China: an emerging economy and its need for icons: a study o/the New BeiJing IlIlernational Airport Terminal. by Alexandros Antoniou
Introduction Times are changing. We have heard this many times before, but it now seems 10 be true more than ever. We live in a world which follows economic laws, is governed by cultural noons and is subject to opposing political powers. During most of the 20 th century, this world (and therefore these laws, nonns and powers) was dominated by a handful of nations, commonly known as the G7, namely Ihe US, Japan, Germany, the UK, France, Italy and Canada. However, the 2 1s1 century heralded the arrival of some new contenders to these fie lds. The development of technology, the establishment of global networks, combined with growing population numbers and increased production efficiency and competitiveness has allowed the emergence of new political and economic powers. This essay provides a brief overview of the development of the Chinese economy focu sing on the role that buildings and infrastructure play in this development. This role is highlighted by the new Beijing Terminal 3 International airport, one in a long list of important buildings which have recently been built and which reflect the newly found confidence that characteri ses modem China.
GlobalisatioD and China
We live in an age of global economic interdependence. Certain historical world events of significance, like the industrial Revolution, the two world wars, the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War have played a determinant role in the development of international relations. These central events have lead to new links between the countries' economies, cultures and societies hitherto unseen. At the same time, the accompanying technological revolution and the establishment of a global networks has reduced the importance of international boundaries. The new empowerment of labour, outsourciryg and the development of virtual trading has given a new edge to economic development and individualism (of the people), and an impetus to global business
relations enhancing international competition. For a long time, this new system has been dominated by the economics of the European Union, North America and Japan, who in turn have empowered l the capitalist system and raised the production levels and growth rates of the Asia Pacific network. The dominant role played by these economies is reflected by the fact that the U.S. dollar alone constitutes more than 64 percent of the world currency reserves, and US capital markets represent around 50 percent of global totaf, meaning these " powers" have controlled global economic nuctuation over the past 50 years. Given tbal China was once at the forefront oflechnologicai innovation, one could then ask, why has China fallen behind in this economic status setting? The development of the blast furnace and the ability to cast iron in 200Be, the discovery of the compass in 960AD, the water clock in 1086AD, as well as the crossbow, gunpowder, paper and printing (di scovered a century before the West and around the 6111 century respectively) to name just a few, gave the impression that China was on a road of development which was to set the pace for the rest of the world.
One reason, proposed by Joseph Needham3 , is China 's focus on the relationship between man and Nature which, eventually, became an obstacle. However Castel1s (\996) suggests that it is probably due to the way Chinese technology and science were developed and the fact that Chinese people were dominated by the power of the State. [ndeed, the State has been in control of the !.ine of development that the nation took for many centuries. After 1400, the Ming and Qing dynasties, in nuenced by the power of the social elite whose influence grew in these times, focu sed less on the development of science, and more on the development of art, culture and humanities and in strengthening the power of " ( . .. ) the imperial bureaucracl',s. Technological change was also seen as a disruptor of social stability. It was feared that the development of science, and hence the potential empowerment of opposition, might have lead to social uproar and connicts. In the same vein, external expansion as well as contact with foreign powers, was deemed unnecessary beyond
I Castells (1996) 2 R3chman (2008) l Needham (1954-88, pp. 97 - 149) ~ Castells (1996. p. 9) , Castells (1996)
2
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major controlled trade and weapon acquisition . However, the Opium Wars of 1842 showed that remoteness could not protect the Chinese society from technological inadequacy. China became a Bureaucratic state, with minimal external contacts and internal disunity which stalled its technological advancement. This was the price that China had to pay for relying on the state for the development of the country, which resulted in society losing its "( ... ) autonomous inno vative energy to create and apply technology7". However, following the uninterrupted growth of free market economies since the 1980' s (development of the Perl River Delta) China' s state-lead Capitalism (Statism), based on export-lead industrialisation, lead to spectacular growth gains with improved labour relationships, a rise in producti vity, an increase in globalizing production and a state which monitors closely to provide aid. This "new" China is again at the forefront ofte<:hnological development.lts seemingly insatiable appetite for financial capital, namely the financ ial resources needed to continue innovation, producti vity and competitiveness, has made China the primary destination of foreign investment. For example, the UK alone invested $ 11.4 billion in 2003. With a projected growth rate 8
o f around 1t percent between 2006 and 2020 , China appears to be one of the dominating players in world economy. In fact , as far back as October 2003, Jim O ' Neill, Managing Director and Head of Econom ic Research at (the investment bank) Goldman Sachs publi shed a paper entitled " Dreaming with BRles: the path to 2050. This study, which coined the expression BRlCs (i.e. Brazil, Russia, India and China), suggested that these four countries will become the leading economic powers over the next 50 years with unprecedented Gross Domestic Product (GOP) growth levels and wiU eventually overtake those of the G 7 economies. O' Neill predicted that the BRICs will overtake the G6 (i .e. G7 minus Canada) in dollar tenus within the next 40 years and will have a greater spending power. This, in tum, will lead to a change in global production, trade and consumption patterns and in world monetary and social order and hence global institutions are going to have to change with
Castells (1996) Castells (1996 p. 10) 8 Financial Times (2007) 6
7
3
9
them â&#x20AC;˘ Indeed, in a recent interview on the SSC News program "l-IARDtalk,,'0 O'Neill argued that China has already moved in the next stage of development. beyond export-growth:
China's next phase ofits developmem was always going to be lead by domestic demand. The idea that China can continue to see ils expons grow based on Value Added Goods was never sustainable. ( ... ) we were heading for serious prolectionalist threalS between China a nd the EU and China and the US ( ... ) We are seei ng great awareness of where Ch ina's next phase of deve lopment is going to come from and ii's going to be based on domestic tx:onomic demand and China btx:oming bigger.
Simi lar views were expressed on the same program" , by Nounel Roubini , Professor of Economics and New York University, known for bis cut-throat approach to problem solving and predictions of unfo rtunate economic events giving him the nickname " Dr Doom". He argued that the current market collapse might be considered as the point were China becomes the world 's leading econo my and the fa ll of the American "Empire". Roubini likened this to the fa ll oCthe British Empire at the end of WW
n, and said that China and India wi ll become the new "superpowers" as they have a
surplus of resources and capital, on the condition that they can provide what the US provides in terms of protection, financia l support and trading and servicing options.
G lo ba lisation and China's Growing Urbanisation
How does this all link in with the question in hand? The fact that China is part of this huge growth spur is integral to the architectural pattern of the city. This aspect was highlighted by Sir Terry Farrell in a recent interview with the BBC
I2
â&#x20AC;˘
Referring to the way cities were designed based on
roads and transport systems he said:
O'Neill (2006) " BBCb (2008) 11 BBCe (2008) 12 BBCa (2008)
9
4
(It is) frig htening ( ... ) how the developing world is Urbanising ( .. .) They
(Chinese developers and planners) are prone to making the same mistakes we bave made
which of course raises the question of will Western countries lry to stop the aRIes from making "the same mistakes" thus steering them towards a course o f a more environmenta lly sustainable economic development'! A recent report by McKinsey & Co. Economic Research Department 13suggests that China 's urhan popu lation will rise from 572 million in 2005 to 926 million in 2025 and I billion in 2030 . An estimated 219 cities of I mill ion p lus residents and 24 of 5 milHon are estimated by 2025. This will have to take into account gargantuan issues such as population managemenl, social servicing and the supply of energy, water and land. It is argued that it might be
a better option to create II " cluster cities" of 60 million plus to rai se production, GDP, energy use e ffi ciency and high value added activity. Castell s ( 1996, p. 420) suggests that architecture must reflect thi s huge growth burst and is an expression of its society:
As a c ity gelS overrun by development, input, roreign influences, it needs an architecture which exposes their own reality ( ... ) a recovery of identi£)" one which delivers the message or codes of this given culture.
Thus plans for satelli te citics and the plan to redirect the huge numbers of masses away from city centres into pre·planncd packages of housing in these urban corridors have been plentiful and quick to be put in place. Beijing is at the centre for this Chinese development. The Chinese state feel s that it is important for government 10 be able to contain the bui ld·up of migrant workers in Beijing who are an essential ingredient to their thriving ' grey' economy. With the Olympic bid being the newest opportunity to display their new economic power, the Chinese government have gone all out to show the world that they are the ' power' to note . It was never about the "Olympic spirit" or value for moncy. Winning the bid was an opportunity to show·case that China has wrongfully been neglected by the world as a global power. 13 McKinsey & Co. (2008)
5
It is important to note that the existence of Beijing as a capital city was, in itself, the result of political necessity. Indeed, Thomas (2001) argues that Kublai Khan chose it in 1260 as his capital because he needed to tighten his rule over China without losing control over Mongolia. Ever since, the state has undertaken a massive redevelopment scheme, re¡ planning the whole city, renovating rather than redeveloping, bringing in more capital and raising political appeal . Up until 19 13 (Qing Dynasty) the construction and proportioning of buildings was codified and dimensions were legally regulated to the socia l standing of the person building them. The building fabric was an indicator ofthe social standing and hierarchy. Now Beijing is the image of the new China, a continuous development which will last for several decades, with 95 percent of it having been rebuilt in the past few decades l4 â&#x20AC;˘ Clearly, this visual development is not " westerly" pleasing, as the West has a very different approach to the mai ntenance of a visua l progression through history. In fact. Selugga (Topos 2008 pp. 15-21) argues against thi s type of development, saying that:
"Chinese culture is being reduced 10 an easY-Io-sell, empty shell in the name of commercial benefit ( ... ) a culture 100 complex fo r the demands orlhe world media and 100 difficult 10 be easily consumed by the masses, it is reduced to its most superficial parts."
Beijing Airport's New Terminal 3
It is in this setting and against this backdrop that Beijing's new Terminal 3 International airport is
built in . The newest extension to the already existing Chek Lap Kok airport, built by the Hong Kong Airport Authority and consultants to Foster and Partners, is located about 16 miles North East of central Beij ing. At 1.8 miles long and costing ÂŁ 1.8 billion, it is more than 17 percent larger than all Heathrow airports, including Tenninal S. It consumed 1.8 million ml of concrete and 500,000
14
Abel (2008)
6
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II
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15
tonnes of steel, as weU as a huge 40 miles of baggage carriers u . It is estimated that once fully completed it will be able to accommodate 50 million people through it a year by the year 2020. It rook only 4 years to complete with a 50,000 workfo rce, which is less time than it took to organ ise and conduct the public enquiry for Heathrow's T5 . The en ti re construct ion was done by Chinese con tractors and workers, who lived on-site in shanty towns and tents, at a high standard in fini shing, another indication of th e tech nologica l advancemem of the Chinese industry.
The way thi s bui lding is laid out is of certajn significance. Having been built On a North-to-South axis imitatin g a dragon and the traditional fli cked-up eaves, fo llows the same axis as that of the Forbidden City and Chinese tradition of the importance of the South as the direction fo r bu ildings to face. This however is another indication of the romantic vision of the Western world, when the local response is not as ardent. The Nonh-to-South axis was also used in the urban planning ofthe Olympic vi llage, which has been critic ised as a bit of a gimm ick which does not seem to be as well conceived as in the original ancient design of the c ity.
The project is considered sustainable only to a certa in degree, as it was buil t too fast and given the fact that c li ents were more interested in using ' proven techno log ies' rather than taking the opportunity to exp lore some truly new and innovative ways of design, That sa id, there are some key elements in the design of the airport which have come from the architects ' extensive knowledge des ign ing such buildings, A key such e lement includes the unifyi ng plan enforced under an umbrell a roof. There is clarity of organisation, with fl ows of transition from land -to-air as well as air-to-land, There are minim um level changes which aga in help with the overall flow. Visibility of aircrafts is maintained at all times. The abundance of light is a major design feature, as is the integration of al l mechan ica l services into the podi um rather than roof.
The original design of the Chek Lap Kok airpon was used as a benchmark but was adapted to this new airport so as to create a better-fu nctioning whole, For this purpose, NACO (the Dutch airport
IS
McCartney (2008)
16
design consu ltants) were brought in 0 11 the project as ad visors. In the original design, most serv ices and clearing areas ( including check-in counters, customs, immigration, baggage collection and most retail) for both international and domestic flights were on the South e nd of the bui lding over several fl oors, leav ing lhe spine and North end to be used as gates, lounges and docking areas. However, in the Foster design, the plan is sym metrical The check-in counters are sliII at lhe South end; however they are divided betwee n the two 'fo rked ' ends as domeslic and intcrnational. The spine is then used as the docking stations for the airc rafts. TIlere is a speed shuttle (the Automated People Mover) between the two ends. The face at eith er of these ends were ori g inally to be straight walls, however were eventually adapted to concave glass facade s so as to maximi se space for aircraft manoeuvrabili ty as well as aUow in more natural light.
Much was sa id about the fact that "experiencing" these spaces is key to cxperiencing the airport 's design. By placi ng services in the podium and the ma in plant undergro und, the roof has been allowed to remain ' free '. It accommodates for light and structure but has no need to integrate services, allowi ng it to be one continuous fl owing form , with 'binnacles' ' popp ing' out into the space, housing all cables, tu bes, sec urity and vent ilation needs. The roof is an apparently unified space frame structure of small , custom-made sections, deep enough to stand in, which have been welded and bo lted together into a triangular grid set over a rectangular one. The underside is clad in painted-white stee l strips spaced out so as to allow daylight in from the triangular skylights above but still allow ing for the uninterrupted surface be low. Hence, the primary fo nn and secon dary structu re give the roof a certain d irection, not the primary structure. To exaggerate the shape below, ho llow steel sections were used at vary ing heights to hold the structure up and give it an undulati ng look, with the tallest column be ing in the middle of the ' Y' shape and mov ing outwards, cantilevering the roof up to 40 meters at the edges. The co lumns are on a 36 meter triangular grid and lean outwards so as to reduce refl ections, as well as tapering at the top so as to appear ta ller. The colour scheme of the frame blends and merges from go ld to a red, brought through by the light of the sky lights, and is co nsistent throughout the whole buildi ng. The size of the roof and amount of
a
natural light give the desired illusion of much greater space, mllkin g the room appear less
17
crowded . One of th e major design decisions was to place arrivals on the top level of the airport to enj oy the exciting views and gi ve a sense of entrance to the new China, whereas departures have been set on the lower level, giving a different experience. The greeting hall is the o nly po int where both arri ving and depart ing passengers interact through walk ways and d ifference in both leve l and d irection o fm ovement l6 ,
There have been numerous statements likening this building to a dragon, with its sky light openings being the 'sca les' . Others have compared it to a human be ing. However this again see ms to refl ect Western romanticism. Loca ls tend to vary on their position o n whether they wi ll embrace their cultural past or ignore it and just borrow from the West. The building is much morc than that. It is about the deeper hum anist meaning of fun ct ion, li ght, shading, symm etry, sca le and a certain thoughtfu lness which is to be set next to the design and feeling of the c ity itse lf.
From a Susta inable po int o f v iew many questions must be asked. T here is no do ubt that some effon was made 10 address thi s aspect in the design of lhe build ing. A ir is c leverly moved th rough the buildi ng w ith natura l ventilation allowing for free cooling for ha lf the year. T he roof uses a heat storing concept, as we ll as hav ing flap s which monitor sunlight entering the building in various seasons. The site has its own centra l sewage system and even the car park pra ises itse lf on being naturally lit, ventilated as we ll as hav ing a green roof. However, the sheer volum e of materia l put into this proj ect raises serious concerns regarding sustainability. Not to mention the big debate surround ing a bu ilding which is accommodating a functio n, name ly fl ight, that cannot yet be deemed 'green '. When questioned
0 11
the sustai nabil ity req uirements the Chinese government
places on these buildi ngs, Sir Terry Ferrell said there were none but l7
:
( ... ) where I have doubts is the race to bui ld the kind or bui ldings we know in the West 10 not be sustainable
(6
L1
Slessor and Webb (2008) BBCa (2008)
18
Aga in, it is worth po inting out that this view is not generally s hared espec ially by the local s. For China, what matters is to appear modern, efficient, civilised and wealthy and the govern ment lavishes the opportuni ty to be in the international publ ic light; a government which puts the glory o f the Party above all e lse. For (Caslc lls, 1996, p421) bu ildings s uch as th is a irport s hou ld be seen as an :
( ... ) essential device of cultural innovation and intellectual autonomy, root ing itse lf into places, into cu lture. into people.
In a bu siness wi th 1.5 billion travellers a year and 3 mill ion airborne passengers a day, China wants to lead by impressi ng the scary and m ind-numbingly difficult business of air travel. Tbe newly moneyed and mobi le Chinese are to be the world 's most abundant tourists. Like I. M. Pei' s Bank of China, the image portrayed is a straightforward one: strict, expens ive and autho ritative. It needed to take this interior landscape of numbers and processing and tum it into an architectu ral, pol itica l, econom ic and cultural proclamation. Not even the discoveries of a foss ilized dinosaur or a carved ancient stone on site were go ing to stop this bold Sl'atement of express ion.
Many have argued that the airport, as well as other major projects, are in sensitive to the surroundings and could happily stand anywhere else in the world . O ne could a lso argue that many of these proj ect s are a reflection of the "stranded" visions o f the architects concerned with trying to dem onstrate their superiority over each other. It is a lso true that the sheer number and freq uency of these ' icons ' has somehow desensitised the passer-by to them. w ith more than 8,000 bui ld ing sites in Beij ing alone. Neverthe less. one must acknowledge what the C hinese government has set out 10 achieve. namely something s pecial, grand and im portant. O ne could argue that the C hinese used the " wrong" approach and that "big" architecture is not always good architect ure with arch itects need ing to c lari fy their ethica l stance. C learly, the architect needs to acknow ledge the client's bri ef, however, as arg ued by Edwin Heathcote J8
:
I~ Heathcote (2007)
19
This (Beijing) is not the architectural playground of Dubai ( ... ). Here architects are feted up and celebrated for their mad monoliths realised by cheap labour, the unanainable dreams of the west manufactured cheap in China.
He suggested that this is " ( ... ) not a European utopia", rath er these are build ings used as international m is-projections and propaganda through the use of big names. TIle Beijing airport seem s to be just another tourist attraction of son; an isolated incident of big names, being latched on to a li st including OMA 's CCTV building, Paul Andreu 's Nati ona l Theatre and the Dashanzi Art district .
Conclusio n
The push by local authorities to maxim ise pro fi ts at all cost, coupled w ith their abi lity
[0
override
plan ni ng restrictions and trades creates an unstable env ironm ent of overbearing bureaucracy and weak regu lation , which leads to co rruption and associated efficie ncy lossesl!f. Thi s uncertain environment and the intensity of physical development leads to fast-bui lt, free-standing architecture which is of hi gh ri sk and hence could generate high rewards, whi ch begs th e question: is il realistic for a government to pursue the dua l goa l of fast eco nomic growth and cultural diversity to such a huge degree? The Chinese government seem to have embraced thi s challenge and gambled that it wi ll catch up wi th the traditional world powers and then overtake them . The Western view is mo re indistinct. Some observers claim that China should rema in a ' lesser power'. However, many in the West are looki ng to profit from China 's future growth. The UK, for example, plans to invest ÂŁ 1SO million into Chinese airports from 2005 to 20 1020 a lone. In the meantime, China is busy bui lding its own pool of skills and soon w ill not need Western influence and techno logy in the field s of architecture, construction and planning. One thin g seems certain, the West can no longer contro l the growth o f these emerging co untri es the way it use to in the past at I~
Sclugga (2008)
:w Sludcmann (2005)
20
the expense of the interests of these countries. This brings up another question: should the West be trying to stop China, and the other BRlCs, fro m becoming 'superpower' in th eir own right or, rather, should it accept them and embrace these new partners for the ir mutual benefit ?
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HiU, A. 2007 . Bumps in China 's airports transfonna[ion. Fillal/cial Times 4 September 2007.
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