystems in the region (Marinatos, 1939; Pararas-Carayannis, 1974; Driessen, 1999).

Apart from being a rich geoarchive due to island’s location at the subduction zone on the Hellenic Arc, the LBA ‘Minoan eruption’ of Santorini’s volcano is also a very dynamic disaster case because offers excellent geosequences that imprint the event per se, its phases, duration and magnitude, and its shortterm and long-term results. Respectively, the most recent interdisciplinary research has disclosed new evidence for the magnitude of the event (being bigger than the mega-eruption of Tambora in 1815), the socio-cultural parameters of the event (there was no time available for preparedness or mitigation) and the revision of the chronological sequences of the Eastern Mediterranean civilizations. Even more, scientists correlate the eruption and its impact with archaeological and philological testimonies, such as the Bamboo Annals which describe the turbulent years of the collapse of the Xia Dynasty in China with a year without summer (approximately in 1618 B.C.), the calamities of Admonitions of Ipuwer (a text from Lower Egypt dated to the Middle Kingdom or the Second Intermediate Period), the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Tempest Stela of Ahmose I (Redford, 1992; Polinger Foster and Ritner, 1996; Balter, 2006; Friedrich et al., 2006; Manning et al., 2006; Sigurdsson et al., 2006).

Over a century ago, on August 26,1883, the island volcano of Krakatau (Krakatoa) , a virtually unknown volcanic island with a history of violent volcanic activity, located in the Sunda Strait, 40 km off the west coast of Java on the island of Rakata in Indonesia, exploded with devastating fury. The eruption was one of the most catastrophic natural disasters in recorded history. The effects were experienced on a global scale. Fine ashes from the eruption were carried by upper level winds as far away as New York City. The explosion was heard more than 3000 miles away. Volcanic dust blew into the upper atmosphere affecting incoming solar radiation and the earth's weather for several years. A series of large tsunami waves generated by the main explosion, some reaching a height of nearly 40 meters asl, killed more than 36.000 people in the coastal towns and villages along the Sunda Strait on Java and Sumatra islands.

Tsunami waves were recorded or observed throughout the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the American West Coast, South America, and even as far away as the English Channel. The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, like the Minoan eruption has been assigned a Volcanic Explosivity Index or VEI of 6 which rates as ‘colossal’ (Simkin and Fische, 1983; Blong, 1984).

Furthermore, The White River Volcano, located in southeastern Alaska near the headwaters of the White River, produced two cataclysmic eruptions, about A.D. 20 and A.D. 720, that covered most of the S.W. Yukon Territory with voluminous ashfalls. Anthropological studies indicate that the later and larger of the two outbursts, which deposited the east lobe of the White River Ash, caused profound disruption of

the native population, possibly initiating a series of migrations that culminated in the formation of the Pacific Athapaskans in British Columbia and of the Apache and Navajo of the southwestern United States. One of the world's most active volcanic regions, the Aleutian Range of Alaska hosts at least 45 historically active volcanoes. Studies of peoples inhabiting the Aleutian Islands during the 18th century A.D. indicate that eruptions, including submarine activity, have repeatedly influenced the movements of native inhabitants. Dependent exclusively upon marine fauna for their existence, the Aleuts have apparently been forced to abandon settlements destroyed by tsunamis generated during earthquakeinduced underwater landslides or submarine eruptions. In some cases, it appears that the Aleuts have deserted settlements because underwater activity killed the sea life that constitutes their sole food supply (Black, 1981; Moodie and Catchpole, 1992). b. complex geodynamics and hydrogeological hazards (high sedimentation rates, subsidence, landslide, soil liquefaction and tsunami) On the coastal plain of Achaia, between the Selinous and Kerynites rivers, Helike, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Corinth, provided archaeologists and other archaeoenvironmental scientists with intriguing testimonies. In the summer of 2001, a scientific team directed by the Greek archaeologist Dr. Dora Katsonopoulou, President of the Helike Society, and Dr. Steven Soter at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, discovered the first traces of the Classical Greek city of Helike, although the first offshore expedition (Helike Project) took place in 1988. They also discovered its prehistoric predecessor, an entire Early Bronze Age town, previously unsuspected, and evidently submerged in the same coastal plain some two thousand years earlier. In September 2003, in order to help protect the Classical and Early Bronze Age sites from destruction by a new railroad that would run over them, the World Monuments Fund included Helike in its ‘2004 List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites’(http://www.helike.org/news.shtml).

So far, clearly marked occupation horizons reflect the Bronze Age, Archaic and Classical, Roman and Byzantine settlements in this highly unstable environment (high rates of sedimentation, active seismicity of Helike fault, phenomena of soil liquefaction, uplift and subsistence of Helike delta). Although a large portion of Helike’s population died after the earthquake and the tsunami of 373 B.C., the higher areas of the polis continued to be used during Hellenistic Era (Proceedings , 1979 and 1995< http://www.helike.org/proceedings.shtml>; Soter & Katsonopoulou, 1999; Katsonopoulou & Soter, 2003). But even if the subsistence patterns continued to exist for a long time spread into the whole area, the bond between the physical site and polis’ integrity as a prominent political entity (meeting place of the Achaian koinon) ceased to exist after the major event of 373 B.C. Ancient authors speak of this awesome disaster (Aristotle, Meteorologika A6, 343 b1-6. B8, 366 a23-28 & 368b 6-12. De Mund. 4, 396a ; Diodorus, XV.48; Strabo, VIII.7.2; Ovid, Metamorphoses I.263; Pausanias, VII.24.5 ff.; Aelian, On Animals XI1.19). The sea submerged the coastal cities of Helike with the temple of Helikonian Poseidon and Boura, after a strong seismic shock. The local ferrymen were saying that a bronze Poseidon stood erect in the strait / inland lagoon (ancient Gr. ‘poros’) , holding in one hand a hippocamp, which was dangerous to those fishing with nets. Helike’s case is an extremely intriguing example not only for its scientific dynamics, but also for the integrated perception of natural hazards’ spatio-temporal distribution and role within the modern cultural landscapes. c. alluvial deposits Coastal areas on rivers’ delta are extremely prone to sedimentation (deltaic alluvium), as they are environments of gradual accumulation of geological and human by-products, and transitive zones between fluvial and marine ecosystems. During Holocene and especially from Mid-Holocene Altithermal / Hypsithermal onwards, the rise of mean temperatures, the shift of the ICTZ, changes of rainfall patterns and the deposition of alluvial sediments - to the height of 5m.- in the riverine valleys, gradually ended at the permanent formation of sedimentary environments in the big deltas worldwide (Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, Huan Ho, Han, Yangtze, Ganges), which are the most fertile ecosystems of our planet.

Cl. Vita - Finzi (1969), studying the Mediterranean valleys, observed the alluvial sequences , later known as Older & Younger Fill. It is about two major alluvial episodes in the Mediterranean valleys and plains, during Pleistocene glacial stages (? Early to Mid-Würm formation) and Roman to early Byzantine Era, when a new and fertile silt filled the river valleys, a process enhanced by other regional geological phenomena and local human interventions (i.e. valley of Eurotas - Laconia, S.E. Peloponnesus). But, regional studies undertaken by Brückner (1986) and van Andel et al. (1990) in Greece, show that regional and local river dynamics were more complex than the stratigraphic sequences of these two fills.

Furthermore, the circum-Mediterranean area is an interesting case of changing coastal landscapes that are registered in the local geoarchives (Brooks and Ferentinos, 1984; Pirazzoli,1991; Rapp and Kraft in Kardulias, 1994; Bintliff, 2002; Ghisetti and Vezzani, 2004). Ancient authors (Herodotus, Thucydides,

Plato, Aristotle, Theophrast, Strabo, Pausanias, Titus Livius) had realized these coastal changes and their repeated transformative impact on human societies. Coastal regression or transgression affected cities’ prosperity and longevity. Well-known are the examples of ancient Mediterranean harbours like Piraeus, Thessaloniki and Ephesos.

The last decades geoarchaeological surveys have demonstrated repeated changes in the coastlines of E. Mediterranean during the Holocene. Ancient Pella was a coastal city around 500 B.C., while during the Late Roman Period was inland, at a distance of 30 km from the nearest coast. The Neolithic settlement of Dimini (Thessaly) was built ca. 800 m. from the coastline, while today its position is ca. 5 km. from the nearest coast. The same process made ancient Myous/Miletos (Ionian Coasts, Asia Minor)to lay 20 km from the nearest coast, in alluvial strata of 11 m. width. The ancient seaport of Oiniadai (Trikardo island, Akarnania, N.W. Greece), once belonged to the Echinades Islands, famous for its spectacular shipsheds of the 5th cent. B.C., has been engulfed by sediments of the Acheloos river. Today, it is surrounded by the alluvial plain, the distance to the open sea being between 9 and 11 km. (Astaras and Sotiriades, 1988; Finke, 1988; Zangger, 1991; Reinhardt et al., 1994; Brown, 1997; Mac Kil, 2004; Vött et all, 2004).

3.2. Human-induced phenomena In addition, further geomorphological studies and geochemical analyses of the soils related to ancient sites (city-states, sanctuaries, temples) reveal an intriguing interrelation. Nomadic, maritime, pastoral, estate and subsistence farming patterns in past cultures fit geological criteria, putting emphasis on different soil types for each group of deities from Classical Greece and Cyprus. These groups are: a) xerepts for Artemis & Apollo, b) arid coastal calcids for Aphrodite and Poseidon, c) xeralfs for Hera & Hermes, d) rendolls for Demeter & Dionysos, e) fluvents among Neogene sediments for Hestia, Hephaistos & Ares, f) anthrepts for Athena & Zeus and g) lithic orthents for Persephone and Hades (Retallack, 2003).

Respectively, anthropogenic impact on the environment since prehistoric times is recorded in the sedimentary archives. Ancient settlement patterns in Lower Mesopotamia reflect explicitly the dynamics of sedimentary processes in the area. The low-gradient Tigris / Euphrates deltaic plain with high aggradation rates and raised alluvial ridges, as well as the post-glacial sea-level fluctuations, the migration of the Persian Gulf shoreline and tectonic movements of Mesopotamian depression, had complex effects on population migrations and the settlement patterns (Morozova, 2003).

Large-scale human activities such as construction of canals, dikes, dams, channel maintenance and flood control could also alter significantly the natural processes. Similarly, human-induced hazards may cause perturbations in the equilibrium of ecosystems and the life of the human ecosystems (Hughes and Thirgood, 1982; van Andel et al., 1990; Bell and Boardman, 1992; Redman, 1999). Aristotle notifies the dynamics of natural subsystems (weather, water, soil and subsoil, plant & animal communities) which exercise strong influence on human societies (On cosmos 6, 339 a 18-30 . Met. A14, 351a 19 - 351b 8), observes the severity of several geological phenomena such as the soil liquefaction (Met. B8, 366a 23-28) and high sedimentation rates (A14, 352 a 6 - 18).Theophrastos writes on the various causes of soil erosion, describes the deforestation effects on the landscapes by using the example of Crete (De plant caus., I.v.ii-iii. On winds, 13 ). Finally, Strabon (XIV.6.v cap. 684) refers to an observation made by Eratosthenes on the irreversible results of forest’s overexploitation in Cyprus. Often various markers and proxies in the sediments and the stratigrahic layers include valuable indicators for past human activities that had a negative impact on the archaeoenvironments, such as urbanism, deforestation and pollution.

In many parts of the world, the development of agriculture accelerated soil erosion processes, so the deposition of erosion products formed alluvial fans at the mouths of dry or temporarily drained valleys (Binford, 1983; Peglar, 1993; Hong et al., 1994; Ramrath et al., 2000; Ridgeway and Shiermmield, 2002; Edyta, 2004; Müllenhoff et al., 2004).

4. Conclusions The study of hazards’ historic evolution has shown that the cultural patterns and networks are interdependent. Moreover, the characteristics, distribution, and complexity of Earth’s cultural mosaics, all involve the parameter of disaster in their functional processes. Apart from influencing totally the course of human history (e.g. acute climatic episodes, epidemics, cosmic impacts), disasters had also influenced the division and control of Earth’s surface. The forces of cooperation and conflict among people, the changes that occur in the use of resources and the migration of human populations had modified the natural and cultural landscapes of the past in a mutual way. Physical systems affect human societies and human actions modify the physical environment.

Severe climatic and environmental changes had triggered human evolution and physical factors seems to have played an important role on Neanderthals’ disappearance. Sudden deaths of a wide part of ancient population shook the demographic stability and severe injuries altered the social equilibrium within society. The transformation of natural ecosystems (e.g. reduced or increased resources’ accessibility) and the geographical alterations (e.g. coastal evolution) caused changes in settlement patterns, environmental use and concept, migrations and wars. Respectively, major environmental events (e.g. cosmic impacts or giant tsunami) modified the face of whole areas. Other periodically expressed phenomena (e.g. El Ni•o and Monsoons) had long-term impact on the socioeconomic structures of local communities and crisis cult was always of critical importance within ancient societies.

Beyond any doubt, disaster dynamics had proved to be so powerful that they changed the course of human history. Mighty empires collapsed and vanished or shocked irreversibly. Wide-ranging case studies have shown that natural factors triggered the fall of well organized social systems when their normal coping mechanism failed. Drought or flooding, epidemic diseases, tremendous volcanic eruptions, cosmic phenomena, tsunami and earthquakes influenced the circum-Mediterranean civilizations (Saharosahel cultures, Iberian, Egyptian, Hittite, Mesopotamian, Minoan & Mycenaean, Etruscan, Roman), the N.W. European, Asian (Harappan, Chinese, Oceanian) and American (Mesoamerican & Andean) civilizations.

On the other hand, the positive response to hazardous phenomena may vary considerably. During the aftermath of catastrophe or environmental change, technological innovations are illustrated (e.g. agriculture after Younger Dryas crisis, obsidian trade, metallurgy), new lands discovered (e.g. evolution of the waterways and early human migrations, the trips of Vikings to Northern Seas, the European expansion after the Little Ice Age), new subsistence strategies and more efficient techniques were adopted (e.g. the case of Moche Culture in Peru). In essence, crises use to stimulate rather than devastate the cultural traits of a society. The emplacement of nutrient-rich volcanic tephras and alluvial soils counterbalanced the spread of malaria in marshy areas, the dislocation of city’s activities caused by coastal regression or transgression and the repeated repair attempts after the experience of severe effects.

Choosing to provide a broad coverage of the field rather than a detailed study of specific topics, main target is the exposure of the possibilities of sedimentological research to disaster archaeologists. By drawing attention to the potential contributions of sediment analysis in disaster archaeology and paleoenvironmental interpretation, additional and unexplored dimensions of past human activities, site developmental history and climatic-morphogenetic environments are disclosed. It is also worth observing that even the detailed sedimentological analyses based on data from the most distant parts of the world may contribute significantly to the interpretation of archaeohazards’ mechanisms and their relevant socio-cultural patterns.

Acknowledgements The authors have enjoyed insightful discussion with Dr G. Maniatis (Director of the Laboratory of Archaeometry, Demokritos), Associated Professor K. Kyriakopoulos (Department of Geology - Athens University) and Professor G. Pararas - Carayannis (pioneer in tsunami studies).

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