The Metalliferous Ring: “The Geographic”, “The Geologic” and their Dynamic Relations in the Context

The Metalliferous Ring “The Geographic”, “The Geologic” and their Dynamic Relations in the Context of Post-Industrial Sardinian Mines Author: Alex Hall Editors: Matthew Jull Ali Fard Devin Dobrowolski All rights reserved: © University of Virginia, 2021 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by and means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written consent of the publishers, except in the context of reviews.

Alex Hall Masters of Architecture Candidate (2022) University of Virginia, School of Architecture ARCH 7100 Design Research Under Direction of Professor Matthew Jull All graphics by Alex Hall unless otherwise noted.

Cover Image: “The Metalliferous Ring”, 2021

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GEOGRAPHY

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INTRODUCTION

00.1 PREFACE 00.2 GROUNDING QUESTIONS 00.3 INTRODUCTION

01.1 TIMELINE 01.2 INTERVIEWS 01.3 LOST GEOGRAPHIES

GEOLOGY 02.1 TIMELINE 02.2 STRATIOGRAPHY 02.3 ELEMENT INDEX

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SCARS

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DESIGN PROJECTIONS

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03.1 03.2 03.3

04.1 04.2 04.3

SULCIS IGLESIENTE METALLIFEROUS RING COASTAL SCARS

PORTO FLAVIA CALA DOMESTICA LAVERIA LAMARMORA

REFERENCES 05.1 GLOSSARY 05.2 REFERENCES

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Preface “The Geographic” and “The Geologic” as a Lens for Architecture

How does geology interact with geography?

Where do these two layers converge?

Have humans and their landscape evolved tangentially or inextricably?

Can we redefine “The Geographic” and “The Geologic” to explain their link?

This book serves as a manual to discover the hidden relationship between humans and the Earth. “The Geographic” and “The Geologic” as overarching terms are redefined to help explore how we shape the Earth and how it shapes us. By using the Earth’s geologic timescale as a lens to view architectural development, the entire profession becomes a sliver of relevant time. This perspective is humbling yet alarming in terms of the rate and scale at which human development is shifting the surface of the Earth.

“The Geologic” forces architects to view projects in terms of how they mark the Earth, what they leave behind and how intensely the project interacts with the landscape. This dialogue is extremely relevant in the profession today as society, with architects at the developmental helm, continues to mark the Earth beyond repair. These “Scars”, or evidence of intensive land use, are only valuable to human interests and in their wake degrade the very terrains they hold so valuable.

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INTRODUCTION

With these questions and concerns for the future of architectural development in mind, this book will focus on the Italian island of Sardinia.

At 9,301 mi², Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and has attracted various civilizations over centuries because of it’s plentiful metal ores. Geographically speaking, Sardinia has been the host of a multitude of cultures, all of whom made extensive use of the island’s natural resources. Today, the same metal deposits the Romans extracted Silver from have a similar land use typology- except that the centuries old tradition of metal extraction is now largely abandoned.

Although the extractive processes have been stagnant for the last 20 years, the Sardinian landscape still bears the scars of the mining industry.

Marked by long intrusive galleries, pits, disconnected train tracks, ruins of mining villages and structures that cling to the cliffside, Sardinia is littered with the remains of an industrial past.

The Sulcis-Iglesiente region on the South Western coast of the island is a unique amalgamation of “The Geographic” and “The Geologic” and the accompanying “Scars”, or memories of the former metallurgic glory.

These physical markings on the Earth’s surface are just a hint at the extremely complex morphological geo-processes that have shaped the area for millions of years. Through “The Geographic” and “The Geologic”, a more comprehensive story unfolds about how the surface of the Earth is constantly changing, either by human development at the hands of it’s own natural processes. By dissecting and overlaying the Post-Industrial and geological cartographic layers, this book presents a deep dive into the history of human development and the ways that geology defines so much of how, what and where we design architecture.

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CAN YOU LOOK PAST GEOGRAPHIC SURFACE LAYERS AND SEE THROUGH THE VERY GROUND YOU STAND ON?

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IF YOU COULD, YOU WOULD SEE EARTH’S SUBSTRUCTURE: THE GEOLOGY THAT BUILDS UP, ERODES, AND REFORMS INCESSANTLY.

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INTRODUCTION

BUT WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THESE LAYERS INTERSECT? THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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INTRODUCTION

MINERAL EXTRACTION AND INTRINSIC ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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Introduction Representation and Abstraction in Post-Industrial Sardinian Mines

Architectural construction, as a discipline, has been one of the most potent forces upon the Earth, but it has not been the only one.

Over the last three centuries the landscapes that comprise this planet have been subjected to intense human development. Mankind’s industrial revolution has overturned forests, re-routed mighty rivers, scarred mountains and valleys all with the desire to claim these resources as their own. And, although this relationship between humans and the landscape can be irrevocable, they are also oftentimes invisible, sewn into history and accepted. In the same way, the geologic forces that have shaped the planet’s terrain for billions of years lose their scarring nature and are assumed as the very identity of the Earth itself. After such marks have been made --human or not--, there requires a level of representational abstraction to uncover and understand the events that have shaped the landscape as it is today. However, in the age of accelerated data collection and an ever surmounting fidelity to the representation of the planet, this necessary level of abstraction is waning.

A brief argument for this abstraction is presented by Jorge Luis Borges in his short story “On Exactitude in Science”.

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INTRODUCTION

“

... In that Empire, the Art of Cartography attained such Perfection that the

map of a single Province occupied the entirety of a City, and the map

of the Empire, the entirety of a Province. In time, those Unconscionable

Maps no longer satisfied, and the Cartographers Guilds struck a Map of

the Empire whose size was that of the Empire, and which coincided point

for point with it. The following Generations, who were not so fond of the

Study of Cartography as their Forebears had been, saw that that vast Map

was Useless, and not without some Pitilessness was it, that they delivered

it up to the Inclemencies of Sun and Winters. In the Deserts of the West,

still today, there are Tattered Ruins of that Map, inhabited by Animals

and Beggars; in all the Land there is no other Relic of the Disciplines of

Geography.

(Jorge Luis 1946)

”

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There are many ways to represent the planet we inhabit and infinitely more ways to organize its components.

This manual will seek to explore the ways in which we represent our interactions with Earth.

When COVID-19 hit in March of 2020, a once interconnected world receded into solitude. Time seemed irrelevant and people ceased to interact with their environments in the same way they once had. Physicality slowly faded away as blue light replaced most tactile interactions. This disconnection from the Earth’s physical landscape, both man made and naturally formed, allowed people to reflect and observe how intense that connection once was. Each day spent in quarantine strengthened the need for physical touch, changes of scenery and longing for the ways we used to interact.

The pandemic is a frame of reference that emphasizes why we should re-frame material interactions with the Earth. Shifts in land use, building occupancy and industrial production are not always a result of a deadly virus. Now, in 2021, the impending effects of ignoring our interactions with the Earth need to be addressed. This booklet seeks to research the components necessary to create a shifted representation of these actions.

By highlighting layers that have not been traditionally represented in cartography, this project seeks a more comprehensive analysis of the architectural impact on the natural environment.

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INTRODUCTION

Situated within historical, geological, architectural, archaeological, political, touristic, economic and artistic contexts, this topic is bound to the many ties of each of these disciplines. Coastline Conditions will utilize these layers as their own way of defining space. The key idea is that representation of the codependencies can help redefine and give new meaning to any place on Earth. I aim to explore the relationship of human influence, specifically industrial architecture, on the delicate coastlines of Sardinia. The unique site that this research focuses on is just one physical manipulation of the coastline that is tied to countless other events that span space and time.

In doing so, we can understand the morphological processes that form the places we know today.

By focusing on the Sulcis-Iglesiente region of Sardinia, Italy, I will define, extract and compile the layers of human and non human change to the Earth.

Specifically, the project will focus on the coastline. Here, the Mediterranean sea meets soaring dolomite cliffs, their mineral content acting as a magnet to civilizations throughout history . This area will serve as a cartographic exploration of geologic, social and future architectural developments. As the project progresses, I aim to graphically and physically represent the area in a way that enlivens these hidden features.

The Sulcis-Iglesiente region in South-Western Sardinia provides an extraordinary example of both human and geologic forces that have shaped the coastline.

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This region has been the subject of many geologic studies, most with the goal of unearthing the forces that deposited valuable minerals ores such ­­ as Lead and Zinc. The geologic period that this research choses to begin

with is informed by the work of Gisbert and Gimeno , who have studied the Oligo-Miocene rotation of the Corsica-Sardinian Micro-plate. These two epochs, spanning from 33-23 million years ago, is where the metallogenic timeline of the Sulcis-Iglesiente mines begins. As the Earth’s tectonic plates shifted, volcanoes exploded and precious metal ores formed, the landscape of Sardinia was undergoing a metamorphosis that would shape all aspects of human civilization on the island in the Cenozoic Era and beyond. After the tumultuous natural processes completely transformed Sardinia, a new threat to the island’s delicate geology emerged in the 7th Century B.C. As Sardinia experienced Nuragic, Phoenician, Punic, Roman, Aragonese, Savoy and currently Italian domination, the mineral wealth of the island was continuously exploited. The attraction to the area was predominately an effect of the geologic value of the land and architectural development of the cliff side always accompanied that interest.

The Sardinian landscape has experienced yet another force, this time, human interaction. As humans dug into the dolomite, dumped mineral filled runoff water into streams, and built condensed mining metropolis’ located in strategic accordance with the ore, the Earth’s landscape became scarred. Recently, as human exploitation of the resources declined, touristic interest in the area saw a steady rise. The induction of the island into the UNESCO Geo-Park collection in 1998 promised a revival of much needed job security and population increase in the Sulcis-Iglesiente region.

However, the future of the industrial sites remains unclear and their history of landscape manipulation remains under-represented. This manual will examine this history of morphology and re-frame the mining sites and their relationship with the landscape.

(Naitza et al. 2019), (Gisbert and Gimeno 2017), (Ennas 2010), (De caro 2017), (Eshel et al. 2019), (Beretić and Plaisant 2019) 00

INTRODUCTION

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A license is granted to a Cagliari merchant to extract galena

Genoese Agreement

Genoese extraction of Sardinian minerals

Silver Mining

Silver casting under Catalan Rule

Silver and Galena Mining

Peak

2 19

0

1950s-60s

Tunnel Constructed

Connecting the Montecani and Acquaresi mines

and Technologic al I n n ov at i

Abandonment of Mines

Depopulation of Iglesias after Arborean defeat

Porto Flavia

Expedited mineral loading

tic Ar

Industrial, Econ om ic an Significant Engi nee d

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Mine Revived

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Galena Mining

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Belgian discovery of a new mineral vein

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1813

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4

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Giovanni Massa

174

Control of Mines

era

Masua Mines are sold to Lanusei Mines

1862

Control of Mines

L

m ar am

ni Mi

Crisis

nds + even ic tre ts m o n co -e Sardinian Mi n p for

Swedish Società Mandel control all mines in Iglesias

Rekindles interest in Iglesciente mines

Lead mining is active

19

Construction of the first horizontal tunnel called "San Vittorio gallery" by the Iglesiente Pietro Diana

Società Nieddu e Durante control all mines in Iglesias

Lead Foundry

Masua is re-established as a mining town

Horizontal Tunnels

Ig l

Porto Flavia

Section through horizontal gallery and extension to loading ships

Exploitation of minerals under Pisan Rule

on

Porto Flavia

6000 BCE 3000 BCE 1000 BCE

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INTRODUCTION

0

82

Pb

16

Ag

29

Economic Crisis

30

Fe Cu Zn

26

S

47

Porto Flavia closed

Savoy Rule

Spanish Rule

Incessant fighting between the Catalan/ Aragonese (Spanish) and the Arboreans (Sardinians)

Pisan Rule Aragonese Rule

Roman Rule

Phonecian Domination

Punic Rule

Nuragic Civilization

neolithic bronze age iron age

Elevation on the cliffside

High Production in Sardin 1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

1850

1900

1930s

Mineral Extraction in Sardinia

le si e

Focus on the Mining Industry in the Sulcis-Iglesiente Region

e nt

m es sit

sua Ma

g in in

di

k in Sardinian Mining

s Sardinia was the most important mines for lead and sphalerites

Geotourism

Porto Flavia is open to the public as a Museum

Complete Cessation

All mining activity stops in 1998

UNESCO Recognition

Parco Geominerario della Sardegna Mining region designated as culturally significant

Decline in Mining

COVID-19 Pandemic

Global mining development makes it hard for Sardinian mines to compete in the 70s-80s

Post-War Operation

Porto Flavia became obselete in the 60s

nian Mines 1960s

1990s

today

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GEOGRAPHY

“The mining industry in Sardinia transformed traditional land use and settlement patterns, especially in the Sulcis-Iglesiente region.”

(Santini 2014)

01

GEOGRAPHY

01

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The ‘Geographic’ Layers above Earth’s surface

In the context of this publication, “The Geographic” is redefined to represent the activities that occur on or above Earth’s surface. In rethinking this term, traditionally a reference to cartography, the abstract layers of human-Earth interaction are delineated specifically for this project. “The Geographic” now encompasses all of humanity, its evolutions, demises and future projections. The following chapter will focus on “The Geographic” in terms of post-industrial Sardinian mines. It will explore the deep connection between the Island and it’s metallurgic history, as well as tell the stories that are on the verge of being swept away with the passage of time.

“The Geographic” will outline the various conquerors of the Sardinian territory, from the Phoenicians who sought out the land on a quest for Silver; through the rise and fall of the Roman Empire; the Aragonese Rule whose poor political management of the mines lead to temporary extractive relief; the Savoy Period’s international management of Sardinian Mines, through the Industrial Revolution’s hunger for metal, and ultimately to the recent demise of metal extraction on the Island.

Each of these periods has seen differing levels of landscape morphology, and ultimately a different relationship between humans and Earth.

Throughout time, human development has had a dramatic and tumultuous relationship with the Sardinian landscape. This chapter aims to bring these geographic, human, layers to light in order to understand into how “The Geologic” was a driver behind these relationships.

01

GEOGRAPHY

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“Geographic” Timeline Focus on the Human Actions of the Iglesiente Region

8000 B.C.

Nuragic

Pre-Nuragic-Nuragic Civilization Foundation of the coastal towns Nuragic Settlement Inland Copper Statues

800 B.C.

Phoenecian-Punic

Tharros, Nora, Bithia, Sulcis, Monte Sirai

Significant location in Phoenician Trade Routes Tharros + Montevecchio Mines Established First mining activities in Iglesiente

400 B.C.

Roman Empire

Province of Corsica et Sardinia

Sardinia becomes an important source of silver for Rome Metal ore deposits were exploited, galleries built

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GEOGRAPHY

1200 A.D.

Pisan

Giudicati of Sardinia Villa di Chiesa (Iglesias) was settled by the Della Gherardesca Family Monte Paone (Monteponi) exploited for Lead and Galena Town included a mint, foundries, fortified walls and a Cathedral

1323 A.D.

Crown of Aragon

Kingdom of Sardinia

Catholic Kings introduced a feudal mining system Villa di Chiesa was re-named Iglesias in Spanish Mines were state property, run by the King

1720 A.D.

House of Savoy

Kingdom of Sardinia

Sardinia became an autonomous state Mines were under the jurisdiction of Viceroys Introduction of black powder by German mining experts

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1800 A.D.

19th Century

Kingdom of Italy

Most of the mines were closed or abandoned at the start of the 1800s Political + economic conditions changed, giving way to a ‘mine rush’ Technical and architectural developments Narrow-gauge mining railway built by at Monteponi

1900 A.D.

20th Century

Italian Republic

General crisis in the mining trade due to the World Wars Construction of Porto Flavia, revolutionized mineral exports Modern flotation plant built Industrial mining activities Mine industry is progressively abandoned

2000 A.D.

21st Century

Italian Republic

Geo-mining historical and environmental park of Sardinia was established Tourist development with construction of paths, climbing routes, caves, canyons 01

GEOGRAPHY

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800 B.C.

Phoenecian- Punic Tharros, Nora, Bithia, Sulcis, Monte Sirai

Phonecian Trade Routes Modified after (Matisoo-Smith et al. 2018)

“The island of Sardinia “...” was a significant location in the early Phoenician trade routes to the Iberian and North African coasts“...” .

Phoenician settlements were established primarily along the south and west coast of Sardinia, with two of the earliest located at Sulcis and, slightly inland, Monte Sirai.”

(Matisoo-Smith et al. 2018) 01

GEOGRAPHY

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Ancient Metallurgy History

An excerpt from “Lead isotopes in silver reveal earliest Phoenician quest for metals in the west Mediterranean” It is unclear when, and by whom, were the island’s Pb ores first exploited for silver. Rare third-millennium Ag artifacts found locally are considered a product of simple smelting. Subsequently, in the second and early first millennia BCE, silver artifacts are practically absent from Sardinia. The Dor and ‘Akko hoards currently contain the only Iron Age silver known anywhere, which is isotopically consistent with Sardinian Pb ores, suggesting that silver was produced in southwest Sardinia, by cupellation, as early as the second half of the 10th century BCE. This specific region was indeed a focus of Phoenician settlement, but not before the eighth century BCE. Earlier Phoenician finds and impact (late ninth/early eighth centuries BCE) are attested some 300 km northwest, at Sant’Imbenia, 15 km south of the Argentiera silver-rich lead deposit, characterized by isotopic values that differ from those of the Iglesiente ores. Our finds therefore show that silver from Iglesiente was produced by cupellation and shipped eastward already in the mid-10th century BCE, 150‒200 y before Phoenician settlement in this region is attested. [Although Pb was produced in Sardinia prior to the 10th century BCE, this does not imply that silver was produced as well.] At present, we cannot rule out the possibility that cupellation was practiced in Sardinia before Phoenician contact and that silver was distributed eastward by others, perhaps indigenous Nuraghic societies. We claim, however, that the fact that the Sardinian silver was found in Phoenicia, bolsters the likelier scenario in which Phoenicians were the first to mobilize Sardinian silver to the Levant. They probably also introduced cupellation to Sardinia.

(Eshel et al. 2019)

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GEOGRAPHY

400 B.C.

Roman Empire Province of Corsica et Sardinia

Pyrometallurgical Materials found at Bocche di Sciria and Conca e Mosu, Montevecchio These slags indicate that Romans in the 4th Century B.C. were extracting and iron and argentiferous lead to produce silver in the Sulcis-Iglesiente region.

(Eshel et al. 2019) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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79 A.D.

01

GEOGRAPHY

Roman Empire Province of Corsica et Sardinia

The Peutinger Table, Ancient Rome, redrawn in 1265 The Peutinger Table represents, in printed form, an early Roman military road map. It is believed to have been drawn first in 1265 as a copy of a map originally inscribed in marble in Imperial Rome. The oldest information probably goes back to before 79 AD since Pompeii is indicated. Other temporal indications can be drawn from Jerusalem which is named Aelia Capitolina, name given in 132 AD and from Constantinople, the name commonly used since the 5th century for Byzantium. The map represents Sardinia and Sulcis, indicating the region’s historical prominence.

(UNESCO 2007), (Delaney and Oliveira n.d.), (Nussli 2007) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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1324 A.D.

01

GEOGRAPHY

Crown of Aragon Kingdom of Sardinia

Alfonsini d’Argento, 1324 The Aragonese extracted minerals from the mines of Iglesias and used the Silver to cast “Alfonsini”, a coin in honor of the infant Alfonso of Aragon. The coins were minted at the mint in Villa di Chiesa, later to be renamed the Spanish “Iglesias”.

(Carte Geografiche della Sardegna 2000) Modified after (Arquer and Munstero, 1550) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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1550 A.D.

01

GEOGRAPHY

Crown of Aragon Kingdom of Sardinia

Sardinia Insula, 1550 This map, created in 1550 by, Sigismondo Arquer, a theologian, historian and lawyer from Cagliari labels the Sulcis-Iglesiente region as “Sols feu Sulcitani” which translates directly from Latin as “Sulcis fire floors”, hinting at the volcanic activity in the region. This cartographic label supports the undeniable, ancient interaction between “The Geographic” and “The Geographic”.

(Carte Geografiche della Sardegna 2000) Modified after (Arquer and Munstero, 1550) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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Iglesias Population

2020

2000

1900

1800

1700

1600

1500

1400

01

GEOGRAPHY

Miners Employed

Active Mines

Human-Mineral Metabolism The Impact of Geology on Geography

1850-1970

Peak in Sulcis-Iglesiente Mining Activity

As a result of its geologic wealth hidden below the Island’s surface, Sardinia has endured a long relationship with mineral extraction. The history and tradition of mining on the Island spans centuries, beginning in the 8th Century B.C. The promise of precious metals hidden in the various rock formations has long lead humans to interact with the Sardinian landscape.

“Sardinia Island has a strong mining tradition as proved by the numerous relics of ancient mines exploited first by Phoenicians-Carthaginians and Tradition + History of Mineral Exraction

Romans and then by other populations who took consistent advantages from the Sardinian conspicuous metal ores deposits [1]. Such exploitation has lasted down to our own times and the remains of mining and metallurgical sites are still visible in many extractive areas thus giving tangible examples of industrial archaeology in Sardinia.” (De caro 2017) These mineral driven morphological processes have ensued since ancient times and have stopped on account of economic deficiencies. Together, the layers above Earth’s surface, encompassing politics, buildings, and most of human life form a category I call ‘Geography’. As this chapter continues, the geographic context of the Sulcis-Iglesiente will be presented.

(Modified after Marella and Dacquino 2005), (De caro 2017)

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“

They called them the galanzè, they had the task of getting up late at night and leaving with the boats at midnight from Carloforte, they arrived in Buggerru at seven in the morning. All night at sea. I did that too. They sheltered me on the hanging platform because I was a child, sailing from Carloforte to Buggerru. When I left Buggerru it was 1:30 pm, but when I had to leave from Carloforte, I had to leave at midnight, there was no engine, we sailed with the wind and the sail.

After they loaded and unloaded the ore, they had to wash the boat with buckets of water, because the boat was dirty with ore. They put a long plank from the shore to the boat, this oblique and oscillating plank, they ran up and down with the baskets full of minerals, many fell into the sea with the basket!

Once in Carloforte they had to unload the boat in the other warehouses, because then the ships arrived in Carloforte and loaded and brought to Genoa and went further.

They gave a particular scream before setting sail. Tired and they smelled of blende.

(IGEA S.p.A. 2011)

01

GEOGRAPHY

”

1928 A.D.

20th Century Italian Republic

Vera Agati Born in 1928 Galanzè (Sardinian Mineral Transport Sailor) San Giovanni Miniera

“They called them the galanzè, ... they ran up and down with the baskets full of minerals, many fell into the sea with the basket!”

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01

GEOGRAPHY

Bilancelle and Galanzè, Buggerru “Le Bilancelle on the beach of Buggerru. These Carlofortine boats transported the mineral sfrom various embarkation points along the coast (Cala Domestica, Buggerru, Portixeddu, Piscinas) to Carloforte, where the warehouses of all the mining companies in the area were located. From here the mineral was then loaded on large steamers to their final destinations, on the Continent or abroad.”

As a geographic layer, the transportation of minerals along the coast to Carloforte is essentially a memory. Then, the shallow beaches were the only access point to export the raw ore, and the journey of the galanzè was arduous and dangerous. Now, the same beaches serve as popular tourist destinations, the sand covered ruins are the only trace of the industrious history of the island.

(Sanna 2015) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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1930 A.D.

01

GEOGRAPHY

20th Century Italian Republic

Masua Mining Complex The Acquaresi - Porto Flavia cable car system transported minerals from the mountains to the sea where the material would be loaded onto steamships. Built in 1930, the cable car network could transport 25 tons of ore per hour.

As a geographic layer, the network remains invisible today as most of the metal was sold as scrap in the 1960s. As a built structure, its former significance is not represented in modern cartography and is quickly fading from public memory.

(Istituto Tecnico Giorgio Asproni - Mineria Iglesias) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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“

I’ve always liked the mines. I dedicated my body and soul to it in the truest senses of those words.

My wife is my witness, she said to me: ‘You always have the mines in mind and don’t think about other things.’

Indeed I did. Because the underground world is a completely different world, to understand and see how mineralization happened, what was underground; and after descending a meter, seeing what appeared, how it evolved, and how it was treated.

The mine is a world in which there are applications of all arts and trades: from the plumber to the hardware engineer, to the carpenter, to the blacksmith.

When I entered that world, especially when the Sardinian Mining Authority gave me the position of director of the Barega mine and then director of Bariosarda for plants and mines, then I fully understood and I had all the elements to be able to enjoy, in quotation marks, these performances that came, that there were, I liked very much.

(IGEA S.p.A. 2011)

01

GEOGRAPHY

”

1934 A.D.

20th Century Italian Republic

Enrico Zambianchi Born in 1934 Mine Director Miniera di Barega Miniera di Bariosarda

“I dedicated my body and soul to it [the mines] in the truest senses of those words.”

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01

GEOGRAPHY

Montevecchio, Guspini Circa 1930s. Montevecchio miner works with a pick axe, deep within the rock.

(Archivio Storico Miniere di Sardegna 2013) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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“

I grazed goats in 1953, I was just over eleven years old.

In 1951 that territory, those mountains, were the property of Scarsella, subsequently they were sold to the Monteponi company which no longer authorized the grazing of cattle.

I couldn’t go to school, I had to eat, I started grazing cattle when I was seven.

I went to Flumini on June 27, 1953 and on June 30 I went to work. On the first day they hired me as a bricklayer and so I went on for about two years with the same master, until 1955.

At that time I worked with the plumber and the work was often finished at midnight, then I helped the bricklayers, but they didn’t pay me more than two hours of overtime a day even if we did eight.

After work I had to go home on foot, three quarters of an hour, sometimes even running, because it was seven kilometers from Arenas to Malacalzetta and taking shortcuts, at night, in the dark, in the rain, alone.

(IGEA S.p.A. 2011)

01

GEOGRAPHY

”

1938 A.D.

20th Century Italian Republic

Fernando Diana Born in 1938 Laborer Miniera di Arenas Miniera di Malacalzetta

“After work I walked 45 minutes home, sometimes even running, because it was 7 km from Arenas to Malacalzetta, at night, in the dark, in the rain, alone.

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01

GEOGRAPHY

Campo Pisiano, Igelsias “From the ancient Neolithic (ca. 6000 A.C.) to the present day, the presence of man in the south-western area of Sardinia has been characterized by and intense relationship with the rocks and subsoil. The mining activity has developed over the centuries with alternating events, leaving deep traces in the territory.”

Circa 1930s. Miner pushes a cart along a rail track.

(Fondazione Cammino Minerario di Santa Barbara 2021) Modified after (IGEA S.p.A. 2011) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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1949 A.D.

01

GEOGRAPHY

20th Century Italian Republic

Porto Flavia, 1949, Masua In 1922, the Masua Mine was sold to the Belgian company Vieille Montagne. Shortly after,

in

1924,

engineer

Cesear

Vicelli

constructed a revolutionary loading facility, called Porto Flavia. The cliffside mineral loading site bypassed the need for traditional yet very dangerous and inefficient Galanzè and Bilancelle. Instead of individual boats heading to Carloforte, silos at Porto Flavia could contain 10,000 tons of mineral and deposit them directly onto steam ships.

(Archivio Storico Miniere di Sardegna 2000) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

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1998 A.D.

20th Century Italian Republic

The Parco Geominerario Storico e Ambientale della Sardegna was the first designated UNESCO Global Geopark.

The entire island of Sardinia is a UNESCO designated Global Geopark and within that distinction, there are specific areas around the island that are designated Mining Parks. The map to the right shows these mineralogically significant areas in relation to each other. There are 54 mining sites within the Geomining Park.

“The Sulcis-Iglesiente region is the largest area of geologic interest in the park system. The most important mines are present in the so-called “metalliferous ring of Iglesiente”, where lead, silver and zinc mineralizations are located in the carbonate geological formations which, with over 500 million years are the oldest paleontologically dated rocks in Italy.”

Modified after (Beretić, Đukanović, and Cecchini 2019), (Pantaloni et al. 2009), (Parco Geominerario Sardegna 2020) 01

GEOGRAPHY

Argentiera Gallura

Argentiera Nurra

Orani Guzzurra

Orani Sos Enatos

Monte Arci Funtana Raminosa

Sulcis-Iglesiente

Sarrabus

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Geopark Context An excerpt from “Setting the Methodological Framework for Accessibility in Geo-Mining Heritage Settings” After World War Two, the economic crisis hit the significant period of largescale mining industrialization. A similar situation was notable around the whole of Europe. Rapid changes shaped by “substantial political tradeoffs and long-term phasing-out scenarios” [1] were leading the mine closure. Rarely have the resources been exhausted but technical and market conditions have changed. Sardinia shared the destiny of mining conditions in Europe, entering the crisis in the mineral extraction sector, which gradually led to the closure of mines.

The declining interest of private investors was followed by low adaptive capacity in the Sardinian mining sector. Private enterprises rapidly abandoned the mining sector from the 1960s and most mines in Sardinia were closed during the 1970s as “Mining territories had finished their productive phase and needed to reinvent themselves.”. Unfortunately, territories have never reinvented themselves because for centuries the mining industry has been the prevalent economic branch of these territories.

Mineral extraction in Sardinia has a long history (about eight thousand years). The decline of the mining economy left the territories undeveloped, deepening the further socio-economic crisis as the consequences of single-function land-use. Correspondingly, the mining economy shaped Geo-morphological process, too. The relief process associates with almost all kinds of human activity, living habitats and behaviors: Transportation, Construction, Housing, Agriculture, Livestock, Socialization, Cults, Traditions and Customs.

01

GEOGRAPHY

On the other hand, this complex condition of Sardinian ex-mining territory represents the uniqueness of mining activity and culture. In 1997, The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization–“UNESCO” recognized Geo-mining Park in Sardinia (Italy) and its universal value of combined geological, mining, historical and environmental heritage [4].

Geo-mining Park in Sardinia is a pioneer of the heritage type. For the first time, “UNESCO” recognized the Geo-mining Park as an entire mining region instead of previous practice that aimed the protection of a single object.

However, international recognition of universal values, administrative and legislative opportunities, did not help territorial prosperity. The Geo-mining Park remained fictive, excitant only in name. A few restoration projects were implemented punctually, lacking the integral planning, participative process and even heritage valorisation [5]. The post-mining phenomenon of the deep crisis still depicts the complete territory of Sardinian Geomining Park. Two categories affecting the crisis of ex-mining regions are prevalently people related issues (increasing depopulation and lack of economic prospective) and predominantly space oriented issues (a disorder in landscape matrix that causes low readability of heritage values, scarce infrastructure and low accessibility) [6]. This paper addresses space-oriented issues in the case of Iglesiente area that appertains to the Geo-mining Park in Sardinia.

(Beretić and Plaisant 2019)

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Celebrating Earth’s Heritage An excerpt from The UNESCO Global Geopark report

Parco Geominerario della Sardegna UNESCO Global Geopark entails the entire island of Sardinia. Located into the center of the Western Mediterranean, Sardinia is located only 12 km from Corsica, 120 km from Tuscany, and 185 km from the coast of North Africa. It has no high mountain ranges but predominately mesas between 300 and 1,000 m high. Among the mountain ranges stands out the Gennargentu in the center of the Island, with its highest peak Punta La Marmora (1,834 m).

The Parco Geominerario della Sardegna UNESCO Global Geopark preserves a geological history dating back more than 500 million years, and shows the signs of an extraordinary variety of events that developed between Palaeozoic and Quaternary. This territory comprises sequences of sedimentary, metamorphic and magmatic rocks and an amazing variety of types of ore deposits which have been exploited over thousands of years.

The lithostratigraphic sequences are among the most complete ones of the European and Circum-Mediterranean area and document a geological history older than 500 million years. The stratigraphic successions of Sardinia preserved in an extraordinary way evidence of geological events, from when Sardinia joined to the bottom edge of the European plate and when it separated from it during the Oligocene-Miocene, as a result of the opening of the western Mediterranean (rifting phase and subsequent counter-clockwise rotation of the Sardinian-Corsican microplate).

01

GEOGRAPHY

The geological history of Sardinia therefore is part of the geological history of western Europe and is totally different from that of the Italian peninsula.

In the course of time, dynamic, physical and chemical processes led to the accumulation of ore deposits of different types and origins. They have been known for millennia and from abundance archaeological mining evidence we can reconstruct their history.

Thanks to the climate and geographical location, the area is rich in different environments and landscapes, characterized by Mediterranean vegetation and fauna rich in endemic races.

The Parco Geominerario della Sardegna UNESCO Global Geopark covers 377 municipalities: 1,649 million inhabitants. The Geopark is a vehicle for universal values and an instrument for protecting and pre-serving the local heritage, consisting of its geological context, technique and engineering, the industrial archaeology, the documentation of mine works and settlements, traditions, customs, knowledge and human events related to the mining activity.

The territory of the Geopark can be subdivided into eight major areas based on their mining characteristics and history. The main reference is the chronological development of mining and quarrying activities telling the story of almost 8,000 years of mining exploitation. The park also aims at conserving and enhancing the current realities of the various territories, to promote the economic, social and cultural progress of the local communities and protect their vast heritage, for future generations.

(Tarcisio Agus 2015)

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Lost Geographies An excerpt from: Southwest Passage. Mine route in South Western Sardinia

For a century in this area, human activity fully exploited its resources, until it fell into inexorable exhaustion.

However, the life dynamics and events of the Sulcis-Iglesiente mines were not completely dependent on natural conditions. They have not therefore been determined by the environment, but have followed a history that is closely linked to developments guided by human decision. By following this itinerary we can see present day remains of what man has built in the past, but we also see how these buildings have affected the life of the inhabitants, their way of living and imagining.

In fact, the villages that today are uninhabited or almost uninhabited, such as Ingurtosu and Acquaresi, are places that lived and died with the mines, born for a life of total and passive dependence on this industrial activity.

The abandonment also has pronounced the extinction of every industrial perspective at the closure of the construction sites: monoculture.

Other places, on the other hand, such as Fluminimaggiore or Buggerru, testify with their survival and overlapping of activities that allowed the inhabitants to be able to stay in these places, albeit living in economic conditions that are not always favorable.

(Sanna 2015)

01

GEOGRAPHY

Pastoral, artisanal or commercial activities also indicate a phenomenon of permanence in traditional occupations and habits, which is also reflected in a peculiar perception of life and work. This way of thinking and imagining existence was constituted by a duplication of spaces and times, clearly distinct between home and work, but forced to integrate in a complementary way.

The time and space of the house, which contained the habit, the tradition and the natural development of the primary activity, usually agro-pastoral, was clearly opposed to the time and space of work, in its hyper-regulated, anthropic dimension. and closed in the mine. Experience every day the existence of two parallel lives and their clear perception certainly created a conflict, which spilled not only in the community, as a clear social and cultural distinction between who was a miner and who was not, but even within the singular ego, divided into two identities experienced simultaneously with equal intensity.

The tension that arose from this spread of perceptions could become a catalyst for potential social protests, which therefore had to be prevented by societies.

The Company tried to attract the miners in those mining villages ... in order to isolate them and make them completely dependent on the mine, for work, ... sustenance, health, education and leisure.

(Sanna 2015)

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The coexistence of these two worlds was, however, fought in vain by the companies in search of a manpower that could reside and be controlled in a single place, established by the mine.

The persistence of the dual vision of mining allows us to understand today the stories of former miners and the memories of those who, while not working in the mine, were influenced by it.

From these stories, heard firsthand and reconstructed in the context of a historical discussion and the mineralogical significance, we have therefore built our itinerary, which is proposed as one of the many keys to understanding (and visiting) this territory. The answer to the question at the beginning, “Is it a mine, the Su Zurfuru mine”, not only provides precise information on the single portion of our landscape, but suggests something else, linked to an immaterial universe, a result of culture , identity and contradictions that truly becomes an integral part of that same landscape.

“It’s a mine”. The use of a present verb to indicate a past thing is already eloquent. It could have easily been said “It was a mine” , since in reality, today, it is no longer a mine: it is an abandoned area and almost completely worn by time, half retouched by interventions that have upset it’s original aspect.

(Sanna 2015)

01

GEOGRAPHY

Yet when asked, the answer is in the present, indicating that the intrinsic value of those buildings has not disappeared from the landscape imagery of those who live there or have lived there, experiencing that industrial season in its various phases.

Can this purely empirical observation on the imaginary of the present landscape also be an indicative sign of the cultural value that an industrial heritage carries with it? That complexity of material and immaterial objects is still distinguishable on the territory, a heterogeneous sign now of a permanent past in time, now of a desire to overcome or to preserve memory.

The environmental and social landscape around the industrial heritage of Sulcis-Iglesiente is, however, like many landscapes, a complex mélange of all these trends and perhaps also of many others.

This demonstrates the active influence that the mines still exercise on the landscape and the role that a historical understanding of its elements can have in how we choose to interact with that landscape in the future.

(Sanna 2015)

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GEOLOGY

“Sardinia represents a puzzle of very different tectonic, stratigraphic and paleontological features that have fascinated geologists.”

(Carmignani et al. 2016)

02

GEOLOGY

02

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71

The ‘Geologic’ Layers below Earth’s surface

Key to understanding why and how human development has marked certain areas is “The Geologic”, the layers beneath the Earth surface.

In the context of Post-Industrial Sardinian Mines, these relationships are blatantly clear after analyzing the tumultuous evolution of the Sardinian lithosphere. Precious metals have driven human development on the Island for centuries, from Phoenician conquer to present day geo-tourism.

However, to really understand the growth, decay, demise and possible revival of Post-Industrial Sardinian Mines, further geological research is required.

Paramount to understanding the “Metalliferous Ring” and the mineral dependent “Geographic” layers of Sardinia is the Gonnesa Group. This Lower Cambrian rock formation will be discussed in greater detail at the end of the chapter. It is marked throughout the next series of diagrams with black fill and contains most of the valuable metal ores.

This chapter will present the origins of the “Metalliferous Ring” throughout the formation of it’s Pre-Cambrian ore deposits, to the Olgio-Miocene Rotation of the Corsica-Sardinian Micro Plate, and the metamorphic dynamics the Sulcis-Iglesiente region experienced over millions of years.

The scale of time will be an important context to keep in mind in this chapter, as our story begins 541 million years ago with the start of the Cambrian Period and the formation of the first Lead and Zinc ores.

02

GEOLOGY

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73

Earth’s Geological Clock Modified after Woudloper Derivative work: Hardwigg Wikipedia.

02

GEOLOGY

Earth’s geologic history is represented as a circular timeline on the left, this diagram contextualizes the vast development of Sardinian minerals.

The history of Sardinian Mining and coastline development has occurred over the course of almost 700 Ma, this timeline places the work within the history of Earth’s geology. In order to define the relevant formation of minerals and wealth of resources the Island has capitalized upon in recent years, we need to understand the formation of Sardinian geology itself.

“The Miocene rotation of Sardinia (Western Mediterranean) remains poorly constrained despite a wealth of paleomagnetic data, primarily due to poor chronostratigraphic control. However, this rotation is contemporaneous with the opening of the Liguro-Provençal back-arc oceanic basin, and its history is key to understanding the kinematics of opening of the Western Mediterranean. We address this issue through paleomagnetic and 40Ar/39Ar geochronological investigations of Miocene volcanic sequences in Sardinia. Precise age control allows secular variation of the geomagnetic field to be evaluated. These data provide constraints on the rotational history of this continental microplate; Sardinia rotated 45° counterclockwise with respect to stable Europe after 20.5 Ma (Aquitanian), which is a marked increase over the estimate of 30° derived from prior paleomagnetic studies. Rotation was essentially complete by 15 Ma. About 30° of rotation occurred between 20.5 and 18 Ma (Burdigalian), corresponding to the period of maximum volcanic activity in Sardinia.

The observed rotation validates palinspastic models derived from a morphological fit of basin margins, and indicates high rates of opening (up to 9 cm yr− 1 in the southern part of the basin) between 20.5 and 18 Ma.” (Gattacceca et al. 2007)

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75

“Geologic” Timeline Focus on the Metallogenic Activity in the Iglesiente Region

541 Ma

Pre-Sardic Phase

(Early Cambrian - Early Ordovican)

Formation of Pb-Zn ores in the Iglesiente district Initial small barite deposits Sedimentary Fe-Zn sulfide deposits Pb-Zn sulfide deposits

470 Ma

Sardic Phase

(Middle- Late Ordovican)

Mineralized deposits of karst Deposits of barite and Pb-Zn sulfides

358 Ma

Variscan Peak

(Carboniferous - Early Permian)

Pb-Zn hydrothermal vein deposits Metamorphic alteration of limestone and dolomite

02

GEOLOGY

289 Ma

Post Variscan I

(Permian - Triassic)

Water related chemical weathering (karst processes) Weathering of Pb-Zn deposits produces non-sulfide ores Numerous Ba deposits

201 Ma

Post Variscan II

(Cretaceous)

Long period of metallogenic stasis

34 Ma

Cenozoic Peak

(Oligocene - Miocene)

Rotation of Sardinia-Corsican Microplate Volcanic activity Volcano-sedimentary Mn deposits

Modified after (Naitza et al. 2019) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

77

541 Ma

Pre-Sardic Phase Modified after (Autonomous Region of Sardinia 2008)

Pb Zn Fe Ba

02

GEOLOGY

The Pre-“Sardic phase” metallogenic peak (early Cambrian- early Ordovician), resulted in the Pb-Zn ores of the Iglesiente district (SW Sardinia). Accumulation of metals occurred in a sedimentary basin evolving from siliciclastic to carbonatic. Initial small evaporite deposits with barite were followed by SEDEX deposits with Fe-Zn sulfides and by very large Mississippi Valley Type Pb-Zn sulfide deposits (Boni et al.

1996, and references therein). Ore deposition took place during transition from extensional tectonics and passive margin conditions (Cambrian), to compressive tectonics with folding in an active margin setting (Ordovician “Sardic phase”). SW Sardinia became an area of wide circulation of basinal brines that produced the Mississippi Valley Type deposits.

(Naitza et al. 2019)

Detail of Sulcis-Iglesiente Region during the Pre - Sardic Phase.

Most metals have already been deposited in the region by this point.

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79

470 Ma

Sardic Phase Modified after (Autonomous Region of Sardinia 2008)

Pb Zn Ba

02

GEOLOGY

358 Ma

Vascarian Peak Modified after (Autonomous Region of Sardinia 2008)

Pb Zn

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81

289 Ma

Post Vascarian I Modified after (Autonomous Region of Sardinia 2008)

Pb Zn Ba

02

GEOLOGY

201 Ma

Post Vascarian II Modified after (Autonomous Region of Sardinia 2008)

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83

34 Ma

Cenozoic Rifts + Volcanic Activity Modified after (Gisbert and Gimeno 2017) + (Gattacceca et al. 2007)

Mn

02

GEOLOGY

In the Sulcis area (SW Sardinia) the Oligo-Miocene magmatism produced a special volcanic suite. Differently from other areas of the magmatic arc in Sardinia, in the Sulcis region magma compositions shifted from subduction-related calc-alkaline at the beginning to mildly alkaline towards the end of the magmatic cycle, including peralkaline rhyolites (Araña, Barberi & Santacroce, 1974; Assorgia et al. 1994; Morra, Secchi & Assorgia, 1994; g. gisbert, unpub. PhD thesis, University of Barcelona, 2012).

The Oligo-Miocene volcanic rocks of the Sulcis were emplaced during 33–15 Ma (Savelli, 1975; Beccaluva et al. 1985; Morra, Secchi & Assorgia, 1994; Pasci et al. 2001) and are found in mainland Sardinia and in two minor islands (Santo Antioco and San Pietro; Fig. 2). The volcanic sequence consists of: (1) a lower sequence >400 m thick of andesitic (basaltic andesite and andesite) domes and lava flows; and (2) an upper sequence >400 m thick dominantly formed by a stack of ignimbrite sheets (transitional to mildly alkaline with rhyolitic and minor trachytic compositions, and including comendites) (Assorgia et al. 1992b ). The ignimbrite sequence was emplaced during 17–15 Ma (Morra, Secchi & Assorgia, 1994; Pasci et al. 2001).

(Gisbert and Gimeno 2017)

Volcanic Activity + Oligocene-Serravallian calc-alkaline Geology Modified after (Speranza et al. 2002), (Gisbert and Gimeno 2017) + (Gattacceca et al. 2007)

Rifts + Plio-Pleistocene and Recent Sediments Modified after (Speranza et al. 2002), (Gisbert and Gimeno 2017) + (Gattacceca et al. 2007)

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21 Ma

Oligo-Miocene Rotation Modified after (Oudet 2008), (Gisbert and Gimeno 2017), (Mianaekere and Adam 2020), (Rombi 2014), and (Gattacceca et al. 2007).

Simplified tectonic map of the Corsica-Sardinian Microplate rotation.

“Location of Sardinia in central western Mediterranean.

In

Oligo-Miocene

times

Sardinia detached, drifted and rotated from the European continental margin to its current position by roll-back of the Apulian subduction zone (Cherchi & Montadert, 1982; Séranne, 1999; Rollet et al. 2002). Abundant subduction magmatism formed in arc position in Sardinia during this time.”

(Gisbert and Gimeno 2017) 02

GEOLOGY

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PRESENT

Sardinian Geological Map Modified after (Speranza et al. 2002), (Autonomous Region of Sardinia 2008)

02

GEOLOGY

“The French geographer Pierre Birot described the Sardinian landforms as a residual of Hercynian base, with multiple faults, covered by the secondary and Eocene strip, and in the western part hidden by volcanic accumulations, due to activity started in the Oligocene. Plateaus are the most common shape of relief, with high precipitous costs, that create a beautiful and wild landscape (Birot, 1955). In this synthesis he brought to light the origin of antiquity and the fragmentation of the Sardinian landforms. The western part of the island is very heterogeneous in terms of morphology and geology. In the southwest Sardinia, the region called Sulcis-Iglesiente, evidence appears of granitic rocks, that some Geologists connect to mythological Tirrenide. This name was coined by CJ Forsyth Major in 1882 to designate the continent originating in the Mesozoic in the western Mediterranean area. Precisely the Iglesiente region, so named from the main urban center of Iglesias (the toponymy of which corresponds to the term “churches”), is characterized by the presence of abundant mineral resources, such as lead, zinc and especially coal, documented from ancient times. Deposits are located mainly in Silurian shales and limestones above the basic granite layers and contributed to the flourishing of a mining region among one of the richest in Italy. [...]

The previous mining activities in the Sulcis region bequeathed serious phenomena of pollution and environmental damage, as well as a system of particularly innovative mining infrastructure (such as: the Porto Flavia gallery, first port on the sea, built in 1924, using an excavation inside the mountain of about 600 meters and designed to improve the economic efficiency and working conditions; the Henry Gallery, excavated in 1865 and designed for the transport of minerals; the first electric-powered railroads, such as Cala Domestica installed in 1904 among the first in Italy, for the transport of minerals in small ports).“

(Balletto et al. 2016)

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A Stratiographic Column Focus on The Metalliferous Rock Formation, Gonnesa

“The Iglesiente-Sulcis area is one of the oldest mining districts in the world (production dates back to pre-Roman time), with more than 50 major deposits known which were initially exploited for lead, silver and copper and later for zinc and barium. Two major tectonic trends can be recognized in SW Sardinia. The E-W lineation related to the Sardic phase and the more recent N-S lineation related to the Hercynian deformation.

The ores exploited can be subdivided into pre-Hercynian stratabound zinc > lead > barium and post-Hercynian lead - barium - silver - copper skarn-, vein- and paleokarst deposits. The first ones were deformed together with their host rocks by the Hercynian compressive tectonics, the latter ones clearly cut the deformed and tilted lithologies. The pre-Hercynian stratabound deposits have greater economic importance relative to postHercynian deposits. Most of the stratabound ore deposits are hosted by Lower Cambrian carbonates (especially within the Gonnesa group: black fill on the diagram to the right) and, to a minor degree by Upper Ordovician metasedimentary rocks.

The pre-Hercynian stratabound ores can be regarded as the result of a combination of favorable sedimentary environments and Paleozoic tensional tectonics. Two groups of genetically distinct ore types are known: 1. SEDEX deposits: the mineralization occurs in the Punta Manna formation 2. MVT deposits: mineralization occurs in the San Giovanni formation.”

(Mederer and Chelle-Michou 2011), Modified after (Boni et al. 1996)

02

GEOLOGY

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02

GEOLOGY

The Nébida Formation (Early Cambrian) The lower part of this formation (Matoppa formation) basically consists of shales grading upward into an alternation of shales and sandstones with interbedded archaeocyatha bearing limestone lenses. The upper part (Punta Manna formation) is characterized at its bottom by oolitic and oncolytic sediments grading upward into an alternation of sandstones and more or less dolomitized limestones. The uppermost levels of this member are composed of dolomite lithologically similar to the overlying Laminated Dolomite. Mineralizations are scarce in this formation. Barite and geothite layers of little or no economic interest occur in the upper portion of the Punta Manna member. .

The Gonnesa Formation (Early Cambrian) The Gonnesa Formation is strongly mineralized. Most of the sulfide ore deposits in the district are situated within the Ceroide Limestone; sulfide ores are also present, though in much lesser amounts, in the underlying dolomite and have often been transformed into a mixture of oxidation products by weathering processes (Boni and Koeppel 1985). Barite occurs in the formation either as stratiform bodies or as vein and karst fillings accompanied by subordinate amounts of metal sulfides (mainly Agbearing galena).

The Cabitza Formation (Middle Cambrian-Early Ordovician ) This formation begins with a rapid alternation of marly limestone and siltyshale beds (Calcare Nodulare). Moving upward, shale gradually becomes the dominant lithofacies. The upper member of this formation is made up by a thick sequence of shaly and silty layers with massive, fine-grained sandstones at the top (Cabitza shales). No significant mineralization is present in this formation.

(Cortecci et al. 1989)

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02

GEOLOGY

Gonnesa Formation Outcrop of “Laminated Dolomite” of the Gonnesa formation (Early Cambrian), near Cala Domestica (western Sulcis). This rock formation is the majority of the mineral bearing geology of the Sulcis-Iglesiente region. The various groups within the Gonnesa Formation compose the area rich in metals known as the “Metalliferous Ring”.

(Carmignani et al., 2016) THE METALLIFEROUS RING

95

Iglesiente Geological Map Modified after (Naitza et al. 2019) 02

GEOLOGY

The Sardinian mineral deposits embrace a wide variety of types, resulting from the complex geological evolution of the island. Sardinian metallogenesis is multi-stage, encompassing several epochs from early Paleozoic to Quaternary. Schematically, seven different metallogenic periods may be recognized phases of relative metallogenic stasis alternated with metallogenic peaks marked by extensive mobilization, migration, concentration and re-concentration of elements to form different kinds of mineral deposits.

The large Pb-Zn deposits of SW Sardinia districts (Iglesiente and Montevecchio) are now virtually exhausted. After the closure of the last mines (1999), a legacy of large volumes of mine wastes and tailings remains in the area. Only in SW Sardinia, the Regional Administration estimated about 66 millions of cubic meters (Mm3) of different mine wastes and tailings (Regione Autonoma Sardegna, 2003). The total tonnage of the ore deposits mined in the Iglesiente MVT district amounted to 120-150 Mt of Pb and Zn sulfides; accordingly, 13 Mm3 of wastes are now accumulated in the Iglesias valley, which hosts three of the largest mine sites.

Among the old mining regions of western Europe, Sardinia stands out for the variety of its mineralized deposits. In the light of the new studies on the geology and the metallogenesis of this region, many possible targets emerge for future explorations of different mineral resources, including several CRM’s. These targets include primarily the mining dumps of the old districts and numerous marginal or under-explored deposits. New data from geological and metallogenic studies indicate possible new exploration themes and suggest that Sardinian districts still retain a metallogenic potential for the years to come.

(Naitza et al. 2019)

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Inventory of Elements Main Elements used to form the minerals mined in Sardinia

16. Sulfur

16

26. Iron

30. Zinc

47. Silver

82. Lead

Sulfur is the 10th most common element

S

by mass in the universe, and the 5th most common on Earth. Most sulfur forms in volcanic fumaroles, but it can also result from the breakdown of sulfide ore deposits. Massive form found in thick beds in sedimentary rocks.

(Geology Science 2019)

26

Iron (Fe) is one of the most abundant

Fe

rock-forming

elements,

about 5% of the Earth’s crust. Most of the world’s important iron ore resources occur

in

banded

GEOLOGY

iron

formations

(sedimentary rocks), which are almost exclusively of Precambrian age.

(Geoscience Australia 2018)

02

constituting

Zinc is currently the fourth most widely consumed metal in the world after iron, aluminum, and copper. Zinc is produced mainly from three types of deposits: sedimentary

exhalative

(Sedex),

Mississippi Valley type (MVT), and volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS).

30

Zn

(Kropschot and Doebrich 2011)

Silver is found in lead, zinc, gold and copper ore deposits. The most important ore mineral of silver is argentite (Ag2S, silver sulfide). Silver is commonly extracted from ore by smelting or chemical leaching.

47

Ag

(Minerals Education Coalition 2021)

Lead commonly occurs in mineral deposits along with other base metals, such as copper and zinc. Lead is produced mainly from three types of deposits: sedimentary exhalative (Sedex), Mississippi Valley type (MVT), and volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS).

82

Pb

(Kropschot and Doebrich 2011)

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SCARS

Eight thousand years of mineral extraction in Sardinia has left the landscape marked with industrial ruins. The impact of mining on local relief is glaring.

03

SCARS

(Alex Hall 2021)

03

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101

Scars The Intersection between “The Geologic” and “The Geographic”

If “The Geographic” and “The Geologic” define the boundaries between the human realm and the domain of Earth, “Scars” are the areas that pierce that delineation. “Scars” plunge, dig, tear, maul, erode, run-off, and mark the landscape that so consciously bear them. The extractive activities in South Western Sardinia are a unique example of “Scars” that depend heavily on both “The Geographic” and “The Geologic”. These two layers are extremely interconnected, as the preceding chapters have explored, and that interaction manifests in “Scars”.

“Scars” can be defined as anything that changes the Earth, at any level.

That makes the mining industry an extreme example of a “Scar”. The way the Sardinian terrain has been exploited in the search for value created by humans could be seen as just another morphological change in Earth’s long history of geologic development. However, the significance of “Scars” is that the engage both the layers of the “The Geographic” and “The Geologic”. Without the human-centric goals, activities and extraction, any changes in the landscape would be solely driven by “The Geologic”, as they have been for 4.54 billion years.

This chapter will explore the “Scars” marking the Sulcis-Iglesiente region and how the mineral extractive industry interacts with the geology that fuels it and what human development or “Scars” come with it. This region hosts 113 of the total 169 abandoned mining sites in Sardinia, three of which will be focused on in greater detail in this chapter.

03

SCARS

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03

SCARS

A “Scar”, Miniera di Acquaresi, Iglesias “In Acquaresi there was a whole town, with a hospital, a church and everything. But once the mine was closed, the town was depopulated and only an old woman remained, who for many years did not want to leave because her house was her home, even though there was no one left.”

As quickly as minerals were extracted from the

hills of South Western Sardinia, their

infrastructure was abandoned. When the geologic values of the landscape were exhausted, geographic signs of life were effectively extinguished from the area, leaving nothing but scars.

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Defining the Iglesiente Region An excerpt from “Setting the Methodological Framework for Accessibility in Geo-Mining Heritage Settings” The area of Iglesiente is not administrative but an organizational unit of former mineral extraction and Geo-morphological configuration of the lands. This fact makes the borders of the Iglesiente invisible, yet precisely defined for those who ‘live in the territory.’ Located in south-west Sardinia, the Iglesiente area celebrates the universal value of the homogenous territory of the historical and geographical sub-regions of Sulcis-IglesienteGuspinese, characterized by intensive extraction activities. The Guspinese area has always functioned as independent, while Iglesiente belonged to the historical region of Sulcis.

The Geo-morphological configuration divides the complex system of Sulcis into two basins: Metalliferous (Northern) and Carboniferous (Southern) [39]. These two basins defer in landscape modifications, due to the distinct process of mineral extraction and periods of active mining.

This research implements its goals of the pilot project at the metalliferous basin of the Iglesiente. Accordingly, the first task to accomplish with the interpretative framework is the definition of the borders, buffer zone and/ or the relationships that outline the area of Iglesiente and its boundaries of the territorial systems; external and internal environments. Potential difficulty in research is the fact that Iglesiente is not an administrative unit, whilst the statistical data are.

Evoking the landscape memories, the city of Iglesias has always been the administrative and functional centre of the area, created at the end of 1200, entirely depended on the mining economy.

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The mines and the buildings that served them raised in its surroundings, facing the urban centre and grouped in isolated neighbourhoods.

Functional organization of the city provided that industrial buildings are clearly distinct from the civil ones. Everything was structured according to the work and the control of the workers, following the morphological characteristics of the territory. Over years, serving as a reference point for all the surrounding mining villages, Iglesias acquired a leading role as a city centre.

Sulcis-Igleisiente Geo-Park

(Beretić and Plaisant 2019)

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Sulcis-Iglesiente Scars Mineral Extraction Sites and Abandoned Mines

This map highlights the invisible role of geology in relation to mineral extraction.

Mining activity is highly concentrated in the South-Western tip of Sardinia, mainly due to two types of mineral deposits.

These types differ in their mineral ores, age of the deposit and type of rock. The first, most relevant to this study, is the Gonnesa Formation which originates from the Cambrian Period and is composed of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The second deposit is a result of the volcanic activities that resulted from Oligo-Miocene tectonics, these mines are located just South of the study area.

Modified after (Naitza et al. 2019), (Pantaloni et al. 2009) 03

SCARS

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Metalliferous Ring Mining Sites in Relation to “The Geologic”

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Visibile “Scars” Metalliferous Ring in Relation to Aerial Geography

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Mines and their Landscapes An excerpt from “Slow Tourism and Smart Community: The Case of Sulcis Iglesiente (Sardinia -Italy)” The area of Sulcis Iglesiente has been for millennia interested from a complex mining activity, such as to be considered the main extractive basin not only of the Island but of the whole Mediterranean. This territory was the most important district for national and international mining due to its large production of lead and zinc.

The landscape “...” is characterized by a complex geological heritage and industrial archeology - mineral deposits, excavations and mine dumps and buildings - from an important ancient archeological heritage - domus de janas, nuraghi, sacred wells, etc. - and significant heritage natural (beaches, cliffs, lagoons, etc.).

The context of South-Western Sardinia, where most of the route is located, is geologically set on Cambrian-early Ordovician rocks, dating back to about 550 million years ago. Starting from the bottom, the geological succession shows the terrigenous sediments (mostly sandstones) of the Nébida Formation, followed upwards by the thick carbonate successions (dolomites and limestones) of the Gonnesa Formation, up to the finegrained slates of the Cabitza Formation, which in the whole region are unconformably covered by the conglomerates and other coarse-grained siliciclastic sediments of the middle-late Ordovician Monte Argentu Formation (“Puddinga” Auct.).

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These rocks shaped the landscapes of the Iglesiente and Sulcis, where the sea and the mountains merge, and where, for millennia, men have fought against the adversities of nature to extract a large underground wealth of ore deposits, profoundly modifying the morphological aspect of the territory.

The landscapes of South West Sardinia are in fact deeply marked by the consequences of mining activities, with the presence of large open-air and underground excavations, mine adits, tunnels and numerous mine wastes.

These latter are constituted by accumulations of different types of waste rocks and tailings from mines and processing/metallurgical plants. All these elements highlight the vastity of mining operations carried out in the main mining places of the district, such as the great mines of Monteponi, San Giovanni and Masua, and their related processing plants and handling systems, as the historical Laveria Lamarmora and Porto Flavia plants.

(Balletto et al. 2019)

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Coastal Mining “Scars” An excerpt from “The coastal-mining landscape of Sulcis in Sardinia”

“Costa delle miniere” is a territory of southwestern Sardinia rich in fascination and history, one of the wildest and most striking of the second largest island of the Mediterranean. This portion of land, developed with a varied profile along seventeen kilometers between the coastal landings of Funtanamare and Buggerru, as well as for the uniqueness of landscaping, constitutes the limit of a territory geologically marked by significant mineral resources. In these places, for thousands of years, mining grew to reach the peak of production in the first half of the XXth century and gradually lost its productive competitiveness and economic efficiency in the ’50. Mining settlements are the memory of an activity that saw man involved in the extraction and selection of minerals in an impervious and hostile territory.

Today, the signs of this human action lay stratified in time and space, dislocated among the most inland sites and the coastal landings, and shaped into a new indivisible unit of landscape. In year 2000, the local government recognized the historical and environmental importance of this territory by establishing the Parco Geominerario della Sardegna, whose international value has been acknowledged by UNESCO since 1997.

Along this stretch of seventeen kilometers coast, with clever constructive intelligence a line of small mining landings was founded. From the narrow stone platforms minerals were carried to Carloforte’s port by the bilancelle small boats, then large ferries transported it to the mainland.

(Cherchi 2017)

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DESIGN PROJEC

‘It was once a mine’ How can these sites better fit into their current definitions as PostIndustrial mines?

(Sanna 2015)

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CTIONS

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Chosen Sites of Interest 3 Sites that Represent the Extractive Industry in the Sulcis-Igelsiente

After the analysis of the “The Geographic”, “The Geologic”, and “Scars” in te Sulcis-Iglesiente region, Porto Flavia, Cala Domestica and Laveria Lamarmora present strong cases for further design projections. Each site is located at the convergence of the aforementioned socio-metallurgic layers, the boundary between the land and the Sea, and are experiencing a transition from intensive industrial sites to touristic destinations. These three sites are unique in their present state because of they are at the verge of losing their original value or intent, but they also represent the cultural, political, economic, geographic and geologic history of Sardinia.

How can these sites better fit into their current definitions as PostIndustrial mines and support sustainable tourism?

“Places are objectively mediators between past and present, guardians of memory. They mark both an invisible past and possibilities for reactivation.

It is in the dual nature of rest, which unconsciously retains memory, that the possibility of decoding the traces of the past becomes a map for reactivation in the present. These codes must be identified, and not only by way of museumification or static conservation. Constituting itself in some ways similar to a memorial, the landscape preserves “the useless, the different, the outdated [...] but also the repertoire of lost opportunities and unused alternative options”

(Emilia and Diabasis 2007)

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Cala Domestica

Porto Flavia

Laveria Lamarmora

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Post-Industrial Mining Sites Interaction between “The Geographic” + “The Geologic”

Cala Domestica

Porto Flavia Laveria Lamarmora

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CALA DOMESTICA 04

DESIGN PROJECTIONS

(Sardegnaconme)

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Cala Domestica A Traditional Mineral Loading Port

Cala Domestica is one of the rare sandy bays along the stretch of coast between Buggerru and Masua and for this reason it hosted the embarkation point for minerals from the Acquaresi and San Luigi mines until 1940. Mining activity is remembered today by the tunnels and by the warehouses for the mineral, obtained in the premises of a disused seventeenth-century trap.

In front of the beach, on the limestone peninsula that turns to the south, the view is dominated by the Spanish tower which originally watched over the tonnara. Cala Domestica, thanks to the protection it offered from the mistral and libeccio winds, guaranteed a safe landing place for the sailors engaged in transporting the mineral from the Acquaresi and Masua shipyards to Carloforte. The mineral to be loaded arrived by means of the Scalittas-Cala Domestica electric railway (inaugurated in 1904) and was deposited in the warehouses.

The beach was created by two seasonal rivers that deposited sand and sediment to the inlet. The first river, the Rio Gutturu Cardaxius created a main beach that is wider from the abundant materials carried by the river flowing from the East. This larger beach was a industrial historic hub and was the site of the rail track and warehouse. The second seasonal river, Canale di Domestica collects rainwater from the plateau and flows from the North. It created a smaller beach that is acesssed by a tunnel carved by the miners. This is the site of the loading as it offered greater protection from the winds and has deeper waters for the sailing boats.

04

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There was also a small port with embarkation drop. Currently, the ruins of the deposits remain at the end of the railway network and the route of the railway (the tracks and sleepers have been removed while the stone bridges along the route are preserved). Finally, the tunnel opened by the miners remains to guarantee the loading of the material on the boats also in a second cove to the north-east of the main one. The site is reported as restricted within the PUP / PTCP Province of Carbonia Iglesias. The site is affected by the scenario considered in relation to the project for the recovery of historic mining landings from a tourist-cultural point of view.

From that past today only the few stones of the warehouses remain, a few pillars and scattered bricks that intrigue tourists. Once, however, Cala Domestica was even reached by an electric railway that transported the mineral from Acquaresi, an important construction site in the mountains a few kilometers from Buggerru.

Today Cala Domestica is a popular tourist beach, but until 1940 the point of embarkation for the mineral on the racks, small sailing boats of the Carlofortini, who lived by transporting crude to the warehouses of their island.

(Colavitti and Usai 2011)

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PORTO FLAVIA 04

DESIGN PROJECTIONS

(Francesco Ungaro)

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Porto Flavia A Revolutionary Cliffiside Mineral Loading Port

The transportation of minerals deriving from exploitation of the mines in the Iglesiente district invariably constituted a considerable problem with regard to the economic yield of these mines. The majority of mines, considering the lack of ports or docks on the cost suitable for loading the large ships, required to transport their products, used the services of the Galanzé watermen from the S. Pietro island. These watermen ferried goods from the beaches of Masua, Funtanamare, Cala Domestica, Canal Grande and Buggerru to the spacious storehouses situated in the S. Pietro island; goods were subsequently taken from there to be finally stowed in large ships. These operations of loading and unloading naturally increased the expenses and costs, thus rendering the exploitation of mines unprofitable for the managing Company. In an attempt to overcome this considerable problem, in 1922 the Belgian company Vieille Montagne, managing the Masua mine, designed a device capable of loading minerals directly onto the ships. This project was completed in 1924 and was named Porto Flavia after the daughter of the designer. Porto Flavia was developed by excavating two overlapping galleries in the mountain: the 600 m gallery at 37.4 m a.s.l., equipped with an electric convoy originating from the processing plants (Masua washing plant), and the 100 m gallery at 16 m a.s.l., containing a long transporter belt which terminated outside the mountain over the sea with a mobile lever arm. Nine silos were dug between the two galleries and were filled from the upper gallery; these silos were capable of containing up to 10,000 tons of minerals which were subsequently unloaded onto the transporter belt in the lower gallery by means of mechanical hoppers.

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The silos were used to contain different types of minerals: galena, sphalerite and «calamine». The 20 m long lever arm enhanced the direct loading of minerals onto the ship at the end of the bay underlying Porto Flavia, in front of Pan di Zucchero, an imposing calcareous rock so called because of its sugar-white colour. This is high 134 meters, has an extension of 4 hectares and is crossed by invisible galleries left by a short, but intense, mining activity. It was the natural shelter of the ships during loading operations.

The mineral was stowed directly into the ships hold by means of a thick rubberized fabric tube termed “buttafuori” (bumpkin) which originated in the opening situated at the end of the mobile lever arm and terminated inside the ships’ hold, thereby preventing both the dispersion of powdery matter by the wind or by the movement of the waves during the download of the minerals. In spite of the advantages afforded by the new loading system, which was perfectly integrated in the large mining complex, the Company was not able to avoid closure during the economic crisis of the 1930’s. The Porto Flavia plant came into use once again immediately after the war, and operated until the beginning of the 1960’s; subsequently the plant became obsolete and was totally abandoned.

Modified after (Ardau and Rundeddu 2001)

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LAVERIA LAMARMORA 04

DESIGN PROJECTIONS

(Frances Nonnoi)

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Lamarmora Laveria The Mineral Washery of the Mineria di Nébida

The laveria Lamarmora is a massive structure lying on a steep stream in front of the sea where material extracted from the subsoil of the lead-zinc mine of Nébida was screened and selected before being loaded in the nearby landing. Up until its construction, rough minerals extracted from Nébida’s mine - mainly galena and calamine mines - were poured into the smaller laveria Carroccia, in use between 1885 and 1897. From here, the selection and refinement process was completed, and ore was transported to the underlying landing through a tortuous path excavated in the rocky ridge overlooking the sea. With the increase in production, Carroccia became inadequate both for its small size and for the impervious conformation of the ridge that made transferring minerals to the landing difficult and laborious. In 1897, the society concessionary of the homonymous mine, “Società Anonima di Nébida”, completed the construction works of the new laveria which was considered the most modern ore separation plant in Sardinia at that time. The laveria Lamarmora is a massive structure lying on a steep ridge in front of the sea where material extracted from the subsoil of the lead and zinc mine of Nébida was screened and selected before being loaded in the nearby landing. It was divided into two sections devoted to the selection of unrefined earth, arranged on four levels and extended over 2000 square meters. The laveria is a remarkable engineering work: the sequences of main walls aligned in front of the sea express both the skills and bravery of the men that forged the site. The architectural conformation of the laveria corresponds to the “gravity production principle”, which utilizes the natural difference in the movement and the selection of minerals.

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The sequence is symbolically represented in the drawing section of the complex, bent in a progressive sequence of staggered planes and conforming to the inclination of the slope, to the constructive needs and to the technical requirements of the production. In the highest level, extended over 880 square meters, the material was first crushed, mossed and selected with mechanical gratings and then directed to the two calcining furnaces. The lower levels were divided accordingly to the nature of the ore: one was for terrestrial inert, the other one for the rocky ore rich in galena (a mineral composed of lead and sulfur), sphalerite and calamine (mineral mixtures rich of cadmium, arsenic, and zinc). Beside the main buildings, still emerge the chimneys of the calcining furnaces, were minerals were burned. The main walls were constructed using local stone and bricks, the roofs with wood and terracotta tiles. All spaces and artefacts express the intelligence of bending opportunities and bonds to the needs of the industrial process. Lead and zinc minerals were carried from the mining site to the laveria through an incline and reached the discharge square through a narrowgauge railway. Then, after the processing in the laveria, another incline led to the warehouse by the sea. Thirty meters below, partially emerging from the sea, the remains of a small landing that constituted the terminal node of the production process are still visible.

From this platform, ore was transported on the bilancelle to Carloforte, a joint between the mining industry and the peninsular market. Connected to the laveria and to the landing, a small warehouse was used to house mineral prior of being carried on bilancelle. The landing was fully used until the mid-thirties when the inauguration of Masua’s Porto Flavia marked the end of the transport system operated with the bilancelle boats in favour of the large and modern cargo ships. The remaining landings between Masua and Funtanamare had been used up to that point and subsequently were progressively abandoned.

(Cherchi 2017)

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Glossary Project Specific Reference List

Ma:

Mega Annum or Millions of Years (1,000,000 years)

Eon:

the longest portions of geologic time

Era:

a subdivision of geologic time that divides an Eon

Period:

a subdivision of geologic time that divides an Era

Epoch:

a subdivision of a geologic time that divides a Period

Age:

a subdivision of geologic time that divides an Epoch

Oglio-Miocene: C-SM: L-PB: Graben: Horst: Sulcis-Iglesiente: Geopark:

time period straddling the Oligocene and Miocene Epochs Corsica-Sardinia Microplate Liguro-Provençal Basin, a subregion of the Mediterranean Sea a piece of Earth’s crust that is shifted downward a piece of Earth’s crust that is shifted upward a historical region of southwestern Sardinia a nationally protected area containing a number of geological heritage sites of particular importance, rarity or aesthetic appeal

MVT: Alluvial Soils:

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Mississipi Valley Type, an ore deposit hosted in carbonate sedimentary rocks soils deposited by surface water

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