CREATIVE SUMMARY FINAL TASK METHODS COURSE
ANA CRISTINA PONTAZA urrutia carne 14471
index
1. Grammar – Translation
2. Direct
3. Audiolingual
4. The Silent Way
5. Dessugestopedia
6. Community Language Learning
7. Total Physical Response
8. Communicative Language
9. Content-based instruction
10. Task-based Language Teaching
11. Learning Strategy Training and Cooperative Learning (pages 181-198 of textbook )
12. The Political Dimensions of Language Teaching and the Participatory Approach
13. Emerging uses of Technology in ELT
1.Grammar translation PRINCIPLES
Objectives To be able to read literature written in the target language To be able to translate from one language to another To develop reading and writing skill According to Prator and Celce-Murcia in Teaching English as a Second Foreign Language(1979:3), the key features of the Grammar Translation Method are as follows: 1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. 2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. 3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given. 4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. 5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early. 6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. 7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue. 8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation. Choosing a method of teaching or learning English as a Second Language (ESL) mainly depends on the goals of the student. We know that Grammar Translation Method is a traditional method. It is used for several years ago until now. TECHNIQUES
1) Translation of a literary passage
Students translate a reading passage from the target language into their native language. The reading passage focuses on several classes: vocabulary and grammatical structures in the passage. The passage may be excerpted from some work from the target language literature, or a teacher may write a passage carefully designed to include particular grammar rules and vocabulary. The translation may be written or spoken or both.
2) Reading comprehension questions
Students answer questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading passage. The questions are sequenced so that the first group of questions asks for information contained within the reading passage.
3) Antonyms/synonyms
Students are given one set of words and are asked to find antonyms in the reading passage. Students could also be asked to find synonyms for a particular set of words. Students might be asked to define a set of words based on their understanding of them as they occur in the reading passage.
4) Cognates
Students are taught to recognize cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns that correspond between the languages. Students are also asked to memorize words that look like cognates but have meanings in the target language that are different from those in the native language.
5) Deductive application of rule Grammar rules are presented with examples. Exceptions to each rule are also noted. Once students understand a rule, they are asked to apply it to some different examples.
6) Fill-in-the-blanks
Students are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blanks with new vocabulary items or with items of a particular grammar type, such as prepositions or verbs with different tenses.
7) Memorization
Students are given lists of target language vocabulary words and their native language equivalents and are asked to memorize them. Students are also required to memorize grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms such as verb conjugations.
8) Use words in sentences
In order to show that students understand the meaning and use of a new vocabulary item, they make up sentences in which they use the new words.
9) Composition
The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. The topic is based upon some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson. Sometimes, instead of creating a composition, students are asked to prepare a prĂŠcis of the reading passage.
From these list descriptions of common/typical technique, now we know what are several advantages will be mentioned in GTM.
THE ADVANTAGES
1) The target language is quickly explained in GTM.Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases from one language into another. Any other method of explaining vocabulary items in the second language is found time consuming.
2) Teacher and students are easy to communicate/It does not need native language. Teacher’s labour is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension questions on the text taught in the mother tongue. Pupils will not have much difficulty in responding to questions on the mother tongue. So, the teacher can easily assess whether the students have learnt what he has taught them.
3) The students easy to understand because of grammatical lessons. ESL students taught successfully under the grammar translation method will have the ability to translate even difficult texts from their native language into English. They possess a thorough knowledge of English grammar, including verb tenses.
DISADVANTAGES
1) No Scope for Effective Communication and Very Tedious for Learners
Direct translation is widely regarded as an inefficient way of becoming fluent in any language. For example, translating a sentence word-for-word from Spanish to English might not result in a sentence with the same meaning because so little attention is paid in class to listening and speaking. Students with years of English lessons through this method are often unable to hold even a basic conversation in English because classes with this method are usually taught in a lecture style, with the teacher mostly speaking the students’ native language rather than English, class can be dull and cause students to lose interest.
2) Ineffective Method
It is a teaching method which studies a foreign language in order to read its literature focusing on the analysis of its grammar rules, and to translate sentences and texts into and out the target language. In the Grammar Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Thus, the learning process is reversed.
3) More Importance on Grammar Rules than on Meaning
Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one language to another is not always possible. A language is the result of various customs, traditions, and modes of behavior of a speech community and these traditions differ from community to community. There are several lexical items in one language, which have no synonyms/equivalents in another language.
4) Slow Learning Rate and Making Learners Think in L1
It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. But the Grammar Translation Method does not provide any such practice to the learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach language through rules and not by use. Researchers in linguistics have proved that to speak any language, whether native or foreign entirely by rule is quite impossible. Language learning means acquiring certain skills, which can be learnt through practice and not by just memorizing rules.
TEACHER’S ROLE
Teachers are just guides because grammar Translation deals with the memorization of rules, manipulation of the morphology and syntax of the foreign language. It requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers because test of grammar rules and translation are easy to construct and be objectively scored. The facilitator main function is that of observation rather than corrective intervention in regards to the learners.
STUDENTS’ ROLE
Students are expected to memorize endless lists of grammar rules and vocabulary, and produce almost perfect translations. This method means a tedious experience and often creates frustration for students. Main activities and controls are stated by the students, he or she is the one who provides the course of the learning process and the status of knowledge as well. Collaborative work is of s great importance, a real cooperative behavior from the learner, is required for the lessons.
2.direct method PRINCIPLES
• Classroom instruction was conducted in the target language
• There was an inductive approach to grammar
• Only everyday vocabulary was taught
• Concrete vocabulary was taught through pictures and objects
• Abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas
• New teaching points were introduced orally
• Communication skills were organized around question-answer exchanges btw.
teachers and students • Speech and listening comprehension were taught
• Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized
Critiques of the Direct Method
• Successful in private language schools (small classes, individual attention and intensive study)
• Overemphasized the similarities btw FLL and SLL.
• Required native speakers as teachers
• Its success depended on teacher’s skill and personality more than on the methodology itself.
(1) Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language.
(2) Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
(3) Grammar is taught inductively.
(4) Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, realia, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
(5) Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.
(6) Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
The following principles are seen in the guidelines for teaching oral language and are still followed in contemporary Berlitz schools:
• Never translate: demonstrate
• Never speak with single words: use Never jump around: follow your plan
sentences
• • Never explain: act
• Never speak too loudly: speak naturally
• Never go too fast: keep the pace of • Never speak too much: make students the student
speak much
Never make a speech: ask questions
• • Never be impatient: take it easy
• Never speak too slowly: speak normally
• Never use the book: use your lesson plan • Never imitate mistakes: correct
• Never speak too quickly: speak naturally
TYPICAL TECHNIQUES
• Reading aloud: students take turns reading sections of a passage, play, or whatever teaching materials. The teacher uses gestures, pictures, realia, examples, or other means to make the meaning of the section clear.
• Question and answer exercise: students ask and answer questions in full sentences
• Self-correction: To make students self-corrected by asking them to make a choice between what they said and an alternative answer he supplied; or the teacher may repeat a student said, using a questioning tone or to repeat what the students said and stop before the error to signal that something is wrong with students’ answers.
• Conversation exercise: for communication purpose, teaching contains conversational activities: starting with questions in the target language which contained a certain grammar structure, then let students ask questions with each other with the same sentence patterns. Finally, let student have free talk.
• Fill-in-blank exercise
• Dictation: a normal speed – phrase by phrase, normal speed again.
• Map drawing: A map with unnamed geographical features. The teacher gives directions and students label the map. Then change the roles.
• Paragraph writing: to write a paragraph in their own words.
ADVANTAGES
- It follows the natural order in which a
- Learners learn the language, not about
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- Learners have an active role.
- Lively classroom procedures motivate
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child learns L1, that is, listening, speaking, reading, writing.
It lays great emphasis on speaking, the most important skill for many learners.
S t u d e nt s le ar n t h e co r re ct pronunciation and better oral skills because no native language is used and communication is main activity in the class.
It avoids the unnatural block of translation in the co m munication process.
DISADVANTAGES (AS OBSERVED BY ITS CRITICS)
- Learning L2 is not like learning L1. The
child learning L1 has no previous language-learning experience, but the learner learning L2 does.
There is little systematic structural practice.
Learners run the risk of inducing incorrect rules.
The method can be effectively used only by teachers who are native speakers.
the language.
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the learner.
The learning is contextualized.
The emphasis on speech makes it attractive for those who need real communication in L2.
The teaching of vocabulary through realia brings authenticity into the classroom.
- The lear n e r is co nfro nte d w ith -
unstructured situations too soon.
A great deal of teacher-energy is required.
Students may be afraid of asking Qs.
It’s hard to practice the methods in a class with more than 20 students. It needs a great amount of teachers
It’s hard to explain abstract words.
It takes much time for teacher to explain the words that might be trivial.
TEACHER'S ROLE
The role of the teacher is to direct class activities, but students and teacher are partners in the learning process, and there is a large amount of Learner-Learner interaction.
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Variations of the method are used in schools today, though more commonly in the private than in the public sector.
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The Direct Method was quite successful in private language schools, such as those of the Berlitz chain, where paying clients had high motivation and the use of nativespeaking teachers was the norm. But despite pressure from proponents "of the method, it was difficult to implement in public secondary school education. It overemphasized and distorted the similarities between naturalistic first language learning and classroom foreign language learning and failed to consider the practical realities of the classroom. In addition, it lacked a rigorous basis in applied linguistics.
4.SILENT WAY METHOD PRINCIPLES OF THE SILENT WAY
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2.
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5. 6.
The silence of the teacher is a tool and an inducement for the students to take the initiative. The method Invites the teachers and students to engage in an intense cognitive wrestling match where communicative use of the target language is both the arena and the reward. Te a c h e r s h o u l d s ta r t w it h something the students already know and build from that to the unknown. Language learners are intelligent a n d b r i n g w it h t h e m t h e experience of already learning a language. Lan guag e is n ot lear n e d by repeating after a model. Students should learn to rely on each other and themselves.
7. 8.
9. 10.
11. 12. 13.
Learning involves transferring what one knows to new contexts. Silence helps to foster autonomy, or the exercise of initiative. The teacher speaks, but only when necessary. Focused on students perceptions, not translation. E r r o r s a r e i m p o r ta n t a n d necessary to learning. Students need to develop their own criteria for correctness, to trust and to be responsible for their production in the target language. Teacher looks for progress, not perfection. Learning takes place in time, students learn at different rates. Students learn they must give the teacher their attention in order not to miss what he says.
OBJECTIVES OF THE SILENT WAY
1.To avoid the vernacular. 2. To create simple linguistic situations under control of the teacher. 3. To pass on the learners the responsibility for the utterance of the descriptions of the objects shown or the action performed. 4. To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and how are they saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words. 5. Generates serious game-like situations. 6. Permits the use of foreign language to introduce components of pitch, timbre and intensity that reduces the impact of one voice and hence reduces imitation and encourages personal productions. 7.Students should be able to use the target language to express their thoughts, perceptions, and feelings.
TECHNIQUES USED BY THE SILENT WAY
1- Sound-color chart: The chart contains blocks of colors, each color representing a sound in T.L. Each sound associate a color. The chart allows students to pro duce soun d combinations in T.L. without doing repetitions. The chart allows students to concentrate on the language not on the teacher. Students try to discover the relationship between sounds and color. 2- Teacher’s silence: The teacher is not a model. He has to be silent to force the students discover by guiding, motivating, prompting. Silence is a tool. It helps to foster autonomy or the exercise of initiative. Teacher encourages group cooperation. 3- Peer-correction: Students should practice the language. Students are encouraged to help another student when he/she has a difficulty. Any help should be in a cooperative manner, not a competitive. Students can learn from one another. They learn from their peers as well as from their teacher. 4- Cuisenaire Rods: These are made of wood and come in ten different length and each length has its own assigned color. The rods are used in a wide variety of situations in the classroom. At the beginning stages they can be used to practice colors and numbers, and later on in introducing more complex grammar st r u ct u r e s. R o d s a r e u s e d to demonstrate grammatical structures such a s pre p o sit io ns, co mparat ive s an d superlatives, determiners, verb tenses,
adverbs. To show words and sentences stress, rising and falling intonation, and word grouping. Lastly, to represent physical objects: clocks, floor plans, maps, people, animals, fruit, tools, etc. which can lead to create stories told by the students. 5- Self-correction gestures: Why? 1. To make the students aware that s\he make an error. 2. To make the students correct the error (it is used both in D.M. and S.W)creative and imaginative. 6- Word chart: It contains functional vocabulary of the target language, and uses the same color scheme as the sound color chart. It can be used for teaching and correction. There are basic words written. The chart will change when the students advised. 7- Fidel Chart: It shows all the possible spellings for each phoneme and is particularly useful for languages which present complex and irregular spelling. Summarizing the spellings of all the d iff e r e nt s o u n d s. D i s co v e r t h e relationships between sounds and letters. This is important for the ones who have different writing system. 8- Str uctu re d (gui de d) fee dback: Students are invited to make observations about the day’s lesson and what they have learned. Hearing thing will help teacher. Direction. Why is it called structured? Because teacher directs it. The students can’t speak whatever they want.
ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN THE SILENT WAY
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Teacher is basically a technician or en g in ee r w ho facilitate s the learning process. Teacher gives the necessary help in order to focus the students ´p e rce pt io ns, st imu late their awareness, and provide them with appropriate exercises to facilitate their language learning. Te a c h e r m u s t r e s p e c t t h e autonomy of the learners in their attempts for interacting with the target language. Teacher will remain silent as his / her presence is limited in providing
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a model of language that students are working on. Teacher's task is to teach by presenting an item once, and using non-verbal clues to get the meaning across to the students. Teacher test the students by shaping them in the most silent way as possible. Teache r ha s to mo n ito r the i nte ract i o n s a m o n g st u d e nt s silently. Teacher uses gestures and charts to elicit and shape stu dents´ responses.
SKILLS DEVELOPED AND STRESSED BY THE SILENT WAY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
To promote students´ independence from the teacher. To develop their own inner criteria for correctness. Teacher gives students only what they really need to learn. Speaking skills and production of the target language. Autonomous: learner will normally choose proper expressions in a given set of circumstances and situations. Responsible: learners are aware they are free to choose among any set of linguistic choices intelligently and carefully.
ROLE OF THE STUDENT IN THE SILENT WAY
1. Students must pay close attention since the teacher will not repeat twice. 2. Students are expected to interact with each other from time to time. They are also expected to suggest alternatives to each other. 3. Student must learn to work cooperatively rather than competitively. ASSETS OF THE SILENT WAY
1. 2. 3.
Self-esteem will increase since learning will be enhanced. Students learn to work and cooperate with others. Students gain practical knowledge and use of the target language.
TECHNIQUES OF THE SILENT WAY THAT COULD BE APPLIED IN SECONDARY ELT SCENARIO:
It can be used to teach basic vocabulary, parts of speech, verb tenses, and to create and tell stories. It probably works better with the low levels of English such as starters, beginners and low intermediates. I think that teachers can try it out with their more advanced students as a pilot project and see and evaluate the results. LIMITATIONS OF THE SILENT WAY
1.
Only basic vocabulary is introduced and the next step follows only after the initial step is acquired. 2. There is no explicit goal providing tools for conversation with more competent speakers. 3. No grammatically sequenced because the teaching is done from “rods” and charts are not related to any approved grammar sequence. 4. Hinders the acquisition of vocabulary. 5. A limit of 6 students in a class would mean that classes are expensive compared to other class sizes. 6. It can only be used in small groups of students. 7. The rigidity of this method could make it meaningless. 8. Reading and writing grammatically is an accomplishment which this method could scarcely satisfy, unless the teacher would break silence more often than now. 9. The excessive exercising and repetition of the lessons may limited the student's access to written word and cause anxiety on them. 10. Restricted to: certain rules, people and situations. 11. Students may find it hard to follow and gain nothing.
5.DESSUGESTOPEDIA PRINCIPLES
Comfortable environment: In desuggestopedia method, the classroom is not the same as common classrooms. In the classroom, the chairs are arranged semicircle and faced the black or white board in order to make the students pay more attention and get more relaxed. In addition, the light in the classroom is dim in order to make the students’ mind more relaxed. The use of music: One of the most uniqueness of this method is the use of Baroque music during the learning process. Baroque music, with its 60 beats per minute and its specific rhythm, created the kind of relaxed states of mind for maximum retention of material. It is believed that Baroque music creates a level of relaxed concentration that facilitates the input and retention of huge quantities of materials. Peripheral Learning: The students learn English not only from direct instruction but also from indirect instruction. It is encouraged through the presence in the learning environment of posters and decoration featuring the target language and various grammatical information. They are changed everyday. By doing this, the students can learn many things indirectly in the classroom or outside classroom. For example, students can produce simple sentence by using the posters or grammatical information on the wall. Free Errors: In the teaching learning process, students who make mistakes are tolerated, for example in pronouncing the word. The emphasis is on the content not the structure. Grammar and vocabularies are presented and given treatment from the teachers, but not dwelt on. Homework is limited: Students reread materials given in the classroom once before they go to sleep at night and once in the morning before they get up. Music, drama and art are integrated in the learning process: They are integrated as often as possible.
Objective
Dessuggestopedia aims to deliver advance conversational proficiency quickly. It apparently bases its leaning claims on student mastery of prodigious lists of vocabulary pairs and indeed, suggests to the students that it is appropriate that they set such goals for themselves. Lozanov states categorically, “the main aims of teaching is not memorization, but the understanding and creative solution of problem�. As learners goals he cited increased access an understanding and creative solution of problem. However, because students and teachers place a high value on vocabulary recall, memorization of vocabulary pairs continues to be seen as an important goal to the dessuggestopedia method.
TEACHER’S ROLES
Teacher should create situations in which learners are most suggestible and then to present linguistic material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention by learners.
1.Sho w absolute co nfidence in the method.
2.Display fastidious conduct in manners and dress.
3.Organize properly, and strictly observe the initial stages of the teaching process —this includes choice and play of music, as well as punctuality.
4.Maintain a solemn attitude towards the session.
5.Give tests and respond tactfully to poor papers (if any).
6.Stress global rather than analytical attitudes towards material.
7.Maintain a modest enthusiasm.
LEARNERS’ ROLES
The learners as well are should have “faith in the system and accept that they are in a childlike situation where they follow the teacher / parent”. The students should not be critical, but simply absorb what is presented to them.
TECHNIQUES
Presentation: Presentation is the basis of conducting in class. The main aim in this stage is to help students relaxed and move into a positive frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and funny.
First Concert: This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. The original form consisted of the use of extended dialogues, often several pages in length, accompanied by vocabulary lists and observations on grammatical points. Typically these dialogues will be read aloud to students to the accompaniment of music.
Second Concert: The students are now guided to relax and listen to some Baroque music. The best choice of music with the text being studied very quietly in the background. During both types of reading, the learners will sit in comfortable seats, armchairs rather than classroom chairs, in a comfortable environment. After the readings of these long dialogues to the accompaniment of music, the teacher will then make use of the dialogues for more conventional language work. The music brings the students into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the material. The students, then, make and practice dialogue after they memorize the content of the materials.
Practice: The use of a range of role-plays, games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate the learning.
ADVANTAGES
- A comprehensible input based on
dessugestion and suggestion principle by using this method, students can l o w e r t h e i r a f f e c t i v e fi lt e r. Dessuggestopedia classes, in addition, are held in ordinary rooms with comfortable chairs, a practice that may also help them relaxed. Teacher can do numerous other things to lower the affective filter.
- Authority concept: Students remember
best and are most influenced by i n fo r m at i o n co m i n g f r o m a n authoritative source, teachers.
- Double-planedness theory: It refers to the learning from two aspects. They
are the conscious aspect and the subconscious one. Students can acquire the aim of teaching instruction from b ot h d i re ct i n st r u ct i o n a n d environment in which the teaching takes place.
- Peripheral learning: Dessuggestopedia
encourages the students to apply language more independently, takes more personal responsibility for their own learning and get more confidence. Peripheral information can also help enco u rag e stu dents to be mo re experimental, and look to sources other than the teacher for language input. 
DISADVANTAGES
- Environment limitation: Most schools in
developing countries have large classes. Each class consists of 30 to 40 students. One of the problems faced in utilizing this method is the number of students in the class. There should be 12 students in the class
- The use of hypnosis: Some people say that desuggestopedia uses a hypnosis,
so it has bad deep effects for human beings.
- I n fa nt i li z at i o n
lear n in g: Dessuggestopedia class is conditioned be child-like situation. There are some students who do not like to be treated like this as they think that they are mature. 
6.Community Language Learning PRINCIPLES OF THE COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING METHOD:
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Focus on making the learning process meaningful on a personal as well as an intellectual level for the student.
Language is for communication, first and foremost.
Teacher must build a relationship with the students from the outset.
Explain each task so that students don't feel threatened in any way.
Interaction among stu dents is desired so Teacher can stand at back of room.
The teacher can translate in chunks to help students.
Time activities and remind students when only a short time remains.
Students are invited to talk about how they feel.
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The atmosphere is accepting of students' offerings.
The L1 can be used to build a bridge from the known to the unknown.
Stu dents lear n to listen; to discriminate the similarities and differences among the language forms.
Cooperation is encouraged, so students can work in pairs and small groups. Retention of language will be best assimilated between novelty and familiarity.
The students again discuss their experiences in the lesson.
Students generate most of the syllabus in the beginning stages.
OBJECTIVES
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The objective of this method is reach near-native mastery of the target language. Specific goals include developing a whole person learning process and a trusting relationship among the members of the class.
TECHNIQUES
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Recording student conversation: This technique records student-generated language and gives the opportunity for community learning to come about. Students take responsibility for their own learning because it lets them choose what and when to say something. The teacher helps students by translating chunks and just recording when the phrases are said in the target language. After the conversation is recorded, it can be played as many times as students want. This will help them memorize and remember certain target language phrases and recall the meaning of everything they said.
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Transcription and translation: Teacher transcribes the students’ recorded conversation. Students have the chance to translate each sentence to their native language. Students can copy the transcript or teacher can give it to them later. The transcript helps with future activities and it increases students security.
SKILLS DEVELOPED AND STRESSED
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Warm relationship between student and teacher.
Students become independent.
Works well with students who struggle with the target language.
Students learn in a more flexible environment.
ROLE OF THE TEACHER
In this method, the teacher acts as a counselor and is seen as the “Knower”The method was designed by a Jesuit Priest named Charles Currant. He was a counsellor and professor of psychology and his approach emphasizes the role of the teacher as counsellor.The method encourages students to interact and develop their language abilities by having meaningful conversations, which are dictated by the students themselves. The support from the teacher can be quite intensive and requires more energy than a typical teacher's role may do. A learner can remain silent until comfortable, then will begin to develop confidence in the language, aided by the teacher. Eventually the student will feel relaxed enough to use the language independently.
ASSETS
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translation provided by the teacher.
created for students who might fear to appear foolish
students are encouraged to express how they feel about the language learning process
students apply the target language independently when they feel comfortable and confident to do so.
LIMITATIONS
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Some students might feel panic over the recording part.
Teacher might neglect the need for student’s guidance because of the need for students to become independent.
Teacher needs to be proficient in both the target language and the students’ mother tongue.
The methods’ success relies largely on teacher’s ability to translate.
7. Total Physical Response Method PRINCIPLES OF THE METHOD
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Listening ability and vocabulary must be developed first. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of it. There must not be any stress in the class. R e g u la r re p et it i o n m u st b e produced. Action verbs are the core of TPR. TPR is also a technique for teaching vocabulary.
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Se co n d lan guag e lear n in g is parallel to first language learning an d should reflect the same naturalistic processes. Children and adults when learning, respo n d physically to spoken language. Adults should use right-brain motor a c t i v it i e s , w h i le t h e le f t hemisphere watches and learns. Delaying speech reduces stress.
OBJECTIVES OF THE METHOD
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Teach oral proficiency at a beginning level.
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Using comprehension as a mean to an end.
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Uses action-based drills in the imperative form.
SKILLS DEVELOPED AND STRESSED BY THE METHOD
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The Reading skill is developed through predicting skills and reading a text. Writing is developed by making a dialogue and picturing a specific story or command In children, listening competence is developed before the ability to speak. Ability in listening comprehension is acquired because the learner is required to respond physically to spoken language in the form of commands. Once a foundation in listening comprehension has been established, speech evolves naturally and effortlessly out of it. Vocabulary is acquired through reality, demonstrations and conversations. Students develop self confidence physically, emotionally, socially, that further will accelerate learning.
ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN THE METHOD
The teacher plays an active and direct role in the method: Decides what to teach: The teacher selects what to teach, models and presents the teaching material and plans the tasks students are going to do. Must be well prepared and organized. The teacher is encouraged to be well prepared and organized so that the lesson flows smoothly and predictable.
Models and gives feedback • The teacher gradually increases the amount of corrections given to the learner as he/she progresses in his/her knowledge of the target language. Provides opportunities for learning. • The teacher gives the opportunity to students to be exposed to the target language so they can internalize the basic rules of the target language. Allows speaking abilities to develop in learners at the learner’s own pace. • Teachers should refrain from too many corrections in the early stages and should not interrupt correcting errors, since this will inhibit learners. As time goes on, however, more teacher intervention is expected, as the learners' speech becomes "fine tuned.". Facilitates transition from one learning stage to another • The teacher progress the learning process at a moderate pace, making it easy to transition from one teaching stage to another. Tolerates for errors • Teachers should have a wide tolerance to error when students start the learning process, but as the training progresses the tolerance for errors should narrow. TECHNIQUES USED BY THE METHOD
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Its primarily technique is to attempt language teaching through physical (motor) activity. At first, to clarify meaning, the teacher performs the actions with the students. Later the teacher directs the students alone. Memorizing the actions is avoided by var yin g the sequence of directions/commands without ever connecting the actions with the language. Develops the listening competence through first listening to specific instructions. Students command their teacher and classmates to perform some actions, students should not be encouraged to speak until they are ready. At lower levels of proficiency, do not involve conversations even
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more if they are not dealing with physical objects and the immediate environment. When setting-up a conversation, make it as real-to-life as humanly possible. Activities used in the method should rely on action based drills in the imperative form. Role plays on everyday situations are prepared for stu dents to practice. Slide presentations are used to pro v i d e a v i s u al ce nte r fo r teacher’s storytelling which is follo we d by co m man ds o r questions. Reading and writing can be also introduced to consolidate grammar and vocabulary and as follow up.
ASSETS OF THE TPR METHOD
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It is a lot of fun. Learners enjoy it, and this method can be a real stirrer in the class. It lifts the pace and the mood. It is very memorable. It does assist students to recognize phrases or words. It is good for kinesthetic learners who are required to be active in the class. It can be used both in large or small classes. In this case, it doesn’t matter the amount of students a class has as long as the teacher is prepared to take the lead. Learners will follow. Works well with mixed-ability classes. Physical actions get across the meaning effectively so that all the learners are able to comprehend and apply the target language. It is very effective with teenagers and young learners. It involves both left and right-brained learning.
LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD
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TPR deals with only the beginning stages of language learning.
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TPR syllabus and the utterance, and the sentences within it are questionable as far as their communicative relevance is concerned.
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It is not a very creative method. Students are not given the opportunity to express their own views and thoughts in a creative way.
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It is easy to overuse TPR. It is limited, since everything cannot be explained with this method. It must be combined with other approaches.
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In total physical response, the lack of reading and writing, become the main disadvantage in this approach. This method limits the student’s creativity as it only required the students to response.
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Not everything can be taught with it; if used a lot, it might become repetitive and monotonous, losing the fun of the initial stage.
8.COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING PRINCIPLES
1.
2. 3. 4.
5.
'Real Life language' in a variety of contexts should be introduced in the classroom whenever possible. The learner should be able to be communicatively competent. There should be a real connection within all the language skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing. In CLT, games, role plays, group work, pair work, etc. have quite an important role as they have the possibility to help the learner, learn language more effectively. Mistakes are completely natural and acceptable as they are an outcome of the development of communication skills.
OBJECTIVES
a. An integrative and content level b. A linguistics and instrumental level c. An effective level of interpersonal relationship and conduct d. A level of individual learning needs f. a general education level of extra- linguistics goals TECHNIQUES:
Games, Authentic material, Scrambled sentences, Pictures strips and Role-plays are some of the techniques which are aids to language learning. They are based on Language arts, mother tongue, Forms of English, spelling tests, translation, dictation, vocabulary, Pronunciation exercises, rules of grammar, etc. • Roles include certain expected • Fantasy and playacting are natural ways of behaving an d u sing a n d a n i m p o r ta n t p a r t o f language. Familiar roles may be childhood. p la ye d w it h litt le co n sc i o u s • Young learners can experiment and attention to style and the other try things out such as hats and hand new and unfamiliar roles wigs, moods and posters, cheaters require practice. and words. • If the world can be thought of as • They allow learners to experiment a stage with actors and actresses with the roles they play or may be who play their parts as best they called upon to play in real life. can, theatre may be seen as an • To interpret, express and negotiate opportunity to experiments with meaning in a new language. roles to try things out.
SKILLS DEVELOPED AND STRESSED
• Teachers must do more than just supply learners with a number of language structures to manipulate. Teaches must master two areas: use and usage. In other words “the skill getting and the skill usage.”
• The development of the skills considers different dimension such as: grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic skills. The best way to describe how these skills are integrated is with the interpretation, expression and negotiation of meaning. The communicative skills needed for participation includes not only grammatical competence, but pragmatic competence.
• Communicative skills characterize the ability of classroom language learners to interact with other speakers. Students develop the strategies to ask for information, seek for clarification, negotiate meaning in social context.
• Learners develop the skills of using different tools as words, intonation, gestures and other non verbal characteristics in order to communicate with others.
ROLE OF THE TEACHER
The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. This role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedures and activities. A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of the nature of learning and organizational capacities. Other roles assumed for teachers are needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager. ASSETS
We can consider as assets of the method the following: contrary to the teachercentered approach, in which teachers are focused on being the knowledge-givers and the students are simply the receivers, CLT reflects a more social relationship between the teacher and learner. This learner-centered approach gives students an enormous sense of “ownership” of their learning process and enhances their motivation to learn English. Since the method emphasizes mainly in the process of communication it gives the learners roles that are totally different from the traditional approach. In the CLT method the student is going from between the self - learning process to the object of learning. The students are actively engaged in trying to make them understood and in understanding others within the classroom procedures and activities.
LIMITATIONS
Many studies have shown that teachers faced various difficulties in the use and application of CLT in their classroom teaching. For example, EFL classrooms are still predominantly based on traditional approaches. The ideas of CLT are different from the educational values and traditions of many EFL settings. Grammar-based examination instruction, large class size, and students’ low proficiency have also influenced CLT practices. Low-English proficiency also deters teachers from using CLT. This review of literature has confirmed a gap between national education policies and practices. The implementation of CLT has encountered problems and resistance in EFL classrooms. Using CLT for teaching, grammar, learning systematic and progressive structures, could be problematic. Some experiments show that the practice used in CLT often uses features an outline of ideas to focus on teaching how to make the students to achieve specific communicative functions, such as: inquiry, instruction, order, refused the request and so on. In this system, the syntax of the systematic and progressive method gives the people the idea of something disorganized.
9. c0ntent Based Instruction WHAT IS IT?
Content Based Instruction is an approach in which we utilize the language to learn the language, that is, the learner will use the English language to learn it rather than learning to use the language to then use it. Young learners learn to read and write about content that relates to what they need in their environment.
CBI is not just considered a language program because it integrates learning the language simultaneously with learning other subjects/content. It is important to note that as kids we learn new vocabulary and new language as we are taught various academic subjects in our native language. CBI recognizes that academic subjects provide natural content for language content and that this can also be applied to learning a second language. The content taught using CBI can vary and may include themes which are related to whatever is popular at the moment, academic subjects such as history and science. It usually helps or rather, makes learning] easier. Considering this we know that CBI teaches the language by using it, we must consider the way in which the approach will he
In order to teach young learners, we must consider two factors:
1. We must determine the literacy level the student possesses in their native language and plan accordingly.
2. Evaluate and investigate on how children learn and based on what is found, develop a program that meet the needs of the group. In order to prepare accordingly the teacher must be aware of the two factors be it with young learners or adults. While teaching the subject, the students will need assistance with language along with content and thus, the teacher must be prepared to use the language effectively so as to facilitate the learning process. Teachers must not only focus and consider approaches on how to teach the material, they must evaluate what they are looking for and evaluate themselves.
CBI IN A NUTSHELL
• Teacher Goals
To make students master both language and content simultaneously.
• Role of a teacher
To set clear learning objectives for content and language.
• Role of the student
To engage actively with both content and language.
• Characteristics of the teaching/learning process
To make the meaning clear through visuals, realia, repeating and giving examples, building on students’ previous experiences.
• Nature of teacher-student interaction: Teacher will guide student learning by scaffolding their language development.
• Nature of student-student interaction: Student work as a team to understand content while actively using the language they are studying.
• • • • • •
Feelings dealt with Language viewed Culture viewed Emphasized areas of language Emphasized language skills Role of students´ native language
Students are interested and motivated.
Meaningful and medium through which content is conveyed.
Present in the content area being studied.
Vocabulary and grammar structures.
All four skills are integrated in authentic contexts.
No overt role for students ‘native language.
• Evaluation accomplished: Students are evaluated on their knowledge of content and language skills.Teachers response to students’ errors. Students to self-correct
HOW IS A CLASS CONDUCTED?
The class should be seated in a comfortable environment in which all students are included and all students will be able to participate in the lesson. The teacher should be aware that not all students will not be able to participate right away.
Students will be exposed to the language beginning with questions that will illicit responses based on information or knowledge already familiar and comfortable to the students, and slowly and in an age appropriate way the students will be exposed to new language. The teacher will begin to teach the previously prepared material carefully. He will need to have prepared audiovisual material, realia, flashcards and/or other visual material in order to facilitate the learning of new vocabulary.
Students should be asked to complete a task which will require them to use the target language and the new vocabulary being learned. The activity should have the appropriate level of difficulty and must challenge the student but not discourage them. The task may be written, may be a listening activity, a video or the like. Once this activity is checked, the teacher will move to test the students verbally by asking students questions or engaging them in conversation, this way the teacher will be made aware of information that was not left clear, and of language and topics learned correctly. A closing activity must be completed in order to ensure the lesson was learned. Content-based Instruction is base on a psychological theory (cognitive learning theory) .
10.Task-based Learning Teaching PRINCIPLES
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It needs to have an approach to content selection.
It is based on the use of tasks.
It is focused on the learning process instead of the final production.
Errors are part of the learning process.
It is focused on the communication, understanding, and interaction with others using a target language.
It involves the use of materials, such as resource books, notes, technology, and so; in the learning process.
It involves learners to produce, comprehend, manipulate, and interact focusing themselves through a communicative meaning.
OBJECTIVES
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Students are free of language control using all the language resources they have.
To build and create a natural context by using personal experiences.
To create a varied exposure to the language.
To explore the language raised from the students’ needs.
To focus on communication.
To manage an enjoyable environment so students can learn properly.
To integrate the four skills: Speaking, Reading, Writing and Listening.
TECHNIQUES
I n fo r m at i o n - g a p Ta s k : I n v o lve s t h e exchange of information among participants in order to complete a task. This can me also used by having one student describing a path or picture while the other one is drawing it.
Opinion-gap Task: Requires that the students express their personal preferences, feelings or attitudes in order to complete the task. For instance, students might be given a social problem, such as a high unemployment, and be asked to come up with a series of possible solutions, or they might be asked to compose a letter of advice to a friend who sought their counsel about a dilemma. Involves identifying and articulating a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in response to a given situation.
Reasoning-gap Task: Requires that students derive some new information by inferring it from information they have already been given. For example, this could be done in
tasks such as solving a riddle or a problem, by asking, completing surveys and so.
Information-gap activity, which involves a transfer of given information from one person to another – or from one form to another, or from one place to another – generally calling for the decoding or encoding of information from or into language.
Listing: Students can do a brainstorming, fact finding in order to complete the task based on what it’s been taught.
Unfocused Tasks: These are tasks designed to provide learners with opportunities for communicating generally.
Focused Tasks: Tasks designed to provide opportunities for communicating using some specific linguistic item, typically a grammar structure.
Input-providing Tasks: Engage learners with the receptive skills of listening and reading.
Output-prompting Tasks: Stimulate the students to write or speak meaningfully.
SKILLS DEVELOPED AND STRESSED
The purpose of the method, as it is mentioned before is to perform orally, which means
that the goal is to be fluent and accurate in the speaking skill, as well in listening.
Dave and Jane Willis (2007), in their book Doing Task-based Teaching, listed seven
kinds of task that can be used in an EFL class to enhance student writing skills (which
are mentioned in Techniques):
• Listing: Brainstorming and/or fact finding (qualities, priorities, things, features, things to do, reasons)
• Ordering and Sorting: Sequencing, ranking, classifying (sequencing story pictures, ranking items according to cost, popularity, negative or positive.
• Matching: Listening and writing, listening and doing, matching phrases/description to pictures, matching directions to maps.
• Comparing: Finding similarities or differences (comparing ways of greetings or local customs, contrasting two countries)
• Problem-Solving: Real-life situations, case studies, incomplete texts (logic problems, giving advice, proposing and evaluating solutions, predicting a story ending)
• Projects and Creative Tasks: Doing and reporting a survey, producing a class newspaper, planning a radio show, designing a brochure, etc.
• Sharing Personal Experiences: Storytelling, anecdotes, memories, opinions, reactions (early schooldays, unforgettable moments, terrible journeys, etc.) ROLE OF THE TEACHER
The teacher’s role is to choose tasks, based on an analysis of students’ needs, that
are appropriate to the level of the students and create a pre-task and tasks to follow
up phases that are in line with the abilities and needs of the students. The teacher
also monitors the student's work and intervenes if necessary. ASSETS OF THE TASK-BASED LEARNING TEACHING METHOD:
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Students tend to be active and participate with great motivation towards tasks and activities in a TBL environment.
It offers a platform for students to display their skills through their efforts and develops them further.
Language learners work and cooperate with each other in groups which builds bonds between them. When working in groups they are able to display an d pro duce meaningful interaction on a given topic.
Rather than concentrating on one aspect of a certain language
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feature, in all three stages of a TBL le sso n stu dents rely o n previous language, knowledge and experience.
It helps stu dent to interact spontaneously.
Automaticity for language learning is defined as a more efficient, more a c c u r a t e a n d m o r e s ta b l e performance.
It provides conditions that allow learners to assimilate what they n otice an d u n de r stan d w h ile performing the task.
LIMITATIONS OF THE TASK-BASED LEARNING TEACHING METHOD:
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It implies that it could be argued that TBL emphasizes too much on tasks and communicating meaning and this could have an impact on how to use the language with the correct form. In addition to this it is important to realize that there is a lot more to communication than performing tasks.
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TBL could have some dangers if it is not executed correctly and could result in affecting the growth and change of the language learners' interlanguage. So from this view we can see that some sort of fossilization may occur within the students and cause barriers for the learners to progress.
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It is frequently promoted as an effective teaching approach, superior to traditional methods and soundly based in theory and research. The approach is often justified by the claim that linguistic regularities are acquired through noticing during communicative activity, and therefore be addressed primarily by incidental focus on form during task performance. However, this claim is based on unproved hypotheses, and there is no compelling empirical evidence for the validity of the model.
11. Learning Strategy Training and Cooperative Learning  LEARNING STRATEGY TRAINING
Learning strategy is the specific actions to make the students better in learning a second language.It suggests that teachers should elicit the problems of the students and try to develop a solution for them. Learning Strategy Training is based on problems students encounter in the process of learning target language. These problems are needed to be solved for an effective learning. First ,students are given the strategy and than they are expected to apply it. Learning Strategy Training focuses on learner training as much as language teaching. Students should be responsible for their own learning. They should follow their learning process and be aware of their deficient and efficient sides. They should also monitor theirselves and identify what they need. The teacher helps them to facilitate their learning and to be more effective in learning the target language. After the students get some learning strategies, they have a cognition about them. But they also have a metacognition which means that the students should be aware of the use of the strategies. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Cooperation means that common working together with the others. While studying cooperatively, every member of the certain groups takes responsibility for the existing task. But it is mostly a problem to keep the group members together and ensure that everyone carries out his/her responsibility. So the teacher need training his students to make them participate in a group working actively. In learning target language, group working is an inevitable way of effective learning. So cooperative learning assures that the students should learn how to operate in groups. There should be a way from interdependence to independence.
This means that the students should learn how to act in a group according to the group members. They should be associated with each other and make an effort on the task.By working in groups, they will become conscious about their responsibilities and then they can implement any other tasks individually. First they will be dependent on each other and after they obtain the necessary skills they can act independently because each one of them will be able to achieve his/her responsibility without delay.
The students also develop their ability to make their group more effective. Individual testing implies that each student is responsible for own development. At the end of the test, it is teacher’s duty to inform the students how they are done well and how much a group have achieved. There is a combination of teaching language and teaching other learning skills. Students should be given on social skills like in learner strategy training.
12. The Political Dimensions of Language Teaching and the Participatory Approach 1.
Why is ELT considered a political act? How does it relate to the Critical Approaches to Pedagogy?
Because students sometimes resist critical pedagogy. Student resistance to critical pedagogy can be attributed to a variety of reasons. Student objections may be due to ideological reasons, religious or moral convictions, fear of criticism, or discomfort with controversial issues. However, resistance in this context thus occurs when students are asked to shift not only their perspectives, but also their subjectivities as they accept or reject assumptions that contribute to the pedagogical arguments being constructed. Resistance to new information or ideologies, introduced in the classroom, is a natural response to persuasive messages that are unfamiliar.
2. How can English learning encourage social mobility? How does that relate with Critical Discourse Analysis?
Social mobility remains the holy grail of public policy. Few would disagree that a person's place in society should be based on how hard a person works, their skills and talents, not the school they attend or the wealth and contacts of their family. Education should be the solution to unequal opportunity, but in Guatemala the evidence is that the gap between rich and poor widens as young people progress through their education. Children from more disadvantaged backgrounds lag behind their richer peers from the moment they begin nursery school and are less than half as likely to go to university than other students. Students that are leaning English have more opportunity to develop their opinions by using the target language and to be able to express themselves culturally with others. Education is a central issue for social mobility, as it is the education system which is supposed to prepare young people with the knowledge and skills they need to secure successful futures as workers and citizens, and to delineate merit via the award of education credentials. For these reasons, education is often seen as a driver of social mobility.
3. What is a Lingua Franca? In what ways is it tangible in our Guatemalan context
Lingua Franca is a language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different. In Guatemala, students who are learning English from native speakers are going to adopted the language better because students are going to be more expose to a bilingual environment.
4.
Which “English” should be taught? Why?
A common and long-held belief among many in the English teaching profession is that the best people to teach spoken English are ‘native’ speakers of the language, especially the teaching of pronunciation. But we know from research that linguistic variation is a characteristic of all languages, and all varieties have their own rules and systems. Often these leak from one variety to another. Once we accept that English comes in many varieties, such concerns become redundant. Successful communication is more a question of understanding, and being able to engage successfully, in the contexts of use rather than whether one is a “native”or “non-native” speaker.
5. Are native speakers better English teachers? Why?
Native and Non- Native speakers have advantages and disadvantages. One major problem is that native speakers often are hired as teachers simply because they are native speakers and not because of their teaching competences. This can result in having a teacher with good language skills, but little or no teaching skills. However, language knowledge is not enough to be a successful teacher, as a teacher also has to know teaching methods and strategies and has to understand his or her students, their problems and their cultural backgrounds. Native speakers might also have problems to understand their students’ mistakes and problems with the language or the learning process, as they often are not able to speak or understand their students’ first language. Also, the learning process of the language is unknown to the native teacher, as he or she has acquired the language as first language and not learned it in a school or other learning setting as his or her students do.
6. What is the hidden curriculum? Exemplify. How can it impact ELT? A hidden curriculum can be defined as the lessons that are taught informally, a n d usually unintentionally, in a school system. These include behaviors, perspectives, and attitudes that students pick up while they're at school. This is contrasted with the formal curriculum, such as the courses and activities students participate in.
The hidden curriculum begins early in a child's education. Students learn to form opinions and ideas about their environment and their classmates. For example, ch ildren learn 'appropriate' ways to act at school, meaning what's going to make them po pular with teachers and students. They also learn what is expected of them; for example, many students pick up on the fact that year-end test scores are what really matter. These attitudes and ideas aren't taught in any formal way, but kids absorb and internalize them through natural observation and participation in classroom and social activities.
Areas of hidden curriculum in our schools that mold perspectives of students d e a l with issues such as gender, morals, social class, stereotypes, cultural expectations, politics, and language. Gender roles, for example, become very apparent in early grades when socializing becomes divided into boys and girls.
Hidden curriculum is often found within the formal curriculum of a school; this may be partially in what is not taught. For example, if an English class only assigns reading material with Caucasian main characters or with stories set in the United States, this may teach students, including English learners, that our school systems don't appreciate other cultures and languages. The influence of this can lead to a negative self-image or a hatred for reading.
13.Emerging uses of Technology in ELT There are two main ways to think about technology for language learning; as providing teaching resources, as providing enhanced learning experiences. As providing teaching resources, for years technology may have only been chalk and blackboard. Later audio and video recording and playback equipment were added. Now, we have www ( world wide web), a way of accessing information over the internet. This means, computers are online dictionaries, grammar and style checkers for us. As providing enhanced learning experiences .Technology is no longer simply contributing machinery or more resources available that teacher can use, It also provides learners with greater access to the target language. As a result, it has the potential to change where and when learning takes place. It can even shape how we view the nature of what is that we teach.
Technology makes possible greater individualization, social interaction, and reflection on language. At the same time as technology enhances language learning experiences, it also contributes to reshaping our understanding of the nature of language; Language is not a fixed system. Instead, it is always changing and being changed by those who used. Technology should be integrated into the curriculum and not just added in because it is new.
SOME PRINCIPLES:
- Students are autonomous in what they shared about themselves.
- Students work on authentic language, which comes from interactions with others -
through online or virtual communities.
Language is learned by using it.
Students can learn from each others.
Teachers use archives of online student work to evaluate and to guide them.
THE ROLE OF TEACHER
The teacher’s role is to plan activities that students accomplish via technological means.
Then the teacher monitors their work and guides the students as they learn the language.
THE ROLE OF STUDENT
- The students’ role is to be actively
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involved in using the language, in taking risks with the language by connecting with others.
Students also can help others.
EMPHASIZED SKILLS
Computer use naturally requires the skill of reading and writing, although speaking and listening may also be worked on depending on the types of technology used.
TECHNIQUES
Blogs It can be thought of as online diaries or journals. Since blogs are written by people remarking on their travels, daily life, current events, they are rich source of authentic material for reading, discussion, and study.
In conclusion If technology is to be a positive force in education, it should not be cast as an alternative to classroom teaching, or as replacing the teacher, but as a tool that facilitates meaningful and challenging classroom work.