World of Aluminium Slides- 14th November 2023

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World of Aluminium Modular Course

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Intermediate level

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World of Aluminium

Modular Course Intermediate level Part 1 alfed.org.uk

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Your presenter…

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www.alfed.org.uk Jan Lukaszewski, Technical Manager JLukaszewski@alfed.org.uk Direct Tel: +44 (0) 333 240 9735

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But now I have seen the light

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Housekeeping ▪ Domestic Arrangements – breaks, lunch, timings, toilets, smoking, ▪ Fire escapes & assembly point and alarm test ▪ This workshop – note book, handouts, product literature, Properties Book ▪ It’s all about you!

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Copyright Where relevant the copyright and source of relevant photographs or videos is attributed to owners either with the text of each slide or by specific reference ▪ Photographs in the public domain are not credited ▪ In all other cases the Aluminum Federation has received permission from the owners or has applied to use the materials

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Intellectual Property The Intellectual Property and/or Patent and/or Product Design ownership throughout this entire document is identified on each slide by the Logo of the respective organisation, thus: ▪ Aluminium Federation

▪ International Aluminium Institute ▪ Alimex ▪ Hydro Extrusions

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Introductions ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Who are you?

Who do you work for?

Describe your job?

What is your level of understanding of Engineering, Metallurgy, Aluminum?

What do you want to get out of today?

Specific interest?

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Aluminium- “Young Metal”

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Roman Metallurgists Roman metallurgists refined, alloyed and worked with seven metals ▪ Iron ▪ Lead ▪ Tin ▪ Copper ▪ Silver ▪ Gold ▪ Mercury Seven metals were either found as pure metals or were smelted by charcoal or wood fires so prehistoric man discovered them in his camp fires

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Aluminium Metallic Aluminium is not found in nature as it is extremely reactive and forms an oxide, ▪ Aluminium oxide white ceramic ▪ Melting point 2,072 °C ▪ Cannot be smelted or reduced by carbon of a camp fire ▪ Unknown to ancient man ▪ 120 year history ▪ “Young Metal”

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Pliny the Elder Pliny the Elder, a Roman scientist, in his book “Historica Naturalis” told the story of a first century craftsman presenting to Tiberius, the Roman Emperor, a cup made of an unknown metal looking like silver, but too light to be silver, ▪ Tiberius promptly beheaded the craftsman, because the metal would have devalued Gold and Silver ▪ In “Historica Naturalis” Pliny the Elder, gave the name ‘Alumen’ to alum, a mineral containing a compound of Aluminium and Sulphur.

▪ Pliny the Elder died on August 25, AD 79, while attempting to rescue a friend from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius

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Roman Metallurgists Since the Romans we learnt how to make; ▪ Metals hotter ▪ Purer ▪ Hit them harder

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Alumina In 1595, Andreas Libavius, German doctor and chemist, demonstrated that an undiscovered earth is part of alum and named it “Alumina” ▪ Many attempts continued in later part of 18th century to establish the nature of Alumina and by end of 18th century, alumina was considered a metallic earth ▪ Correct chemical formula AL2O3 was established by German chemist Eilhard Mitscherlich in 1821

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Alumen 1808 Sir Humphry Davy, the English chemist, postulated that Aluminium could be produced by electrolytic reduction from Alumina, Aluminium oxide, ▪ Although he never managed to prove his theory in practice, he named “Aluminum” after alum, which is called ‘Alumen' in Latin.

▪ The lack of availability of electricity prevented Davy proving his theory

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Aluminium – Precious Meta In 1845, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler successfully produced small pieces of the metal and is credited as the discoverer of Aluminium.

▪ Friedrich Wöhler established many of the metal's properties, including the remarkable lightness, that truly excited researchers ▪ Wöhler’s method could not yield large amounts of aluminium so was comparable to Gold!

▪ 1863 Aluminium and gold helmet worn by King Frederick VII of Denmark.

“Aluminium, the Magic Metal”, Thomas Y Canby, National Geographic, August 1978

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Henri-Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville In 1856 Henri-Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville using the Woehler process started industrial production of Aluminum in Rouen (France) in 1856.

▪ During 1855-1890 200 tonnes of Aluminium were produced ▪ It was considered to be a precious metal for ornaments

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Jules Verne 1865: Science fiction writer Jules Verne describes an Aluminum space rocket in his novel, Journey to the Moon.

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Commercial Pressure ▪ In 1882 Aluminium was the same price as silver ▪ Aluminium and gold baby’s rattle made for the son of Napoleon III

“Aluminium, the Magic Metal”, Thomas Y Canby, National Geographic, August 1978

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Diane de Gabes Diane de Gabes Aluminium casting was produced in Paris in 1859 at the works of Paul Morin ▪ One third replica of a full size Greek marble statue in the Louvre ▪ Casting was made using the lost wax process with Aluminium made by the sodium process.

▪ Oldest Aluminium casting in existence ▪ Now on permanent display at the Science Museum in London by permission of The Aluminium Federation.

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Hall-Heroult Process In 1886 the development of an electrolytic production method independently by a French engineer Paul Heroult, and an American student Charles Hall, established Aluminium as a viable metal.

▪ Electrolysis involved the reduction of molten Aluminium Oxide in Cryolite but required enormous amount of electric power, not commercially available at that time.

▪ Thus the growth of Aluminium was powered by the growth in electricity generation

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Eros Sculptor Alfred Gilbert was commissioned to create a memorial to Anthony Ashley-Cooper, the 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, in 1886 ▪ Erected in 1892 and unveiled on 29 June 1893 ▪ Statue is actually of Anteros, the god of requited love, twin brother of Eros ▪ Cast in Aluminium by George Broad & Son at the Hammersmith Foundry

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Bayer Process The Bayer process for refining Aluminum ore to make pure Aluminium oxide, Alumina, was developed in 1888 and was the last key stage that completed the viable and economic production of Aluminium ▪ Bauxite to Alumina ▪ Alumina to Aluminium

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Aluminium Pioneers 1897 San Gioacchino, Rome, ▪ Raffaele Ingami Aluminium Dome

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Karl Benz 1899 Karl Benz presented the first sports car with an Aluminium body at an exhibition in Berlin ▪ Recognising Aluminium potential to the Automotive Industry.

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Aluminium Age Hardening Alfred Wilm in 1901, a German research metallurgist discovered age hardening of aluminium alloys.

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Wright Brothers Flyer The 1903 Wright Flyer had an Aluminum crankcase, the first use of Aluminium in aircraft construction.

▪ Crankcase was cast by the Buckeye Iron and Brass Works.

▪ Buckeye sourced Aluminium from the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, renamed Alcoa in 1907, then the world’s leading producer of Aluminium.

▪ Precipitation hardening Aluminium 8% Copper alloy

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Decorative Aluminium 1905 St Mary, the Virgin, Great Warley ▪ Architect C. Harrison Townsend with Sir William Reynolds-Stevens

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Duralum 1909 Duralumin, the corner foundation stone of Aluminium invented ▪ Duralumin, with addition of Copper, Magnesium and Manganese was as lightweight, as Aluminium, but significantly exceeded it in strength, hardness and elasticity meaning.

▪ Alfred Wilm, a German scientist took seven years to alloy it.

▪ Duralumin quickly dominated aviation with the first all-metal plane, the Junkers J1, launched in 1915.

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Aviation boom 1930’s Germany pioneered aviation, with age-hardened Aluminium alloys ▪ 2000 series alloyed with Copper, Manganese and Magnesium

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Spitfire Britain’s first Aluminium-bodied Aeroplane, the 1936 Spitfire.

▪ The Second World War established Aluminium as the “Strategic Metal”.

▪ Joseph Stalin, the leader of the USSR, wrote to Franklin Roosevelt, in 1941: 'Give me 30 thousand tonnes of Aluminium, and I will win the war‘.

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Japanese Zero Zero 1936 ▪ Mitsubishi's chief designer Jiro Horikoshic understood that the Zero aircraft had to be as light as possible.

▪ Every possible weight-saving measure was incorporated into the design.

▪ Aircraft was made from a top-secret aluminium alloy developed by Sumitomo Metal Industries, called Extra Super Duralumin ▪ Extra Super Duralumin Zinc Alloyed 7075

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Diffusion 1947 Ernest Kirkendall discovered solid state diffusion of alloy elements through a pure metal ▪ Kirkendall Effect

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Land Rover 1948 with a great steel shortage, surplus Aluminium from aircraft was used to produce the original Land Rover vehicle.

▪ Second a major step-up in the use of Aluminium occurred in n 1961, when the Rover company started casting Aluminium V-8 engine b

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Sputnik 1957, the USSR launched the first artificial satellite into orbit. The satellites hull consisted of two separate Aluminium semi-spheres joined together

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First Aluminium Skyscraper 1952 30-storey Alcoa Building in Pittsburgh, USA, Clad in untied open-jointed Aluminium panels.

▪ Architect: Harrison & Abramovitz

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Civil Aviation Airframe of modern commercial aircraft is 80% Aluminum by weight.

▪ Assembled from sheets and extrusions riveted together.

▪ Predominant alloy is 7075, Aluminium, zinc, magnesium and copper.

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Into Space 1981 Aluminum used for Apollo spacecraft, the Skylab, the space shuttles and the International Space Station.

▪ Lockheed Martin has chosen an Aluminum-Lithium alloy for the primary structures of NASA’s new Orion spacecraft

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Coca-Cola® and Pepsi® The “Aluminum” drinks can the symbol of every “Red Bodied” male emerged in the USA in 1958.

▪ Cans invention was shared between Kaiser “Aluminum” and Coors.

▪ Coors was not only the first company to sell beer in “Aluminum” cans but also started “recycling” organising the collection of empty cans.

▪ Coca-Cola® and Pepsi® in1967 started to sell their drinks “in “Aluminum” cans.

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Aluminium Intensive Volume Cars JLR pioneer of Aluminium car bodies – Alcan – Ford research in 1990s ▪ XE / XF / F-Pace / F-Type / Range Rover Sport / Range Rover

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Aluminium Conclusion Aluminium components within a maintained interior, such as a church of library, appear to have an infinite life expectancy.

▪ Aluminium components exposed to weather including sun and rain have a life expectancy of over 120 years.

▪ Aluminium should no longer be thought about as a new material. It has a rich and successful track record in architecture and the built environment, with a performative role and a key place in material culture.

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Aluminium Strategic Metal for Society Aluminium is unique among all other metals, in that its alloys, engineering and metallurgical properties have been systematically designed and developed through the application of metallurgy, within its short history of just one century, in response to known engineering gaps and to the specific needs of society.

▪ It is a developed, not a discovered metal!

▪ From its inception, matching its developments Aluminium has been recycled not consumed, so beyond doubt leads and is at the forefront of the “Circular Economy”!

▪ Truly the holistic and versatile properties of Aluminium are establishing it as global designers’ metal of choice, substituting and displacing other strategic metals, materials, plastics, and carbon fibre!

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Demand is Growing across all Sectors Aluminium is a “Traded Metal” in London Metal Exchange and Shanghai Metal Exchanges ▪ Aluminium global price matches demand ▪ Supply matches demand, Balanced

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Metals

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Simplification Of Metallurgical Mechanisms Apologies to Metallurgists and those “GEEKS” that inhibit dark back rooms, whilst the metallurgical reactions, mechanism and theories have been simplified throughout this presentation, overall the effects are correct

Metallurgist is a material scientist or technician who specializes in metals such as steel, Aluminum, iron, and copper working with the knowledge of Metallurgy.

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Elements & Symbols Symbol Ag Ar Ba Be B Ca Cl Cr F Fe H He K Li alfed.org.uk

Element Silver Argon Barium Beryllium Boron Calcium Chlorine Chromium Fluorine Iron Hydrogen Helium Potassium Lithium

Symbol Element Magnesium Mg Manganese Mn Nitrogen N Sodium Na Niobium Nb Nickel Ni Oxygen O Phosphorus P Lead Pb Silicon Si Tin Sn Titanium Ti Zinc Zn Zirconium Zr

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Elements and Compounds Atom is the smallest unit of matter ▪ Each element is a unique atom

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Elements and Compounds Atom is the smallest unit of matter ▪ Each element is a unique atom ▪ An element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions

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Elements and Compounds Atom is the smallest unit of matter ▪ Each element is a unique atom ▪ An element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions ▪ A compound is a substance consisting of two or more elements ▪ Most metals do not occur in their natural state, found as compounds such as oxides, sulphides and halides

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Atomic Number E

An Elements is defined by its atomic number, which is the number of its protons.

▪ Each element has a nucleus of a different number of positively charged Protons,

E

NP PP N PN N PNP

E

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Protons E

Atomic Number E

An Elements is defined by its atomic number, which is the number of its protons.

▪ Each element has a nucleus of a different number of positively charged Protons, ▪ Nucleus surrounded by an equal number of orbiting negatively charged Electrons

E

NP PP N PN N PNP

Protons E

E

Electrons

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Atomic Number E

An Elements is defined by its atomic number, which is the number of its protons.

E ▪ Each element has a nucleus of a different number of positively charged Protons, ▪ Nucleus surrounded by an equal number of orbiting negatively charged Electrons Neutrons ▪ In the nucleus the protons are spaced by non charged Neutrons

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NP PP N PN N PNP

Protons E

E

Electrons

Atomic Number!

E

An Elements is defined by its atomic number, which is the number of its protons.

E ▪ Each element has a nucleus of a different number of positively charged Protons, ▪ Nucleus surrounded by an equal number of orbiting negatively charged Electrons Neutrons ▪ In the nucleus the protons are spaced by non charged Neutrons ▪ Equal number of positive protons and negative electrons results in a neutral charge

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NP PP N PN N PNP

Protons E

E

Electrons

Protons & Electrons ▪ Protons carry a positive charge

+ve

▪ Electrons carry a negative charge

-ve

▪ Opposite charges attract

+ve

▪ Same charges attract repeal

+ve

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-ve

+ve

1.3 Shell Orbits Electrons orbit around the nucleus three dimensionally within a “Shell”

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Negative Electrons Negative electrons repeal each other are separated within orbits ▪ Each orbits can accommodate a set numbers of electrons ▪ So depending on atomic number atoms can have many electron orbits

-ve

-ve

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-ve

Metallic Bond The outer most orbit of electrons are called valence electrons ▪ Valence electrons participate in the formation of chemical bonds E E E

NP PP N PN N PNP

E

E

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Metallic Bond The outer most orbit of electrons are called valence electrons ▪ Metals shed and share their valence electrons as a fast moving cloud between all their atoms

E

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NP PP N PN N PNP

E

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Metallic Bond The outer most orbit of electrons are called valence electrons ▪ Metals shed and share their valence electrons as a fast moving cloud between all their atoms

P

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Metallic Bond Loss of the valence electrons to cloud means nucleus, protons become positive +ve ▪ Nuclei are positive so individual metal atoms are not bonded to each other ▪ Valance electrons carry a negative charge so cloud is negative -ve ▪ Opposites attract ▪ Attraction of positive protons to negative election cloud forms the “Metallic” Bond that holds metals together -

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Metal ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Metal from Greek An element, Strong “Metallic Bond”, Expand and contract, métallon Melt, Fusible, able to be fused, Hard, High strength (behave elastically and plastically), Malleable and ductile, Shiny, High electrical conductivity High thermal conductivity.

μέταλλον

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Metals Dominate The Periodic Table The atomic number of an element is the number of its protons

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Electricity Conduction Electric current is the flow of electrons, so metals are a good conductors of electricity because of metallic bonding ▪ Fundamentally one election in is one electron ejected hence electrical flow

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Thermal Conduction Heat is energy and energy excites/increase the motion/vibration of the electron cloud ▪ This excited vibration is transmitted across the metal hence thermal conduction

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Thermal Expansion When a metal is heated the kinetic energy of its atoms increases.

▪ Electrons vibrate more vigorously forcing a greater separation between the atoms.

▪ Thus the metals expand ▪ Increasing temperature increases separation decreasing strength of metallic bond

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Ductility Ductility is a metal’s ability to be plastically drawn out or permanently stretched without breaking.

▪ It is a measure of a metal’s ability to withstand plastic deformation under load without rupture.

▪ The greater the strain/elongation/stretch the more ductile a metal ▪ Fundamental property essential to the ability of a metal to be cold worked.

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Module 3 Crystals

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Face Centred Cubic Lattices Aluminium atoms arrange themselves into “Face Centered Cubic” lattices ▪ Atom at each corner ▪ Atom in the middle of each Face

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Face Centred Cubic Lattices Aluminium atoms arrange themselves into “Face Centered Cubic” lattices ▪ Atom at each corner ▪ Atom in the middle of each Face

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Metallic Bond Electron cloud is three dimensional so shared between all atoms of cube maintaining metallic bond in all directions

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Aluminium Crystals Adjacent Atoms repeat the “Face Centered Cubic” lattices to form crystals ▪ Repetitive translation of the unit cell along its principal axes in three dimensions creates symmetrical crystal lattices

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Planes of Atoms Adjoining Face Centred Cubes align into planes of atoms

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Planes of Atoms As individual atoms are not bonded to specific atoms but held together by the charge of electron cloud, planes of atoms can slip easily past one another, ▪ Thus metals are ductile and malleable

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Planes of Atoms As individual atoms are not bonded to specific atoms but held together by the charge of electron cloud, planes of atoms can slip easily past one another, ▪ Thus metals are ductile and malleable

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Metallic Bond Metallic bond is not broken by slip of planes of atoms ▪ Bond is between positive charged atoms and negative electron cloud

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Liquid Metals & Solidification

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Liquid Metals When a metal is melted the metallic bond breaks down ▪ Atoms are randomly mixed together and are free to slide around.

▪ Atoms are held together only by weak forces of attraction so liquid lacks cohesion, will flow and pour

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Eutectic or Solidification Diagram Eutectic - Greek word for “easy Melting”

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Eutectic or Solidification Diagram Eutectic - Greek word for “easy Melting”

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Eutectic or Solidification Diagram Eutectic - Greek word for “easy Melting” Liquidus lines

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Eutectic or Solidification Diagram Eutectic - Greek word for “easy Melting” Liquidus lines

Solid + Liquid

Solid + Liquid

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Eutectic or Solidification Diagram Eutectic - Greek word for “easy Melting” Liquidus lines

Solid + Liquid

Solid + Liquid

Solidus Line

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Eutectic or Solidification Diagram Eutectic - Greek word for “easy Melting”

Solid + Liquid

Solid + Liquid

Solidus Line

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All Solid

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Metal Alloys When metals are melted, the metallic bond is dissolved forming liquids ▪ Lesser volume, “Solute”, metal is dissolved into the greater volume “Solvent” metal ▪ As liquids virtually all metals are soluble in each other

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Liquid Metal Limitations Virtually all metals are soluble in each other in liquid form ▪ Melting point of one metals can be higher vaporisation temperature of second metal e.g.

Tungsten and Aluminium ▪ Difference in specific weight can be so great that they separate into two distinct liquids with a narrow boundary layer e.g. iron and Aluminium

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Solidification As molten metals cool, the metallic bonds forms between atoms and atoms bond together forming single cells throughout the liquid.

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Solidification As molten metals cool, the metallic bonds form between atoms and atoms bond together forming single cells throughout the liquid.

▪ Cells are randomly orientated

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Crystal Growth As cooling continues the single cells progressively grow. in the direction of their principal axis’s that of the random orientation of the seed cell

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Grain Structure Eventually the crystals will impinge against each other, but, because of the mismatch of their different orientations they cannot grow together so develop into individual grains ▪ Distinct boundaries form between adjacent grains

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Grain Structure On final solidification a network of boundaries forms between and surrounding all the grains ▪ Grain Boundaries

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Grain Boundaries Grain boundaries are therefore physical barrier so planes of weakness

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Effect of Grain Size ▪ Fine grains have large grain boundary contact areas so disrupt crack propagation.

▪ Each time you encounter a new grain you have to start a new crack ▪ Large grains have minimum grain boundary contact areas between them so offer clear crack propagation paths ▪ Therefore yield and tensile strength increase with decreasing grain size

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Solid Solubility of Metals In the solid state there is limited solubility of solute metal atoms within the solvent metal atoms!

▪ Metals form “Solid Solutions” of solute in solvent atoms ▪ Metallic bond forms between different metals

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Limited Solid Solubility On solidification the excess solute metal atoms are pushed by the growing grains into the grain boundaries ▪ Solid Solutions have only limited solubility

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Sizes of Atoms Atomic radii decrease across the Periodic Table because as the atomic number increases, the number of protons increases so does the number of electrons ▪ Effectively nuclear charge towards the outermost electrons increases, drawing the outermost electrons closer.

▪ Thus electron cloud contracts and the atomic radius decrease.

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Size of Metal Atoms No two elements have atoms of the same size

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Substitutional Solid Solution Strengthening Atoms of an alloying element are dissolved in the liquid solvent metal on solidification.

▪ Solute atoms “Substitute” in the crystalline Aluminium lattice.

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Metallic Bond Metallic bond forms across solvent and solute atoms

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Substitutional Solid Solution Strengthening The solute atoms “Substitute” for aluminium atoms in the crystalline lattice ▪ No two elements have the same size atoms ▪ The substituted solute alloying atoms distort the crystalline lattice

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Substitutional Solid Solution Strengthening The different size atoms distort the lattice hampering the free slip of planes of atoms ▪ Slip requires more force to occur ▪ Hence alloy atoms strengthen alloy

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Substitutional Solid Solution Strengthening The different size atoms distort the lattice hampering the free slip of planes of atoms ▪ Slip requires more force to occur ▪ Hence alloy atoms strengthen alloy

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Diffusion & Solid Solubility of Metals

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Self Diffusion Individual metal atoms are not bonded to each other but are held in the “Metallic Bond” by the clouds of electrons ▪ Even at ambient temperature metal atoms migrate around, they defuse through solid state structures with time

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Self Diffusion Individual metal atoms are not bonded to each other but are held in the “Metallic Bond” by the clouds of electrons ▪ Even at ambient temperature metal atoms migrate around, they defuse through solid state structures with time

Time

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Mobility of Metal Atoms Even at ambient temperature metal atoms migrate around, they defuse through the structures ▪ Individual metal atoms are not bonded to each other but are held in the “Metallic Bond” by the clouds of electrons

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Mobility of Metal Atoms Individual metal atoms are not bonded to each other but are held in the “Metallic Bond” by the clouds of electrons ▪ Increasing the temperature expands the lattices electrons move out separating atoms more ▪ Increasing the temperature, increases the mobility of atoms increasing freedom of movement.

▪ Increasing temperature increase mobility increase the rate of diffusion ▪ Diffusion is thus a function of time and temperature

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Theory of Diffusion Diffusion is phenomenon of material transport by atomic motion ▪ Atoms move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

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Theory of Diffusion Atoms move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration ▪ Atoms re-distributed within the microstructure until an equilibrium is achieved ▪ Atoms can be re-distributed between different alloys ▪ Atoms can be added from external materials or environment ▪ Atoms from the alloy can be discharged to the environment, e.g. Hydrogen

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Solid Solubility of Metals In the solid state there is limited solubility of solute metal atoms within the solvent metal atoms!

▪ Metals form “Solid Solutions” of solute in solvent atoms ▪ Metallic bond forms between different metals

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Solubility & Temperature Increasing temperature increases solubility of solute atoms ▪ So solute metal are taken into solid solution out of the grain boundaries

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Solid Solutions The solid solubility of solute atoms will increase with temperature up to the onset of melting, the solidus lines

Solid Solution of B Atoms in A

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Eutectic or Solidification Diagram Eutectic - Greek word for “easy Melting” Liquid

Liquidus Lines Temperature °C

α + liquid

β + liquid

α

β Solidus Lines

Solvus line

Solid

0% 100%

100% 0%

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Hot & Cold Working

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Mechanical working of Metals As individual atoms are not bonded to specific atoms but held together by the charge of electron cloud, planes of atoms can slip easily past one another, ▪ Mechanical working slips planes of atoms

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Metallic Bond Metallic bond is not broken by slip of planes of atoms ▪ Bond is between positive charged atoms and negative electron cloud -

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Aluminium Federation © 2023

-

Cold Working Cold working is the physical deformation of a metal at ambient temperature, by mechanically changing its shape ▪ Bending or reducing its cross-sectional area, through drawing, rolling, stamping etc, ▪ As volume of the metal cannot change, the reduction of area translates into metal spread or elongation in the direction of work

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Cold Working Cold working slips the planes of atoms past each other, metallic bond does not break the electron cloud just reconfigures

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Cold Working Cold working slips the planes of atoms past each other, metallic bond does not break the electron cloud just reconfigures ▪ Slipping of the planes of atoms results in the grains being permanently compressed and elongated in the direction of work.

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Cold Work Hardening & Strain Hardening In cold working as the planes of atoms slip, they lock up ▪ New flattened shape is more resistant to further deformation ▪ Forces to required to induce more slip increase with increasing deformation, ▪ Causing a strength increase ▪ Hence “Work Hardening or “Strain Hardening.“

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Strain Hardening Any mechanical cold work deforms grains ▪ Cold work involves reshaping, reforming and cutting at room temperature ▪ Cold work strain work hardens a metal

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Directionality Cold working distorts the grains in the direction of major deformation that is rolling or drawing ▪ Grains stretch in direction of work ▪ Induce strong directionality ▪ Transverse to longitudinal properties will be different

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Strain Hardening The greater the cold deformation the higher the strength increase ▪ Ductility is the reciprocal of strength

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Strain Hardening The greater the cold deformation the higher the strength increase ▪ As deformation increases strength increase

and ductility

reduces

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Strain Hardening The greater the cold deformation the higher the strength increase ▪ Brittle failure during cold work will resultant when ductility is exhausted

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Annealing and Recrystallisation In the fully work or strain hardened condition aluminium has high strength but no ductility

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Annealing and Recrystallisation If we heat the cold-worked metal to above the “Recrystallisation Temperature”, approximately 50% of the melting temperature, and hold on temperature, new grains, are seeded, start to grow

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Annealing and Recrystallisation If we heat the cold-worked metal to above the “Recrystallisation Temperature”, and hold on temperature for prolonged times, new grains grow, consuming all the plastically-deformed grains.

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Annealing and Recrystallisation If we heat the cold-worked metal to above the “Recrystallisation Temperature”, and hold on temperature for prolonged times, new grains grow, consuming all the plastically-deformed grains.

▪ Once all the new grains have formed, the structure is fully “annealed”, ▪ Strength and ductility are restored to their original levels.

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Annealing and Recrystallisation The process of recrystallising the cold worked grains is “annealing” ▪ Once all the new grains have recrystallised the structure is fully “annealed”, and strength and ductility are restored to their original levels

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Annealing In the cold or work hardened state heavily deformed grains have high strength but low ductility

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Annealing Once all the new grains have recrystallised the structure is fully “annealed”, and strength and ductility are restored to their original levels

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Aluminium at Elevated Temperatures At relative low elevated temperatures yield and strength of Aluminium are significantly reduced ▪ Higher temperature thermal expansion weakens metallic bond so yield and strength reduce ▪ Force to work Aluminium reduces significantly to very low levels

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Aluminium at Elevated Temperatures At these low hot working temperatures Aluminium becomes extreme ductility ▪ Enables high reductions and change in shape without failure at low working forces

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Hot Working Hot working is when metals are mechanically deformed above their Recrystallisation temperature.

▪ That is above about 50% of its melting temperature or higher ▪ Above the Recrystallisation temperature, metals constantly recrystallise during deformation, so do not strain or cold-work harden.

▪ Effectively the hot worked metals automatically anneal growing new grains

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Elastic & Plastic Behaviour of Metals

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Tensile Strength & Stress A load hanging on a wire, a filament or object, puts it into tension or stresses it!

▪ Depending on its strength that filament will stretch, elongate and so be strained

Load

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Tensile Strength & Stress A load hanging on a wire, a filament or object, puts it into tension or stresses it!

▪ Depending on its strength that filament will stretch, elongate and so be strained ▪ The heavier the weight the greater the stress so stretch

Load

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Stress & Strain Stress is a measure of strength the ability to withstand a force

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Stress & Strain Strain is a measure of stretch or elongation

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Stress & Strain Loading or stressing a filament will stretch or elongate it

Weight

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Stress & Strain Increasing the load or stress will result in the filament stretching or elongating more.

▪ The higher the stress the greater the strain

Weight

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Load

Metals Behave Elastically When loaded or stressed metals, Aluminium will stretch or elongate

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Metals Behave Elastically When loaded or stressed metals, Aluminium will stretch or elongate ▪ Atomic lattices stretch

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Metals Behave Elastically Under a load grains elastically stretch

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Metals Behave Elastically Under a load grains elastically stretch

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Metal – Elastic Behaviour On removal of the load, metals, Aluminium springs back to original shape, no permanent deformation ▪ Metals behave “Elastically” they spring!!!

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Metal – Elastic Behaviour On removal of the load, grains spring back, they behave “Elastically”!!!

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Yield Stress As the stress is increased, suddenly the elongation changes and there is a large increase for a small increase in stress ▪ This is the yield stress or yield point

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Yield Point or Stress Once the applied stress exceeds the yield stress the deformation becomes permanent ▪ Planes of atoms have slipped

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Yield Point or Stress Up to yield stress elastic stretch is a straight line relationship between Stress and Strain ▪ Follows straight line equation 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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Yield Point or Stress Once the applied stress exceeds the yield stress the deformation becomes permanent

No longer springs back to start, zero

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Yield Point or Stress Once the applied stress exceeds the yield stress the deformation becomes permanent ▪ The planes of atoms have slipped ▪ Permanent deformation is “Plastic”

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Yield Point Terminology Text books refer to the yield point of metals by many terms with the same meaning ▪ Yield Stress ▪ Yield point ▪ Elastic Limit

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Yield point Terminology Aluminium has a poorly defined yield point so for engineering purposes it taken as the stress required to produce 0.2% permanent deformation.

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Yield Point Terminology ▪ Yield Stress ▪ 0.2% permanent deformation.

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Designing Products Products are designed to be subjected to stresses in service below the yield stress with a safety margin ▪ Within elastic stress

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Plastic Deformation Once a metal has yielded, on release of the stress, it is permanently plastically deformed

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Plastic Deformation Once a metal has yielded the grains are plastically deformed ▪ The deformation of the grains is permanent

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Plastic Deformation Once a metal has yielded, the grains have been permanently deformed so the metal has been permanently work or strain hardened

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Cold Work Hardening & Strain Hardening Once the metal has yielded the plastic deformation is cold working as the planes of atoms slip and lock up ▪ The deformed shape is more resistant to further deformation ▪ Forces to required to induce more slip increase with increasing deformation, ▪ Causing further strength increase ▪ Hence “Work Hardening or “Strain Hardening.“

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Work or Strain Hardening As the stress increases so does deformation of the grains and the degree of work or strain hardening ▪ Increasing resistance to further deformation

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Work or Strain Hardening As the stress increases so does deformation of the grains and the degree of work or strain hardening ▪ Increasing resistance to further deformation

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Work or Strain Hardening As the stress increases so does deformation of the grains and the degree of work or strain hardening ▪ Increasing resistance to further deformation

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Work or Strain Hardening As the stress is increased the slip in the planes of atoms is so great that the metallic bond fails and the atoms start to pull apart ▪ Eventually cross-sectional area is reduced so cannot support applied stress ▪ Stress plateau levels out

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Maximum Breaking Stress Plateau is maximum stress, load, or force, that the metal can support ▪ This is the maximum stress

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Maximum Breaking Stress Plateau is maximum stress, load, or force, that the metal can support

Text book terms for plateau

▪ Tensile Strength ▪ Maximum breaking load

▪ Maximum breaking stress

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Maximum Breaking Stress Plateau is maximum stress, load, or force, that the metal can support

Text book terms for plateau

▪ Tensile Strength ▪ Maximum breaking load

▪ Maximum breaking stress

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Final Failure On exceeding the maximum breaking stress the grains part and the stress falls off ▪ Parting grains reduce cross-sectional area, resulting in localised necking ▪ Final failure

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Ultimate Elongation Following failure, the permanent plastic deformation is termed Ultimate elongation ▪ Ultimate elongation is normally expressed as a percentage increase over the original gauge length after failure

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Ultimate Elongation Following failure, the permanent plastic deformation is termed Ultimate elongation ▪ Ultimate elongation is normally expressed as a percentage increase over the original gauge length after failure

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Ultimate Elongation Following failure, the permanent plastic deformation is termed Ultimate elongation ▪ Ultimate elongation is normally expressed as a percentage increase over the original gauge length

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Tensile Testing

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Tensile Testing Machine In the Tensile test a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until it fails.

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Tensile Testing Machine ▪ The basic machine consists of two cross beam that support the test piece grips.

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Tensile Testing Machine ▪ Attached to the cross beams are two vices that grip the test piece

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Tensile Testing Machine ▪ The vices clamp the test piece being tensile tested

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Tensile Testing Machine ▪ A force is applied to the test piece by moving beams apart either mechanically or hydraulic.

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Tensile Testing Machine ▪

A force is applied to the test piece by moving beams apart either mechanically or hydraulic.

▪ The force is applied through the clamps into the test piece loading or stressing it

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Tensile Testing Machine ▪ The basic machine consists of two cross beam that support the test piece grips.

▪ A force is applied to the test piece by moving beams apart either mechanically or hydraulic.

▪ The applied force is measured using a load cell electronically and displayed

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Tensile Testing Machine ▪ Combining the measurements of the applied force with the moment of the movable cross beam allows us to create a graph of stress vertical axis and strain horizontal as described in the module on elastic and plastic behaviour ▪ Thus we can measure yield and maximum breaking forces

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Measuring Stress and Strain Up to the yield point the elastic movements are small so are measured electronically using an “Extensometer” ▪ The extensometer is clamped onto the test piece ▪ Once the metal has yielded the extensometer is removed and we measure plastic movement from the cross beams

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Measuring Stress and Strain Thus we can construct a graph of Stress against Strain

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Yield Point Terminology ▪ Yield Stress ▪ 0.2% permanent deformation.

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Maximum Breaking Stress Plateau is maximum stress, load, or force, that the metal can support

Text book terms for plateau

▪ Tensile Strength ▪ Maximum breaking load

▪ Maximum breaking stress

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Ultimate Elongation Following failure, the permanent plastic deformation is termed Ultimate elongation ▪ Ultimate elongation is normally expressed as a percentage increase over the original gauge length

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Tensile Test Pieces Standard test pieces for tensile testing are either turned or machined.

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d0 d1 L0 Lt h

diameter of specimen diameter of grip gauge length (L0 = 5 d0)Lc total length height of grip

a b B h L0 Lc

thickness of specimen width of specimen width of grip (» 1.2 b + 3 mm) height of grip (« 2 b + 10 mm) gauge length parallel length

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Unit of Force The newton (symbol: N) is the SI unit of force. It is named after Sir Isaac Newton because of his work on classical mechanics.

▪ The force resulting from the action of gravity on 1 kg weight is 9.81N

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Stress Stress Is a function of load hanging on the object and the cross-sectional area of that object

High Stress

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Low Stress

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Unit of Stress The pascal (symbol: Pa) is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. It is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify stress. It is defined as one newton per square metre.

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Stress Tensile force is the measurement of force or load applied to a filament or component ▪ Stress “σ”, is the tensile force “Fn” divided by the nominal cross-section of the specimen “A”

𝐹𝑛 𝜎= 𝐴 ▪ Engineering Stress is measured in N/mm² or more correctly MPa

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Strain Engineering Strain is the measure of stretch or ductility or elongation ▪ Engineering strain “ε, is “ΔL” is the change in gauge length, “L0“ is the initial gauge length, and “L” is the final length, normally expressed as percentage

∆𝐿 𝐿 − 𝐿0 𝜀= = 𝐿0 𝐿0

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Grain Flow Any wrought product will exhibit grain flow in the direction of major plastic metal flow Compressio n

Rolled Sheet Cast Slab

Minor Grain Flow

Major Grain Flow

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.

Directionality Depending on degree of rolling and of cold work or strain hardening mechanical properties will vary between longitudinal and transverse directions ▪ Yield and tensile stresses will be greater in longitudinal direction, major grain flow ▪ Ductility will be greater transversely, minor grain flow

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Elongation Most EN and BS specify tensile test elongation be expressed as a percentage over a gauge length, typically A50mm, meaning that the original gauge length should be 50mm ▪ Check certificates for method of calculation ▪ Elongation is a function of gauge as the thicker the gauge the greater the amount of metal to draw out so the Ultimate Elongation ▪ Check minimum elongation is applicable to your gauges

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Hardness Testing

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Principle of Hardness Tests All hardness tests involve pressing a dimensionally very accurate indenter under a known load into a metal or component and measuring the resultant plastic deformation ▪ Hardness is thus a measure of resistance to plastic deformation, so can be used to estimate tensile strength

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Hardness Tests Hardness are therefore a non destructive method of confirming mechanical properties ▪ Tensile strength ▪ Heat treatment,

▪ Degree of ageing ▪ Product checking ▪ Sorting tool

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Rockwell Hardness Test The Rockwell hardness test, indicates hardness by using a dial gauge to measure the depth of the impression.

▪ For Aluminium the “B” scale is used which uses a 1/16 inch ball indenter and a force of 100 Kg ▪ The method of testing is to apply a minor load to remove surface effects and zero the depth gauge, then the major load is applied.

▪ The major load is then removed and the depth of the impression is indicated as a Hardness Rockwell Number, “HRB” ▪ Very quick and low skill.

▪ Perfect for sheet Aluminium

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Brinell Hardness Test The Brinell Harness test, calculates hardness by measuring the diameter of the impression with a microscope.

▪ For Aluminium a 10mm ball indenter and a force of 500 or 1000kg ▪ The results are quoted as Hardness Brinell or “HB” or Hardness Brinell Number “HBN” ▪ The Brinell is used on coarse surface such as castings or large grains that will affect the accuracy of the Rockwell or Vickers tests ▪ Suited for castings, forgings and plates alfed.org.uk

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Hardness Test Method Abbreviations Brinell Hardness test ▪ HBW, Brinell Hardness number using a tungsten carbide ball ▪ HBS Brinell Hardness number using a steel ball Rockwell Hardness test ▪ HRB, Hardness Rockwell number using “B” scale ▪ HRA, Hardness Rockwell number using “A” scale ▪ HRS and HRT, Hardness Rockwell number using superficial “R” and “T” scales

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Equotip Equotip uses dynamic testing principle.

▪ An impact body with a hard metal test tip is propelled against the surface of the test piece by spring force ▪ When the impact body hits the test surface, surface deformation takes place resulting in loss of kinetic energy.

▪ The loss of energy is measured electronically and displayed as a harness value

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Webster Hardness Tester Webster portable hardness tester type ”B” for Aluminium ▪ Quick and easy test, the hardness value can be read out directly from the indicator with a simple clamp ▪ Uses spring to compress indentor ▪ Simple ”Go No-Go”.

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Hardness Conversion Chart

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Test Certificates & Certificates of Conformity

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Certificates Certificates report test values of a product against a specification in terms of: ▪ Chemical Composition ▪ Mechanical Properties ▪ Tolerances ▪ Non Destructive testing ▪ Surface condition or finish ▪ Life time warranty ▪ Specified other e.g. fatigue life Set by National & International Standards organisations such as BSI, ASTM or customer ▪ Beware they only certificate against the written requirements of the specification

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Conformity Certificate Certificate of Conformance / Letter of Guarantee ▪ Can be issued by anybody ▪ Limited value

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Types of Certificate Indicative Certificates, EN10204 / 2.2/ DIN 50049 / 2.2 ▪ Typical or Average values over production runs ▪ Not batch specific ▪ Gives average values from a mill over a period

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Types of Certificate Batch Specific certificates EN10204 / 3.1/DIN 50049 / 3.1B ▪ Issued by the mill ▪ Actual product test results ▪ Cannot be issued in retrospect

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Types of Certificate Third part witnessed EN10204 / 3.2 DIN 50049 / 3.1C ▪ Same as 3.1 above but with testing witnessed by an independent inspector, e.g.

Lloyds, DNV, ▪ Essential for critical applications

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Aluminium Strategic Metal for Society

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Aluminium Metal Atom ▪ An element, one of nature’s building blocks ▪ A metal Wide and versatile properties of Aluminium are establishing it as global designers’ metal of choice ▪ Substituting for displacing other strategic metals, materials, plastics and carbon fibre!

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Aluminium a Strategic Metal Aluminium is one of five strategic metals that shape the world; ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Copper Iron, that is Steel Titanium Magnesium Aluminium

Strategic to UK Infrastructure

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Aluminium Light Metal Aluminium, low density ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

30% Density of Copper 34% Density of Steel 60% Density of Titanium 155% Density of Magnesium Steel Magnesium Aluminium Titanium (Iron) Copper Density g/cm³

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Mg

Al

Ti

Fe

Cu

1.738

2.7

4.506

7.874

8.96

Aluminium Federation © 2023

Aluminium a Strategic Metal Magnesium

Aluminium

Titanium

Steel

Copper

Symbol

Mg

Al

Ti

Fe

Cu

Density g/cm³

1.738

2.70

4.506

7.874

8.96

Melting Point °C

650

660

1668

1538

1084

Youngs Modulus GPa

45

70

116

211

110/128

Bulk Modulus GPa Aluminium:

45

76

110

170

140

Thermal Conductivity ▪ 34% W/(m.k) Density of Steel

156

237

21.9

80.4

401

`

µm/(m.k)can °C Thermal Expansion (at 25 24.8 of the automotive 23.1 8.60 11.8 16.5 ▪ Strength match many and architectural steel Electrical Resistance nΩ.m (at 20 °C)

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43.9

28.2

Aluminium Federation © 2023

420

96.1

16.78

Low Density, Light Weight & Strength Weight in a shopping bag is as important as in the design of a car

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Automotive & Architectural Aluminium Aluminium alloys and tempers exist that match ductility and strength of body in white, chassis automotive and architectural steels

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Design for Weight Saving

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High Strength To Weight Ratio Typically 45% weight saving over steel

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2035 RIP Internal Combustion Engine

Aluminium will not be an alternative for an EV, it will be mandatory to compensate battery weight

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Aluminium a Strategic Metal Magnesium

Aluminium

Titanium

Steel

Copper

Symbol

Mg

Al

Ti

Fe

Cu

Density g/cm³

1.738

2.70

4.506

7.874

8.96

Melting Point °C

650

660

1668

1538

1084

Youngs Modulus GPa

45

70

116

211

110/128

Bulk Modulus GPa

45

76

110

170

140

Thermal Conductivity W/(m.k)

156

237

21.9

80.4

401

Thermal Expansion µm/(m.k) (at 25 °C

24.8

23.1

8.60

11.8

16.5

Electrical Resistance nΩ.m (at 20 °C)

43.9

28.2

420

96.1

16.78

Aluminium: ▪ 60% Thermal & electrical conductivity of Copper

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Electrical Conduction Aluminium has 61% the conductivity of Copper on a volume basis, ▪ 200% the conductivity of Copper on a weight basis.

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Aluminum “Non Magnetic” Normally Aluminium is non Magnetic!

▪ Magnetism can pass trough Aluminium ▪ Electrical flow through any conductor causes a magnetic field ▪ Magnetic fields can induce eddy currents in Aluminium and so create magnetic fields

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Thermal Conductivity Aluminium has 57% the thermal conductivity of Copper on a volume basis, but nearly 200% the conductivity of copper on a weight basis.

▪ Properties of high thermal conductivity, low weight and good formability ▪ Optimal for heat exchangers, car radiators, cooking utensils and engine cylinder heads.

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Thermal conductor Good Thermal Conductor ▪ Non magnetic ▪ Semiconductor heat sinks

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Low Melting Point Aluminium has one of the lowest melting temperatures of all metals ▪ Low energy ▪ Low thermal losses during melting

Steel Magnesium Aluminium Titanium (Iron) Copper Mg Al Ti Fe Cu Melting Point °C 650 660 1668 1538 1084 alfed.org.uk

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High Fluidity Aluminium is a light metal so in its molten state, particularly its Silicon alloys, exhibits high fluidity, approaching that of water!

▪ Optimal for casting ▪ For casting fine details

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Castings In the United Kingdom 40% of all Aluminium used goes into castings ▪ Aluminium has 40% melting temperature of steel ▪ Liquid metal engineering

▪ Low energy process

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Low Temperature Performance Aluminium alloys have no ductile-to-brittle transition ▪ As the Aluminium atoms contract their metallic bond attraction increase ▪ Tensile and yield strengths increase with decreasing temperature ▪ Ductility, slightly increases with decreasing temperature

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Low Temperature Performance Aluminium alloys increase in strength and ductility with decreasing temperature ▪ Used extensively in cryogenic applications ▪ Transportation of liquid gases

▪ No Ductile to brittle transition

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Aluminium at Elevated Temperatures When metals are heated they expand and their metallic bond is weakened At working temperatures up to 100°C the mechanical properties of most Aluminium alloys and tempers are not affected.

▪ Reduction by 200°C to 80% of proof stress ▪ Reduction by 300°C to 30% of proof stress

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Aluminium at Elevated Temperatures Aluminium at moderate temperatures circa 500°C becomes super ductile ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Unique and most important property of Aluminium Enables Aluminium to be hot worked at low temperatures To produce complex shapes Ideal for extrusion forging and Superforming

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Aluminium Thermal Expansion/Contraction ▪ Thermal expansion double that of steel

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Easy to Shape Manipulate ▪ Extrudable ▪ Formable ▪ Bendable ▪ Hot

▪ Cold

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Joinable/Weldable ▪ Welds ▪ Bonds ▪ Mechanical joints

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Ultra-Violet Light Totally resistant to Sunlight degradation ▪ No Heat Warping ▪ No Ultraviolet light degradation

▪ Impervious to Ultraviolet radiation ▪ Protects package contents ▪ Colour fast

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Packaging & Containers ▪ Non Toxic ▪ Long life ▪ Recyclable

▪ Colourfast ▪ Strong!!!!!!!

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Odour Less Aluminum foil, made solely from rolled aluminum, is 100% dense and impervious to light, odour and taste.

▪ No effect on the taste or smell of food wrapped in it.

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Pharmaceuticals Unrivalled barrier properties of Aluminium totally exclude the penetration of moisture, oxygen, aromas and other gases, as well as micro-organisms and light.

Even with 0.007 mm thickness of aluminium foil, it is still impermeable ▪ Light proof ▪ Bacteria proof ▪ Impervious to air ▪ Infinite life

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Aluminium is “Non Sparking” Aluminium is always covered with a microscopic layer of oxide which is extremely hard and chemically inert.

▪ Aluminium is already oxidised, so oxidised that sparking cannot occur!

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Aluminium Mirror Reflectivity Aluminium can reflect up to 90% of white light and heat ▪ “Walkie Talkie” tower, 20 Fenchurch Street

▪ Each day for a period of up to two hours sun shines directly onto the building, which acts as a concave mirror focusing light onto the streets to the South, melting cars!

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Heat Reflectivity High reflectivity of aluminium does not absorb radiant heat and low absorption heat.

▪ During summer maintains interior cooler and during winter warmer

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Expanded Screen Filters Aluminium “Rhomboid” apertures are fabricated at an angle to create a brise-soleil ▪ Strong and light ▪ Blocking sunlight during the hottest days of the year ▪ Allow the sun to penetrate the facade during the winter..

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Sound Proof Aluminium is an excellent reflector of sound waves as well as electromagnetic waves.

▪ Does not ring!

▪ Does not allow external noise to enter buildings and contains interior sounds ▪ Soundproofing

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Corrosion Resistant

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Corrosion Resistant Eros ▪ Sculptor Alfred Gilbert was commissioned to create a memorial to Anthony Ashley-Cooper, the 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, in 1886 ▪ Erected in 1892 and unveiled on 29 June 1893

▪ Cast in Aluminium by George Broad & Son at the Hammersmith Foundry

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Built to last Bodleian Library, still has original Aluminium windows installed in 1939

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Aluminium Vital Constituent of Steel Aluminium is used for deoxidizing and grain refining in steels.

▪ Without Aluminium “NO” high quality steels

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Aluminium Oxide (Alumina)

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Aluminium Oxide Aluminium reacts with the Oxygen of air to form Aluminium Oxide Al2O3

▪ Commonly called Alumina ▪ Natural state of Aluminum in Nature ▪ Forms instantly on Aluminium surface ▪ Oxide is self healing

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Aluminium Oxide “Alumina” Aluminium oxide, Alumina

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Corrosion resistant Transparent Bonding is “IONIC” not metallic An inclusion in Aluminium metal.

Ceramic Brittle An electrical insulator.

High Hardness High Strength Young’s Modulus 393 GP (Aluminium 70 GPa) High Melting Point 2,072 °C (Aluminium 660.32 °C) alfed.org.uk

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Primary Aluminium Production

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Aluminium most Abundant Metal in Earth’s Crust Oxygen Silicon Aluminium Iron Calcium Sodium Potassium Magnesium Titanium Hydrogen Phosphorus

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46.46% 27.61% 8.07% 5.06% 3.64% 2.83% 2.58% 2.07% 0.62% 0.14% 0.12%

Natural Aluminium Metallic Aluminium is not found in nature, it occurs in the form of hydrated oxides or silicates, clays ▪ To difficult to economically extract Aluminium from most clays ▪ Common clay brick wall contains 10 to 20 kilograms of Aluminium per square metre ▪ China Clay kaolin ▪ Bauxite clay is only viable source of global Aluminium

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Bauxite Mineral Source of Aluminium Bauxite is a rock formed from laterite soil that has been severely leached over millennia of silica and other soluble materials in wet tropical or subtropical climate ▪ Bauxite has no specific composition, it is a mixture of hydrous Aluminium oxides, Aluminium hydroxides, clay minerals and insoluble materials ▪ Minerals include iron which gives Bauxite red colour ▪ Bauxite reserves estimated at 28 Billion tons

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Origin of Bauxite Bauxite was discovered in 1821 by the French geologist Pierre Berthier near the village of Les Baux in Provence southern France ▪ In 1861, the French chemist Henri Sainte-Claire Deville named the mineral “Bauxite"

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Bauxite Sources Global Bauxite mining ▪ Australia 31% ▪ China 16% ▪ Brazil 14% ▪ Indonesia 12% ▪ Guinea 7% ▪ India 6%

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Rehabilitation & Reforestation Bauxite is typically found in top five metres of the topsoil.

▪ Ore acquired through environmentally responsible stripmining operations ▪ Bauxite mining has reached stage where it is sustainable and ‘land area footprint neutral’ ▪ 97% of all Bauxite mines have formal rehabilitation procedures ▪ Topsoil, seeds and seedlings from mining site are stored to be replaced during rehabilitation process ▪ Reforestation is progressive and starts as soon as a mining strip is closed

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Extraction of Aluminium from Bauxite Extraction of Aluminium from bauxite is carried out in three stages ▪ Ore dressing, cleaning ore by means of separation of the metal containing mineral from the waste ▪ Chemical treatment of bauxite through Bayer process converting the hydrated Aluminium oxide to pure Aluminium oxide Al2O3 ▪ Reduction of Aluminium from Aluminium oxide by the Hall-Heroult electrolytic process

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Bayer Process Dissolution ▪ Crushed and ground bauxite is mixed with hot sodium hydroxide solution, which dissolves the Aluminium Hydroxide, forming solution of sodium aluminate.

▪ By product of Bayer process is “Red Mud” a mixture of sand, Iron Oxide and Silicates :

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Bayer Conversion to Alumina ▪ The supersaturated Aluminium Hydroxide is precipitated out of solution, washed, and filtered.

▪ The spent liquor is reheated, treated with caustic and recycled.

▪ The Aluminium Hydroxide crystals are dried by heating to between 1300 & 1500 C. ▪ Drying, calcining converts Aluminium Hydroxide into Alumina Al2O3 2Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3H2O

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Aluminium Oxide “Alumina” Aluminium metal in air or oxygen instantly forms a surface oxide Al2O3, Alumina..

▪ Oxide is self healing ▪ Ceramic ▪ Brittle ▪ An electrical insulator.

▪ High Hardness 1400 Vickers Hardness Number ▪ High Strength Young’s Modulus 393 GP (Aluminium 70 GPa) ▪ High Melting Point 2,072 °C (Aluminium 660.32 °C)

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Reduction of Aluminium Oxide Alumina Aluminium cannot be reduced from its oxide, Alumina, by simple thermal reduction so the only alternative process is electrolysis ▪ The reduction of Aluminium Oxide to pure Aluminium requires three electrons so is high electricity demand process

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Hall-Heroult Process Aluminium oxide is very poor conductor of electricity so electrolysis has to be is carried out in a bath of molten cryolite, (cryolite is a mineral, containing sodium Aluminium fluoride, Na3AlF6 ▪ Cryolite is electrically conductive, and dissolves Alumina Al2O3 ▪ Alumina Al2O3 dissolved in Cryolite melts at 1012C and the solution is a good electrical conductor.

▪ Heavy electrical currents are passed between the anodes and the cathode through the cryolite ▪ Aluminium oxide is reduced to metallic Aluminium deposited at the cathode and oxygen liberated at the anode

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Electrolysis Reactions Electrolysis is carried out in a steel cell, lined with graphite which form the cathode and Graphite rods are used as anodes.

▪ The overall reactions is 4Al3++ 6O2- + 3C → 4Al + 3CO2 ▪ Hence carbon anodes are consumed by the reaction and converted to Carbon Dioxide.

▪ Molten Aluminium metal is produced at the cathode, and sinks to the bottom of the cell.

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Hall-Heroult Electrolysis Cells Aluminium is often referred to as solid electricity because of the large amounts of power required to transform alumina into refined metal.

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Carbon Anodes Consumable Carbon Anodes and cell linings react to produce heavy CO2 emissions!

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Hall-Heroult Cells Continuously Operated Hall-Heroult cells are continuously operated so molten Aluminium Is sucked out of cells and taken to Cast-house for refining and casting

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Conversion Rate Bauxite to Aluminium

Bauxite 4 Tons

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Alumina 2 Tons

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Aluminium 1 Ton

Raw Materials to Produce One Kilogram Aluminium

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Aughinish (Ireland) Alumina Production United Kingdom only source of Alumina is Aughinish in Ireland

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Scottish Primary Smelter ▪ United Kingdom has one smelter producing 45,000 tons of primary Aluminium per annum ▪ Alvance Aluminium ▪ Lochaber generates is its own hydroelectricity

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Aluminium Growth & Electricity Fundamentally the Hall-Heroult electrolysis, Aluminium refining process dependents on Electricity ▪ Historically growth in Aluminum has been extricable linked with the growth in electricity generation

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Aluminium Smelting Energy Consumption Most modern smelters use approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg of Aluminium

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Electricity Generation Growth Fuels Aluminium Production Renewables and natural gas are the fastest growing sources of electricity generation but coal is still expected to fuel the largest share by 2040 ▪ Coal generation of electricity requires steady base load demand

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Aluminium Reliance on Electricity Aluminium smelters located close to sources of economical, reliable and plentiful long term power.

▪ Hydropower supplies around 40% globally of the industry’s energy consumption, ▪ Middle East use surplus gas to generate electricity ▪ China has vast Coal reserves and despite gross generating overcapacity is building more power stations

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Regional Energy Smelting Intensity China with modern smelters operates the most energy efficient smelters

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Global Aluminium Energy Consumption World's Energy Demand to Create / Recycle Aluminium

$70 Billion Dollars Per Year on Aluminium 2.0% 1.8%

Aluminum Production, 1.8%

1.6% 1.4% 1.2% 1.0% 0.8% 0.6% 0.4% 0.2%

0.0%

Energy to Create Aluminum

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Energy to Reuse Aluminium

Carbon Free Smelting Alcoa Corporation and Rio Tinto have announced revolutionary process to make Aluminium that produces oxygen and eliminates all direct greenhouse gases emissions from traditional smelting process.

▪ New process releases oxygen instead of carbon dioxide using an advanced conductive material.

▪ Joint venture Elysis, headquartered in Montreal will develop and license the technology so it can be used to retrofit existing smelters or build new facilities.

▪ Elysis anode and cathode materials, last more than 30 times longer than traditional components

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Global Primary Aluminium Production ▪ Predicted reserves to last 100 years

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Global Growth of Aluminium

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Primary Production 2000 (25MT)

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Primary Production 2010 (42MT)

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Primary Production 2022 (65 MT)

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Aluminium End Uses Transport has overtaken architecture as the dominant use of Aluminium

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Total Global Demand 1000s tons

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Aluminium Global Demand

▪ ▪ ▪

Predicted Year 2021 demand 95 Million Tons Extrapolated Year 2030 demand 160 Million Tons Demand supported by Primary and Recycling!!!!

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Module 11 Infinitely Recyclable Aluminium

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Sustainable development: “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”

Brundtland Report, 1987

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Our Purpose

“to shape a sustainable future through innovative Aluminium solutions”

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Aluminium Infinitely Cycled Aluminium is “NOT” consumed is it infinitely “Cycled

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”

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Aluminium is Stored Energy ▪ Recycling uses only 5% of the original energy used to produce primary Aluminium ▪ Recycling uses only 5% of the water used during production of primary Aluminium ▪ Recycling creates only 5% of the original Carbon Dioxide released during production of primary Aluminium ▪ No Red Mud “Cradle to Cradle”, Aluminium in use is stored energy

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Aluminium “Longevity” ▪ 75% of all Aluminium ever produced still in Use

▪ 50% of all Aluminium in “First Use”

Million Tonnes Al (cumulative)

1,000 800

IN USE

600 400 200 0 1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

-200 -400

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In Use "First Life"

Recycled & In Use

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Construction

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Recycled Aluminium Indistinguishable Recycled Aluminium indistinguishable from Primary Alloys ▪ Chemistry is totally indistinguishable ▪ Heat Treatment and Strain hardening response identical ▪ Mechanical properties no loss ▪ Corrosion performance comparable

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Sources of Aluminium Scrap Aluminium for recycling originates from a wide diversity of sources ▪ Process or primary scrap, known alloys ▪ End of Vehicle Life, known alloys ▪ Can and packaging, known alloys ▪ Architectural, readily analysable ▪ Domestic, ▪ White goods ▪ Swarf, heavily contaminated

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Driving Forces of Recycling One and a quarter billion tonnes of primary produced since 1888 ▪ Almost one billion tonnes in products in use Proven Aluminium service lives ▪ Buildings 75 Years ▪ Aircraft 30 Years ▪ Power transmission 35 Years ▪ Cars 15 Years ▪ Consumer white Goods 7 Years ▪ Cans 1 Year ▪ Foils 1 Year

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Automotive Demand Growth

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Automotive Recycling Since 2015, the “End of Life Vehicles Legislation” sets a target of a 85% of all raw materials, including metals must be recycled ▪ Recycling the Aluminium in a one car saves approximately one ton of Carbon dioxide ▪ In Europe that equates to 15 million cars scrapped or tons of Carbon Dioxide saved

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Recycling Aircraft Recycling the Aluminium from an A320 aircraft at the end of its life saves 300 tons of Carbon Dioxide

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Architectural Scrap Limited number of Aluminium grades ▪ Large bulky ▪ Few metallic contaminants

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Every Can Counts ▪ Can are infinitely recycled ▪ Can to can recycle is 60 days ▪ 69% of all Aluminium cans are cycled

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Recycling Aluminium Packaging Food cartoons and foils and ancillaries ▪ Aluminium packaging is recovered from incinerator bottom ash (IBA).

▪ 2015 IBA accounted for around 16% of recycling performance.

▪ Volumes set to grow dramatically as new plants come on stream

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Bicycle from Recycled Aluminium Coffee Pods Nespresso and Czech bicycle producer Festka have joined hands to come up with a unique product to promote Aluminium recycling.

• Festka recycled the ubiquitous Aluminium coffee capsules from Nespresso to fabricate a unique bicycle called the Festka Doppler. The bicycle was sold at a charity auction held during Mercedes-Benz Prague Fashion Week.

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Aluminium Star of Circular Economy

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Production Scrap Segregation Production scrap resulted from metal forming and pressing operations is kept strictly segregated during production in “Aluminium Grades”

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Scrap Sorting into Aluminium alloys Modern scrap sorting can result in over 95% alloy segregation for remelt feed stock ▪ Organics, coffee, dried and physical shaken off sent for fertilizer ▪ Plastic electrostatically sorted ▪ Steel extracted by magnetism ▪ Non Ferrous Copper removed using eddycurrents ▪ Aluminium sorted into “Aluminium Alloy Series” by X-ray Florescence

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Valuable Scrap Aluminium Scrap Aluminium is a valuable commodity Scrap recovery should be part of costing a product!!!!

▪ G1,litho,new extrusion scrap 1000-1050 £/tonne) ▪ Pure cuttings scrap 820-880 £/tonne ▪ Baled old rolled scrap 700-750 £/tonne ▪ Old cast scrap 730-780 £/tonne ▪ Cast wheels 1000-1040 £/tonne ▪ Turnings 420-480 £/tonne ▪ Al UBC baled 610-660 £/tonne ▪ LM24 ingot 1250-1320 £/tonne ▪ LM6/25 ingot 1490-1540 £/tonne ▪ Al-5%Cu-0.5%Ag ingot 4000 £/tonne alfed.org.uk

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United Kingdom Recycling Twenty Aluminum recyclers in the United Kingdom Output ▪ Ingot 220,000 tons ▪ Remelt 580,000 tons ▪ Total 800,000 tons

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Recycling of Wastes & Slags Slags are recycled into environmental beneficially “Green” products ▪ Aluminium Metal ▪ Potash “Fertiliser” ▪ Salt

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Sustainable use of Aluminium Global Vision – responsibly sourced (primary and secondary) Aluminium – mainly sustainable bauxite extraction and refining, and low-emission smelting ▪ ALFED is a member, as are big companies such as JLR, Audi, Novelis, Bridgnorth Aluminum and Arconic

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Aluminium Recycling Growth Availability of short life cycle scrap will result in 26.5 million tons of globally recycled Aluminium by 2023

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Total Global Production 2023 ▪ Primary 65 million tons ▪ Recycled 25 million tons 1000s tons

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Production of Secondary Aluminium

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Aluminium Melting & Casting Selected Aluminum scrap and master alloys are melted in a “Melting Furnace” ▪ High Melting rate furnaces ▪ Dirty furnace

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Sows Sows are the feed stock for secondary Aluminium Production

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Drossing Fluxes are added to the molten Aluminium and stirred in ▪ Impurities, oxides and inclusions float to the top of the liquid Aluminium ▪ Skimmed off top of melt and out of furnace ▪ Dross sent for recycling

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Alloying & Purification Clean molten Aluminium is transferred via a launder to a second holding Furnace

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Holding Furnace Second holding furnace ▪ Clean furnace eliminates risk of contamination ▪ Molten Aluminium is sampled and analysed ▪ Additions of master alloys and alloying elements made to correct analysis to required specification

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Filtration Once analysis has been corrected to required alloy specification, molten Aluminium is filtered to remove inclusions and degassed then cast

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Ingots for Castings Aluminum for castings is metered into ingots and solidified

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Direct Chill Casting Slabs & Logs Most common method for semi-continuously producing Aluminium slabs or logs is “Direct-chill (DC) Casting” Molten Aluminium is poured through a bottomless water cooled mould, where it’s outer surface rapidly solidifies to take the shape of the mould and enables it to be extracted as a solid from below Aluminium is ideal ▪ Low melting point ▪ High fluidity ▪ High thermal conductivity

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Direct Chill Casting Slabs & Logs Most common method for producing Aluminium slabs or logs is “Directchill (DC) Casting” ▪ Molten Aluminium is poured through a bottomless water cooled mould, ▪ Supporting stool bottom of mould descends ▪ Outer surface rapidly solidifies to take the shape of the mould ▪ Extracted as a solid from below

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Bottomless Mould ▪ Direct Chill Casting uses a water cooled round or rectangular mould ▪ Water is allowed escapes through the bottom of the mould bottom to cascade as a shower curtain around the base ▪ The bottom of the mould is closed with a “Stool” that moves downwards Water Cooled Mould Water shower

Stool Bottom of Mould

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DC Casting Sequence ▪ Molten Aluminium is poured into the mould

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DC Casting Sequence ▪ Aluminum in contact with Mould walls and Stool instantly solidifies forming a solid cup like crust

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.

DC Casting Sequence ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Stool descends downwards drawing down the forming log of Aluminium Log walls are solid crust Core is molten Aluminium held with crust cup Debris float upwards on liquid

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DC Casting Sequence • • •

Core Solidifies All debris floated to top Top and bottom of slab discarded

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DC Casting Floor

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Mini Casting Mills Approximately 300 twin roll casters operate globally ▪ Capacity of 10,000 tons per year ▪ Molten Aluminium melt is fed through a ceramic nozzle into the gap between two rotating water-cooled rolls.

▪ Melt cools down and solidifies between the rolls.

▪ Additionally the solid strip exerts hot rolling

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Direct Cast Slabs Direct Cast Slabs for: ▪ Plate ▪ Sheet ▪ Foil

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Direct Cast Logs Direct Cast Logs for: ▪ Forgings ▪ Extrusions

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Cast Structures As cast Aluminium ▪ Heterogeneous ▪ Variable stratified alloy analysis ▪ Variable mechanical properties ▪ Heterogeneous grains ▪ Core alloy segregation ▪ Shrinkage ▪ Porosity ▪ Inclusions

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Aluminium & Health

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Aluminium in the Body Human body contains around 35 mg of Aluminium, of which approximately 25% is in the soft tissues, 25% in bone and the rest in the lungs, probably as inhaled dust particles.

▪ No known biological role for Aluminium - it does not appear to be an essential trace element ▪ Body has highly effective barriers to exclude Aluminium.

▪ Only a minute fraction of Aluminium in the diet is taken up from the gut, and in healthy individuals, most of this absorbed Aluminium is excreted by the kidneys.

▪ Brain is vulnerable to many metals, including Aluminium, but there is a ‘blood-brain barrier’ which prevents most of the Aluminium in blood from entering this organ. When blood Aluminium levels are high, bone appears to act as a ‘sink’, taking up Aluminium and releasing it slowly over a long period

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Aluminium in Drinking Water Aluminium sulphate is widely used around the world in the treatment of water supplies. It is added as a flocculating agent to remove suspended particles, including the spores of some infectious organisms which are difficult to remove by other means.

▪ Most of the Aluminium is removed in the later stages of treatment and the final concentration is usually much less than two hundred parts per billion.

▪ Thus, drinking water contributes only a very small fraction, less than 1%, of the Aluminium which we take in each day.

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Medical Problems Associated with Aluminium Following the North Cornwall water pollution incident at Camelford, it was claimed by a few scientists that there would be long-term adverse health effects, two government reports by an independent team of medical and scientific experts concluded that Aluminium was not the cause of symptoms reported by the local population

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Medical Problems Associated with Aluminium When the natural barriers which limit the absorption of Aluminium are bypassed, or when the ability of the kidneys to excrete Aluminium is impaired, the accumulation of this metal in the body may sometimes be associated with adverse health effects.

▪ Patients with kidney failure are unable to excrete Aluminium. Toxicity associated with exposure to Aluminium in the dialysis fluid, or with the long-term medical use of Aluminium compounds in this patient group, are now recognised.

▪ In extremely rare cases, long-term exposure to massive levels of flake powdered Aluminium in the work-place has been shown to cause toxic effects. Modern occupational hygiene practices, which are enforced by health and safety legislation, now prevent the occurrence of such exposures in the work-place.

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Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety & Aluminium EU, Commission’s independent Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) published its opinion on Aluminium in cosmetics such as lipstick, deodorants and toothpastes on the 11-042014 ▪ Aluminium is a known systemic toxicant at high doses.

After studying the available literature on exposure, SCCS expressed several considerations.

▪ No plausible evidence that use of Aluminium containing cosmetics and skin care products can increase the risk of breast cancer or Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and other neurodegenerative diseases.

▪ No evidence that using antiperspirants can lead to levels of Aluminium that would be harmful to health.

▪ Regarding safe concentration limits, SCCS concluded that there was too little data to draw conclusions

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Aluminium & Pregnant Workers Employers must assess the risks to women of a childbearing age as part of their general workplace risk assessment.

• Once an employer is notified that a worker is pregnant, has given birth in the last six months, or is currently breastfeeding, they must complete an individual risk assessment, which should include exposure to any harmful substances.

• Employers should be managing any significant risks in their workplaces, and are best placed to assess whether or not they need to do anything additional for pregnant workers or new mothers.

• It is not known if aluminium dust or fume will cause birth defects in humans. However, aluminium in large amounts has been shown to be harmful to unborn and developing animals by causing delays in skeletal and neurological development.

• Employers may choose to take a precautionary approach, and avoid exposure to aluminium fume and dust in the workplace.

• HSE provides guidance on protecting pregnant workers and new mothers in the workplace https://www.hse.gov.uk/mothers/ alfed.org.uk

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Aluminium and Alzheimer’s No medical evidence of a link between Aluminium and Alzheimer’s ▪ Main cause of Alzheimer’s seems to be predisposition ▪ Some Alzheimer’s sufferers do have a slightly elevated level of Aluminium in their brain ▪ Aluminum is present in soil, so most exposure comes from foods we eat and the water we drink.

▪ NOT from pots & pans, foil packaging ▪ Biggest single source is Indigestion Remedies

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Aluminium and Cosmetics Aluminium in the levels in cosmetics is unlikely to be carcinogenic ▪ In cosmetics, they function as pigments and thickening agents ▪ Aluminum salts are used as antiperspirants to control sweat, they coat and plug the sweat glands

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Aluminium & Fire

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Solid & Molten Aluminium Non-Combustible Aluminium metal and all its alloys, in both solid and molten states, including all products forms – wire, extrusion, sheet and foil – are “non-combustible”, meaning they do not burn or combust when exposed to fire.

▪ Combustible materials are those capable of burning.

▪ Flammability is the ease with which a combustible material ignites.

▪ Solid Aluminium is a non-combustible material and therefore inflammable, so cannot catch fire.

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Aluminium Behaviour in Fires Investigation of major detailed accounts of Aluminium behaviour in fires concluded there is no evidence that Aluminium burned or contributed to the damage!

▪ Collision of USS Belknap and Kennedy in 1975, when the entire superstructure of the Belknap was engulfed in flames from ruptured fuel lines on the Kennedy.

▪ Sinking of four British Royal Navy warships in the Falklands War 1982; British Admiralty concluded that there was no evidence that Aluminium contributed to the loss of any vessel.

▪ Damage to the USS Stark frigate by Iraqi missiles 1985.

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Building Regulations Fire safety: Approved Document B Building regulations in England, “Fire safety: Approved Document B”, additionally consider the propagation of fire, so consider both the spread of flames and the amount of heat added to a fire by the energy output of burning materials.

▪ Aluminium is Classed as A1 Noncombustible and does not flame or cause any rise in temperature” ▪ Class 0 is the highest category for surface spread of flame of a material ▪ A material of limited combustibility will achieve a Class 0

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Aluminium Melting Aluminium alloys have melting points between 550°C and 660°C so if exposed to a prolonged fire environment, provided that the metal's temperature passes the melting point, they will melt, without releasing harmful gases, not burn.

▪ Latent heat of melting lowers fire temperature.

▪ Molten Aluminium will flow as liquid.

▪ Liquid Aluminium will solidify rapidly away from heat source.

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Heat Dissipation When aluminium is exposed to fire, its high thermal conductivity allows it to quickly dissipate heat from the flames and absorb even more thermal energy from the centre of the fire, ‘cooling’ the environment and limiting hot spots!

▪ Heat dissipation is comparatively greater than that of other metals therefore Aluminium offers a comparatively higher response time to fire fighters.

▪ Hence use in Oil rigs!

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World of Aluminium

Modular Course Intermediate level Part 2 alfed.org.uk

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Wrought Aluminium International Specifications

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International Alloy Designation The Aluminum Association (based in Washington DC) in 1954, introduced a four digit system register entitled :‘International Alloy Designation and Chemical Composition Limits for Wrought Aluminum and Wrought Aluminum Alloys’ ▪ Most international aluminium committees and companies in 1970 adopted the AA system ▪ Sensibly, recent Euronorm Standards follow the Aluminum Association system, “therefore AA 3105 / BS EN 3105 / NF EN 3105 / DIN EN 3105 are the same alloy with the same chemical composition limits” Register is commonly known as “Teal sheets”

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Teal Sheets ▪ International Alloy Designations and Chemical Composition Limits for Wrought “Aluminium” and Wrought “Aluminium” Alloys ▪ This registration record is the defining source for the designations and chemical composition limits for wrought “Aluminium” and wrought “Aluminium” alloys referenced in a number of standards and specifications worldwide.

▪ http://www.Aluminium.org/sites/default/files/TEAL_1_OL_2015.pdf

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Wrought Alloys Classification Codes ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

The four digit coding system classifies wrought aluminium alloys by chemical composition The first number of the four digits defines the alloy group, according to the major alloying element The second digits describe further secondary alloying elements The third and fourth digits separate the alloys ▪ 1xxx Unalloyed (pure) greater than 99% Aluminium ▪ 2xxx Copper ▪ 3xxx Manganese ▪ 4xxx Silicon ▪ 5xxx Magnesium ▪ 6xxx Magnesium and Silicon ▪ 7xxx Zinc ▪ 8xxx Other elements (Tin and Lithium) alfed.org.uk

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Alloys Overview

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XXX”A” Some alloys have been modified but not sufficiently to justify a four-digit new number, a letter is added to differentiate the modified alloy ▪ Lower Silicon Si in 2014A makes it easier to extrude, and results in slightly lower yield Stress

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British Standards Wrought Alloy Designation European Standards and British Standards have adopted the Aluminum Association and follow the system.

▪ The system is described by BS EN 573 part 3 “Aluminium and aluminium alloys. Chemical composition and form of wrought products”

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Aluminium Alloys Chemistry In the EN BS Standards part 3 dealing with the chemistry of alloys • The chemical composition of Aluminium and Aluminium alloys is specified in percentage by mass • Limits of impurities are expressed as a maximum • Limits of alloying elements shown as a range, so minimum and maximum • Aluminium is specified as a minimum for unalloyed aluminium, 1XXX series and as a remainder for Aluminium alloys

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Classification of Aluminium Alloys Aluminium and its alloys are divided into two broad classes: ▪ Wrought Aluminium alloys, “those worked by rolling, extrusion, forming or forging into the desired shape.”

▪ Wrought Aluminium is sub-divided into non-heat treatable and heat treatable alloys.

▪ Aluminium casting alloys, “those which are poured in a molten state into a mould producing a cast shape.”

▪ Some casting alloys are also strengthened by heat treatment, but in this case the distinction is not used as a sub-division.

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Aluminium Non Heat Treatable Alloys Non Heat treatable alloys can only be strengthened by cold work or strain hardening

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Aluminium Heat Treatable Alloys Certain Aluminium alloys can be strengthened through heat treatment ▪ Aluminium alloy heat treatment is called “Age Hardening” and/or “Precipitation hardening” ▪ Heat treatable can also be strained or by a combination of strain hardening and Age hardening

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Casting Alloys

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European Casting Alloy Designation Designation systems for casting alloys and castings differ significantly between British Standards and the Aluminum Society ▪ BS EN 1780-1:2002 Aluminium and aluminium alloys. Designation of unalloyed and alloyed aluminium ingots for remelting, master alloys and castings-Numerical designation system ▪ British use five digit system designation system for casting alloys and castings the

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BS 1490:1988 Aluminium Ingots and Castings British Standard 1490:1988 “Aluminium and Aluminium Alloy Ingots and Castings for General Engineering Purposes” ▪ Obsolete specification but widely used by UK foundries and ingot suppliers.

▪ Grades LM0 to LM31 ▪ LM abbreviation for “Light Metal” ▪ First published in 1948.

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Module

Heat Treatment of Aluminum

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373

Aluminium Heat Treatment Definitions European Standard BS EN 515:1993 defines all temper designations for: ▪ Different heat treatments as termed “Tempers” ▪ All forms of wrought Aluminium and Aluminium alloys

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Basic Temper Designations Designations are added after the 4-digit alloy designation to explain how the physical properties of alloys are modified by heat and/or mechanical treatment

5052

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Basic Temper Designations Designations are added after the 4-digit alloy designation to explain how the physical properties of alloys are modified by heat and/or mechanical treatment

5052-H32 First letter of the designation indicates the treatment used to produce the properties.

▪ ▪ ▪

▪

O Annealed - Used after cold-working to soften work hardening alloys (1xxx, 3xxx and 5xxx series).

H Strain Hardened - This applies to non heat-treatable alloys (3xxx, 4xxx and 5xxx series) that are cold worked or strain hardened.

W Solution Treated -This applies to heat treatable alloys which have only been solution treated (2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx series) T Heat Treated - This applies to heat treatable alloys which have been solution and aged alfed.org.uk

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Aluminium Non Heat Treatable Alloys Non Heat treatable alloys can only be strengthened by cold work or strain hardening

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Strain Hardening & Cold work Annealed Aluminium grains are normally semi round and uniformly shaped ▪ Grains deform, flatten and stretch when cold worked by rolling, stamping, drawing or any mechanical reshaping process ▪ Flattened shape is more resistant to further deformation so Aluminium become harder and stronger ▪ Working harden or strain harden

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Temper Designation Cold Work -H1X For non heat treatable alloys the temper code denotes cold or strain hardening by using the letter H followed by numbers. H1x The first number indicates how the temper is achieved.

The second number after H indicates degree of strain-hardening ▪ O

Annealed, soft

▪ H12 Strain-hardened, quarter-hard ▪ H14 Strain-hardened, half-hard

▪ H16 Strain-hardened, three-quarter hard ▪ H18 Strain-hardened, fully hard ▪ H19 Strain-hardened, extra hard

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Temper Designation Cold Work -H1X The higher the cold work the higher the developed yield and tensile stress, but lower the corresponding ductility/elongation.

0 alfed.org.uk

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Temper Designation Cold Work -H1X The higher the cold work the higher the developed yield and tensile stress, but lower the corresponding ductility/elongation.

H12

0 alfed.org.uk

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Temper Designation Cold Work -H1X The higher the cold work the higher the developed yield and tensile stress, but lower the corresponding ductility/elongation.

H14

H12

0 alfed.org.uk

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Temper Designation Cold Work -H1X The higher the cold work the higher the developed yield and tensile stress, but lower the corresponding ductility/elongation.

H16 H14

H12

0 alfed.org.uk

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Temper Designation Cold Work -H1X The higher the cold work the higher the developed yield and tensile stress, but lower the corresponding ductility/elongation.

H18

H16 H14

H12

0 alfed.org.uk

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Temper Designation Cold Work -H1X The higher the cold work the higher the developed yield and tensile stress, but lower the corresponding ductility/elongation.

H18

H16 H14

H12

0 alfed.org.uk

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Annealing and Recrystallisation When a cold-worked metal is heated to between its “Recrystallisation Temperature”, new grains form, consuming all the plastically-deformed grains.

▪ Once all the new grains have formed, the structure is fully “annealed”, and strength and ductility are restored to their original levels.

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Temper Designations Strain-hardened and Partially Annealed -H2X Fully cold worked Aluminum lacks sufficient ductility for further working such as pressing So British Standards have designated H2X to products that have been strainhardened and then reduced in strength to the desired level by partial annealing.

H2x tempers have the same minimum ultimate tensile strength as the corresponding H1x tempers and slightly higher elongation.

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

H22 Strain-hardened, partially annealed, quarter hard H24 Strain-hardened, partially annealed, half hard H26 Strain-hardened, partially annealed, three quarter hard H28 Strain-hardened, partially annealed, fully hard

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Temper Designations Strain-hardened and Partially Annealed -H2X As the annealing temperature is increased the tensile strength reduces and ductility increases

H28

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Temper Designations Strain-hardened and Partially Annealed -H2X As the annealing temperature is increased the tensile strength reduces and ductility increases

H28

H26 Recovery

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Temper Designations Strain-hardened and Partially Annealed -H2X As the annealing temperature is increased the tensile strength reduces and ductility increases

H28

H26 Recovery

H24 Partial Recrystallisation alfed.org.uk

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Temper Designations Strain-hardened and Partially Annealed -H2X As the annealing temperature is increased the tensile strength reduces and ductility increases

H22 Significantly Recrystalised

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Temper Designations Strain-hardened and Partially Annealed -H2X As the annealing temperature is increased the tensile strength reduces and ductility increases

H0 Fully Recrystalised

0

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Aluminium Heat Treatable Alloys Certain Aluminium alloys can be strengthened through heat treatment ▪ Aluminium alloy heat treatment is called “Age Hardening” and/or “Precipitation hardening”

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Heat Treatable Alloys In heat treatable grades alloying elements combine with Aluminum during heat treatment to increase the strength of the alloys The alloying elements are ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

2xxx 6xxx 7xxx 8xxx

Copper Magnesium and Silicon Zinc Other elements (Tin and Lithium)

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Basic Temper Designations Designations are added after the 4-digit alloy designation to explain how the physical properties of alloys are modified by heat treatment

7075

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Basic Temper Designations Designations are added after the 4-digit alloy designation to explain how the physical properties of alloys are modified by heat treatment

7075 -T6 First letter of the designation indicates the treatment used to produce the properties.

▪ ▪

W Solution Treated -This applies to heat treatable alloys which have only been solution treated (2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx series) T Heat Treated - This applies to heat treatable alloys which have been solution and aged (2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx series)

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Temper Designations Heat treatment -TX British Standard uses the letter T to indicate the thermal treatment, followed by one or more digits: ▪ T1 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged.

▪ T3 Solution treated, cold worked and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition.

▪ T4 Solution treated, naturally aged to substantially stable condition.

▪ T5 Cooled from and elevated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged.

▪ T6 Solution treated and then artificially aged.

▪ T7 Solution treated and over aged / stabilised.

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Heat Treatable Alloys Heat treatable alloys have limited solid solubility of their alloying elements, e.g., copper ▪ On solidification the excess copper metal atoms are pushed by the growing grains into the grain boundaries

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Heat Treating Aluminium In the normal state of heat treatable alloys, some alloying element atoms exist within the Aluminium grains but the excess beyond the solubility limits are held within the grain boundaries ▪ Structures are weak and very ductile

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Solubility & Temperature Increasing temperature increases solubility of solute atoms ▪ So solute metal are taken into solid solution within the grains of aluminium out of the grain boundaries

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Solvus The solid solubility of solute into aluminium grains increases with temperature following the solvus lines

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Heat Treatable Aluminium Alloys Heat treatable alloys have limited or no solute alloying element solid solubility at ambient temperatures

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Heat Treatable Aluminium Alloys Heat treatable alloys do exhibit increased solute alloying element solid solubility at high temperatures

5.7 Copper %

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Heat Treatable Aluminium Alloys At high temperatures the increased solubility results in solute alloying element defusing out of the grain boundaries into the grains of aluminium

α Copper in Matrix

5.7 Copper %

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Solution Treating First stage of heat treatment is to “Solution Treat” that is to heat Aluminium up towards but well below melting temperature and hold on temperature ▪ Alloying atoms defuse migrate out of the grain boundaries dissolve into the grains of aluminium

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Solution Treating During solution treating the increased solubility at the elevated temperature allows the solute alloying atoms to defuse into and be taken into solid solution within the aluminium grains

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Solution Treating During solution treating the alloying atoms have defused out the grains

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Quenching The next stage of “Solution Treating” is to rapid quench the aluminium to a low temperature ▪ Quenching freezes and traps the alloying atoms within the grains no time to defuse out

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Quenching Quenching is rapid so stops diffusion it freezes and traps the alloying atoms within the grains ▪ The excess alloying element cannot diffuse back into the grain boundaries

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Quenching Quenching dependent on alloy can be: ▪ Water ▪ Polymer ▪ Air

Spray or tank quenching

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Super Saturated Solid Solutions On quenching solute alloying elements become trapped, frozen within grains forming supersaturated solid solution

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Solution Heated “W” condition In solution treated quenched condition trapped alloy atoms slightly increase tensile strength ▪ Solution treated quenched is termed “W” condition ▪ In W condition alloy is still ductile with slight strength increase

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Precipitation Age Hardening Super saturated solid solutions are unstable, through a process of diffusion, the trapped excess solute atoms combine with Aluminum atom within the grains to form intermetallic clusters ▪ Intermetallics clusters Al2Cu in 2XXX alloys AlMg2Si in 6XXX alloy AlZn in 7XXX alloys Al3Li in 8XXX alloys

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Precipitation Age Hardening ▪ Intermetallic clusters form within grains so are said to precipitate out ▪ Hence precipitation hardening

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Intermetallic Precipitates Intermetallics form as precipitates within the grains ▪ Precipitates are sub-microscopic

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Precipitation Hardening The Intermetallic precipitates distort the atomic aluminium lattice

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Precipitation Hardening The Intermetallic precipitates distort the atomic aluminium lattice ▪ Act as barriers to the slip of aluminium lattice ▪ Hence increase the tensile and yield strengths

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Precipitation Age Hardening The formation of intermetallic precipitates is a growth process so time and temperature dependent, hence the term “Age Hardening” ▪ Ageing will naturally occur with time, hence, “Natural Ageing”

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Natural Ageing Natural ageing is a slow process in most types of age-hardenable alloys, and the effects of the ageing process may only become significant after many months or years

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Natural Ageing T4 Tempers Certain 2XXX alloys naturally age very quickly at room temperature, to the T4 temper ▪ Known as naturally ageing alloys

▪ Yield and tensile strengths increase with increasing number of precipitates

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Artificial Ageing Reheating “W” solution treated quenched condition to an intermediate temperature for periods of time speeds up the diffusion of supersaturated alloying atoms to grow into “precipitates” ▪ Heat thermally expands lattices and speeds up mobility of atom through diffusion

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Precipitation Age Hardening ▪ Increasing the temperatures speeds up diffusion so the ageing mechanism, thus “Artificial Ageing”

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Ageing T5 Tempers Artificial ageing speeds the growth so increases number of precipitates ▪ The first artificial ageing temper is T5 ▪ Yield and Tensile strengths increase with increasing precipitates T4

T5

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T5

Ageing T6 Tempers As artificial ageing proceeds with time number of precipitates grow within grains

T5

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T6

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Ageing T6 Tempers As artificial ageing proceeds yield and tensile strengths further increase with increasing growth in number of precipitates

T5

T6

T4

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Peak strength T6 Temper Temper T6 is the peak artificial ageing with maximum number of fine precipitates, ▪ Maximum yield and tensile strength T6

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T6 Temper Peak Strength Ageing T6 is peak ageing, maximum number of fine precipitates ▪ Maximum strength but minimum ductility

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Over Ageing T7 Tempers As ageing continues precipitates grow into large coarse colonies and reduce in number ▪ Strength reduces but ductility increases

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Over Ageing T7 Tempers Tempers beyond T6 require long ageing tempers ▪ Thermally stable T6

T7

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Over Ageing Tempers Overaged tempers are more stable, more ductile with greater resistance to stress corrosion

T7

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Minimum Specified Temper Properties Properties specified in standards for a temper are minima, so are not an exact temper point ▪ Therefore mechanical properties can be satisfied by a temper range

T6

Minimum T6 Properties

T6 temper range that satisfy minimum properties

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Wrought Aluminium Alloys

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Alloy An alloy is a metal made by combining two or more metallic and/or non metallic elements to develop a substance with properties that are significantly different and much enhanced over those of the pure constituent elements ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Greater strength Toughness Fatigue life Corrosion resistance Appearance Machinability Formability

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Alloy Designation System for Wrought Aluminium Wrought Aluminium is classified by chemical composition using the four-digit system.

▪ The first digits indicates the alloy group, according to the major alloying element.

▪ Further digits explain other alloying elements

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Designation System for Wrought Pure Aluminium

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Designation System for Wrought Alloyed Aluminium

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Aluminium Non Heat Treatable Alloys Non Heat treatable alloys can only be strengthened by cold work or strain hardening

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Aluminium Heat Treatable Alloys Certain Aluminium alloys can be strengthened through heat treatment ▪ Aluminium alloy heat treatment is called “Age Hardening” and/or “Precipitation hardening”

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1000 Series Pure Aluminium Pure Aluminium, high purity, 99.0% minimum ▪ Not Heat Treatable ▪ Mechanical properties can only be increased by strain hardening.

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1000 Series Pure Aluminium Properties ▪ High ductility ▪ Excellent conductors ▪ Excellent formability and weldability ▪ Good appearance ▪ Great for anodising ▪ Good corrosion resistance Uses ▪ Foil, electrical bus bars, chemical tanks, piping

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1XXX Electrical ▪ Electrical Switch Gear ▪ Cabinets ▪ Bus bars

▪ Switch Gear ▪ Trunking

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Aluminium in Electric Vehicle Drives ▪ Batteries

▪ Cables ▪ Battery cooling

▪ Powertrain

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Alloy 1050A Extensively extruded for electrical conductors ▪ High Corrosion resistance ▪ Good Anodising ▪ High toughness ▪ Weldable

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Alloy 1050 Excellent corrosion resistance, high ductility and highly reflective finish.

Applications 1050 is typically used for: ▪ Chemical process plant equipment ▪ Food industry containers ▪ Pyrotechnic powder ▪ Architectural flashings ▪ Lamp reflectors ▪ Cable sheathing

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1XXX Alloy Applications Alloys 1050A 1050 1050 1050 1050 1050 1050 1050 1050 1060 1060 1070 1100 1100 1100 1100 1200 1200 1220 1350

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Tempers H14 H14 H14 H14 H14 O, H14, H22, H24, H32 H111

0 0 H14 0

Applications Tooling Plate Signs Cladding General Engineering Standards Heat shields, fin stock Stucco Transformer Windings Lintographic Plate Stucco Transformer Windings Transformer Windings Cryogenic Applications Stucco Metal Spinning Acoustic Barriers Hollowware Chemical Plant Packaging Transformer Windings Aluminium Federation © 2023

2XXX Series Aluminium Copper Alloys The 2xxx series alloys contain 1.8 to 6.8% Copper as the major alloying element with smaller additions of Manganese and Magnesium ▪ The 2xxx series were developed for high strength ▪ The 2xxx series are heat treatable, with strength being developed by solution heat treatment and natural or artificial ageing.

▪ In the solution heat-treated condition their mechanical properties are similar to, and sometimes exceed, those of lowcarbon steel.

▪ Copper alloy corrosion resistance is poor.

▪ These alloys have limited weldability.

▪ Alloys in this series have superior machinability. alfed.org.uk

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2XXX Series Aluminium Copper Alloys Properties ▪ Strong ▪ Machinable ▪ Poor corrosion resistance ▪ Poor formability ▪ Difficult to weld Uses ▪ Aerospace, military vehicles, rocket fins

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Duralumin Duralumin, the foundation stone of Aluminium as an engineering metal ▪ Duralum alloy 2017 ▪ Aluminium alloy with addition of Copper, Magnesium and Manganese ▪ Alfred Wilm, a German scientist took seven years develop in 1909 ▪ First all-metal Duralumin airplane, the Junkers J1, launched in 1915.

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Alloy 2014 & 2014A High strength 4 to 5% Copper alloy ▪ Used extensively in extrusions, normally in T651 stress relived temper ▪ Machinability of aluminium alloy 2014A is very good.

Typical applications of aluminium alloy 2014A are high strength components in the aerospace and defence industries.

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2XXX Alloy Applications Alloys 2004 2010 2011 2014 2014 2014 2014 2024 2024 2024 2117 2219

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Tempers T6 T3 0 T3 T6 T4 0 T4

Applications Superforming Aircraft Sheet Machining Bar Acoustic Barriers Machining Bar Aircraft Sheet Cryogenic Applications Acoustic Barriers Cryogenic Applications Metal Spinning Acoustic Barriers Cryogenic Applications

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3XXX Series Aluminium Manganese Alloys The 3xxx series alloys contain Manganese at levels of 0.05 to 1.5% as the major alloying element, small amounts of Copper and Magnesium may also be added.

▪ Non-heat treatable, their mechanical properties can only be increased by strain or work hardening.

▪ 3xxx series alloys have about 20% more strength than the 1xxx series alloys, but with similar good levels of corrosion resistance and high ductility

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3XXX Series Aluminium Manganese Alloys Properties ▪ Formable ▪ Corrosion resistant ▪ Weldable ▪ Stronger than 1xxx series Uses ▪ Radiators, air conditioning condensers, evaporators, heat exchangers, Drink cans

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Alloy 3003 Medium strength alloy very formable with very good resistance to atmospheric corrosion and very weldable Higher strength then 1XXX series particularly at elevated temperatures Applications ▪ Building industry: roofing and sidings, acoustic ceilings, corrugated sheets ▪ Chemical and food industries: storage tanks, pipes ▪ Heating and cooling: heat exchangers, air condition evaporators, motor vehicle radiators, freezer linings ▪ Cooking utensils, bakery moulds ▪ Packaging: containers & closures

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3XXX Alloy Applications Alloys 3003 3003 3003 3003 3003 3003 3003 3003 3103 3103 3104 3105 3105 3105 3105 3105

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Tempers

H111 0

H14 H14

H14

Applications Cryogenic Applications General Engineering Honeycomb Metal Spinning Panelling Signs Stucco Transport Building Sheet Heat exchanger Drink Can Bodies Building Sheet General Engineering Pre-painted Sheet & Coil Transport

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4XXX Series Aluminium Silicon Welding Alloys The 4xxx series use Silicon as the major alloying element ▪ Silicon in all0ying additions of 0.6 to 13.5% substantially reduces the melting range ▪ 4145 has an extremely low solidification temperature 521°C ▪ Silicon also increase the fluidity of 4xxx alloys with the 12% alloys having the fluidity of water ▪ Hence silicon alloys are used extensively for castings ▪ The combination of low melting point below that of most wrought aluminium alloys and the high fluidity means that the 4xxx series are used as filler wires for fusion welding. The lower melting point prevents melting of the parent joint and collapse

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4XXX Series Aluminium Silicon Welding Alloys Properties ▪ Formable ▪ Corrosion resistant ▪ Weldable ▪ High wear resistance Uses ▪ Welding wire, brazing and filler wires ▪ 4043 is a common welding wire alloy

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4000 Series Specialist Alloys Not widely used in extruded form, except: ▪ 4032 Forging stock for pistons where wear resistance and thermal stability are required ▪ 4021 ABS brake components, machinable, strength close to 6061 and 6082

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4XXX Cladding Alloys Common cladding alloys for brazing sheet ▪ 4004 ▪ 4045

▪ 4104 ▪ 4343

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4XXX Alloy Applications Alloys 4004 4015 4021 4032 4032 4032 4045 4104 4145 4343 4343 4925 4925

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Tempers

0 H12 H12

Applications Cladding Alloys for Brazing Sheet Signs, Insulation ABS Brake Components Engine Pistons Forging Pistons High Wear Resistance: Cladding Alloys for Brazing Sheet Cladding Alloys for Brazing Sheet 521 Degress Celsius Melting Point Filler Cladding Alloys for Brazing Sheet Heat Exchangers, Radiators Building, Transport Building, Transport

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5XXX Series Aluminium Magnesium Alloys In the 5xxx series the major alloying element is Magnesium 0.2 to 6.0% with small additions of Manganese.

▪ The 5xxx series were developed for increased strength and good corrosion resistance ▪ Non heat-treatable, but on work hardening can develop moderate to high strength.

▪ Alloys in this series have good welding characteristics,

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5XXX Series Aluminium Magnesium Alloys Properties ▪ Strong ▪ Formable ▪ Excellent corrosion resistance ▪ Weldable Uses ▪ Automotive, truck and train bodies, buildings, marine and chemical tankers ▪ General “keep the rain out” panels and light bracketry

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5000 Aluminium Main Alloying Element is Magnesium ▪ Magnesium more effective than manganese as a hardener and lighter ▪ Not Heat Treatable ▪ Mechanical properties can only be increased by strain hardening Properties ▪ Strong ▪ Formable ▪ Extremely high corrosion resistance ▪ Good Weldability Uses ▪ Automotive, truck, train bodies, marine and chemical tankers

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5083 5083 Aluminium alloy with magnesium and traces of manganese and chromium.

▪ Highly resistant to attack by seawater and industrial chemicals ▪ Alloy 5083 retains exceptional strength after welding.

▪ Highest strength of the non-heat treatable alloys ▪ Not recommended for use in temperatures in excess of 65 °C

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RC5754 Following the research project ‘REALCAR’, a new 5xxx Aluminium alloy was developed by JLR for XE; RC5754

▪ RC5754 specifically a recycled alloy ▪ All future Jaguar Land Rover vehicles will utilise it ▪ Recycled “RC” 50,000 tonnes of Aluminium scrap, produced 200,000 XE body shells, captured as closed-loop during 2015/16

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5XXX Alloy Applications, Part 1

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Alloys 5005 5005 5052 5052 5052 5052 5052 5052 5052 5052 5052 5056 5080 5080 5083 5083 5083 5083 5083 5083 5083 5083 5083 5083 5083 5083 5083 5086

Tempers H24

H111 0

0 H111

H32 H34

H321 0 H111 O H24

Applications Anodising Sheet Heat shields, structural parts Chassis, structural parts Chemical Plant General Engineering Honeycomb Marine Metal Spinning Standards Stucco Transport High stregth Wire & Hinges Tooling Plate Tooling Plate Cryogenic Applications General Engineering HGV Heavy wear HGV Heavy wear Highest strength 5XXX Alloy Marine Structural Structural parts Superforming Thermally stabiled for Corrosion resistance Tooling Plate Tooling Plate Aluminium Federation © 2023 Transport HGV Heavy wear

5XXX Alloy Applications, Part 2 Alloys 5182 5182 5182 5251 5251 5251 5383 5454 5454 5454 5454 5456 5456 5754 5754 5754 5754 5754

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Tempers 0

H22 H24 H22 H34 H22 H24 H111 H34 0 H111 H111 H111

Applications Automotive Inner Panels Drink Can Lids Structural parts, inner panels Pressings Pressings Tooling Plate HGV Heavy wear HGV Heavy wear HGV Heavy wear High temperature Applications Treadplate Cryogenic Applications HGV Heavy wear Automotive Outer Panels Tooling Plate Treadplate Treadplate Wheels

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6XXX Series Aluminium Magnesium-Silicon Alloys Alloys in the 6xxx series contain Silicon and Magnesium, approximately in the proportions required for the formation of magnesium silicide ▪ The 6xxx alloys were developed for extrudability ▪ Readily heat treatable ▪ High strength although not as strong as most 2xxx and 7xxx ▪ 6xxx series alloys have good formability ▪ Good weldability.

▪ Good machinability.

▪ Relatively good corrosion resistance.

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6XXX Series Aluminium Magnesium-Silicon Alloys Properties ▪ Strong ▪ Formable ▪ Good corrosion resistance ▪ Weldable Uses ▪ Most widely used alloy for Extrusions

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6005A Aluminium alloy 6005A is a medium strength, heat treatable alloy with excellent corrosion resistance Alloy 6005 has properties between those of alloys 6061 and 6082 and can sometimes be used interchangeably with these alloys ▪ 6005 has better extrusion characteristics and a better mill surface finish. It is difficult to produce thin-wall or complicated extrusions in 6005, ▪ More extrudable than 6082.

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Alloy 6060 Alloy 6060 is easy to extrude so nicknamed “Squeeze Easy” ▪ Typically used for extrusions with complex cross sections ▪ Architectural sections for windows, doors, curtain walls ▪ Interior fittings, frame systems, lighting, ladders, railings, fences ▪ Heat sink sections, electronic modules, electro motor housings ▪ Truck and trailer flooring, ▪ Pneumatic installation, ▪ railway, inside applications ▪ Irrigation, heating and cooling ▪ Anodising: Good

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471

Alloy 6061 Alloy 6061 is a medium to high strength heat-treatable alloy with a strength higher than 6005A. ▪ Typically used for heavy duty structures ▪ Very good corrosion resistance ▪ Good weldability although reduced strength in the weld zone.

▪ Has medium fatigue strength.

▪ It has good cold formability in the temper T4, but limited formability in T6 temper.

▪ Not suitable for very complex cross sections.

▪ Anodising: Good

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Alloy 6063 Aluminium alloy 6063 easy to extrude ▪ Medium strength alloy commonly referred to as an architectural alloy.

▪ Used for intricate extrusions.

▪ Good surface finish ▪ High corrosion resistance, ▪ Readily suited to welding ▪ Easily anodised.

▪ Most commonly available as T6 temper, ▪ In the T4 condition it has good formability

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473

6082 Aluminium alloy 6082 is a medium strength alloy with excellent corrosion resistance.

▪ Highest strength of the 6000 series alloys.

▪ 6082 is the alloy most commonly used for machining.

▪ Higher strength of 6082 has seen it replace 6061 in many applications. Addition of a large amount of manganese controls the grain structure which in turn results in a stronger alloy.

▪ Difficult to produce thin walled, complicated extrusion shapes in alloy 6082.

▪ Extruded surface finish is not as smooth as other similar strength alloys in the 6000 series.

▪ 6082 machines well and produces tight coils of swarf when chip breakers are used

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6463 Based on a high purity aluminium alloy.

▪ Suitable for polishing & chemically brightening ▪ Similar strength to 6063, excellent formability and extrudability ▪ Commonly used as shower frames and automotive trims

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6000 Alloy for Anodising 6463 / 6463A − Specialized “6063” type to give bright finish after chemical brightening.

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6XXX Alloy Applications Alloys 6061 6082 6063 6082 6111 6181 6016 6463 6463A 6061 6060 6061 6026 6262 6061 6005A 6005 6061 6061 6060 6063 6082 6082 6082 6082

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Tempers

T6 0 0 T4 T4

T9 T9

T6

T6 T651 T6

Applications ABS Brake Components ABS Brake Components Architectural Automotive for Bake Hardening Automotive Outer Panels Body-in-white, inner panels Body-in-white, outer panels Bright Anodising Alloys Bright Anodising Alloys Cryogenic Applications Domestic Engineering Free Machining Bar Free Machining Bar Leisure Marine Standards Standards Structural Engineering Swimming Pool Structures Swimming Pool Structures Swimming Pool Structures Tooling Plate Tooling Plate Transport Aluminium Federation © 2023

7XXX Series Aluminium Zinc Alloys In the 7xxx series, Zinc, in amounts of 0.8 to 8.4% is the major alloying element, coupled with a smaller percentage of Magnesium, and usually other elements, such as Copper and Chromium.

▪ The heat-treatable 7xxx alloys offer medium strength.

▪ Developed to maximum strength so lightweighting opportunities ▪ Limited workability, suitable only for simple extrusions.

▪ Higher strength 7xxx alloys exhibit reduced resistance to corrosion, particularly stress corrosion cracking.

▪ Poor weldability

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7XXX Series Aluminium Zinc Alloys Properties ▪ Very high strength

▪ Machinable ▪ Poor to moderate corrosion resistance ▪ Limited weldability Uses ▪ 7xxx series alloys are used in airframe structures, mobile equipment, and other highlystressed parts, armoured vehicles, bicycle frames

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Japanese Zero Zero 1936 ▪ Mitsubishi's chief designer Jiro Horikoshic understood that the Zero aircraft had to be as light as possible.

▪ Aircraft was made from a top-secret Aluminium alloy developed by Sumitomo Metal Industries, called Extra Super Duralumin ▪ Extra Super Duralumin Zinc Alloyed 7075

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7075 Very high strength alloy ▪ 7075 has poor corrosion resistance, with risk of stress corrosion ▪ Direct contact by dissimilar metals can cause galvanic corrosion ▪ Good machinability

▪ Anodising is good

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Consumer Electronics Apple® popularised Aluminium laptops in 2003 with the introduction of the Aluminium PowerBook G4. and their latest is the iPhone 7® and the Apple Watch® ▪ iPhone 7 and Apple Watch use 7XXX alloys for strength

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7XXX Alloy Applications Alloys 7005 7005 7017 7020 7020 7020 7020 7020 7039 7075 7075 7075 7075 7475

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Tempers

0 T6 T6 T6 T6

T6 T6 T6 0

Applications Cryogenic Applications Cryogenic Applications Automotive Chassis Weldable Tooling Plate Engineering Transport Special Uses Superforming Cryogenic Applications Tooling Plate Special Uses Armour Plate Metal Spinning Superforming

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8XXX Series Aluminium Aluminium wrought alloys not included in other groups are located in the 8xxx series, initially developed for electrical conduction and composite materials. Alloying elements include; Fe, Ni, Li, Sn, and Ce, Studies of the 8000 series highlight some unique characteristics of Aluminium alloys ▪ Al-Fe-Ni: good strength and electrical conductivity.

▪ Al-Li: high strength and stiffness, low density,10% lighter than any other Aluminium alloy.

▪ Al-Sn: high corrosion resistance and strength.

▪ Al-Fe-Si: good formability, ductility and conductivity.

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8000 Series Applications ▪ Nuclear power resistance to corrosion at elevated temperatures and pressures, 8001 ▪ Bearings for cars and trucks, 8081, 8280 ▪ Electrical conductors, 8017, 8030, 8076, 8176

▪ Food industry, 8011, 8079 ▪ Medical, 8011, 8079 ▪ Heat exchangers, 8011

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8XXX Alloy Applications Alloys 8011 8011 8011 8011 8011 8017 8024 8030 8076 8079 8079 8079 8081 8090 8093 8176 8280 8280

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Tempers H111

O T7

H111

T6 T7 T7 T6 0

Applications Food Handling Packaging Medical Heat Exchaners Foil Electrical Conductors Areospace Electrical Conductors Electrical Conductors Food Handling Medical Packaging Bearings Areospace Areospace Electrical Conductors Bearings Protective Coating Aluminium Federation © 2023

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Module 18 Casting Technologies

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Liquid Metal Engineering Casting most cost effective way of producing a wide range of components in metal ▪ Cost effective way of producing high volumes of repetitive components ▪ Simplest forming method for metal parts ▪ Only method to manufacture components with complex internal cavities and hollow channels

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Size Does Not Matter Casting is virtually independent of size producing from tiny macroscopic components to colossal ▪ World's largest steel castings, weighing approx. 350 tons, poured from almost 600 tons of liquid steel

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Cast Macrostructures Cast Aluminium is extremely heterogeneous ▪ Large localised variations in chemical analysis ▪ Segregation ▪ Porosity ▪ Variable mechanical properties

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Casting Products ▪ Art ▪ Automotive ▪ Mass transport ▪ Aerospace

▪ Architecture ▪ Medical ▪ Telecommunications ▪ Pumps and valves ▪ General engineering alfed.org.uk

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Aluminium Low Melting Point Aluminium has one of the lowest melting temperatures of all metals ▪ Low energy ▪ Low thermal losses during melting

Steel Magnesium Aluminium Titanium (Iron) Copper Mg Al Ti Fe Cu Melting Point °C 650 660 1668 1538 1084 alfed.org.uk

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High Fluidity Aluminium is a light metal so in its molten state, particularly its Silicon alloys, exhibits high fluidity, approaching that of water!

▪ Optimal for casting ▪ For casting fine details

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Aluminium Casting Processes 100,000

VACUUM DIECASTING HIGH PRESSURE DIECASTING

75,000 Components Per Annum 50,000

GRAVITY CASTING SQUEEZE CASTING AUTOMATIC SAND CASTING

25,000

INVESTMENT CASTING SAND CASTING

0

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Tooling/Die Costs

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Sand Casting A wooden or steel pattern a replica of the casting to be made ▪ Sand is packed and rammed around the pattern.

▪ The pattern is withdrawn to leave a cavity in the mould.

▪ Channels are cut through the mould to allow the liquid

metal to enter, to form reservoirs and feeders ▪ Cores are inserted into mould cavity for holes in casting.

▪ Finally mould washes are applied

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Sand Casting Manufacture of sand mould

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Sand Castings Advantages ▪ Low tooling and pattern costs

▪ Largest size castings possible by any casting method ▪ Suited to complex shapes and cores ▪ Very low gas porosity is possible ▪ Slow, even cooling rate

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Sand Castings Disadvantages ▪ Low production rate

▪ 5mm minimum wall thickness ▪ Poor linear dimensional tolerances e.g. 4mm / m ▪ Rough surface finish ▪ Coarse grain size compared to die casting ▪ Casting weights in the range of 0.1 Kg - 10,000 Kg ▪ Economical production range 1 - 1000 castings.

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Sand Castings

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Gravity Die Casting Gravity die castings are produced by pouring molten Aluminium into permanent steel moulds ▪ A simple steel die, coated with a refractory wash.

▪ A cheaper alternative is cast iron.

▪ Good dimensional stability and thermal fatigue resistance.

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Gravity Die Casting Advantages ▪ High Volume, compared to sand casting

▪ Lower set up cost than Pressure Die castings ▪ Can employ cores ▪ Low gas porosity levels ▪ Fine grain sizes ▪ Near net shape; less finishing than for sand castings.

▪ Heat treatable

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Gravity Die Casting Disadvantages ▪ Minimum wall thickness 3-5mm

▪ Linear tolerance is approximately 3 mm/m ▪ Surface finish better than sand casting ▪ Limited shape complexity ▪ Casting weight range 0.1 Kg - 50 Kg ▪ Economical production range 500 - 2500

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Gravity Die castings

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Low Pressure Die Casting ▪ Metal injected slowly into die by pressurised gas, usually air ▪ Pressure is maintained until solidification complete.

▪ Slow filling promotes high integrity castings.

▪ Good surface finish

▪ Relatively slow process ▪ Often used for wheels ▪ Wheel cycle times up to 5minutes

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Low Pressure Die Casting Advantages ▪ Thin wall thickness possible 2 to 3mm

▪ Closer tolerances than gravity casting ▪ Surface finish better than gravity but worse than pressure die casting stand ▪ Low Porosity ▪ Castings are heat treatable ▪ Sand cores may still be used to allow complex castings ▪ Die costs lower than for pressure die casting

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Low Pressure Die Casting Disadvantages ▪ Production rates up to 30 per hour

▪ Size of casting limited by machine size ▪ Feeding thin sections through thick sections is not recommended ▪ Casting weight range 5 Kg - 25 Kg ▪ Economic production rate more than 1000 parts

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Low Pressure Die Cast Engine cylinder heads, heat treated

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High Pressure Cold Chamber Die Casting In High pressure cold chamber die casting, molten Aluminum is injected into metal moulds • High pressures of the order of 1000psi.

• Molten Aluminium is poured into the shot chamber and then injected into the mould by the “Piston” through a narrow “Gate” • Component is allowed to cool between 7-35 seconds

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High Pressure Die Casting Advantages ▪ Fast reduction rates can be high in the order of 200 per hour

▪ Thin wall thickness of 1mm possible ▪ Best surface finish is produced by this casting method ▪ Very near net shape, reducing machining requirements ▪ Very fine grain structure produced ▪ Castings have high strength in the as-cast condition ▪ Good linear tolerances and repeatable properties are obtained

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High Pressure Die Casting Disadvantages ▪ Size of castings limited by the machine

▪ Shrinkage-free, thick sections are difficult to cast, Porosity can be a concern ▪ Liquid metal fired in at about 40 m/s. Leads to air entrapment ▪ Castings cannot be heat treated because of porosity, ▪ High start up and capital costs ▪ High tooling costs ▪ Casting weight range 0.01 Kg - 25 Kg ▪ Economic production rates more than 10,000 per annum alfed.org.uk

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High Pressure Die Cast Engine blocks not heat treated

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Vacuum Assisted Die Casting Technically reduced atmospheric pressure casting

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Vacuum Assisted Die Casting Advantages ▪ Rejections due to porosity are reduced.

▪ Cold Shuts reduced.

▪ Casting can be heat treated.

▪ Excellent surface quality is ensured.

▪ Product density and strength are increased.

▪ Larger, thinner, and more complex castings are made possible.

▪ Die life is extended.

▪ Flash is reduced or eliminated. alfed.org.uk

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Vacuum Assisted Die Casting Disadvantages ▪ High capital costs

▪ High running costs ▪ High die costs ▪ High maintenance costs ▪ Difficult and long set up periods

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Vacuum Assisted Die Castings

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Squeeze Casting Squeeze Casting also known as liquid-metal forging.

▪ In squeeze casting process an accurate measure of molten Aluminium is injected slowly into

the mould via a wide “Gate” ▪ Pressure continues to be applied to molten metal until it has solidified.

▪ Feeders are heated to ensure shrinkage is fed with liquid Aluminium.

▪ Because the high pressure is applied during solidification, porosities caused by both gas and shrinkage can be prevented or eliminated.

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Squeeze & High Pressure Die Casting Differences

High Pressure Die Casting ▪ Small Gate Area ▪ High fill speeds ▪ Aluminium Sprayed into die ▪ Rapid cooling / solidification ▪ High production rate ▪ Near nett shape alfed.org.uk

Squeeze Casting ▪ Large Gate Area ▪ Slow fill speeds 1.5 - 4.0 seconds ▪ Fluid / laminar flow of Aluminium ▪ Slow solidification under pressure ▪ High casting mechanical integrity

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Squeeze Casting Advantages ▪ Improved near “Nett Shape”

▪ Almost no shrinkage porosity ▪ Superior mechanical properties

▪ Improved fatigue life ▪ Heat treatable components ▪ High dimensional stability ▪ Faster cycle times over gravity & low pressure ▪ Complex shapes, thicker wall sections alfed.org.uk

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Squeeze Casting Disadvantages ▪ Slower than high pressure die casting

▪ High capital and tooling costs ▪ Casting weight range 0.01 Kg - 25 Kg ▪ Economic production rates more than 10,000 per annum

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Squeeze Castings

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Investment Casting Investment casting uses complex "wax pattern" to create complex ceramic moulds.

▪ A wax model is made of part by carving or pouring wax into a mould.

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Investment Casting ▪ Wax model is dipped in a refractory slurry ▪ Wax is melted out of the mould to leave exact cavity.

▪ Refractory mould is furnace baked

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Investment Casting ▪ Molten Aluminium is then poured into the mould cavity ▪ Allowed to solidify ▪ Mould broken away from the casting

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Investment Casting Advantages

▪ Can form complex shapes and fine details ▪ Very good surface finish ▪ Extreme accuracy ▪ Minimal secondary machining

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Investment Casting Disadvantages

▪ Expensive, high labour and tooling costs ▪ Only small castings ▪ Time-consuming process ▪ Economical production rates 1 to 1000

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Investment Die Castings

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Additive Manufacturing Additive manufacturing process uses a high-powered laser in an Argon atmosphere to directly melt together successive layers of powdered metals and resins into three-dimensional solid parts.

▪ The more complex the component, the more economical the process ▪ Complex geometries and precise internal features that cannot be made by traditional machining ▪ Multiple, identical parts can be built on a single platform at one time ▪ Minimum of material waste ▪ Fully dense

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Atomisation of Aluminium Powder Aluminium powder is produced by melting Aluminium and presenting liquid stream to a compressed gas jet and converting it to fine droplets.

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Direct Metal Laser Melting

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Additive Manufacturing Developments Casting moulds and inserts ▪ Optimal for prototypes

▪ Low cost production steel moulds ▪ Sand moulds can be additive produced ▪ No shape limitations ▪ No machining constraints, internal shapes and complex webs possible ▪ Internal cooling channels and ducts can follow shapes, not limited by boring and plugging ▪ One piece were machining access might require multiple assemblies ▪ No tooling costs alfed.org.uk

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Additive Manufacturing Aluminium is not optimal metal for additive manufacturing ▪ Extreme affinity for oxygen to form Alumina

▪ High Conductivity requires very high powered lasers ▪ High conductivity accurate temperature control to prevent secondary melting ▪ Suited for prototypes

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Additive Manufacturing

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Module 19 Automotive Aluminium

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Automotive Innovation Since the 1930s Aluminium has been used for car bodywork ▪ Low volume and expensive – coach built luxury (RR, Aston) or sports/racing (Ferrari)

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Land Rover 1948 with a great steel shortage, surplus Aluminium from aircraft was used to produce the original Land Rover vehicle.

▪ A second a major step-up in the use of Aluminium occurred in n 1961, when the Rover company started casting Aluminium V-8 engine blocks

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Honda NSX Honda NSX – the world's first mass-produced car to feature an all-Aluminium Body ▪ Aluminium engine ▪ 18,000 made 1990 – 2005

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Lotus Bonded Chassis Since 1999 Lotus has supplied 75,000 bonded Aluminium vehicle structures with a ‘zero-failure’ rate in use ▪ Fewer than 40 mechanical fastenings - rivets and bolts - are used to hold the chassis together ▪ The Lotus Elise chassis, designed in 1996, uses 27 different extrusions, and weights just 65 kg

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JLR: AluminiumIntensive Volume Cars JLR pioneer of Aluminium car bodies – Alcan – Ford research in 1990s.

▪ First model was the 2003 XJ ▪ Aluminium press shops at Solihull and Castle Bromwich ▪ XE / XF / F-Pace / F-Type / Range Rover Sport / Range Rover

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Vorsprung durch…Aluminium Audi another pioneer, in 1923, Audi announced a six-cylinder all-alloy engine. In the same year, it experimented with a streamlined Aluminium car body for its Type K model ▪ Audi A8 (Aluminium spaceframe ASF) launched in 1994. 3rd generation ▪ Audi A2. Combined manufacture 600,000+

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Audi TT – Mixed Metal Car Mk 3 TT is 50kg lighter than Mk 2 and 23 per cent torsionally stiffer.

▪ Front and rear crash structures, bulkhead and floor bulkhead, and centre tunnel made from high-strength steels.

▪ Rest of the TT’s structure made from Aluminium extrusions and pressed Aluminium sheets.

▪ A-pillars, sills and door crash beams are made from extrusions, while ▪ Steel and Aluminium components are joined with adhesives

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F-150 (2015) Switches to “Aluminum” Ford , ALCAN/Innnoval and Jaguar pioneered “Aluminum” bodied vehicles in 1990s ▪ The 2015 F-150 truck shed 300kg (15 percent of body-weight) switching to an all-Aluminum body ▪ The best selling vehicle in the US – produced in six plants

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Lighter Trucks Hydro (Sapa) has designed and extruded the Aluminium that helped create the lightweight chassis vehicle for DAF ▪ The brief was to make a new chassis that will provide a minimum weight saving of 30% compared to the conventional steel chassis currently produced

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.

Brakes Car Brake Calipers

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Wheels Car Wheels

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Automotive Sub-frames Car Engine Cradle

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Aluminium Powertrain Components

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Aluminium Creates Safer & Lighter Electric Cars Aluminium intensive electric cars ▪ Telsa Model S has highest safety rating

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Aluminium In Electric Drive ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Batteries Cables Battery cooling Powertrain

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Motive Power Batteries Mirror humans!

▪ Brittle ▪ Prone to shock damage ▪ Susceptible to high “G” forces ▪ Full of corrosive fluids ▪ Over heat ▪ Cannot tolerate hot ▪ Poor performance when cold

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Electric Vehicles

Aluminium will not be an alternative for an EV, it will be mandatory to compensate battery weight

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Vehicle Charging Points

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Module 20

Extrusion of Aluminium

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Theory of Extrusion

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High Temperature Ductility of Aluminium At moderately low temperatures 450 to 500°C, about 80% of its melting point, Aluminium loses strength and becomes extremely ductile ▪ Flow stress of Aluminium alloys is very low and by applying a pressure through a ram Aluminium can be “Extruded” through a steel die

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Versatile Extrusions Ability to be readily and easily extruded sets Aluminium apart from other metals ▪ Most versatile of all metal forming process.

▪ Designers ”Can Put Metal Where They Need It” ▪ The Ultimate “Nett Shape Process”

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Extrusion Starting Stock Extrusion starting stock are Aluminium logs

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Homogenisation First stage of extrusion is to heat the billets to extrusion temperature ▪ “Homogenise” the cast structure to form an uniform grain structure ▪ Extrusion temperatures are those of Solution Heat treatment

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Direct & Indirect Extrusion

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Direct Extrusion Direct extrusion also called forward extrusion is the most general extrusion process.

▪ Operation includes the placement of the billet in a container, ▪ Ram is used to push the billet through the die.

▪ Most common process in the UK

Ram

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Container

Billet Die

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Direct Extrusion Billet being inserted in Container

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Limitations of Direct Extrusion Major disadvantages of direct extrusion is the force needed for extrusion because of the friction of the billet having to move the container's entire length.

▪ Limited dimensional stability and control ▪ Greatest force is required at the start of the process, decreasing slowly with use up of billet.

▪ Friction between cylinder walls and billet pull back peripheral extrusion flow so flow is core forwards ▪ Back and front end defects

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Indirect Extrusion Indirect Extrusion also called backwards extrusion ▪ In this process, the die is constant whereas the billet & container move together.

Container

Die

Stem

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Limitations of Indirect Extrusion Indirect Extrusion also called backwards extrusion ▪ In this process, the die is constant whereas the billet & container move together.

▪ The final and maximum extrusion length is decided by the stem's column strength ▪ As the billet movement is with the container, all the frictional forces are easily eliminated.

Die

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Stem

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Indirect Extrusion Disadvantages of Indirect Extrusion ▪ This process is not as versatile as the process of direct extrusions, as the cross-sectional area is confined by the stem's maximum size.

▪ Defects and impurities on the billet's surface affect the extrusion's surface.

▪ For anodising or or if its aesthetics are important, the billets have to be wired brushed, chemically cleaned or machined before being used ▪ High cost of dies

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Extrusion Press

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Extrusion Solution Heat Treating On exiting the die the extrusion is at solution heat treatment temperatures so is quenched using air or water to form solid solutions

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Extruded Profiles

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Extrusion Press Stretcher Profiles are transferred to a “Stretcher” where they are plastically Stretched by 1 to 2 % ▪ To straighten and correct any misalignments

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Final Ageing The extrusions are then cut to length and aged in a conventional furnace

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Open Sections Direct Extrusion Simple solid bars and open sections are extruded by direct extrusion through a solid flat die.

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Complex Hollow Sections To extrude complex hollow sections a “Port-Hole” die is used.

▪ Billet is extruded through a die that splits the flow into two or more streams, ▪ Streams are shaped through a bridge ▪ Pressure welded together to emerge as an extrusion

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Extrusion Shape Difficulty

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Extrusion Products

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Extruded Heat Sinks Extruded semi conductor heat sinks, enable lap tops and desktops ▪ Aluminium Good Thermal Conductor ▪ Non magnetic

▪ Finned Designs

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Vee Grooves Or Decorative Features

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Screw Ports ▪ Fitting into the long side of a profile provides flexible fastening at any point along the profile

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Click Snap lock

Permanent Lock

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Click Snap-Fit Lock Snap Fit

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Locking Profiles

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Design Considerations Solid Profile

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Hollow Profile

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Interlocking Profiles Fastening devices for fixing and locking profiles that are part of a joint.

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Interlocking Profiles

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Corner Joints

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Friction Joints

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Thermal Breaks Thermal bridges introduce an insulating material between two sections interrupting the high heat conduction of Aluminium, two methods

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Bonded Extrusion Joints Extruded mechanical joints provide maximum contact area for bonded joints and can be readily design to eliminate the risk of peel.

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Machined Hinges

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Case Study – Pedestrian Crossing Controls

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Built to last Bodleian Library – still has original Aluminium extruded windows installed in 1939

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Extrusions 2016 – new Fleetwood Town FC training centre ▪ Aluminium powder coated extrusions and window systems

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Lighter Trucks HYDRO, (Sapa) designed and extruded the Aluminium that helped create the lightweight chassis vehicle for DAF ▪ The brief was to make a new chassis that will provide a minimum weight saving of 30% compared to the conventional steel chassis currently produced.

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Extrusions Demand Extrusions enable simple high strength snap to together assemblies ▪ No welding low energy assembly, recyclable ▪ Battery Electric Vehicles are heavy, and weight limits driving range.

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Module 22 Production of Wrought Aluminium

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Flat Products Processes

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Tooling Plate

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Cast Macrostructures Cast Aluminium is extremely heterogeneous with large localised variations in chemical analysis, segregation and different macrostructures reflecting cooling rate

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Homogenisation Heat cast structure and hold for prolonged time then slow cool to redistributes the coarse grains forming uniform fine grain structure process.

▪ Eliminates segregation

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Cast Tooling Ingots Cast Aluminium Tooling Plate produced from direct chill cast ingots ▪ Tightly controlled chemistry ▪ Grain refined fine grain structure ▪ Tightly controlled long thermal cycle homogenising heat treatment to eliminate segregation and porosity ▪ Controlled cooling to eliminate residual stress ▪ Sawn into plates

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Cast Tooling Plate Advantages of Cast Aluminium Tooling Plate ▪ No anisotropy uniform mechanical properties in all directions ▪ No element segregation ▪ Homogenous structure ▪ Minimal porosity ▪ Fine equiaxed grain size ▪ Residual stress free ▪ No risk of galvanic corrosion ▪ Excellent Stability after Processing and Machining ▪ Superior Surface finish and Flatness

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High Precision Tooling Plate High stability, high precision applications of tooling plate ▪ Electronics Manufacture ▪ Laser Machinery ▪ High precision sciatic instruments ▪ Optical ▪ Medical Equipment ▪ Semiconductor Manufacture ▪ Vacuum Chambers ▪ Solar Equipment ▪ Jigs and Fixtures ▪ Injection Moulds and Dies ▪ NASA Lander Lunar Lander alfed.org.uk

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Hot Rolled Plate

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Flat Products Hot Rolling Processes

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Cast Structures As cast Aluminium ▪ Heterogeneous ▪ Variable stratified alloy analysis ▪ Variable mechanical properties ▪ Heterogeneous grains ▪ Core alloy segregation ▪ Shrinkage ▪ Porosity ▪ Inclusions

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Hot Rolled Wrought Plate Rolling converts cast Aluminium into wrought product ▪ Rolling physically breaks up cast structure ▪ Hot rolling recrystallizes and produces annealed microstructures ▪ Eliminates alloy segregation ▪ Homogeneous structure ▪ Creates even fine grains ▪ Shrinkage eliminated ▪ Porosity sealed ▪ Inclusions broken up and redistributed ▪ Grain flow in direction of rolling

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Cast Slabs Cast slabs are the starting stock for hot rolling

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Hot Rolling of Aluminium at Elevated Temperatures At relative low elevated temperatures circa 500°C yield and strength of Aluminium significantly reduced ▪ Above recrystallisation temperatures ▪ Maximum deformation working with minimum force ▪ Aluminium constantly recrystallises no strain hardening ▪ Recrystallisation creates homogeneous fine new grains ▪ Ingots hot reduced to typically to 4mm thickness

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Preheating & Homogenisation Cast slabs are preheated to above their recrystallisation temperature and held on temperature time to homogenise structure ▪ Then transferred at temperature into breakdown mill

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Reversing Mill Breakdown Hot Rolling Reversing breakdown hot rolling mills allows heavy reduction of slab ▪ Maximum reduction achieved ▪ Slabis continuously passed thorough and reversed back through the breakdown stand.

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Reversing Breakdown Mill ▪ Work Rolls

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Reversing Breakdown Mill ▪ Work Rolls ▪ Backing Rolls

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Reversing Breakdown Mill ▪ Work Rolls ▪ Backing Rolls ▪ Slab is driven through and reversed

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Reversing Breakdown Mill ▪ Work Rolls ▪ Backing Rolls ▪ Slab is driven through and reversed

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Reversing Breakdown Mill ▪ Following each reverse pass rolls are incremented together increasing reduction

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Reversing Breakdown Mill ▪ Following each reverse pass rolls are incremented together increasing reduction

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Hot Tandem Mill After breaking down, the bloom is then further hot rolled in one direction through a Tandem mill ▪ Hot Rolled into Plate or Shate

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Tandem Hot Rolling

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Coiling Rolling temperatures are carefully controlled so that the strip exits the last stand of the tandem mill just about the minimum recrystallisation temperature to ensure fine grain structure.

▪ Cut to length Or ▪ Hot coiled for cold rolling

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Rolling Hardenable Alloys After Hot Rolling the plates or slabs of the heat treatable alloys 2XXX, 6XXX, 7XXX and 8XXX, if required are subjected to a separate heat treatment.

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Limit of Hot Rolling At minimum gauges approximately 2mm and thinner the hot rolling forces will exceed the Aluminium tensile strength at hot rolling temperatures so tearing will result, leading to failure ▪ Loss of control of plastic deformation and reduced Youngs Modulus increase spring back ▪ Poor surface finish and dimensional control ▪ Further rolling has to change to Cold Rolling

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Flat Products Processes

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Cold Rolling Starting Stock Coiled Hot Rolled Shate

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Cold Rolling Aluminium strip typically 4mm and thinner is cold rolled , that is at ambient temperature ▪ Grains are plastically compressed and elongated in work direction ▪ No recrystallisation ▪ Strain hardened or cold worked ▪ High Rolling forces ▪ “H” Tempers ▪ Lubricant is kerosine

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Cold Rolling Cold Rolling is used to produce ▪ Thin sheets ▪ Strain hardened non heat treatable alloys ▪ High dimensional control and precision ▪ Strong directionality ▪ High yield to tensile ratio ▪ High elasticity ▪ Tight tolerances ▪ High surface finish ▪ High residual stresses ▪ High fatigue resistance

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Cold Rolling Gauge Limitation At maximum gauges of 4mm and greater the relatively high yield strength of Aluminium at cold rolling ambient temperatures limits plastic deformation to the surface layers only ▪ Localised high surface strain hardening will result in surface cracking ▪ Surface will be plasticly deformed not core ▪ High cold rolling forces exceed the those of the rolling mill ▪ Small cold reductions only possible ▪ At Gauges above 4mm change to hot rolling

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Cold Rolling Each successive stand cold rolls incrementally thinner then its predecessor ▪ Typically five or more stands

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Cold Rolling

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Cold Rolling Cold mills in a wide range of types and sizes are available; some are single stand, others 3 stand and some 5 stand.

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Cold Rolling In Cold-rolling, strip is continuously decoiled, reduced through the stands and recoiled. Tension control between the decoiler and recoiler is controlled to maximise strip tolerance control.

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Successive Stand Strain Hardening Each cold rolling stand strain hardens Stand 3 Stand 3

Stand 2

Stand 2

Stand1

Stand1

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Cold or Strain Hardening Depending on the amount of cold reduction required to produce the final strip gauge the strain hardening can reduce ductility to onset of brittleness.

▪ Therefore intermediate annealing will be required before further cold rolling

Annealing Furnace

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Coiling Final cold rolling operation is recoiling

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Roll Cladding with Pure Aluminium Roll cladding produces a three layer sandwich with a core of a poor corrosion resistant alloy such as 2XXX series or 7xxx series, protected by thin outer skins of corrosion resistant pure Aluminium 1XXX series

1XXX 7XXX 1XXX

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Tension levelling Tension levelling is used to flatten and straighten cold rolled sheet ▪ All parts of the coil, top to bottom, edge to edge, are stretched of a percent above the yield point

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Narrow Strip slitting Wide sheet coils are slit into narrow bands by rolling over parallel rotary knives

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Tread Plate Tread plate & Shate represent about 6% of UK Aluminium consumption ▪ Texturing or embossing during the final rolling.

▪ Instead of the usual smooth surfaces, one or both work rolls will have a pattern which is transferred to the sheet as it passes through, during rolling or subsequent finishing operations, ▪ Often the last stand of a tandem mill.

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Cold Rolled Patterns

Stucco

Checkmate

Diamond

Five bar

Cricket

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Cut To length Line Sheet is decoiled, tension levelled then cut to length ▪ Laser cut ▪ Press Sheared ▪ Sheets are stacked

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Perforated Sheet Coil is feed into a perforating press, which use a matching die and punch set to stamp out the holes

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Flat Products Processes

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Cold rolled Foils Aluminium foil invented 1903 ▪ BS EN 602 specifies Aluminum foil for food contact ▪ Foil superior to plastic films because it is barrier to Ultraviolet light ▪ Two sheets are cold rolled at the same time ▪ When foils are separated, inside surfaces are matt outside surfaces shiny

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Foil Cold Rolling The large cold reductions and consequential length increase in the production of foil require a separate intermediate annealing furnace

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Foil Packaging ▪ Aluminium foil invented 1903 ▪ 1911 – Toblerone

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Foil Applications Sealers and Wrapping

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Automotive Lithium Batteries Foils is critical component of Automotive Lithium Batteries

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Fin Stock Finstock is a thin foil product sold in narrow coils, usually 0.2 to 0.4mm and can be thinner.

▪ Special type of foil product used for heat exchanger applications for ventilation systems and for air conditioning systems.

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Aluminium Honeycomb Aluminium honeycomb begins life as a roll of cold rolled foil which is passed through a printer for adhesive lines to be printed on it.

▪ Foil is cut to size and stacked into piles ▪ Stacked piles are pressed using a heated press to allow the adhesive to cure and bond the sheets of foil together to form a block of honeycomb which can be cut into slices.

▪ Finally, the honeycomb is expanded ▪ Aluminium alloy grades 3003 and 5052

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Rolling Shaped Sheets During either hot or cold rolling, by using shaped rolls it is possible to shape Aluminium sheets

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Rolled Aluminium Heating Spreader Plates High thermal conductivity rolled Underfloor or Wall heating spreader plates designed to hold flexible plastic heating tubes will give output of 77 watts per m² at room temperature 20 °C with a floor temperature of 27 °C

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Rolling Sections During either hot or cold rolling, it is possible by using a rolling train of shaped passes to produce simple sections and/or or sizes that are too large for extrusion.

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Electric Resistance Welded Aluminium Tube Aluminium strip is formed at very high speed through a series of rolls into a tube shape, and seam welded by “High Frequency” Electric Induction Heating.

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Module 24

Drawing Shaping & Forming Aluminium

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Forging Aluminium

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High Temperature Ductility of Aluminium At moderately low temperatures 450 to 500°C, Aluminium loses strength and becomes extremely ductile so easily forged

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Forging Grain Orientation As the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grains deform, to follow the general shape of the part.

▪ Grain flow is continuous throughout the part, giving improved strength characteristics ▪ Stronger then cast or machined ▪ Highest strength components

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Forging Most Aluminium is closed die forged ▪ Start with round billet ▪ Heated in furnace ▪ Homogenise and bring to forging temperature ▪ Forge in between two die halves ▪ Most modern forges are hydraulic rather then actual hammers

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Forging Die Forgings can be from grams to several hundred tons in weight

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Hydraulic Piston

High Deformation

Cross Head Cross Head

Forging is above recrystallisation temperature ▪ High deformations possible ▪ No Cold Work ▪ Deformed grains instantly recrystalise ▪ Eliminate any segregation ▪ Close up any porosity ▪ Highly homogenise fine grains

Die Top

Die Bottom

Base

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Hydraulic Piston

High Deformation

Cross Head Cross Head

Forging is above recrystallisation temperature ▪ High deformations possible ▪ No Cold Work ▪ Deformed grains instantly recrystalise ▪ Eliminate any segregation ▪ Close up any porosity ▪ Highly homogenise fine grains

Die Top

Die Bottom

Base

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High Deformation

Cross Head

Hydraulic Piston Forging is above recrystallisation temperature ▪ High deformations possible ▪ No Cold Work ▪ Deformed grains instantly recrystalise ▪ Eliminate any segregation ▪ Close up any porosity ▪ Highly homogenise fine grains

Cross Head

Die Top

Die Bottom

Base

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High Deformation

Cross Head

Hydraulic Piston Forging is above recrystallisation temperature ▪ High deformations possible ▪ No Cold Work ▪ Deformed grains instantly recrystalise ▪ Eliminate any segregation ▪ Close up any porosity ▪ Highly homogenise fine grains

Cross Head

Die Top

Die Bottom

Base

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Forged Products Forged products are used for highly stressed and fatigued applications ▪ Safety critical

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World’s Fastest Forged Aluminium Wheels Thrust SSC's wheels rotate at 8500 rpm, so the centrifugal force at the rim of each wheel is 35,000 times the force of gravity ▪ Cast as cylinders of 7037 Aluminium ▪ Open die hand forged the cast into cheese-like shapes ▪ Machined and heat treated

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Upsetting Forging of Bolt Starting blank is drawn or extruded wire.

▪ Cut blank to length ▪ Homogenised Annealed ▪ Upset Forge

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Bolt Manufacture Roll thread between two reciprocating dies ▪ Solution Heat treat and final age

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Cold Drawing

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Cold Drawing Cold drawing is cold or strain hardening ▪ Bar wire or tube are pulled through a die ▪ High precision process ▪ High dimensional tolerances

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Bar Cold Drawing Drawing Die

Simplest operation on a draw bench

Dog with Gripping Teeth

Extruded Rod

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Cold Drawing Cold drawing is cold or strain hardening ▪ Only method of strengthening non heat treatable alloys ▪ High fatigue strength

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Cold Drawing ▪ Prototypes ▪ Small production runs

▪ Thinner wall to Diameter then extrusions ▪ Shapes such as Spirals and Flutes are possible ▪ Tubes can be heat treated after cold drawing

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Wire Drawing Wire drawing is a process used to reduce the cross-section of a wire by pulling it through a single, or series of drawing dies.

▪ As the wire is drawn through the die, its volume remains the same, so as the diameter decreases, its length increases.

▪ The starting stock can either be a hot rolled or extruded rod

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Multistage Wire Drawing For high reduction rates several dies can be used in tandem, each separated by a “Bull Block”

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Cold Drawn Tubes Tubes cold drawn between a die and an internal mandrel.

▪ Starting hollow is extrusion, drilled billet or ERW tube ▪ Work hardening is only method of strengthening 1000, 3000 or 5000 series Aluminium ▪ High dimension and precision ▪ Residual stresses impart high fatigue resistance ▪ Shapes such as Spirals and Flutes are possible

▪ Tubes can be heat treated after cold drawing

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Cold Drawing Bench Tubes are drawn on a bench ▪ Pulled through a die by a “Dog” on an endless chain

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Aluminium Spinning In Aluminium metal spinning a disc or extrusion or tube is rotated at high speed in a lathe and cold flow formed by a pressure roll or nib tool over a mandrel into an axially symmetrical part.

▪ High speed rotation of the part and the point contact of the tool flow form the metal.

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Metal Spinning Advantages Parts produced are seamless, typical uses include Rocket cone noses, cookware and gas cylinders.

▪ Several operations can be performed in one set-up. Work pieces may have reentrant profiles and the profile in relation to the centre line virtually unrestricted ▪ Aluminium alloys 1100, 3003, 5052, 2024, and 7075 are all spun.

▪ Forming parameters and part geometry can be altered quickly.

▪ Tooling costs are low ▪ Minimal metal waste

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Metal Spinning Alloys Aluminium Alloys 1100, 3003, 5052, 2024, and 7075 are particularly suited to metal spinning

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Forging & Spinning Wheels Optimal grain flow

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Sheet Metal Forming and Pressing

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Non Heat Treatable Alloys Ductility Non heat treatable alloys 1xxx. 3xxx, 4xxx and 5xxx ▪ Good ductility and bendability in the annealed condition “O”, ▪ Low ductility and limited bendability upon Strain Hardening ▪ Extract from BS EN 485 - 2 : 1994 - Sheet, Strip and Plate - Mechanical Properties

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Heat Treatable Alloys Ductility Heat treatable alloys 2xxx. 6xxx and 5xxx ▪ Reduced ductility and bendability in the annealed condition “O”, ▪ Heat treated bendability has to be carefully considered ▪ Extract from BS EN 485 - 2 : 1994 - Sheet, Strip and Plate - Mechanical

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Deep Drawing Process

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Deep Drawing of Cans

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Stamping or Press Forming “Stamping” or more correctly “Press Forming” forms an Aluminium sheet, into a net shape between a male and female die surface in a stroking or reciprocating press ▪ Press forming uses a multitude of operations, including shearing, piercing, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, coining and drawing.

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Body in White Press Formed Parts

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Superforming At Elevated temperatures Aluminum become super forming ▪ High ductile ▪ Low strength

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Superforming In Superforming, Aluminium sheet is formed over a heated single surface form tool by “Controlled Air Pressure” Aluminium Sheet

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Superforming

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Hot Form Quench HFQ® HFQ® is disruptive technology for stamping complex-shaped Aluminium components from High-Strength alloys and simultaneously heat treating ▪ Combines Heat Treatment, Press Forming and cold die quenching.

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Hot Form Quench HFQ® HFQ® is a disruptive technology for stamping complex-shaped Aluminium components from High-Strength alloys ▪ Combines Heat Treatment, Press Forming and cold die quenching.

▪ Superform hot part

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Hot Form Quench HFQ® HFQ® is a disruptive technology for stamping complex-shaped Aluminium components from High-Strength alloys ▪ Combines Heat Treatment, Press Forming and cold die quenching.

▪ Superform hot part ▪ 5 to 10 second cycle time from sheet entering tool to form and quench

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Hot Form Quench HFQ® Size and set in the tool whilst in the “Solution Treated” condition ▪ Perfect size

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Hot Form Quench HFQ® Final age in oven to develop properties

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Bending Aluminium Tubes

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Wrap or Compression Tube Bending In “Wrap” bending the former bends the tubes around a former ▪ Simple cheap equipment ▪ Limited applications because of tube collapse and buckling ▪ Limited to heavy gauges ▪ Restricted to larger radii

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Mandrel or Tension Tube Bending In “Mandrel” or tension bending, an internal mandrel prevents the tube collapsing and buckling ▪ Both the tube and mandrel are clamped and pulled around the former roll ▪ Section moves around the former ▪ Larger Diameter to gauge tubes can be bent ▪ Tight bends possible limited by temper ▪ Suited to automation

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Bending of Aluminium Three Roll Bending ▪ Three roll benders use a central moveable roller that is gradually pressed onto the work piece until the desired radius is achieved Three Point Bending ▪ The three point bender uses a fixed former to apply load.

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Stretch Bending of Aluminium Stretch Forming is used to produce tight radii and complex multi radii sweep bends ▪ Stretch formers work by subjecting the extrusion or tube to a tension force whilst wrapping it around a former, minimising compression collapse ▪ Former can be a complex shape

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Free Form Tube Bending Freeform bending technology can bend tube sections with no straight sections between bends.

▪ Tubes are inserted into a guide cylinder and pushed through a mobile bending die, the die position dictates the resulting bend angle and radius so tubes emerge like plasticine ▪ At the machine’s front, the mobile die assembly consists of a bearing into which is placed bending dies made for specific tube diameters.

▪ Arrangement allows for sequential and even continuous bends of various degrees and directions ▪ Different radii requires no tool changes or complex tooling setups ▪ Coils, springs or spirals possible ▪ Restricted to large radii

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Module 27 The World of Aluminium

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Cookware Cook-wear Saucepans ▪ Pressed ▪ Spun ▪ Deep drawn

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Air Conditioning Aluminium has 57% the thermal conductivity of Copper on a volume basis but nearly 200% the conductivity of copper on a weight basis.

▪ The properties of high thermal conductivity, low weight and good formability make Aluminium optimal for heat exchangers, air conditioning plant and heat exchange cladding

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Commercial Ceilings ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Polished Anodised Painted Textured

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Doors Aluminium doors can have same strength and impact resistance as steel for less than half the weight when alloy / temper are carefully chosen

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Residential Aluminium

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White Goods

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a

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Passive Solar Heat Passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, reflect, and distribute solar heat in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer.

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Photovoltaic & Solar Power Photovoltaic & Solar Power manufacturers' ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

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GB-Sol - Based in South Wales Viridian Solar - Based in Cambridgeshire Romag in the North East of England, solar tile called Inteco.

Solarcentury -based in London Polysolar based in Cambridge and was established in 2007.

SunSolar Energy - Formed in 2011 and based in the West Midlands AES Solar - A solar thermal manufacturer located in Moray, Scotland.

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Electrical Switch Gear ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Cabinets Bus bars Switch Gear Trunking

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Air Source, Heat Pumps & Air Conditioning

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Marine Engineering Non-corrosive and light – aids stability in boats ▪ Many ships have Aluminium superstructures for lightness and rust resistance ▪ ‘Marine’ doesn’t just mean at sea –also buildings etc in coastal locations

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Consumer Electronics Apple® popularised Aluminum laptops in 2003 with the introduction of the Aluminum PowerBook G4. and their latest is the iPhone 7® and the Apple Watch® ▪ iPhone 7 and Apple Watch use 7XXX alloys for strength

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Aluminium Packaging Sheet aluminium is manufactured in and imported from Europe ▪ Can and Packaging production with UK ▪ Packaging consumes/represents 16% of Aluminium industry ▪ Aluminium packaging 192,000 tonnes, 52% Recycled ▪ Aluminium drink cans 119,000 tonnes, 75% Recycled ▪ Developments in recovering Aluminium from incinerator bottom ash

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Lithographic printing ▪ The process relies on a high definition image being created on Aluminium plate, which is wrapped around rollers.

▪ These ‘offset rollers’ transfer the image in ink onto print rollers which generate the printed pages.

▪ This is the main output of one of the two UK rolling plants, Bridgnorth Aluminum

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Pharmaceuticals Blister packs are commonly used as unit-dose packaging for pharmaceutical tablets, capsules or lozenges.

▪ Aluminium foil backing is referred to as “Lidding”, used in thicknesses of 7µm (0.007mm) to 30µm (0.030mm).

▪ The unrivalled barrier properties of Aluminium totally exclude the penetration of moisture, oxygen, aromas and other gases, as well as micro-organisms and light.

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On two wheels ▪ Aluminium replaced steel as the leading premium cycle frame material in the 1990s. Light, stiff, non-rusting ▪ Low weight carbon fibre now leads the premium cycle market, but Aluminium bicycles dominate the mid-market, and categories such as mountain bikes and tourers

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Aluminium Blast Armour Aluminum armour has been in use for over 60 year for personnel carriers and reconnaissance vehicles ▪ Alloy 5083 in cold worked H131 temper offers high strength limited formability, is weldable and exhibits good corrosion resistance.

▪ Alloy 7039 in T64 temper has superior protection against piercing but is susceptible to corrosion and stress corrosion and can only be joined by mechanical fasteners ▪ Alloy 2139 is a high strength/toughness coppermagnesium-manganese-silver alloy with superior corrosion resistance

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Foil Packaging Aluminium foil invented 1903 ▪ 1911 – Toblerone

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Marine Engineering First Aluminium extruded mast made in 1953 ▪ Non-corrosive and light – aids stability in boats ▪ Many ships have Aluminium superstructures for lightness and rust resistance ▪ ‘Marine’ doesn’t just mean at sea –also buildings etc in coastal locations

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The Power of Aluminium Aluminium wire has a 1.5 times larger cross section to pass the same current as a copper wire, but is two times lighter.

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Signage

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Module 28 Joining of Aluminium

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Aluminium Joining Technologies

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Clinching Clinching is cold punching, used to create friction interlocking, high strength joints.

▪ Clinched joint is significantly “Strain Hardened“, so stronger than the surrounding parent Aluminium.

▪ A punch through impact extrusion causes local incision, and then compresses the Aluminium to create the clinch.

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Hemming Simple cold-forming process, were the edge of one sheet is folded over another to form a mechanical joint.

Particularly used to join the outer skin panels of car doors to the frames.

Two methods are used: ▪ Hemming pressing, normally a three-stage operation to fold forward and hem ▪ Robot rolling In modern production a sealant or adhesive is inserted into the joint, to weather-proof and seal against galvanic corrosion.

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Self Piercing Rivets Self-piercing riveting are high-speed mechanical fastening process for point joining Aluminium ▪ Steel rivets zinc plated ▪ A single-step technique, that clinches the sheets. together in a mechanical joint ▪ Jaguar car uses 3000 rivets

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Aluminium Rivets Given that the 7XXX series of Aluminium used extensively for aircraft and in aerospace cannot be easily welded such structures are riveted ▪ Rivets are manufactured from cold drawn tube Alloys 2017, 2024, and 2117 used for structural ▪ Solution treated and frozen ▪ Riveted and then allowed to naturally age Alloys 1100, 3003 and 5052 used for non structural ▪ Work harden through riveting

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Mechanical Fixture Joining of Aluminium Aluminum can be mechanical joined using every known type of mechanical fixture, special consideration has to be given to ensure no crevice or galvanic corrosion ▪ Bolts ▪ Huckbolts ▪ Screws ▪ Flowdrills ▪ Flow Drill Screws

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Welding

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Weldability

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Aluminium Oxide “Alumina” Welding Barrier Aluminium oxide Al2O3 Alumina..

▪ Forms instantly on Aluminium surface ▪ Barrier to metallic bond ▪ Ceramic ▪ Brittle ▪ An electrical insulator.

▪ High Hardness ▪ High Strength ▪ High Melting Point 2,072 °C (Aluminium 660.32 °C)

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Theory of Welding Welding is the creation of “Metallic Bond” ▪ Requires metal atom to metal atom contact to create metallic bond ▪ Aluminium Oxide, Alumina have to be chemically reduced or physically upset/forced out to expose pure metal atoms ▪ Pressure to compress weld faces together to eliminate voids and gaps enable atom to atom contact ▪ Temperature sufficiently high to reduce mechanical strength to allow pressure to force atoms together and increase atom mobility to allow diffusion

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Fusion Welding Equipment Basic equipment for fusion welding Aluminium comprises ▪ Fusion welding melts Aluminium together ▪ Power source, to metal filler wire ▪ Welding torch, ▪ supply of an inert shield gas, ▪ Supply of filler wire ▪ Air or water cooling

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Metal Gas Arc Welds Metal Inert Gas (MIG) and Manual Gas Arc Weld (MGAW) use non heat treatable 4xxx and 5xxx filler alloys.

▪ Welds created by melting filler metal in the joint gap ▪ Large weld beads require to compensate for loss of strength

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Tungsten Inert Gas Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is an arc welding process that uses a non-consumable Tungsten Electrode to produce the weld ▪ The weld area is protected from oxidation by an inert shielding gas Argon or Helium ▪ A filler rod can be used but not normally for Aluminium

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Spot Welding Equipment A spot welder consist of ▪ Electrical low voltage high current power source ▪ Two electrodes that clamp the weld joint together ▪ Copper electrodes to pass electrical current into the joint

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Resistance Spot Welding

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Spot Welds in Typical Car

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Laser Beam Welding Equipment

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Laser Welding Laser welding uses a focused coherent light beam to produce the highest energy concentration of any known source of energy.

▪ High power density of the order of 1 MW/cm2, resulting in micro-heat affected zones and high heating and cooling rates.

▪ The welding spot size of the laser is small of the order of 0.2mm.

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Friction Stir-Welding Friction Stir-Welding is a solid state welding process, ▪ No melting, where a rotating tool plastically mixes metal from one side of the joint to the other.

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Adhesive Application technology

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Bonded Extrusion Joints Extruded mechanical joints provide maximum contact area for bonded joints and can be readily design to eliminate the risk of peel.

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Module 29 Construction and Aluminium

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Built to last ▪ Roof of Saint Gioacchino church in Rome - 1891

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Built to last ▪ Bodleian Library – still has original Aluminium windows installed in 1939

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Built to last ▪ To date built to last Millennium Stadium, Cardiff. Built in 1998 with sliding Aluminium roof

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Built environment ▪ Aluminium façade; Anodised discs on Selfridges building

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Striking structures ▪ The Lord's cricket ground media centre was the first all Aluminium, semi-monocoque building in the world. It was built and fitted-out in two boatyards and uses boat-building technology

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Striking structures ▪ Streamlined shape in anodized aluminum and glass, ING House is constructed like a table on sixteen steel legs

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Extrusions ▪ 2016 – new Fleetwood Town FC training centre ▪ Aluminium powder coated extrusions and window systems

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FELIPE ASSADI & FRANCISCA PULIDO Assadi & Pulido Architects

© Nicolas Saijeh

“The interior space of the XVIChilean Architecture Biennale Pavilion enjoyed natural light, airiness & unobstructed views though the use of an innovative woven Aluminium façade” alfed.org.uk

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© Morely Von Sternberg

“For Rich Mix, Aluminium was chosen for its ability to be recycled; conserving the energy used in its production SUNAND PRASAD Penoyre & Prasad Architects

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“The Nasher Sculpture Center, conceptualised with the use of cast Aluminium shells, is a synthesis of nature & building”

RENZO PIANO Renzo Piano Building Workshop

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Expanded screen filters light in Florentine Headquarters Screen is an aluminum expanded metal rhomboidal mesh where the ▪ Size of each rhomboid is 200 by 64 by 20 millimetres ▪ Gray powder-coat finish to reflect the sun off of the building and to protect it from weathering.

▪ Rhomboid apertures are fabricated at an angle to create a brise-soleil, blocking sunlight during the hottest days of the year and allowing the sun to penetrate the facade during the winter..

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Sky is the Limit ▪ Shard – Aluminium frame, enabling a ‘fully glazed’ appearance Structural, decorative and glazing uses ▪ Now used in all tall buildings – lightness an advantage - makes skyscrapers possible

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Module 30A Corrosion & Protection of Aluminium

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Corrosion Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal to a more stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or salt.

▪ It is the gradual destruction/dissolution of a metal by a chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with its environment.

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Aluminium and Corrosion Metallic Aluminium is very reactive with atmospheric oxygen, and forms a surface passivation film of Aluminium oxide Al2O3 (alumina).

▪ Alumina gives Aluminium exceptional corrosion resistance ▪ Alumina “Self Heals”, oxidises if damaged Acid

▪ Chemical stable ▪ Will not corrode within PH 4.0 to 8.5 ▪ Will not corrode in mild acid or alkali alfed.org.uk

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Alkali

Aluminium is Corrosion Resistant Eros ▪ Sculptor Alfred Gilbert was commissioned to create a memorial to Anthony Ashley-Cooper, the 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, in 1886 ▪ Erected in 1892 in middle of Trafalgar square

▪ No coating nor protection ▪ Favourite place for pigeons

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Aluminium Oxidation in Air High resistance of Alumina to corrosion begins to form immediately the metal is exposed to air and slowly increases in thickness ▪ Slowly increases resistance to corrosion

▪ Humidity affects the rate of growth and thickness ▪ Prolonged exposure to a moist atmosphere causes slight white to grey corrosion.

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Relative Corrosion Resistance of Aluminium Alloys ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

1xxx series 3xxx series 5xxx series 6xxx series 7xxx series 2xxx series Alloy Type

(pure) (Mn) (Mg) (Si/Mg) (Zn/Mg) (Cu) 1XXX

3XXX

Good Good Good – Very good Moderate - Good Poor - Moderate Poor 5XXX

6XXX

7XXX

2XXX

7XXX

Corrosion Resistance

CHEMICAL CODE

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Al

AL Mn

Al Mg

Al Mg SI Al Zn Mg

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Al Cu Mg Al Zn Mg Si Cu

Atmospheric Corrosion In normal rural atmospheres, and in moderately industrial atmospheres, Aluminium’s durability is excellent.

▪ In highly sulphurous atmospheres, minor pitting may occur.

▪ The presence of salts in the air reduces Aluminium’s durability, so pitting corrosion may occur, ▪ Maximum pit depth is generally only a fraction of the thickness of the material..

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Aluminium Corrosion in Water Aluminium is particularly resistant to rain and dew both are acidic ▪ Alloys are frequently found in sea water with 5XXX performing the best but also used are 1XXX, 3XXX & 6XXX series ▪ Copper 2XXX & 7XXX are less resistant and not suitable to sea water

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Stagnant Water Rain water washes off corrosion agents thus protecting Aluminium ▪ Pigeon poo!!!!

Poor drainage results in standing stagnant water ▪ Stagnant water is free from oxygen ▪ Prevents prevent Alumina film forming ▪ Stagnant water builds up pollutants ▪ Problems with shielded buildings

Design water run off’s

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Crevice Corrosion Crevice corrosion occurs in narrow, liquid-filled crevices, particularly marine atmospheres where oxygen is excluded and electrolytes concentrated ▪ Stagnant Oxygen free Water

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Filiform Corrosion Filiform is a type of crevice corrosion that can occur under organic coatings, paint or powder.

▪ Caused by stagnant water trapped ▪ Starts at edges or coating defect and travels beneath the coating in irregular tunnels, ▪ Cosmetic problem & is rarely associated with substantial metal loss

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Resistance to Chemicals Aluminium has good resistance to many chemicals.

▪ Inorganic acids and strong alkaline solutions are very corrosive for Aluminium.

▪ In moderately alkaline water solutions, corrosion prevented by silicate inhibitors such as found in Dish Washer detergents!

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Bacterial Corrosion Due to the formation of passive oxide film Aluminium is one of the most resistant metals to attack by bacteria ▪ Bacterial colonies can produce corrosive chemicals ▪ Can cause oxygen depletion stagnant water ▪ Production of water soluble organic acids

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•

Galvanic Corrosion Galvanic corrosion is “Electrochemical” process in which one metal corrodes preferentially when it is in contact with a different metal, when both are in an “Electrolyte” ▪

Metals act as battery and preferential corrosion is accelerated

▪

Least noble metal in the combination becomes the anode and corrodes whilst most noble of the metals becomes the cathode and is protected against corrosion.

▪

Aluminium is the least noble or anodic metal in most combinations with other metals, so is at a greater risk of galvanic corrosion.

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More Noble Cathode +Ve – Platinum – Gold – Carbon – Silver – Stainless steel (passive) – Nickel alloys (passive) – Copper alloys – Tin – Lead – Titanium – Cast iron – Steel – Cadmium – Aluminium – Zinc – Magnesium Less Noble Anode –Ve

Soot Galvanic Corrosion Soot is strongly cathodic with so will cause galvanic corrosion of anodic Aluminum ▪

Main threat is carbon or soot from diesel engines

▪

Soot also acts as a sponge for bacteria

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Corrosion Protection

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Corrosion Protection Methods of protecting Aluminium: ▪ Barrier Coating, seal the surface against attack ▪ Modify surface to resist attack – Aluminium Oxide – Alumina ▪ Galvanic protection – Make Aluminium more Noble – Insulate against stray electrical currents ▪ Modify the environment – Add an inhibitor alfed.org.uk

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Barrier Coatings Barrier coatings prevent corrosion, by physically separating the environment from the Aluminium ▪ Paints ▪ Lacquers

▪ Anodising ▪ Powder coat

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Cladding with Pure Aluminium Roll cladding produces a three layer sandwich with a core of a poor corrosion resistant alloy such as 2XXX series or 7xxx series, protected by thin outer skins of corrosion resistant pure Aluminium 1XXX series

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Modify Corrosion Environment Eliminate attacking species or interrupt the chemical process Add inhibitors to aqueous electrolytes ▪ Inhibitors in dish washing

▪ Car cooling system anti-freeze ▪ Machining coolants ▪ Prevent stagnation of water

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Modify Corrosion Environment Dry atmosphere, remove aqueous electrolytes ▪ Humidity is controlled in clean rooms, in airplanes Correct Acidity/Alkalinity/PH ▪ Agriculture modify growing environment on global scale

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Sacrificial Protection Make Aluminium more noble by use of Magnesium sacrificial anodes ▪ Deliberate connect Aluminium to sacrificial Anode of Magnesium ▪ Extensively used in marine industry Electroplate with Zinc, (normally over pure Aluminium)

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Electrical Protection Pass an electrical current through Aluminium to stop Galvanic action ▪ Negative Earth in cars

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Electrical Insulation Where Aluminium is used in combination with another metal galvanic corrosion can be prevented by electrically insulating them from each other.

▪ The insulation has to break all contact between the metals.

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Coatings

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Reasons to Coat Aluminium Reasons for coating include; ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Aesthetic Appearance Colouring Reflectivity, polishing, brightening PH outside range, resulting in corrosion risk Severe environment Improved engineering surfaces Heat transfer, black for absorbing, white for reflectivity Adhesive bonding, "flash” anodizing Screen printing

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Wet Coil Painting Continuous wet coil coating is the most common process for rolled Aluminium products.

▪ Coil is unwound at a constant speed, passing through pre-treatment, coating baths and curing furnaces before being recoiled.

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Electropaint E-Coating is the dominant Automotive Electropaint method.

▪ Water based paint ▪ Uses electrical current to “Condense” the paint onto part ▪ Oven Baked after electrodeposition to crosslink ▪ Automotive companies give guarantees of 10 years against underbody corrosion

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Anodising

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Anodising Anodising is an electrolytic-chemical process, that converts the Aluminium surface into, Alumina.

▪ Article is made the anode of an electrolytic cell with sulphuric acid as electrolyte ▪ Electric current is passed through cell releasing oxygen on the surface of the article oxidising it into Alumina

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Colouring Anodised Surface Anodised coating is porous

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Colouring Anodised Surface Anodised coating is porous so can be in-coloured ▪

Dye colouring, freshly anodised part is immersed in a liquid solution of dye, absorbing dye

▪

Electrolytic Colouring, after anodising, the metal is immersed in a bath containing a metal salt. Current is applied which deposits the metal salt into pores.

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Sealing anodised Coat To prevent ingress of contaminants or leaching out of colours, porous Anodic coatings are sealed by immersion in water at 98°C ▪ Converts the anodised layer into “Boehmite” actually Aluminium Oxide Hydroxide

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Recommended Anodised Film Thicknesses ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

100µm Special extreme applications 25µm Severe abrasion and corrosion 20µm Normal outdoor buildings or transport or for food uses 15µm Severe indoor abrasion in a clean environment 10µm Normal indoor applications 5µm Indoor cosmetic

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Advantages of Anodising ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

No risk of Filiform corrosion Highly durable Self Healing Ceramic Proven Architectural service lives in excess of 50 years Won’t chip, flake, peel or chalk Maintains metallic appearance of Aluminium Environmentally friendly, No VOC’s No heavy metals Inexpensive to produce and maintain

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Architectural Anodising Architectural finish used in permanent, exterior and static situations were both appearance and long life are important.

Cambridge University Library: 1934 - anodised Aluminium windows manufactured by James Gibbons alfed.org.uk

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East Street Exchange Red corrugated Aluminium extension named East Street Exchange, has been added to a 1960s library in southeast giving it "a new lease of life".

▪ Created by “We Made It” architects as part of renovation of the East Street Library in Walworth, the striking red structure is designed to contrast with the existing building ▪ Striking red facade of East Street Exchange is anodised

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Built environment ▪ Aluminium façade; Anodised discs on Selfridges building

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Powder Coating

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Powder Coating Powders are organic thermoset coatings that are applied electrostatically as free flowing dry powders and then cured under heat to flow and form hard ▪ Thermoset Powders once cured cross link to form strong molecular chains so do not melt on reheating

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Pre-treatment Critical to the powder coating process is pretreatment which creates an air and watertight ‘seal’ to the Aluminium.

▪ Minimum pre-treatment should include degreasing, acid, or alkaline etching of the surface, and then passivation.

▪ Passivation can include hexavalent chromate, non- chromate treatments or pre-anodising.

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Application of Powders Powders are electrostatically sprayed onto Aluminium.

▪ Powder is electrostatically charged, whilst the work piece and supporting rack are electrically grounded ▪ Charged powder is electrostatically are attracted to grounded work piece, ensuring an even coating.

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Powder Coating Bake Cure The electro-deposited powder is then polymerised, ▪ Baked in an oven at between 180 to 210º C ▪ Melts and flows into a smooth continuous pore-free coating ▪ Forms chemical cross links ▪ Profiles exit the oven and are allowed to cool naturally.

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Powder Coating Advantages ▪ Coating layer adhered to the metal ▪ Wide range of colours ▪ Different textures available ▪ Wide range of different glosses available ▪ Good corrosion resistance ▪ Wear resistance ▪ High chemical resistance ▪ Dirt repelling properties depend on finish chosen ▪ Powder coatings contain no solvents and release little Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) into the atmosphere.

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The Shard Cladding and ceiling tiles ▪ Architect Renzo Piano

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Canaletto Cladding & extrusions ▪ Architect UN Studio

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Lowe House Health Centre, St Helens White rendered building with perforated aluminium panels in various colours offering vertical brise soleil solar shading

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Egypt, GIZA Museum ▪ Architect: Heneghan Peng

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Coating Performances Film thicknesses of the applied coatings and their respective durability under external conditions.

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Questions

Follow us on:

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