Islamic pottery a brief history the metropolitan museum of art bulletin v.40 #4 spring 1983 by alfonse K

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ISLAMIC POTTERY A

BRIEF

HISTORY

Marilyn Jenkins

THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART

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ranksas one of the greatPottery-making est artisticachievementsof Islamiccivilization.Some of the finestwares ever made were producedduringa periodof morethana thousandyears inthe vast area of the Islamicworldextendingfrom Spainto the bordersof China.Muslim potters,displayingan innovativesense of design and color,created botha delightfulvarietyof shapes and a luxuriantbut hues - deep subtlepaletteof "natural" blues and turquoises,copper greens, auberginesand earthreds. Theycovered theirwares withdecorationof extraordinaryrichness,employingskillful variationsof stylizedplants,geometric patterns,and calligraphicmotifs,often workedintonetworksof engaging compexity.Inthe quintessentiallyIslamic arabesque,leafyundulatingvinelike stems growfromone anotherin a seemingly infiniteprogressionthatleads the eye throughoutthe compositionand often ingeniouslyfillsthe space completely. Figuralimagery,less frequentlyseen on Islamicobjects,oftenprovidesimportant information aboutthe styles and customs of the period. Intheirtechnicalaccomplishments Islamiccraftsmenhave rarelybeen surpassed. Masteringnew techniquesand adaptingold ones to new uses, Muslim

to any surveyof Islamicpottery,such as pottersgained controlovertheirmedium, the opulentalbarelloon the cover orthe to the extentthatthey oftenenveloped mihrab(figure36). Inaddition,inthis partitheirpieces in morethanone glaze by cularhistory,new paradigmshave been usinga multiplefiringprocess. Perhaps substitutedforbetter-known the apogee was reached inthe creation examples of certaintypes of wares (see figures4,5). of lusterware,whose dazzlingiridescent Also includedare recentlydiscovered effectsimitatethe sheen of precious metals.Luster-decorated objectsthatforthe firsttimeare properly objects, much admiredand imitatedin Europeas early placed inthisstudy(figures33, 34). The Museum'sexcavationsat Nishapur as the fifteenthcentury,had an impact conducted by WalterHauser,J. M.Upton, thatcan be seen inceramicsmade inthe and CharlesWilkinson(inthe 1930s and UnitedStatestoday. in 1947),have added an importantdimenMuseumof Arthas The Metropolitan an outstandingcollectionof Islamicdecor- sion to thiscollection.Amongthe discoveries fromthissite are some of the finest ativearts.Ofthe variousmedia- pottextile, stone, examplesof slip-paintedwaresof the tenth tery,wood, metal,glass, stucco, enamel, and ivory- the pottery,a century,includingthe largebowlwhose collectionof 1,600 objects representing onlydecorationis an elegantArabic a wide geographicalrange and every maj- inscription(figure9). Manyof the works discussed here are the giftsof generous or periodand style, is perhapsthe most contributors the to the Islamiccollections: ceramics Indeed, comprehensive. collectionis among the best inthe world. BenjaminAltman,W.B. Osgood Field, Isaac D. Fletcher,HoraceHavemeyer, could offersuch varied Few institutions and EdwardC. Moore,the latterhaving a historyof resourcesforillustrating Islamicpottery.Thatthe Metropolitan bequeathedthe firstmajorgroupof in 1891. stands among them is amplydemonstrat- Islamicobjectsto the Metropolitan ed inthe followingpages, whichdrawsolely fromobjects inthe Museum'scollection. Amongthe examples chosen by the authorof thisBulletin,MarilynJenkins, DE MONTEBELLO PHILIPPE AssociateCurator,Departmentof Islamic Director Art,are pieces thatwouldbe essential

Spring1983 Museumof ArtBulletin TheMetropolitan 4 (ISSN0026-1521) Volume XL,Number postagepaidatNew N.Y.10028.Second-class ofArt,FifthAvenueand82ndStreet,NewYork, Museum ? 1983byTheMetropolitan Published quarterly Fourweeks'noticerequired members. for Offices.Subscriptions $18.00a year.Singlecopies$4.75.Sentfreeto Museum N.Y. andAdditional York, Mailing (1905-1942) 313 N.FirstStreet,AnnArbor, I-XXVIII fromUniversity onmicrofilm, Volumes Microfilms, Michigan. changeofaddress.Backissuesavailable Inc.,99 MainStreet,Salem,N.H.03079,orfrom Publishers, setoras individual as a clothbound available yearlyvolumesfromTheAyerCompany, reprint JoanHolt.Associate inChiefoftheBulletin: JohnP O'Neill. Editor of Publications: Box700, Middle theMuseum, Village,N.Y.11379.GeneralManager ofArtPhotograph Studio.Design:AlvinGrossman. TheMetropolitan Museum Alexander Mikhailovich, JoanhaEkman. Editor: Photography: tilepanel(figure51). fromIran(figure Frontcover:Liddedalbarello 28).Insidefrontcover:DetailofEgyptian 2

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Introduction

Littleis knownaboutthe artof the economicallysophisticatedmercantilearistocraciesof the threemajorArabiancitiesof Mecca, Medina,and Ta'ifwhenthe Arabs began theirconquests inthe name of Islamduringthe second quarterof the seventh centuryA.D.Whateverformthis arttook,itapparentlyhad littleinfluence on the Muslimculturesthatevolved later outsidethe Arabianpeninsula.Rather,in the earlycenturiesof Islam,most of the decoration, buildingstyles,architectural types and shapes of objects,decorativetechniques,and iconographywere adoptedfromculturesfoundinthe areas conqueredby the Muslims.Itwas only graduallythatthisadoptiveprocess became firstadaptiveand finallycreative. Thehistoryof the artof the potterin

the Islamicworldis no exceptionto this pattern.This historycan be divided into fourbroadperiods-beginning withthe seventhcenturyand concludingwiththe seventeenth.Withineach period,in centersthatwere wealthyand stable enough to be able to supportnumerous politically ateliersof creativeartists,new techniques and stylesevolved aftera timeof adoptionand adaptationor experimentation. Because of the prestigeof such centers, the wares produced in them created vogues and subsequentlyspawned imitationsor variationsin less important centers. New techniques and styles were often carriedto other areas by migratingcraftsmenwho were seeking workor were summonedby more prosperouspatrons.Eachof the periodsalso

witnessedeithera continuationof techniquesfoundinthe precedingperiodor a revivalof one or moreof them. Despitethe diversityimpliedin its geographicalspread and thousand-year duration,the historyof Islamicpottery has an inherentunity.In additionto the cyclicalrepetitionof the processes of adoption,adaptation,and creation,the widespreaduse of fourbasic decorative elementsalso contributedto this phenomenon. The Islamicpotteremployed abstractvegetalforms(one of the most popularwas the arabesque),calligraphy, figuraliconography,and geometricpatternsinthe decorationof his medium withineach of the fourchronologicalperiods discussed inthis briefhistory.

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Early

Pottery

SEVENTH TOTENTHCENTURY

Twobasictypes of decoratedceramic wareswere in use inthe Islamicworldbeforethe ninthcentury.One grew out of the Romanterrasigillata("moldedearthenware")and bearsmoldeddecorationderivedfromlateGreco-Romanmodels or morestylizedmotifsof Sasanianoriginthose derivedfromthe artof pre-lslamic Mesopotamiaand Persia.The otherhas Easternprototypesand bears stamped, incised,or applieddecoration.Bothtypes arefoundineitherglazed or unglazed versions. Theperiod-ofadoptionand adaptation duringthe earlycenturiesof Islamwas followed,beginninginthe ninthcentury, by one of innovation.Excavationsin Samarra,foundedin836 inwhatis now Iraqas the temporarycapitalof the Abbasiddynasty,have providedample withnew proofof the experimentation potterytechniquesundertakenby Iraqi ceramists.Inan attemptto imitateChinese porcelain,they rediscovereda combinationused muchearlierby the Egyptians: tinoxideand clearlead glaze, a mixture thatprovideda fineopaque surface fordecoration.Theyand otherIslamic ceramistscontinuedto use such a surface forvarioustypes of decorationand theyeventuallyintroduceditintoEurope. Theproductsincorporatingnew techniquessuch as inglazeand lusterpainting (see figures4, 5) thatwere made in

Samarraas wellas inthe permanent Abbasidcapitalof Baghdadwereadmired throughoutthe empire.Thusitis notsurprisingto findvariationsor imitationsof themin manyof the provincialcities. By the end of the tenthcenturythe purely adoptiveand adaptivephases of Islamic potteryproductionwere over and the creativephase was almosttwo hundred yearsold and givingriseto innovation, and copies in regionaldiversification, far-flungareas of the Islamicworld. 1. Unglazedvessels were popularfor centuriesbecause liquidsstoredinthem were keptcool by the evaporationthat occurredthroughtheirporouswalls.This examplebears motifsdrawnfromor inspiredby pre-lslamicEasternmotifs:a long-hornedquadrupedand a largetailedbirdon eitherside of a "treeof life." Thecharmof thisprimitiveyet sophisticated design morethancompensates forthe lackof perfectionof the ewer's proportions. Thedecorationused here is knownas barbotine,a techniquein whichrolled stripsand circlesof clay were appliedto the surface,flattened,and then incised withparallellines.Sasanianvessels bear barbotinedecorationas well,butthe manypossibilitiesinherentinthistechniquewere onlyfullydeveloped on glazed and unglazedpotteryof the early Islamicperiod.

Thistype of decorationplusthe additionalinciseddesigns and the vestiges of metalprototypesvisibleon the handle and neck, as wellas the ribsat the base of the neck, indicatethatthe ewer was made duringthe firstcenturyof the Islamicperiod. 2. Thisfragmentaryewer illustratesa ceramictype thatwas very popularunder Romanruleand laterenjoyeda renaissance duringthe earlyIslamicperiod. Thisware,made in a carved ceramic mold,was availablein glazed and unglazed varietiesduringthis period.The shape of thisglazed vessel has Eastern prototypes;in its originalstatethe ewer musthave closely resembledan unglazed one inthe collectionof the L.A. MayerMemorialInstituteforIslamicArtin Jerusalem thatbears an Arabicinscriptionin Kuficscriptstatingthatitwas made in Gurganin whatis now Iran. Unlikethe unglazedpiece, the ewer presumablyhad a panel in itscenterwith an openworkdesign thatwouldhave been attachedto one halfof the body beforethe two halves werejoined.Afterthe foot, handle,spout, and neck were applied,furtherdecorationwas added to maskthe joinof the neck and thatof the handleto the body.The piece was then glazed and fired.The green glaze colorwas commonalso to otherpieces of the type. 5

3. Pieces exhibitingsimilardecoration and thisflat-bottomedrimlessshape based on a metalprototypehave been foundinSamarra,a locationindicatinga date forthisdish inthe ninthcentury, laterthanthe ewer executed inthe same technique. Thedish shows an Islamicadaptation of an interlacedesign drawnfromGrecoRomantradition.Herethe variouselementsof the patternbearabstract motifs-parallelslashes, circles,and dots -additions thatare illustrative of the Islamicpenchantforalloverdecoration. Thedish also representsthe veryimportantrediscoveryby Muslimpottersin the ninthcenturyof the Egyptiandevice of addingtinoxideto clearlead glaze. An 6

earlyexampleof the use of thisopaque surfaceforcoloreddesigns can be seen inthe green stainpaintedinthe glaze on the fourinnermostknotsof the decoration as wellas on fourof the squares created by the interlace. 4. A furtherdevelopmentof stainor inglaze paintingis seen on thisjarwith fourlug handles:afterthe opaque glaze was applied,certainareas were stained green-as on the moldeddish-and then vegetal designs and swags were painted in blue on the rawglaze as well.Theeffect of the inglazepaintingis muchlikeink on a blotter. Thistechniqueappearsto have been very popularin ninth-century Iraqand to

have been copied inthe provinces,especiallyKhorasan,where manganese, whichproduces an auberginecolor,was used in place of cobalt.These imitations, lackingthe finesse of the Iraqiwares, were also producedin otherregions, such as those of present-daySpain,Tunisia, and Algeria,thatlookedto Baghdad as the culturalcapitalof the period.As in Khorasan,the palettewas green and aubergine. Thisshape was decoratedin other techniquesduringthe ninthcentury,but examples of itare rarecomparedto bowls,whose shape imitatedthe apparentlyprestigiousChinesewares imported intoIraqat thistime. 4

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5. One of the mostimportantcontributionsto the ceramicindustryinthe early Islamicperiodwas the applicationof the luster-painting techniqueto pottery.Previouslyused to decorateglass, luster paintingas employedby ninth-century ceramistsin Baghdadlefta permanent on the ceramicindustryingeneral, imprint and itsinfluenceis stillevidentinthe lusterpaintedwaremade inAmericatoday. Forthisextremelydifficultprocess, silverand copper oxides, each mixedwitha medium,were used to paintdesigns on a vessel alreadycovered withan opaque glaze and fired.Duringa second firingin a reducingkiln,oxygen was drawnout of the metallicoxides, leavingthe metal suspended on the surfaceto refractlight and createa lustrousappearance.Shades of green were obtainedfromsilverand those of brownfromcopper. Thefieldof thisIraqidish is filledwitha highlystylizedfloweringbush, and the flat rimbearsa repeateddesign of the Arabic wordfor"sovereignty," writtenin Kufic script,whichmay be an abbreviationof a commoncalligraphicdecorationstating "Sovereigntybelongs to God."Thispoly-

chromelustertechniqueis moreoften foundon bowlsimitatinga Chinese shape, ratherthanon those of the metallic shape thatthisunusuallylargedish imitates withitswideflatrimand broadfootless base. 6. The polychromeluster-painting techniquewas extremelyshort-lived;more certainof success was the monochrome variety,since onlyone colorwas involved inthe executionof a design. Itwas monochromelusterpaintingthatspread from Iraqto Tunisia,Algeria,Egypt,Syria,Iran, Spain,England,and eventuallyto America. Thisbowlexhibitsmanyof the design characteristicsof the monochromelusterpaintedwaresof tenth-centuryIraq:the caricaturelike qualityof the seated man holdinga beakerin one handand a floweringbranchinthe other;the plainborder surroundinghimand the two birdsholdingfishintheirbeaks;the speckled background;the scalloped rimdesign; and the exteriordecorationof a series of three concentriccirclesevenlyspaced around the wallon a fieldof dashes and dots. The foot bearsthe Arabicwordfor "blessing"

in Kuficscript. 7. Inthe second halfof the ninthcentury AhmadibnTulun,an Abbasidgovernor and latervirtuallyindependentrulerof Egypt,Palestine,and Syria,summoned Iraqicraftsmento Egyptto create works of artsimilarto those he had knownin Samarra.Anotherinfluxof Iraqicraftsmen probablycame to Egyptinthe tenthcentury,in search of new patronage,when Abbasidpoliticalfortunesbegan to wane. Thusdid migratingcraftsmenpresumablyintroducelusterpaintingintoEgypt fromIraq. Thistenth-centurybowlwithits palmette-treemotifsurroundedby a pseudo-Kuficborderis a fine largeexample of earlyEgyptianmonochromeluster. Onthe exterioritis decoratedwitha series of five petal-shapedareas, formed by half-palmettes,each bearinga lineof pseudo-Kufic.Theflatfoot gives the name of the artist(see figure11). Iraqiprototypesare knownand must have served as inspirationforthis bowlas wellas forimitationsof luster-painted waremade inthe eastern Iranianprovince of Khorasan. 9

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8. By the ninthcentury, designs created with molds and through the use of stamped, incised, and applied decoration gradually gave way to more original-and difficult-techniques of inglaze and overglaze painting. Duringthat century and the next, potters in Khorasan and in the region northeast of the Oxus River in CentralAsia, as well as in Iraq,eastern Arabia, Syria, and Egypt, employed a new technique to decorate ceramic surfaces. Like Iraqiinglaze-painted and overglaze luster-painted pottery,this ware had a plain opaque surface for decoration. The body was covered by a white or colored engobe, a thin wash of the body material.The design was then painted, and the piece was glazed and fired. One variety, known as "splashed sgraffito ware,"bears designs incised through the engobe to the red-clay body and then highlighted with differentcolors. When the designs were covered with a colorless transparent lead glaze, the colored dots and lines were likelyto run during the firing. This bowl-one of the most successful examples of "splashed sgraffito ware"-has a purely Islamic design of a palmette-filledarcade with spandrels of vegetal rinceaux.

The T'ang "three-color"ware that inspired this very popular group of pottery, and shared its color scheme of green, aubergine, and brown on a white ground, may have appeared in the Middle East as early as the eighth century. 9. The importantceramic centers of Nishapur and Samarkand in the provinces of Khorasan and Transoxiana, respectively, produced a number of different types of underglaze-painted ware in their attempts to attaintotal mastery over their medium. Perhaps one of the most spectacular proofs of their achievement can be seen in the clarityof the design painted on this unusually large and deep bowl. The ultimatesolution to the problems of underglaze painting in these two centers evolved through the discovery that almost complete control could be exercised over the design ifthe coloring agents were mixed with a clay slip, a more liquid version of the body itself. When the lead glaze was applied over the slip-painted design and the object fired, the design remained stable. The decoration on the interiorof this bowl consists of an Arabic inscriptionin

Kufic:"Planning before work protects you from regret. Prosperity and Peace." The elegance of the letters has been enhanced by fine incisions. The perfection of the design and potting in combination with the size of the bowl (itis eighteen inches in diameter) makes this a true tour de force of the potter's art. Some examples of this slip-painted ware have red in the palette; others reverse the color scheme so that the designs are silhouetted on a dark ground.

10. While the emerging middle classes and the patricians were buying locally produced glazed pottery as well as the coveted imported ceramic objects also available in the markets of the Middle East, unglazed wares were stillfulfilling vital needs of all the citizenry. Humble though they may have seemed at the time, these vessels with their simple elegance superbly illustratethe control of the potter over his medium. Withno glaze or applied or painted decoration to hide its flaws, this eggshell-thin cup, highlighted only by tooled punches on its shoulder, is a worthy testament to the level of the industry in the tenth century. 11

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Early

Medieval

Pottery

ELEVENTH TOMID-THIRTEENTH CENTURY

Thetechniqueof lusterpainting,which movedfromIraqwithmigratingceramists and,to the best of ourknowledge,was neverto return,continuedinSpainas well as in Egyptduringthisperiod.Itis from the lattercountry-withthe disintegration of the Fatimiddynastyand the riseof artisticpatronageunderthe KurdishAyyubids and variousTurkic groups,including the GreatSeljuks-thatthe technique mostprobablymoved againwithmigrating artiststo Syriaand Iran.Inadditionto ware,moldedslip-and inluster-painted glaze-paintedwarecontinuedto be made, alongwithobjectsexhibitingincised decoration. However,the most importantinnovation inthe fieldduringthisperiodwas the rediscoveryof faience,made inan attempt to imitatethe appearanceof Sung porcelain.Firstemployedby the Pharoanic Egyptians,thisis a man-mademixtureof potash,quartz,and whiteclay.Once rediscovered,the whitecompositebody was soon being used by Islamicceramistsas a groundforpainteddesigns that exhibitedgreaterlinearand tonalvariety thancouldhave been achieved before.

Thedecorativepossibilitiesopen to the Muslimpotterwere now limitless. These composite-bodiedobjectsseem to have been almostexclusivelycovered withalkalineglazes, to the exclusionof lead glazes, intwelfth-to fourteenthcenturySyriaand latefourteenth-to early Iran.However,and eighteenth-century contraryto widelyaccepted opinion, these alkalineglazes were used onlysporadicallybetweenthe eleventhand the middleof the fourteenthcenturyin Iran, wherelead glazes were stillthe preferred coveringforcomposite-bodiedware. Itis duringthisperiodthat,underMusliminfluence,the firstlead glaze opacified withtinwas used in Europe-in Pavia, Italy,at the end of the eleventhcentury. Thusthe ceramicindustryof the Islamic worldlaidthe groundforItalianmajolica and the manyotherEuropeanwaresthat were decoratedwithdesigns paintedon an opaque whitesurface. 11. Stylisticand iconographicchanges took place inthe decorationof lusterpaintedpotteryafterthistechniquewas broughtby artistsfromIraqto Egypt.As in most Fatimidart,therewas an increasein

the use of humanand animalmotifsthat appear morealivethantheirpredecessors. The heraldiceagle on thisoutstanding objectlacksthe caricaturelike quality of the seated man on the tenth-century Iraqibowl(figure6). ItsHellenisticheritage is obvious:in composition-profile head and outstretchedwings and legs -it descends fromthe insigniaof the Romanlegions. Beneaththe bird'srighttalonand again on the footof the bowlis the artist'ssignaActivearoundthe year ture,"Muslim." 1000, he is the only Egyptianpotterof this periodwho has been placed in a firmhistoricalcontext. Theceramistin Egyptat thistimemust have been held in ratherhighesteem, for notonlydid manyartistssuch as Muslim sign theirnames on the back orthe front of theirobjects, butsome also countersigned those signed by others,thus indicatingimportantatelierswhose master craftsmen'ssignatureswere coveted. In the earlyIslamicperiod,pieces bearing the potter'ssignaturewere notentirelyunknownbutthe practicewas notwidespread. 13

12. Inthe middleof the twelfthcenturyand apparentlycoincidingwiththe fallof the Fatimiddynasty-the luster-painting techniqueseems to have disappeared fromthe Egyptianpotters'repertoireand appearedinSyriaforthe firsttime. Typicalof earlySyrianluster-painted wareare some of the featuresof this basin:copper-coloredluster,appliedto a transparent,ratherthanopaque, glaze thathas a crackledquality;and largeundecoratedareas withinthe design. Significant also arethe scallopeddecorationon the rimand the wide plainbandforming the upperborderof the principaldesign. Examplesof thiswarewithmotifsincised throughthe lusteralso exist. withregardto Ratherunimaginative shapes, thisSyriancopper-coloredlusterpaintedwareoccurredmainlyinthe basin formshown here (an unusuallylargeexample)or in bowlswithverysharplyflaring walls.Bowlsof the lattertype were set intothe campanilesorfacades of Romanesque churchesin Italyas decorationduring construction.Because the buildings are veryoftendated,these bacini,as they are called,can be dated as well. 14

13. Thetechniqueof incisingceramicsurfaces, as seen on thisfooted Iranianbowl, is a carry-overfromthe earlyIslamic period;and the purelyIslamicarabesque design on itsstraightwallsis a continuationof a motifthatwas verypopularin Samarra.However,the perninth-century iod of itsmanufacturewas notonlyone of at a pointas yet notclearly continuation; defined,Chineseporcelaininspireda new chapterin Islamicpotterymaking. Notcontentwithimitatingonlythe whiteness of the porcelain,Iranianpotterswent a step furtherand made deep incisionsin the wallsof the vessels, sometimespiercing them.Whenthese deep incisions were covered withtransparentglaze, the wallsappearedas translucentas those of the much-covetedChineseware. 14. Thispanel,one of a groupof six Syriantilesbearinga bold moldedcalligraphicdesign, exhibitsa decorative techniquepracticedin earlyIslamictimes. Itis representativeof a type of warewith moldeddesigns verycommoninthe centralIslamiclandsduringthe latetwelfth and earlythirteenthcenturies.These ob-

jects-including dishes, vases, lanterns, and lowtablesforfood and drink-were mostoftencovered witha clearcolorless, turquoise,or aubergineglaze. Ceramicarchitectural decorationhad a long pre-lslamichistoryinthe Middle East.TheearliestIslamicexamples are fromninth-century Iraq,whence the traditionpassed to othercountriesinthe Muslimworld.Ceramicarchitectural elements fromSyria,in any technique,datingfrom the timeof this panel are rare. 15. Thereis verylittleevidence of the use of glazed ceramicarchitectural decorationinthe extremeeastern reaches of the Muslimworldduringthis periodexcept fora few tilefragmentsfromNishapurand a largegroupof tilesfromGhazni,in what is nowAfghanistan,foundin a palace destroyedby the Mongolsin 1221. Among the Ghaznigroupwas thissquare red wall tilewithmoldeddecoration.Itsmotifof affrontedlarge-tailedbirdshas earlyIslamic parallels,as do the motifson manyother Ghaznitiles.The colors used on the group,notablygreen and yellow,as well as the rarered seen here, are also more characteristicof earlierpottery.

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16. One variety of slip painting under a transparent lead glaze employed in early Islamic Iranis found during the early medieval period on the so-called silhouette ware, here represented by a cup with a band of gazelles striding across its belly. Modificationsto the earliertechnique were necessary because of the new body type: in this ware the design was executed with a thinner version of the composite-body material(known as "frit") instead of being painted with a clay slip.

The vessel was then covered with a transparent clear or turquoise glaze. In some examples of this type, the whole object was covered with a thick layer of frit; when dry, the fritwas incised through to the body, creating a design, or it was carved away, leaving the design in relief. The most common shapes among silhouette ware are drinkingvessels, although bowls are known as well. The stripes on the lower section of this cup and on its short neck are a popular device

on these objects. 17. The decoration on this bowl was created in the same manner as that on the cup (figure 16), the only difference being that the body is earthenware and the design is carved in a coat of white engobe, not frit.This ware, known as "Garrus,"the name of the districtwhere the type was firstfound, is very probably a provincial imitationof the silhouette ware made in the frit-paintedtechnique.

18. Theabilityto painta design that wouldnot runin,on, with,or undera glaze requireda masteryof the medium thatwas attainedonlythroughmuchtrial and error.Atthe dawnof the twelfthcentury,the problemhad not been completelysolved, butceramistscontinuedto investigatenew methods,includingthe noveltechniqueused on thissmalldish. It is an exampleof laqabi("painted") ware, which,because of itsshort-livedappearance inthe Islamicworld,musthave been an experimentin potterypainting. Here,the entirebackgroundis carved away,leavingthe design in relief.Thisdesign, inturn,is incised,creatingwhatcan onlybe calleddikesor cloisonsto prevent the differentcoloredglazes fromrunning together.Thistechnique,because of its

cloisons, has a built-instylizingeffectthat is verysuccessful in depictingthiscolorfulperkybird,whichformsthe principal design. Theshape of the dish-with itslow slightlyflaringwallsand wideflatrim (bearinga pseudo-Kuficdesign)-places itmoreinthe Syrianthaninthe Persian sphere, althoughthistype of warewas also made in Iran. 19. Inan attemptto increasethe number of colorsintheirpalettes,twelfth-century Iranianpottersdeveloped a technique now knownas mina'i("enameled"),in whichstablecolorswere stain-paintedin a lead glaze opacifiedwithtinand, aftera firstfiring,less stablecolorswere applied and the objectwas refiredat a lowertem-

perature.Thistechniqueenabled the artistto paintina greatervarietyof colors withcompletecontrol,lendinga miniaturelikequalityto the designs notfound on otherpotterytypes. Whetherforpractical or aestheticreasons,this methodwas relativelyshort-lived. Figuraldesigns as opposed to stylized vegetal ones seem to have been preferredby mina'ipainters:some of the vessels withfiguresbear scenes fromthe Iraniannationalepic, the Shah-nameh (TheBookof Kings),writtenby the poet Ferdowsibetween975 and 1010. The styleof these figuresechoes thatof those inthe few Persianpaintingson paper extantfromthis period,and thus mina'i wareserves to increaseour knowledgeof paintingof the earlymedievalperiod.

20. Untilthe second halfof the twelfth century,ceramistsin differentareas of the Islamicworldhad notcompletelymasteredthe techniqueof decoratingglazed objectswithwhatwere oftenquiteelaboratedesigns of a calligraphic,vegetal, geometric,orfiguralnature.Twelfthcenturypotters,however,began to stainpaintdirectlyontothe compositebody.As is wellillustratedby the lowersection of thisSyrianjar,thismethodof underglaze

withfigures,animals,or birds. Theabstractdecorationon thisjaris 21. Inadditionto underglaze-painted unusualforthe type, as itreflectsthe influwaredecoratedin blackundera clearor ence of contemporarymetalworkinthe turquoiseglaze (figure20), Syriaprolayoutof itsdesign and inthe motifs(speduced underglazepolychromepainted cificallythe horizontalbands interrupted wareduringthe second halfof the twelfth by largeroundels).As we have seen and firsthalfof the thirteenthcentury. earlier,costliermetalobjectsoftenserved These pieces are closely relatedto those as the inspirationforobjects in less made incontemporaryEgyptand Turkey, expensive media. allof whichare customarilydecorated

paintingprovideda veryclearimage.

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was also highlydeveloped in Iran.This 22. Duringmostof the twelfthand the first halfof the thirteenthcentury,the central bowl,producedduringthe earlythirteenth Anatolia of was ruled branch a of century,exhibitsgreatlinearand by part tonalvariety.Superimposeddesign netthe Turkic Seljuksfromtheircapitalat worksare a commonfeatureon Islamic Konya.Structuresthatstandto thisday as wellas those revealedduringexcavations objectsin manymediaproducedat many differenttimes;characteristically attestto the Seljukfondness forcovering Islamic motifsinclude the splitpalmetteswith the wallsof theirbuildingswithtilesarwhichthe bluesix-partdesign terminates. rangedin geometricpatterns. Whenthe Mongolsbegan theirsweep The exteriordecorationand shape of across Asiaduringthe firstquarterof the thisvessel, withits highfootand flaring thirteenthcentury,craftsmenfromthe wallsthatbreakquitesharplyintheir countriesintheirpathmigratedto safer, lowersection,are typicalof ceramicsasmorefinanciallystableareas to work.That sociated withKashan. the buildingtileswere producedwiththe help of importedor migrantcraftsmenis 24. Thisewer witha reticulatedouterwall evidenced by thishexagonalgrouping, thatvirtually masksthe innermostplain whichprobablycame fromthe palace of one is also associated withthe Iranian 'Ala'al-DinKay-Qubadh(ruled1219-37) ceramiccenterof Kashanand belongs at Konya.Itexhibitsthe technicaland to a veryraregroupof double-walled iconographicalinfluenceof Syrianobjects objectswhose prototypeseems to have inthe star-shapedunderglaze-painted tile been Iraqi. withthe sphinxand the technicalinfluCharacteristic of Kashanproduction ence of Persianmina'iwareon bothtypes arethe willowpatternabove the footand of the four-sidedtiles. thatinsidethe neck. The principaldecora23. Thetechniqueof underglaze-painting tionis a veritablejunglescene incorporat-

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ing sphinxes(some of whichstronglyresemble the one on the tilegroupingfrom Konya[figure22]), harpies,and quadrupeds of severalvarieties,allset againsta dense vegetal background.The decorationalso includesthe date:A.H.612 (A.D.1215-16).

25. InIranand Turkeythe traditionof decoraglazed ceramicarchitectural tion-a traditionthatbegan duringthe earlymedievalperiodand extended into the nexttwo periods-was developed to one of its highestlevels withinthe history of pottery.ThisTurkishbosse appears to have been created in muchthe same manneras the decorationon the outer wallof the ewer (figure24). The hollow hemisphereconsists of a cut-outgeometricdesign thatcontainsvegetal motifsin some of itssections. Althoughbosses used forarchitectural decorationwere morecommonlyexecuted in stone, ceramicpieces similarto thisone are stillin situon buildingsin Konya,accentingthe spandrelsof arches.

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26. Inthe latetwelfthand firsthalfof the thirteenthcenturyinSyria,the lusterpaintingtechniquewas combinedwith underglazepainting,as itwas also incontemporaryand laterceramicproduction in Iranand Spain.Thishandleddrinking vessel witha taperingneck was a popular ware,of shape forSyrianluster-painted whichsome of the characteristicfeatures are a chocolate-brownlustercombined withunderglaze-painted blue,and a of coiled background tightly spiralsreminiscentof engravedor chased scrollson contemporarymetalwork.Thearrangementof the variouscalligraphic,geometric,and vegetal designs intoa series of concentricbands interruptedby medal-

lionsalso has abundantmetalprototypes. 27. Ataboutthe timeof the collapse of the Fatimiddynastyin 1171, lusterpaintedwarewas being producedin Iran as wellas Syria.Whileitseems quitecertainthatmigratingEgyptianpotterswere responsibleforbringingthe techniqueto Syria,theirroleinthe appearanceof warein Iranis less clear. luster-painted Certainfeaturescommonto bothwares supporta connectionbetween Egyptian and Iranianluster,particularly thatassociated withthe Persiancityof Rayy.Of those features,this Iranianfooted bowl exhibitstwo:a design reservedon the lusterground(inthiscase, an "Islamized" Pegasus) and a gadroonedrim.

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Medieval

Pottery

MID-THIRTEENTH TOFIFTEENTH CENTURY

The potteryindustryexhibiteda number of discernibletrendsduringthis period.It witnesseda continuationof some of the ceramictypes seen inthe earlymedieval period,mostespeciallythe luster-and wares, and a simplifiunderglaze-painted cationof certaintechniquesemployedin the earlierperiod. Glazedceramicarchitectural decoration,firstused inthe Islamicworldin ninthcenturyIraq,nowwas refined,reached itszenith,and began itsdecline. Duringthe latemedievalperiod,as earlier,vogues or styles currentin various areas of the Islamicworldmanifested decorationas themselvesinarchitectural wellas on vessels. Some of these interna-

tionalstylesare explainedby contemporarytextsand inscriptionsindicatingthat artistsfromIran,namelyfromTabriz,were workingin Egypt,Syria,and Turkeyat varioustimesduringthe period. Latemedievalceramicswere strongly influencedby FarEastern,mainlyChinese, iconographyandcolorschemes. Effected principally throughthe Mongolinvasions and throughtrade,thisinfluence breathednew lifeintothe productionof wareat thistimeand underglaze-painted duringthe late Islamicperiod. 28. Thisliddedalbarello,or storagejar, belongsto a groupof wares knownas

fromthe Persianwordforlapis lajvardina, lazuli,lajvard.Because of the survivalof a treatisewrittenin 1301 by Abu'lQasim al-Kashani,a memberof a well-known familyof Kashanpotters,much is known aboutthe techniqueused to decoratethis group.Itis relatedto the techniqueused on mina'iware butemployedonlyoverglaze colors,whichwere fixed by a second firing.The most commonmethodof applyinggold to such wares was used on thisvessel: afterred gold was hammered intoa veryfinesheet and cut intoshapes withscissors, the individualpieces were backedwithglue and appliedto the jarwitha pen or rodand then smoothed withcotton. 27

29. Duringthe earlyand late medieval periods,the cityof Kashanwas renowned throughoutPersiaforits luster-painted tiles,and commissionswere received fromalloverthe country.Thisexample probablyserved as a mihrab,or niche indicatingthe directionof Mecca-the focal pointof Muslimhouses of worship. Exceptforthe artist'ssignature,which is conspicuouslyplaced inthe spandrels, the moldedepigraphicdecorationis all Koranic.The last partof Chapter2, Verse 136, "AndGod willsufficeyou against themand He is the Listener,the Omniscient,"has been used imaginativelyto formand fillthe arch restingon slender columns.The architselfis the compound wordfasayakfikahum("AndHe willsuffice you againstthem");fromithangs a mosque lamp.A verysimilarmihrabfrom Kashan,inthe collectionof the GulbenkianFoundation,in Lisbon,bears the same epigraphicdevice and is dated A.H.710(A.D. 1310-11).

30. The appearanceof FarEasterniconographyon Islamicworksof artseems to coincidewiththe spread of Mongol taste about 1300. Thisbowlis a typical example of a type of waremade inthe firsthalfof the fourteenthcenturywith decorativemotifsthatbetrayChinese influence-here, a proudgoose and lotus blossoms hiddenamong dense foliage. Thetechniqueused to decoratethe bowlwas also employedwithslightvariationon objects made in contemporary Egyptand Syria.Thecompositewhite body was covered witha grayengobe beforethe design was paintedon itwith a thickwhitefrit.Blackwas then used for outlinesand cobaltblueforhighlights. The sharplybreakingwalland T-form of the rimare aspects of a shape typicalfor the period. 31. Chinese influenceduringthis period was notconfinedto iconography.Chinese celadon-glazedwares were highly valuedand imitatedin Iranand in Egypt, althoughtheircolorwas only rarelyduplicated successfully. The decorationon the interiorof this bowl-three fishencirclingits baseclosely parallelsthaton the Chinese prototypes.The hemisphericalshape of the bowl,its low narrowfoot,and the radiating petalpatternsin reliefon the outside reflectthe shape and exteriordecoration of the celadon-glazedpetal-backedbowls fromthe Lung-ch'uankilns.The shape was foundamong bowlsof variousdecorativetechniquesduringthe latethirteenth and earlyfourteenthcenturies,especially in Iran. 28

32. Thevogue forimitatingcontemporary metalworkdesigns, currentin Syriaduring the earlymedievalperiod,continued duringthe fourteenthcenturyon some wares.The Syrianunderglaze-painted principaldecorationon thislargejarconsists of a wide band inwhicha groundof tightlycurledspiralsbears an Arabicinscriptioninthuluthscript:"Lastingglory, increasingprosperity,and fortuitousdestiny."Unlikethe angularKuficso popular in decorativeartsof the earlierperiods, thuluthis a cursivescriptcharacterizedby tallelegantverticals.Similarwide bands bearingboldthuluthinscriptionsinlaid withsilveron a groundof engravedor chased spirals-all positionedbetween decorativeborders-were verycommon on contemporarymetalworkfromSyria and Egypt. 33. Syrianunderglaze-painted wares appearto have had an impacton ceramic productionas farnorthas SeraiBerke,on the VolgaRiver,whichserved as the capitalof the GoldenHorde.Because of their allianceagainstthe Mongolswiththe Mamluks(whoruledinSyriaand Egypt until1517)and also the bond betweenthe GoldenHordeand the Mamluksof a very activetradein slaves, itis notsurprising thatartistsinSouthRussiawere influenced by pottery,such as thisexample, made in Mamlukcenters.The dish has a characteristically Mamlukshape, with roundedand slightlyflaringwallsand a wideflatrim.The layoutof the border and the motifswithinit-crosshatching interrupted by rectanglesbearingspots of color-are foundon pieces from SeraiBerke.

34. Farfromfinelycrafted,thisunderglaze-painteddish is nonethelessimportantinthe historyof Islamicpottery because a date is incorporatedin its charmingand quitetypicallyhumblePersian inscription: "Aslong as the soup is if the bowl is notso wellmade, let good, it be. The year A.H. 779 [A.D. 1377-78].

Thedate permitsus to have precise informationaboutone type of underglazepaintedwareproducedin Iranduringthe lastquarterof the fourteenthcenturya periodduringwhichverylittleis knownaboutIran'spotteryproduction.

35. Thiseight-pointedstartilebearstwo superimposeddesign networks,a popularIslamicdecorativeconvention(see also figure23). Thelower,finernetwork is leftunglazed,whilethe upper,bolder design is glazed turquoiseblue.Thecombinationof glazed and unglazedareas on a singleobject,be ita tileor a vessel, is relativelyrare.However,tileswith glazed and unglazedareas are known in Iranfromas earlyas the middleof the eleventhcentury. Onvessels, the unglazedareas permitted evaporation,whilethe glazed areas

satisfiedthe Persianpenchantforcolorful tilesdecodecoration.On architectural ratedinthismanner,the glazed design wouldbe emphasizedand thus seen from a greaterdistance. decorationcomprisedof 36. Architectural individualglazed pieces was firstused in IslamicIraninthe firsthalfof the twelfth century,when smallmonochromeglazed tileswere set intothe wallsof buildings ina verysparse, tentativemanner.This practicegained momentumquiterapidly,

and by the timethismihrabwas made, entirewallswere being covered with mosaictotallyexecuted in smallpieces of brilliantly glazed ceramic.The complexity of such patternsrequiredawesomely accuratecutting:since every angle influences the whole,the patterncould not be realizedunless each piece was precisely cut. Thishighlyexactingphase soon gave way,forthe most part,to one in which designs were paintedon largertiles-a muchquickerand easier way to cover largesurfaceswithpatternedglazed ceramics.

37. Thedecorationon thisbordertile, carvedin highreliefand glazed invivid colors,is no less strikingthanthe decorationon the mihrab,yet itwas considerably easierto execute. Thistileand the group to whichitbelongs are characterizedby deeply carvedvegetal,calligraphic,or geometricdesigns glazed in one or more colors.Itis typicalof the glazed ceramic decorationin Bukharaand architectural Samarkandduringthe second halfof the fourteenthcentury. 38. Less time-consumingstillwas the techniqueused to execute the design on thistwelve-pointedstartilefromthe madrasa("theologicalschool")at Khargirdin Persia (A.H. 848 [A.D. 1444-45]). Before

the variousmotifswere paintedwithcolored glazes, each areato be paintedwas circumscribedby a thinlineof a greasy substance mixedwithmanganese, which preventedthe differentcolorsfromrunningtogether.Whenfired,the grease burnedawayand lefta darkmatteline outliningthe motifs.Thistechnique, knownas cuerdaseca ("burntcord"), was used earlierinSpain.Italso enjoyed a greatbutbriefsuccess inTurkeyduring the firsthalfof the fifteenthcentury,and it was to become quitepopularin Iranduring the finalperiodto be discussed here. 39. These twotilesare rareexamplesin Westerncollectionsof the cuerdaseca techniqueas executed inTurkey.Five otheridenticaltilesare known,fourinthe Victoriaand AlbertMuseumin London and one inthe MadinaCollectionin New York.Allare slightlybowed, and theyform a repeatpatternof an arch-and-spandrel design-indicating that,set side by side, they once graced a cylindricalobjectof largediameter.Perhapsthey are from a decorativebandon the minaretof a mosque. Thistechniquewas introducedintoTurkeyfromIranearlyinthe fifteenthcentury. Thefirstmonumentaltilecycle in Ottoman Turkeywas executed inthistechniquefor the GreenMosquein Bursa,whichwas completedin 1428. The mihrabinthis mosque bears an inscriptionidentifying the artistsof the revetmentas "masters fromTabriz"

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40. Fifteenth-century Syrianand Egyptian underglaze-paintedwareis handsomely representedby these two hexagonaltiles. The Syrianexample(below)bears a backgrounddesign of tightlycoiled spirals and a motifof a liddedewer on a stand, of whicha numberof Mamlukmetalexamplesexistas wellas a few ceramicones. The decorationis very Islamic,unlikethat of the Egyptiantile(above),whichbetrays its dependence on Chinese models. Althoughno Iranianprototypesfor these tilessurvive,they musthave existed;a religiouscomplexin Damascus decoratedwithmorethanthirteenhundred hexagonalunderglaze-paintedtiles also bears a rectangularone withthe signatureof an artistfromthe Iraniancity of Tabriz.Itseems quitecertainthatthis particularartistsubsequentlymoved to Cairo,since several bowls bearinghis signatureare knownto have been made there.Similarhexagonaltilesalso exist in Turkey;since ceramistsfromTabrizare knownto have been workingthereat the time,itis safe to suggest thatthe Turkish artists. tileswere also made by Tabrizi Thusitappears thatinthe earlyyears of the fifteenthcentury,Iranianceramists moved westwardand establishedtheir imprinton the ceramicproductionof at leastthreecountries,an imprintthatwas to be feltformanyyears to come. 41. Thishemisphericalbowl belongs to a series of wares made fromthe second halfof the fifteenththroughthe seventeenthcenturyand now knownas Kubatchi,fromthe name of the town inthe Caucasuswhere manyof these pieces were foundinthe nineteenthcentury.This bowlis one of a rareearlygroup inthe seriescharacterizedby a design of ogee panels encirclinga centralroundel-all of whichbearvegetal motifs-reserved on a blackgrounddistinguishedby incised, spiraldesigns. A brilliant predominantly turquoiseglaze covers the entirebowl. Thefourknowndated pieces of thisgroup rangefrom1469 to 1495. Theyconstitute ceramic the onlythree-dimensional be can that securelyplaced in objects Iran. fifteenth-century

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42. Ourknowledgeconcerningthe Muslimworld'sproductionof threedimensionalpotterypieces duringthe fifteenthcenturyremainstentative,except forthose thatbelong to a dated group (such as figure41) and those signed by an artistwhose dates are ascertainable. Theshape of thisewer is identicalto thatof a groupof metalewers scatteredin variouscollectionsthroughoutthe world; a numberof these ewers are dated. Since ceramicobjectstend to imitatemetalones, itcan be concludedthatthisewer was producedlaterthanthe metalexamples, notearlierthanthe second halfof the fifteenthcentury.The determinationof its place of manufactureis moredifficult.The shape is reminiscentof Iranianmetalwork; the ewer'svegetal decorationand the qualityof its glaze are closely paralleledin a bowl(inthe collectionof the Louvre) whose foot bears the information"madein Damascus";and the crenelateddesign aroundthe base of its neck is verysimilar to designs foundon earlyTurkish wares fromIsnik. 43. The luster-painted wareof Nasrid Spain ultimatelyowes itsexistence to the objects producedinthattechnique in ninth-century Baghdad. MovingwestwardfromBaghdad,firstto whatis now Tunisiaand then to Algeria,the technique appeared subsequentlyin lateeleventhcenturySpain,where itgave riseto an importantcenterin Malaga.Production inthiscityled directlyto the so-called Hispano-Moresqueluster-paintedwares. Amongthe productsof thislaterand longrecognizedgroupis this rareeight-pointed startile,whose overallgrapevinepattern withnaturalistic leaves and bunches of fruitstillbetraysthe classicalheritageof Islamicart. 44. Thisdeep dish, or brasero,whichwas made slightlylaterthanthe eight-pointed startile,bears witnessto the long Islamic traditionbehindits production.Itsmajor motifs-the cobalt-bluepalmettetree, the pseudo-Kuficdesigns inthe cartouches surroundingthe centralroundel,and the tightlycoiled spiralson the wideflatrimare alldrawnfromthe Islamicrepertoire.

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Late

Pottery

CENTURY SIXTEENTH TOSEVENTEENTH

Some of the finestpotteryever produced inthe Islamicworldwas made between about 1490 and 1700 inthe OttomanTurkish cityof Isnik(ancientNicaea).Theinfluence of thisimportantproductioncenter on ceramicobjectsmade in seventeenthcenturyIranappearsto have been strong. Egyptand Syria,now provincesof the OttomanEmpire,were also active areas, butthey seem ceramic-producing to have manufacturedmainlycopies of objectsmade inTurkeyorto have continued the ceramictraditioncurrentinthose countriesduringthe precedingperiod. TheothermajorIslamicpowerat this time,the Mughals,made no new contributionsto the ceramicindustry. Mostof the manydifferentpotterytypes made duringthisperiodexhibita continuationof the decorativetechniquesalready perfectedduringearlierperiodsor a revival of them,althoughincertaincases these techniquesare combinedin new ways. Thisperiodof continuityand renaissance

also saw the accelerationof the declineof the industry.Bythe end of thisperiod, Islamicceramicproductionhad totally lost itsvitality. 45. Earthenware ceramicswere made in Isnikas earlyas the second halfof the fourteenthcentury,butitwas not until aboutone hundredyears laterthatthis centerbegan to manufacturepotterywith a compositebody.The earliestcompositebodiedwaremade in Isnikwas distinguished by an underglaze-paintedblue decorationon a whiteground. Amongthe principalcharacteristicsof thisware,knownas "Abrahamof Kutahya"(afterthe artistwhose signatureappearedon onlyone piece), are ornately contouredpanelswithsmall,highlydetailedvegetal patterns,likethose on the interiorof thisbowl.Thedecorationwithin the panels,inwhitesilhouettedon a blue ground,contrastswiththe same design, in blueon a whiteground,executed on a largerscale and in a broaderstyleon

the exteriorof the bowl. Thejewel-likequalityof the colors may be attributedpartiallyto the thinwash of whitebody materialappliedoverthe raw bodyto serve as a surfaceforthe decoration.Thistechnicalfeaturewas common to allwares made in Isnik. 46. A variantof the "Abrahamof Kutahya" type, representedby thissmallmosque lamp,is characterizedby a groundcompletelycovered withdelicatespiraling stems bearingsmallflowers.Thismotif serves as the backdropfortwo beautifully executed Arabicinscriptions:"Power belongsto God,the One"(repeatedthree timeson the body of the object)and (on the flaringuppersection)"thereis no hero no swordexcept dho-l-faqar except 'AIT; ['All'ssword]" Duringthisperiodin Turkey,pottery continuedto imitatemetalworkin shape as wellas in design. Thislamp,however, is one of a numbermade at thistimethat have a glass prototype. 41

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47. "Abrahamof Kutahya"ware soon gave way to thatwithmorevarieddesigns and morecolors.This"Damascus" type, so called because originallyitwas thoughtto have been made inthatcity,incorporatedin itsdecorationcobaltblue, lightblue,turquoise,manganese purple, sage green, and a greenish blackforoutlines.Amongthe productsof this polychromegroupare the finestceramic ever producedinthe kilnsof Isnik. Likemanypieces of "Damascus"ware, thisdish has a symmetricalcomposition stylizedtulipsseen radiatingfromthe centralrosetteand in clustersinthe border,wherethey alternatewitha favorite Turkish motifof closed crescents, were to become very popularduringthe last phase of Isnikproduction. 48. Likethe polychromeluster-painted wareof seven hundredyears earlier,the "Damascus"underglaze-paintedpolychromegroup,althoughexceedingly beautiful,did notsurviveverylong. Itwas at least partlya matterof economics that caused the Isnikkilnsto begin turningout tilesand vessels withanotherpolychrome colorscheme. Ofthe threetypes of ceramicsproducedin Isnik,the "Rhodian" .type,. namedforthe Islandof Rhodes, ...... whereitwas thoughtto have been manufactured,was developed lastand existed the longest(fromabout1555 untilabout 1700).The predominantnew coloradded to the palettewas a "sealing-wax"red, whichwas appliedso thicklythatitstood in relief.The most populardesigns on "Rhodian" warewere floweringplants, the bluebell,hyacinth,carnaparticularly tion,rose, and tulip,manyof whichare quiterealistically depicted on this panel. Duringthisthirdand finalphase of Isnik potterymanufacture,the interiorsof both religiousand secular buildingswere covered withtilessuch as these, givingthem a veryairybutsumptuousappearance. 49. Byfarthe mostoutstandingIsnik "Rhodian" wares were the tiles.The vessels were of lesser importanceand their designs merelyabbreviatedversionsof the magnificentlycomposed tiledecorations.One smalland raresubgroupof "Rhodian" ceramicsappears notto have had any counterpartinthe tileindustry. Thisdish,whose principaldesign is a single blossomwithradiatingpetals,is typicalof thisware,in whichchocolatebrown,salmon-pink,or a warmblue opaque glaze was used as the ground fora slip-painteddesign. The last-named colormay have laterechoes insome Iranianproducts,such as the kalianillustratedin figure59. 43

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50. Thispanelof six tilesis a handsomely paintedexampleof the Syrianversionof ware.Thedecorationof paral"Rhodian" lel undulatingvines withhybridblossoms and bunchesof grapes thatmoreclosely resembleflowersthanfruitis an adaptationof similardesigns foundinTurkish tilepanelsand textiles.Cobaltblue,turquoise, purple,and green, allwithblack outlines,werethe preferredcolors. 51. ThisEgyptianpanelfroma mosque illustratesthe continuationof the ceramic traditionfollowingthe Ottomanconquest of thatcountryand is proofof how little the politicalchange affectedartisticproduction.Itsboldcursiveinscriptionreads: "TheweakservantKayunibnAbdallah, the sinful,the one in need of God'smercy, foundedthisblessed mosque. Itwas builtinthe year1000 [A.D.1591-92]"Ifthe date of manufacturewere notincorpo-

ratedin itsdecorationand ifthe arabesque design inthe spandrelsdid not exhibitstrongOttomaninfluence,itwould be temptingto place thispanelwithinthe Mamlukperiodsince a numberof similar tilesonce graced and stilldecorate r _l_

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52. Likea numberof ceramicobjects producedin Isnikduringthe sixteenth century,this Iraniandish combines Far Easternand Islamicmotifsin its underglaze-painteddecoration.The borderdesign is a corruptionof the wave pattern foundon fifteenth-century blue-and-white Mingporcelain,and the design inthe cavettois an encircledand beribboned variationof a fairlycommonelementon Chineseblue-and-white sixteenth-century and polychromewares.Thecentral design of a benignlionin a landscape is, however,purelyIslamic.

The dish is a very rareexampleof a dated sixteenth-century Persianceramic object:A.H.975 (A.D. 1567-68) appears on itsexteriorwall.

53. The stronginfluencethatChinese blue-and-whiteporcelainbegan to exert on Islamicceramicsinthe latefourteenth centurypersistedforat leastthe nexttwo hundredand fiftyyears. The artistof this large Persiandish selected and adapted elementsof Chinese blue-and-white porcelainof variousdates forhis decoration-such as the design on the cavetto, the dragons,and the concentricwave pattern.The "tasselmark"on the foot of the dish, in imitationof a Chinese reign mark,or nien-hao,suggests a seventeenth-centurydate because itis very similarto marksfoundon otherIranian bowlsattributedto thistime.

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54. Thisdish belongs to the final,polywares (see chrometype of "Kubatchi" figure41). Itsunderglazestain-and and paletteof blue,turslip-painting, quoise, green, yellow,and red, with blackoutlines,may indicatethat "Rhodian"wareexertedan influenceon the characteristictechniqueand color scheme of these polychrome"Kubatchi"pieces. Mostof the figuresincorporatedinthe designs of bothdishes and tilesinthisgroupappearto be verysimilarto those foundin miniature and monumentalpaintingsexecuted in Isfahanduringthe reignof Shah 'Abb5s 1(1589-1628). 55. Some of the buildingsconstructed in Isfahanduringthe reignof Shah 'Abbas Iwere decoratedwithtiles such as these, whichwere executed in the cuerdaseca technique(see figures 38, 39). Europeans,who were presentin relativelylarge numbersat his court,are oftenrepresentedinfashionsof the tiles,the day.Onthis panelof thirty-two gentlemanin Europeandress appears to be a merchantattemptingto sell fabricto the womanrecliningon pillows.An Iraniangentlemankneels by the tree at her left,and three servants attendthe group, bringingliquidreand dishes of fruit.

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56. Anothertype of waremade in Iranthatappearsto seventeenth-century have been influencedby ceramicsfrom the Isnikkilnsis a groupwhose principal decoration,as seen on thisdish,consists of small,delicatedesigns, some of which are framedby ornatelycontouredpanels, alternatingwithlarger,broaderdesignsnot unlikethe combinationon "Abraham of Kutahya"ware.The use of underglaze stain-and slip-painting togetheris found and polychrome"Kuon both"Rhodian" batchi"ware,and the delicatearabesque design inthe cavettois incisedthrough the blackslipinthe same manneras the secondarydesigns on the early"Kubatchi"bowl(figure41).

Itis likelythatthe Iraniancenterthat producedthe "Kubatchi" pieces transmitted Turkish influenceto the laterPersian potteryindustry. 57. Ithas been suggested thatthe inspirationto decorate potterywithpainteddesigns came to Chinafromthe MiddleEast as didthe cobaltore forthe earliestblueand-whiteporcelain.Thus,in Islamic ceramicssuch as thisdish,whichbetrays the influenceof Chinese blue-and-white ware,the circlehas been completed. Thedesigns foundon the type of ware representedby thislargedish are more faithfulto theirChineseoriginalsthan those of the type discussed infigure56.

Theyare outlinedwithan intenseblack; the blue has a decidedlyviolethue and is appliedin varyingthicknesses.The rim of thisvessel bears an inciseddesign, a decorativefeaturefoundon plates made forexportduringthe late Mingperiod. 58. Thisbowlillustratesthe revivalof the incisedwarecommonintwelfth-century Iran(see figure13). Itmay have developed fromthe type justdiscussed, as that largedish bears a similarlyexecuted design on its rim.The decorationon this bowlof tangentpetalshapes circumscribing lotusblossoms is so deeply incised thatitpermitslightto shine throughthe vessel's walls.

57 58

59. AnothertechniquepopularintwelfthcenturyIranand revivedat thistimewas fritcarving(see figure16).The rarestas wellas the most beautifulobjectsexhibiting thistechniquewere made by applying to the entirevessel a thicklayerof fritthat, when dry,was carvedwitha design throughto the whitecompositebody and subsequentlycovered witha transparent glaze. The blueof the friton thiskalian, or waterpipe, is reminiscentof the color on a raretype made inthe kilnsof Isnik (figure49). (Themetalattachmentsto thiskalianare lateradditions.)

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60. Lusterpaintingwas also revivedduringthe late Islamicperiod.Thiscarafe was covered witha clearglaze and its alternatelobes stainedblue.Afteran inilandtialfiring,the copper luster-painted scape design was executed. The graceful elegance of the bottle'sshape is enhanced by the lobularformand the subtle blueshadingof the lobes, whichboth emphasizethe verticalityof the object. Such shapes were popularinthisperiod; a similarbottlecan be seen inthe foregroundof the tilepanelinfigure55.

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Credits 1. EWER.Earthenware, appliedand inciseddecoration.Iraq,1st half8thcentury.H. 133/4in.(35 cm.).Gift of V.EveritMacy,1930(30.112.48) 2. EWER.Earthenware, moldedand applieddecoration,glazed.Iran,1sthalf8thcentury.H. 141/2in.(36.8 cm.).Giftof RichardEttinghausen,1978 (1978.549.2) 3. DISH.Earthenware, moldedinreliefand glazed. Iraq,9thcentury.Diam.67/8 in.(17.5 cm.). Rogers Fund,1953 (53.110) 4. JAR.Earthenware, Iraq, glazedand stain-painted. 9thcentury.H.81/2in.(21.6 cm.). RogersFund,1932 (32.149) 5. DISH.Earthenware, glazedand luster-painted. Iraq,9thcentury.Diam.15 in.(38.1 cm.).Fletcher Fund,1976 (1976.309) 6. BOWL.Earthenware, glazedand luster-painted. Iraq,10thcentury.Diam.95/i6in.(23.7 cm.).Giftof EdwinBinney,3rd,and Purchase,RichardS. Perkins Gift,1977 (1977.126) 7. BOWL.Earthenware, glazedand luster-painted. Egypt,2nd half10thcentury.Diam. 7 in.(17.8 cm.). 1963 (63.16.3) RogersFund, 8. BOWL.Earthenware, whiteengobe, incised,coloredandcolorlessglazes. Iran,Nishapur,9th-early 10thcentury.Diam.101/4in.(26 cm.).Excavationsof Museumof Art.RogersFund,1938 TheMetropolitan (38.40.137) whiteengobe, slip-painted, 9. BOWL.Earthenware, incisedand glazed.Iranor Transoxiana, Nishapuror Samarkand,10thcentury.Diam.18 in.(45.7 cm.). RogersFund,1965 (65.106.2) 10. CUP.Earthenware. Iran,Nishapur,10thcentury. H.31/8in.(8 cm.).Excavationsof TheMetropolitan Museumof Art.RogersFund,1940(40.170.43) 11, BOWL.Earthenware, glazedand luster-painted. Egypt,c. 1000.Signedby Muslim.Diam.10 in.(25.4 1963 cm.).Giftof Mr.and Mrs.CharlesK.Wilkinson, (63.178.1) 12. BASIN.Compositebody,glazedand lusterpainted.Syria,mid-i2thcentury.Diam.117/8in.(30.1 cm.).Giftof HabibAnavian,1975(1975.40) BOWL.Compositebody,incisedand 13. FOOTED glazed.Iran,12thcentury.H.35/8in.(9.2 cm.). Harris BrisbaneDickFund,1963 (63.159.2) 14. SIXTILES.Compositebody,carvedand glazed. Syria,12th-13thcentury.67 x 7 in.(170.2 x 17.8 cm.). Giftof OttoH. Kahn,1910 (10.56.1) moldedand glazed.Afghani15. TILE.Earthenware, stan,Ghazni,12th-13thcentury.H. 51/8in.(13 cm.). Giftof Marjorie Schwarz,inmemoryof HerbertF.and DorothyC. Schwarz,1975 (1975.193.1) 16. CUPCompositebody,underglazefrit-painted. Iran,2nd half12thcentury.Max.diam.55/8in.(14.3 cm.).Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest,1967 (67.104) incisedinchamplevetech17. BOWL.Earthenware, nique,whiteengobe, paintedand glazed. Iran,2nd half12th-13thcentury.Diam.10 in.(25.4 cm.).Giftof EdwardC. Moore,Jr.,1927 (27.13.3) 18. DISH.Compositebody,carved,coloredand colorlessglazes.Syria,2nd half12thcentury.Diam.77/8 in.(20 cm.).Purchase,Giftsin memoryof Richard 1979 (1979.210) Ettinghausen, 19. BOWL.Compositebody,stain-and overglaze paintedand gilded.Iran,late12th-early13thcentury. Diam.73/4in.(19.7 cm.). HenryG. LeberthonCollection Giftof Mr.and Mrs.A. WallaceChauncey,1957 (57.61.16) 20. JAR.Compositebody,underglaze-painted. Syria,late12th-early13thcentury.H.9/2 in.(21.4 cm.).Bequestof HoraceHavemeyer,1956, H.O. HavemeyerCollection(56.185.16) 21. JAR.Compositebody,underglazeslip(?)-and stain-painted. Syria,late12th-1st half13thcentury.H. 93/4in.(24.8 cm.).RogersFund,1923 (23.162.1) 22. TILEASSEMBLAGE. Compositebody,over1sthalf13th glaze paintedand leafgilded.Turkey, century.Diam.815/16in.(22.7 cm.).Giftof Mr.and Mrs.JackA. Josephson, 1976 (1976.245) 23. BOWL. Compositebody,underglazeslip(?)-and Iran,Kashan,early13thcentury.Diam. stain-painted. 83/4 in.(22.2 cm.). Purchase,Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1964 (64.256)

24. EWER.Compositebody,underglazepaintedand incised(glazepartially stainedcobalt),withpierced outershell.Iran,Kashan,datedA.H.612/A.D.121516. H.8 in.(20.3 cm.). FletcherFund,1932 (32.52.1) 25. BOSSE.Compositebody,molded,carvedand 13thcentury.Diam.53/4in.(14.6 cm.). glazed.Turkey, Anonymousgift,1974 (1974.370.12) 26. EWER.Compositebody,underglaze-and lusterpainted.Syria,late12th-1st half13thcentury.H. 73/8 in.(18.7 cm.).Giftof HoraceHavemeyer,1948 (48.113.15) 27. BOWL.Compositebody,glazedand lusterpainted.Iran,late12th-early13thcentury.Diam.8 in. (20.3 cm.).RogersFund,1916(16.87) 28. JARWITHCOVER. Compositebody,overglaze paintedand leaf-gilded.Iran,2nd half13th-14thcen143/4 in. H. with cover (37.5 cm.). HenryG. tury. LeberthonCollection,Giftof Mr.and Mrs.A. Wallace Chauncey,1957 (57.61.12) 29. TILENICHE.Compositebody,glazed,stain-and Iran,Kashan,early14thcentury. luster-painted. Signedby Hasanibn'AliibnAnmadBabuyeh,the builder.RogersFund,1909 (09.87) 30. JAR.Compositebody,underglazepainted. Syria,14thcentury.H. 111/4in.(28.6 cm.).Giftof HoraceHavemeyer,1941 (41.165.45) 31. BOWL.Compositebody,applied(?)decoration and glazed.Iran,1st half14thcentury.Diam.111/4in. (28.6 cm.).Giftof Mrs.HoraceHavemeyerinmemory of herhusband,1959 (59.60) 32. JAR.Compositebody,underglaze-painted. Syria,14thcentury.H. 131/4in.(33.6 cm.).EdwardC. MooreCollection,Bequestof EdwardC. Moore,1891 (91.1.130) 33. DISH.Compositebody,underglaze-painted. Syria,14thcentury.Diam.91/4in.(23.3 cm.).The Friendsofthe IslamicDepartmentFund,1971 (1971.21) 34. DISH.Compositebody,underglaze-painted. Iran,lastquarter14thcentury.Diam.1113/6 in.(30 cm.).Purchase,AnonymousGift,1970 (1970.28) carvedand partially 35. TILE.Earthenware, glazed. Iran,13thcentury.Diam.11 /4 in.Giftof CharlesB. Hoyt,1932 (32.41.1) 36. MIHRAB. Compositebody,glazed,sawed to shape and assembledas mosaic.Iran,c. 1354. H. 11 ft.3 in.(342.9 cm.).HarrisBrisbaneDickFund,1939 (39.20) 37. TILE.Compositebody,carvedand glazed. GreaterIran,2nd half14thcentury.W.13 in.(33.5 cm.).Purchase,WalterD. BingerGift,1972 (1972.88) 38. TILE.Compositebody,glaze-painted.Iran,2nd quarter15thcentury.Diam.151/4in.(38.7 cm.).Giftof PhilipM.Lydig,1917(17.143.1) 39. TWOTILES.Earthenware, glaze-painted.Turkey, 2nd quarter15thcentury.H. 18 in.(45.7 cm.).Rogers 1908 Fund, (08.185) 40. TWOTILES.Compositebody,underglaze painted.Egypt,2nd half15thcenturyand Syria,1st half15thcentury.W.7/2 in.(19.1 cm.)and 65/8in. (16.8 cm.) RogersFund(67.69.4);Sourceunknown (X228.1) 41. BOWL.Compositebody,underglazepainted and incised.Iran,2nd half15thcentury.Diam.123/8 in.(31.4 cm.). Mr.and Mrs.IsaacD. FletcherCollection,Bequestof IsaacD. Fletcher,1917 (17.120.70) 42. EWER.Compositebody,underglaze-painted. Provenanceunknown,15thcentury.H. 51/2in.(14 cm.). RogersFund,1969 (69.13) 43. TILE.Earthenware, glaze and luster-painted. Spain,late14th-early15thcentury.W.93/4in.(24.8 cm.).Giftof HoraceHavemeyer,1941 (41.165.41) 44. DEEPDISH(BRASERO). Earthenware, glazed, stain-and luster-painted. Spain,c. 1430. Diam. 17 3/4in.(45.1 cm.).TheCloistersCollection,1956 (56.171.162) 45. BOWL.Compositebody,opaquewhiteglaze, Isnik,1stquarter16th underglaze-painted. Turkey, century.Diam.10 in.(25.4 cm.).RogersFund,1932 (32.34)

46. MOSQUELAMP. Compositebody,opaquewith Isnik,1stquarter Turkey, glaze, underglaze-painted. 16thcentury.H.65/8in.(16.8 cm.). HarrisBrisbane DickFund,1959 (59.69.3) 47. DISH.Compositebody,opaquewhiteglaze, unIsnik,mid-16thcentury. derglazepainted.Turkey, Diam.113/4in.(29.8 cm.). Bequestof Benjamin Altman,1913 (14.40.732) 48. TILEPANEL.Compositebody,opaquewhite Turkey, glaze, underglazeslip-and stain-painted. Isnik,2nd half16thcentury.473/4x 471/2in. (121.3 x 120.6 cm.).Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917 (17.190.2083)

49. DISH.Compositebody,opaque blueglaze, unIsnik,lastquarter16th Turkey, derglazeslip-painted. century.Diam.121/16in.(30.6 cm.).TheFriendsof the IslamicDepartmentFund,1970(1970.30) 50. TILEPANEL. Compositebody,underglaze painted.Syria,2nd half16thcentury.33 x 22 in. (83.8 x 55.9 cm.).RogersFund,1922(22.185.13a-f) 51. TILEPANEL.Compositebody,underglaze painted.Egypt,lastdecade 16thcentury.L.631/4in. 1958 (160.6 cm.). Bequestof Agnes MilesCarpenter, (58.90.1a-g) 52. DISH.Compositebody,underglaze-painted. Iran,datedA.H.975/A.D.1567-68.Diam.127/8in. (32.7 cm.). HarrisBrisbaneDickFund,1968 (68.42) 53. DISH.Compositebody,underglaze-painted. Iran,17thcentury.Diam.171/4in.(43.8 cm.).Harris BrisbaneDickFund,1965 (65.109.2) 54. DISH.Compositebody,underglaze-painted. NorthwestIran,early17thcentury.Diam.137/8in. (35.2 cm.).Mr.and Mrs.IsaacD. FletcherCollection, Bequestof IsaacD. Fletcher,1917(17.120.56) 55. TILEPANEL.Compositebody,glaze-painted. Iran,1stquarter17thcentury.L.78 in.(198.1 cm.). RogersFund,1903 (03.9c) 56. DISH.Compositebody,underglazeslip(?)-and incised.Iran,17thcentury.Diam. stain-painted, 141/4in.(36.2 cm.).EdwardC. MooreCollection, Bequestof EdwardC. Moore,1891 (91.1.92) 57. DISH.Compositebody,incisedand underglaze painted.Iran,1st half17thcentury.Diam.171/2in. (44.5 cm.).RogersFund,1924(24.47.4) 58. BOWL.Compositebody,incisedand glazed. Iran,2nd half17thcenturyor later.Diam.77/8in.(20 1911 (11.137.1) R.Valentiner, cm.).Giftof William carved 59. KALIAN. Compositebody,frit-painted, and glazed. Iran,17thcentury.H.83/4in.(22.2 cm.). FletcherFund,1975(1975.61.3) 60. BOTTLE. Compositebody,glazed(partially stainedblue)and lusterpainted.Iran,2nd half17th century.H. 113/4in.(29.8 cm.).TheodoreM.Davis Collection,Bequestof TheodoreM.Davis,1915 (30.95.157)

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CHRONOLOGY Flight(Hegira)ofthe prophet Muhammad fromMecca,markingthe beginningof Islamichistory TheFourOrthodoxor RightlyGuided Caliphs TheUmayyadCaliphs TheAbbasidCaliphs TheSpanishUmayyads TheFatimids TheSamanids TheGhaznavids TheSeljuqs TheRumSeljuqs TheIl-Khans(Mongols) TheGoldenHorde(Mongols) TheNasrids TheMamluks TheOttomans TheTimurids TheSafavids TheMughals TheQajars

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