Greek bronzes in the Met the metropolitan museum of art bulletin v.43 #2 fall 1985

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BY JOAN R. M\ERTENS

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FRONT covE: Herakles(no. 14),lastquarterof the sixthcenturyB.C. COVER: Headof a griffin (no. 9),third quarterof the seventhcenturyB.C. BACKCOVER: Hermes (no. 43),firstcenturyB.C. to first century A.D.

INSIDE FRONT

The translationsarebasedupon those of the Loeb ClassicalLibrary.

Museum ofArtBulletin (Fall1985).? 1985by The Metropolitan Reprintedfrom TheMetropolitan Museumof Art.Photographyby WalterJ.F.Yee,MetropolitanMuseumPhotographStudio.

Design:PeterOldenburg

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S ince antiquitythe Age of Bronzehas been customarilycharacterizedas a rudesequel to the gloriousagesof gold and silver.Thisthirdgenerationof mortalscreatedby the gods on Mount Olymposwas, accordingto Hesiod, "abrazenrace,sprungfrom ash-trees;... in no wayequalto [the preceding]silverage,but was terribleand strong."Loversof violence,they developedunconquerable strength.Theirarmorwas of bronze,theirhouses of bronze,and theyused bronze implements.Their brutalitywas such thatthey destroyedthemselves.GivenHesiod'sdescription,one mightexpectthat from this earlytime Greekbronze workersdevotedthemselvesto the productionof weapons and armor.The Museum'scollection of Greekbronzesprovidesstrikingevidenceto the contrary.Out of the durablemedium of bronze skilledGreekcraftsmencreatedsome ofthe most beautifuland memorableworksin the historyof Westernart.Gracefulfigures,charminganimals,luxuriousutensils,and handsomelydecoratedarmorwere allfashionedwith greatsensitivityfrom bronze.

Whileancientliterarysourcestellus thatmanybronzeswere melted down-as were objectsof gold and silver-a fargreaternumberof workssurvivethanthose made of more preciousmetals.Ittakesa sharpeye, perseverance,an innatesense of quality,and carefulscholarshipto forma first-rankcollection of bronzes.The Metropolitanhas been fortunateto havehad the supportof knowledgeable donors as well as an inspiredcuratorialstaffin assemblinga groupof Greekbronzesthatis one of the finestand richestanywhere.

Therewas no question of presentingthe collectionhere in its entirety;indeed, in orderto allowfor Chosenfortheir plentifulillustrations,only forty-fourpieces were selectedforinclusionin thisBulletin. exceptionalqualityand theirhistoricor iconographicinterest,these bronzesspanthe historyof Greek artfrom the eighthcenturyB.C. to Romantimes. Most of them aresmallobjects,and here, reproduced in severalviews,they can be fullyappreciatedas impressivesculptures.Forexample,the littlecentaur (no. 26) hurlshis rock with allthe forceof his largercounterparts,despitethe factthathe is only one and three-quartersinches high.

As distinguishedas the worksthemselvesaremanyof the collectorswho at one time or another owned these objects.Foremostamongthem is the lateWalterC.Baker,whose bequestin 1971 broughta bounty of masterpieces,the best known being the veileddancer(no. 32);ten works from his collectionareincludedin thispublication.Otherdistinguishedconnoisseursof bronzes representedby worksreproducedon these pagesareCountMichaelTyszkiewiczand Vladimir Simkhovitch.An accomplishedmuseum curatorrankswith these discerningprivatecollectors.Under Dietrichvon Bothmer,Chairmanof the Departmentof Greekand RomanArt,significantobjectshave been added to our holdings,includingthe majesticrams(no. 17)and the poignantartisan(no. 41).

NorbertSchimmelhas been a truefriendofthe department-in this areaas in manyothers-allowing us to exhibithis grandDionysiacmask (no. 40) alongsidethe Museum'stwo masks(nos. 38,39) in the galleries.

I wish to express my gratitudeto the anonymous donor of the ClassicalFund and to George in as full and generouslyillustratedfashion as Ortizfor enablingthe Museum to publish this Bulletin it is. Writtenby JoanR. Mertens,Curatorand Administratorof the Departmentof Greekand Roman Art,this issue is intended as an introductionto Greekbronzes-revealing their variety,their quality of execution, and the pleasureof viewing them. I hope thatit will encouragereadersto make a leisurelyvisit to the galleries-or severalvisits-and to takethe time to thoroughlystudy and enjoy these masterpieces.It is also my hope thatin the near futuretheir present installationin the Metropolitan, which has been provisionalfor all too long, will be changed to one thatis worthy of these splendid bronzes.

Philippede Montebello Director

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INTRODUCTION "Andyour own images in Greece,how arethey fashioned?...Yourartists,then, like Phidiasand like Praxiteleswent up, I suppose, to heavenand made a model of the forms of the gods and then reproduced them by their art,or was there something else thatattendedupon them as they did their molding?"

"Therewas,"said Apollonius, "somethingelse, full of wisdom [sophia]."

"Whatwas that,"said the other,"forsurelyyou would not saythatit was something other than imitation[mimesis]?" he said, "wroughtthese works, a wiser craftsmanthan "Imagination[phantasia]," imitation;for imitationcraftswhat it has seen, while imaginationcraftswhat it has not seen; for it conceives accordingto the standardof what exists.Shock often deadens imitation,but nothing affectsphantasy,which marchesundaunted towardthe goal thatit has set itself" ofTyana FlaviusPhilostratus,TheLifeofApollonius (6.19)

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een observationcombined with seeminglyinexhaustiblecreativityis a K( hallmarkof Greekartin all of its forms. Nowhere does it impressus more immediately,however,than in the statuettesand utensils of bronze thatwere an integral partof Greeklife. Theysurvivefrom the ninth centuryB.C. throughthe period of assimilationto Romanstyles thatbegan duringthe second centuryB.C. Although the paintingson Greekvases offer picturesof contemporarymen, women, and children-what they did and how they visualizedtheir gods and heroes-bronze statuetteshavethe propertyof being three-dimensional,of being palpablyreal.

While large-scalesculpturesurvives,much of it consists of copies afteroriginals thatno longer exist. The majorityof bronze statuettes,by contrast,havethe distinction of being the originalworks thatthe ancient artistsmade.

When these artistsdealt with things thatthey saw aroundthem-human beings, animals,utensils-our admirationis directed particularlyto the way in which they capturedand depicted the distinctivequalitiesof the subject.What we may not sufficientlyconsider today is the tangibleform thatthe craftsmen gaveto a wide rangeof subjectsupon which no one had everset eyes:the hero Herakles,the goddess Athena,Eros,the personificationof love, griffins,centaurs, and satyrs,to mention only examples thatoccur here. While these inhabitantsof the imaginationacquiredattributesby which to be recognized-the club and lion skin of Herakles,for instance-every artistcontributedhis own interpretation. The resultingstatuettesare often memorable because the form perfectly suits the subjectand the articulationis so precise that,thanksto our eyes and fingertips,we havea realpresence before us.

The bronzes representone of two kinds of object: either they were made to be freestanding,in which case they normallystand on their own base, or they were the decorativeadjunctsto a utensil. Theirbeautymight suggestthatin antiquity, as in modem times, they were collected and enjoyed for their own sake.In fact, they were intended to serve a purpose, their aestheticqualitiesbeing secondary.

Throughthe fifthcenturyB.C., at least,freestandingfiguralbronzes were produced as dedications,offeringsto a god frequentlyplaced in a sanctuaryand inscribedwith a text to thateffect;the lyre player(no. 15),for instance,has inscribedon the back, "Dolichosdedicatedme." The hydria,or waterjar(no.

23), shows engravedaround the top of the mouth, "one of the prizes from Argive Hera."Suchutilitarianobjects, actuallymade to be used, might ultimatelyalso be dedicatedas offerings.

These two considerations-that the objects had a function to performand that a figureof a human or an animalcould be integratednaturallyinto a utensil-are absolutelybasic to an understandingof Greekbronzes. The artist'shand in the service of his eye fashioned the upper body of a woman (opposite) thatis immediatelyrecognizableand remarkablefor the articulationof her face,garment, and hair.His hand workingin the service of his imaginationleavesus with no sense of discomfortor incongruitythatshe forms the transitionbetween the mouth and handle of a waterjar.The figureembellishes the utensil;the utensil gives purpose to the figure.Moreover,as the object is used, the mutuallyreinforcingthree-dimensionalityof vase and figurecomes to the fore. bronze By the eighth centuryB.C., the date of the earliestobject in this Bulletin, workinghad alreadyenjoyed a long historyin the Greekworld. Indeed, the 5

Above:Detailof the hydria(no. 23) showingthe inscription Opposite:Womanatthe handleof the hydria

BronzeAge is the name conventionallyapplied to the latestperiod of Greekprehistory,about 3200 to 1200B.C.Preservedobjects and ancientliterarysources testify to the use of other metals at thattime: gold, silver,lead, tin, electrum,and, rarely,iron. Bronze, the alloycomposed of approximately90 percent copper and 10percent tin, by farpredominated,however,for weapons, tools, and vessels, as well as for statuettes.Among the availablemetals,it was the hardestand strongest; at the same time, it could be formed into complex shapes, like fishhooks.

The technology of preparingthe alloys,of castingor hammeringthe object, and of finishingit had been fullymasteredso that,in this respect, there were no obstaclesto production. (A descriptionof how bronzes were made appearsat the end of this essay.)The most common materialfor containers,loom weights, dedicatoryobjects, and other necessities of dailylife was fired clay.Where durabilityand/or the distinction of a rarermaterialcame into play,bronze was used.

Archaeologicalinvestigationmakes it possible to follow the evidence for bronze workingbackinto the fourthmillennium B.C. Yet,it is reallyonly in the poems of Homer, who is generallybelieved to havelived duringthe eighth centuryB.C., thatwe aregiven a social and human context within which to relatethe survivingmaterial.The poet, for instance,vividlydescribesa forge in the course of recounting how Thetis went to the divine smith Hephaistosto obtain a second set of armorfor her son Achilles.

So sayinghe left her there and went to his bellows, and he turned these toward the fire and bade them work. And the bellows, twenty in all, blew upon the melting vats,sending forth a readyblastof everyforce, now to furtherhim as he labored hard,and againin whatsoeverway Hephaistosmight wish and his work go on. And on the fire he put stubborncopper and tin and precious gold and silver;and thereafterhe set on the anvil-blocka greatanvil,and took in one hand a massivehammer,and in the other he took the tongs (Iliad18.468-477).

Homer lived about five hundred yearslaterthan the TrojanWarand its aftermath treatedin his poems. While perhapsnot so barrenas once thought, the interveningcenturiesproduced virtuallyno greatartin any form. Duringthe tenth century,however,artisticcreativityreawakenedand, by 750 B.C., the prevailing style, called "Geometric"in modem scholarship,was reachingits apogee.

The name derivesfrom such simple geometric shapes as triangles,circles,and rectanglesthatwere used as fillingornamentas well as elaboratedinto the subjects of figuralscenes. Vasepaintingand bronze workingwere the primary media.

The Geometricperiod (about 1000-700 B.C.) is of considerableimportancefor bronze working.First,it introducesmany figuretypes thatremainedin the repertoire for centuries.The male occurs in variousguises-nude, as a warrior,or as a votary.There are animals,notablyhorses and birds, as well as mythicalcreatures such as centaursand griffins.Most remarkableis the style, which presents any given subjectin its most elemental form, practicallydevoid of detail.Thus, statuettes of horses (nos. 3,4) show us littlemore than essentials:the head, arching neck, body, four legs, and tailthatanyone would enumeratein describingthe creature.Similarly,an armorer(no. 8) consists fundamentallyof the torso and limbs of a human figuredisposed so thathis legs indicatethathe is sittingon the ground and his upper body and armsare directed towardthe helmet before him.

The manner of representationis perfectlyclearand immediate,often also consummatelyelegant.The basic Greekiconographicaltypes were born, so to speak, in the simplest, most expressiveformspossible.

A second significantfeatureof Geometricbronze work is thatit documents the 6

basic ways of using the material:in three dimensions, for statuettesand utensils; in relief to decorate objects such as tripod cauldrons,which were popularat this time; and as the surfacefor incised decoration,best illustratedby a class of fibula, or safetypin. Thus,in the revivalthattook place duringthe earlyfirstmillennium B.C., the variouspossibilitiesfor artisticexpression developed hand in hand with subject and style.

A thirdsignificantaspect of Geometricbronzes concerns the geographicalcenters where, on the one hand, works were produced and where, on the other, they were particularlyfavoredas dedications.Althoughscholarsmay disagreeon the localizationof a specific object, there is little doubt thatmajorcenters of production existed in Laconia,the Argolid,Corinth,Attica,Boeotia,and Thessaly,as well as on Creteand other islands.The single most importantsanctuaryat which Geometricbronzes were dedicatedis Olympia,but majorconcentrationsof materialhavealso come to light in Athens,Sparta,Delphi, the ArgiveHeraion, and on Samos. (See map on p. 14.)

Howeverone approachesthese earlyworks-technically, iconographically, geographically-they are verymuch at the head of a long tradition.They enjoy the additionaldistinction of representingprobablythe most progressiveareaof sculpturalcreativityin their day.Apartfrom primitiveimages of wood described in literarysources, there was no large-scalesculpture,and contemporaryterracottas cannot match the effect of volume and vitalityin a work like the man and centaur(no. 7). It is quite fairto saythatfor roughlya hundred years,until the end of the eighth centuryB.C., bronzes were at the forefrontof Greeksculptural development.

The Archaicperiod, which is conventionallydatedfrom about 700 B.C. to the Persiansackof the AthenianAkropolisin 480 B.C., saw the firstfloweringof Greek sculpturein stone, terracotta,and bronze. Our knowledge of artisticdevelopments is enhanced by ancient literaryevidence, of which two passagesare particularlypertinent to bronzes: they are from the historyof the PersianWarswritten

by Herodotos, who lived in the fifthcenturyB.C., and they give us a point of chronologicalreferencethroughthe mention of Croesus,king of Lydia,who reigned from about 561to 546 B.C.The objects describedin the quotations;the glimpse into relationsbetween Sparta,Lydia,and Samos,three importantstates thatwere also centers of metalworking;the colorful exaggerationof the accounts-all of these featuresprovide a fittingintroductionto this time of spectacular,perhapseven unparalleled,achievementin Greekbronze working.(In the quotation,the Lacedaemoniansare the people of Lacedaemon,the region with its center at Sparta;"Laconia"is a short variantof Lacedaemon.)

The Lacedaemoniansdeclaredthemselves readyto serve Croesus,king of Lydia, when he should require,and moreover they made a bowl of bronze, with figures in relief outside round the rim, and largeenough to hold twenty-sevenhundred gallons.... The bowl never came to Sardis,and for this two reasons are given:the Lacedaemonianssaythatwhen the bowl was near Samoson its way to Sardis,the Samiansdescended upon them in warshipsand carriedit off;but the Samians themselves saythatthe Lacedaemonianswho were bringingthe bowl, being too late,and learningthatSardisand Croesuswere taken,sold it in Samosto certain privatemen, who set it up in the temple of Hera.And it may be thatthe sellers of the bowl, when they returnedto Sparta,said thatthey had been robbed of it by the Samians(ThePersian Wars1. 70).

In anotherpassage,Herodotos tells of a dedication made by a group of Samianswith a tithe of their profitsreaped from a tradingvoyageto southern Spain,probablyfor ores: "TheSamianstook six talents... and made therewitha 7

Copperingot,twelfthcenturyB.c.Rogers Fund,1911(11.140.7)

bronze vessel, like an Argolickrater,with griffins'heads projectingfrom the rim all around;this they set up in their temple of Hera,supportingit with three colossal kneeling figuresof bronze, each seven cubitshigh" (4.152).

An importantfactbroughtout by these passagesis how Archaicbronzes, from their production to their distribution,effectivelylinked one end of the Mediterraneanworld to the other.Tobegin with the metal ores requiredfor the bronze industry,copper was mined at Chalkison Euboea,in Macedonia,in Thessaly,on variousislands (most conspicuously Cyprus),as well as in southwesternSpain and northernItaly;a copper ingot in the Museum'scollections, probablyof the twelfth centuryB.C., shows one of the forms in which ores were transported throughoutantiquity.Tinhad to be imported from Britainand Spain.Dangerous as these expeditions must havebeen, the rewardswere handsome, as indicated

by Herodotos'saccount of the tithe in the form of a griffincauldrondedicatedby the Samians.

While Herodotos particularlyhighlightsLaconiaand Samosin the selections cited, the number of placeswhere the rawmaterialswere made into objects continued to proliferate,throughoutthe Greekmainlandand islandsas well as farther afield.In the west there were workshops in the Greekcolonies of southern Italy,notablyLocriand Tarentum.By stylisticcomparisonwith stone sculpture and terracottas,bronzes havealso been attributedto easternGreece,the coastal cities of AsiaMinor,althoughthe majorcenters havenot so farbeen adequately identified and characterized.

The subsequent movement of finished pieces destined for dedications,for gifts,or for trade,which were occasionallycarriedoff as plunder,is vividly describedby Herodotos as well. Withinthe present selection, the mirror(no. 11) is a good example;it was probablymade in the northeasternPeloponnesos and came to light in Cyprus.Whateverthe originalpurpose of these objects may have been, they often ultimatelybecame offerings.Indeed, thanksto such sanctuary sites as Olympia,Samos,Delphi, Dodona, and Perachora,the archaeological record for the Archaicperiod is extremelyrich, providingevidence for the expanded rangeoffiguralsubjectsand types of object. The female figure,for instance,which had been rarein Geometricart,now comes into its own, often in connection with utensils,such as mirrors,thatone assumeswere favoredby women. Similarly,armorand weapons have come down to us in quantityand in examplesof superlativeworkmanship.Body armor-helmets, cuirasses,thigh guards,shin guards,and ankle guards-deserves close attention,being shaped and articulatedin accordancewith the partof the body thatit covered.In the absence of life-sizebronze sculpture,the cuirassesparticularlyillustratethe evolution of anatomicalrenderingfrom stylizationto greaternaturalism.

If,indeed, the majoraccomplishmentof Archaicbronze statuetteswere to be characterized,it might legitimatelybe said thatthe essentialforms developed by Geometricartistsnow acquiredflesh and blood. The warrior(no. 1) impressesus by the clarityand economy with which he conveysthe ideas of being a man and wielding a weapon. The youth (no. 13)invitesus to admirethe modeling of his body, the detailof his long hair,his lifelikeness.This development is as evident in subjectsof the imagination,like griffins(no. 9) and gorgon heads (no. 19),as in those thatthe artistssaw aroundthem. When Herodotos was writing,bronze objects of the Geometricperiod were still visible.Thus,in his descriptionsof the enormous Laconianbowl with decorationaroundthe rim, or of the Samian kraterwith griffinsand kneeling figures,his sense of wonder may havebeen directednot only at the size of the respectivededicationsbut also at the vividness of the subjectsrepresented.

8

The ramificationsof the Greekvictoryover Persiaand the resultingpreeminence of Athens extended to art,leavingtheir markeven in the domain of utensils and statuettes.Duringthe Classicperiod, which spans the fifthand fourth centuriesup to the death of Alexanderthe Greatin 323 B.C., the majorachievements layin architecture,monumental sculpturein stone, bronze, ivoryand gold, as well as in wall painting.Literarytexts,in the form of descriptions, accounts, decrees, and so on, give the names of masters,majorand minor, together with the works attributedto them, or they pertainto specific monuments. Individualssuch as the architectIktinos,the sculptorPheidias,and the

painterPolygnotosofThasos set the standardsfor and introducedthe innovations into their respectivearts;therefore,considerationsof models and influences now enter into the study of a work in a way thatthey had not previously.

Bronze sculptureon a scale of halflife-sizeor greatercan be tracedbackto a group of figuresof the mid-seventhcenturyB.c.from Dreroson Crete,or to a winged figureof the firsthalfof the sixth centuryfrom Olympia.These works were hammered ratherthan cast,and they must havebeen exceptionalglorifiedexperiments,so to speak-even allowingfor a verypoor rateof survival.

At the end of the sixth centuryB.C.,production of monumental cast-bronzestatuarybegan to gain momentum. Our knowledge of it derivesmainlyfrom ancient literaryevidence, which, together with Romanmarblecopies, is also our chief source for thatof subsequent centuries.To suggestthe amount of materiallost to 9

Detailof anAtticred-figured cupdepicting a foundry,about490 to 480 B.C.

Attributed to theFoundry Painter.

Antikenmuseum,Berlin,2294

us, it has been calculatedthatin the second centuryA.D. overone thousand bronze statuesof victoriousathleteswere still standingin Olympiaalone. The celebratedcharioteerof Delphi, probablyset up in 477 B.c., exemplifieshow very fine examples of victor dedicationslooked. The equallyfamiliarstatueof Zeus, found in the sea off CapeArtemisionand now in Athens,was made closer to the mid-fifthcenturyand conveys the impressivenessof large-scaleimages of gods thatstood in temples and sanctuaries.

Detailof amirror(no.22)

It is againstsuch developments thatsmall-scalebronzes from the fifthcentury B.C. on must be considered. If we look at the Archaicwoman (no. 10) or the Herakles(no. 14)and question whether anythingin them requiresa large-scale prototype, the answeris likely to be negative,primarilybecause of the perfect correspondence between the intention of the piece and its realization.By contrast,the earlyClassicdiskos thrower(no. 21)presents an understandingof the whole human figure,of the interrelationbetween mind and body, thatis more likely to havebeen achievedon a scale approachinglife-sizethan in thatof a statuette. Ancient sources tell, for instance,of Pythagoras,a sculptorof bronze who was activeduringthe second quarterof the fifthcenturyand specializedin athletes. Workssuch as his would haveinspired others in a varietyof sizes, materials, degrees of similarity,and levels of quality.Bronze statuettesfrom the Classic period arein no respect inferiorto their predecessors.Manyare simply somewhat different,in thatthe questions of to what degree and in what way a piece is derivativeplay a more importantpartin evaluatingstyle and iconography.

Expressedin differentterms,one may saythatin the evolution of Greeksculpture smallbronzes became reflectionsratherthan milestones of innovation.

The corollaryof this situation,however,is thata greatmanyworks offera distillate of the finest qualitiesof Classicartin the compact, intimateform of a statuette. Supportingthe reflectingsurfaceof the mirror(no. 22) is a woman who standsquietlybut has the potentialof immediate action, as indicatedby the position of her head, arms,and feet. Perfectlybalancedalso is the articulationof her body and of the drapery,each distinctyet both integratedto convey the graceof the figure.One could imaginethatshe representedan aestheticideal to which users of the mirrormight well aspire.

The fusion of form, function, and execution into a whole in which no one aspect predominatesis an achievementof the Classicperiod that,indeed, is basic to the meaning of the word "classical."Duringthe last phase of Greekart,known as Hellenistic,new elements entered into the vocabularyof artisticexpression thatwere often at considerableodds with the standardof Classicequilibriumbut thatsignificantlywidened the existingrangeof styles and subjectmatter.

A considerationof the majorhistoricaland artisticdevelopments of this time shows thatGreece lost her traditionalcenter,not to say centers.Forcenturies,the heartlandhad existed in an areathatmight be circumscribedby a circle including Dodona in the north and Spartain the south. The firstmajorchange took place duringthe fourthcenturyB.C. when PhilipII and Alexanderthe Greatsubjugated the rest of Greeceto Macedonianrule. AfterAlexander'sdeath, duringthe Hellenisticperiod proper,althoughthe old cities and sanctuariesremainedin existence, the shift continued eastwardand southwardto the three powerfulnew kingdoms, those of the Attalidsin Pergamon,the Seleucidsin Syria,and the Ptolemies in Egypt.The traditionalheartlandgaveway to an ever-widening periphery,much like the circlesthatspreadfrom a pebble thrown into still water.

The ramificationsof these developments also altereda world thathad previously consisted of many states,with Athens often predominantbut not in control. The establishmentof Macedoniansupremacybroughtunprecedented politicalsub10

ordinationand centralization,not only throughoutGreece as a whole but also within the individualstates.

In art,where the Classicperiod had attaineda balanceof everyconstituent element of a work-whether building,statue,or waterjar-the Hellenisticage introduced the tendency to select and develop a specificfeatureor detailbeyond all others;observationwas now pushed towardacuterealism,even as faras caricature.This development gained furtherimpetus from the new subjectsthat entered the iconographicalrepertoireas a resultof the displacementof artistic centers to the east, notablyto Pergamonand other cities of AsiaMinor,Alexandria,Rhodes, and Kos.Africans(see no. 35) and orientalsoccurredmore frequently than they had previously.Subjectsdrawnfrom dailylife, which before were exceptional,became common: men and women with all the marksof age, young children,artisans,actors,dwarfs,cripples.The changesin Greekartat this time were fundamental,yet the old traditionsdid not die out. The interplay between the classical,on the one hand, and contemporaryinnovation,on the other,representsan ever-presentfactorin the considerationof works of the Hellenistic period.

The rangeoficonographic and stylisticpossibilitiesis suggestedby a comparisonof the dancingyouth (no. 31)with the artisan(no. 41).The formergives the sense of a Classiccreationinfused with energyratherthan serene repose. The manifestbeautyof the figureand of the articulationof his body depends upon the past. The complexity of his movement, which is the realsubjectof the work, makes this a product of a new age. Where the youth might havestepped out of a poem by Keats,one could havemet the artisanin any industrialquarterin any city of the ancient Greekworld. There is no attemptat idealizingthe compact, work-hardenedbody, its muscles and skin now grown less taut.At the same time, everysensitivityremainsin the weary,pensive, dignifiedface.

As significantas the differencesbetween these two works may be, the figures share a qualityof overridingimportance,a vigorthatimpartslife as much to the mundane man as to the arcadianyouth. The same qualityis perceptiblein the Dionysiacmasks (nos. 38-40), which are datableto the firstcenturyA.D. and which, for our purposes, may demonstratethe continuityof the most time-honored Greeksubjectsinto Romanart.

These works, however,representonly partof a complex and variedartisticsituation. The Hermes (no. 43) shows something quite different,an image of the finest craftsmanshiputterlydevoid of inner conviction. The standardof execution and the heritageof which it is a product areimmediatelyrecognizable,yet equallyapparentis an emptiness conveyed by more thanjust the disproportionatelysmallhead, the unfocused glance, and the soft body in a passivepose.

The intention of the representationhere is no longer clearor definite;only the form remains.The horse (no. 42) offersanotherexample of the same phenomenon.

Greekmythology providesa noteworthyparallelto these two small sculptures in the figureof Talos,the giantof bronze. He is best describedby Apollonius Rhodius,a Greekwriterof the thirdcenturyB.c.

He was of the stock of bronze, of the men sprungfrom ash trees, the lastleft among the sons of the gods; and the son of Kronosgavehim to Europato be the warderof Creteand to strideround the island thrice a daywith his feet of bronze.

Now in all the rest of his body and limbs he was fashioned of bronze and invulnerable;but beneath the sinew of his anklewas a blood-red vein;and this, with its issues of life and death,was covered by a thin skin (Argonautica 4. 1639-1648).

His death was broughtabout by the sorceressMedea.Accordingto the prin11

detailofno. 35 YoungAfrican,

cipalversion of the legend, Talos'sone vein, thatranfrom his neck to his ankle, was plugged at the ankle by a bronze nail. Medea drew out the nail, causinghis life-blood (ichor)to pour forth and his body to collapse. The episode is depicted on a vase made in Athens about 400 B.C.,showing the giantkeeling backwardinto the armsofKastor and Polydeukeswhile Medealooks on at the left. The quality of the statuetteof Hermes, often characterizedas "academic,"is thatof a figure who has lost his ichor.

Withinthis brief conspectus of the development of Greekbronze working,the myth of Talosprovesinstructivein severalrespects. Beside contributingto our understandingof certainobjects thatmarkthe transitionfrom Hellenisticto Romanart,it is a forcefulreminderof the readinessof the ancientGreeksto endow works of artwith the qualitiesof animatebeings. The concept recursin

volute-krater Detailof anAtticred-figured showingthe deathof Talos,about400 B.C.

Attributed to theTalosPainter.

Ruvo,Jatta 1501 Collection,

many stories-those of Pandora,of Pygmalion,and of the bull made by Daidalos for Pasiphae,to name a veryfew.In the hands of an inspired craftsman,the proper combination of imitationand imaginationcould resultin a creationof extraordinarypotential.The Talosmyth reminds us also thatthese creationswere alwaysmade to servea purpose-in the case ofthe giant,to guardthe island of Crete.The myth also relatesin an interestingway to the production of bronze objects. One's attentionis drawnto the mention of a single vein runningthrough Talos'sbody and plugged at the ankle,a detailthatmay possibly havebeen taken from the molds for castingby the lost-waxtechnique. were produced by casting,hammering,or a comThe objects in this Bulletin bination of both. Castingwas used for all of the freestandingstatuettes,for the handles of the vessels, the disks of the mirrors,and adjunctslike those decorating the peripheryof the disk on no. 22. While a number of refinementsexisted, the basic process was a simple one.

12

The firststep was to preparea core in a malleablematenal,like a mixtureof soil and clay,thatwould serve as a support overwhich the figurewould be modeled in wax. Aroundthis wax figurewas applied veryfine clay,into which the detailsof the figurebecame impressed. The layerof fine clay,backedwith coarser clay,constitutedthe actualmold; its relationto the figurewas like a tightglove to a hand. It surroundedthe figureentirelyexcept at two points on the underside of the feet or base, where the wax was left exposed. This initialoperationresulted in a three-layerconstruction,with the core in the center,the wax representation around it, and the claymold over the wax. Metalpins called chaplets,drivenat intervalsthroughthe three layers,kept them aligned.When the outer claymold had dried, it was fired,which also caused the wax to melt and run out through the two openings. Molten bronze was then poured into the void left by the wax.

Afterthe bronze had cooled, the claywas removed to reveala figureof bronze where originallythere had been one of wax. Withrespect to Talos,it must be said that,in reality,such a largestatuewould havebeen assembled out of separately cast pieces. Nonetheless, the idea of one vein within the otherwise solid body may havebeen suggestedby the channel throughwhich the bronze was poured into the mold.

The figureemergingfrom the mold would havehad a rough surface,and perhaps also imperfectionswhere the liquid metal had not filled the mold completely.Such castingflawswere repairedand the surfacesmoothed and polished.

Detailslike locks of hair,eyelids, or borders of a garmentthatdid not appear crispwere reworked.Other embellishments-like the triple dots on the garment of no. 15,the scales on the griffinhead (no. 9), the silverinlayson the foreheads of nos. 38 and 39, or the inscriptionson nos. 15and 23-were added at this stage as well. The naturalappearanceof the bronze would havebeen copper colored and rathershiny,with inlaysor other additions prominent;as ancient texts indicate,the surfacecould be treatedto modify the color or sheen. Ancient bronzes thathavesurviveduntouched show a patinaconsistingof layersof mineralcorrosion products formed by the interactionof the metal with the environment in which it was buried. The tonalityof this mineralaccretionoften contributessignificantlyto our perception of the beautyof an object, althoughit is foreignto the bronze's originalstate.

Objectsthatwere not made by castingwere hammered, or raised,from a disk of sheet bronze. This process was standardfor the bodies of vessels and for armor.As metal tends to lose its resilience in the course of being worked, it must be repeatedlyannealed, or heated to a red-hot temperature,in order to regainits malleability.Annealingresultsin relativelythin metal that,in the course of time, tends to surviveless well than the more solid cast pieces. Thus the cast handles of waterjars,jugs,lavers,and other utensils exist in greaternumber than the hammered partsto which they were soldered or riveted.

Althougheverytechnique had its refinements-casting could be done in open molds, with the lost-wax or sand-coreprocess-and althoughinnovations,such as the lathe,were introduced, the fundamentaltechnology of bronze working was alreadyknown to Geometricartistsand was fullymasteredby their Archaic successors.The continuityaffordedby these consistent,long-livedmethods adds significantlyto the pictureof cohesiveness and progressiveevolution presented by the almost thousand-yearhistory of Greekbronzes. The forms,subjects,purposes, and techniques were quite limited, but the ever-newcreationsof the artists seem verynearlyinfinite,thanksto their giftsof observationand imagination.

13

14

1. Nude warrior, second half of the eighth century

B.C.

The nude male figurestandson a small rectangularbase, with which it has been cast.While his legs are set slightly askew,his wide, flatchest is parallel to the viewer.His massivebut subtly articulatedneck ends in a smallhead, which is tilted back.Protuberances indicatethe earsand nose; two scarcelyvisible forms in relief markthe eyes. In his raisedrighthand he would undoubtedly haveheld a spear;the object originallyin his left hand cannot be determined.Two dowels fastenthe warriorto a thinner sheet of bronze, indicatingthathe originallydecorated a vessel. It was almost certainlya tripod cauldron,a deep bowl, in this case made of hammered sheet bronze, supported on three legs and provided with two largeringhandles thatrose verticallyabovethe mouth. The warrior would havestood beside one of the handles.

Althoughit is difficultto localize the workshop where the figurewas made, one possibilityis thatit was in Elis,the region in which Olympiais located.

The statuetteis wonderfullydirect in conveyingthe essentialfeaturesof the man'sbody and of his action. The small dislocationsin the pose contribute to his lack of rigidity.Indeed, his proportions, with long legs and a compact head and neck, his stance, and the position of his armsmake the warrior a lineal ancestorof the diskos thrower (no. 21).

Saidto comefromOlympiaor Crete.

H. 713/16in. (19.6cm). FletcherFund,1936

(36.11.8)

2. Man seated on a ball, last quarter of the eighth century B.C.

This object consists of a bearded man seated atop a hollow ball. The latter, pierced with eight verticalslashes, surmounts a short cylindricalstem ending in a flat,round foot. Attachedto the top of the ball is anothercylinderthat supports a "bench'"which has a hole at either end. A thong presumably passed through the holes. The man sits squarelyon the "bench,"restinghis hands on his knees and his feet on the shoulder of the ball. Incised on the man'sbackis a circle made with the same tool used for the eyes, an "X"that runs to each shoulder and, below that, a series of horizontals;since the front of the body is entirelyplain, the incisions may be purely decorativeor they may represent equipment, such as a belt, two crossed baldrics,and a shield.

Givenits assemblageof elements and its style, this work could only have come from Thessaly,in northern

Greece. Only six examples of the specific type are known, yet pendants composed of spheres elaboratedin a greatvarietyof ways arecharacteristicallyThessalian;so also is the use of a seated figureas a finialand the wiry build. Our principalevidence for establishingthe purpose of the piece consists of the holes for suspension and the factthatmany such pendants were ultimatelyoffered as dedications.

Here, as in the bird (no. 6), provisionis made for both standingand hanging.A definitivesolution to the question of function must awaitmore information.

Whatthe work itself shows, however,is an extraordinarysense ofthree-dimensionality,expressed not only by the treatmentof the forms but also by the juxtapositionof mass and void.

H. 33/4in. (9.5 cm). Ex colls. Tyszkiewicz, Pozzi,Simkhovitch.EdithPerryChapman Fund, 1947(47.11.7)

3-6. Two horses, a ram, and a bird, second half of the eighth century B.C.

In Geometricartanimalsfaroutnumber human figures,with birds, horses, sheep, bulls, and other quadrupeds being particularlycommon.

The ringwith a ramillustratesan animal servingas a decorativeadjunct.

The exactfunction of the object is unclear,but the possibilitiesinclude its havingbeen the ringhandle of a small tripod, partof a harness,or a pendant, like no. 2, thatcould either be hung or, in this case, be let into a base. The ram, decoratedwith circles,is remarkable for its flatness,which is mitigatedonly by the curvedhorns. The three other animalsintroduce a featurethatis more importantin Geometricartthan at any latertime. Theyhavebases with elaboratepatternworkwhose purpose, beyond thatof decoration,is not clear; the theory thatthese objects could be used as stamp seals to identify ownership is appealing.Aesthetically, the bases significantlyinfluence the three-dimensionaleffect of the pieces;

althoughboth horses are comparably lean and sparsein their articulation, the rectanglebelow one accentuatesits length and angularity,while the disk under the other defines a circular space and emphasizes volume. The bird is especiallysuccessful,with the fullnessof its body enhanced by the round base and the thin subdivisions within the base repeatedin the crest and tail.The centers of production representedby these four works cover much of Greece.The bird was probably made in the Argolidand the horse on the rectangularbase in Corinth.

Despite the presence of Corinthianfeatures,the horse on the disk has been attributedto Locrisin centralGreece, while the rammay well come from the north.

Horse (left):H. 33/8in. (8.4 cm). Giftof H.L.BacheFoundation,1969(69.61.4). in. (8.8 cm).

Horse (center):H. 37/16 Bequestof WalterC. Baker,1971 Ramon ring:H. 33/4in.

(1972.118.49).

(9.5 cm). Giftof Mr.and Mrs.Henri Seyrig,1954(54.137.2).Bird:Saidto be from the ArgiveHeraion.H. 315/6in.

(9.9 cm). FletcherFund,1935(35.11.14)

17

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The base contributessignificantlyto the composition of the piece by joining the figureson a common ground and the centaurthrough te dition: emphasizing ~itsirregularshape;it even suggests 1 terrainthroughthe cutouts. The effect and complexity of the implied space would havebeen still greater when the work was in its originalcondition: the spearin the man'sright

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7. Man and centaur, mid-eighth centuryB.C. Figuralgroups, occasionallywith an implied narrativecontext, are rare among Geometricstatuettesand become even rarerafterthe Geometric period. Of these groups,which include a lion hunt, a ringdance, and men with animals,this one is unrivaledin its clarityand intensity.On stylistic 18

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hand and a weapon of some kind abovethe centaur'shead would have added width and height. Withinthe composition thateven now is very tight and closed, there is virtuallyno incidentaldetailto divertus from the confrontationof the two antagonists.

The spearheadin the centaur'sflank informsus of the outcome, yet one is inclined to attributehis opponent's superioritynot only to the spear but also to the glance of the man'sdeeply hollowed eyes. Scholarshaveproposed a varietyof specific identifications, such as Zeus and one of the Titansor Heraklesand one of the centaurs,perhapsPholos. Beyond speculation, however,arethe timelessness and universalityof the motionless confrontationbetween the warriorand his semihuman adversary.

8. Armorer working on a helmet, end of eighth to earlyseventh century B.C.

The statuetteof an armoreris quintessentiallyGeometricin its sparseness and in the generallyrectangularformat within which it is composed; at the same time, it shows an unprecedented limberness.The craftsmanis bearded but otherwise nude, unless the caplike form on his head representsnot hair but a skullcapoften worn by ancient artisans.He sits on the ground with his rightfoot againstthe base of a shaft, probablya stake,supportingthe helmet. Withhis left hand he holds the helmet by a cheekpiece; in his right hand he held a tool, perhapsa mallet, of which only the handle remains.The helmet is Corinthianin type, like no.

18,with a nose guardand a tall crest, of which the crest holder is preserved.

Saidto be from Olympia.H. 45A6 in.

(11.1cm).Giftof J.PierpontMorgan,1917 Becausethe helmet appearsfully formed and the craftsmanhas no tool 17.190.2072)

in his left hand, he is probablyhammering it into its finalshape. A few contemporarystatuettesof genre subjectssurvive;among them are a charioteerand an archerboth found at Olympia.While all three figuresare rendered with a keen sense of observation,the armoreris significantlydifferent:he sits directlyon the ground, without a base. A freestandingwork, such as this one, must rely on its composition and execution to ensure balance. Indeed, duringthe whole history of Greekbronze statuettes,freestanding exampleswithout a base of their own or provisionfor being let into a support are exceptional.

H. 2 in. (5.1cm). FletcherFund, 1942 (42.11.42)

19

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her narrowwaist contributeconsiderable softness and grace.The skirt, feet, and hands appearless precisely worked than the face and upper body; in fact,technical examinationreveals thatthe two partsare the products of two differentcastings.The figuremay havebeen damagedduringthe original casting,makingthe replacementnecessaryat the outset, or it may havebroken laterand a replacementwas cast on to salvageit. The workshop that produced the piece has been identified as Peloponnesian, possibly Laconian. While evidence drawnfrom differentmedia and regions must be used with care,parallelsfor the dress of the figure,the pinning of the epiblema on the shoulders, and the characterof the articulationoccur in Atticvase paintingand sculptureof about 570 to

9. Head of a griffin, third quarterof the seventh century

B.C.

Duringthe second half ofthe eighth century,protomes of griffins,or more rarelylions, began to appearattached around the shoulder of a new type of tripod cauldronthatwas replacing those with figuresat the handles (see no. 1).The function of the protomes was decorativeand symbolic insofaras these creaturesinspired respect in those who saw them. They did not serve any purpose relatedto the carrying of the cauldrons;for that,some examples had small ringhandles fastenedto the shoulder. Griffin cauldronsachievedgreatfavorin the seventh century,as has been documented by over six hundred surviving protomes as well as by Herodotos's mention of the Samiandedication (p. 7). Significantly,most of the preserved pieces were discoveredin Samos and Olympia.The Museum's griffinhead can be connected with the lattersite and a Peloponnesian, possibly Corinthian,workshop. While the head is cast,a neck hammered from sheet bronze once formed the transition to the cauldron;considering the weight of the head, it is not surprising thatthe neck no longer existsin this case, nor in virtuallyall of the others combining cast and hammered elements.

The griffin,a winged lion with the head of a bird of prey and earsof a horse, was introduced to Greece during the eighth centuryalong with a greatnumber of other iconographical and technicalinnovationsfrom the East.The griffinprotome, however, was a purely Greekcreation,and the Museum'sexample is one of the very finest. The integrationof composition and execution is here complete. The play of curvesbetween tongue and beak is tangiblyemphasized by the slightrelief line around the mouth.

Similarly,the shape of the greatarching eye, which was probablyonce inlaid, reechoes in the three folds of the "eyelid."One can well understandwhy Herodotos was impressed by a huge bowl ringedwith heads such as these.

From Olympia.H. 10Yin. (25.8 cm).

C.Baker,1971 Bequestof Walter (1972.118.54)

560 B.C.; thus a date in the second

quarterof the centuryseems justified.

H. 71616 in. (19.5cm). Ex coll. Simkhovitch. BequestofWalterC. Baker,1971 (1972.118.57)

10. Standing woman wearing a peplos, second quarterof the sixth century B.C.

This bronze bringsus into the Archaic period; it carriesover from Geometric arta clearsense of structurewhile introducinga new concern for rendering the volumes of the body and dif ferentiatingthem through garments.

The figurewears a peplos, a long straighttunic;a belt at the waist;and an a kind of bolero thatwas fasepiblema, tened at each shoulder.Her hairis bound with a fillet,or band, and resting on top of her head is a flatdisk with tracesof an iron pin in the center, which indicatesthatthe woman supported some kind of utensil, perhaps an incense burner.The figurestands stiffly,but her largeeyes, full cheeks, the mass of hair-differentiated both above and below the fillet-and the contrastof the volume of her chest to

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11, 12. Nude girl and a mirror with a support in the form of a nude girl, second half of the sixth century B.C.

In Archaicartthe utensil thatmost often included a female figureas a support was the so-called caryatidmirror.

The two examplespresented here were made in Laconiaten to twenty yearsapart;no. 11can be dated about 540 to 530 B.C.and no. 12 about 520 B.C. In each case the girlis nude except for a necklacewith a pendant in the center and a band, from which hang a crescent-shapedamuletand a ring.

The earlierfigure(no. 11)has two more amuletshangingon the left side of her back.She also wears a netlike snood thatleavesonly the edge of her hairexposed, while her counterpart (no. 12)has a flower on either side of her head just aboveher ears.The earlier figureholds cymbals,and the other graspsa pomegranateby the stalkwith her left hand;the object originallyin her righthand can no longer be identified.The stance of the girlsdifferssignificantly,as does what they stand on. The support of the earlier one consists of a folding stool with equine legs, on which crouches a large frog thatappearsto grip the front and sides with its feet. The girlstandson the frog'sback,with her left foot advancedslightlybefore her right.Her upper body turnstowardher right, creatingthe same effect of ease shown to a more limited degree by the warrior (no. 1).The feline feet attachedto her elbows and shoulders areremains of creatures-perhaps griffins-that supported the disk, as they do on the mirrorat the right.Here, the figure

standson a lion, which is curled up and restsits head between its paws.

The disk, steadiedby the well-preserved griffins,is let into an opening on the top of the figure'shead.

Althoughthe pose of this slightlylater girllacksthe torsion of her counterpartand may seem stiffer,the partsof her body are betterintegratedand proportioned; in everyrespect she seems more composed.

The function of a mirrorevokes Aphrodite,the goddess of beautyand love, whose originsareultimatelyNear Eastern.Becausethey arenude and carryamuletsand cymbals,these figures are closer to Aphrodite'soriental aspect, in which she is connected with fertility,than to her ArchaicGreek form, in which, often elaborately clothed, she appearsin mythological scenes, such as the Judgmentof Paris, or in depictions of the life ofwomen.

The frog and pomegranateare attributes associatedwith procreation, while the lion accompaniesother eastern goddesses, like Cybele.It is impossible to identify the caryatidfigures exactly;they may be attendantsof Aphroditeor women embodying certainof her qualities. in.

Girl:Saidto be fromKourion.H.85/8 (21.9cm).TheCesnolaCollection, 1874-76 Purchased bysubscription, Mirror: Saidto be from (74.51.5680). in. (33.8cm). southernItaly.H.135/8 FletcherFund,1938(38.11.3)

I

13. Nude youth, third quarterof the sixth century B.C.

The Archaicmale figurepar excellence is the nude youth standingat rest, one leg before the other,his armsusuallyat his sides, without attributeor gesture to introduce any specific or episodic feature.The sculpturalform, best exemplifiedin marble,is often called a "kouros,"the Greekword for a "youth."This statuette,despite the position of his armsand the object in his righthand, is as direct a representationof a beautifulyouth as any kouros. His body is long and slim, with developed musculaturein the chest and shoulders.The even modeling is both complemented and emphasized by the mass of hair,articulatedinto

I

_

short tightlocks on the top of his head and fallingin longer,looser tresses almost to the small of his back.While the figureseems to directhis attention towardsomething in front of him, the situationis impossible to determine; so is the object he holds, which looks most like the stalkof a plant,perhapsa poppy. The renderingof the body suggests a date almost contemporarywith thatof the caryatidsupportingthe mirror (no. 12).The style has been comparedwith both Peloponnesian pieces and others from easternGreece, specificallySamos.The combination is not problematicin view of the communicationbetween Laconiaand

the easternAegeanduringthe Archaic period: ancient literarysources tell of Bathyklesof Magnesiawho made an elaboratelydecoratedthrone at Amyklainear Sparta;of Theodoros of Samoswho constructeda building near Sparta;and of the greatbronze bowl intended as a gift from Spartato Croesus,king of Lydia(p. 7). Such interchangecan account for the presence of a softness usuallyassociated with EastGreeksculpturalstyles in a figurethatretainsthe structureand firmnessof Peloponnesian works.

H.6 in. (15.2cm).BequestofWalterC. Baker,1971(1972.118.101)

_

25

26

14. Herakles, last quarterof the sixth century B.C.

In this forcefulrepresentation Heraklesis the virtualpersonification of controlled strength.The compact body shows a thorough integrationof bony structureand musculature.The outstretchedarmwith its clenched fist, the formidablerightarm with the club thatis almost half as tallas the figure, the rightfoot modeled to suggestgreat power behind the forwardstridesuch detailsestablishhis physical prowess. At the same time, his fine beard and particularlythe impeccable precision of his hair,bound with a fillet,markthe man as civilized.

Heraklescan be placed among the foremost Greekheroes for the labors and adventuresthatlinked him with all partsof Greece,and for the factthat, ultimately,he was accepted among the immortalson Mount Olympos. He was depicted with greatfrequencyand in all media duringthe Archaicperiod.

The present statuetteis particularly remarkablefor the economy with which it expresses both strengthand civility.Its reputed find spot supplements stylisticcriteriafor associatingit with bronze figuresfrom the central Peloponnesos, which are commonly called "Arcadian" when they are peasant types, often bearinganimals,or "Argive"when their physicalbuild is muscularand compact but the level of execution superior.Althoughthe base upon which Heraklesstandsis pierced in two corers, he is not likely to have decorateda vessel;the shape of the base and the pronounced threedimensionalityof the figureindicate thatit was probablya dedication.

Saidto be from Mantineain Arkadia.H. 5Y16in. (12.8cm). FletcherFund, 1928 (28.77)

15. Man playing the lyre, late sixth to early fifth century

B.C.

The statuetterepresentsa bearded man wearinga long chiton, belted at the waist and ornamentedwith triple dots and a guilloche patternon its lower border.His hairis bound with a fillet,which may well retainthe original gilding.The long belted garmentis a special form of dress usuallyseen on flute and lyre playersand on charioteers. The instrument,held in the musician'sleft arm,shows carefularticulation of the strings,arms,and tortoiseshell sound box. The musician holds the plektron in his righthand.

Likethe armorer(no. 8) and the "Arcadian" peasantsmentioned on page 27, the musicianbelongs to the traditionof subjects of dailylife, which are representedless frequentlyin bronzes than in vase painting.The iconographicalinterestofthe piece is heightened by the inscription engravedin Atticlettersover the back of the legs and buttocks:"Dolichos dedicatedme."The formulais typical for such offeringsof the Archaic period, as is the placement of the text over partof the figure'sbody. We do not know why this statuettewas made or dedicated.It should be noted, however,thatlyre playerswere not only musiciansin the restrictedsense but also poets and preserversof orally transmittedhistoricalknowledge.

Dolichos may havemade this offering aftera victoryin a contest of musical or mnemonic skills, or simply out of gratitude to a benevolent muse.

H. 3/8 in. (7.9 cm). RogersFund, 1908 (08.28.5)

28

16. Horse, second quarterof the sixth century B.C. Becauseof the greaterexpressivepossibilitiesthatthe human form offered to Archaicartists,there are fewer animal bronzes than in the Geometric period; horses and lions, however, continued to be popular.This statuette evokes its antecedentsthrough the long narrowbase, to which even the tailis attached.The cylindricalbody and large,generallytriangularhindquartersperpetuatethe earlieremphasis on strong,clearforms as well. What is new, however,is the subtlymodeled neck and chest, the elegantlegs, and the luxuriantmane, which is given as much attentionas the hairof the youth (no. 13).It is evidentthatthe horse was made by an artistwho had looked at livingmodels, even if he has left a certainawkwardnessin the proportions and composed the legs not as they move in naturebut to stress the strengthof the hindquarters.The piece was reputedlyfound in southern Italy,in LocriEpizephyrii("Towardthe WesternWinds"),founded by mainland Greeksfrom the region of Locris.

It is one of the earliestbronzes associatedwith a center thatlaterwas well known for the production of caryatid mirrors.Chronologicalevidence for the piece existsin Corinthianand Attic vases of the very end of the seventh centuryand of the firsthalf of the sixth thatshow horses with the same horizontally striatedmanes. Comparison with other bronzes from southern Italy,notablya group of a horse and riderin the BritishMuseum, suggestsa

dateabout570to 560B.C.

Saidto be fromLocri.H.65/8 in. (16.8cm).

Excoll.JuniusS.Morgan.Lentin 1907by and JuniusSpencerMorgan(1867-1932) givenbyhisheirsin 1958-1959 (58.180.1)

29

17. Two rams, third quarterof the sixth century

B.C.

The traditionof utilitarianobjects embellished with sculpturaladjuncts, last encountered on these pages in the griffincauldrons(see no. 9), continued to flourish duringthe sixth centuryB.C. These ramswere attachedwith bronze dowels, still preserved,to a utensil that

is difficultto identify.The underside of the animalsis both hollowed and curved,indicatingthatthey fittedonto a rolled or tubularsurfacethatwas about 2 cm in diameter.Becauseof their considerableweight, roughly three pounds apiece, and because the

object may well have had more than the two attachments,a sturdysupport would havebeen required.It may have been the rim of some kind of basin or stand ratherthan the shoulder of a cauldron.The animalsintroduce a new stylisticmixture.They show

1976.11.2

1976.11.3

ratherbroad smooth planes, with virtuallyno detailor indicationof underlying structure.The salientfeatures, like the limbs, horns, eyes, and muzzles areboldly modeled and articulatedwith highly stylized markings.

The ramsdo not give the impression thatthey could standup and move, or even thatthis is a potentialthatthe artist particularlywished to convey.The approachdiffersperceptiblyfrom that in the horse (no. 16)and in the human figuresjust considered, and it points to influence from the Near East.Recumbent animalswith heads at rightangles to their bodies and legs folded symmetricallyunder them occur in small objects of gold, electrum,ivory,and limestone found at Ephesos, Sardis, and other sites where Greeksof the sixth centurycame in contactwith Lydian,Achaemenian,and perhaps even Scythiancraftsmenor their works. Pieces as finely executed as these ramsmake clearhow significantlyEasternadmixturesmodified Greekartisticexpression. in. (14cm). Back:L. 5/8 in.

Front:L.59/16

(14.2cm).Purchase, RogersFundand

NorbertSchimmelGift,1976(1976.11.2,3)

18. Helmet, firstthirdof the sixth century B.C.

Body armoroccupied a special place among the variouscategoriesof metalwork, for the craftsmandevoted all of his technicaland aesthetictalentsto the protection and appearanceof a person. The helmet illustratedhere is of the "Corinthian"type, which is characterizedby a bell-likeform, long nosepiece, and cheekpieces thatleave little but the eyes exposed. While the shape is, of course, determined by that of the human head, the gracefulcurve outwardat the nape of the neck and around the lower partof the face suggests thatthe armorerexploited the malleabilityof the bronze for more

than practicalpurposes. Everyedge is finished with incised lines and the upper curveof the eye is slightlythickened, a device seen previouslyon the griffinprotome (no. 9). Risingin low relief from the bridge of the nose are two snakeswhose bodies double as eyebrowsuntil they curveback into meticulously articulatedheads with largeeyes, razor-sharpteeth, and flicking tongues. Incised on the forehead of the helmet is a lotos flowerwith a small palmetteto either side; similar palmettesoccur abovethe ogee cut into each side of the helmet. Overand above the technicalskillsneeded to

satisfythe protectiverequirements,a helmet like this one challenged a craftsman'sartisticsensitivity,producing such fine effectsas the juxtaposition of the lotos with the nosepiece or the snakes with the line of the eyelid.

The date of the work is furnishednot only by comparison with other Corinthianhelmets but also by detailslike the palmettesand lotos; the lattersuggests a date about 600 to 570 B.C.

Saidto be fromOlympia.H.87/8in.

(22.6 cm). Dodge Fund, 1955(55.11.10)

31

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19. Neck-amphora with bail handle, last quarterof the sixth century

B.C.

Althoughthis neck-amphorawas made almost a centurylaterthan the helmet (no. 18),they are related through their method of manufacture.

The bodies of both were hammered, challengingthe artistin each case to drawthe most functionaland beautiful object possible out of a basic deep, round-bottomed form. Eachwas then appropriatelyembellished, the helmet as we haveseen, and the amphorawith a foot, lip, and side and bail handles thathad been cast separately.Bronze vessels survivein farsmallernumbers than their ceramiccounterparts because fewer were made and because the metal deterioratedor was melted down for reuse;the present shape is found in less than halfa dozen complete examples. Composed of numerous parts,this object gives an impression of organicgrowth,with the form and placement of everyelement determined by specific functionaland

aestheticrequirements.The tongue patternaround the foot recursat the lip, much as a fine wall has a dado at the bottom and a cornice at the top.

The two verticalhandles, for pouring, and the swingingbail,for carryingand lifting,areintegratedwith the vessel in such a way thatthey echo both the width of the shoulder and the height ofthe neck. The verticalhandles,moreover,are decoratedalong the center and each edge with beading,and their lower attachmentto the shoulder assumes the form of a gorgon'shead, complete with two coiling snakes worked fullyin the round. A ring at the top of each handle secures the bail, which is provided with three beaded moldings, terminalsin the form of stylized lotos buds, and another,crowning ring for the rope to lower and raisethe vase. The amphorais coveredwith a lid thatis attachedto the bail handle with a chain.

Saidto be fromnorthernGreece.

H. 211116 in. (55.1cm). RogersFund, 1960 (60.11.2a,b)

33

the rightleg does not duplicatethe left but turnsoutward,the torso inclines forwardas well as outward,while the At a glance, this bronze may give the head more nearlyfollows the direction impression of a familiarsubject trans- of the left foot. Thereis greateropenformed. It in factoffersan excellent foil ness in the disposition of the limbs, to the Herakles(no. 14),displaying and a concomitant playof weight how representationof the human and torsion. A second significantdifbody had developed in the course of a ference appearsin the articulationof generation,from the end of the sixth the body. While the muscles of his centuryinto the fifth.LikeHerakles, arms,buttocks,and calvesare promithe figurestridesout upon a narrow nent, the more elongated,softly modplinth, his left foot advanced,his left eled torso and back complement the arm outstretched,and claspingan posture in conveyingthe effect of conobject (perhapsa bow)-of which trolled and coordinatedaction. The only tracesremain-in his left fist; hunter has acquiredgracewithout loshis rightarmis bent up, the hand strength.He has been attributedto clenched, but evidentlynot pierced to ing a workshop in the Peloponnesos and hold a weapon. He wears a pointed maywell be a product of the same cap,probablythe felt pilos worn by traditionas the Herakles. hunters.The major differencebeSaidto be from Messenia.H. 52 in. tween this piece and the Herakleslies (14cm). Ex colls. Pozzi,PhelpsStokes. in the stance.Here, the heel of the BequestofWalterC. Baker,1971 (1972.118.71) rightfoot projectsbeyond the base, 20. Hunter, firstquarterof the fifth century B.C.

34

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21. Diskos thrower; about 480 to

460 B.C. Athleteswere a favoritesubjectin the earlyfifthcenturybecause they offered artistsa perfectform throughwhich to study the human body in every attitude,from strenuous exertion to repose. Progressivemasteryof the workingsof the body broughtwith it greatersensitivityto the renderingof the face,as this beautifulstatuettedemonstrates:the young man not only has the physique to hurl the diskos but he does so consciously.He is about to begin the throw,to swing the diskos forwardin his extended left hand, then back overhis head, transferit to the righthand, and release it with the force of the gatheredmomentum. Thus he standswith the diskos in his left hand-his missing rightarmwas perhaps outstretchedslightly-his right, weight-bearingleg advanced,and his left leg free but possibly with the heel raisedjust off the ground. The position of his limbs is carriedinto the torso, his left shoulder and hip being higher than the right.The backview and profile show his powerfullydeveloped chest, shoulders, and buttocks, and a pronounced hollow in the small of his back.In the renderingof his head, the ears are placed unnaturallyhigh; the hairis unarticulated,suggestingthathe wears a close-fittingcap,which is often representedin contemporaryvase paintingsof athletes.Perhapsthe most significantfeatureof the bronze, not to sayinnovation,lies in the eyes thatare given focus and depth by the small holes of the pupils and emphasis by the prominent cheekbones; the eyes and particularlythe mouth suggestthe potentialof responsiveness.Among the works considered thus far,this is the firstin which the mind seems to play a partin the action of the body.

Saidto comefromthePeloponnesos.

H. 9%in. (24.5cm). RogersFund,1907 (07.286.87)

22. Mirror with a support in the form of a draped woman, midfifth century B.C. One of the achievementsmanifestin works of the Classicperiod is the integrationof everycomponent partinto a whole. The diskos thrower(no. 21) revealsa recognition of individual characterand its incorporationinto the human form. In this mirrora diversity of elements havebeen composed into a magnificentutensil and unified by the primacyand perfectlybalanced composition of the figure.Upon a base supported by three lion's paws standsa woman wearinga long straight garmentpinned at the shoulders and drapedto fallfreely over the upper body. On her extended righthand perches a dove. Her hairis carefully rolled up at the sides and backand is held in place on the crown by a fillet of small beads. Insertedinto the very top of her head, and furnishingthe transition to the mirrordisk, is a support with a palmette ornament.Depending from it aretwo Erotes(whose wings are modem restorations).Around its circumferencethe disk has a band of guilloche and a band of beading. Upon the edge aretwo hounds, each pursuing a hare,two rosettes, and, at the very top, a siren who repeatscertaindecorativeelements with her lion claws, supportingvolutes, wings, and coiffure correspondingto that of the caryatid.

On the siren'sbackis a pairof vertically pierced loops, presumablyfor attachment of a chain connected to a perfume vessel. This mirrorand a close counterpartin the Louvreare the nucleus of a group attributedto the region of Argos.

H. 16V8 in. (40.4 cm). Bequestof WalterC. Baker,1971(1972.118.78)

I

23. Hydria, mid-fifthcenturyB.C. Likethe preceding mirror,this hydria, or waterjar,was surelymade in Argos and is its equal in the masteryof composition and technique. The body is left plain from its base to its widest point, at which the cast horizontal handles are attachedand a zone of tongues begins thatextends over the shoulder to the base of the neck; the verticalityof the tongues is repeatedby the ribbingon the cast foot. The gentle, almost cushionlike curveof the shoulder develops equallygracefully into the mouth of the vase and the crowningbust of a woman. She belongs to the hydria'sverticalhandle, which is fastenedto the mouth by three rivetsand to the body by an attachmentornamented with a palmette. The figure,much like her counterparton the mirror,wears a peplos and has her finely detailed hairrolled up over her neck. The rotelles to either side of her give a semblance of outstretchedhands;they havesmaller counterpartsin the rosettes flanking the siren on the mirrordisk.

Viewingthe hydriaas a whole, one becomes awareof how the component elements, all necessaryand functional, havebeen combined. The play of the folds of the peplos againstthe fluting on the shoulder, the rosettes and palmettesused as compositional punctuationmarks,and the surfaces left plain to heighten the effect of those decorated-such featuresestablish cohesiveness not only from top to bottom but also all around the vase. One

of the purposes servedby the hydriais given by an inscriptionon the top of the mouth: it was a prize awardedat games for Heraat Argos(see p. 5).

Whetherit was speciallyordered for the purpose remainsunknown. In any case, the style and inscriptionindicate thatthe piece was made and used in the same region.

H. Saidto comefromthePeloponnesos.

204 in. (51.4cm).Purchase, Joseph PulitzerBequest,1926(26.50)

24. Athena flying her owl, about 460 B.C.

This peplos-cladgoddess is Athena, patronof Athens.Comparedto the severityof the figureson the two preceding works, her appearanceis more relaxed and appealing,qualitiesunexpected in the representationof a deity.

She is shown in a moment of ease, flying her owl, much as the Greekheroes Achillesand Ajaxare depicted on vases playinga boardgame at Troy.

Athenawears her garmentfastened overboth shoulders and belted rather high. The position of her left hand indicatesthatshe held a spear,and she has pushed up her Corinthianhelmet, leavingher face and much of her hair exposed. The sense of relativeinformalityis furtheraccentuatedby the absence of her aegis and shield. In her righthand she holds the owl, her animalattribute,which seems about to fly off The statuetteis unusualin several respects. Her present surfacemay be partlya modem applicationafter unduly harshcleaningin the nineteenth century.The angle of the spearholding hand is probablynot the original one, for in this position, the top of the shaftwould pass behind her left arm.The peplos, which is closed at one side ratherthan open and which has a smalloverfoldas well as rather is an uncommon varilong "shirttails," ant.Nonetheless, in mid-fifthcentury representationsof the two peploswearingmaiden goddesses-Athena and Artemis-there is a considerable rangein details of dress, so the present scheme is not unique; nor is the choice of a Corinthianratherthan the more usual Attichelmet. Throughthe connection with LordElgin,the statuette has been associatedwith Athens, but its idiosyncraciesmay be easierto understandin a differentartisticcontext, specificallythatof southern Italy or Sicily.A bronze statuettein Naples (NationalArchaeologicalMuseum) of Athenawith her owl presents the goddess in a similarly"unofficial"guise.

This comparison, together with stylistic affinitiesto contemporarywestern Greekart,offersa body of works to which the ElginAthenacan be related quite readily.

H. 57/8in. (15cm). Ex coll. Earlof Elgin.

HarrisBrisbaneDick Fund,1950(50.11.1)

25. Handle, fourthcenturyB.C.

The integrationof a figureinto a utensil could involve more complex subjects than those on the mirror(no. 22) and the hydria(no. 23). This handle, which probablycame from a large bowl thathad two handles and a foot, displaysattachmentsin the form of Nereids seated upon hippocamps and holding pieces of armordestined for Achilles.(Thetis,the mother of Achilles,was the most famous of the Nereids, or sea nymphs.) The hippocamps face outward;their tallnecks and fish bodies applied to the handle provide a framewithin which the figures are ratherlanguidlydisposed. The Nereid on the left steadiesa round shield againsther mount'stailwith her left hand, while the one on the right balancesa corselet upon her right knee.

Achilles'firstset of armorwas the wedding present of the gods to his father,Peleus;it was latergiven by Achillesto his friend Patroklosto be used for the combat in which Patrokloswas killed by Hektor.The

second set, depicted here, was a replacementobtained by Thetis from Hephaistosin preparationfor the final confrontationbetween Achillesand Hektor.The motif of armor-bearing Nereids mounted on sea creatures became popularin the mid-fifthcenturyand continued into the fourth, especiallyon the coversof bronze box mirrorsand in terracottaappliques as well as on paintedvases. Handle

attachmentsshowing a mythological episode ratherthan a single figure occurred also in the fourthcenturyon bronze hydriai,althoughno hydria with Nereids has yet come to light, probablybecause their horizontal shape was not appropriatebelow the verticalhandle.

L.73/8in. (18.7cm). ClassicalPurchase Fund,1978(1978.11.18)

41

26

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26. Centaur hurling a stone, second half of the fifthcenturyB.C. The centaurrearsup to cast a stone towardsomething before and below him. He would originallyhavestood on his hind legs, with his tail,now lost, providingadditionalstability.His carefullymodeled head shows a bald crown, a furrowedbrow,clearly defined eyes, and a broad beard;considerableattentionhas also been paid to his hands and fingers.All of the centaur'senergies are behind his action.

Whatmight thatbe?Literaryand archaeologicalevidence informs us thatone of the subjectsfavoredin the fifthcenturyfor majorsculptural and painted programswas the centauromachy,the battlebetween the centaursand Lapiths,a people of Thessaly,thatbroke out when the centaursbecame drunkat the wedding of the LapithPerithous.

As wild creaturesof nature,centaurs armed themselves with weapons of nature,usuallyboulders and trees.

They overcameone of their adversaries, Kaineus,who was invulnerableto man-madearms,by thus pounding him into the ground. This particular incident in the centauromachy requiresan outdoor setting,unlike the outbreakof the conflict, which occurred indoors duringthe wedding feast.By the inclusion of the boulder, the statuettecan be associatedwith the "outdoor centauromachy." Moreover,

because the figure'sgesture and glance have such a definite focus and because the Kaineusstory was so current,it is 42

possible to interpretthe bronze as a vignettefrom the story,which would havebeen immediatelyrecognized.

The sources of inspirationavailable to a bronze workerin the latterpart of the fifthcenturywere numerous.

Centauromachies,and specificallythe Kaineusepisode, were depicted in Greekartfrom the seventh centuryon.

It appearedin the famouswall painting, now lost, in the Theseion in

Athens, probablydatableto about 470 B.C. The motif of an attackingcentaur recurson the south metopes of the Parthenon.Such greatpublic works influenced artistsin other media, notably vase painting.Whateverthe specific source may havebeen, the statuette reflects one of the majorartisticconcerns of the Classicperiod.

H. 13/4in. (4.4 cm). Bequestof WalterC. Baker, 1971 (1972.118.80) 27

27. Satyr, fourth century B.C. The satyr stands with the middle of his body frontal, his chest and head directed toward his right, his left leg bent at the knee and drawn back slightly. The subtle torsion is reinforced by the position of the arms; the left one appears behind him with the hand bent up, in much the same way as the leg below kicks up. The satyr's partially preserved right arm is raised.

His head is precisely articulated with carefully combed hair, beard, and moustache, large eyes, pug nose, pursed mouth, and ears that stand out like antennae. His pose may be simply that of dancing or capering. If however, his right arm is interpreted as held so that his hand shielded his eyes, he represents the popular motif of an uncivilized creature gesturing toward a maenad or, alternatively, toward the apparition of Dionysos or another deity.

Small works like this one allowed for freer expression and greater experimentation than those on a larger scale; they can, therefore, be more difficult to date. The satyr may be placed in the second half of the fourth century.

What the figure retains of the fifth century and its traditions are the balance of weight in the body and the rendering of the head. On the other hand, the anatomical detail in the rib cage, the tail that was evidently quite small and set in the hollow of the back, the upraised head, and the agility of both expression and pose are features of Hellenistic art. During the fifth century, the satyr acquired unprecedented freedom of action as well as serious sculptural treatment, innovations that this figure reflects.

H. 27/16 in. (6.2 cm). RogersFund,1943 (43.11.1)

28. Box mirror with the head of a woman, second quarterof the fourthcenturyB.C. or later The interdependence among different artisticmedia and iconographical types grows increasinglypronounced from the fifthcenturyon, until, during the Hellenisticperiod, the distinction between motifs found on bronzes, jewelry,coinage, pottery,and terracottas becomes fluid indeed. This mirror is decoratedwith a frontalface, an image thathad a long and important historyin Greekart.The reliefis worked in such a way thatit rises graduallyfrom her neck to the top of her head; when the mirroris held, the face givesthe impression of alwayslooking rightat the viewer.The indication of the pupils, the heavyeyelids, and the sharpline of the eyebrowsintensify the effect.The smooth full face is set within a mass of wiry radiatingcurls.

Amidstthe curlsthe lower partof each ear and the rosette earringsare shown frontallyas well.

The frontalface occurred most commonly in the gorgoneion, the head of Medusa,thatevolved from a fearsome,

fangedmonster into a seductive beauty.The treatmentof the woman's hairin this reliefbringsto mind her mythologicalcounterpart.Although used in Archaicartfor special emphasis, frontalfacesbegan to be exploited for their decorativevalue only toward the end of the fifthcentury.The development is particularlyevident on coins, such as issues of Syracuseand other cities of Sicily,Amphipolis in northern Greece,or the Islandof Rhodes. By the late fourth centurythe frontalfacewas common in all metalworkingartsand in pottery,where it imitatedmetal. The popularityof frontalheads may haveto do with their adaptabilityto a circularformat.Circularcompositions are remarkablyfrequent in Greekartif one considers the decoration of certainceramicshapes, like cups and plates,as well as coins and mirrors.The skill thatwas developed at composing subjectsfor round surfacesalso facilitatedthe application from one medium to another.

Found with no. 30, reputedlyatVonitsa in Akamania.Diam.6Y8in. (15.5cm).

RogersFund,1907(07.256a,b) 43

29. Box mirror with the head of Pan, end of the fourth centuryB.C. The box mirrorcame into use toward the end of the fifth centuryand eventuallysupplantedthe caryatidtype (see nos. 12,22). The mirrorconsists of a protectivecover bearinga relief thatwas hammered separatelyand applied. The head of Pan,with its "cutout" edges, clearlyshows the procedure. The coveris lifted by the ring below the relief to revealthe mirror,a cast-bronzedisk with a highly polished surface;the reverseis generally decorated,as it is here, with groups of lathe-turnedconcentric circlesin low relief The head of Panpresents something 44

new in the expression thatverges on pathos. A woodland creaturelike the satyr,Panhas the legs of a goat, as well as the goat'shorns and earsvisible here. He appearsin three-quarterview, looking outward,his head inclined forward;his flowing curlsarein disarray, his forehead slightlyfurrowed,eyebrows raised,and full lips parted.

Around his neck are tied the legs of the fawnskinhe wears,which can be identified by the two smallhooves at the ends of the knot. Where the Classic figuresconveyed a sense of order and restraintin everyaspect of their appearance,this reliefgainsthe fullest

possible expression of wistfulemotion from the artist'suse of detail.Whether he was influenced in his depiction by a specific image we cannot know. The curlsthatfallto either side in front of Pan'shorns, however,are a familiarfeature in representationsof Alexander the Great,suggestingthata passing reflection of the heroized rulermay have entered into the characterization of this Pan.

Diam.63/4in. (17.1cm). FletcherFund, 1925(25.78.44a-d)

30. Box mirror with floral ornament second quarterof the fourth centuryor later Duringthe Classicand Hellenisticperiods artisticcross-fertilizationoccurred not only in the depiction of figural subjectsbut also in nonfiguralones.

The ornament of this mirroris a fine example of the process, and it also servesas a reminder of the extraordinaryimportance of floraland geometric motifs in Greekart,whether as primaryor subsidiarydecoration. The plantform thathas been applied to the mirrorcoveras a delicatecut-out representsa hybridcreatedin the imagination.At the bottom appear akanthosleaves,out of which a tendril ending in a fruitdevelops to either

side. From the same point grows a flowerlikeelement; its domed center doubles as the heartof a palmettethat rises assertivelyupward.The configurationof the palmetteis noteworthy, for instead of havingtonguelike fronds thatcurveoutward(see nos. 22, 23),its fronds are like clawsand bend backon themselves. The five disparatecomponents havethus been combined into a whole that appearsplausiblyorganic.

By the mid-fourthcentury,motifs of a basicallyfloralcharacterconsisting of one element risingverticallyinto the next occur frequentlyin the artsof southern Italy,notablyin vase painting.

This particulartype of palmette,however,is typicalof mainlandGreece, and is documented in architecturaldecoration from Corinthand other Peloponnesian sites;the present mirrorand no. 28 probablycame from a Corinthianworkshop. The ornament,therefore, bearswitness to the active exchange of ideas conveyed by craftsmen and their creationsback and forth acrossthe Mediterranean.

Foundwithno. 28,reputedlyatVonitsa in Akarnania.Diam. 68sin. (15.5cm).

RogersFund, 1907(07.257a,b)

31. Dancing youth, end of the fourth century B.C. This beautifulbronze capturesa moment when the full achievementof Classicartbegins to be used for the representationof a single, transitory state.The youth is nude except for a crown thatcombines rathersharplytriangularelements alternatingwith what could be either a fruitor a flower.His pose no longer dictatesa primaryview, for his torso and legs assume a true contrappostoand his downward glance reinforcedby the direction of the armsmakes a rathertight spiralof the whole composition. There is perfect congruence among all partsof the figure,but the shiftsin direction evident from everyangle maintainan effect of instabilityand impermanence.

The most specific clue to the identity of the youth lies in the crown. Its triangularcomponents prove difficult to interpretbecause their stiffness raisesthe question of whether the crown is made of plantlife or metal.

Floralor foliatewreathswere more usual,and the myrtle,with its pointed leavesand flatpetals, offersa common Greekvarietythatmay be recognized, in somewhat stylized form, on the youth'shead. Althoughless common than grapevineor ivy,myrtlewas associatedwith the wine god, Dionysos, and it is as a follower of this god that the subjectof the statuettemay be identified. Indeed, he might almost havedanced off the greatbronze volute-kraterfrom Derveni (Archaeological Museum, Salonika)decorated with Dionysos and his followers;the maenadsare comparablein their poses, while Dionysos illustratesa similarlysoft, slim renderingof the body.

The dreamyexpressions combined with preciselyrendered facialfeatures contributefurtherto the conclusion thatin date,as well as in ethos, the figures on the kraterhavea kinsmanin the bronze youth.

H. 77/8in. (20.1cm). Bequestof WalterC. Baker, 1971 (1972.118.94)

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32. Veiled and masked dancer, late thirdto earlysecond centuryB.C. The expressivepossibilitiesof drapery, surfacesas well as by their contrastto both the tubularfolds pushing through which Greekartistspursuedmost from below and the freelycurlingsoftextensivelyin the female figure, reached a high point in this statuetteof ness of the fringe.Her face is covered a dancingwoman. Where in the preby the sheerest of veils, discernibleat ceding work movement was conveyed its edge below her hairlineand at the cutouts for the eyes. Her extended entirelyin terms of the nude body, here it is achievedexclusivelythrough rightfoot shows a laced slipper.

Carefulconsiderationof the pose the interactionof a complex pose with and the handlingof draperyclearly severallayersof dress. Overan underrevealsthe artistictraditionout of garmentthatfallsin deep folds and which the figuredeveloped. The subtrailsheavily,the figurewears a lightject, however,departsradicallyfrom weight mantle, drawntautover her head and body by the pressureapplied what has been illustratedthus far,for to it by her rightarm,left hand, and the body is completely covered except for the fingersof the left hand. She evorightleg. Its substanceis conveyed by kes the Orientand, indeed, has been the alternationof sharppleatsand flat 48

convincinglyidentified as one of the professionalentertainers-a combination of mime and dancer-for which Alexandriawas famous in antiquity.

Althoughthe virtuosicconception, composition, and technical execution place it in a special category,the figure representsas much of an innovationin Greekartas the deformed, the infirm, and realisticallyrendered genre subjects thatHellenisticAlexandriaestablished in the iconographicrepertoire.

Saidto be from Alexandria.H. 8V16in.

(20.5cm). Bequestof WalterC. Baker, 1971(1972.118.95)

N.

/

I

33. Boy wearing a high tiara, thirdto second centuryB.C. or later The expansion of the Greekworld far to the east broughtwith it exposure to new religionsand their iconographies; althoughsome had been known before, they began to takehold in the late fourth centuryB.C.The traditional Greekgods-the Olympiansand their relations-became partlysupplanted by and partlyassimilatedto foreign deities, notablyEgyptianones, such as Sarapis,Isis, and Harpokrates.The Olympians'omnipotence was further challengedby the unprecedented status assumed by rulerslike the Ptolemies and Seleucidswho succeeded to the easterndominions of Alexander the Great.The Hellenisticperiod, fur-

thermore, saw a greatfloweringof mysterycults, especiallythose at Samothraceand Eleusis.It is against such a backgroundthatthe figureof the boy with the high tiaramust be considered.

The boy'scostume consists of shoes, trousers,and a long-sleeved "shirt:' which may belong to the same garment as the trousers;on top he wears a tunic belted abovethe waistand a mantle fastenedon the rightshoulder.

Suspended from a hook or ringat each hip is a piece of cloth thathangsin a deep fold. On his head he has a tall headdress,four-sidedbelow and rising to a peak, which is decoratedwith two tiers of palmetteornament and provided with a broad band thatfallsonto

his back.In his righthand he holds the end of what appearsto be a handle (of a sistrum?)or short staff The gesture of his left hand indicatesthatit also held an object. This boy has a virtualtwin (in the WaltersArtGallery,Baltimore) with whom he was reputedlyfound.

Any identificationof the Metropolitan'sfiguremust take into consideration thatthey were probablyintended as a pair.Who they are and what they are doing is unknown. The dress, the activegestures,and the dancelikeposition of the feet suggestthatthey are participatingin a ceremony, perhapsas attendantsof a deity.

Saidto havebeen found east of the Suez Canalin 1912.H. 25Ysin. (63.8 cm). Edith PerryChapmanFund, 1949(49.11.3)

34. Sleeping Eros, thirdto second century B.C. Duringthe fifth century,when Eros, the god of love, firstbecame popular (especiallyin vase painting),he was portrayedas an attendantof Aphrodite, often in scenes showing the life of women; his youth was implied by features such as his small size and the absence of a beard.The Hellenistic period introduced the accuratecharacterizationof age, and young children enjoyed greatfavor,whether in mythologicalform, as baby Herakles, Harpokrates,or Eros, or in genre scenes, playingwith each other or with pets. This child, with his pudgy body and ingenuous pose, is clearlybased on firsthandobservation.The situation

52

chosen is novel as well. In Archaicand Classicarta figurelike Alkyoneusor Ariadnewould havebeen shown sleeping when requiredby the story, and Sleep occurs occasionallyas a personification.The depiction of someone asleep because of weariness or drunkenness,for instance, became acceptedwith other transient, commonplace situationsto which Hellenistic artistswere turningtheir attention.Equallyremarkablein the Erosis the manner of presentation.

Althoughthe stone on which he now restsis a modern addition,numerous ancient versionsof the subjectrender the child and his support in the same

material,bronze or marbleas the case may be. The way in which the present work was made shows thatit had a separatebase, most likely of stone. The figurethus bringshis setting with him, makingan interestingcontrastto the centaur(no. 26), where an outdoor environment is implied by the action.

Here, Eroshas been broughtdown to earthand disarmed,a conception that has changed considerablyfrom thatof the powerful,often cruel and capricious being so often addressedin Archaicpoetry.

Saidto come from Rhodes, L. of figure 339/6in. (85.2cm). RogersFund, 1943 (43.11.4)

35. Young African, thirdto second

in 331 B.C., familiarity with the various cultures was further increased.

The statuette of a young African Africanswere known to the Greeks shows the careful observation and renas earlyas Homer. In the Aithiopis one of the prominent allies of the Trojansis dering that reflects firsthand knowlMemnon, the son of Eos and Tithonos edge. He is naked except for the garment he has wrapped around his and king of the Ethiopians,who falls waist so that it partly covers his butin single combatwith Achilles.Herotocks but leaves most of the front of his dotos's extensiveaccount of Egypt, based partlyon direct observation,dis- body bare. The garb is characteristic of cusses Ethiopiaas a separatecountry. artisans, especially those working in Whatwas probablythe popularGreek the heat of a foundry, forge, or brazier. image of Africansappearsin represen- The position of the arms and hands, moreover, suggests that he was lifting tationsof the myth of Heraklesand or carrying something heavy enough Busiris,in which vase painterscontrastedthe physicalappearanceof the to cause him to lean forward slightly hero and the captorspreparingto sac- and rest his left foot on a low rise. His rificehim. At Naukratis,the settlement facial features and hair are precisely in the Delta establishedspecificallyfor depicted with no inclination toward caricature. Like the Eros (no. 34), this is Greektradersat the very end of the a traditional subject brought to life by seventh centuryB.C., these seafarers an artist's hand in the service of a regularlyencountered Egyptianand as well as their wider vision.

North African century B.C.

peoples goods. AfterAlexanderthe Greatconquered Egyptand founded Alexandria

.. .~., , .. ~, ::..

H. 73?6in. (18.3cm). RogersFund,1918 (18.145.10)

36. Drunken Herakles, thirdto second centuryB.C. This representationof Heraklescould not be more differentfrom the Archaic example (no. 14).The hero's strengthis duly emphasized by the exaggerated musculatureof his neck, chest, shoulders, and thighs.The tight, ordered curlsof his hairand beardserve as a reminderthathere is a civilizedman.

The reminderis necessaryin view of his pose: staggeringbackwardonto his left leg, his bloated stomach thrustout, and his arms,which were originally raisedat his sides, barelykeeping him in balance.In Archaicand Classicart, where he was one of the most favored subjects,Heraklesperformedhis laborsand pursuedhis adventures often assistedby Athena,and almost always,one feels, for good purpose.

He was, however,human, which offeredlaterartistssuch subjectsas Heraklesrestingin his weariness,killing his childrenin his madness, or revealingthe potentialugliness of his body and actions in his drunkenness.

While one might be inclined to see an element of tragedyin the juxtaposition of the hero's sober face and disordered condition, the latteris too greatly exploited for its picturesqueness,not to sayincongruity.

Saidto comefromSmyrna.

H.6Vsin.

37. Hound gnawing a bone, thirdto (15.6cm).SamuelP.AveryMemorial second centuryB.C. Fund,1915(15.57) This hound could be the companion of almost any of the preceding Hellenistic figures.The analogyof the Cynic

philosopher Diogenes depicted with his dog comes to mind. Nonetheless, the work is probablycomplete as it stands.Everyefforthas been made to bring out the angularityand elongation of the animal'sbody. The fine head, with a long nose and pointed ears, indicatesa betterthan mongrel dog, yet the aviditywith which it holds and bites into the bone suggeststhatthe hound has fallenon hardtimes; its momentary contentment, however, may be deduced from the tailwrapped around the righthaunch. Duringthe Hellenisticperiod the trenchantrealism exemplified here was also applied to the animalsthatserved as decorative adjunctson utilitarianobjects. The heads of dogs or wolves appearas terminals of the handles of bronze ladles and strainers;the heads of horses or mules occur at the top of the fulcra,or supports, of the headrestsof couches.

The use on domestic objects of animals often characterizedas wild or fierce is particularlyprevalentin this late period.

L.3 in. (7.6cm).Excoll.PaulJacobsthal.

FletcherFund,1936(36.11.12)

38-40. Three Dionysiac masks, first half of the first century A.D.

For all the change and innovationin Hellenisticiconography,there was also continuity.These three masksdemonstratethe tendency to perpetuate, if not to revive,styles going backto the Classicand to even the Archaic period, a tendency thatgained impetus from the second centuryon as Greek artistswere being called upon to cater to the tastesof their Romanconquerors. The masks belong to a group of eight known examples. Theywere originallyused in pairson opposite sides of bucket-shapedvessels called situlaeto accommodatethe carrying handle;its ends would havepassed throughthe ringsthat are preservedon nos. 38 and 39. The subjectcan be interpretedas either Dionysos or a satyr,depending on whether one considers the ear predominantlyhuman or equine; the latterform seems more pronounced on no. 38, and the human form on no. 40.

The existence of numerous versions suggeststhatthe source of inspiration lay in a model, now lost, thathas been attributedto an artistofthe thirdcenturyB.C. in Egypt, possibly Alexandria.

The process of reduplicationallowed variation,as our examples illustrate.

No. 39 is smallerthan the other two, and the horizontalelement below the ringis decoratedwith runningspirals, while no. 38 has a swastikameander.

This mask also shows the finest execution of the beard,hair,and wreath, which is made of ivy leavesand berries attachedby long stems to a circlet.The production of a decorativeadjunctin "multiples"can be tracedbackto the Archaicperiod, with its predilection for griffins(see no. 9); so also can the use of inlaysfor effectsof color and realism.The mask no. 38, however, conveys something of the brilliant decoration achievedduringthe late period; both the meander ornament and the fillet havesilverinlays,while the lips preservesome tracesof copper.

No. 38:Saidto havebeen found in the sea off Majorca.H. 12in. (30.5 cm). Ex coll.

HenrikG.T.Schlubach.Giftof Mrs. Geraldvan der Kemp,1958(58.140).No. 39: H. 10in. (25.4cm). Ex colls. PourtalesGorgier,Milani,de Nolivos, Stroganofl HenryWalters.Bequestof WalterC. No. 40: H. as Baker,1971(1972.118.98). in. (21.7cm). Lentby preserved89A6 Norbert Schimmel, L. 1985.2

38

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41. Artisan, late firstcenturyB.C. This statuetteis remarkablefor its synthesis of Hellenisticimmediacyand Classiccomposure. The figurecan be identified as an artisanby his dress. He wears an exomis,a short tunic knotted over one shoulder,leavingthe other bare and both armsfree for maximum movement. The artisan'sbelt, tied in front, also servesto hold a pairof wax tablets-the equivalentof a note pad -on which he would havewritten with a pointed stylus.The man'ssquat proportions and muscularlegs are in accordwith his dress;unexpected in the work, however,arethe dignityand pensiveness of the face.The individualityof the head, with its short curls, baldingpate, pronounced cheek-

bones, and faintlycurlinglip, strongly suggeststhatthis may be a portrait,and proposalsfor the identificationof the subjecthaverangedfrom the mythical craftsmanDaidalosto philosophers like Chrysippos.It is instructiveto compare the characterizationof the artisanwith thatof the drunkenHerakles (no. 36). Both bronzes show a pronounced contrastbetween the head and body; predominantin the artisan, however,is a sense of introspection conveyed by the position of the head and left armas well as by the facial expression.

Saidto come from North Africa,possibly in. (40.3 cm). Ex coll.

Cherchel.H. 1651S6 Balsan.RogersFund, 1972(1972.11.1)

62

42. Horse, firstcenturyB.C. to firstcentury A.D.

Becauseof the many crosscurrentsand the variationsof technique existingin the period when Greekstyles were being assimilatedto Romanneeds, there are certainworks of artwhose date and artisticaffinitiesprove difficult to understandtoday.Such a piece is the bronze horse, which in the last twenty-fiveyearshas occasioned much debateas to its authenticityand identity.The problem is compounded by the subject,for the representationof animalsin Greekbronze sculpture evolvedfarless than thatof human figures.The absence of significant evidence for modem manufacture, however,and the presence of features in no way at variancewith ancient works increasethe need to seek a place for it.

One of the horse'smost immediately strikingpropertiesis its size: it is neither a statuettein the literalsense nor a statue.While exceptions havealways existed, the more frequent occurrence of large-scalestatuettesis a Hellenistic development, as we haveseen in the boy wearinga tiara(no. 33), the Eros (no. 34), and the artisan(no. 41).That the position of the horse'slegs does not reproduce the animal'smovement in reallife recallsthe Archaicexample (no. 16) and, indeed, introduces the useful considerationthatthe artistof this late work was probablynot proceeding from firsthandobservation but from an idea or anotherwork of art.The remoteness from a live model is most apparentin the rigidityof the mane and forelock as well as in the horse's head, with its excessively straightlines from foreheadto nose and from cheek to lower jaw,the flatness of the face, and the hardnessof the eye. There is no sense of an organic whole nor of any single qualitythat might animatethe whole-the horse's speed or its fierinessor the beautyin the contrastsof mane and muscle. This adoption of form without suggestion of the forces motivatingit recursin the archaizingstyles of the late Hellenistic period and may account for the horse's lifelessness, a qualityforeign to Greekart.

H. 1513A/6 in. (40.2 cm). FletcherFund, 1923 (23.69)

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43. Hermes, firstcenturyB.C. to first century A.D.

Hermes,the messenger of the gods, standsin a relaxedpose, wearinghis winged sandalsand a short cloak fastened over his rightshoulder and wrappedaroundhis left arm;his right armwas probablyoriginallyextended before him in a gestureas suited to someone listeningas speaking.There is nothing assertiveabout him. The disproportionatelysmall head has a boyishface;the lips are partedand the eyes appearvaguelyfocused. The body is all softness,with as much flesh as muscle on the torso and just enough bone and sinew in the legs to carrythe frame.He could be the Eros (no. 34) in young manhood; but he evokes even more the young SaintGeorgesand Davidsof the Renaissance.Hermes, the cattlerustler,the inventorof the lyre,the guide of souls acrossthe river Styx,the manlygod of boundaries, now standsgracefullyratherthan moving purposefully.The evolution that has occurredin the Greekmasteryof the human figure,in the progressive integrationof structure,flesh, and characterhas here run its course, leaving, in a work like this, an exquisitebut ratherempty shell. The formsinvented and endlessly refinedby Greekartists in the course of roughlya thousand yearswere not lost, however,thanksto majormonuments thatremainedvisible for centuriesas well as to readily portableobjects like bronze statuettes, coins, and gems. Exposureto these objects, from late antiquityon, has continued to challengethe imagination and skillsof creativeartists,so that everysurvivalfrom the pastis, in effect, a messenger of the gods.

H. 1178in. (29.1cm). RogersFund,1971 (1971.11.11)

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