Integrated Ecological Growth - M.Arch Thesis Project by Aleck

Integrated Ecological Growth: Rapid Development in the Northern Rocky Mountains

Aleck Gantick School of Architecture // Montana State University 2020

Professional Paper // ARCH 575 Advisor: Bradford Watson Reader: Erik Bonnet November 22, 2020

Contents Chapter 1

Introduction

Chapter 2

Boundaries

Chapter 3

Context

Chapter 4

Site Analysis

Chapter 5

Program and Code

Chapter 6

Conclusion

Bibliography Appendix A

History of Development and Human Occupation in the American West Powell

History of Development and Human Occupation in the American West Policy Economy

Modern Context of Development and Human Occupation Rural Gentrification Land Consumption, Economics, and Ecosystem Services

Scope Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem Park County Planning and Ecological Commons Emergence, Dynamism, and Agency Case Studies

Chapter 1 Introduction Reactionary planning responses to rapid population growth reinforces the paradigmatic divide between human and natural ecology. The amenity rich areas within the Northern Rocky Mountains, are proving the current development patterns to be unsustainable. Recent trends of restructuring have manifested in rapid shifts towards a critical edge of the human and natural ecological realm of balance. Even as the realm of balance is tested, the desire to inhabit this specific landscape continues to increase. Recent evaluations of regional socioeconomics and motives to inhabit the Northern Rocky Mountains evidences a direct linkage to its ecological services and seemingly irreducible natural resources. This linkage highlights humankind’s reliance on natural systems in order to maintain viability. It also highlights a point of leverage in which a local understanding of region and boundary can be reconsidered. In order to accommodate future growth and development, it is crucial to engage the cultural values of inhabitants within a given landscape in order to reframe the anthropocentric definition of boundary to an interconnected and ecologically symbiotic definition of region. By reframing boundary and region, a scalable model, rooted in mutualism, can be developed in order to achieve socioeconomic and ecological 5

sustainability within the given parameters of jurisdiction. This model addresses the shifting cultural values of the Northern Rocky Mountains, economic benefits of the natural ecosystem, and emergent development strategies rooted in community and private landowner values. By dismantling the paradigmatic divide between human and natural ecology and reinforcing values that are mutually beneficial, there is impetus for an integrated, ecologically minded development.

History of Development and Human Occupation in the American West The development of the American West is underpinned by Manifest Destiny. The resultant ideology fostered a value system which incentivized a territorial expansion west. However, prior to this paradigm and imposition of anthropocentric boundaries, ecological boundaries were the primary modes of organization (Figure 1). In this context, boundary does not exist in terms of hard lines arbitrarily imposed upon the landscape, but a flexible threshold, characterized by uncertainty and dynamism.1 Even as indigenous communities occupied the West, they lived within the limits of a specific landscape while at the same time modifying it (Figure 2) 2. As a way of defining boundaries, this occupation has a direct relationship to the ecological conditions of a place.

Figure 1. Eco-Regions of North America. Commission for Environmental Cooperation

Reed, Chris, and Nina-Marie Lister. “Parallel Genealogies.” In Projective Ecologies, (New York, NY Actar, 2014), 22-38. 2

Rudzitis, Gundars. Wilderness and the Changing American West. (New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 56.

Figure 2. Approximated historical boundaries of Native American tribes. Note that many boundaries overlap and often coincide with ecological regions. https://native-land.ca/

With the arrival of European settlement, the indigenous understandings of boundaries were rapidly subverted by a belief system perceiving the natural systems and the West as something to be conquered. Savages and wildlands were to be stolen from, tamed and exploited by farmers, ranchers, Figure 3. Diagramming the Land Ordinance of 1785, Douglas C. Allen Institue for the Study of Cities

foresters, miners, and others, for a better use of the landscape.3 The residual effects of this paradigm can be seen through the imposition of the Jeffersonian Grid. Thomas Jefferson’s Land Ordinance of 1785 organized private land ownership through the application of a rectilinear grid. This grid facilitated the easy sale and purchase of land from a distance (Figures 3 and 4).4 By 1845, this readily consumptive land division gave way to the concept of Manifest Destiny, proclaiming a divine right to “overspread and possess the whole of the continent”.5 While the embodied sentiment of this term is well documented in years prior, Manifest Destiny became a rallying cry and a slogan for a nation to tame the wilderness of the American West.

Rudzitis, 10 (1996)

”Land Ordinance of 1785.” 2020. Land Ordinance Of 1785 375. Academic SearchComplete , EBSCO host Figure 4. Agricultural Fields, Gallatin Valley, MT. Google Earth

Britannica Academic, s.v. “Manifest Destiny,” accessed May 1, 2020, https:// academic-eb-com.proxybz.lib. montana.edu/levels/collegiate/article/ManifestDestiny/50542.

Powell In stark contrast to Jeffersonian ideals, in 1878, John Wesley Powell presented a “Report on the Lands of Arid Region of the United States”,6 offering a revolutionary vision of the American West, organized by watersheds rather than established political boundaries (Figure 5). Powell argued that the rigidity of Jeffersonian grids and political lines were not a sustainable system to be applied to the unconventional landscape of the American West. For Powell, human occupation could not be autonomous from the dynamic boundaries of natural process.7 However, this vision directly contradicted the established cultural values of Manifest Destiny, economic development as a marker of progress, and the efficacy of parceling land through the rectilinear Jeffersonian grid. Ultimately, Powell’s vision of the American West was rejected. The idealistic, anthropocentric trajectory of unabated economic progress and development of the landscape prevailed, aiding in a further division between human and natural ecology for generations to come.

Powell, John Wesley. Report on the Lands of the Arid region of the United States, with a More Detailed Account of the lands of Utah, with Maps, by J.W. Powell. April 3, 1878. -- Referred to the Committee on Appropriations and Ordered to Be Printed. Vol. Serial Set No. 1805. United States Congressional Serial Set. Washington, DC, 1878. 7

Reisner, Marc. Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water .Rev. and Updated. ed. (New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Penguin Books, 1993), 1-50.

Figure 5. Report on the Arid Regions of the West, John Wesley Powell

While this discussion is an abbreviate version of critical events, there are a few influential trajectories set forth from the acquisition and platting of land in the American West. First, is the cultural paradigm of economic development as the primary metric of progress. In the pursuit of progress, a value set was established to view the natural landscape as something to be transformed for monetary benefit. Furthermore, the American West’s copious land in a natural state subdues concern for its future wellbeing. This reinforces the economic value of land as an extraction of resources.8 Although myopic, for a developing nation this paradigm is logical. However, in the context of the 21st century, the acquisition, platting, and measurement of land value by its extractive potential in the American West perpetuates a binary perception of human occupation and natural systems.

Rudzitis, 12 (1996).

Historical Context of the West

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Indigenous Populations (approximate territorial map)

detachment from endemic social problems, agency (political, social, physical), access to nature

internet cowboys, entrepenuers, ammenity ranchers, etc. vs extractive industies and nostalgic notions of what a place used to be

culture acting in accordance with the value system it fostered. dustbowl, deforestation, environmental degradation

Land Ordinance (Jeffersonian Grids)

White Settelment (territorial expansion)

Rapid land consumption, private land is being broken down into marketable chunks

Wildlands of the west were frightening. they needed to be tamed and conquered for “progress”

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Chapter 2: Boundaries Historical and Modern Context of Boundary The false dichotomy of human and nature as separate entities can be traced to the 16th century writings of Rene Descartes, dividing the world into matter and mind. This dualism demarcates “humans and their environment as separate entities”.9 The philosophical thought of Descartes permeates the expansion and occupation of the American West through the opposition of human occupation and natural systems, initiated through colonialism and cemented by the Jeffersonian Grid. Dualism is defined as “a theory that considers reality to consist of two irreducible elements or modes”10 This dichotomy limits perceived interaction and skews causality. In the early history of the United States and territorial expansion, dualism often promoted one system at the expense of another without considering the root causalities and connectivity of the greater whole. This consequently embedded a myopic view of the American West.

Taliaferro C. 2001. Early modern philosophy. Pages. 130-145. in Jamieson D, ed. A Companion to Environmental Philosophy. Oxford (United Kingdom): Blackwell. 10

”Dualism.” Merriam-Webster.com. Accessed April 20, 2020.

Policy The philosophical and cultural imposition of human and nature dualism is the basis of constructing boundaries in the American West but is further reinforced by land management policy. By understanding the policy language of preservation and conservation, a clear picture of the jurisdictional relationship between human and natural systems can be procured. The language defining the intent and formation of Yellowstone National Park and the National Park Service, National Forests, Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and the National Wilderness Preservation System, highlight the relationship between policy and human-nature dualism. In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the first National Park in the United States as a “public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people.”11 The creation of the National Park Service (NPS) in 1916 stipulated that the service was to “conserve the scenery and the natural historic objects and the wild life therein and… leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future

United States. Department of the Interior. “An Act to Set Apart a Certain Tract of Land, Lying near the Head-waters of the Yellowstone River, as a Public Park” ... Ex. Doc. (United States. Congress. House); 42nd Congress, 2nd Session, No. 146. Washington, 1872. https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ ourdocs/yellowstone.html

generations.”12 This effort for conservation seeks to restrict and

idea of ‘multiple use’ does not mean all uses can occur on every

mitigate actions that may impair these environments. However,

acre. Rather, the BLM is tasked with administering appropriate

the success of these efforts is still a topic of debate. The critical

use of public lands. Often, lands managed by the BLM have

point here is that by placing limitations on the public’s activity, it

very few restrictions on the public’s possible use and many are

is possible for preservation and conservation to occur.

utilized for extraction of resources.

In 1891, the Forest Reserve Act allowed the President of the

The most stringent level of conservation and preservation is

United States to set aside forest reserves from the land in the

found in the National Wilderness Preservation System and the

public domain.13 The intent of this act was to limit the pilfering

Wilderness Act of 1964. In this policy, Wilderness is defined as,

of timber services on lands in the public domain by private

“an area where earth and its community of life are untrammeled

individuals. This act is less limiting to human occupation and

by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain…

use than the NPS but seeks to conserve the economic value of

Federal land retaining its primeval character and influence

natural resources as a common benefit. This designation enacts

without permanent improvements or human habitation.”15

less stringent measures for how the public conducts themselves

Furthermore, the National Wilderness Preservation System puts

in this domain.

forth the mantra of “leave no trace”. This act protects a large

The least restrictive measure for conservation of public

portion of federally owned lands in the Western United States

lands is seen in the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), created

by restricting the expansion of extractive industries occurring

in 1946. The BLM is responsible to administer public lands “on

on public lands. While the intent is to explicitly preserve land

the basis of multiple use and sustained yield.”14 However, the

and ecosystems in their natural state, this designation puts forth the idea that natural systems may fail to coexist within areas

Pletcher, Kenneth. “National Park Service.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, inc., May 2, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ National-Park-Service

disturbed by humans.

Baker, Robert D., and United States. Forest Service. Timeless Heritage : A History of the Forest Service in the Southwest . Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, 1988. Chapter 6 - The Pioneers Establishing the Concept of Forestry in Southwest, 1905-24. Act of 1891. p.55 14

Bureau of Land Management. United States Department of the Interior.

History of the BLM: National History. https://www.blm.gov/about/history/ timeline 15

Wilderness Act. “Public Law 88-577.” In 88th Congress, S, vol. 4. 1964.

The policies enacted to form this structure of land

Economy

designation and management correlate various degrees of

During the 19th century and half of the 20th century, the

conservation and preservation to limitations of human impact

American West was largely synonymous to a land of extraction.

and activity. In the American West especially, this structure

A landscape of vast natural resources was something that could

enforces human-nature dualism in which one system can only

be economically beneficial in the pursuit of development and

be bolstered by various limitations on the other. Likewise,

progress. Employing the land by logging, mining, and farming

human-nature dualism has made conservation efforts difficult,

were ways in which economic value could be created, while

as biocentric approaches imply the prioritization of nature over

land left in its natural state was perceived to have minimal

human life, creating antagonism between conservationists

value.17 The nation’s economic view of the West after the Civil

and other people.16 This pervasive methodology has austere

War was described as “an investment arena for surplus capital,

ramifications for the land use and development patterns of

as a source of raw materials, and as a vast vacant lot to enter

private property with no collective conservation or preservation

and occupy”18 The view of prolific resources and vast expanses

intention. While there is a great benefit to preservation of lands

obscures detriment to an interrelated web of ecosystem

absent of human intervention, the intent of the paper is not to

services. By only measuring extraction values of land and

challenge the well intention land designations but to challenge

resources, the interrelation of dynamic processes which supply

the fundamental dichotomous structure towards a more

extraction are neglected. This cultural narrative has profound implications as

integrated existence.

extractive industries are replaced by less material amenity industries. While the history of the American West is typically written with a focus on tangible resources, “the deep-seated

Fraley, J. (2017). “The Anti-Wilderness Bias in the Common Law and Modern American Property Law.” In Modern Studies in Property Law

Barbara Paterson; Ethics for Wildlife Conservation: Overcoming the Human– Nature Dualism, BioScience, Volume 56, Issue 2, 1 February 2006, 147.

William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of

the AmericanWest (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1994), 62.

expectation that land values would increase was and still is,

“Speculation feeds, and feeds on, the rational expectations

a key driving force in western development.”19 Furthermore,

(and, occasionally, the irrational exuberance) of landowners,

by the mid 90’s, only 19 out of 400 Western counties had at

who then push for, or at least tolerate, the pro-growth

least one-third of their jobs in mining, manufacturing, logging,

postures of local leaders because their policies sustain land

farming, and ranching.20 Although the ‘New West’ is seen

appreciation.”21

as non-reliant upon extractive industries it can be argued, extraction has merely evolved to more qualitative or aesthetic consumptions of the natural world. The less tangible extraction of amenities results in a more complex analysis of causalities to environmental degradation. Degradation of ecosystem services seems less associated to this new extraction as it is less immediately discernable in the landscape. Stake holders in land speculation often evade criticism by means of deflecting to the easily perceived ecological disruption of traditional extractive industries.

The divide between economic and ecological systems further separates human and natural ecology. Although a false dichotomy benefitted a growing country, development is near a critical threshold. The primary land use patterns have focused on value extraction and aesthetic exploitation for human benefit without investment in the critical functions which provide that benefit. As climate change and increased development continues it is apparent that current methods are not sustainable.

However, land speculation and desires for continual capital accumulation, enabled by policy, create a feedback loop for rapid development. A quote from William R. Travis sums up this relationship:

Travis, William Riebsame. New Geographies of the American West: Land Use and the Changing Patterns of Place. (Washington: Island Press, 2007), 18 20

Travis, William Riebsame, James J. Robb, and University of Colorado, Boulder. Center of the American West. Atlas of the New West: Portrait of a Changing Region. (1st ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1997), 108

Travis, 18 (2007)

Chapter 3: Context Modern Context of Development and Human Occupation In the last two decades of the twentieth century, the Intermountain West began to experience rapid population growth, particularly in high-amenity areas. These areas are categorized by their recreational opportunities, seemingly irreducible natural resources, and a loosely defined “high quality of life”. Historically, development in the Intermountain West has been categorized by cycles of booms and busts. However, when observing the long-term trends of population and development it is clear the “boom and bust” rhetoric that underscores development in the West may be misleading (Figure 6). This growth was driven, in part, by an increase in urban populations with greater financial resources attracted to life in a vast and rural landscape with the services of suburban living. At the end of the 20th century, growth in the Intermountain West was largely correlated with proximity and ease of access to urban centers, largely due to professional obligations. However, recent decades of development have been defined by mobility of profession, continued population growth in micropolitan and

Figure 6. Population Growth in the US 1850-2000, William Travis

social problems and visible ecological loss.22 In the past twenty years, the Intermountain West, specifically the Northern Rocky Mountain region has seen a second wave of change. The US Census Bureau projects that from 2005-2025, the Mountain West population will increase by 5.23 million.23 The predicted influx of new residents will drastically alter the physical and nonphysical characteristics that make it a desirable region in which to live.

recently defined metropolitan areas, increasing wealth, and a heightened value of natural amenities in response to endemic

22 23

Travis, 24 (2007)

Campbell, Paul R. Population projections: states, 1995-2025, Population projections: states, 1995-2025 § (1997)

Much of the most recent wave of amenity based in-

living, “western lifestyle”, healthy, peaceful, safe, natural way

migration has been concentrated in previously rural

of life, simplicity, quieter lifestyle, et cetera. As well, Gundars

communities within the Northern Rocky Mountains. This

Rudzitis cites an economic study in Wilderness and the

influx of new residents has caused a conceptual divide in the

Changing American West, concluding that regardless of job

socioeconomic structure between Old West and New West

opportunities, people have moved to the Rocky Mountain West

ideologies, highlighting differing manifestations of rugged

for reasons related to the social and physical environment.25

individualism. This divide is a palpable tension within the

The paradox of these motivations is the similarity to what many

Rocky Mountains between internet cowboys, entrepreneurs,

long-term residents deem as their own value set within rural

and amenity ranchers with the extractive industries and

communities of the Northern Rocky Mountains. However, it also

nostalgic notions of western identity. While key agents of

presents common ground for bottom up, emergent growth

the rural restructuring process have been identified primarily

strategies to begin.

as affluent migrants and entrepreneurs, motivations and demographics of this population influx remain less explored due to the macroscale examinations of the migration process. Although lacking thorough evidence, the motivations driving this migration have significant implications for the landscapes, ecologies, and communities these individuals now call home.24 Participant interviews, performed by Rhina Ghose in Missoula, Montana suggest a common thread of motivations for in migration: beauty of natural landscape, recreational opportunities, proximity to wilderness, reasonable costs of

Brosnan, Kathleen A., Amy L. Scott, and Rhina Ghose. City Dreams, Country Schemes Community and Identity in the American West. (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2013) 109.

Rudzitis, 115 (1996)

Rural Gentrification

value, state land management has increased scarcity and land

In an essay on rural gentrification in Western Montana, Rhina

value. This renders the spatial proximity of affordable housing

Ghose argues that it is the influx of a population with differing

for service employees scarce or non-existent relative to an

consumption patterns to long-term residents that has resulted

individual’s place of employment.27 In Jackson, Wyoming the

in radical changes to land use, housing, resource allocation,

global and national restructuring of agricultural markets caused

economy, and public policies in Missoula, Montana. This drastic

potential rents to manifest in a shift of land uses. High net worth

change in consumption patterns contributes not only to a rapid,

firms and individuals exploit the resultant rent gap through

social and economic shift but also dire and often permanent

large land purchases, redevelopment, and conservation.28

ecological change. Although old-timers in the Northern Rocky

The conservation or preservation of land, incentivized by

Mountains may criticize the new influx of residents for their

tax benefits and communal interest in protecting nature, is a

contribution to ecological degradation of a place, it should be

geographically unique condition, increasing scarcity in regions

noted that industrial agriculture, grazing, logging, and mining

with high natural amenity value. The changing landownership

have already destroyed the many “pristine” landscapes they

dynamics of natural amenity regions will continue to have

now colonize with aid of government subsidies. The issues

socioeconomic and ecological consequences. The question

do not lie in an old versus new ideology. Rather, it is a rapid

becomes “what are the emergent responses to such changes?”

change leading to reactionary planning and a lack of oversight in developments as watchdog groups cannot effectively combat every ill-intentioned development.26 Other rural case studies illuminate more direct connections to concepts of gentrification. In New York States’ Adirondack Park, state managed land use policies have influenced the scarcity of developable land. To uphold ecological and amenity

26 Travis, 66 (2007)

27 Darling, E. “The City in the Country: Wilderness Gentrification and the Rent Gap.” Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 37 (2005): 101532. 28 Nelson, Peter B, and Hines, J Dwight. “Rural Gentrification and Networks of Capital Accumulation—A Case Study of Jackson, Wyoming.” Environment and Planning. A 50, no. 7 (2018): 1473-495.

Land Consumption, Economics, and Ecosystem Services As previously discussed, commodification of land in relation to amenities, viewsheds, and proximity to wilderness is a shift from previous extraction-based economies. In high amenity areas, this has led to low vacancy rates, increased housing costs, and rapid land consumption. The high-amenity areas in historically rural settings with rapid population growth have a lower developed land (DL) consumption efficiency (Figure 7). The connection between DL consumption efficiency and high amenity areas can be evidenced in the demographics and value sets attributed to the region’s growth. Figure 7. Land Consumpting Efficiency Ranking, Grekousis and Mountrakis (2015)

While the socioeconomic issues continue to be a major focus of policy makers, cultural attitudes have begun to shift dramatically in the past five years to prioritizing environmental protection over economic growth (Figure 8). This change in sentiment is related to a multitude of factors including, globalization, awareness in climate change and environmental degradation, value of natural amenities, recreation, endemic social issues in more densely populated areas, and most recently, a global pandemic. While cultural attitudes have shifted, policy and planning in the Northern Rocky Mountains has not begun to reflect this change.

Figure 8. Environmental Protection vs. Economic Development, Gallup (2019)

By applying fixed political boundaries, there is an immediate juxtaposition of human habitation to ecological systems

increases, this only adds to the complexities of stakeholders and aids in fragmentation of large-scale ecological networks.30 In the shift away from extractive industries, the 21st century economy of the Northern Rocky Mountains has become heavily reliant on land speculation and tourism that is related to biodiversity and ecological viability. Tourism, real estate, and other service jobs contribute to over 65% of the jobs in Park, Gallatin, and Madison counties in Montana.31 This economic sector flourishes as a direct result of the ecosystem services provided by the region. Tourists travel from all over the world to Yellowstone National Park, the peripheral communities, and public lands for the purpose of engaging with a natural landscape that has nearly vanished in other regions. However, Figure 9. Atlas of Wyoming Ungulates, Oregon State University Press

if a new shopping center, hotel, or gas station is to be built, few individuals ask what the impact will be on the ecological

that do not comprehend or recognize anthropocentric lines

wonders bringing people to the region. Similarly, as people

of jurisdiction (Figure 9). Ecological functions often cross a

decide to purchase and develop property to live in a beautiful

complex mosaic of private and public lands. The private lands

landscape amongst magnificent wildlife and adjacent to public

and consequentially, ecosystems of the American West and

lands, few ask the question of whether their presence will spoil

Northern Rockies are being incrementally broken down.29 As the

their initial motives to inhabit the region. In the traditional

desire and ability to inhabit the periphery of natural amenities 30 29

Hansen, Katherine, and William Wyckoff. Settlement, Livestock Grazing and Environmental Change in Southwest Montana, 1860–1990. Environmental History Review 15, no. 4 (1991): 45–71. https://doi. org/10.2307/3984992

Wilkinson, Todd. Unnatural Disaster: Will America’s Most Iconic Wild Ecosystem Be Lost to a Tidal Wave of People?

Atlas of the Great Northern Landscape Conservation Cooperative. (2020, February 28). Retrieved April 20, 2020, from https://headwaterseconomics. org/dataviz/atlas-gnlcc/

extractive economy, it is easy to see when a mineral runs out

These scales can be engaged by two primary measures,

or if there is no more timber to harvest, but in the 21st century

policy and economics. Policy can induce new land use

amenity economy, the causalities are one step removed and

strategies. It can inform where new growth happens and

less easy to discern. There is an obvious impact from increased

how that growth takes shape. Ideas such as conservation

human occupation, but nature and humans are viewed as

districts can impose higher standards for review on proposed

distinctly separate entities. The dualism of this paradigm gives

developments as well as implement a tax-rate that reflects

little economic value to ecosystem services. When pieces of

ecological significance. The current economic model assumes

natural systems are not tangibly represented in economic

the “economic parts of the biotic clock will function without the

models, there is little incentive to preserve their long-term

uneconomic parts”.33 That is, unless natural systems are directly

viability.32 If this model continues, the ecological systems

related and tangible to individual’s well-being or economic

we desire will be fully compromised by the current land use

benefits they will largely be brushed aside as insignificant. This

patterns.

sets up an argument to assess the true value of ecosystem

The role of architecture in this context occupies three

services as a larger, interconnected whole by means of an

primary scales. The first, is the scale of comprehensive,

ecosystem service index. As noted in “The Architecture and

county-wide planning. Of particular importance are the lands

Measurement of an Ecosystem Services Index”, this index

in proximity to those that are trying to be protected from

is “meant to summarize and track over time the magnitude

human habitation. The second, is the community scale, with

of beneficial services arising from the environment.”34 The

consideration of group interactions with the environment

intent of providing this index is to evidence the importance

benefiting both human and natural systems. The third, is the

of investment in the maintained viability of ecosystems in

individual building scale, with the understanding that individual

symbiosis with human occupation.

pieces of private land can interact with the greater landscape consumptively or symbiotically.

33 34

Leopold, Aldo. A Sand County Almanac, and Sketches Here and There. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1949. p.210

Leopold, 214 (1949)

Banzhaf, Spencer and Boyd, James (2005). “The Architecture and Measurement of an Ecosystem Services Index.” Resources for the Future. Abstract.

While policy and economics offer clear measures to encourage more ecologically minded decisions in planning and monetary incentives to back them, equity is overlooked. For example, if ecologically significant corridors are taxed at a higher rate and require more stringent reviews, the ability to live in those places may eventually be reserved only for individuals with the financial means to do so. A more inclusive response to these issues can be borrowed from business terminology as “triple bottom line” (TBL). TBL is and accounting framework comprised of three parts: social, environmental (ecological), and financial. This is often referred to as People, Planet, and Profit. In the case of the Northern Rocky Mountains, TBL is highly dependent on context and should not be used as a homogenous response. Instead, it is a reminder of components that are integral to any proposed strategy. Thus, this concept is better discussed through precedent and site analysis.

Chapter 4: Site Analysis Scope The scope of this project seeks to focus on a town and county at the cusp of rapid growth within the ecologically significant Northern Rocky Mountains. In defining the scope of the project, it is important to identify the necessary scales for an integrated ecology. At the largest scale is the physical scale of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and the virtual scale of economic dependence upon these natural systems. Next, is the scale of Park County, Montana, the municipalities within it, and the Upper Yellowstone Watershed. Third, is the scale of individual communities and landowners set within the landscape. These elements are integral to discussing a model for growth with emergent capacity based on the dynamic relationships of an integrated ecology.

gathered from 1970-1999 presented in “Rates and Drivers of Rural Residential Development in the Greater Yellowstone”.35 During this time, the GYE experienced a 58% increase in population while land consumption related to residential development increased 350%. Recent predictions of annual growth rates of the GYE range from conservative estimates of 3% to the upper end of 5%. This roughly translates 100,000 new homes in the span of 17 years spread across the landscape in a shotgun pattern given current trends of development.36 It should be noted that these growth rates do not account for a potential inundation of individuals displaced by climate change to the region or the recent wave of individuals leaving cities due to COVID.37 The rapid consumption of land at current rates and patterning are detrimental to the natural systems that are necessary for the economic and ecological viability of the region. 38

Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) serves as a case study of rapid growth within the Northern Rocky Mountains. The majority communities residing in the GYE offer amenity values by virtue of proximity to protected public lands. The preferred mode of development in this region continues to be large-lot rural subdivisions or exurban development, defined as one home per 0.4 - 16.2 hectares. This is illustrated by data

Gude, Patricia H. Hansen, Andrew J. Rasker, Ray. (2005). Rates and Drivers of rural residential development in the Greater Yellowstone. Abstract.

Wilkinson, Todd. Unnatural Disaster: Will America’s Most Iconic Wild

Ecosystem Be Lost to a Tidal Wave of People? 37

Gopal, Prashant (2020, October 29). Rich Buyers Seeking Open Spaces Fuel a Housing Boom in U.S. West. Retrieved November 01, 2020, from https:// www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-29/rich-buyers-seeking-openspaces-fuel-a-housing-boom-in-u-s-west

Gude, Patricia H. Hansen, Andrew J. Rasker, Ray. (2005). Rates and Drivers of rural residential development in the Greater Yellowstone. Abstract.

Park County

A growth policy can be defined as “a non-regulatory, long-

While the viability of the GYE must be understood on a larger

range plan that identifies and seeks to address key social,

scale that crosses a multitude of jurisdictional boundaries, it

physical, environmental, economic and land use issues.”41 The

is necessary to narrow the discussion to a county on the cusp

Park County Growth Policy states a goal to identify wildlife

of rapid growth in order to analyze the parameters influencing

corridors with the hope that individual landowners will use

decisions regarding distribution of growth, ecological processes

this public information to conserve corridors and develop

affected, and potential areas to test a representative case

wisely but fails to put forth a system in which those actions

study. To the west of Park County is Gallatin County, where

are incentivized. The policy also acknowledges the large

the rapid population growth can be viewed as a harbinger for

tourism industry and the value set attracting new economic

the region. Projections of Bozeman suggest it will be the size

growth to the region but neglects to acknowledge how this

of Salt Lake City within the next 17 years.39 Despite the slow

growth relies on ecological viability and continued access to

rebound from the 2008 recession, it is naïve to think there will

natural amenities. These policies are only guiding principles

not be similar growth and spill over into Livingston, Paradise

to growth. While well intentioned, they result in reactionary

Valley, and the Shields River Valley of Park County in the same

responses and fail in response to rapid growth and the viability

timeframe. In comparison to the growth and development rates

of ecosystems, presenting an unsustainable model. The goal is

of the GYE, from 1970-2000 Park County experienced a 43%

to not discredit the well intention policies and actions set forth

population growth while land consumption related to residential

by the Park County Growth Policy, but to use it as a starting

development increased 293%.40 The primary response to

point to develop an emergent and more ecologically integrated

growth in Park County and several other counties in the GYE

framework for policy.

has been Growth Policies.

Park County consists of a complex mosaic of private and public land ownership designations managed by various

Wilkinson, Todd. Unnatural Disaster: Will America’s Most Iconic Wild Ecosystem Be Lost to a Tidal Wave of People? 40

“Park County Atlas.” Park County Atlas. Accessed April 4, 2020. https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index. html?appid=b196d9c262b64eb0855ea677bbd6aa96.

Park County Growth Policy (Growth Policy). (2017, December 22). Retrieved April 20, 2020, from http://www.parkcounty.org/uploads/files/pages/36/ Growth-Policy-with-Appendices-attached.pdf

entities. Land ownership in Park County can be broken into

Residential water use in the county primarily uses groundwater,

three primary categories with 45.1% private land, 52.7%

which is dependent upon surface water for annual recharging.

federal land and 2.2% state lands, respectively.42 While several

Although the primary consumer of water in the Paradise valley

environmental advocacy groups operate within Park County,

is agriculture, continued residential development poses a risk

only 4.7% of private land is under conservation easements. The

for increased water use, effluent, stream channel alteration,

majority of private land in Park County occupies the valley floors

invasive species, availability of water for competing interests

and riparian areas. Not only are these areas likely to continue

and degradation of water quality. These issues will only be

experiencing a disproportionate level of development, but

compounded by climate change as peak flows occur earlier and

they also serve as cornerstones of biodiversity and ecological

water temperatures rise.45 The economic significance of this

viability.43

watershed can be directly correlated to its ecological wellbeing.

Park County exists within two major watersheds, the Upper

In Park County it is estimated that non-resident expenditures

Yellowstone River and the Shields River watersheds. The

totaled $196 million in 2013. In the same year, anglers alone

primary areas of growth and development lie within the Upper

spent $70 million.46 The socioeconomic vitality of Park County

Yellowstone River Watershed, an area commonly referred to

is heavily dependent upon the health of the Upper Yellowstone

as Paradise Valley. The valley floor varies in this area from

Watershed. Due to human and natural ecological dependence

less than 1 mile to 8 miles wide, constrained by the Gallatin

on the watershed, as growth continues, it is paramount to

and Beartooth Mountains. The overwhelming majority of

consider the impacts of development related to watershed

water withdrawn from this watershed is utilized in agriculture

viability and sustainability particularly in the context of climate

(99%), while a small fraction is used for residential purposes.44

change.

Headwaters Economics, April 29, 2020. https://headwaterseconomics. org/.

water.usgs.gov/watuse/data/2010. 45

Gude, Patricia H. Hansen, Andrew J. Rasker, Ray. (2005). Rates and Drivers of rural residential development in the Greater Yellowstone.

Upper Yellowstone Watershed Information Summary PPTX, Accessed April 4, 2020. https://www.upperyellowstone.org/ upperyellowstonewatershed.

“Estimated Use of Water in the United States County-Level Data for 2010.” USGS Water Resources of the United States. Accessed April 20, 2020. https://

Swanson, Larry. “Key Trends, Dependencies, Strengths, and Vulnerabilities in Park County, Montana, and Its Area Economy,” n.d.

While the interconnected ecological and socioeconomic

available planning tools that clearly articulate the need to

issues are observed at the county level, the intent is to

conserve this habitat do not exist. Without public knowledge of

understand the jurisdictional framework guiding current and

the critical zones in which development will have the greatest

future changes in the Park County and propose approaches

impact, private land will continue to fragment the landscape

to land use and development which seek a more integrated

and cause ecological and economic harm.

ecology. Aldo Leopold wrote, “Conservation will ultimately boil down to rewarding the private landowner who conserves the public interest.”47 The role of the private landowner and individual communities is especially pertinent in the context of exurban development in Park County. As previously discussed, there is a nearly six to one ratio in land consumption within the GYE that is driven by exurban development.48 This type of development can be linked to a specific value set of individuals choosing to inhabit this region. In Park County, there is a surprising disparity in publicly available research that explicitly portrays the key ecological zones that are at risk to future development. While critical habitat is well known through Montana Fish and Wildlife’s Critical Areas Assessment,49 publicly 47

Leopold, Aldo. The River of the Mother of God and Other Essays: And Other Essays, edited by Susan L. Flader, et al., University of Wisconsin Press, 1992. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ montana/detail.action?docID=3445046 48

Gude, Patricia H. Hansen, Andrew J. Rasker, Ray. (2005). Rates and Drivers of rural residential development in the Greater Yellowstone. 49

Crucial Areas Planning System. Accessed April 25, 2020. http://fwp.mt.gov/ gis/maps/caps/.

Planning and Ecological Commons

development in the 21st century.

The privatization of land and ecological function have resulted

In the American West, research has evidenced tension

in traditional management strategies losing efficacy. The

between property rights, public land, the natural environment

effects of changing landownership and new residents’ attitudes

and state regulation.51 There is a pervasive ideological tradition

towards elk on large acreage ranches in the Paradise Valley has

in the Western United States to limit regulation and uphold

degraded the “ecological commons” created by rancher’s and

private property rights. As environmental services encourage

public hunters’ mutual interests and cooperation.50 Historically,

growth in the Paradise Valley, their viability is simultaneous

the commons were upheld by cooperation with community

threatened by growth, evidencing a contradictory trajectory.

members and handshake agreements to hunt elk on private

Paul Robbins evidences commons constructed not out of

lands, allowing effective population control in the absence of

physical space but out of a desire to protect developer’s capital

natural predators. However, as agricultural lands were devalued,

investment.52 This context enables nuanced and questionable

largely as a result of national trends stemming from the great

self-regulation of capital investment and developers. It only

depressions of the 1920’s and 1930’s, speculative ranch buying

defers contradiction, spatial expansion, and degradation of the

became common in the Paradise Valley due to its high amenity

ecological services which drive development in the Paradise

value. The most recent wave of absentee buyers is more active

Valley. Although traditional planning in Paradise Valley is “a

in ranch management, having a greater influence on attitudes

case of closing the barn door after the horses have fled”53,

towards wildlife and hunters. Currently, the ecological commons

overlapping values of residents can be leveraged to create

of the Paradise Valley have degraded due to shifting value sets

emergent planning strategies which are not solely focused on

of absentee landowners and increasingly restricted hunting

capital accumulation.

access. This undermines management strategies and privatizes

ecological function. The key point here is there is a need to reinvigorate the ecological commons but in the context of 50

Haggerty, Julia Hobson, and Travis, William R. “Out of Administrative Control: Absentee Owners, Resident Elk and the Shifting Nature of Wildlife Management in Southwestern Montana.” Geoforum 37, no. 5 (2006): 816-30.

Krannich, Richard S, and Smith, Michael D. “Local Perceptions of Public Lands Natural Resource Management in the Rural West: Toward Improved Understanding of the “revolt in the West”.” Society & Natural Resources 11, no. 7 (1998): 677-95.

Robbins, Paul, Martin, Stephen, and Gilbertz, Susan. “Developing the Commons: The Contradictions of Growth in Exurban Montana.” The Professional Geographer 64, no. 3 (2012): 317-31.

Robbins (2012)

Emergence, Dynamism, and Agency

A key component of this will be “ecological event space” that

Within the complex jurisdictional framework and the

incorporates a multiplicity of ecological and socioeconomic

paradigmatic divide of human and natural ecology, two primary

benefits.

categories begin to describe a more sustainable model for

While much focus has been given to the capacity of nature

future growth, emergence, and dynamism. Emergence and

and complex urban systems to engage in emergence, the

emergent behavior, as noted by Steven Johnson, refers to

emergent capacity of ecologically minded development in

the ability of low-level components of a system or community

rural settings remains less explored. Top down measures to

to self-organize into a higher-level system of sophistication

guide development in the Rocky Mountains have been the

and awareness.54 Emergence can be evaluated through

primary model and often met with resistance. When successfully

grassroots planning initiatives that leverage the 21st century

implemented, these approaches often result in unforeseen

cultural context of a region in the Northern Rocky Mountains.

consequences such as the affordable housing crisis in Jackson

Emergence can also be assessed from incentivizing free

Hole, WY or the ever-advancing suburban sprawl around

market ecological activism, which engages the socioeconomic

Boulder and the Front Range of Colorado. The main point

framework to achieve an integrated ecology supported by

of these examples is not to frame well intentioned growth

economic benefit. An understanding of dynamic relationships

strategies in a negative manner but to begin theorizing the

of both human and natural ecology evidences more integrated

potential for emergent development to respond to the dynamic

causalities. It is understood that change is inherent in living

relationships of human occupation and ecological viability.

systems, “they are characterized in part by uncertainty and dynamism.” This paper proposes dynamism be understood as an integral piece of development regarding human and natural ecology. This enables a scalar model of operational dynamics, measured by adaptability and resiliency, to be tested. 54

Johnson, Steven. Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities,

and Software. New York: Scribner, 2001.

Case Studies

and housing) as a case study to project a future in which

Projects such as the Willamette River Basin Planning atlas begin

degradation of critical habitat can be avoided. The goal is to

to address a systematic way to evaluate human occupation and

procure an ecologically symbiotic development strategy that

modification, environmental consequences, and strategies for

can be implemented prior to the onset of critical population

growth that conserve natural resources at a scale that maintains

growth.55 In the mode of community and civic engagement

ecological viability. Although set in a much more urban context than Park County, this initiative is emergent in the sense it

SCAPE Studio presents a tool of engagement in their Living

started as a community-based approach to environmental and

Breakwaters oyster gardening manual. This manual begins

population growth issues, ultimately spurring the engagement

to build a shared knowledge base towards a common goal,

of the EPA and creation of the Pacific Northwest Ecosystem

reinforcing a method in which human and natural ecology

Research Consortium. By examining the complexities of

is integrated. This method of dissemination and education

relationships between people, land, water, and other life in

gives agency to individuals to enact an emergent, grassroots

the WRB, as well as the cumulative effects of land use and

response that helps combat the ecological issues of water

landownership policies over time and in different political

quality and rising see levels. Another notable project from

jurisdictions, a dynamic and integrated ecology emerges

SCAPE, that engages the community scale, is Public Sediment:

as a mutualistic planning strategy. This planning strategies

Resilient by Design. This project seeks to improve ecological

has achieved measurable success through the ecologically

resiliency while providing benefits of ecosystems services

restorative and symbiotic action it informed. Successes include,

inherent in natural amenities by an investment in ecological

decreased water temperature, an increase in fish species

infrastructure for protection while utilizing public involvement.

richness and riparian forest, and a reduction in invasive plant

The design proposes “connective paths, outdoor mudrooms,

cover. Despite the successes, it is a reactive response to the

and sensing stations, that link vulnerable neighborhoods with

pressures of over two million people. In comparison, Park

the Bay and engage youth in monitoring of the environment”

County can use the environmental prioritizations of specific elements in the WRB (strategies for water, biodiversity,

Hulse, D., Gregory, S., &amp; Baker, J. P. (2002). Willamette River Basin planning atlas: Trajectories of environmental and ecological change. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press.

improving ecological health, resiliency, and giving agency to the community.56 This project facilitates a symbiotic existence between both natural and human systems, improving ecological viability and resiliency and benefiting people with ecosystems services afforded by natural amenities. It should be noted, these case studies exist in much more densely populated areas than the Upper Yellowstone Watershed and Park County and should be viewed as informative at a conceptual level rather than a one to one relationship. The proposal for more ecologically, economically, and socially minded planning and development will pertain to small municipalities, and primarily exurban growth. By engaging local communities and visitors through design and planning, the goal is to encourage change that is beneficial to natural and human ecology. This capacity for change can be understood through emergent and dynamic, qualities and interactions. Given the current trajectory and potential for a rapid growth scenario, the project will critically assess the established modes of planning and present projective solutions to the paradigmatic divide between human occupation and natural ecology.

Scape Studio. “Public Sediment: Resilient by Design Challenge.” https:// www.scapestudio.com/projects/ public-sediment-resilient-design-challenge/

Chapter 5: Program and Code Program and Code The programmatic elements seek to engage planning at the county level in response to trans-jurisdictional conditions of larger ecosystems. The program will examine the critical scales and areas for ecosystem vitality, at risk areas, development’s relationship to water, ecosystem services, socioeconomic measures, and unregulated versus alternative growth strategies within the Upper Yellowstone Watershed. As previously mentioned, Park County, and consequentially the Upper Yellowstone Watershed, consist of a complex mosaic of private and public land ownership designations managed by various entities. As noted in the site analysis, the rate of land consumption relative to rate of growth is a risk to the ecological and economic viability of the region. Development and fragmentation of private lands in the current patterning poses a great risk to water quality, migration corridors, habitat resilience, and biodiversity. The ramifications of these continued trends have the capacity to augment the value of ‘place’ by means of degrading natural amenities valued by residents and visitors to the region. Currently, there are no spatially explicit models that

exist within the watershed, they fail to create the systemic shift needed in order to respond to inevitable growth and development. In the 21st century, the primary allure for tourists and new residents in this area is a proximity to natural amenities directly linked to ecosystem function. To define more specific programmatic elements, it is necessary to reframe the economic measures to a more integrated discussion of ecosystem services. Ecosystem services can be broken down into four categories: habitat or supporting services, regulating services, provisioning services, and cultural services.57 Habitat or supporting services includes maintaining genetic and biodiverse areas, migration corridors, essential habitats, and overall ecological health. The wellbeing of this system is the foundation to the three other services. Regulating services include bioclimatic measures such as local climate, wastewater treatment, erosion prevention and maintenance of soil fertility, moderation of extreme events, pollination, and other biological controls. Provisioning services include material or energy outputs from ecosystems such as, food, water, and raw materials. Lastly, cultural services include recreation and mental and physical health, tourism, aesthetic appreciation

relate critical wildlife to projected growth patterns in the Upper Yellowstone Watershed. While many conservation methods on private land 30

Ecosystem Services. “The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity.” Teebweb.org. http://www.teebweb.org/resources/ecosystem-services/

and inspiration, and spiritual experience relating to a sense of

systems existing in privately owned lands. Lands are set

place.58

aside in perpetuity either through environmental advocacy

These services illustrate tangible benefits to the region.

groups or private owners. In the absence of publicly available

However, the spatial relationship of economic value to

and spatially explicit models of critical wildlife habitat in

ecosystem services benefits is not easily defined. Imminent

relation to development, this is a well-intentioned response.

growth, if continued in a similar manner to the current context,

However, it often results in islands of ecological preserves

results in intensifying loss of the regions principal assets

that don’t account for integration of the greater system. Some

which support an expansive tourism industry and a cultural

conservation easements are even created by large landowners

value of ‘place’. There is a significant relationship, economic

for the sole intention of receiving a considerable tax benefit

and cultural, to this area and the ecologic resilience of the

with little regard for a property’s role in ecological health. These

Upper Yellowstone Watershed. The ecological, economic,

lands tend to remain private, reinforce a divide between natural

and cultural value of the watershed will serve as a guiding

and human ecology, and can discourage equitable access to

principle to evaluate the repercussions of continued patterns

ecosystem services within a landscape.

of development. As the allegorical veins to the landscape and

Perhaps the most obvious method of land use planning and

regional ecosystem, mapping the dynamic relationships of

preserving economics of ecosystem services is simply to enact

the watershed to economic, ecological, and cultural value will

stringent regulations on development in crucial habitats such

explore the most critical parameters. This mapping will engage

as riparian areas. Another specification for growth planning is

a projective view measuring the potential loss of ecosystem

to utilize a property tax structure to incentivize specific land

services given current patterns of growth.

use in different areas. As an example, there can be a higher

The site analysis evidenced a value of conservation in the

tax attributed to development or distinct land use patterns in

form of conservation easements. These conservation measures

explicitly defined migration corridors, areas of biodiversity, or

are currently the only means by which to protect ecological

wildlife conservation districts. This acts as financial incentive for developers to avoid compromising public goods. However,

Ecosystem Services. “The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity.” Teebweb.org. http://www.teebweb.org/resources/ecosystem-services/

this can affect a growth pattern that allows fiscally liberated

individuals to occupy the most amenity rich lands while others

It is critical to establish long term models in varying rates to

inhabitation is regulated to less amenity rich locations.

understand various causalities and necessary action for different

Another planning strategy, discussed in the Park County Growth Policy, is county wide zoning. In this document, Park

circumstances. Modeling two scenarios of low growth and high growth,

County emphasizes form-based codes and density driven

given the current planning strategies, will act as point to

zoning. Form-based codes “focus on the physical character of

measure alternative planning strategies from. Incorporating

development and how it relates to is surroundings.” The issue

exurban land consumption at a rate of six to one relative

here is an emphasis on a humancentric physical character rather

to population growth, the model will project patterning of

than how development interacts with larger natural processes.

development and the resulting effect on the ecological services

Density driven zoning would ideally encourage growth near

in the Upper Yellowstone Watershed. As a baseline, these maps

existing urban areas and away from critical ecological zones,

provide a way in which to measure the ecological and economic

but it fails to incorporate the motives of individuals moving to

impact of underregulated development patterns in differing

the area. This has a potential to negatively impact the economic

scenarios using a watershed as a boundary for inquiry.

growth of the county. These methods provide clear applications, but rather than

A second model will be produced to project future land use designs that incorporate the ideas of an integrated ecology.

incorporating the dynamism of an integrated ecology, they

Using the first model, key areas will be evidenced that can

maintain a false dichotomy that limits one system in preference

engage symbiotic strategies for natural and human occupation.

of the other. In the context of the Upper Yellowstone Watershed

Development patterns in the Upper Yellowstone Watershed

it is paramount to understand ecological, economic, and

exist in riparian areas that serve as a backbone for vital

cultural viability as an integrated system. Understanding the

ecological and economic function. The necessary components

overlaps will provide a framework for longer term sustainable

and infrastructure of this development include wells, septic,

models that provide a benefit to all three. The project will

roads, affordable housing, utilities, and more. Although the

incorporate two models for growth, projecting 50 years into the

primary development satisfies an exurban condition, providing

future, for two different scenarios: low growth and high growth.

ample space for each lot (2-17 ha), there is an attraction to

develop in response access of natural amenities in densities greater than the current trends. Proximity to surface water and alignment of viewsheds are associated with the value set bringing growth to the region. These values will be a factor while reimagining land use designs that seek a symbiotic relationship. As a synopsis of the program, there will be a series of mappings which concern the existing conditions and trends of development in the Paradise Valley. Two of these will provide a baseline reading for 50-year projected development with status quo planning strategies at low growth and high growth scenarios. From these, a spatially explicit analysis can be made regarding growth patterns, effect on ecosystem services, and socioeconomic impact. Three sites of opportunity will be defined from the current and projected trends of development and land use. Using these three sites as a proof of concept, these site-specific responses to development will try to leverage overlapping interests in order to propose emergent strategies of an integrated ecology.

Chapter 6 Conclusion While there are currently many conservation efforts within the Upper Yellowstone Watershed, rapid population growth and present-day land use patterns present a significant risk to the natural and human ecological realm of balance. The ongoing land planning strategies fail to incorporate the dynamic nature of natural systems within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and the communities of the Upper Yellowstone Watershed’s reliance upon them. By using the watershed and riparian areas as a focal point and mapping critical wildlife habitat potential for conflict with areas of future development, incentives for emergent land use strategies can be created. These strategies engage free market environmentalism, investing in environmental functions as capital. A projective land use policy, based cooperative landowner and developer engagement, promotes ecological and economic viability while maintaining the value set of private landowners. These models, informed by varying growth scenarios, present an alternative trajectory which deconstructs the paradigmatic divide between human and natural ecology, creating opportunity for an integrated ecology.

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ScapeStudio. “Public Sediment: Resilient By Design Challenge.” https://www.scapestudio.com/projects/ public-sediment-resilient-design-challenge/ Swanson, Larry. “Key Trends, Dependencies, Strengths, and Vulnerabilities in Park County, Montana, and Its Area Economy,” n.d. Travis, William R. New Geographies of the American West Land Use and the Changing Patterns of Place, 2007. Upper Yellowstone Watershed Information Summary PPTX, Accessed April 4, 2020. https://www.upperyellowstone.org/upperyellowstonewat ershed. United States. Department of the Interior. "An Act to Set Apart a Certain Tract of Land, Lying near the Headwaters of the Yellowstone River, as a Public Park" ... Ex. Doc. (United States. Congress. House); 42nd Congress, 2nd Session, No. 146. Washington, 1872. https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/yellowston e.html Wilderness Act. "Public Law 88-577." In 88th Congress, S, vol. 4. 1964. William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire:The Capitalist Transformation of the AmericanWest (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1994), 62. Wilkinson, Todd. Unnatural Disaster: Will America’s Most Iconic Wild Ecosystem Be Lost to a Tidal Wave of People?

Appendix A – Program Analysis I.

Man-made infrastructure a. Park County Population and Growth i. Park County Population (ACS 2018 5-Year Estimate) – 16,648 (at 3% growth – High Growth scenario) 1. 2020 – 17,647 residents (9,353 Urban/ 8,294 Exurban or Rural) 2. 2040 – 27,635 residents (14,656 Urban/ 12,997 Exurban or Rural) 3. 2070 – 37,624 residents (19,941 Urban/ 17,683 Exurban or Rural) ii. Park County Population (ACS 2018 5-Year Estimate) – 16,648 (at 1% growth – Low Growth scenario) 1. 2020 – 16,981 residents (9,000 Urban/ 7,981 Exurban or Rural) 2. 2040 – 20,310 residents (10,764 Urban/ 9,546 Exurban or Rural) 3. 2070 – 23,640 residents (12,529 Urban/ 11,111 Exurban or Rural) iii. Urban/Suburban vs Exurban population ratio (2011) 1. Urban/ Suburban = 53% 2. Exurban/ Rural= 47% iv. Livingston Population – 7,784 (2018 Estimate) v. Residential Unit Growth (undeveloped parcels 2018) 1. 4,553 undeveloped parcels b. Exurban Development (58% population increase = 350% increase in land consumption) i. Multiplier = 6.03, approx. 2-17 ha per house (avg. 9.5 ha (23.46 acres) per house) 1. High Growth a. 2020-2040: pop. increase = 9,988 (57%), 344% increase in land consumption b. 2020-2070: pop. increase = 19,977 (113%), 681% increase in land consumption 2. Low Growth a. 2020-2040: pop. increase = 3,329 (20%), 120% increase in land consumption b. 2020-2070: pop. increase = 6,659 (39%), 235% increase in land consumption ii. Households (approx. 2.3 people per household)

1. High Growth a. 2020-2040: 9,988 new residents (4,342 new houses) i. 2,041 new rural residential houses, 47,875 acres b. 2020-2070: 19,977 new residents (8,685 new houses) i. 4,082 new rural residential houses, 95,762 acres 2. Low Growth a. 2020-2040: 3,329 new residents (1,447 new houses) i. 1,564 new rural residential houses, 36,706 acres b. 2020-2070: 6,659 new residents (2,895 new houses) i. 3,129 new rural residential houses, 73,423 acres iii. Focal Locations for exurban growth 1. Pray, MT/ Paradise Valley 2. Pine Creek II. Capital improvement Plan a. Fire and Police b. Ambulance and Emergency Service c. Utilities d. Sewer and Water e. Roads and transportation infrastructure f.

Education

g. Affordable Housing h. Retail/ Tourism i. III.

Community outreach/ education Ecosystem Services

a. Provisioning i. Food ii. Raw Materials (Mining, Timber, Agriculture)

iii. Water (quality, overland drainage, filtration, runoff) b. Regulating services i. Local Climate ii. Carbon sequestration iii. Moderation of extreme events iv. Wastewater treatment v. Erosion Prevention/ soil fertility maintenance vi. Pollination vii. Biological controls c. Habitat or Supporting Services i. Habitat for species ii. Genetic diversity maintenance iii. Biodiversity hotspots iv. Migration corridors d. Cultural Services i. Recreation/ mental and physical health ii. Tourism iii. Aesthetic appreciation iv. Spiritual Sense of place

ARCH 560 Professional Project Integrated Ecological Growth: Rapid Development in the Northern Rocky Mountains

Proposal: Re-frame the ecological commons by facilitating emergent development patterns, incorporating the value of ecosystem services, cooperative relationships between landowners, and enhancing amenity access.

G.Y.E.

The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has experienced rapid growth over the past half century. While most population growth has been centered around areas such as Bozeman and Jackson (3% or more growth), the land use density is greater than the surrounding exurban conditions. These growth rates have been lower (1-1.5% growth) but correlate to an increase of 350% in land development. This type of development pattern has been demonstrated to result in ecological consequences. Due to proximity to natural amenities and the absence of a cohesive planning strategy, the Paradise Valley has seen the majority of exurban development in Park County. The primary tool employed by Park County to review development are the Park County Subdivision Regulations.

The subdivision review process does not regulate the location or type of development, and rarely influences the proposed density.

This context of development fails to incorporate the dynamic nature of natural systems within the Upper Yellowstone Watershed and the communities reliance upon them.

The Paradise Valley Land Designations National Forest State Land State Fish and Wildlife Non-Governmental Organization Bureau of Land Managment Private Land

Paradise Valley’s high land values and rapid exurban growth is a direct result of its proximity to natural amenities such as YNP, the Yellowstone River, and large swaths of public lands. In recent years, the growth in the adjacent city of Bozeman has begun to influence growth in Livingston and the Paradise Valley. Similar to many valleys in the Northern Rocky Mountains, the majority of private land is located at the valley floor, adjacent to the Yellowstone River. High amenity value

and the constrained geography has resulted in a nuanced exurban development pattern. The

following maps describe the growth and context of the Paradise Valley.

Large Land Ownership Private Land Ownership (> 640 acres) Roads Rivers and Streams

J.H. Haggerty, W.R. Travis, Out of administrative control: Absentee owners, resident elk and the shifting nature of wildlife management in southwestern Montana (Geoforum 37, no. 5, 2006), 826, fig. 3

Prior to the late 1960’s, most of the largest tracts of land were held by resident owners earning a living directly from the land. However, as agricultural lands were devalued, largely as a result of national trends stemming from the great depressions of the 1920’s and 1930’s, speculative ranch buying became common in the Paradise Valley due to it’s high amenity value. The most recent wave of absentee buyers is more active in ranch management, having a greater influence on attitudes towards wildlife and hunters.

Land Ownership, Development, Amenities Private Land Ownership (> 640 acres) Roads Rivers and Streams Subdivisions Elk Winter Range Ungulate Migration Fishing Access Trailhead Building Footprint

J.H. Haggerty, W.R. Travis, Out of administrative control: Absentee owners, resident elk and the shifting nature of wildlife management in southwestern Montana (Geoforum 37, no. 5, 2006), 820, fig. 2a

Due to the shifts in values and land management practices by large land owners, the majority of elk habitat is effectively outside of administrative control. As Paradise Valley continues to develop, the ability to manage ecological function will be greatly influence by just a few individuals and developers.

Value Sets / Ecological Commons / Parcel Categories Long-term Residents (resident owners)

Community Connections

Financial Insulation

Land as Experiential Commodity

Land as Integral to Commodity Production

Ecological Amnesia

Privitization of Ecological Function/ Experience

Large Private Land owners (>320 acres)

Hunting (hand shake agreements)

Support of Ecological Commons

Witness to Ecological Change

Higher percentage for large land owners

Exurban Land Owners (5 - 45 acres)

“Urban” Residents

Attraction to/ Value of Natural Resources & Amenities

Large Land Owners > 320 Acres

Preserve Ecological Function

Value of “Place”

Wildlife Management Agencies

Use

Access Through

Seasonal Use = 24%

Exurban 5-45 acres

Private Ammenities

Career Mobility

Elk Incur Damage To

Dissonant Values

Exurban 5-45 acres

Pre -1970

To Manage

New Residents (primarily absentee)

“Wide” Ecological Commons

Large Land Owners > 320 Acres

Parallel Values

“Narrow” Ecological Commons

Current Paradigm

Exurban Development Patterns

ite

Lim

Select Few

Can Use

Outﬁtting Operations

With

To M

ana

Block Management Elk Cull

Ambiguous Strategies

?????

Large Private Land owners (>320 acres)

eek

S To

- 2- 17 ha per resident - 293% increase in developed land (1970 -2000) - mostly conversion of historic agricultural land - large tracts still suceptible to development

c ffe

Provide Amenity Value To

Elk

Wildlife Management Agencies Hunting (residents)

Force

“Urban” Residents

Exurban Land Owners (5 - 45 acres)

Limited Hunting Districts

100 - 160 acre parcels

45 - 100 acre parcels

5 - 45 acre parcels

- many parcels are vacant - either absentee or very small scale agricultural operations - a few amenity properties near river or in isolation (boomers or older) - most are prone to future parceling

- Most parcels adjacent to amenities are developed - Some are vacant and prone to further parceling still - parcel size better matches older demographic desired acreage

- Parceled by property developers, w/o enhancing amenity value - Many parcels arrangement prioritize privatization in lieu on ecological and amenity function -younger demographic

Single resident owner with minimal agricultural use. Surrounding development trends and ammenity value likely to in�uen�e �urt�er parceling.

50-80 acre parceling driven by minimum acreage needed to feel like land ammenity value is private.

STORY RANCH STORY RANCH

Large tracts of land adjacent to existing development can be suceptible to future parceling

DEPT. OF NATURAL RESOURCES Undeveloped or less-developed parcels prone to further subdivision given & open space adjacencies

Absentee owners adjacent to Yellowstone River. Low potential for further subdivision

20 - 23 acre lots parceled by single entity for development. Key adjacency to public lands

Absentee owner with two adjacent vacant lots prone to development

MOUNTAIN SKY GUEST RANCH

PARADISE VALLEY RANCH LLC

BLM

Parceling prior to MSPA (1973). Parcels are 20.01 - 21 acres. Avoided county and state review.

MOUNTAIN SKY GUEST RANCH

Parceling after to MSPA (1973). Parcels < 20 acres. Required county and state review

STATE LAND

Active agricultural property with high ammenity value

Resident owner, light agricultural use.

DEPT. OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Typical 20 acre parcels adjacent to Yellowstone River. Many homes built prior to mandatory 150 ft setback. Some new homes still evade review and do not comply with setbacks.

Low Growth Scenario 2070 Previously Developed Parcels Projected Parcel Development/ Subdivision Roads Rivers and Streams

840 New Homes Growth (per existing County Ratios): - 1.1% population Growth - 53% Urban - 47% Rural - 28% of development is in Paradise Valley

Build Out Full build out of existing subdivisions

Subdivision Approximately 20 new subdivisions will be needed to accommodate growth

High Growth Scenario 2070 Previously Developed Parcels Projected Parcel Development/ Subdivision Roads Rivers and Streams

2,345 New Homes Growth (per existing County Ratios): - 3% population Growth - 53% Urban - 47% Rural - 28% of development is in Paradise Valley

Build Out Full build out of existing subdivisions

Subdivision A drastic number of new subdivisions will be necessary to accommodate growth In this scenario, large scale degradation to critical elk winter ranges has occurred access to amenities is constrained, and ecological management has become increasingly difficult as land which supports ecological function has become increasingly privatized.

640 Acre Section Only a select few sites are valued at a premium Sites at greater distance from amenity are less valued Ecological connectivity is not guaranteed

0.25

0.5 mile

640 Acre Section - Undeveloped

0.25

0.5 mile

Development Trends - Unregulated

High amenity value and decreasing agricultural value, suceptible to development and parceling.

Leverage adjacent development trends to provide amenity access

Development Principles

Cooperatively owned land, unparceled

Cooperative ownership rather than parceling

Ecological Commons, collective conservation easements, landscape connectivity

Collective open space, protected in perpetuity Enhanced amenity access

Same ammount of build sites with a more even value distribution

Increase density adjacent to existing development while increasing protected space 0

0.25

0.5 mile

Proposed Development Strategy

Proposed Sites Policy

Density/ Amenity Access PUD Equity, Health, Investment

GOAL: Re-frame the ecological commons by facilitating emergent development patterns, incorporating the value of ecosystem services and cooperative relationships between landowners. The policy seeks to accommodate future development by incentivizing cooperative ownership and density in specific locations. The resulting development patterns do not conflict with interests and values of developers, current residents, or future residents nor do they compromise the ecological integrity of the Paradise Valley.

Subdivision Requirements Hunting/ Amenity Access Privatized Lands, Ecological Impacts

Corridors/ Habitat Expansion Seasonal use, soil quality, riparian areas

The current subdivision requirements provide mandatory open space for Clustered and Planned Unit Development (PUD). However, the percentage of mandatory open space is drastically reduced for parcels less than 5 acres and non existent for parcels greater than 5 acres By incentivizing collective ownership and open space connectivity, developers can avoid state review by not further parceling land and designating “build zones” and “common zones” with the guidance of FWP recommendations.

Benefits

County: - Protect ecological function and assets - By incentivizing ecologically defensible development, the tax benefit of residential development can be maintained. Developer: - Avoid county and state review by facilitating cooperative land ownership. - Higher return on investment, improved amenity access and view-sheds. - Open space placed in conservation is a tax incentive to the developer and cooperative owners. Collective Owners: - Preservation of view-sheds - Tax incentive for conservation easement and reduced fencing - Protection of the ecological asset individuals are investing in when moving to this place - Enhanced amenity access

Existing Conditions - Site 01

Public Open Space - 0 acres

Public Access (withing 10 min drive - 4 ﬁshing sites, 0 trail access Potential Density - 1 house/ 73 acres/ 0 acres protected land

Fishing Access

- 4 ﬁshing access points within 5 minute drive - 2 boat access points on east side of river - 2 wade access points on west side of river - high amenity value

y a r P

Large Subdivision

- 160 acre parcels - owned by out of state investment company - if developed as is, only 8 houses would be added - more likely to be purchased and developed by older demographic - individual parcels not large enough for productive agricultural use

n a r ig

Adjacent Density

- 1 - 10 acre lots - potentially de-values adjacent large lots - 25 - 40% non resident owners

Un-Parceled Land

- 1,300+ acres of contiguous land - owned by development/ real estate companies - suceptible to further parceling similar to adjacent development patterns - likely to be inﬂuenced by amenity value of Chico Hotsprings

o c i h

0.25

0.5 mile

0.25

0.5 mile

Elk Ranges Summer Range

Winter Range

Migration

0.25

0.5 mile

Soil Productivity High Limited

Good Low

Moderate

Restricted

0.25

0.5 mile

Land Use Designation National Forest BLM Conservation Easement

State Land

Proposal - Site 01

Public Open Space - 1,900 acres (70%) open space preserved Publc Access - 2,400 acres of improved access Density - 1 house/ 12 acres/ 27.2 acres of protected land

Policy

GOAL: Accomodate future development by incentivizing co-operative ownership and density in speciﬁc locations. The resulting development patterns do not conﬂict with interests and values of developers, current residents, or future residents nor do they compromise the ecological integrity of of the Paradise Valley.

Co-opted Land Division

Section A-1

+ Winter Habitat Expansion - tax incentive for maintaining width for wildlife passage - additional tax incentive for reduced fencing + Productive Ecological Commons - further tax incentive for placing open space in an agricultural conservation easement - opportunity for smaller agricultural operations to remain viable amidst increasing development pressure

Improved Amenity Access Build Zones Common Open Space New Roads Access Easement 0

0.25

0.5 mile

- amenity access in close proximity to densifying development reduces travel time, carbon emissions, and increases value of development. - access is controlled by FWP to meet wildlife managment goals

Emigrant Peak - 10,951

Riparian Areas River Roadway Proposed Development Proposed Open Space Existing Development Ag Lands

Valley Connectivity

0.25

SECTION A-1

0.5 mi

Winter Range Expansion

Site - 02 Hunting/ Amenity Access

Existing Conditions - Site 02

Public Open Space - 0 acres

Public Access (10 min drive or less) - 4 ﬁshing sites, 0 trail access Potential Density - 1 house/ 34 acres/ 0 acres protected land

Adjacent Conservation

- 1,280 acres of adjacent protected land - privately owned - no public access - Northwest corner linked to National Forest (see reference map)

Existing Density

- housing density far exceeds ecological viability for ungulates ( greater than 1 house/ 30 acres) - majority resident owners - non resident properties mostly used for vacation rentals

Land Use Designation Reference Map

0.25

0.5 mile

0.25

0.5 mile

Elk Ranges Summer Range

Winter Range

Migration

0.25

0.5 mile

Land Use Designation National Forest BLM Conservation Easement

State Land

Proposal - Site 02

Public Open Space - 184 acres (89%) open space preserved Publc Access - 2,400+ acres of improved access/ 18 miles of existing trails Density - 1 house/ 13 acres/ 11.5 acres of protected land

Policy

Improved Amenity Access

Section A-2

- amenity access in close proximity to densifying development reduces travel time, carbon emissions, and increases value of development. - access is controlled by FWP to meet wildlife managment goals

Co-opted Land Division

+ PUD and Clustered Development - minimize infrastructure - maximize open space and amenity value - maximize development potential

+ Winter Habitat Expansion - reduced development pressure on ecologically viable land - additional tax incentive for reduced fencing + Reframed Ecological Commons - further tax incentive for placing open space in an conservation easement - increase access through easements to aid in FWP managment strategies

Build Zones Common Open Space New Roads Access Easement 0

0.25

0.5 mile

Potential Sites for Increased Density

Riparian Areas Antelope Butte - 6,427

River Roadway Proposed Development Proposed Open Space Existing Development Ag Lands

0.25

SECTION A-2

0.5 mi

Site - 03 Density/ Amenity Access PUD

Existing Conditions - Site 03

Public Open Space - 0 acres

Public Access (10 min drive or less) - 2 ﬁshing sites, 3 trailheads Potential Density - 1 house/ 15 acres/ 0 acres protected land

Amenity Access

- 3 ﬁshing access points within 10 minute drive - 3 boat access points - 4 trailheads within 10 minute drive (see reference map) - high amenity value

150 Acre Parcels

- two 150 acre parcels with single owner - current small-scale agricultural uses - suceptible to sale and further parceling given surrounding land use trends

Existing Density

- surrounding density (1 house/ 18 acres) far exceeds ecological viability for ungulates (ie 1 house/ 30 acres) - majority resident owners

0.25

0.5 mile

0.25

0.5 mile

Elk Ranges Summer Range

Winter Range

Migration

0.25

0.5 mile

Land Use Designation National Forest BLM Conservation Easement

State Land Fishing Trailhead

Proposal - Site 03

Public Open Space - 186 acres (63%) open space preserved Publc Access - 1 river access point/ linkage to Active Transport Plan (ATP) Density - 1 house/ 2.2 acres/ 3.75 acres of protected land

Policy

Improved Amenity Access

- amenity access in close proximity to densifying development reduces travel time, carbon emissions, and increases value of development. - access is controlled by FWP to meet wildlife managment goals

Section A-3

Co-opted Land Division

- recognize real estate trends and the economic value of development patterns which protect and enhance ecological function. + PUD and Clustered Development - minimize infrastructure - maximize open space and amenity value - maximize development potential + Winter Habitat Expansion - reduced development pressure on ecologically viable land - additional tax incentive for reduced fencing + Reframed Ecological Commons - further tax incentive for placing open space in an conservation easement - increase access through easements to aid in FWP managment strategies

Build Zones Common Open Space New Roads Access Easement 0

0.25

0.5 mile

Amenity Access

Development Density

Ecological Function

Adjacent Density

Proximity/ Connectivity (yes/no)

Critical Habitat (yes/no)

Focus on larger parcels adjacent to existing density (> 1 house/30 acres)

Reframe ecological commons through collective ownership of open space which functions as amenity and ecologically defensible space

Mount Cowan - 11,053

Dexter Point - 10,105

Riparian Areas River Roadway Proposed Development Proposed Open Space Existing Development Ag Lands

0.25

SECTION A-3

0.5 mi

Projecting Opportunities/ Ecological Commons 1,635 parcels

Vacant Parcels

.93 mi. wide corridor

High Growth Scenario

Elk Winter Range

2,345 homes

Potential Commons Proposed Commons Growth 2070

Low Growth Scenario

Ungulate Migration

.45 mi seasonal passge

840 homes

Development Density

Corridors

Elk Winter Range

Co m

Riparian Uprotected, impacted by exurban development

Co m

Uprotected, currently unimpacted by exurban development

Co n

cti

14%

Fu tu

re Co m

33%

Tourism

24%

Absentee Owners

Farm/Ag

Relative Percentage of Total

ing

nte

rR an

ari

fen

gra tio

Conclusion In looking at the capacity of collective ownership, which reframes the ecological commons in the Paradise Valley, a development strategy emerges to recognize ecological function and amenity access as an asset to the Upper Yellowstone Watershed. Conditions of the west have manifested in a divide between human and nature and a promotion of one system at the expense of the other. In the Paradise Valley, this has resulted in exurban development patterns which neglect collective ecological function. The Paradise Valley will continue to develop, degrading habitat and reducing access through an increase in privatization and unregulated exurban development. Through emergent development strategies, incentivizing collective ownership and density in specific locations, there is an opportunity to reimagine future development, invigorate the ecological commons while aligning with the values of the Paradise Valley.