Life along the nile three egyptians of ancient thebes the Met bulletin v.60 #1_Summer 2002 by alfonse K

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Three Egyptians of Ancient Thebes

CATHA

RIN E H. ROEH RI G

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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D This publicationwas made possible through the generosity of the LilaAchesonWallaceFund for The MetropolitanMuseum of Art establishedby the cofounder of Reader'sDigest. TheMetropolitanMuseumof Art Bulletin Summer 2002

Volume LX,Number 1 (ISSN 0026-1521)

Copyright? 2002 by The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Publishedquarterly.Periodicalspostage paid at New York,N.Y.,and AdditionalMailing Offices. TheMetropolitanMuseumof Art Bulletinis providedas a benefit to Museum members and is availableby subscription. Subscriptions $25.00 a year. Single copies $8.95. Four weeks'

notice requiredfor change of address. POSTMASTER:

Send address changes

to MembershipDepartment,The MetropolitanMuseum of Art, 1000 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10028-

0198.Backissues availableon microfilm from UniversityMicrofilms,300 N. Zeeb Road,Ann Arbor,Mich. 48106. Volumes I-xxxvII

(1905-42)

availableas clothbound reprintset or as individualyearlyvolumes from AyerCompanyPublishersInc., 50 NorthwesternDrive #1o, Salem,N.H. 03079, or from the Museum, Box 700, Middle Village, N.Y. 11379.

GeneralManagerof Publications John P. O'Neill Editorin Chiefof theBulletin JoanHolt Editor JenniferBernstein Production PeterAntony and Zach Siegel Design EmsworthDesign All photographsof works in the Museum'scollection, unless otherwise noted, are by the PhotographStudio of The MetropolitanMuseum of Art. New photographyfor this Bulletinis by BruceSchwarzof the Photograph Studio. Of the photographstaken in Egypt,figure56 is by DieterArnold and figures 57, 59, 62, 67, and 69 are

by CatharineH. Roehrig.The blackand-white photographs,with the exception of figure67, are by Harry Burtonof the EgyptianExpeditionof The MetropolitanMuseum of Art. On the front cover: Meketre's model

Plasteredand painted wood; granary. linen; ancient grain and straw.Maximum h. of walls 143/8 in. (36.5 cm). Rogers Fund, 1920 (20.3.11). Back cover: Eye panel on Wah's coffin (detail; see p. 23, fig. 28)

I HE

METROPOLITAN

MUSEUM

R 'S

privilegedto possess one of the world's premiercollections of art from ancient Egypt.A quicktour of the Egyptiangalleries revealsnumerous statues,reliefs,paintings, amulets and other jewelry,ceramics, pieces of furniture,and even architectural monuments that are among the greatmasterpiecesof the Egyptianculture.Moreover,anyonewho has wanderedat a more leisurelypace through the galleries,which contain more than 35,000 objects, knows

that unexpectedtreasuresawaitthe visitor who chooses to exploremore thoroughly the wealthof materialproducedby accomplished artistsworking in all media over more than five thousand years. Nearlythirtyyearsago,whenpreparations werewell underway for the installationof the Templeof Dendurundera new glass enclosurein the SacklerWing, the Museum publishedan issue of the Bulletindedicated to the subjectof dailylife in ancientEgypt. As was popularat the time, the bookletwas organizedaccordingto categoriessuch as "Dress,""Tableware," "Housekeeping," and "Recreation," so on, and the objects used to illustrateeach section includedthe sumptuouspossessionsof kings,queens, and wealthyofficials.Sincethat time, our understandingof the Egyptianculturehas progressed,and in this issue of the Bulletin, CatharineH. Roehrig,curatorin the Departmentof EgyptianArt,has chosen to presentthe subjectof dailylife from a differentperspectiveby drawingon the Museum'srich concentrationof excavated materialto reconstructthe lives of three Egyptianswho did not belong to Egypt's elite rulingclasses. Theseindividuals-the managerof a wealthyman'sestate,the motherof an architect,and a skilledcraftsman-are all known to us simplyby the good fortune that theirtombs lay hidden,undisturbed, for thousandsof years.The contentsof the

NOTE

tombs,which includedfuneraryequipment, religioustexts,and, aboveall,personal effects,give us intriguingimagesof these threepeople.Moregenerally,we can see how fullythe artswereintegratedinto the day-to-daylivesof all Egyptians,not just those of the royalfamilyand the rulingelite. The illustrationsin this Bulletinalso provide a closer look at some of the bestknown worksin the collection-the models that belonged to the Middle Kingdom nobleman Meketre,the employerof the estatemanagermentioned above.Usually seen within the context of the crowded miniatureworkshopsand boats that they populate,groups of bakers,brewers, hunters,and musicianshavebeen photographedseparatelyfor this publication, allowing us to admirethe greatskill of the creatorsof these small,vital figures. I hope that this issue of the Bulletinwill encourageyou to revisitour Egyptian galleriesand discoverthe rich varietyof artworksthat offer glimpses into a civilization that flourishedso many centuriesago and continues to fascinateus today. Philippe de Montebello Director

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First Unification of Egypt 3100 B.C. 3000

Dynasties 0-2

Archaic Period 3100-2649 B.C. 2800

2600

Old Kingdom 2649-2150

Dynasties 3-6

B.C. 2400

2200

First Intermediate Period 2150-2030 B.C.

Dynasty 8-mid-Dynasty 11

2000

Middle Kingdom 2030-1640

Mid-Dynasty 11-Dynasty 13

B.C. 1 800

Second Intermediate Period 1640-1550 B.C.

1 600

Dynasties 14-17

1400

Dynasties 18-20

New Kingdom 1550-1070 B.C. 1200

1000

Dynasties 21-24

Third Intermediate Period 1070-712 B.C. 800

600

Dynasties 25-30

Late Period 712-343 B.C. 400

Persian Period 343-332 B.C. Macedonian Period 332-304 B.C.

200

Ptolemaic Period 304-30 B.C.

Roman Period 30 B.C.-A.D. 364

Byzantine Period A.D. 364-476

200

400

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ROM1906 TO 1936,the EgyptianExpeditionof the MetropolitanMuseum'sDepartmentof Egyptian

Art conductedexcavationsat severalsites in Egypt.During these three decades,while workingin the cemeteriesof western Thebes, across the Nile Riverfrom the modern city of Luxor,the Museum's archaeologistsuncovereda number of intact tombs belonging to nonroyalindividuals.By the terms of the Museum'scontract with the EgyptianAntiquities Service,the finds from these tombs were divided, with approximatelyhalf going to the EgyptianMuseum in Cairoand half coming to New York.The burialscontained personalpossessions of the deceasedand funerarygifts left by family members.They also contained mummified bodies, the examination of which has given us some idea of the appearanceof the living individuals,as well as their physicalcondition and age at death. Two of these tombs, which provideus with invaluableinformationabout the lives of the ancient Egyptians, are highlightedin this Bulletin.The earlierof the two datesto the Middle Kingdomand belonged to a man named Wah;it was discoveredon March24,1920,beneaththe causewayleadingto the destroyedtomb of an important official,Meketre,who was Wah'semployer.The second, the earlyNew Kingdomtomb of a woman named Hatnofer,was uncoveredon January11,1936,beneath the man-made terraceof the offering chapel belonging to her son Senenmut,the chief architect. The thirdand latestassemblagethatwill be discussedherebelongedto a man namedKhonsu,who livedat aboutthe midpointof the New Kingdom.Khonsuwas buriedwith severalgenerationsof his familyin a tomb that was discoveredby membersof the EgyptianAntiquitiesServicein 1886.Becausethe funeraryfurniture within the cryptwas all quite similarin style,the Egyptiangovernmentgenerouslyallowedthe Metropolitan Museumto purchasea groupof objectsfromthe tomb-an acquisitionthat representeda significantaddition to the fledglingcollectionof Egyptianart,nearlytwentyyearsbeforethe Museumbeganits own excavations. Wah,Hatnofer,and Khonsu each lived at an extraordinarytime in Egypt'shistory.Wahwas born in the earlyMiddle Kingdomat the end of the reign of one of Egypt'sgreatestkings,NebhepetreMentuhotep,and he lived through the transitionalperiod in which power passed from the EleventhDynasty to the Twelfth. Hatnoferwas born late in the reign of NebpehtyreAhmose, another of Egypt'smost renowned rulers,and lived to see the great female pharaoh MaatkareHatshepsutbecome the principal ruler of Egypt. Khonsu, who was probablyborn at the very end of the EighteenthDynasty,nearlytwo centuriesafterHatnofer,lived most of his long life under a single pharaoh,UsermaatreRamesses,called the Great-the most illustrious ruler of Dynasty 19.

The majority of the illustrationsin this Bulletinare of objects that were found in the tombs of Wah, Hatnofer,and Khonsu, but supplementarymaterial from the same periods has also been included. The black-and-whitephotographsare from the archivesof the EgyptianExpedition and were taken by Harry Burton (1879-1940), the expedition'sphotographer.The line drawingsare based on those made in the field by the expedition'sarchaeologistsand draftsmen. Egyptianchronology is an ongoing area of study that is constantlybeing updated.The B.C.dates that appearin the text of this Bulletinarebased on the chronologycurrentlyin use in the galleriesof the Department of EgyptianArt. These dates should be understoodas approximate,althoughthe prefix circahas been droppedexceptin the captions for the illustrations.

THE

M A N A G E R

T HE

jII _

Dynasty 11

STOREHOUSE

2124-1981 B.C.

First Intermediate Period

2150-2030

Nebhepetre Mentuhotep (II) 2051-2000 B.C. Reunification of Egypt 2030 B.C. Birth of Wah 2005 B.C.

SeankhkareMentuhotep (III) 2000-1988 B.C. Nebtawyre Mentuhotep (IV) 1988-1981B.C. - - - -

Dynasty 12 1981-1802

B.C.

Sehetepibre Amenemhat (I) 1981-1952B.C. Death of Wah 1975 B.C. Capital moved north 1975 B.C.

Middle Kingdom 2030-1640 B.C.

B.C.

Figure2 Relief depicting Nebhepetre Mentuhotep(detail) FromwesternThebes(DeirelBahri,temple of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep).Dynasty11. Painted limestone. H. 141/8 in. (36 cm).

RogersFund,1907 (07.230.2) Theancient Egyptiansconsidered NebhepetreMentuhotepone of their greatest kingsbecause he reunitedUpperand LowerEgypt after a periodof conflict. His Horusname,Uniterof the Two Lands,appearsin the rectangular device at the upperleft of this detail, and his personalname, Mentuhotep,is written in the oval-shapedcartouchebeside it.

ust over four thousandyearsago, in about 2005 B.C.,a boy named Wah was born in the Upper Egyptian provinceof Waset,which took its name from the city betterknown today by its ancient Greekname Thebes.At that time, Thebeswas the capitalof all Egypt, and NebhepetreMentuhotep,founder of the Middle Kingdom,was nearingthe end of his long reign.Nebhepetrewas a member of the Thebanfamilythat had controlleda largepart of Upper Egypt for severalgenerations.Earlyin the third decadeof his reign,about twenty-fiveyears beforeWah'sbirth, the king had reunited Upper and LowerEgyptaftera period of civilwarand had takenthe Horusname Sematawy-Uniter of the TwoLands.For his accomplishment,Nebhepetrewas foreverhonored by the Egyptiansas one of their greatestpharaohs. While growingup, Wahundoubtedly heardtales of the difficulttime when there had been no supremeleaderruling over the two lands of Egyptand Thebeswas cut off from tradewith the foreignlands to the northeast.He must havebeen told countlesstimes of the heroic deeds of Nebhepetreand his supporters,who had fought to reunitethe Nile Valleyin the south with the delta in the north. But in Wah'slifetime therewas peace,and prosperitywas returningto the land. Earlyin his life, probablywhen he was six or seven,Wahbeganstudyingto become a scribe.Learningthe art of writingwas a long, painstakingprocessaccomplished primarilyby copyingstandardreligious texts,famousliteraryworks,songs, and poetry.Wahmay havemasteredboth the formalhieroglyphicand the cursivehieratic scripts,memorizinghundredsof signs and learningwhich had specificmeanings in themselves;which representedsounds and could be used to spell out words; which were determinatives,or signs that give clues as to the meaningof a word;and which could be used in more than one of

these ways.He would havepracticedforming the signs, learningtheir correctsize and spacingin relationto one another.He would also havelearnedto mix ink and to makebrushesfrom reeds,for Egyptian handwritingwas a form of painting,and the finest scribesdevelopedpersonalhands that were calligraphicin style. Sometimein his youth, perhapsquite earlyin his scribaltraining,Wahwent to work on the estateof Meketre,a wealthy Thebanwho had begun his careeras a governmentofficialduringthe reign of Nebhepetreand eventuallyrose to the exalted position of "sealbearer,"or treasurer-one of the most powerfulpositions at court. A man of Meketre'simportanceprobably owned a greatdeal of land, and his private domain would havebeen virtuallyselfsufficient,with tenant farmers,artisansand other specializedlaborers,scribes,administrators,and servantsall living and working on the estate.Wahprobablybegan his serviceas one of the lower-levelscribes, keepingaccountsand writingletters.Ultimately,he became an overseer,or manager, of the storeroomson the estate. We can speculateabout some of Wah's duties thanksto a set of wooden models that were probablymade during his lifetime as part of the burial equipment of his employer, Meketre (see pp. 12-13). These

small scenes,which form one of the finest and most complete sets of Middle Kingdom funerarymodels ever discovered,can be interpretedon more than one level. All of them have symbolic meanings connected with Egyptianfunerarybeliefs,but they also provide a pictureof the dayto-day tasksthat were performedon an ancient Egyptianestate.The basis of Egypt'seconomy was agriculture,and the grains,freshfruits,and vegetablesraised on Meketre'slands would havebeen his most importantassets.A largeportion of the crops would have been dried or processedinto oil and wine, stored,and used throughoutthe year in the estate's

Figure3 Fragmentof a quiver (?) FromwesternThebes(el-Khokha, MMAtomb 830). Dynasty11. Dyed leather. W. 5/8 in. (13 cm).

RogersFund,1928 (28.3.5) Thisfragmentwas probablypart of a decorativeborderthat was attached aroundthe top of a quiveror spearcase. Thecraftsman who made it sewed together wide stripsof red and green dyed leather,then wove narrowerstrips of red,green,yellow,and black throughslits in the surfaceto formthe decorativepattern.

kitchens.Some of the producewas set aside for taxes and salaries.Anythingleft over could be tradedfor rawmaterialsor luxury items not availableon the estate. Breadand beer,the staplesof the Egyptian diet, were made from the same ingredients and would havebeen producedin a bakeryand a brewerythat wereprobably side by side. The bakingof breadwas a fairlystraightforwardprocess:the grain was pounded, groundinto flour,formed into loaves,and baked.Brewingwas a longerprocessrequiringseveralextrasteps. The bakerysuppliedloavesof coarsebarley flour that were only partiallybaked,so as not to kill the leaveningagent.Theseloaves werebrokenup and mixedwith waterand crusheddates,which providedsugarto promote fermentation.When the resulting brewwas ready,the thickliquid was strainedthrougha sieve and decantedinto jarsthat were sealedfor lateruse. Meketreprobablyalso employedfowlers to catchwild birds and fishermento net or harpoon the abundantfish in the Nile. Bees were raisedfor their honey, and domestic ducks and geese for their eggs and meat. Therewould havebeen herdsmen for the estate'sgoats and cattle,which providedboth milk and meat. Cattle designatedfor slaughter were fattenedand even force-fed-a practice recordedin numerous models, wall paintings, and reliefs

from all periods (see fig. 13).Afterthe animals were killed, the meat that was not to be used immediatelywas dried,and the hides were processedinto leatherfor stool seats,drum covers,sandals,shields,quivers (see fig. 3), and certaintypes of protective clothing, such as archers'wrist guards. Leatherthongs were also needed for tools and weapons. In addition,artisanson the estateproduced ceramicvesselsin which to storebeer and wine; carpentersmade and repaired furniture,doors,windows,and perhaps even coffinsand other funeraryequipment, when necessary;weaverswove the hundredsof yardsof linen used in everyaspect of life and for wrappingmummies after death.In his adultyears,Wahprobablyoversawthe output of all of the artisanalshops, as well as the storageof agriculturalproduce,the payingof taxes,and the doling out of wagesin grain,cloth, and other productsfor work done on the estate. As a young man, Wah must havebeen an imposing individual;at nearlysix feet, his height far exceededthat of most of his contemporaries.However,at some point he seems to have injuredboth of his feet, and his duties as a scribeand overseer probablyallowedhim to maintain quite a sedentarylifestyle.Perhapsas a resultof these circumstances,by his mid-twenties Wahhad become obese-a sign of great prosperity,but also perhapsof poor health, for he died before he was thirty.

Figure4 Statuette of Wah Plasteredand paintedwood; linen.H. 12/8 in. (32.2 cm). RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.210) Thisstatuette, intendedto serve as a home for Wah'sspirit, depictsa young man in the prime of life. Fullof vigor,the little figure has the imposingpresenceof a much largerstatue. The linen wrapmay imitatethe type of long skirtwornby MiddleKingdom officials.Beneaththis, the figurewears the moretypical short kilt,carvedinto the wood and paintedwhite.

Figure5 Scribesfrom Meketre'smodel granary Plasteredand paintedwood. H. of right-handfigure61/8 in. (15.5 cm). RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.11) Earlyin his career,Wahwas probably responsiblefor recordingthe goods broughtto Meketre'sgranariesand other storerooms.A varietyof writingsurfaceswere availableto Egyptianscribes.One of the figuresshown here writes on a whitewashedboard,while the other uses a rollof papyrus.

Figure6 Writing boardof an apprentice scribe Provenanceunknown.Dynasty11 or earlier.Whitewashedwood and ink.H. 85/8 in. (22 cm). Gift of EdwardS. Harkness,1928 (28.9.5) It is clear fromthe awkwardly formedhieroglyphsand their unevenspacingthat this is the workof an inexperiencedscribe who was practicinghis penmanship.Theboardcould be used again and again by wipingoff the inkand addinga new coat of whitewash.

Figure7 Scribe'spalette and brushes FromThebes.Dynasty21 (ca. 1000 B.C.). Wood, ink, and reed. L. of palette 191/8 in.

(48.6 cm). HarrisBrisbaneDick Fund,1947 (47.123) Althoughthis writingequipment belongedto a man who lived about a thousandyears after Wah,palettes and reed brushes changed little duringthat time. Thetwo depressionsat one end of the palette hold remnantsof red and blackink,and the brushes could be stored in the slot carved in the center.

Figure8 Facsimileof a scene depicting an estate By CharlesK.Wilkinson,Graphic Section,EgyptianExpeditionof TheMetropolitanMuseumof Art. Ca. 1930. Temperaon paper. H.39 in. (99 cm). RogersFund, 1930 (30.4.57) Thisscene, copied from a wall in a New Kingdomtomb,shows some of the activitiesthat might have taken place on a private estate. Inthe center of the top register,men gathergrapes, which are being processedinto wine in the registerbelow.At the far rightis a two-story house with date palmsgrowingin its courtyard.In the bottom register, cattle are being brandedat the far left, while a kneelingscribe recordsthe variousproceedings.

Figure9 Account ostracon Fromthe causewayof Meketre's tomb. Limestoneand ink. W. 81/4in. (21 cm). RogersFund and EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.161)

tion of a tomb, probablythat of Meketre.Theoverseersreceived five times what the ordinary quarrymenwere paid.

Thislimestonechip, called an ostracon,was used by a scribeto recordthe paymenthandedout by a stewardnamedIntefto the artisansworkingon the construc-

bakery Plasteredand paintedwood. H.of tallest figure71/8in. (18 cm). RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.12)

Figure10 Bakersfrom Meketre'smodel

Thefigures in Meketre'smodels, especiallythose from the combined bakeryand brewery,are small worksof art in their own right.Althoughseveralfigures in a given model may be performing the same task, each is a distinct individual,and each has a slightly differentpose.

Ill

Figure11 Brewersfrom Meketre'smodel brewery Plasteredand paintedwood. H.of tallest figure77/8in. (20 cm). RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.12) The most strikingaspect of Meketre'sbrewersis their arms, which were speciallycraftedfor each figureaccordingto the task he performs.Thesefiguresand those in Meketre'sother models convey a feeling of motion that was seldom achieved,or desired, in moreformalEgyptianstatuary. Note particularlythe pose of the man decantingbeer at the right.

Figure12 Duck hunter and man harpooning a fish, from Meketre'smodel sporting boat Plasteredand paintedwood; linen;linen twine; copper. H.of tallerfigure9/8 in. (24.5 cm). RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.6)

121

Figure13 Meketre'smodel stable Plasteredand paintedwood. H. 11 in. (28 cm). RogersFund and EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.9) In the backof the stable, cattle are feeding at a trough.In the front room,two men are forcefeeding two animals,one of which is crouchingon the ground. Figure14 Meketre'smodel slaughterhouse Plasteredand paintedwood; linen.Maximumh. of walls201/4 in. (51.5 cm). RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.10) On the upperlevel of the slaughterhouse,meat has been hung up to dry,while the butcheringof cattle takes place below.

113

THE

MANAGER OF THE

STOREHOUSE

141

y the timeof Wah'sdeath-prob-

ablybeforeYear6 in the reign of SehetepibreAmenemhat,the first king of Dynasty12-Meketre was in the processof preparinghis own impressive tomb in the cliffs of westernThebes,facing the valley where a funerarycomplex was being built for the king. Severalsubsidiarytombs were included in Meketre's burial complex, and Wahwas assigneda small corridorcut into the ratherfriable bedrockjust below the terracein front of his employer'stomb. Afterhis funeral,the entranceto Wah's tomb was buried beneath the rubble fill used to build up the causewayleading to the porticoed entranceof Meketre'sdecoratedofferingchapel.While Meketre's tomb was plunderedand his beautiful chapel destroyedby earthquakesand reuse of its building materials,Wah'slittle tomb remainedhidden for nearlyfour thousand years,until it was uncoveredby the Museum'sEgyptianExpeditionin 1920. Finding only a few desiccatedfood offeringsand a coffin in the rathercrudely cut, undecoratedcorridor,the archaeologists were deceivedinto thinking that they had found the tomb of a poor man. But Wahwas by no means poor, and his burial suggeststhat he was one of Meketre'smost valued retainers. In preparationfor his funeral,Wahhad been very carefullymummified. In the earlyTwelfthDynasty,bodies were preservedin a solution of natron,a type of salt that was mined in certainareasof the vast desertsthat borderthe Nile Valley. First,Wah'sembalmersremovedhis liver and intestines.In many other cases,these organs,as well as the lungs and the stomach, were removedfrom the body, mummified, and placed in four separatevessels called canopicjars;but no such containers were found in Wah'stomb. Afterbeing treatedwith natron,Wah was wrappedin hundredsof yardsof linen sheets,pads,and bandages.Whilewrapping

the mummy,the embalmersplacedamulets and various pieces of jewelryin Wah's hands, on his chest, and around his neck. Among these ornaments,quite close to the body,was a beautifulbroad-collarnecklace made of brilliantblue faiencebeads. Severallayersabovethis, threelargescarabs were placed over the areaof the right wrist and hand. Two of the scarabsweresilver, one was of lapislazuli,and eachwas strung on linen twine with two beads of glazed steatiteor carnelian. In the earlyTwelfthDynasty,the scarab was a relativelynew invention,but it was alreadyvery popularas an amuleticdevice. The beetle itself had long been associated with the risingsun, and the word for "beetle"was similarin sound to the word for "become,"or "comeinto being."Thus, the simple oval scarab,often with a magical patternor inscriptioncarvedinto its base, was a powerfulsymbol of rebirthand continued existenceafterdeath.Castin three sections that were solderedtogether,the largerof Wah'ssilverscarabsis a superb exampleof Egyptianmetalwork(see figs.15a,15b).A linen cord passesthrough a gold tube that runs lengthwisethrough the scarab.Details of its body and the pattern on the base were chasedinto the surface,and the wing caseswere inlaidwith gold hieroglyphsgiving the names and titles of Wahand his employer,Meketre. Afterthe scarabshad been coveredwith half a dozen layersof bandages,three necklaceswere placed around the neck of the mummy-one of faience,one of gold, and one of silver.Then the wrapping processbegan in earnest,and accordingto a set pattern.First,pads of folded linen fabricwere placed on the chest and down the front and sides of the body. Next, a largesheet was folded around the mummy and securedby a long strip of linen wound in a figureeight aroundthe shoulders, acrossthe chest, and around the feet. Finally,half a dozen or more bandages ripped from a long sheet were wrapped

Figure15a Wah'sscarab bracelet Silver,gold, glazed steatite, and linen cord.L. of scarab 1'/2 in. (3.9 cm). RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (40.3.12) Figure15b Undersideof scarab

aroundthe mummy in severallayers. This entire processwas repeatedagain, and again,and again. About a thirdof the way through the wrapping,the head and chest of the mummy were coveredwith a mask (see fig. 19) made of cartonnage,a materialconsistingof linen and plasterthat could be modeled into the desiredshapeand decoratedafterit dried.A thin sheet of gold foil was appliedto the face of the mask,and a shortbeardof paintedwood was attached to the chin. Side-whiskersand a mustache wereaddedin paint,as were eyebrowsand eyes,shown as if outlined in kohl.A striped headclothwas paintedin blue and green and a broad-collarnecklacein red,blue, and greento representbeads of faienceand carnelian.Afterthe maskwas put in place, the wrappingcontinueduntil the mummy had become a huge cylinderabout sixty inches in circumference,with only the face of the maskleft visible. Wah'scoffin was made of cedar,a wood that had to be imported from Lebanon; the lapis lazuli for one of his scarabsmay have come from Afghanistan;and the silver in his jewelryis of a puritythat suggests that it was mined in lands bordering the AegeanSea,not in Egypt.The presence of these luxury materialsin a tomb at Thebesindicatesnot only the prosperityof the tomb owner but also the extent to which southernEgypthad become reconnected with the easternMediterranean since the end of the FirstIntermediate Period,duringwhich Upper Egypthad been unableto acquiregoods from Anatolia, the Near East,and centralAsia. When the mummy was ready,a procession of mournersaccompaniedWah on his finaljourney.Depending on where Meketre'sestatewas located-on the east or west bank of the Nile-the cortege would have crossedover the river,passed through a wide strip of cultivatedland on the floodplain,and followed the desert path to the tomb. The coffin was probably

transportedon a wooden sledge and was protectedwith a linen pall, tied in place with three strips of cloth. Afterbeing lowered down the steep ramp at the entrance to the tomb, the coffin was carriedto the back of the corridor,the linen stripswere untied, and the pall was discardedon the floor (see fig. 18).A huge sheet of heavy linen was folded and placed in the bottom of the empty coffin, along with a wooden headrest,to form a bed for the mummy. Next, Wah'smummy was laid on its left side in the coffin,with the head directly behind the eye panel painted on the outside. A copper mirrordisk with no handle was placed near the mummy'sface, and a pair of wooden sandals,never intended to be used in life, were set at its feet. A fine statuettecarvedfrom wood and wrapped in a piece of fringedlinen cloth (see fig. 4) was also enclosed as insurancethat Wah's spiritwould have a home if the body did not survive. If Wahwas marriedand had children, they would havebeen very young, and his burial ceremonymay havebeen carried out by a brotheror anothermale relative ratherthan by his eldest son, as was customary.At some point in this ceremony, priestswould have filled the air with incense,made libations and offeringsof food to the mummy and the statuette,and readofferingtexts that would guaranteea limitless supply of "breadand beer,cattle and fowl, and all good and pure things upon which a spirit lives." AfterWah'smummy and the other equipmentwere placed inside, the coffin was packedwith more than thirty folded sheets;three thick wooden staffs,perhaps an indication of his office,were laid near the top; and warm resin was poured on the uppermostlayerof linen. Finally,the coffin was closed. Pegswere driveninto predrilledholes at the head and foot to securethe lid, and the large,cylindrical boss that had servedas a handle for lifting the lid was sawn off and discardedon the

floor of the tomb. Bread,beer,and a shoulderof beef-the choicest cut, used for ceremonialoccasionsand in offerings to the gods-were arrangedin front of the eye panel of the coffin. The entranceto the

Figure16 Thetomb of Meketrewas carved into the edge of the cliffs at the top of a steep slope that was later evened out with rubbleto formthe causeway,borderedby thick mud-brickwalls, that is its most recognizablefeature.The entranceto Wah'stomb is below the terrace,at the top of the causeway,barelyvisible inside the right-handenclosurewall. Anothersmall opening,just outside the enclosurewall, marksa cache of embalmingmaterials.

161

small tomb was sealedwith mud brick, and Wahwas left to begin his journey to the netherworldwith all of the provisions necessaryto assurethe survivalof his ka, or life force,in the afterlife.

Opposite,top Figure17 View of the blockedentranceto Wah'stomb as it appearedon March24, 1920

Opposite,bottom Figure18 The interiorof Wah'stomb, shown with his coffin at the back, is smallerthan it appears.The priestsperformingthe funerary ritualundoubtedlywould have found the corridorquite constricting.The low ceiling required a personeven of average height, five and a half feet tall, to duck his head, and an adult standingin the center of the corridorwith armsoutstretchedcould have easily touched the side walls.

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Figure19 Wah'sfunerarymask Cartonnage,gold foil, and wood. H. 263/8in. (67 cm). RogersFund and EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (40.3.54)

181

Clockwisefromtop left Figure20 Ringsand necklace Carnelianand linen thread;blueglazed steatite and linen thread; carnelian,turquoise,moss agate, amethyst,milkyquartz,greenglazed steatite, and twisted linen cord.L. of scarab 1 in. (2.6 cm). RogersFundand EdwardS. Harkness Gift,1920 (40.3.1,.11,.16) Thesingle barrelbead of highqualitycarnelianand the scarab of blue-glazedsteatite were both

found in the palmof Wah'sleft hand.Thesmall length of linen threadattached to each suggests that they were intendedas rings, but they probablyservedas funeraryamulets,not as jewelry wornduringlife. The lovely, asymmetricalbeadednecklace, though perhapsa piece of personal jewelry,seems to have been restrungfor the funeral,since the linen cord shows no sign of wear.

Figure21 Funerarybroad-collarnecklace Faienceand linen thread. W. 153/8in. (39 cm). RogersFund and EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (40.3.2) Wah'sfaience broadcollar is one of the finest examplesof this type of funerarynecklacefrom the early MiddleKingdom. Althougha few areas required reinforcingwith modernthread, the stringingis almost entirely original.

Figure22 Braceletand necklace Goldand twisted linen cord;lapis lazuli,carnelian,and twisted linen cord. L. of scarab 1'/2 in. (3.8 cm). RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (40.3.14, .17) Wah'sgold necklaceconsists of hollow beads of gold foil, made in two sectionsand solderedtogether at the middle.

Figure23 Wah's necklace Faienceand twisted linen cord. L. 201/2in. (52 cm). RogersFund and EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (40.3.15)

119

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Figure25 Meketre'smodel funerary procession Plasteredand paintedwood; linen. H. of right-handfigure in. (24 cm). RogersFundand 91/2 EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.8) A priestcarryinga censer and an elongatedjar for libationsleads a processionof three offeringbearers.Thefirst supportsa boardon his head that is piled with linen sheets, includingone that has been dyed red like the shawl that was found wrappedaroundWah's mummy.The next figurebalances a basketon her head containing baguette-shapedloaves of bread and two sealed beerjars, while in her righthandshe clutches a duck.The last figurecarries anotherduckand a basketfilled with flat, square-shapedbread. Together,the membersof the processionbringall that is needed to sustain Meketre'sspiritin the afterlife.Similarofferingswould have been madeat the actual funeralsof Meketreand Wah.

Figure26 WorkmencarryingMeketre's modelsfrom his tomb to the dig house in March1920

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Figure28 Eye panel on Wah'scoffin Paintedcedar.Overallw. of eye motif 151/2in. (39.5 cm). Rogers Fundand EdwardS. Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.202a) Wah'scoffin was built of cedar and paintedyellow.Offeringtexts were writtenon the lidand around the upperedge of the box. A pair of eyes was also paintedat the head end of the coffin'sproper left side, as was customaryin the MiddleKingdom.

Figure29 Priestsfrom one of Meketre's model funeraryboats Plasteredand paintedwood. H. of tallest figure 91/4 in. (23.5 cm).

RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.4) Thesethree priestfiguresprovide offeringsfor Meketre'sspirit.The priestat the left presentsa censer shapedlikea forearm,the hand claspinga bowl for the burning incense.Thepriestat the right offersa forelegof beef, and the one in the center readsfroma scrollof papyrusinscribedwith an essential partof the standard offeringtext: "1,000breadand beer,1,000 cattle and fowl."

123

THE

U S E M I S T R E S S -

Dynasty 17 1635-1550 B.C.

Second Intermediate Period 1640-1550 Sequenenre Tao 1560-1552 B.C. Kamose 1552-1550 B.C. Dynasty 18 1550-1295 B.C. Nebpehtyre Ahmose 1550-1525 B.C. Reunification of Egypt 1540 B.C. Birth of Hatnofer 1533B.C. (?) Djeserkare Amenhotep (I) 1525-1504 B.C. AakheperkareThutmose (I) 1504-1492 B.C.

AakheperenreThutmose (II) 1492-1479B.C. Hatshepsut:principalqueen Thutmose (III) 1479-1425 B.C. Menkheperre New Kingdom 1550-1070 B.C.

Regency of Hatshepsut 1479-1473 B.C. Burial of Hatnofer 1473 B.C. Coreign of Menkheperre Thutmose 1473-1458 B.C.

andMaatkareHatshepsut Death of Maatkare Hatshepsut 1458 B.C.

Sole reign of MenkheperreThutmose 1458-1425

B.C.

241

B.C.

Figure30 Bowl Faience.Diam.71/8in. (18 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.8) Thisfaience bowl was amongthe objectsfound in Hatnofer'stomb. Thecolorand decorationevoke the imageof lotus blossoms growingin a pond.

ometime in 1473B.C.,an elderly woman named Hatnoferwas laid to rest in the Thebannecropolisin a small rock-cuttomb that had been preparedfor her by her son Senenmut.Hatnofer had lived through an extraordinary time in Egypt'shistory.She was born late in the reign of NebpehtyreAhmose in the vicinity of Armant,a town some ten miles southof Thebes.In about1540 B.C., lessthan a decadebeforeHatnofer'sbirth,Ahmose had reunitedthe two lands of Egyptby defeatingthe Hyksos,descendantsof migrantsfrom westernAsiawho had settledin the easterndeltaand controlled LowerEgyptand partof the Nile Valleyto the north of Thebesfor about a century. Identifiedby historiansas the founder of the New Kingdomand the firstrulerof the EighteenthDynasty,Ahmose was the brotherof Kamose,the last king of the SeventeenthDynasty,whose familyhad ruled Thebesand part of southernEgypt duringwhat we now call the Second Intermediate Period.Since Hatnofer'shometown was part of the Thebanprovince, one or more of her close male relatives

almost certainlywould have fought alongside these Thebankings in the battlesthat eventuallydrovethe Hyksosback into westernAsia and securedthe throne of a united Egyptfor Ahmose. When we considerthat she lived in the middle of the second millennium B.C.,

Hatnoferwas fortunateto have been born into a culturethat recognizeda woman as an individual,not merelyas the possession of her male relatives.In Egypt,a woman could inherit,buy, and sell propertyin her own right.Any materialgoods or land that she brought to her marriageremained hers, and she could make a will to distribute her propertyas she wished. She could take grievancesbefore a judge,be a witness in a court case, and even sit on a jury. Although Egyptiansociety was essentially patriarchaland men generallyheld all positions of power,both on the local level and at the royalcourt, a wife could carry out at least some of her husband'sofficial duties when he was absent.Indeed, during Hatnofer'slifetime, circumstancesarose that alloweda woman to claim the most powerfulposition in the land. This exceptionalevent occurredwhen Hatnoferwas alreadyin her fifties,in 1479 B.C., when Aakheperenre Thutmose

"wentforth to the sky and joined the gods."Thutmose had no sons with his principalqueen (and half sister), Hatshepsut. Therefore,the king was succeededby the son of Isis,a secondaryqueen.This boy, who was also named Thutmose, took the throne name Menkheperre.Since the new king was too young to rule by himself, Hatshepsutbecame regentfor her nephew. The arrangementis commemoratedin the biographicaltext in the offeringchapel of the venerableofficialIneni, who had servedeveryEighteenthDynastyking since DjeserkareAmenhotep: Thegod'swifeHatshepsut wasmanaging the affairsof the land, the Two Landsbeing under her direction.Egyptin compliance workedfor her-the effectiveseed of the 125

god,whocameforthfromhim;theprow ropeof UpperEgypt,themooringstakeof theSouth,theefficientsternropeof Lower whosedirecEgypt;mistressof governance, tionwasefficient;theoneatwhosespeech theTwoLandsbecomepeaceful.

Figure31 Seated statue of Hatshepsut (detail) FromwesternThebes(DeirelBahri).Induratedlimestone. Overallh. 77 in. (195.6 cm). RogersFund,1929 (29.3.2) Thislifesize statue of Maatkare Hatshepsutonce stood in her mortuarytemple at Deirel-Bahri.

261

Hatshepsutwas not the firstEighteenth Dynastyqueen to wield significantpolitical power.She was, however,the firstto claim for herselfthe prerogativesand titles of a king, adoptingMaatkareas her throne name and becoming, in essence,the senior corulerof EgyptuntilYear21of hernephew's reign.She appearsto have made the transition from regentto king in Year7, and it seems to havebeen shortlythereafterthat Hatnoferdied. At the time of her death,Hatnoferwas a short, ratherstout grandmotherof about sixty-a "goodold age"in Egyptianterms. At some point, perhapsas a child in the house of her mother,Sit-Djehuty,Hatnofer acquiredthe nicknameTju-Tju.Justover five feet tall,with a delicatebone structure, she must havebeen quite attractiveas a young woman. On specialoccasions,she probablywore her darkbrown, naturally curlyhair in braidssimilarto those seen on a statuetteof one of her contemporariesthat is now in the Museum'scollection (see figs.33a,33b).In orderto achieve the volume necessaryfor this hairstyle, Hatnoferwould have augmentedher own hair with supplementarybraidsof the same color.Evenafterher death,when her mummy was being preparedfor burial, scoresof darkbrown supplementary braidswere woven into her white hair in an imitation of the style of her youth. Likeall Egyptians,the men as well as the women, Hatnoferwould have used variouskinds of cosmetics,includingoils and unguentsto protecther skin from the drynessof the Upper Egyptianclimate. She alsowould haveoutlinedher eyeswith kohl,a blue, green,or blackpowderof ground mineralsthat was thought to enhancethe eyes'beautywhile protecting

them from the sun'sglare.In orderto apply her makeupand admireher handiwork, Hatnoferhad severalmirrorsmadeof highly polished bronze or silverset into wood or metal handles.She also owned a bronze razor,which was found with other cosmetic implementsinside a basketin her tomb. Hatnoferprobablymarriedbefore the age of twenty,moving into the household of her husband,Ramose.We know nothing of Ramose'sbackground,but he seems to havebeen a man of modest meansanythingfrom a tenant farmerto an artisan or even a small landowner.He probably brought his wife into the house of his parentsratherthan to an establishment that was exclusivelyhis own. Egyptian households often compriseda number of generations,including parents,elderly grandparents,and unmarriedand married siblingsand their children.Prosperous householdswould also have included servants. In the earlyyearsof her marriage, Hatnoferwas probablysubordinateto her mother-in-lawand may have shared housekeepingduties with her husband's unmarriedsisters.Eventually,however,she became the head of her own household and was given the honorific title nebetper, meaning"housemistress." Although their contributionsare largelyunrecorded,women performed importantfunctions in nearlyeveryaspect of ancient Egypt'ssociety and economy.As the mistressof a household, Hatnofer caredfor the family'smaterialgoods and oversawthe storageand preparationof food, includingthe grindingof grain to produceflour for bread.If her husband was a farmer,she would have helped him with the harvest.Hatnoferprobablyalso made and mended the clothing, and she may even have plied flax fibersinto thread and woven the linen cloth that was needed for clothingand many other essentialitems. In the New Kingdommost linen was still woven on horizontallooms that could be set up with pegs driveninto the ground,

and this type of loom seems to havebeen employedalmost exclusivelyby women. Becauseof its durabilityand multitude of uses in life as well as in death,linen was one of the most valuablecommodities in the Egyptianeconomy,which was based on the bartersystem;any woman capable of weavinghigh-qualitycloth was thus a substantialasset to her household. Linenwas producedin a varietyof weavesand a wide rangeof qualities,from coarseto superfine.Whole sheets of coarsercloth, some more than sixty feet long, were folded to form mattresses, cushions, and blankets.Pieces of softer fabricwere made into loincloths, shirts, shifts,kilts, and tunics. Lengthsof sheer linen were pleatedand worn as fashionable outer garments.Old linen was used for cleaningand for wrappingand storing food, and small strips of cloth were tied aroundthe mouths of jarsto securestoppers and lids. Wornlinen was also saved for lateruse in mummificationor as grave goods. Threewooden chests containinga total of seventy-sixlong, fringedsheets of linen were found in Hatnofer'stomb. Rangingfrom fourteento fifty-fourfeet in length, the sheets had seen much wear,and some had been mended. Beforebeing placed in the chests,the individualpieces of fabrichad been laundered,pressed,and carefullyfolded into neat rectangles. Among the other objectsassociated with Hatnofer'stomb is a leathertambourine that was found just outside the entrance.Althoughit may havebeen used in the funeraryritualperformedat her burial,the instrumentwas probablyone of Hatnofer'spersonalpossessions.In ancient Egypt,just as today,music enrichedall spheresof life, from the familyhome to the templesof the gods. Musicalensembles includeddifferentcombinationsof flutes, harps,lutes, and percussioninstruments, as well as vocalistsand dancers.Professional musicians,both male and female, performedat public festivalsand were

probablyemployedin the homes of the wealthyand at the royalcourt. In Hatnofer'stime, women of some statusin the communityalso servedas musiciansin temple rituals.Since she was probablynot a professionalmusicianand had no title connectingher with a divine cult, Hatnofer probablyplayedthis tambourinein her own home or at the homes of friends, where she and fellow amateurmusicians would haveaccompaniedimpromptu singing,dancing,storytelling,and other informalentertainments. In a seeminglybizarreact for which the reason can only be guessed,Hatnofer's tambourinehad been damagedbefore it was laid in front of the tomb, where it was coveredwith debris.The red leathercover had been slit and sections of a chair-the only piece of household furnitureassociated with Hatnofer'sburial (see fig. 42)had been stuffedinside. This type of low chairwas usuallyused by women. The craftsmanwho made it employedlight and darkwoods to advantagein the decorativescheme, alternatingcolors in the open-workeddesign on the back panels and in the borderstripsof the braces.The openworkincludes a figureof the household god Bes, in the center,flankedby tyet amuletsand djedpillars,both of which would have ensuredthe well-being of the chair'sowner.The seat was made of linen cord,plaited into a herringbonemesh that miraculouslysurvivedits rough treatment when the chairwas dismantled.

Overleaf Figure32 Theentranceto Hatnofer'stomb, with contents shown in place 127

281

Figure33a Statuette of Taweret FromwesternThebes(Asasif). New Kingdom,early Dynasty18. Limestonewith traces of paint. H. 67/8in. (17.5 cm). Purchase, EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1926 (26.7.1404) The housemistressTaweretlived at about the same time as Hatnofer.Here,Taweret'shairis dressedin a style that was fashionableat Thebesduringthe early New Kingdom:two largelappets of smallerbraidshang in front, with three thickerbraidsdown her back.She also wearsa type of simplesheath dressthat was commonat the time.

Figure34 Basketand toilet articles FromwesternThebes(SheikhAbd el-Qurna,below TT71). New Kingdom,Dynasty18, earlycoThutmose reignof Menkheperre and MaatkareHatshepsut.Halfa grass and linen cord;Egyptian alabaster,linen, linen cord,and ebony;boxwoodand cypress. H.of basket(withoutcover)5 in. (12.8 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.189, .190, .199) Theobjectsshown here were discoveredwith the burialof an unnamedwomanwho livedat about the same time as Hatnofer. Thebasketcontainsa mass of fine braidsof darkbrownhumanhair

Figure33b Backof Taweret'shead

and three bundlesof loose, wavy locks.Thesetresses would have been used to augmentthe owner's own hairin orderto create the fashionablehairstyleof the period. The lid of the small alabasterjar has been coveredwith a scrapof cloth boundwith linen cordto keepthe contents-the powdery eye makeupknownas kohl-from spillingout. Whenfoundinsidethe basket,the sticklikekohlapplicator of polishedebonywas stuck througha fold in the linen.The small wooden box has two compartments,each with a slidinglid, and was probablyused forjewelry.

129

Figure35 Razorand mirror Bronzeand wood; bronze.H. of mirror63/4in. (17 cm). Rogers Fund,1936 (36.3.69, .13) Thisbronzemirrorwas actually found in one of the other coffins in Hatnofer'stomb (see fig. 54) but probablybelongedto Hatnofer. It was cast in two pieces;the mirrordisk has a tang that fits into a hole in the handleand is held in place by a small bronze peg.Thehandledepictsa woman's face with cow's ears and a curled wig-the emblemof Hathor,the goddess of love and beauty. Figure36 Two pairs of sandals FromwesternThebes(Sheikh Abdel-Qurna,below TT71). New Kingdom,Dynasty18, earlycoThutmose reignof Menkheperre and MaatkareHatshepsut. Papyrus,palm leaf, and grass; calfskin,stained red. L. of red sandals(each) 73/4 in. (19.8 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.159,.234) Thesesandalswere found in tombs of the same periodas Hatnofer's.AlthoughEgyptians often went barefoot,they also fashionedsandalsout of leather and fromvariousgrasses.The palm-leafsandalswere made for a child.

301

Figure37 Basketof food Halfagrass, palm leaf, and linen cord;ceramic;desiccated raisins, dates, dom palm nuts, and bread. H. of basketwith lid 101/4in. (26 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.57; .64-.66; foodstuffs unaccessioned) The large,oval storage basket(see also fig. 54) was made with coils of halfa grass sewn together with stripsof the same material,some of which were dyed red or black to create the patternof chevrons and rectangles.Insidethe rim, a flange to supportthe lid was attached to the side of the basket with palm-leafstrips.Similar stripswere used to reinforcethe bottom of the basketand several of the lowest coils. The basket was filled with breadand fruit to sustain Hatnofer'sspirit in the afterlife.

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Figure38 Thismodelof a weavers'shed found in the MiddleKingdom _ 40 E gXtomb of Meketre(see p. 7) shows some women weavingcloth on horizontallooms while others preparethread.Thewomen standingby the wall are measuring out the warpthreads.The model itself, excavatedin 1920 by the Metropolitan'sEgyptian ~~~13 ^Expedition,is now in the Egyptian Cairo. _ I MusMuseum,

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Figure39 The photographat left illustrates the differentqualitiesof linen found in the tomb of Hatnofer. marks, and each also

Figure40 Facsimileof an offering scene (detail) By Normande GarisDavies, GraphicSection, Egyptian Expeditionof The Metropolitan Museumof Art.Ca. 1930. Tempera on paper. Overall 543/8 x 64 in.

(138 x 162.5 cm). RogersFund, 1930 (30.4.33) In the late Eighteenthand early NineteenthDynasties,both men and women wore elaborately pleatedouter garmentson formal occasions.Thesheer qualityof the finest linen is suggested in wall paintingsof the period,such as this fromthe Thebantomb of Userhat(New Kingdom,early Dynasty19, ca. 1290 B.c.), in which the mutedcolor of flesh is visiblethroughthe fabriccovering the armsof the figures.

131

Figure41 Gable-topped chest and linens Whitewashedwood; linen. H. of chest 173/8in. (44 cm). Rogers Fund,1936 (36.3.56,.54, .111,.140)

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Figure42 Chair Boxwood,cypress,ebony,and linen cord. H.207/8in. (53 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.152) Skillfullycarvedand finished, Hatnofer'schair is a fine example of Egyptianwoodworking.The variouselements were assembled with mortise-and-tenonjoinery, with pegs to hold the tenons in place. Pegs also fasten the braces to the backand to the seat. The joins were reinforcedwith a resinousglue.

321

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Thiswhitewashedchest (see also fig. 54) was one of three found in Hatnofer'stomb.Twoof the chests, includingthis one, were probablymade especiallyfor Hatnofer'sburial.Theywere filled linen sheets of variousqualities and weaves. Shown here with the chest are a shirt of fine linen; a sheet of superfineweave, probably used as an outer garment; and a sheet of coarserweave more than seventeen yardslong, which may have servedas a mattress. After it was packedwith linen,the chest was tied shut with a piece of linen cord that was securedwith a mud seal.

Figure43 Thisphotographshows the entranceto Hatnofer'stomb as it was discovered.A rectangular tambourineof red-stainedleather stretchedover a wood frame had been placedin front of the tomb's entrancebeforethe area was coveredwith debris.Hatnofer's tambourine,almost thirty inches long, is one of the only examples of its type that has been found largelyintact. It is now in the EgyptianMuseum,Cairo.

Figure44 Figuresfrom a model traveling boat FromwesternThebes(tombof Meketre).MiddleKingdom,early Dynasty12, reignof Sehetepibre Amenemhat.Plasteredand painted wood. H. of harp61/4 in. (16 cm). RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1920 (20.3.1) These beautifullycraftedfigures, one playingthe harpand the other singing, bringto minda form of Egyptianpoetryknownas ?L~ ~ 5:IE i ""the harper'ssong, in which the singer encourageshis listenersto enjoy life. Here,the harper'seyes appearto be closed in concentration on his music;however,in Egyptianart, the conventionof partiallyclosed eyes was generally used to indicateblindness.

Figure45 In this drawingof female musicians from the tomb of Rekhmire, who servedas vizierto MenkheperreThutmose,one woman playsa tambourinesimilarto Hatnofer's.

133

THE HOUSEMI'

STRESS

Figure46 Artist'ssketches of Setnenmut FromwesternThebes(S;heikh Abdel-Qurna,below T1r71). Limestone.W. 63/4in. (I cm). l17 RogersFund,1931 (31.z1.2)

IthoughHatnoferperformedor oversawmany taskswithin her S household,her primaryresponsibility was to bear and rearchildren.The namesof six childrenbelongingto Hatnofer and Ramosehavebeen preservedfor us: two daughters,Nefrethorand Ahhotep, and four sons, Senenmut,Amenemhat, Pa-iry,and Minhotep.Senenmutis by far the best-known member of the family;his likenessis representedon severalsurviving ostraca,or limestone chips used as sketch pads (see fig. 46). As a child, he must have studied to become a scribe,and that training enabledhim to pursuea careerthatwas to provebeneficialto his familyin the coming years.Havingrisen to the high position of stewardof the estatesof Amun, Senenmutalso became tutor to Princess Neferure,the daughterof Aakheperenre Thutmose and Hatshepsut.Later,as overseer of all works of the king, he directed the construction of, and may even have

designed,the mortuarytempleof Maatkare Hatshepsut, one of the greatest achievements of ancient Egyptian architecture.

Unfortunatelyfor Hatnofer,her husband died when he was only in his midthirties,leavingher a widow probablywith young childrento support.It is possible that Senenmut,who may havebeen the eldest son, had reachedhis late teens when his fatherdied and thus became head of the household, taking on the responsibility for his mother and younger brothers and sisters. In ancient Egypt, family ties were strong, and the debt children owed to their parents was stressed in a form of writing known as wisdom literature. The texts were often composed as instructions from a father to his son. Senenmut seems to have taken to heart a passage from one of these compositions, the Instructions of Any, which might easily have been addressed by Ramose to Senenmut himself: Double the food your mother gaveto you, supporther as she supportedyou; she had a heavyburden in you, but she did not 341

abandonyou. When you were born after your months, she was yoked to you still,

youforthreeyears.... When breast-feeding she sent you to school, and you were taught to write, she kept watchingover you daily, with breadand beer in her house.

Senenmutcertainlyrepaidhis mother at the end of her life by excavatinga tomb for her on the easternslope of the hill that is now called SheikhAbd el-Qurna,just below the location he had chosen for his own offeringchapel (see fig. 1). He began to excavatehis chapel in mid-Marchof 1473 B.C.,by which time he was already

chief architectto MaatkareHatshepsut. With his connections at court, and the personalwealth they must have brought, he was able to providehis mother with a well-appointedburial.Many of the goods in Hatnofer'stomb were drawnfrom the royalstorehouses,including much of the linen and the jars of oil. Some of these items bore ink inscriptionsnaming the God'sWife Hatshepsut-her designation as queen. Othersdisplayedthe seal of Maatkare-Hatshepsut'sthrone name, takenwhen she became king (see p. 26). The presenceof both titulariesin Hatnofer'stomb suggeststhat she was buried at about the time of Hatshepsut'stransition from regentto senior corulerwith her nephew Menkheperre. When she died, Hatnoferwas mummified in the standardfashionof a well-to-do Egyptianof the earlyNew Kingdom.Four of her internalorgans-her liver,lungs, intestines,and stomach-were removed, preserved,individuallywrapped,and placed in four separatepotteryjarsthat were storedin a canopicchest made of wood. Her brainwas also removed,but, unlikethe other organs,it was discardedas something of no importance.Her heartwas left in place,since it was consideredthe seat of the intellectand had to remainwith the body. The body itselfwas completelycovered with solid natronand left for eight to ten weeksto dry out. Then,the natronwas

Figure47 Thisdetail of Hatnofer'sleather scrollshows the barkof the sun god, Re,with Isisstandingat the front,followed by Thoth,the god of wisdom.At the center is Khepri, the sun god in his manifestation at dawn. Behindhim is Maat, the goddess of truth,followed by Hatnoferherself.

removed,the skin was rubbedwith oils, and the hairwas dressedwith Hatnofer'ssupplementarybraids.Next, a numberof rings wereplacedon her left hand,and the wrapping was begun.First,the armsand legs werewrappedseparately,then the whole body was envelopedin hundredsof yards of sheets,pads,and bandages. To honor his mother,Senenmutpurchaseda well-craftedanthropoidcoffin made of wood and accentedwith gilding,as well as a cartonnagemummy maskcovered with gold foil. The most valuableof Hatnofer'sfunerarygiftswas her heartscarab (see figs.52a,52b).Madeof serpentine,this amuletwas beautifullycarvedwith considerabledetail,much of which has been obscuredby the gold mountingbands.The undersidewas incisedwith tiny hieroglyphs of a clarityseldommatchedon contemporaryheartscarabs.The simplemount of beatengold was gluedto the stone with a dark,resinousgum, and a loop of gold wire was solderedto the head end of the mount. The tour de force,however,is the flexible chain,woven of minute,interlockinglinks of fine gold wire,with everylink soldered separately.

AfterHatnofer'smummy was wrapped, it was envelopedin a sheet that was neatly sewn up the side. Her heart scarabwas laid over the chest, along with a small silver mirrorwith a wooden handle.Then, the maskwas arrangedover the head and chest, and the mummy was placed in the coffin on its back.Three scrolls,two of papyrusand one of leather,were then set on the mummy'schest (see fig. 47). The scrollswere inscribedwith chaptersfrom the Book of the Dead, a collection of texts intended to help Hatnofer'sspirit in its journey to the afterworld. As a final act of filialpiety,Senenmut returnedto the cemeterywherehis father and severalother familymembershad been buried,probablynearArmant.The mummies of Ramose,threeyoung women, and three children-perhaps daughters,or in-lawsand grandchildren,of Hatnoferwerebroughtto Thebes,providedwith coffins,and reinterredin Hatnofer'stomb. This was Senenmut'sgreatestgift, for it allowedthe spiritsof his fatherand relatives,all of whom had been buriedwhen the familywas less prosperous,to partake in the abundanceof Hatnofer'sburial.

135

/- -7T/,i

Figure48 Facsimileof a funeraryscene (detail) By CharlesK.Wilkinson,Graphic Section, EgyptianExpeditionof The MetropolitanMuseumof Art. Ca. 1930. Temperaon paper. Overall145/8x 317/8in. (37 x 81 cm). RogersFund,1930 (30.4.108)

361

In this scene from the New Kingdom tomb of Nebamunand Ipuky a (late Dynasty18, ca. 1360 B.C.), woman mournsthe death of her husband.Crouchedin front of his coffin, she bares her breastsand throws dust into her hairwhile tears streamfrom her eyes.

Figure49 A knottedpot sling found in Hatnofer'stomb (and now in the EgyptianMuseum,Cairo)consists of an open-workednet of multiply linen cord,with the cords plaitedin large loops at the top for suspension.At the bottom is a ringof halfa grass whippedwith linen cord.Thesling was found in a baskettray (see fig. 54) that also held a tufted linen seat cushion.Here,it has been photographedsurroundingone of the potteryamphorasfound in the tomb.

Figure50 Storage jar and amphora Egyptianalabasterand linen; ceramicand mud.H. of amphora 251/4 in. (64 cm). RogersFund, 1936 (36.3.82, .83) Thestoragejar on the left (see also fig. 54) containsa viscous, dark-amber-colored liquidconstituted of some sort of animalfat. Theamphora(see fig. 54) was sealed with Nile mudand stamped with an oval device that reads "God'sWife of everyland,Hatshepsut."Theink inscription,in hieraticscript,reads"Year7, setjwy oil ... ";the type of oil meant by setjwycannot be determined.

137

Figure51 Scaraboidrings and scarabs Glazedsteatite and silver;blueglazed steatite; blue-glazed steatite; glazed steatite and gold. L. of largestscarab 1 in. (2.5 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.3-.6) Theseringsand scarabswere found on the fingersof Hatnofer's left handwhen her mummywas unwrapped.Thescarabsand scaraboidseals, one set in gold and the other in silver,were all skillfullycarvedfrom soft steatite and then glazed.Thesmallerblue scarabis inscribedwith the name Hatshepsutand "God'sWife," the title she held before becoming corulerwith Menkheperre Thutmose.Thescaraboidat the far right is inscribedwith the image of a scorpion;the other,at far left, has an enigmaticdesign.

Figure52a Heartscarab Serpentineand gold. L. of scarab (includingmount)25/8in. (6.6 cm); I. of chain 311/8 in. (79 cm).

RogersFund,1936 (36.3.2) Figure53 Funerarymask Cartonnage,gold foil, Egyptian alabaster,obsidian,and ebony. H. 18 in. (45.8 cm). RogersFund, 1936 (36.3.1) Hatnofer'sgildedfunerarymask is a good indicationof how prosperousher family had become, thanksto the positionof her son Senenmut.Formedof cartonnage-linen and plasterworkedin a fashionsimilarto papier-macheand then gilded,it representsa womanwearinga heavy lappet wig coveredwith a striatedcloth. Theinlaideyes of Egyptianalabasterand polishedobsidianwere set into sockets of ebony.Around the chest and shoulders,the surface of the maskwas incisedwith a patterndepictinga beaded necklacewith teardrop-shaped beads along the loweredge.

381

Hatnofer'sheartscarabwas made of green stone, as stipulatedin the collection of texts knownas the Bookof the Dead.The underside was inscribedwith chapter 30B,which exhortsthe heart not to bearwitness against its owner at the momentof judgmentin the afterlife.Theflexible chain is a masterpieceof goldwork.Each segment of the chain is composed of six double links.

Figure52b Inscribedundersideof Hatnofer's heartscarab

M.N..

?:?:??;?.':??,.:jj::::.i:'`j-::i?iii:

;'?;?.::: ::?:: 1::::: .-.:..r?;..?.?;..?-.?..?.?:'':;::'::..::::::::f?:j:.;.:I :::'??:?:.????? ??? " "' ;:I? .? . :::::'?::.:i:?'i::::1.??.::. .?I??-?'?'??'::"?' ?i ? .?;? -.?-???.? ??I.?:?.'?? '?? "?????- '.'?:::-II?::::: :-:(.???:I;=?.??::??' ?:??? ?:??.?.?:':?:-;'i'::;.::.';I ??....-:.L.:?:..-.:.?._.?.?.?:-..:?::: ::??--.... ;; .?-????..? .:' :: ?..?:t??:::?:: ,?.?:;:'??.....?.....`;:?: ..?..? =-= :??::;::::::...':::':?:;..I:. ?;'::.:'.:.?::.:.: ?....:.':??.:?r.:;I:.?1::.::.'.:::::?i.: "?'?'-? 1.?:.?.?.:?.; :):.-::-_? :::l?.:j;iti:-.::?. :(:.:::;:. ?:;???.;?:??-:??? .:????; ?-..?.?.r???..? ?:..-. .-...... ??:;:? ?:?. ;.??:.?. ??. ?.:? ...\:;j:l;:::::::?:I:?.??:.:::.?::,:_: I::?:..:.?.??;? ;::::::i:?::: ::::-1:I::?:?.???'?? :?????':-''::?:, 1:?:?I: ???.? ??' `::::::.ji:.:?:.:::.'.: ....?';:::.:.?:_::?:.....:::.::;...?.::::::?'::.:::?..I::: ri::.`:.?:.-?:?: ??-?:?-??? ''-'''-;'';'''' :-'' ?:::::.::::?,?:-:.'.: ......:. '' ' "... ..:'.-'.-'..-.....?:::-.:'.1.: ?..?.? '?-;?' :??.:..::;:i._.;;......:.:.?::: 1? "'''"'"'"" .';?'?'?:'?:.:.??:.?(.?::'..?; .....?:?': ?::?'?:.:.1:'.'??;?;?????'?.:;?;,..... ???t::?:.?;.:?:-: : :?::i:::.I.:?:::::?'?: ::::-:.?.`:.:?: ?::.. :?::':?.':.?;-? ::':=?.??.,??;::;?.?:?:.....,;?:?.:? :'.:::. .::::::..::li;. "':?:?.?I??:.??-? ??-.??:,: -r-?.?? ::-:,.?:-::i :?:?:::r:: i:i.?:: ::? '-li:::::; :;....?::I:'. .:;.?.??,.....,:-:j: ;:; ja .?;;..?-.. .?.::-?_::?:::.::::::??-.-. " ?--`;:; ???:.? ?:?:?.:,::??.;:::::I:::.:::,::; " ; ?'?'"'?'?:??;.?.???-.-rl??? ;?-..:"':.:':::::;?.? -? :?;:?:::;.?'??:.;?????;?:?.:.'.?.':.-."'''`': :.:". .:?I;:()l:r:?,::: I.:.::::::::?:ij:::::?i::::..?:?.:.: :;:;:-;;:.: .::. :: .?.? o '? ??????-???? :":'?":.'?? ?'?";?.. e? :??:.;:l.r ??-??; ?: : '""...:'r..: ?..???.?..?? .:.??? ???':????: -? .:?.??-?????.' ??.?: c_ ...r.:;i:?: :? ???.?????: ? .d i.. " ..?.:?:?:? ..: -???? . .??. :'.'::??????? ?;?.-.?: .....-...."'' -????; ?: .??:. ::::.:::?.; t-?'. .:?:???:.?.?.:t.? *:. :?::?rr.? .:...?:??;?::-:::... ?.:??;::?:. ."-..."".-""': ........

?????.-.-.? -;?;.-??.?:::? ?.??.... ...-..?. ??? "??? .::'.: :;:::::' ??,.:-:..: i?:? ?.:'. :;.'?::?:::::._:::::i.f '??' :::.':: :::::..'. '... :?::?I ........'

Figure54 Planof Hatnofer'stomb showing its contents as found by the Museum'sarchaeologists

CM.O10 ------

ZO 30

SCALE 50

------

IRamose's coffin II Hatnofer'scoffin D Hatnofer'scanopicbox III coffin containingthe bronzemirror(fig. 35) and the faience bowl (fig. 30) J gable-toppedchest filled with linen (fig. 41) C basketof food (fig. 37) 4, G potteryamphoraand alabasterjar (fig. 50) M basketcontainingthe pot sling (fig. 49) L basketcontainingthe razor(fig. 35)

139

THE

SERVANT

THE

^X-nI /17

Dynasty 18

1550-1295

PLACE

TRUTH

d-P

B.C.

1500

1400

Ne;w Kingdom 1550-1070 DjeserkheperureHaremhab1323-1295

B.C.

Birthof Khonsu1300B.C.(?) 1300

Dynasty 19 1295-1186 B.C. Menpehtire Ramesses (I) 1295-1294 B.C. Menmaatre Seti (1) 1294-1279 B.C.

B.C. Ramesses(11)1279-1213 Usermaatre Death of Khonsu 1240

B.C. (?)

1200

lose to thirty-threecenturiesago, a young man named Khonsu becamea "servantin the Place of Truth"-a designationthat identified membersof the crewof artisanswho carvedand decoratedthe royaltombs of the New Kingdom.These artisans included quarrymen,scribes,draftsmen, sculptors,painters,and carpenters.The entire crew,which usuallynumberedno more than sixty,lived with their familiesin a walled community known to its residents simply as the Village.Situatedin a small desertvalley on the west bank of the Nile, at the edge of the Thebancliffs,the Villagewas within easy reachof the two principalroyalcemeteries:the GreatPlace, 401

now calledthe Valleyof the Kings;and the Placeof Beauty,or the Valleyof the Queens. More than 1,500yearsafter Khonsu'stime, a Christianmonastery (deirin Arabic)was built near the longabandonedtown (medinain Arabic),and this monastic establishmenteventually gavethe areaits modernname,Deir elMedina-"the monasteryof the town." Most Egyptianvillages,and even most royalpalaces,werebuilt of mud brick,a mixtureof mud and strawthat was shaped in molds and dried in the sun. The Village, however,was located some distanceaway from the sourceof these materials,and thus it was built largelyof stones that were collectedfrom the surroundinghills.As a

result,the walls of many of the houses are still preservedto a height of threeor four feet, and it is possibleto see the remainsof living rooms, household shrineshonoring local deitiesand ancestors,kitchens,underground storageareas,and staircasesthat once led to roofs that could be used for dryingfood and as workspacesor gathering placeson warm summerevenings. Khonsuwas the fourth son in a large family,and like most membersof the royal work crew,he and at least one of his brothershad followed in the footsteps of their father,Sennedjem,who was also a servantin the Placeof Truth.Sennedjem was an activemember of the crew in the time of MenmaatreSeti, the son of a former generalnamed Ramesseswho had ascendedthe throne of Egyptas Menpehtire and founded a new dynasty.Sennedjem had probablybegun his career under Menpehtire'spredecessor,DjeserkheperureHaremhab,duringwhose reign the Villagehad been restoredand expanded. Afterone of the expansions,Sennedjem and his wife, Iineferti,were assigneda largehouse at the southwesterncornerof the walled town. This must have happened aftersome of their childrenwere grown, because their eldest son, Khabekhnet,had alreadyjoined the crew and was assigned the house next door. Probablyabout ten yearsyoungerthan his brother,Khonsu may still havebeen a child, and he seems to have remainedat home even after becoming a member of the royalworkforce and to have eventuallyinheritedthe house from his father. By carefullyobservingthe night sky,the ancient Egyptianshad developeda very accuratecalendarbased on recurring astronomicalevents,such as the heliacal rising of the Dog Star,Sothis,which predicted the coming of the yearlyflood. The yearitself was divided into three seasons of four months apiece,and each month includedthreeten-dayweeks.The standard workweeklasted eight days,followedby

two rest days.When a king'stomb was in progress,Khonsu and his fellow artisans would begin their week by climbingthe ridge behind the Villageon a trail that still exists today.They would walk northeast along the cliff path to a second trail,which leads up sharplyto the top of a ridge and then down into the steep-sideddesertvalley that forms the GreatPlace.The first part of this journeywould have offered them a spectacularview of the Nile Valley, with its lush green fields ending abruptly at the edge of the desert.Here,the workers would havebeen able to see the cemeteries of their ancestors,includingthe impressive ruins of Meketre'stomb, where the storehouse managerWahhad alreadylain buried for seven centuries(see pp. 6-23). Insteadof makingthis trip each day,the men would sleep in stone huts located near the royaltomb or up on the ridge, returningto the Villageat the end of their eight-dayshift. During rest periods in their long workdays,the artisanswould sometimes pick up the smooth limestone chips that were a by-productof the quarrymen'swork. Some of these chips were employedby scribesfor recordkeepingand some by the chief draftsmenfor the small-scale preparatorydrawingsthat would then be copied onto the walls of the tombs. Still others were used by membersof the crew to practicetheir skills,offer prayersto their favoritedeities,or just amuse themselvesby sketching,drawingcartoons,or makingcaricaturesof each other,their superiors,and even the king. These drawings are usuallyfreerin style than the beautiful,but very formal,paintingsand painted reliefsfound in the royaltombs, and they lend a sparkof individualityto these otherwiseanonymous artists. On one particularlyfine ostracon (see fig. 55),an unidentifiedking, accompanied by his faithfulhunting dog, is shown spearinga lion. The fiercecreature has been wounded by four arrowsbut 141

still attacks,with its claws and teethbared.The figuresaredrawnin the

Figure55 Drawingof a king slaying a lion FromwesternThebes(Valley of the Kings).New Kingdom, Dynasties19-20 (ca. 12951070 B.C.).Limestone and ink.

W.47/8in. (12.5 cm). Purchase, EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1926 (26.7.1453)

421

spare,confidentstyle of an artistwho requires no gridlines to guide his hand.The king Itis elea -understood by as the of i" . Eg yjEgyptians one who maintainedorderin a chaoticworldstandson a ground_y leavig while the lionline, ...pc a' l c te the embodimentof ? _ andchaos-is ungrounded. The hieraticinscription abovethe lion reads,"Theslaughterof everyforeignland;the Pharaoh-may he Thereis no live,prosper,and be healthy." sceneof this type in any royaltomb,nor do standardhuntingscenesshow the king in nearhand-to-handcombatwith animals. In this elegantsketch,the artistseemsto haveexpressedhis personalhope that the currentrulerwould dominatethe enemies of Egyptandbe victoriousoverthe shadowy powersof chaosthat constantlythreatened the ordered,peacefullife of the Nile Valley. By leavingthe ostraconin the royalcemetery,a placemade sacredby the proximity of deceasedrulerswho had successfully completedthe journeyto the next world and werethemselvesconsidereddivine,the artistwas makinga pleadirectlyto the gods. Sennedjemand his sons were fortunate to live during a period of greatprosperity for the Village.At the height of Sennedjem'scareer,in the firstsixteenyears of the new dynasty,two royaltombs were required.Menpehtirewas an elderlyman when he became king, and he ruled for less than two years.As a result,his tomb had been only partiallyexcavatedwhen he died, and the small room on which the quarrymenwere workingat the time of his deathbecame the burial chamber.Only this small chamberwas ever decorated

with the scenes and texts that were considered essentialguides for the king'sspirit on its perilousjourney to the afterworld. Becausetime was short, the decoration was simply painted on the walls, insteadof firstbeing carvedin relief,and the colors are particularlywell preserved.Egyptian paintersused naturalpigments to createa limited palettethat included red (made from red ocher), yellow (eitheryellow ocher or orpiment,a form of arsenic), blue (copper),green (malachiteor copper), black (carbon), and white (chalk). To coverlargerareas,the paintersprobably used brushesmade of palm fiber and mixed their colors in largebowls. For small-scaleand detailwork, an artist might use his own painter'spalette and a brush similarto those employedby scribes.Workingby the light of oil lamps deep beneath the ground,these artists were able to give life not only to the figures of the king and the gods but also to the hieroglyphsof birds and plants and animals that were used to recordthe magical texts on the walls. Sennedjemprobablyworked on Menpehtire'srelativelysmall tomb and certainlyhelped to createthe monumental sepulchreof the next king, Menmaatre Seti,which today,aftermore than three millennia,is consideredthe finest example of royalfuneraryarchitecturepreserved from the New Kingdom.Khabekhnetand Khonsuwere among the artisanswho carvedand decoratedthe tomb of Menmaatre'sson Ramesses,known as Usermaatre,who was the most prolificbuilder of his time. In the GreatPlace,along with his own largetomb-which must have rivaledhis father'sin the beauty of its relief decoration-Usermaatre commissioned a monument in memory of his sons, at least twelveof whom predeceased him. This rock-cutstructure,the full extent of which is not yet known, is a warren of tunnels containingmore than 150 rooms, and it alone could have kept the

entire crew of royalartisansat work for a decadeor more. UsermaatreRamessesalso commissioneda number of monuments for his female relativesin the Placeof

Beauty,firmlyestablishingit as a burial place of queens.The tomb the king had preparedfor his beloved wife, Nefertari, is one of Egypt'sgreatnational treasures.

Figure56 In this photographof DeirelMedinataken from the cliffs lookingsouth, the ruinsof the walled workmen'svillage are visible on the left, and the terraced cemeteryis at the right. Figure57 View of the Villagefrom the west gate lookingeast

143

Figure58 Drawingof a bullfight Probablyfrom westernThebes. New Kingdom,Dynasties19-20 (ca. 1295-1070 B.C.).Limestone and ink.W. 71/4in. (18.5 cm). RogersFund,1924 (24.3.27) Bullfightswere encouragedby Egyptianherdersin orderto select the strongestand most aggressiveanimalsfor breeding. Imagesof fighting bullsare never found in royalfunerarymonuments of the New Kingdom,so this is not a trialsketch intended for copyingonto the walls of a king'stomb.Theartist may have made the drawingto practicehis skills,as a votive offeringto help bringabout the king'sdefeat of Egypt'senemies,or simplyto amuse himselfin a quiet hour of relaxation.

441

Figure59 In the scene reproducedbelow from a wall of the burialchamber of MenpehtireRamesses,the king, identifiedby the two cartouches above him, kneels between two figuressymbolizingthe ancestors of Upperand LowerEgypt.Because of the brevityof his reign,the decorationin Menpehtire'stomb was not carvedin relief.Instead, the figuresand texts were simply paintedon the carefullysmoothed and plasteredsurfaceof the wall, which allows us to appreciate fully the grace and detail of the two-dimensionalimage.

Figure60 Sketch of a dog FromwesternThebes(Valley of the Kings).New Kingdom. Limestone and ink. W. 37/8 in.

(10 cm). Gift of TheodoreM. Davis,1914 (14.6.245)

Thiswell-used artist'spalette belonged to Amenemopet,who servedas vizier in the mid-EighteenthDynasty.It contains the six basic colors of the Egyptian palette, plus two extras: reddishbrown,a mixtureof red ocher and carbon;and orange, a mixtureof Figure61 Painter'spalette orpiment(yellow) and red ocher.The ProbablyfromThebes.New paintercould also Kingdom,Dynasty18, reign his colors of Aakheperure vary by applyinga Amenhotep thickeror thinnerlayerof paint Woodand (ca. 1472-1400 B.C.). or by addingwhite or blackto pigment.L. 8/4 in. (21 cm). achieve a lighteror darkershade. 1948 RogersFund, (48.72)

Figure62 In the decorationof the tomb of Nefertari,wife of the second Ramesses,the talents of the relief sculptorand those of the painter mergeto createwhat the Egyptians would have regardedas a living image of the queen.

145

THE SERVANT IN THE PLACE OF TRUTH

n I

Figure63 Jar from the tomb of Sennedjem Paintedred pottery.H. 12 in. (30.5 cm). Fundsfromvarious donors,1886 (86.1.10)

461

he amount of time it took the crew to complete a royaltomb depended on the length of a king'sreign,and work was sometimes cut short by the pharaoh'sdeath,as discussedpreviously in relationto the elderlyMenpehtire(see p. 42). Because of the length of time

requiredfor mummification,the team would have up to three months to finish its work, and then the processwould begin all over again for the new pharaoh.Even before the beginning of the Nineteenth Dynasty,the principalfeaturesof a royal tomb had become standardized.Although the dimensionsvariedfromreignto reignusuallybecomingnoticeablylarger-the same seriesof corridorsand chambers would be carveddeep into the bedrock, culminatingin the pillaredhall that was the last restingplace of the king. Afterthe site for a new tomb had been chosen and its dimensions and exact floor plan decided upon, the quarryingwork would begin. The art of cutting a tomb into bedrockhad been perfectedover generationsand was accomplishedwith awe-inspiringprecisionby the skilled quarrymenof the Village,who most likely includedKhonsuand his relatives.Using bronze chisels,wooden hammers,and simple tools for measuringand leveling, they were able to tunnel more than three hundredfeet into the bedrockwhile dropping eighty feet in elevationand changing the tomb'saxis up to three times without deviatingby more than an inch or two from the intended orientationof the burialchamber.To achievesuch accuracy, trainedsurveyorsmust havebeen on hand to check and correctthe excavationof each room. Khonsu'sfather,Sennedjem, may havebeen one of these surveyors,for his burialequipmentincludeda set of inscribedmeasuringand levelingtools. While Sennedjemand his colleagues were at work on MenmaatreSeti'stomb, a number of innovationswere introduced, includinga wonderfulvaultedceiling in

the burialchamberand severalside rooms, one with high benches around the walls.This was also the first royaltomb in which everychamberalong the axis was decorated,not just the rooms close to the burialchamber.Accordingly,decoration of the tomb seems to have commenced before the quarryingwork was entirely finished.Beforethe decorationcould be executed,the walls had to be carefully smoothed. Then, a string soakedin red paint was pulled tight and snappedagainst the walls to provide guidelinesfor the draftsmen(see fig. 65), who sketchedthe outlines of the figuresand the hieroglyphs. More elaborategrids were sometimes drawnin areaswhere complicatedscenes or largefigureswere to be placed,but experiencedartistsneeded nothing more than a groundlinefor the figuresand borders for the columns of hieroglyphsin orderto transferthe decorativescheme from a small-scaledrawingonto the walls. Afterthe masterscribehad reviewedthe work of the draftsmen,sculptorscarved awaythe background,leavingthe hieroglyphs and figuresin relief.Any errors were correctedwith the applicationof fine plaster,and then the paintersadded color and detail. As compensationfor their meticulous work,the royalartisanswere paid in food, firewood,pottery,and clothing. They were also providedwith the servicesof laundrymen, and women were on hand to grind a family'sgrain.In addition to the two rest daysin everyweek, the workersof the Village enjoyednumerous religiousfestivals and feast daysthroughoutthe year.During this free time, they used their skillsto augment their income and barteredfor goods that were often made by other members of the community.A wooden box and a decoratedpotteryjar (see fig. 63) that belonged to Khonsu'sfamily may have been acquiredin this fashion. The same talentsthat createda spectacularsepulchrefor the ruling king were

also put to use in the more modest burial places of the workersthemselves.Located in a terracedcemeteryon the hillside adjacentto the Village,their funerary monumentsincludedsmall,vaulted,abovegroundofferingchapelsthatweretopped by miniature,steep-sidedpyramids.In or nearthe chapels,shaftscut deep into the bedrockled to groupingsof corridorsand vaulted rooms that were often used by many generationsof the same family.One of the finest of these tombs belonged to Sennedjemand his descendants.Built at the southern end of the cemetery,the family crypt was just a stone'sthrow away from its owners'house. The upperlevel of the complex had offeringchapelsfor both Sennedjemand Khonsu,and the decoratedburialchambercontainedthe mummies of Sennedjemand Iineferti;Khonsu and his wife, Tameket;Khonsu'syounger brotherRamesses;and four other named membersof the family,as well as eleven unidentifiedmummies. Khabekhnetand his familyowned a second tomb, which was cut into the terracejust above and slightlyto the south of his father's. When Sennedjemand Iinefertidied, aftertheir long, productivelives in the Village (Iinefertiwas over sixty at her death), Khonsu sharedresponsibilityfor their funeralriteswith his siblings,and vignettespainted on Iineferti'scoffin lid show Khonsuand his brotherRamesses honoring their parents.In preparationfor his own journey to the afterworld,Khonsu commissioned a pair of nesting anthropoid coffins made of wood (see fig. 72). The lid of each depicts Khonsuin the form of a mummy,with arms crossedover his chest and hands clutchingthe tyet amulet and djedpillar,the same magical symbols that were used some two hundred yearsearlieron Hatnofer'schairto ensure the owner'swell-being (see fig. 42). The coffins are coveredwith magicaltexts and vignettes featuringdeities as well as Khonsu and Tameket.A mask of painted

wood and cartonnagecompletedthe ensemble.Khonsuhad also obtained a painted canopic box to hold his internal organsand severalshawabtis,little figurines that were intended to substitutefor the deceasedowner if he were called upon to performany kind of manuallabor in the next life. When he finallybegan his own journey to the afterworld,Khonsuwas about sixtyfive yearsof age and had seen two generations of his descendantsenter the work crew.He was placed in the familytomb along with his parents,and the funeral rites were probablyperformedby his sons Nakhemmutand Nakhtmin,who spoke the words of the offeringtexts and repeatedthe names of those who had passedon to the next world, thus giving them renewedlife. Afterbeing used by manygenerationsof Khonsu'sdescendants, the familycrypt was sealedat last and remainedundisturbeduntil Februaryi, 1886,when it was uncoveredby agentsof the EgyptianAntiquitiesService. Sincethe mid-nineteenthcentury, thousands of recordsrelatingto the Village and its residentshavebeen discovered. Writtenon ostracaof limestone or pottery, these lists, letters,contracts,and accounts were of no intrinsicvalue to their users afterhaving servedtheir purpose,and they were simply discarded.The ostraca,supplementedby informationgleanedfrom inscribedobjectsfound in the houses and tombs, provideintriguingglimpses into the lives of the artisansand their families. From these sources,it is possible to piece togetherthe names,titles, and relationships of dozens of membersof Khonsu's extendedfamily,who inhabitedthe Village over a period of about two centuries.The familytree begins with Khonsu'spaternal grandparents,Khabekhnetand Tahenu, and can be tracedforwardto his own great-great-great-great-great-grandson, anotherKhonsu,who was a foremanof the crew duringthe reign of the eleventh 147

Ramesses,the last king to initiate a tomb in the GreatPlaceand the final rulerof the New Kingdom.By this time, most of the residentshad moved awayfrom the Village to dwellingslocated at the edge of the floodplain,but the familychapelsand

Figure64 Writing boardwith an architecturaldrawing FromwesternThebes.New Kingdom,Dynasty18. Plastered and paintedwood. W. 137/8in. (35.2 cm). Gift of Normande GarisDavies,1914 (14.108) Thisfragmentaryarchitectural drawingshows partof a small shrine(at upperright,in red)facing a bodyof water (at far left) and surroundedby trees within an enclosurewall of mud brick(in

481

tombs were still in use, and it is possible that some of the unidentifiedmummies found buried with Sennedjemand his son Khonsu date to this much less prosperous time in the family'shistory.

black).An orchard,also enclosed, runsparallelto the water.The measurementsof the walls are writtenfrom rightto left, and each begins with a hieroglyphin the shape of a forearm,which means "cubit,"the Egyptianunit of length.Thissymbolis followed, in each case, by a number:an elongatedsemicirclestands for ten, and a strokestands for one. Thus,the width of the orchardis thirty-twocubits.

Figure65 Artist's reel and cord FromwesternThebes.Middle Kingdom,Dynasty12, reignof SehetepibreAmenemhat(ca. 19811952 B.C.).Woodand twisted linen cord.L. of reel 141/8in. (36 cm).RogersFundand EdwardS. HarknessGift, 1922 (22.3.72) Althoughit dates to the time of Wah,some seven centuriesbefore Sennedjemand his son Khonsu were workingin the Valleyof the Kings,this reel of linen cord is similarto the tool that wouldhave been used to makethe guidelines in the tombs of Menpehtireand his successorsof Dynasty19. A trace of red paint is still visible on the cord.

Figure66 Artist'sgridded sketch FromwesternThebes(DeirelBahri).New Kingdom,Dynasty18, reignof Hatshepsut(ca. 14791458 B.C.).Limestoneand ink. W. 51/2 in. (14 cm). Rogers Fund,

1923 (23.3.4) Thissmall sketch depicts a frequentlyoccurringgroupof hieroglyphs meaning"life,prosperity, and dominion."Thegrid lines allowedthe artist to drawthe hieroglyphsat whateverscale was needed.

149

Figure67 On this partiallycompletedrelief decorationin the tomb of MenmaatreSeti, two columnsof text were drawnby the draftsmen.In the lower half of each column, a sculptorhas carvedaway the background,leavingthe hieroglyphsin relief.

Figure68 Box from the tomb of Sennedjem Gessoedand paintedwood. H. 61/4in. (16 cm). Fundsfrom variousdonors,1886 (86.1.8) The lid of this box, which is attached at the backwith horizontal pivots,opens to revealfour compartmentsfor cosmetics.The box could be securedby winding a piece of twine aroundthe two knobsat the front. Its elaborate decorationwas intendedto imitate moreexpensiveboxes inlaid with ebony,ivory,and perhaps cedaror mahogany.

501

Figure69 Theeast wall of Sennedjem's vaulted cryptis decoratedwith a vignette that illustratesspell number110 in the Bookof the Dead.Here,in a photographtaken at the site, Sennedjemand linefertiare shown harvesting grain,sowing seeds, and pulling flax in the abundantfields of the next world.

151

Figure70 Vignette on lineferti'scoffin lid Gessoedand paintedwood. H. of Khonsu47/8in. (12.5 cm). Funds fromvariousdonors,1886 (86.1.5a) In this vignette, Khonsustands before his motherand recites from an open papyrusscroll.The inscriptionon the scroll reads "theOsiris,the housemistress, lineferti,"indicatingKhonsu's belief that his mother'sspirithas become one with Osiris,the great god of the underworld.

Figure71 Vignette on lineferti'scoffin lid Gessoedand paintedwood. H. of Ramesses51/8in. (13 cm). Funds fromvariousdonors,1886 (86.1.5a) Here,Khonsu'sbrotherRamesses offers a libationto their father, Sennedjem. 521

Figure72 Khonsu'santhropoidcoffins Gessoedand paintedwood. H.of taller coffin 783/4in. (200 cm). Fundsfromvarious donors,1886 (86.1.1, .2)

153

Figure73 Khonsu'sfunerarymask Paintedwood and cartonnage. H. 187/8in. (48 cm). Fundsfrom variousdonors,1886 (86.1.4)

Figure74 Shawabtibox and shawabtis Paintedwood; limestoneand ink. H.of box111/4in.(28.5 cm).Funds fromvariousdonors,1886 (86.1.14, .18, .21). Gift of J. LionbergerDavis,1967 (67.80). Fundsfromvariousdonors,1886 (86.1.28) Thewooden shawabtibox is inscribedfor Paraemhab,a servantin the Placeof Truth who was a son or grandsonof

541

Sennedjemand lineferti.The shawabtifigures,from left to right,are inscribedfor lineferti and her eldest son, Khabekhnet; for Khonsu;for Khabekhnetalone; and for a woman namedMesu. AlthoughKhabekhnethad a separate tomb complexnearthat of Sennedjem,he is depictedwith his siblings in the decorationof Sennedjem'sburialchamber,and objects inscribedwith his name were buriedin the familytomb.

Figure75 Vignette on Khonsu'sinner coffin lid Gessoedand paintedwood. H.of Khonsu6 in. (15.3 cm). Fundsfromvariousdonors,1886 (86.1.2a) Thiskneelingfigureis identified by the two columnsof hieroglyphs in frontof himas "theOsiris,the servantin the Placeof Truth, Khonsu,justified."Theimageand its text are a graphicexpressionof Khonsu'shopethat his spiritwill passsuccessfullythroughthe trial of judgmentin the afterlifeand becomeone with Osiris.

Notes p. 4 Dynasty 8-mid-Dynasty 11 There is no longer considered to have been a Dynasty 7. p. 5 Egyptian Antiquities Service The Service des Antiquites de l'Egypte, now known as the Supreme Council of Antiquities of Egypt, was founded in 1863. p. 7 Horus name Sematawy Egyptian kings usually had five names in their titularies. The Horus name was written in a rectangular device with the god Horus, in his guise as a falcon, perched on top. The two most commonly used names, the personal name that was given at birth and the throne name that was taken upon accession to kingship, were each written inside a cartouche. p. 8 kill the leavening agent A type of wild yeast was discovered in the dregs of beer contained in a jar found in Wah'stomb. This yeast was subsequently named Saccharomyceswinlocki after Herbert E. Winlock, who was the director of the Metropolitan Museum's excavations at that time. p. 8 at nearly sixfeet X rays of Wah'smummy were taken in 1936,and the group of doctors who analyzed them reported that Wah had been a "tall young adult male of large frame."In his own notes on the X rays, Herbert Winlock estimated Wah'sheight at five feet three or four inches, stating that X rays exaggerate size. In light of a more recent examination of the skeleton, however, Ken Mowbray of the American Museum of Natural History, New York,has suggested a much greater height. p. 14 as an amuletic device Scarabs first appear in large numbers at sites around Badari, in Middle Egypt, during the First Intermediate Period, probably only a century before Wah'sbirth. p. 25 laid to rest We cannot know exactlywhen Hatnofer was buried, but inscribed material from the Museum's excavations suggests that her tomb was sealed sometime in Year7 of the joint reign of Menkheperre Thutmose (III) and Maatkare Hatshepsut. p. 25 in the vicinity ofArmant Hatnofer's son Senenmut held a title that suggests that his family came from this town. Since the majority of Egyptians probably married within their own communities, it seems

likely that both of his parents were born in or near Armant. p. 25 even sit on a jury For more information on the legal status of women, see Janet H. Johnson, "The Legal Status of Women in Ancient Egypt,"in Mistress of the House, Mistress of Heaven: Women in Ancient Egypt, edited by Anne K. Capel and Glen E. Markoe (New York,1996). p. 25 "'joinedthe gods" From the biography of Ineni, a Theban official, found in his offering chapel (TT 81). Translation by James P.Allen. p. 26 "TwoLands becamepeaceful" Ibid. p. 26 to wield significantpolitical power Hatshepsut was not the first queen in Egyptian history to take kingly titles. That distinction belongs to Nefrusobek, who ruled for about three years at the end of Dynasty 12. p. 26 "goodold age" in Egyptian terms This estimate of Hatnofer's age at death was made when her mummy was unwrapped by Herbert Winlock in 1936. p. 26 siblings and their children In ancient Egypt, although the king often had more than one wifepartly to ensure the succession and partly to form alliances with foreign rulers-monogamy was the rule among the population as a whole. Likewise, while the king might marry his sister or half sister, this type of consanguineous marriage was seldom, if ever, practiced outside the royal family. p. 26 meaning "housemistress" While similar to our honorific title Mrs. (which has come to denote a married woman but is in fact an abbreviationfor "mistress"), the ancient Egyptian title nebet per actually denoted a woman's oversight of the family's domestic affairs. p. 27 almost exclusivelyby women By the Eighteenth Dynasty, the upright loom had been introduced into Egypt from Asia, but most Egyptians continued to use horizontal looms. See Catharine H. Roehrig, "Women'sWork: Some Occupations of Nonroyal Women As Depicted in Ancient Egyptian Art,"in Mistress of the House. p. 34 beneficial to hisfamily in the comingyears It is highly unlikely that Senenmut could have attained the high administrative positions that he held later in life

155

hadhe not learnedto readandwrite-somethinghe probablywouldhavedone as a child. Somescholarsbelievethathe spenttime in the militaryas a youngman,a suppositionbased on veryfragmentary textsin his SheikhAbdelQurnaofferingchapel(TT71).However,no militarytitlesarepreservedon anyof his existing monuments. p. 34 onlyin hismid-thirties Previousestimates put Ramose'sageat deathat fifty-fiveor sixty, but a morerecentexaminationof his remains suggeststhathe was,in fact,a muchyounger man.Seethe abstractfor a papergivenat the twenty-fourthannualmeetingof the PaleopathologyAssociation,heldin SaintLouison April1 and 2,1997.R.Walker,M. F.Gaballah, andZ. Gadawy,"TheHumanRemainsfrom PPANewsthe Tombof Hatnuferat Luxor," letter(1997),p. 13. p. 34 "breadandbeerin herhouse" Instructions ofAny7.17-8.1.Adaptedfromthe translation by MiriamLichtheimin TheNewKingdom, A Bookof vol. 2 of AncientEgyptianLiterature: 1976),p. 141. Readings(Berkeley, p. 34 alreadychiefarchitecttoMaatkareHatshepsut Workon Senenmut'sofferingchapelwas begunon the seconddayof the fourthmonth of the growingseasonin Year7 of the reignof Thutmose(III)-about March13, Menkheperre 1473B.C. SinceHatnofer'stombwassituated beneaththe man-madeterraceof Senenmut's chapel,it is likelythatshe wasburiednot long

afterthis workwasbegun. p. 41 Menpehtire's predecessor, Djeserkheperure Haremhab Haremhab,alsoa formergeneral, hadservedduringthe reignof Tutankhamun andascendedthe throneafterthe rulingfamily diedout. Havingno heirshimself,Haremhab did not establisha new dynastyandis usually consideredthe lastkingof Dynasty18. p. 41 inheritedthehousefromhisfather The namesof both SennedjemandKhonsuhave beenfoundon architectural featurespreserved in the house,andit seemsto havebeencustomaryfor dwellingsto remainin the same familyforgenerations.SennedjemandKhonsu alsosharedownershipof a familytombin the cemeteryadjacentto the Village. p. 41 threeten-dayweeks Twelvethirty-day monthsequal360 days,andfivedayswere addedat the end of the yearto make365. Becauseit madeno allowancesforleapyear, the civilcalendarshiftedone dayeveryfourth year.However,the calendarusedto determine whento celebratereligiousfestivalswasbegun eachyearat the risingof Sothis,whichthe Egyptiansidentifiedwith theirgoddessSepdet. p. 42 a pleadirectlyto thegods CathleenA. Keller haswrittenon thepracticeof depositingvotives in theValleyof the Kingsin "PrivateVotivesin TheCaseof KV9,"in Iubilate RoyalCemeteries: Studiesin MemoryofAbdelAzizSadik, Conlegae: 10:2-3(1995),pp.139-56. pt. 1, VariaAegyptiaca p. 42 Menpehtire's relativelysmalltomb The

tombof MenpehtireRamesses(I) is KV [KingsValley]16. p. 42 mixedtheircolorsin largebowls TheMetropolitanMuseumownsa palm-fiberbrush soakedwith redpaintanda brokenbowlused to mix bluepaint.Theseareon displayin Gallery15aof EgyptianArt. p.42 preservedfrom the New Kingdom The

tombof MenmaatreSeti(I) is KV17. p. 42 a monumentin memoryof hissons UsermaatreRamesseswassucceededby his thirteenthson, Merneptah.Thetombof the sons of Ramesses,KV5, is currentlybeingexcavated by KentR.Weeksof the AmericanUniversity in Cairo. p. 43 oneof Egypt's greatnationaltreasures Nefertari'stombis QV [QueensValley]66. of p. 47 theyweresimplydiscardedTranslations manyof thesedocumentsmaybe foundin EdwardF.Wente,Letters fromAncientEgypt (Atlanta,199o),andA. G.McDowell,VillageLife in AncientEgypt:LaundryListsandLoveSongs (OxfordandNewYork,1999).Theyalsoform the basisof studiesby MorrisBierbrier,The Tomb-Builders of thePharaohs(London,1982), andJohnRomer,AncientLives:DailyLifein Egyptof thePharaohs(NewYork,1984).All of thesesourceshavebeenconsultedin writing the sectionon Khonsu.

c 1t i B ibliography Morris.TheTomb-Builders Bierbrier, of the Pharaohs.London,1982. Capel,AnneK.,andGlennE.Markoe.Mistressof theHouse,Mistressof Heaven:Womenin AncientEgypt.Essaysby CatharineH. Roehrig, BetsyM. Bryan,andJanetH. Johnson.New York(in associationwith the CincinnatiArt Museum),1996. at A Community Cerny,Jaroslav. of Workmen Period(in Englishwith Thebesin theRamesside Frenchintroduction).2nded. Cairo,2001. The Valleyof the Kings:Fragmentsd'un -. manuscrit inacheve (in English with French

preface).Cairo,[1973]. Dorman, Peter F The Monuments of Senenmut: Problems in Historical Methodology. London

andNewYork,1988. . The Tombsof Senenmut: The Architecture and Decoration of Tombs71 and 353. Publica-

tions of TheMetropolitanMuseumof Art EgyptianExpedition,vol. 24.NewYork,1991. Hayes, William C. The Scepterof Egypt:A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom, 5th ed. Vol. 2, The Hyksos Period and the New Kingdom, 4th ed. New York, 1990.

Keller,C[athleen]A. "PrivateVotivesin Royal The Caseof KV9."VariaAegyptiCemeteries: aca lo, nos. 2-3 (lubilate Conlegae:Studies in

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Memory ofAbdelAziz Sadek) (Aug.-Dec. 1995),

From the TombofMeket-Re' at Thebes.Publica-

pt. 1,pp.139-56. . "RoyalPainters:Deirel-Medinain of a ShatteredVisDynastyXIX."In Fragments

tions of The MetropolitanMuseumof Art EgyptianExpedition,vol. 18.NewYork,1955. Bul. "TheMummyof WahUnwrapped."

age: The Proceedingsof the International Symposium of Ramesses the Great.Monographs of

no. 12(Dec.1940),pp.253-59.

letin of The Metropolitan Museum of Art 35,

the Instituteof EgyptianArtandArchaeology (MemphisStateUniversity),no. 1.Memphis, 1991.

Lansing,Ambrose,andWilliamC. Hayes."The at Thebes."Bulletinof Museum'sExcavations the Metropolitan Museum of Art 32, no. 1 (Jan.

1937),sec. 2,"TheEgyptianExpedition,1935pp. 4-39. 1936," McDowell, A. G. Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs. Oxford and New

York,1999. Romer, John. Ancient Lives:Daily Life in Egypt of the Pharaohs. New York,1984. Wente, Edward F, trans. LettersfromAncient

Egypt.WritingsfromAncientEgypt,vol. 1, editedby EdmundS. Meltzer.Atlanta,199o. Winlock,H [erbert]E."ADiscoveryof Egyptian Jewelryby X-Ray."Bulletin of The Metropolitan

MuseumofArt31,no. 12(Dec.1936),pp.274-78. at Thebes,1919-20o"Bulletin . "Excavations of The Metropolitan Museum of Art 15,no. 12 (Dec.1920),sec.2, "TheEgyptianExpedition,

1918-1920," pp. 12-32. .Models of Daily Life in Ancient Egypt:

Acknowledgments Theauthorwouldliketo thankJamesAllen, DorotheaArnold,MarshaHill,andDiana CraigPatchfor theirinvaluablecommentsand suggestions;NobukoKajitaniandEmelia Cortesforsharingtheirknowledgeof ancient textiles;andDeborahSchorschforherexpertise on ancientmetalwork.Specialthanksgo to Ann Heywoodand BruceSchwarz,who,with greatpatienceandinfinitecare,devisedthe ingeniousmountingmethodsthatallowed manyfragileobjectsto be photographedfor this Bulletin.

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Summer2002-Spring 2003 New Series,VolumeLX

B Bayer,Andrea,seeNorth of the Apennines

Chinese Export Porcelain, No. 3, 1-60 Adams,John, 55 "Arbor" design,26, 27 armorialdesign, 17-20, 24-26, 38-40 beaker,covered,and saucer,presumablyDutch market(1690-1700), 21 Beert,Osias,8 Birch,William,50 bottle,Venetianlatticinodesign(ca. 1715-25), 11 Boudinot,Elias,52 bowl:market,classicaldesign(ca. 1811), 56; Imari(ca. 1715), 16; detail,coat of arms,16; "hong,"48; kraakporcelain(Ming dynasty),9 Bulfinch,Charles,41 Bull familyof Charleston,23, 38 Cantonesefactories,28, 33, 34, 57 Chantillyporcelainfactory,16 Chase,Samueland HannahKiltyGiles, 38 ChewWilcocks,Benjamin,56, 57 13 "chinamania," Clinton, DeWitt and MariaFranklin,48, 50, 51 cloisonne,22 copperengraving,27 cup:covered,Chinesewith Englishmounts (ca. 1565-70), 7; interior, 7; standingcovered,Europeanmarket(ca. 1690-1700), 10 cup and saucer,Declarationof Independencesigning(1840-75), 60 Delfos,Abraham,22 Delft pottery,28 Derby,EliasHasket,46, 49 dinner,tea, and c6ffeeservice,Americanmarket(1785-90), 38 dish:Dutch market,29; detail,29; Englishmarket(ca. 1715), 18; detailof Harrisonand Brayarms,18; famillerosepattern (ca. 1735), 20; Germanceramicstyle (1770-75), 33; detail of cartouche,33; Imarimotifs (18th cen.), 16; Italianmarket (ca. 1698), 19; kraakporcelain(early17th cen.), 9; Scottishmarket(ca. 1735-40), 24 Doccia factory,Florence,19 Dresdenmanner,33 Du Paquier,Claudius,26, 27 Dutch EastIndiaCompany(VOC), 8-13, 26-28, 29, 32-33, 37, 53 Dutch embroiderypatterns,9 Edwin,David, 52 Empress of China,40-44, 49 EnglishEastIndiaCompany,15, 32, 38 Entrecolles,FatherXavierde, 26 ErieCanal,50, 51 ewer:familleverte(ca. 1725-30), 17;Frenchsilverpattern(ca. 171525), 17; Kangxiporcelain,Dutch market(late 17thearly18th cen.), 13; Portuguesemarket(Ming dynasty, Zhengdeperiod),6 Eyre,BenjaminG., 48 famillerosepattern,20, 26, 58-59 famillevertepattern,15, 16, 17 fan,Americanmarket(ca. 1800-1810), 41 Feuille,Daniel de la, 33 FlorentineMedicidesigns,19 Franklin,Benjamin,55 Fungmanhe,50 Fiirstenbergdesign,33 Giles,JamesH., 40 Ginori,Carlo, 19 GrandTurk,46, 47 Grant,UlyssesS., 57, 59 Green,John, 40, 42, 49 grisaille,27, 52 Guillot,Elias,29 GustavIII, king of Sweden,22

Habermann,FrancisXavier,33 Harrison,Edwardand FrancesBray,18 Horsemandenfamily,40 Houckgeest,A. E. van Braam,53 Imaridesign, 15, 16, 28 James,fifth dukeof Hamilton,20 Japantrade,11 JapaneseArita,26-27 Jesuits,20, 22, 26 Jingdezhenkilns, 13, 26, 27, 28 Johnson,Sir Henryand MarthaLovelace,15 jug, Washingtonbust in grisaille(1800-1815), 52 Kakiemonstyle, 15 Kangxiperiod, 13, 22, 27 kinrande("goldbrocaded")painting,7 Kirk,Samuel,57 kraakware,8, 9, 17 Lamb,John, 47 Lambert,SirJohn, 22 Lee, Henry,42 Leyland,Frederick,13 line paintingafterprintsources,26 Lobkowicz,PrinceWenzelFerdinand,19 Low,AbielAbbot, 56 Meissenporcelainfactory,16, 28 Mendesda Fonseca,FranciscoAntonio da Silva,35 Ming dynasty,13 Monnoyer,Jean-Baptiste,24 Morganfamily,46 Netherlandishglassdesigns,10, 11 New Yorkmarket,49-51 Okeover,Leakeand MaryNichol, 32 Opium Wars,57 Osgood,John, 41 pagoda(ca. 1785-92), 41 Paine,Daniel and LouisaThurber,59 partialservice,famillerosedesign(ca. 1860-66), 58-59 PaterPatriae(memorialto GeorgeWashington,ca. 1800-1818), 55 planttub, armorialporcelain(ca. 1693-97), 15 plaque,Dutch design(mid-18thcen.), 22 plate:Americanmarket:Angel of Fame (ca. 1784-85), 42; detail, emblem of Society of the Cincinnati, 42; Boudinot arms (ca. 1785-90), 52; Chase arms (1785-90), 38; landscape and Chinese immortals(ca. 1796-1805), 48; Morgan arms (ca. 1785-90), 46; Vaughanarms (ca. 1750-55), 37; Verplanckservice(ca. 1765), 36; "Arbor"design (ca. 1740), 26; detail, 26; "Clemency"(ca. 1740), 21; Dutch market(ca. 1692), 21; Guillot arms (ca. 174045), 29; Englishmarket,Okeoverarms (ca. 1739-43), 32; Frenchmarket,Orry arms (ca. 1745-50), 25; Portuguesemarket(ca. 1820), 35; Swedishmarket (ca. 1750), 25 platter:Swedishmarket(ca. 1755-60), 25; Washington'stomb (ca. 1800-1810), 54; detail,54 polychromewares,15, 17, 18 Portuguesetraderoutes,7-8, 19 Precht,Christian,25 Pronk,Cornelis,26, 27, 28, 33 punch bowl:Americanmarket(ca. 1785-90), 48; details,4, 48; badgeof Society of the Cincinnati (ca. 1788), 43; certificate,Societyof the Cincinnati(ca. 1786-90), 44, 45; covererd,with platter,Swedishmarket(ca. 1745), 23; detail, Chateauof Lickb, 23; Empressof China (ca. 178.4-90), 47; detailof interior,47; New YorkCity (1812), interior,50; exterior,51; detailof armsof city of New York, 51 Putnams,Hans, 9 Qianlongemperor,28 Qing dynasty,13 Queen'sWare(Wedgwood),34 reversepaintingon glass,55, 57 Ary, 28 Rijsselbergh, Ripa,FatherMatteo,27

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saladbowl, Portuguesecolonialmarket(ca. 1800), 35; detailof Silveiraarms,35 Saldanhae Albuquerque,Dom Gasparde, 31 sauceboat,Europeanmarket(ca. 1715-20), 28 saucer:Americanmarket,Rogersarms(ca. 1785-88), 40; detail,40; MarthaWashington'sinitials(ca. 1795), 53 saucetureenand stand:Brucearms(ca. 1785), 34; Wedgwood (ca. 1770), 34 saucetureenand underplate,Americanmarket(ca. 1786), 46 Sevresfactory,25 Seymour,Samuel,50 Shaw,Samuel,40, 41, 42-44 Silveirae Lorena,Dom BernardoJose Mariada, 35 Societyof the Cincinnati,42, 43, 44-45 Stevens,Ebenezer,44-45 sugarbowl, New YorkStatearms(1770-1800), 49 SwedishEastIndiaCompany,25, 32 tableservice,Portuguesemarket(ca. 1760-65), 31 taperstick,Dutch market(ca. 1700-1710), 10; detail, 12 tazza,Continentalmarket(ca. 1700), 12; top view and detail, 12 teapot,Swedishmarket(ca. 1755), 22 tea service,partial,Dutch market(Pronk),27 textilesas designsource,33 Tilghman,Edward,52 transferprinting,28 Treatyof Wanghia,57 Tros,Willem, 33 Trumbull,John, 60 tureen:covered,Americanmarket,Fitzburghpattern(early19th cen.), 53; Hoaching(ca. 1843), 56 U.S. CentennialExhibition,57, 60 van derMy, Hieronymus,22 van Dijck, Floris,8 Varick,Richard,44 Vaughan,Samuel,37, 40 Venetianlatticinodesign, 11 Verplanckfamily,36, 38 VungTau(Chinesejunk), 10, 15, 17 Wanli period(1573-1620), 8, 26 Washington,George,42, 48, 52, 54, 55 Washington,Martha,.53, 55 Wedgwood,Josiah,34 Whistler,JamesMcNeill, PeacockRoom, 13 WitteLeeuw(Dutch ship), 9 yu "jade"mark,13 Yuandynasty,8

F Alice Cooney, seeChinese Export Porcelain Frelinghuysen,

Le Corbeiller,Clare,seeChinese Export Porcelain Life Along the Nile: Three Egyptiansof Ancient Thebes, No. 1, 1-56 Thutmose,25, 34 Aakheperenre accountostracon,11 artist'sgriddedsketch,49 artist'sreeland cord,46, 49 bakersfromMeketre'smodel bakery,11 basketand toilet articles,29 basketof food, 30 baskettray,37 Bonghi,Bartolommeo,36, 37 Book of the Dead, 35, 38, 51 bowl, 25 braceletand necklace,19 BrewersfromMeketre'smodel brewery,12 burialceremony,15-16 calendar,41 canopicjars,14 chair,27, 32 coffinsof, 53 Davies,Normande Garis,31 Deir el-Medina,40, 43 DjeserkareAmenhotep,25-26 Haremhab,41 Djeserkheperure drawingof a bullfight,44

duck hunterand man harpooningfish, fromMeketre'smodel sporting boat, 12 eyes partiallyclosedin Egyptianart,33 facsimileof a scenedepictingan estate,11 facsimileof offeringscene (Davies),31 familyties, 34 firstIntermediatePeriod,15 funerarybroad-collarnecklace,19 funerarymasks,15, 18, 38, 54 funeraryrituals,27, 34-35, 36, 47 gable-toppedchest and linens, 32 harper'ssong, 33 Hatnofer,25-27, 34; chairof, 27, 32, 47; childrenof, 34; deathof, 26; funerarymask,38; funeraryritualof, 27, 34-35; heart scarabamulet,35, 38; knottedpot sling, 37; leatherscroll, 35; mummificationof, 34-35; nicknameTju-Tjuof, 26; tambourineof, 27, 33; tomb of, 3, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34,35,37,38, 39 Hatshepsut,25-26, 34; statue(detail),26; thronenameof, 34, 38 heartscarab,38 hieroglyphs,49, 50 Iineferti,41, 47, 51; coffinof, 52 Ineni, 25 Instructions ofAny,34 ka (life force), 16 Kamose,25 Khabekhnet,41, 42, 54 Khonsu,40-41, 42, 46, 47; coffinof, 55; familytreeof, 47-48, 54; funeralritesfor, 47; funerarymaskof, 54; in vignetteon mother'scoffin,52 linen, 27, 31, 32, 34 MaatkareHatshepsut,26, 29, 30, 34 Meketre,7-13; burialcomplexof, 11, 14, 16, 41; estateof, 15; models by, 7-8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 20, 21, 23,31,33 Meketre'smodel funeraryboats,20, 23 Meketre'smodel funeraryprocession,21 Meketre'smodel slaughterhouse,13 Meketre'smodel stable,8, 13 Meketre'smodel travelingboat, 33 Meketre'smodelweaver'sshed, 31 MenkheperreThutmose,25, 29, 30, 33, 34, 38 MenmaatreSeti, 41, 42; tomb of, 46, 50 MenpehtireRamesses,41, 42; burialchamber,44, 49 mummufication,14-15, 34-35, 46 musicalensembles,27 nebamunand Ipuky,tomb of, 36 NebhepetreMentuhotep,7; relief(detail),7 NebpehtyreAhmose,25 Necklaces,19 Nefertari,43; tomb of, 45 New Kingdom,royaltombs,40 ostraca,11, 34, 41, 42, 44, 45 painter'spalette,45 Paraemhab,54 placeof Beauty,43 PrincessNeferure,34 Quiverfragment,8 Ramose,26, 34, 35 razorand mirror,30 ringsand necklace,19 royaltombs,46, 49 sandals,30 scarabs,14, 15, 38 scribesfromMeketre'smodel granary,10 scribe'spaletteand brushes,10 SehetepibreAmenemhat,14, 33 Senenmut,34, 38, 48; artist'ssketches,34; and mother'sfuneral, 34-35; offeringchapel,3 Sennedjem,41, 42, 47, 52; box from tomb of, 50; burialchamber,54; eastwall of vaultedcrypt,51; jarfromtomb of, 46 Shawabtibox and shawabtis,54 SheikhAbd el-Qurnahill, 34 sketchof a dog, 45 storagejarand amphora,37 Tameket,47 Taweret:hairstyleof, 29; statuetteof, 26, 29 Userhat'stomb, 31 UsermaatreRamesses,42-43

Valleyof the Kings,40 Valleyof the Queens,40 Village,40-41, 43, 46, 47 Wah, 8, 41; birthof, 7; coffinof, 15-16, 23; deathof, 14; funeralof, 15;jewelryof, 14, 15, 19; maskof, 15, 18; mummufication of, 14-15; statuetteof, 9, 15; tomb of, 14, 16, 17, 22 wisdomliterature,34 women'scosmetics,29 women'srolesand property,25, 26-27, 34 writingboardof apprenticescribe,10 writingboardwith architectural drawing,48

N North of the Apennines:Sixteenth-CenturyItalian Painting in Lombardyand Fmilia-Romagna,No. 4, 1-64 AlfonsoI, duke d'Este,48-49, 53 Altdorfer,Albrecht,26 Anguissola,Sofonisba,47 Ariosto,Ludovico,Orlandofurioso,49 Baiardo,Francesco,62 Bedoli,GirolamoMazzola,TheAnnunciation,59, 61-62 Bellini,Jacopo,48; TheFeastof the Gods,49 Benci,Ginevrade', 18 Bentivoglio,GiovanniII, 39, 40 Berenson,Bernard,16, 55 Bergognone(Ambrogiodi Stefanoda Fossano),11. Works: The Assumption of the Virgin,21, 22, 23; TheAssumption of the Virgin(Pinacotecadi Brera,Milan),22; Christ,13 Bologna,39-48 Boltraffio,GiovanniAntonio, 14. Works:Girlwith Cherries (poss. attrib.),16, 17, 18-19; PalaCasio,42-43; YouthCrowned witha Garland,19 Bouts,Dieric, Virginand Child,9 Bramante,Donato, 7, 10 Bramantino(BartolomeoSuardi),29; Madonnaand Child,10-11 Caraglio,GiovanniJacopo.Works:Diana, 21; Juno,21; Minerva,21; Venus,21 Caravaggio(MichelangeloMerisi),23; TheFlagellationof Christ,26 Carpi,Girolamoda, 55 Carracci,LudovicdandAnnibale,55 Correggio(AntonioAllegri).Works:Ashburtonaltarpiece,59; Madonnaand ChildwithSaintsFrancis,Anthonyof Padua, Catherineof Siena,andJohntheBaptist,56, 58; SaintsPeter, Martha,MaryMagdalen,and Leonard,55-59; detail,39 Councilof Trent, 30 distemper,23 Dosso Dossi (Giovannide Lutero):ThreeAgesofMan, 49, 50-51, 53 Eastlake,Sir Charles,27, 30 39-63 Emilia-Romagna, ErcoleII d'Este,48-49 Estefamily,48-49 Fassi,Melchiore,55-56 Ferrara,48-55 in a Fontana,Lavinia.Works:Portraitofa Prelate,47-48; Self-Portrait Study,47 Fontana,Prospero,47, 48, 62 Foppa,Vincenzo.Works: TheJusticeof Trajan,23; Madonnaand Child(CambraiMadonna)(ca. 1480), 7, 8, 9-10; infrared photograph,9 Francia,Francesco(Francescodi Marcodi GiacomoRaibolini), 40-47. Works:FederigoGonzaga,42, 43-44; Madonnaand Child,44, 45, 47; Madonnaand Childwith SaintsFrancis andJerome,44, 46, 47; Nativity,40; SaintRoch,40, 41, 42 Gallerani,Cecelia,18 Gambara,Veronica,55 Garofalo(BenvenutoTisi). Works:SaintNicholasof Tolentino Revivinga Child,52, 53; SaintNicholasof Tolentino RevivingtheBirds,52, 53, 54-55 Garofaloand Dosso. Works: TheMassof SaintNicholasof Tolentino, intoRoses,53 53; TheMiracleof BreadConverted Gentileschi,Artemisia,47 Giampietrino(GiovanniPietroRizzoli).Works:Diana theHuntress, 19, 20, 21; Diana witha Stag,21 Giovio, Paolo,49 GregoryXIII, Pope (Ugo Boncompagni),47 Grien,Hans Baldung,26 Historyof Painting,A (Croweand Cavalcaselle),27

Isabellad'Este,39, 43-44, 49, 55 JuliusII, Pope (GiulianodellaRovere),39, 49 . Juste,Antoine (Antoniodi Giusto Betti), 13 vs. parerga,49, 53 justisoperibus Leonardoda Vinci, 7, 14-19, 21, 23, 40. Works:Ladywithan Ermine,18, 19; TheLastSupper,14; Ledaand theSwan, 15; StandingLeda,21; StudyofArmsand Hands,19; TheVirgin of theRocks,14, 33, 59 Lippi,Filippino,42 Lombardi,Alfonso:SaintNicholasof Tolentino(attrib.),53 Lombardy,7-37 Longhi,Roberto,33 Lotto, Lorenzo,27, 33; Venusand Cupid,16 Luther,Martin,30 Mannerism,21, 63 Mantegna,Andrea,40, 48; TheMadonnadella Vittoria,56, 58 Mastelletta(GiovanniAndreaDonducci), 62 Michelangelo,39, 40, 49 Milan, 7-23 Monterrubiano,Pietrodi, 53 Morelli,Giovanni,55 Morettoda Brescia(AlessandroBonvicino),26-32. Works:Christin the Wilderness, 28; beforerestoration,28; TheEntombment, 30; Portraitofa Man, 28, 29, 30 Moroni,GiovanniBattista:AbbessLucreziaAgliardiVertova,34, 35, 36; Bartolommeo Bonghi,36, 37 Miindler,Otto, 27 Nicholasof Tolentino, Saint, 52, 53-54 Oggiono, Marcod', 14 L'Ortolano(GiovanniBattistaBenvenuti):TheAdorationof the 54, 55; TheNativitywithSaintsJohntheBaptist, Shepherds, Francis,andMaryMagdalen,55 Parma,55-63 Parmigianino(GirolamoFrancescoMariaMazzola),55. Works: The Annunciation(attrib.),59-63; detailof X-radiograph,61, 62 62; Entombment, Perugino(Pietrodi CristoforoVannucci):Madonnain Glorywith Saints,42 Pino, Paolo,32 Pliny, 53 Poitiers,Diane de, 21 Predis,GiovanniAmbrogiode, 17, 18 Raphael,23, 27; Saint Cecelia,39-40 Roberti,Ercolede', 48 Romanino,Girolamo:TheFlagellation,23, 24, 25, 26; TheMadonna of Mercy,23, 25; SaintMatthew,33 RossoFiorentino,21 Savoldo,GiovanniGirolamo,30. Works:Nativity,34; SaintMatthew and theAngel,32-34; X radiographof, 33, 34 Sesto,Cesareda: Baptismof Christ,33 Sigonio,Carlo,47, 48 SixtusV, Pope, 47 Solari,Christoforo,16 Solario,Andrea.Works:ChristBlessing,11, 12, 13, 14; Headofa BeardedMan, 13; Salomewith theHeadof SaintJohnthe Baptist,14-16, 33; detail,7 Studius,53 Titian, 27, 36; BacchusandAriadne,49 Tura,Cosimo, 48 Urbino, duke of (FrancescoMariadellaRovere),44 van Winghe,Joss,62 Vasari,Giorgio,27, 33, 40, 49 Venturi,Lionello,36 Vertova,AbbessLucreziaAgliardi,34, 35, 36 WesternVeneto, 23-37 Weyden,Rogiervan der,48

R Recent Acquisitions:A Selection: 2001-2002, No. 2, 1-64 "Africa,Oceania,and the Americas,"48-51 ancestorfigure(korwar)(New Guinea,IrianJaya,Cenderawasih Bay,late 19th-early20th cen.), 50 duct flute (Mexico,Veracruzpeoples,7th-10th cen.), 48 FemaleFigure(Alaska,Old BeringSea,2nd cen. B.c.-lst cen. A.D.), 48 Keita,Seydou. Unfitled#313 (PortraitWomanSeatedona Chair). sI

necklacebeads(Colombia,Tairona,1Oth-16thcen.), 48-49 two headrests(SouthAfricaor Zimbabwe,Tsongaand Shona peoples,19th-20th cen.), 50-51 woman'sgravemarker(sunduk)(SuluArchipelago,probably Bajaupeople, 19th-20th cen.), 49 "AncientWorld,"6-9 bowl:deep (Greek,Calenian,3rd-early2nd cen. B.C.), 8, 9; spouted (early Cycladic II, ca. 2700-2200 B.C.), 6 Head of a PtolemaicQueen (Greek,Hellenisticperiod,3rd cen. B.C.), 8

KushitePharaoh(Egyptian,Dynasty25, ca. 713-664 B.C.),7 RecumbentLion (Egyptian,Dynasty4, ca. 2575-2465 B.C.),6 StandingBull (SouthArabian,late 1st millenniumB.C.), 9 "Asia,"52-62 belt buckle(CentralAsia, 1st cen. B.C.), 52 beltplaque(northwesternChina,4th cen. B.C.),52 belt plaquewith confrontedbovines,(southernSiberia,2nd-1st cen. B.C.), 52 bowl:(Chinese,Ming dynasty),56; with inlaidand stamped design(Korean,Chos6n dynasty,2nd half of 15th cen.), 60 box (Chinese,Ming dynasty),55 cup:large,with ringhandle(EasternCentralAsianor northwestern Chinese,periodof Tibetanrule,8th-9th cen.), 53; stem (EasternCentralAsianor northwesternChinese, periodof Tibetanrule,late 7th-8th cen.), 53 dish, octagonal,with scenesof childrenat play (Chinese,Song dynasty),55 6th-5th cen. B.C.), 52 garmentornament(Kazakhstan, Kamishimo(apanese, early20th cen.), 59 Madonna(Sino-Spanish,18th cen.), 56-57 MaharanaAmarSinghII ofMewarRidinga Horse(Indian [Rajasthan,Mewar],ca. 1700-1710), 60-61 piece froma Noh costume(Japanese,Edo period),59 Portraitof a Queenas Parvati(Indonesian,Eastern Posthumous Javaneseperiod,Majapahitkingdom, 14th cen.), 62 the Yellow S6yu,Maejima, ChineseWarriorZhangQian Crossing River,58 Tara,theBuddhistSavioress, DispensingBoons(pagefroma dismanuscript,Indian [WestBengal] persedPrajnaparamita or Bangladeshi,early12th cen.), 60 Tomotsugu,Bamen,armorof the Gusokutype, 58-59 vase (Chinese,Song dynasty),54 EmperorGuan(Chinese,unidentifiedartist,activeearly18th cen.), 57 "Europe1700-1900," 23-33 Carriera,Rosalba,GustavusHamilton,SecondViscountBoyne,in Costume,23 Masquerade centertable(Russian,Tula, ImperialArmory,ca. 1780-85), 25 Cezanne,Paul, TheFishermen(FantasticScene),31 CourtoisFreres,Cometa pistons,28 Dresser,Christopher(designer),WaveBowl,32 MadameCharles-Maurice Gerard,BaronFrancois-Pascal-Simon, Princessede Benevent...,27 de Talleyrand-Pericord, Gericault,Theodore, TheRescueof a DrownedMan, Surrounded by OtherFigureStudies(recto),28 LinthorpeArt Pottery,WaveBowl,32 MountedHussar,29 Meissonier,Jean-Louis-Ernest, Paris,29 Mestral,O., Angelof thePassion,Sainte-Chapelle, Moll, BalthasarFerdinand,Faith, Charity,and Hope,24 Monet, Claude, CamilleMoneton a GardenBench,30 Nini in the Garden(Nini Lopez),32 Renoir,Pierre-Auguste, Rysbrack,Michael,Portraitof a Lady,24-25 33 Seurat,Georges,GrayWeather,GrandeJatte, Volpato,Giovanni, TheRiverNile, 26 Wyon, William,PatternCrownof GeorgeIII: The "ThreeGraces" Crown,26-27 "Islam,"10 Nidha, Mal, Princeand Ladiesin a Garden(attrib.),10 oil lamp (Khorasan,late 12th-early13th cen.), 10 "MedievalEurope,"11-13 bracteate(Scandinavian,5th-6th cen.), 12-13 (French,Limoges,ca. 1170-80), 11; Plaquewith CensingAngels detail, 11 psalter(Byzantine,late 12th cen.), 13 reliquarycross(French,Limoges?,ca. 1180), 12 "Modern,"39-47

Arbus,Diane, Childwitha ToyHand Grenadein CentralPark, N.YC., 42-43 surunplan horizontal Assassinat deMadameVeuveBol,Projection (French,Parispolice photograph,1904), 39 Beckmann,Max, TheLastOnes,40-41 Cavalli,Roberto,Man'sEnsemble,47 Coper,Hans: CyladicForm,42; ThistleForm,42 Diebenkorn,Richard,RecliningNude-Pink Stripe,43 Gaultier,JeanPaul,EveningEnsemble,47 Gilot, Francoise,Claudewitha BananaII, 42 at theAgeof Nine, 41 Gorky,Arshile,Self-Portrait Full ofLove,44 Kentridge,William, Casspirs Kiefer,Anselm,Leta ThousandFlowersBloom,44-45 Oud, JacobusJohannesPieter,"Giso404" pianolamp,41 45 Robert,Ruminations,'topher, Rauschenberg, Rie, Dame Lucie,bowl, 42 Rohlfs,Christian,DeathasJuggler,40 Struth,Thomas,NationalMuseumofArt, Tokyo,46-47 39 Sie, Louis, ClaudeTerrasse, 46 Viola, Bill, TheQuintetof Remembrance, 44 Witek,Joan, The Trickster, "NorthAmerica1700-1900," 34-38 unknowndecorator, Burroughsand Mountford(manufacturer); exhibitionvase,37 Chase,Anne, sampler,34 Homer,Winslow,Boysin a Dory,38 Meeks,Joseph,and Sons, piertable,34-35 Rush,William,Eagle,36 Saint-Gaudens,Augustus,Hiawatha,37 serpentine-frontchest (American,Massachusetts,1770-80), 35 Townsend,John, dining table,34 West, Benjamin,Maternity,36, 37 "Renaissance and BaroqueEurope,"14-22 Bellange,Jacques,Samson,18 14 Benedettoda Maiano,SaintJeromein the Wilderness, Brueghel,Jan the Elder,CastleMerxem,nearAntwerp,16, 17 Buytewech,Willem Pietersz.,PoultryMarketin a Dutch Town, 18-19 Carracci,Ludovico,Conversion of SaintPaul, 16 cuirassierarmor(Italian,Milan or Brescia,ca. 1610-20), 17 Poussin,Nicolas, Studyof a Palm Tree(recto);MountainLandscape (verso),20-21 Rubens,PeterPaul, TheVirginAdoredbySaints(recto),19 Salviati,Francesco,SaintJohntheEvangelist(recto),15 Stoskopff,Sebastien,Still Lifewitha Nautilus,PantherShell,and Box,20 Chip-Wood Sweerts,Michiel,Man HoldingaJug, 22 Witte, Emanuelde, Interiorof the Old Churchin Delft,21 Roehrig,CatharineH., seeLife Along the Nile

? 2003byTheMetropolitan Museumof Art,NewYork Copyright

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