Re-Imagining Public Lighting in Miami

“WHAT “WHAT DO DO WE WE LOSE LOSE WHEN WHEN WE WE ARE ARE SO SO AFRAID AFRAID OF OF DARKNESS DARKNESS THAT THAT WE WE NEVER NEVER EXPERIENCE EXPERIENCE ITS ITS BEAUTY BEAUTY OR OR UNDERSTAND UNDERSTAND ITS ITS VALUE VALUE FOR FOR OUR OUR WORLD, WH ILE WORLD, WHILE ALLOWING ALLOWING OUR OUR LIGHTS LIGHTS TO TO GROW GROW EVER EVER BRIGHTER?” BRIGHTER?” -- PAUL BOGA RD PAUL BOGARD BOGARD

R E - I M A GI N I N G PUB L I C L I GHT I NG IN MIAMI ANA LUI ZA L EITE GR ADUATE THES I S BOOK S PR I NG 2016

AN A LUI ZA LEI TE G R A D UA TE TH E S IS B O O K UNI V ERSI TY O F M IA M I S O A ARC 61 0 S P R IN G 2 0 1 6 PRIMA RY THESIS AD IV SOR : A LL AN SHUL MAN PRE- T HESIS AD IV SOR S: KA T HERINE W HEEL ER ERIC FIRL EY A DDIT IONAL AD IV SOR S: J OSE M ARIA CHURTICHAGA ERIC FIRL EY ADIB CURE E LI Z A BETH PL ATER- ZYB ERG J OHN ONYANGO

9 ___ Abstract Part I: The Problem 13 ___ 1 History of Public Lighting 23 ___ 2 Light Pollution 47 ___ 3 Site Analysis Part II: The Method 65 ___ 1 Public Light Management & Design 71 ___ 2 Berlin Case Study 77 ___ 3 Helsinki Case Study 85 ___ 87 ___ 97 ___ 103 __ 109 __ 115 __ 121 __ 127 __

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Part III: The Design Liquid City Lighting Concept Clear Lighting Fluid Lighting Solvent Lighting Buoyant Lighting Turbulent Lighting Succulent Lighting Intoxicating Lighting

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I H E A R T H A T IT IS B UT AN IMPERFECT COPY T H A T I P O SSE SS AND HAVE READ. THAT MY A NC E ST O R S H AVE TORN OUT MANY OF THE FI R ST LE A VE S A ND GRANDEST PASSAGES, AND MU T ILA T E D IT IN MANY PLACES. I SHOULD N O T LIKE T O T H IN K THAT SOME DEMIGOD HA D C O M E BE FO R E M E AND PICKED OUT SOME OF T H E BE ST ST A R S. I WISH TO KNOW THE ENTIRE H E AV E N AN D THE ENTIRE EARTH.” 1 He n r y D av id T h oreau, J ournal Ent ry (18 56 )

9 ___ ABSTRACT

The universe that opens up with every rotation of the Earth is one that has captivated mankind from the very dawn of existence. Today, sadly, it’s a birthright on the verge of extinction. It is estimated that 80 percent of children born in America will never behold a sky dark enough to see the Milky Way. Light pollution, however, is an issue that is well within our power to correct.

The goal of this thesis is two-fold: to propose a thoughtprovoking lighting concept for Miami-Dade County and at the same time challenge the existing routines, tacit procedures, and habitual perceptions on the value and quality of lighting in the first place. By studying the sources, effects, and cost of light pollution and analyzing successful municipal lighting design and public policy it is possible to understand how a modern city like Miami, with no current light pollution strategy, can be retrofitted without losing its distinct nocturnal personality.

Implications of this loss of night go far beyond the economic, ecological, and health concerns that many professionals now study with increasing fervor, they represent an unprecedented cognitive shift of a species that is losing its oldest source of inquiry and inspiration. “We are at a delicate time now,” writes astronomer and artist Tyler Nordgren, “where we still have some people that know what they’re missing.”

P ART I T H E P RO BLE M HISTORY OF PUBLIC LIGHTING, LIGHT POLLUTION, & SITE ANALYSIS

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WE A R E A L M O S T C ER T A I N T H A T FI R E I S PRECIS E L Y THE F IR ST O B J EC T , T H E FI R S T P HE N O M E N O N , O N W H I C H T H E H UM A N M IN D REFLECTED . ” 2 G as t o n Bac helard The Psychoanalysis of Fire (1 96 4)

13 ___ THE PROBLEM - HISTORY OF LIGHT

HI S TO RY O F P UBLI C LI GHT I N G A World of Darkness According to archaeologists the controlled use of fire originates with our Homo erectus ancestors anywhere from 300 thousand to 1.6 million years ago.3 Whether from torches, hearths, or later lamps, the flickering amber flames of fire would be mankind’s only source of light for the next 1.598 million years. Night-time as we now know it—filled with culture, activity, and commerce—is a remarkably new phenomenon. Before the last 200 years, when artificial lighting technology burst into our lives in what amounts to an instant, the pace of lighting advancements was positively glacial.

Evidence of the first lamps appear around 70,000 BCE. These Paleolithic lamps would have been made from empty shells and rocks filled with fat-soaked moss or leaves and ignited. It was with the aid of these weak flames, less bright than modern candles but safer and cleaner than firewood, that early humans would paint their masterful interpretations of everyday life in the caves of Lascaux France.4 And so life went on, silent and dark for half of history. Oil lamps debuted around 4500 BCE followed by tallow candles a century and a half later.5 Slowly, improvements were made to the original designs: porcelain and terracotta formed more deliberate cups, proper wicks were laid horizontally on dedicated channels to help the absorption of oil, and enclosed oil reservoirs ensured greater safety for Greek and Roman lamps.6

Even with these few advancements, until the 19th century, artificial light was still an unpleasant chore. Women in the American colonies would spend long hours dipping candles. It was back breaking work, and once lit these tallow candles were fickle, uneven, and short-lived.7 Oil lamps were no better, needing frequent cleaning and maintenance to work properly and giving off foul smells from the burning animal fat.8 But light was, as it still is today for those without it, a precious luxury, and as people discovered and colonized new corners of the earth, they were constantly thinking up creative ways to produce and maintain firelight. While there are still people in the world without access to safe and effective artificial light, there are, for the first time in human history, many more without access to true darkness; that same darkness that put us to sleep for over a million years.

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B U O YA N T, F R IV O L O US , EX P A N S I VE, UN CO N TA IN A B L E HU M A N I T Y : L I GH T S EEM ED NOT ON L Y TO L E N G TH EN T H E H O UR S O F T H E DA Y, BUT A L S O TO HAVE C R EA T ED L I FE O UT OF A BSE N C E . . . ’N IG HT ’ ― T H A T O N E O L D T A UT SYLLA BL E O N C E U TT ER ED W I T H FEA R A N D A PP RE HE N S IO N ― N O L O N GER S UFFI C ED . I N THE MIDD L E O F THE 1 9 T H C EN T UR Y , A N EW WOR D W A S M IN T ED : ‘ N I G H T L I FE‘ . ” 10 J an e B r o x Brilliant (2 01 0)

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Cities of Light At the turn of the nineteenth century things finally began to speed up in the tale of artificial lighting. Though street lamps were first used in Cordoba, Al-Andalus during the Moorish occupation of Spain around 1000 CE and sill lamps and street lamps were required by law in several large European cities in the late 1600s and 1700s, lights were still barely a dint in the vast darkness of the night.9 The true awakening of cities was led by the invention of gas lighting. In 1801 French engineer Philippe Lebon gave the first public demonstration of a functional gaslight called a thermolampe. The first practical application of gaslights would come four years later when William Murdoch, chief engineer at Boulton and Watt—one of the most important firms in England—installed a much larger scale coal gas system at the Phillips & Lee cotton mill in Manchester.11

With proof of concept in many factories and ramped up coal production brought on by the industrial revolution, gaslight spread quickly throughout London. By the 1820s around 50 gasometers and several hundred miles of underground gas mains supplied more than 40 thousand public gas lamps for the streets of the capital.12 By

Lighting Through the Ages: “Eclairage” by Maurice Dessertenne in Nouveau Larousse Illustré, tôme quatrième E-G 1. Prehistory; 2-3. Egyptian; 4-5. Assyrian; 6-13. Roman; 14-15. Carthaginian; 16-17. Merovingian period; 19-20. 11th century; 21. 12th century; 22. 13th century; 23-24.

14th century; 25-26-27. 15th century; 28. 16th century; 29. 17th century; 30-31. 18th century; 32. Argand lamp; 33-34. Antoine Quinquet’s Argand lamp; 35. Stephenson Mine lamp; 36. Street light; 37. Davy lamp; 38. Air-fed wick lamp; 39. Railway lamp; 40. Carcel lamp; 41. Gasifier; 42. Auer Gas lamp with mantle; 43. Gas street lighting (regular burner); 44. Gas street lighting (high intensity burner); 45. Auer petrol lamp; 46. Air-fed petrol lamp; 47. Incandescent lamp; 48. Electric lighthouse; 49. Electric mine lamp, 50. Incandescent street light; 51. Arc light; 52. Acetylene burner; 53. Acetylene lamp (bycicle); 54. Acetylene lamp; 55. Japanese street light; 56. Japanese rickshaw light; 57. Japanese funeral lantern; 58. Japanese portable lantern.

this time in fact, no city in the United Kingdom with over 10 thousand inhabitants was without a gas company and by the end of the decade Paris too would have would have over 10 thousand gas burners. Across the Atlantic, Baltimore was the first city to adopt the new technology, installing the first gas street light in 1817, followed by New York in 1825 and Philadelphia in the 1830s. Under this new kind of flame, society would be forever transformed.13

Gaslight meant that lighting was no longer self-contained and privately managed; it was now a part of much larger urban infrastructure. When people switched to gaslight they surrendered to the outside interests of what would become some of the most powerful companies of the industrial revolution. Consumption was measured by a meter and gas was consumed as it was delivered, not unlike the system we still use today.14 Under these new lamps, true darkness began to waver for the first time, with stars fading behind a faint urban glow. Replacing them was a whole new way of life.

By mid-century cities like Paris became glittering and enchanting places to be at night. As Robert Louis Stevenson wrote in praise of gaslight: “The work of Prometheus had advanced another stride…sundown no longer emptied the promenade and the day was lengthened to every man’s fancy. City folk had stars of their own; biddable domesticated stars.”15 With theaters, shops, taverns, inns, and homes all glowing past dusk and with a growing middle class’s greater leisure time and disposable income, city streets became vital and active urban spaces after dark, thus ushering in a brand new way of life for men and women of privilege and for those who served them.

But not everyone welcomed gaslights. Historian Wolfgang Schivelbush argued that some people were hesitant to bring the technology into their homes because of the “industrial source of its flame.”16 Connecting to gas mains meant not only connecting to the grey soot-filled world of the industrial city, but also depending on a centralized supply. Others felt that gaslight was best relegated to purely utilitarian applications.

With the introduction of new affordable lighting technologies such as paraffin candles, the modern match, and kerosene, traditional lamps remained for some the preferred lighting choice in intimate spaces. “It seems,” wrote Gaston Bachelard, “that there are dark corners in us that tolerate only a flickering light.” And so it was that the kerosene lamp was “the apotheosis of the tallow cupped in limestone at Lascaux, the last selftended flame.”17

Electric Nights There were signs all across history, whispers—the sparks from wool and amber that Greek Philosopher Thales described and the “electrics” that flew from glass to a dozen other substances recorded by Dr. William Gilbert in Elizabethan London—of a new energy and a mysterious light without fire.18 Scientists, or “electricians” as Benjamin Franklin himself coined the term, would continue to probe, zap, and buzz. Stephen Gray’s dangling boy experiment, Ewald von Kleist’s Leiden jar, Franklin’s kite and

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IF M O D E R N ITY M A Y B E C H A R A C T ER I Z ED B Y RA PID, IN CE S S A N T C H A N G E, T H A N A R T I FI C I AL LIG HT― IN S TA NT A N EO US , UB I Q UI T O US , EV A N E S CE N T― IS MO D ER N I T Y ’ S MED I UM. ” 19 Ise n s tad t , Pe t t y , & Neumann Cities of Light (20 15 )

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NO TH IN G , S TO R M N OR FL O O D , M US T GET I N TH E WA Y O F O U R N E ED FO R L I G H T A N D EVER M O R E A N D B R I G H T ER L I G H T . ” 20 R alp h E llis o n Invisible Man (19 52 )

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key, Alessandro Volta’s “piles”, and Sir Humphrey Davy’s voltaic arc were all instrumental in advancing the scientific understanding of electricity, but none were able to find a practical application for this intriguing discovery.21 In the 1870s Paul Jablochkoff, a Russian inventor, made substantial improvements to Davy’s lights, creating the first practical arc lamp, or the Jablochkoff Candle. These lamps were exponentially brighter than any previous light, anywhere from 500 to 3,000 candlepower.22 It was quite a shock to some. “A new sort of urban star now shines out nightly, horrible, unearthly, obnoxious to the human eye; a lamp for a nightmare,” wrote Stevenson of the Parisian arc lights. “To look at it only once is to fall in love with gas, which gives a warm domestic radiance.”23 With that, cities across Europe and the United States began to test arc lights, pushing the limits of brightness and eventually harnessing it into less garish porcelain globes.

For electricity to change the world, however, it would have to free itself from batteries and small scale generators. In the 1880s, backed by the City of New York and the house of J.P. Morgan, American inventor Thomas Edison re-imagined how electricity could light cities. He set off to build a number of central stations to supply direct current (DC) to new incandescent bulbs on the streets and in houses.24 With gas and kerosene companies threatened and new investors wanting a piece of the action, the stage was set for a ruthless capitalist showdown; the competition to light up the streets of America with electricity was on. The only real challenger came in the form of George Westinghouse of the Westinghouse Electric Company in Pittsburgh and his chief inventor and former Edison employee Nikola Tesla. Ultimately Tesla and Westinghouse’s alternating current (AC) system came out on top, winning the bid to light Chicago’s World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893 and the Niagara Falls contract later that year.25

From here on out the story of lighting speeds up exponentially. The last decades of the 19th century mark an important turn of events in public lighting, for almost as soon as they were adopted, arc lights had conditioned people to previously unimaginable levels of brightness. Electricity left gaslights in the dust, just as gaslights had left oil lamps in the dust not so long before. Quickly enough people would forget how to keep a flame or light an oil lamp. “Let’s kill the moonlight!” proclaimed Italian Futurist poet Filippo Marinetti, for nothing could challenge the speed and brilliance of electricity.26

By 1920 electric service had reached 35 percent of urban and suburban homes in the United States and a decade later with the implementation of FDR’s New Deal, widespread rural electrification became a reality for the United States.27 In 1939 General Electric unveiled colorful and uniquely glowing fluorescent lights and by mid century more than half of interior lighting in the country would be fluorescent.28 In the coming decade’s a number of new improvements and technologies would come about: the red light emitting diode (LED) in the sixties, the compact fluorescent light in the eighties, as well as sulfur lamps and new LED developments in the nineties. With the exception of a few widespread blackouts throughout this time, when people were plunged momentarily into that no longer familiar medieval darkness, mankind had indeed managed to conquer, if not the moon itself, then surely the night.

A Photopic Future Before electricity, and even with the strongest gaslights and oil lamps, the human eye still saw with its retinal rods (those used in the dark), but with the triumph of electricity our eyes switched to day mode using retinal cones to see at night. Some scientists believe that in time, we may even lose our scotopic vision altogether.29 This is not only a profound change, but one that has come and gone almost entirely unnoticed by the general public.

“Night-time lighting was rarely questioned,” writes Meier, Pottharst, Krause, and Hasenohrl, “and—unless the technology that had come to be taken for granted failed—was met with little regard.”30 Today, though a majority of people still express little interest for the matter, groups from different backgrounds are finally beginning to call into question the assumptions behind public lighting as it is now mindlessly installed across cities. At the same time politicians, scientists, and medical professionals are beggining to recognize the harm that comes with widespread artificial lighting.

Though new lighting technologies were sometimes rejected when first introduced, society quickly adapted to them and its addiction to light only strengthened. Fernand Braudel wrote in his book Capitalism and Material Life: “If we moderns were to enter into an interior of the past, we would very soon feel uncomfortable. However beaut iful it might be—and it was often wonderfully so—what for them exceeded sufficiency would not be enough for us.”31 This process of light conditioning is the hardest thing to break, but break it we must if we are to avoid the many consequences of excessive artificial light that are only now becoming visible. There is an opportunity today, as city governments and technology companies begin to set up smart grids—the kind that measure real-time demand against supply and calculate out waste—to debate the benefits of ever brighter cities. Can we envision a future that is not only smarter, but perhaps a dimmer as well?

Notes 1. Paul Bogard, The End of Night: Searching for Natural Darkness in an Age of Artifical Light (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2013), 27.

2. Jane Brox, Brilliant: The Evolution of Artificial Light (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010), 2.

3. “Brief History of Lighting” Illuminating Engineering Society, 2011. http://www.ies. org/lighting/history/timeline-of-lighting.cfm 4. Brox, Brilliant, 7-8.

5. “Brief History of Lighting.”

6. Brox, Brilliant, 10.

7. Ibid., 12.

8. Ibid., 14.

21 ___ THE PROBLEM - HISTORY OF LIGHT

9. “Brief History of Lighting.”

10. Brox, Brilliant, 75.

11. Ibid., 59-61.

12. Ibid., 67.

13. Ibid., 71.

14. Ibid., 68.

15. Ibid., 71-72.

16. Ibid., 88.

17. Ibid., 89.

18. Ibid., 93-94.

19. Sandy Isenstadt, Margaret Maile Petty, and Dietrich Neumann (editors) Cities of Light: Two Centuries of Urban Illumination (New York, NY: Routledge, 2015), xvii.

20. Brox, Brilliant, 231.

21. Ibid., 95-102.

22. Ibid., 103-104.

23. Ibid., 105.

24. Ibid., 113.

25. Ibid., 127.

26. Ibid., 160.

27. Ibid., 172.

28. Ibid., 210.

29. Ibid., 285.

30. Josiane Meier, Ute Hasenohrl, and Katharina Krause (editors) Urban Lighting, Light Pollution, and Society (Ney York: Routledge, 2015), 1.

31. Brox, Brilliant, 153.

Images Dessertene, Maurice. “Eclairage.“ Nouveau Larousse Illustré, tôme quatrième E-G, c. 1900.

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GR O WI N G A WA R E N ES S T H AT ARTI F I CI AL LI G HT I N G IS N O T P U RELY BENI G N AND SH O U LD N O L O N GE R BE T REAT ED WI TH TH E CA SUALN E S S O F T H E MORE RECENT P AS T I S E ME R G I N G IN R E S E A RCH AND P OLI CY . ” 1 M e ie r , Po t t h ar s t, Krause, & Hasenohrl “ T h e N e w V is ib ility of Light ing” (2 01 5)

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LI G H T P O L L U T I ON Defining the Concept

light pol·lu·tion noun

Brightening of the night sky caused by street lights and other man-made sources, which has a disruptive effect on natural cycles and inhibits the observation of stars and planets.

Blending into the background of typical city nightscapes, there is little doubt that outdoor lighting has become an integrated and important part of urban and suburban life. The great irony of course, is that while cities grow ever brighter, the light illuminating them has become virtually invisible. Today, however, there are individuals fighting to make both the outdated “engineeristic” logic and numerous consequences of urban lighting visible once more.

Light pollution is broadly defined as the inappropriate or excessive use of artificial light at night. More specifically, as defined by Meier, Pottharst, Krause, and Hasenohrl, the term describes the “adverse effects artificial outdoor illumination can have on ecosystems and human well-being, on the aesthetic qualities of towns and landscapes, or on the visibility of the star-filled night sky.”2

After the Second World War, outdoor lighting has been viewed as a technical assignment wherein the main challenge has been to provide the most appropriate level of street lighting to maintain traffic and pedestrian safety while keeping within a lean public budget. The new millennium, however, has brought growing discourses around human provoked climate change, resource protection, sustainable design, and “smart cities.” Included in these discussions is the topic of light pollution and an increasing attention given to the aesthetic and atmospheric appeal of nocturnal landscapes, as well as the potential energy savings from new lighting technologies. More than just a public or ecological issue, light pollution appeals to us in very personal ways, though we are among the last generations who will likely feel this way. “We are at a delicate time now,” writes astronomer and artist Tyler Nordgren, “where we still have some people that know what they’re missing.”3

Night Light Imagery by Google and NASA’s Earth Observatory (2012)

Quantifying Light Pollution For most of the people living in the developed world the death of a brilliant starry night sky has come and gone, without much notice or lament. Even in suburban areas, no more than a couple of dozen stars can be seen at any given time, struggling as it is to shine through the orange haze of modernity. But how pervasive is light pollution actually?

It is estimated that 80 percent of children born in America will never behold a sky dark enough to see the Milky Way. Millions of children, writes Paul Bogard, “without even the opportunity to ‘wonder what you are’.”4 According to the World Atlas of Artificial Night Sky Brightness, created in 2001 by Italians Pierantonio Cinzano and Fabio Falchi, two-thirds of the world’s population – including 99 percent of people living in the continental United States and Western Europe – no longer experience a truly dark night, or a night untouched by artificial electric night.5 The maps they produced on the right show the steep rise in artificial night between the 1950s to the 1990s, and predict and even brighter future in the next decade.

The task of measuring and monitoring light pollution, furthermore, is a difficult one. Historically, atmospheric light pollution has been measured by astronomers for professional purposes. Today, a much more diverse group of stakeholders and researchers in the fields of public policy, geography, architecture, and ecology are all keen to better understand how cities contribute to light pollution. With time, more and more people are playing a part in data collection through citizen-scientists projects, adding a new layer of our understanding of the topic.

The main ways to measure light pollution include ground readings, satellite imagery, or aerial remote sensing. Some of these data collection methods will be discussed more in subsequent chapters.

Late 1950s

Mid 1970s

Late 1990s

2025 Projections

Night-time Illumination Motorway

Highrise

Safety Floodlighting

Cars Pedestrian

Advertising & Signage Moon & Stars

Decorative & Monument

Stadium & Sports

Sources and Forms of Light Pollution Light pollution is a side effect of industrialized civilization. Today cities at night have many sources of light. There are the natural sources of outdoor light such as moonshine and starlight, and the numerous artificial sources including, but not limited to, safety lights, sport center and stadium lights, decorative lights, streetlights, car headlights, illuminated advertising and signage, parking lot lights, and indoor spill light like that from high-rises in urban centers. Not all of this artificial outdoor lighting contributes to light pollution though. In general there are four major form of light pollution: 1. Light Trespass/Intrusion: Stray and unwanted light, such as light that shines through a bedroom window at night.

2. Disability Glare: Light that causes impaired visibility through a reduction in contrast; sometimes referred to as dazzle.

3. Clutter: Redundant lighting where excessive lamps or overlapping light creates illumination where it is not needed.

4. Sky Glow: Discoloration or “glow� seen over towns and cities at night, caused by light escaping or reflected upwards that is then refracted by particulates in the atmosphere.

The most general rule of thumb when it comes to light pollution is to restrict any light to below the horizontal plane. Ideally no more than 100 candela per 1,000 lumens should pass beyond 80 degrees above the nadir, or the point directly below the light (opposite of the zenith), and no light at all should pass beyond 90 degrees above the nadir.6 This is what can be achieved with a full-cut off fixture. The truth is that much of the outdoor lighting used today is inefficient, overly bright, poorly targeted, and in some cases, completely unnecessary. Instead of effectively lighting areas that need illumination, this light is being wasted by spilling into the sky.

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Components of Light Pollution: By Anezka Gocova “The Night Issue”, Alternatives Journal 39:5 (2013)

The figure above shows many common light polluting conditions from a typical unshielded cobra streetlight. In bright yellow is the useful light, illuminating the intended street area, in the light orange is the usual spill light that contributes to glare and light trespass. The figure also shows the common phenomenon of reflected and refracted light. In times past there was countless mentions of “dark and stormy nights.” Today, however, stormy nights are brighter than clear nights. Because so much of the reflected upward light gets refracted by the atmosphere and especially by the water in rain clouds, typical urban sky glow becomes magnified.

Addressing Arguments against Light Regulation There are two main reasons that people oppose lighting regulations: security and commerce. Of the two, security and safety is the most difficult to understand and overcome. There are many other factors besides lighting, such as police presence, geography, and demographics, that effect safety in urban and suburban areas. More than anything, light reduces the fear of crime and violence. “Even over the course of our lives,” writes Jane Brox, “the amount of light that makes us feel safe is a moving frontier: the more light we’re accustomed to, the more we feel we need for security.”7

A comprehensive survey of crime reduction and lighting data conducted by the UK Home Office concluded that there was some benefit from street lighting in some areas, but even these claims have been disputed, with others arguing that there was in fact no clear evidence of crime reduction in the study areas.8 Floodlighting in particular is said to benefit property owners by shining a light on oncoming assailants, but more often than not the glare from these outwardly directed lights is so strong than it can

not only harm drivers and disturb neighbors, but also make it more difficult to see approaching criminals waiting just beyond the light’s shadow.

Well-designed street lighting has been proven to reduce accidents in high traffic and pedestrian areas, though some believe that along with security lighting, the benefits of safety lighting are overstated. While some studies (Plainis, Murray & Palikaris, 2006) suggest that street lighting is a major contributor to road safety (reducing accidents by 30%), newer studies indicate the causal relationship between lighting and accident is not so strong (10%).9 Developments in roadway design, safe driving campaigns, and safer car designs have all likely helped reduce the importance of brighter street lighting. European Standard 13201 for motorway lighting now suggests that the highest levels of lighting be reserved only for areas where pedestrians and vehicles meet.10

One of the greatest benefits of widespread outdoor lighting is that it has transformed our society from the shackles of a purely diurnal lifestyle. The creation of “nightlife� meant a whole new way to live, work, and play. One the one hand, lighting regulation could decrease the amount of commercial advertising there is night, potentially harming some businesses and, on the other hand, darker streets could also discourage people from staying out later at night, thus reducing clientele for other businesses. Furthermore, the lighting of historic buildings, popular plazas, monuments, and even landscape is often tied to city-wide beautification initiatives and is believed to help attract more tourists to downtown and historic centers.

These are the typical arguments, in any case. The reality is that regulation need not impair any of these objectives. A lot of outdoor lighting fails to meet its commercial objectives. Lighting in car parks, sports fields, and advertising signs are brighter than needed and stay-on much longer than they are useful. By simply switching out unshielded fixtures for shielded ones, diminishing glare from overly bright lights, and adding censors and dimmers, most of the negative contribution to light pollution from commercial lighting can be solved.

Consequences of Light Pollution

Melatonin

Because all of the negative effects of artificial illumination should be included within any regulatory definition of light pollution, it is critical to understand each of them in depth. The rapid increase of outdoor lighting at night has pushed natural darkness further to the edge. Consequences of increased illumination and decreased darkness fall into the realms of physiology, ecology, phenomenology, and economy.

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AFT E R T H O U S A N DS OF Y EARS WE’ RE S T I L L ST RA N GE R S T O DARK NES S , F EARF U L ALI EN S I N A N E N E MY CAMP WI TH OU R ARMS C R O S S E D OVER OU R CH ES T S . ” 11 An nie Dillard (1 97 4)

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HUMA NS AR E ANI M AL S A S WELL.. . AND S O W H E N L I G HT / DAR K C Y C L E S M E S S U P SEASONAL P ATTE R NS O F T REE S OR BR E E D I NG C Y C L E S OF AMPHI B I ANS , W H I C H I THI N K IS WELL E S TAB L I S H E D , TH E RE’ S NO REA S O N TO TH I NK I T’ S N OT DOING TH E S AM E TO U S. ” 1 2 Steven Lockley (2011)

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Melatonin

Obesity

Depression

Sleep Disorders

Breast Cancer Diabetes

Physiological Consequences Because artificial light disrupts our natural circadian rhythm and suppresses the production of melatonin (a powerful antioxidant), research shows that excess light at night may increase the risks for obesity, depression, sleep disorders, and even breast cancer.13 In 2007, after studying the effects that working at night has on our biological clock, the World Health Organization declared that night shift work is a possible carcinogen. As a result of such studies, Denmark now compensates female night shift workers who have contracted breast cancer.14 Other medical research indicates there are also more general cancer and health risks associated with daylight-type lighting at night, including cool white and blue spectrum LED and fluorescent lights.15 These studies are calling into question the widespread switch from incandescent bulbs to more energy efficient LED bulbs. More research must be conducted to determine exactly which wavelengths and levels of light pose greater threats to human health, but for now the sleep disturbances brought upon by artificial light are reason enough to support regulation.

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UN LES S W E PAY A T T E N T I ON TO N A T URE I N T HE PL A C E S WHER E P EO P L E L I V E , T HE R E WI LL BE N O C O NS T I T U E N C Y FOR N A T URE I N T HE PL A C E S WHER E P EO PL E D O N ’ T L I V E .” 16 Ecologist Travis Longcore (2013)

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Bats

Migratory Birds

Insects Sea Turtles

Amphibians Ecological Consequences By introducing artificial light at night, humans have radically disrupted the nighttime habitats that many plants and animals have relied upon for billions of years. The fact that more than 30 percent of all vertebrates and 60 percent of all invertebrates are nocturnal and that a large remainder of animals are crepuscular, means that the implications of light pollution on ecology are enormous.17 Light at night effects wildlife in five primary ways: orientation, predation, competition, reproduction, and circadian rhythms. In Europe 52 species of bats have enjoyed protection under EEA agreements since 1994.18 Chicago has increased efforts to curb the more than one million deaths of migratory birds due to man-made structures by introducing lighting ordinances for skyscrapers during peak months.19 Sea Turtles are also one of the few animals protected with lighting ordinances in coastal areas of the world. But beyond the well understood effects of light on bats, birds, and turtles, scientists are just beginning to research how light effects mammals, insects, amphibians, and even marine plants and animals. It is important to note as well, that while shielding lights reduces astronomical light pollution, it does nothing to mitigate the effects of artificial light on the plants and animals that dwell beneath them.

“

FO R MY PA R T I K N O W N O T HI N G W I T H ANY CERT A I NT Y, B U T T HA T THE S I G H T O F T HE ST A R S MAKES M E D R E AM.” 2 0 Vincent van Gogh

37 ___ THE PROBLEM - LIGHT POLLUTION

Time Art

Exploration

Science

Philosophy

Literature

Astrology

Phenomenological Consequences Many dark sky advocates believe that in protecting the night sky we preserve a precious piece of human heritage. The presence of the cosmos has shaped our understanding of time, taught us to navigate the oceans, inspired us to create beautiful works of art, and, most importantly, it has forced us to ask questions. The universe, furthermore, is our past. Not only are we all made of stardust, but when we look up at the heavens we are seeing millions of years into history. The night sky may also hold the secret to quiet the mind. “For all,” writes Timothy Ferris, “the ultimate subject of inquiry is not the outer universe, but the nature of its dance within the mind.”21 Ferris believes that what we really seek among the stars is sanity. Besides helping us maintain our footing in an ever shifting universe, the night sky may also be the key in connecting us to the human experience. A cognitive phenomenon described by astronauts as the Overview Effect, is the feeling that from outer space the natural and artificial boundaries that divide us disappear.22 In the absence of commercial space travel, there is a similar sensation right here on earth that astronomers call celestial vaulting where it’s “as if the horizon disappears and you are falling into the universe.”23 With the increasing loss of darkness, however, the chances of these unique human experiences are becoming ever rarer.

“

G I V E N W HA T W E HA VE, A N D G I V E N W HAT W E KNOW A BO UT THE PO W E R O F L I GHTS A N D LI MI T S O F R E S O U RCES , A BO UT T HE T R A J E C T O RY OF A CHANG I N G C L I MA TE, H O W WI L L W E C HO O SE TO I LLUM I N A T E T HE F U T U R E ?” 24 Jan Brox Brilliant

39 ___ THE PROBLEM - LIGHT POLLUTION

178 M Lights

120 TWh Electricity

30% Waste $3.3 B

21 M Tons

Economic Consequences Without a doubt, the most ironic thing about light pollution is the fact that all of this excessive, poorly designed, and unnecessary illumination is costing governments tons of money and adversely contributing to carbon dioxide emissions. According to the last comprehensive lighting stock survey conducted by the United States Department of Energy (DOE), there are over 178 million outdoor lights in this country, producing 8,370 teralumen-hours of illumination, and consuming roughly 118 terawatt-hours of energy.25 According to the International Dark Sky Organizations (IDA) roughly 30 percent of outdoor light is wasted in the United States, which amounts to $3.3 billion and 21 million tons of carbon dioxide every year.26 While there is no official number regarding the cost of light pollution in Europe, unofficial estimates point to a figure of â‚Ź5.2 billion and 23.5 billion kg (25.9 million tons) of carbon dioxide annually.27

Correcting Light Pollution Unlike many other pollutants, light pollution is well within our power to control and correct. All it takes is following a few key design rules: 1. Use light only when, where, and how much it’s needed: Though intuitive, a lot of outdoor lighting exceeds intended task lighting levels.

2. Ensure light is properly directed and shielded: In addition to directing light exclusively to the intended area, there are number of full cutoff fixtures, as shown below, which ensure that no light escapes up into the sky.

3. Install bulbs with the proper color temperature: In addition to harming human health, blue and cool white spectrum lights contribute exponentially more to sky glow. Ideal lights should be warmer than 3400° kelvin.

4. Use energy saving features like motion sensors and dimmers: Installing smart censors helps to ensure lights are not on when they don’t need to be.

Unacceptable / Discouraged Unshielded Fixtures

Acceptable / Encouraged Full Cutoff & Fully Shielded Fixtures

Acceptable and Unacceptable Light Fixtures: By Bob Crelin IDA

“

T H E S E C R E T S ARE VERY S I MP LE. BLEND LI G H T W IT H T H E S U RROU NDI NG S . DON’ T A N N O Y T H E B I RDS , T H E I NS ECT S , TH E NE I G H B O R S , O R TH E AS T RONOMERS . I F CITY HALL GA V E ME MONEY T O DO WH ATEVER I W A N T , I’D T E ACH P EOP LE ABOU T T H E B E A U TY OF LI G H T . ” 28 F r an ç ois J usse (2 01 0)

Main Interests

Business People

Politicians

Heritage Preservationists

Environmentalists

Pronounced Interest

Astronomers

Core Interest

Actor Groups

Conserving a window to the night sky Raising Awareness for Light Pollution as a Problem Reducing Light Pollution Locally Protecting the Nigh-Time Environment Increasing Awareness for Parks & Regions Supporting Regional Economic Development Developing Recreational Qualities Preserving Scenic/Aesthetic Qualities Protecting a Historical Setting

Illustration by Josiane Meier “Designating Dark Sky Areas“ (2015)

Light Pollution Policy Until very recently, light pollution played little to no role in established city planning departments, lighting engineer handbooks, and public policy. Driven by growing concerns about energy efficiency, environmental protection, and aesthetic appearance, designers and politicians alike are beginning to debate the value and quality of artificial outdoor lighting in cities. Such concerns, apparent in historical accounts, are finally making their way back into planning practice.

Though little empirical work exists about the process of change in local lighting policy, reviews of several case studies show that restrictive and formal tools are indispensable. The process also requires “local actors to pursue innovative and unexplored paths, making experimentation and negotiation pivotal,” writes Katharina Krause.29 Most notably, she believes, is the fundamental role that visual perception plays in re-negotiating lighting quality criteria. As they say, seeing is believing. In all cases, it is important to take an interdisciplinary approach to try and tackle the number of conflicting agendas of private and public stakeholders.

Advocacy and Education Given how quickly and dramatically artificial light has colonized the planet, nothing short of a coordinated international effort from a number of different disciplines and industries will be able to stop ever spreading light pollution. In 1988, realizing the need to protect dark places and advocate against light pollution, astronomers David Crawford and Tim Hunter established the International Dark-Sky Organization (IDA).30 Today

43 ___ THE PROBLEM - LIGHT POLLUTION

International Astronomical Union

IYL Dark Sky Meter App

Loss Lossofofthe theNight NightApp App

iPhone Apps

Science & Preservation Organizations Citizen-Science Light Pollution Measurement Groups

Today their influence has grown far beyond star-gazers to include city planners, politicians, engineers, architects, and ecologists. With local chapters in over 50 locations, their efforts include publishing up to date studies on new lighting technologies, consulting municipalities and private firms on dark-sky compliant policy and lighting design, disseminating free informational materials, and conducting community outreach.

In addition to the IDA, there are several other organizations dedicated to protecting dark places including, but not limited to, the International Astronomical Union, NASA, the National Parks Service, and the Starlight Foundation. In the past couple of years there has also been a growing number of citizen-science projects and communities working to measure and map light pollution across the globe. Working with iPhone apps, NASA satellite imagery, and local astronomic and atmospheric data these projects have already produced Google style maps of the Earth at night.

Notes 1. Josiane Meier, Ute Hasenohrl, and Katharina Krause (editors) Urban Lighting, Light Pollution, and Society (Ney York: Routledge, 2015), 2.

2. Ibid., 2.

3. Paul Bogard, The End of Night: Searching for Natural Darkness in an Age of Artifical Light (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2013), 260.

4. Ibid., 269.

5. Ibid., 321.

6. Ibid.

7. Jane Brox, Brilliant: The Evolution of Artificial Light (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010), 295.

8. Ibid., 294.

9. Meier (editor), Urban Lighting, 164.

10. Ibid.

12. Ibid., 125.

13. Brox, Brilliant, 275.

14. Meier (editor), Urban Lighting, 160.

15. Ibid., 161.

16. Bogard, The End of Night, 133.

17. Ibid., 131.

18. Meier (editor), Urban Lighting, 161.

19. Brox, Brilliant, 298-299.

20. Levy, David H, Starry Night: Astronomers and Poets Read the Sky (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2001), 41.

21. Ferris, Timothy, The Mind’s Sky: Human Intelligence in a Cosmic Context, (New York: Bantam Books, 1992), 15.

22. “Declaration of Vision and Principles.” The Overview Institute. December 2, 2014. http://www.overviewinstitute.org/index.php/about-us/declaration-of-vision-andprinciples.

23. Bogard, The End of Night, 269.

24. Brox, Brilliant, 293.

25. “2010 U.S. Lighting Market Characterization.” US Department of Energy: Building Technologies Program, January 2012. http://energy.gov/eere/ssl/market-studies 26. International Dark Sky Association Website, www.darksky.org 27. Meier (editor), Urban Lighting, 161.

28. Bogard, The End of Night, 40.

29. Meier (editor), Urban Lighting, 138.

30. Brox, Brilliant, 296.

Images in Order of Appearance “Night Light Imagery” by Google and NASA’s Earth Observatory, 2012. http:// www.blue-marble.de/nightlights/2012 Cinzano, Falchi, and Elvidge. “Maps of Light Pollution.” Via Geoff Manaugh and Nicola Twilley. “Let There be Night.” TheAtlantic.com. 24 July 2013.

Image. http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/07/let-there-benight/278070/ “Night-time Illumination” Illustration by Author, 2015.

“Sources of Light Pollution” Diagram by Author, 2015. Including: Author Unknown. Image. https://www.emaze.com/@ATRIQQQ/Lighting-Deign.pptx

45 ___ LIGHT POLLUTION

Cole, Sam. Flickr.com. 1 September 2009. Image. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ creationstory/3880242886 Petrenko, Dasha. “Emirates Palace Garden Abu Dabi.” Shutterstock.com. Image. http:// www.shutterstock.com/s/palacial/search.html?page=1&inline=39967753 Palomar Observatory. Palomarskies.blogspot. 29 March 2009. http://palomarskies. blogspot.com/2009_03_01_archive.html Gocova, Anezka. “Components of Light Pollution” from “The Night Issue”, Alternatives Journal, 39:5, 2013. Via International Dark Sky Organization. Image. http:// darksky.org/light-pollution/ “How to Get Your Kid Into Back-to-School Sleep Shape in No Time”. 11 August 2015.

Via iStockphoto. Image. http://www.unravel.us/2015/08/11/how-to-get-your-kidinto-back-to-school-sleep-shape-in-no-time/ “Physiological Consequences of Light Pollution.” Diagram by Author, 2015.

Byrnes, Tracy. “Bugs, Bats and Birds at the Luxor.” Flickr.com. 4 March 2004. Image. https://www.flickr.com/photos/platinum/6056981 “Ecological Consequences of Light Pollution.” Diagram by Author, 2015.

Van Gogh, Vincent. VanGoghGallery.com. Image. http://www.vangoghgallery.com/ painting/starrywallpaper.html “Phenomenological Consequences of Light Pollution.” Diagram by Author, 2015.

Newman, Lorie. “Highly Flammable: Materialism in the Face of Poverty.” Wrecked.org.

10 September 2008. http://www.wrecked.org/poverty/highly-flammable-pleaserename/ “Economic Consequences of Light Pollution.” Diagram by Author, 2015.

Crelin, Bob. “Acceptable and Unacceptable Light Fixtures.” IDA.org.

Meier, Josiane. “Designating Dark Sky Areas“ Urban Lighting, Light Pollution, and Society. Ney York, NY: Routledge, 2015.

“Dark Sky Advocacy Groups”. Illustration by Author, 2015.

Crelin, Bob. “Acceptable and Unacceptable Light Fixtures.” IDA.org.

Meier, Josiane. “Designating Dark Sky Areas“ Urban Lighting, Light Pollution, and Society. Ney York, NY: Routledge, 2015.

“Dark Sky Advocacy Groups”. Illustration by Author, 2015.

“

LI G HT I NG T H E C IT Y AND T H E COU NT RY S I DE HAV E A L WA Y S B EEN CU LT U RALLY I MBRI C A T E D A N D P OLI TI CAL AF F AI RS .

L I G HT I N G, H O WE V ER MU CH ROOTED I N TE C HNO L O GY A N D I NF RAS TRU CT U RE, I S D E E P L Y S OCI AL. ” 1 I s e n s t ad t , Pe t t y , & Neumann (20 15 )

47 ___ THE PROBLEM - SITE ANALYSIS

LI G H T P O L L U T I ON I N M I A M I Quanitifying Miami Light Pollution The best way to classify the light pollution is to use a universal measuring system. The Bortle Scale is a nine-level scale that measures the night sky brightness of a particular location. Invented by John E. Bortle and published in the February 2001 edition of Sky and Telescope, it quantifies the astronomical observability of celestial objects and the interference caused by light pollution. The scale ranges from class one, the darkest skies available on Earth, through Class 9, inner-city skies. It gives several criteria for levels beyond naked-eye limiting magnitude (NELM).2

Miami has been classified as a category eight sky, with the downtown area reaching category nine. According to the scale, the “entire sky is grayish or brighter,” writes Atilla Danko of Clear Dark Sky, “familiar constellations are missing stars, and less than 20 stars are visible over 30° elevation in brighter areas.”3 In downtown, this means “stars are weak, washed out, and reduced to a few hundred,” describes Richard Berry, and “the sky is bright and discolored everywhere.”4

Unlike other cities, Miami sits at the tip of the Florida peninsula and is the by far the worst contributor to light pollution for several hundred miles. With a glaringly bright coastline, Miami penetrates the natural darkness of the Caribbean and Atlantic Ocean not unlike Denver who shines alone in the vast expanse between the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains.

Without artificial light, Miami would have a brilliant sky on clear nights closely resembling the category two and three dark skies that attract star-gazers to the nearby Florida Keys and Everglades National Park.

Miami’s Urban Story The fertile land just south of the Miami River was originally developed a little over a century ago for agriculture, with farmers and homesteaders taking advantage of the unusually warm winters to grow citrus, and for tourism, with Henry Flagler’s posh Royal Palm Hotel offering the industrial tycoons and socialites up north a place to play in the winter. Incorporated by Northern born speculators who saw potential in the area, Miami was eventually platted with a New York style grid of primarily numbered streets and avenues.

Ultimately, Miami is the city we know and love today because of three distinct factors: favorable weather, outside investment (particularly in real-estate) and immigration. With time, foreign investment has created the increasingly dense financial district called Brickell and backed several large development projects, warm tropical weather has kept tourists and snowbirds coming back year after year, and Caribbean and South American immigrants have continued to flock to the city enriching its cultural life and economy.

Outside of its downtown and financial core, though, Miami is still a predominantly low density city. Demographically it has one of the largest Hispanic majorities in the country, along with large Black and Jewish communities that predate even the first Latin immigrants (not including the Spanish). Despite its many strip malls and single family homes, Miami’s urban and architectural story has three unique commas, the City Beautiful movement exemplified in Coral Gables, New Urbanism pioneered by Miami based urban designers DPZ, and the Art Deco District in Miami Beach. While these movements have certainly left a mark on the city, the marks are more like dabs, felt a little here and a little there, but unable to create a unified vision for a city that functions at best like a collection of poorly connected urban centers.

Today, Miami is a city that grows full speed ahead, greedy with its pockets full of foreign currency and inspired by an art boom that rivals even the greatest world capitals. Students from around the world are going to learn at the University of Miami and Florida International University. In neighborhoods like Wynwood the walls are alive and painted with murals of every size and color, and along Biscayne Boulevard towering skyscrapers continue their sparkling ascent. But for all the optimism that abounds in this promising metropolis, Miami is a vulnerable city; plagued by miles and miles of car headlights trapped in a never ending web of highways and threatened by the turquoise water of the Atlantic as it inches ever closer to the shore.

Miami Nightscape As airplanes approach the runway at Miami International Airport, travelers arriving at night get a glimpse of the vast horizontal city. A near perfect grid of glowing amber streets and avenues sweeps over southeast Florida, terminating abruptly at the dark edge of the Atlantic Coast. More and more the red-orange tint across the city is

“

T HE S E T T IN G WAS AS DRAMATI C AS TH E PE R F O R M E R : A W EDG E OF A MOON S TAGE RI G H T , T H E A T L A NTI C OCEAN S T AG E LEF T, AN D N E O N F R OM ART DECO H OTELS BLE ED IN G T H R O U G H T H E LANG U I D S CRI M O F P ALM F RONDS . ” 5 L au r a Kelly Jazziz (2 00 2)

“

LI G HT I S SU B J E C T T O F A S H I O N . T HE T O W N A S S UCH NEED T O B E HA R MO NI O U S , WI TH A N A CC E NT HE R E AND THER E, N O T A C O NS T A N T D I SC O OR F AI R G R O U ND .” 6 Christina van Santen Light Zone City (2006)

53 ___ THE PROBLEM - SITE ANALYSIS

interrupted by cool white spots, evidence of the growing number of LED lights from cars, street lamps, and parking lots. Stepping out of the terminal to get a cab, it’s as if daylight never ended. Tourists and locals alike are bombarded with flashing LEDs, bright fluorescents, and reflective signage. Welcome to Miami.

Miami has several urban areas with distinct architectural styles and lighting conditions. Connecting them all is a complex network of motorways, interstates, and major roads. Though Florida Power & Light (FPL) is currently implementing the largest and smartest LED streetlight retrofit after Los Angeles, the majority of streetlights in the city are high pressure sodium (HPS) unshielded cobra lamps.

Heading southbound from the airport, the colorful lights of Downtown and Brickell skyscrapers form Miami’s iconic skyline. Heading east towards the beaches, drivers must cross one of the many technicolor bridges in the city, lit as if they were the rainbow and the party scene at the other end was the pot of gold. Once in Miami Beach, and South Beach in particular, neon signs of every shade light up the Art Deco architecture. Everything from hotels to palm trees appear to glow.

Away from the bustling activity in Downtown and The Beaches, those seeking more quieter evenings can head to Coral Gables, South Miami, or Coconut Grove. In these neighborhoods lighting is subdued and typically kept in hues of white and yellow.

In the Gables nostalgic light fixtures softly illuminate the streets, a design in every sense the antithesis of South Beach. Then, of course, there are the pockets of utter darkness in residential neighborhoods like Pinecrest, Kendall, and even the Gables and the Grove. Though Miami lighting can be characterized to match its colorful, flashy, and vibrant personality the truth is that lighting is incredibly inconsistent and erratic across the city as a whole.

Lighting Typologies The scope of this project and analysis will cover the municipalities of South Miami, Coral Gables, the City of Miami, Key Biscayne, Miami Beach, and small pockets of unincorporated Miami-Dade County along Virginia Key and Fisher Island. When considering outdoor urban lighting design it is important to identify the different conditions and typologies of light in the city. In the case of each unique lighting typology different sets of design principles and jurisdictions apply. There are six distinct conditions that will be analyzed in greater depth including: parks & ecological reserves, motorways, gas stations & parking lots, sports facilities & public schools, urban core zones, and landmarks & cultural centers.

Parks & Ecological Reserves As is evident by the map above, which shows how much of Miami is covered by wildlife critical habitats, wetlands, and state parks, ecological light pollution is of particular concern here. Not only are there a number of vulnerable marine habitats that house sea turtle nests, but the city is also a way station for many migratory bird species.

Ensuring that ecologically sensitive light fixtures are installed along coastlines and in parks is critically important in Miami. The photographs above show (from top to bottom): Sea turtle nests on the beach of Key Biscayne in Bill Baggs State Park, mangrove hammocks in Crandon Park’s Bear Cut Preserve and Beach, and a green parrot on tree branches in Matheson Hammock Park.

55 ___ THE PROBLEM - SITE ANALYSIS

Motorways Like New York City and Los Angeles, Miami is a true concrete jungle. Not only is concrete the preferred building material, but the vast majority of the city is paved, with highways, interstates, and large roads dominating most urban areas. Because most street lights are not well-shielded, they are the largest contributors to light pollution. Another common issue with street lights in Miami is that many of them are placed above the tree canopy creating shadows and uneven light on the roadway. The photographs above show (from top to bottom): Cobra head street lights on Julia Tuttle Causeway, orange glowing high pressure sodium light on I-95, and an aerial shot of Collins Avenue in South Beach.

Gas Stations & Parking Lots Gas stations and parking lots are fixtures in any urban and suburban nightscape.

Not only do both of them contribute to light pollution when fixtures are unshielded and light is poorly directed, but they are often left on when the spaces are empty.

Excessively bright lights in parking lots and gas stations can also create visibility glare for drivers and pedestrians, making these safety lights impractical and sometimes dangerous. Installing motion sensors and dimmers is a great way to cut down energy consumption for these lights. The photographs above show (from top to bottom): 1111 parking garage in South Beach and two gas stations in Miami.

57 ___ THE PROBLEM - SITE ANALYSIS

Public Schools, Colleges, & Sports Facilities Because of Miami’s hot climate many people play sport after sundown, meaning that outdoor facilities keep lights on at night all year round. To accommodate sports practices, lights are needed. To help curb light pollution the appropriate light fixtures and levels of light should be used, and, in some cases, reasonable curfews should be enforced. In public schools and college campuses light is kept on at night for safety. One solution is installing motion sensors for lights and using additional security tools. The photographs above show (from top to bottom): Crandon Park tennis complex in Key Biscayne, Brickell Soccer Cage, and the University of Miami.

Urban Core Miami’s urban core zones are the brightest places at night, reaching category nine according to the Bortle Scale. The reason for this brightness is the collective illumination coming from highways, streets, sky scrapers, public plazas, commercial buildings, cars, and landmarks. Miami’s skyscrapers in particular use elaborate lighting to decorate their facades, from multicolor lighting, to kinetic lighting shows, to incredible bright light toppers. The photographs above show (from top to bottom): Illuminated wall murals in Wynwood, a purple MacArthur Causeway with Downtown’s skyscrapers behind it, Brickell Avenue and the Miami River.

59 ___ THE PROBLEM - SITE ANALYSIS

Landmarks and Cultural Centers Though they help to contribute to the overall beauty and personality of cities at night, urban landmarks and cultural centers are not always well lit. In Miami lighting landmarks is usually a colorful and exaggerated affair. For this typology in particular, there is a unique opportunity to experiment with new types of lighting, exploring the often overlooked subtleties of light and shadow. The end goal is to highlight architecture not hide or distract from it. The photographs above show (from top to bottom): The Biltmore hotel in Coral Gables, the Adrienne Arsht Center for Performing Arts in Downtown, and Ocean Drive in South Beach.

Notes 1. Sandy Isenstadt, Margaret Maile Petty, and Dietrich Neumann (editors). Cities of Light: Two Centuries of Urban Illumination (New York, NY: Routledge, 2015), xvii.

2. Paul Bogard, The End of Night: Searching for Natural Darkness in an Age of Artifical Light (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2013), 9-11.

3. Atilla Danko. “Miami Light Pollution Map.” ClearDarkSky.com, 2015. http://www. cleardarksky.com/lp/MiamiFLlp.html 4. Ibid.

5. Laura Kelly, “Live!: Beneath the Neon Moon.” Jazziz, 05, 81. May 2002. http:// search.proquest.com/docview/194465641?accountid=14585.

6. Christa Van Santen, Light Zone City: Light Planning in the Urban Context (Basel: Birkhauser, 2006), 10.

Image List in Order of Appearance Manaugh, Geoff and Nicola Twilley. “Let There be Night.” TheAtlantic.com. 24 July 2013. Via Stellarium. Image. http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/ archive/2013/07/let-there-be-night/278070/ Nasa. “ISS041-E-74232.” Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 13 October 2014. Image. http:// earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=84737 Colls, Armando. “Miami at Night.” Todaysphoto.com. 12 April 2012. http://www. todaysphoto.org/picture-of-the-day/miami-at-night/ Maps from pages 50-55: Esri Canvas Basemap and Miami-Dade County GIS Data.

P A RT I I THE ME THO D PUB LIC LIGHT MANAGEMENT, LIGHTING DESIGN, & CASE STUDIES

(Ord. No. 60-25, ยง 8, 9-6-60)

Sec. 2-97.1. - Jurisdiction over street lighting limited to unincorporated areas.

The installation and maintenance of street lighting devices and facilities within the boundaries of any municipality is hereby declared to constitute a municipal function, and shall be performed and accomplished by each municipality. The powers, duties and functions of the traffic and transportation department shall be limited to street lighting within the unincorporated areas of Miami-Dade County.

65 ___ THE METHOD - MANAGEMENT & DESIGN

LI G H T M A N A GE M E N T & D E SI GN Understanding the How and Why of Municipal Lighting The municipal lighting landscape of Miami is difficult to comprehend and navigate.

Miami’s Planning Office has currently launched several campaigns under the “Green Print” initiative that aim to make Miami more sustainable in the future. In looking through these plans, however, there is little to no mention of light pollution. According to Miami’s municipal codes street lighting is the responsibility of the individual municipality. Only lights that are located in unincorporated areas are under the jurisdiction of Miami-Dade County. Besides a Sea Turtle Protection Ordinance in Miami Beach and Key Biscayne and other general provisions against nuisance lighting and light overspill, there are no explicit codes or statues that address light pollution in Miami.1

The bureaucracy of municipal lighting is also unclear. How and by whom decisions are made regarding outdoor lighting design and maintenance is a difficult question

Energy Provider Park & Recreation

Outside Firms & Contractors

Planning & Zoning

Public Works

Transportation

Traffic Signs & Signals

Illustration by Author

question to answer. There is definitely no central planning authority that deals specifically with urban lighting. Instead, a number of fragmented departments and parties claim partial responsibility. Included in this group is Florida Power & Light, outside lighting engineer contractors, the parks and recreation department, the city planning office, and the department of public works and transportation.

With the exception of street lighting, which follows industrial standards for photometric characteristics of brightness, uniformity, and glare, there are very few formal instruments from upper management to guide lighting design in Miami and cities like it.2 There are, however, some cities and countries that have begun to tackle light pollution at the institutional level.

France is the most outstanding example, passing legislation in 2013 that requires interior lighting in office buildings to be switched off one hour after the staff leaves, imposes a 1 a.m. curfew on exterior lighting used for building facades, and mandates that window lighting in commercial buildings be switched off between 1 a.m. and 7 a.m.3 Slovenia, a country full of migratory birds and amateur astronomers, has also passed progressive legislation to control light pollution.4 According to USA Today, as of 2010 “eighteen states —Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Hawaii, Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, Texas, Vermont, Virginia and Wyoming — have adopted dark-sky legislation in recent years.”5 Ord. No. 03-160, §§ 1, 2, 7-8-03 Sec. 19-15.6. - Premises lighting Premises lighting shall be maintained in a safe and operable condition in accordance with the required site plan and Chapter 8C of this Code.

Fixtures that are not emitting light shall be defined as inoperable. Lighting repairs shall be performed by a licensed electrician in accordance with the building code requirements and Chapter 8C. The property owner shall be responsible for ensuring that the scope of repairs or fixture replacement meets zoning standards for light spillage. It shall be illegal to replace or change the configuration of the exterior premises lighting without first obtaining a permit from the Building Department or Department of Planning and Zoning.

Ord. No. 63-47, § 1, 11-5-63; Ord. No. 75-73, § 1, 9-17-75; Ord. No. 79-114, § 2, 12-4-79; Ord. No. 95-215, § 1, 12-5-95 Sec. 33-4.1. - Outdoor lighting.

Lights for area lighting of outdoor areas, such as, but not limited to, tennis courts, golf courses, sporting areas or grounds, parking lots or areas, amusement or entertainment areas, and outside lighting for security purposes, shall not be permitted except under the following conditions: (a) Detailed plans shall be submitted to the Department showing the location, height, type of lights, shades, deflectors and beam directions. (b) The Department may issue a permit for such lighting…

Sec. 8-404. - Lighting standards for coastal construction activities. (a)

Lighting standards for new development. It is the policy of the Village of Key Biscayne that no artificial light shall illuminate within direct line-of-sight of the beach that has potential to interfere with turtle nesting. To meet this intent, new development construction within line-of-sight of the beach shall comply with the following: 1. Exterior artificial light fixtures shall be designed and positioned so that: The point source of light or any reflective surface of the light fixture is not directly visible from the beach; Areas seaward of the frontal dune are not directly or indirectly illuminated; and Areas seaward of the frontal dune are not cumulatively illuminated 2. Exterior artificial light fixtures within direct line-of-sight of the beach are considered appropriately designed if: Completely shielded downlight only fixtures or

Excerpts from Miami MuniCode Bank

67 ___ THE METHOD - MANAGEMENT & DESIGN

Education and Advocacy In addition to passing dark sky legislation, it is important to prioritize education and awareness of light pollution and its consequences, which as of now, does not even register as an issue in most citizens mind. While the International Dark-Sky Association has local chapters in over 50 U.S. cities, there are none represented in Miami. The closest IDA chapter in Florida is in Boyton Beach.6 Miami does host a number of ecologists, amateur astronomers, and atmospheric scientists. By reaching out to compromised interest groups and conscientious politicians, it is possible to start spreading the word about light pollution in Miami.

A Shift in Lighting Design While Light pollution is a problem, municipal light management and design also present exciting opportunities for improvement. When it comes to design specifically, the situation is positively disheartening. With very few formal instruments to guide lighting design in cities, as previously mentioned, how can we move from a mechanic and scientific approach to a humanistic and creative one? After all, lighting is not only about foot-candles or lumens, it is deeply social, cultural and geographic.

One way to challenge existing routines is by using new design tools such as urban lighting concepts, master plans, and toolkits – and another way is by bringing in unique expertise into the public planning and design process, including sociologists, ecologists, and lighting experts in film and theatre. These methods will help municipal lighting become an integral piece in stage crafting our urban nightscapes.

Engineering Thinking:

Creative Thinking:

Serves Utility

Serves People

Notes 1. “Miami-Dade County MuniCode Bank.” Miamidade.gov. 2015. https://www. municode.com/library/fl/miami_-_dade_county/codes/code_of_ordinances 2. Josiane Meier, Ute Hasenohrl, and Katharina Krause (editors), Urban Lighting, Light Pollution, and Society. (New York: Routledge, 2015), 128-129.

3. Katie Davies. “Lights out – France to force shops and offices to go dark overnight” TheGaurdian, 30 January 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/30/ lights-out-france-shops-offices 4. Meier, “Urban Lighting,” 2.

5. Haya El Nasser, “More U.S. cities dimming the lights,” USA Today, 30 December 2010, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/weather/environment/2010-12-29-lightpollution_N.htm 6. International Dark Sky Association Website, www.darksky.org

Image List in Order of Appearance “Miami Administrative Structure for Public Lighting.” Diagram by Author, 2015.

“

WE L O O K E D F O R S TREET S TH AT WE P E R C E I V E D T O B E WELL LI T. WE MEAS U RED T HE BR IGH T N E S S IN T H ES E S TREET S AND MAD E C A L C U L A TI ONS ACCORDI NG T O T H E S E V A L U ES TH AT AP P EARED SUBJE C T IV E L Y A D EQ U ATE TO U S . T H E MEASUR E ME N T S A N D CALCU LATI ONS T H EN S E RV E D A S T H E B A S I S F OR DEVELOP I NG PE R F O R M A N C E REG U LAT I ONS . ” 1 Lichtkonzept A d v is o r y Board M ember (20 12 )

71 ___ THE METHOD - BERLIN CASE STUDY

B ER L I N C A S E ST UDY :

POLICY & MEASUREMENT Interdisciplinary Light Management & Policy After the fall of the wall, public management in Berlin was fractured as it continually tried to “get the institutions right.�2 With respect to administrative structures and distribution of competences, arrangements were unstable and constantly changing.

This had a strong effect on the care, quality, and maintenance of the diverse street lighting throughout the newly unified city. Beginning in the 1990s, the city-state had growing pressure to cut costs associated with public lighting and began reducing illumination levels across the city. With little success in these effort, Berlin became the first city in Germany to outsource its lighting operation and management systems to a private lighting company.3

Under an eight year contract, the lighting quality plummeted prompting parliament to get involved. Once street lighting became a political issue, several new stakeholders and parties began to question the value and quality of public lighting. The state realized that a comprehensive strategy for urban lighting had to be developed that would consider all the different claims on lighting. In 2006, the Senate Administration (SenStadtUm) was authorized to create this strategic and comprehensive lighting concept. For the first time lighting goals like energy efficiency and safety were joined by goals like cutting down sky glow and avoiding nuisance for animals and humans.4

Soon thereafter, the Cityscape Berlin Lighting Concept (Stadtbild Berlin Lichtkonzept) was designed with a commitment to aesthetic and environmentally compatible lighting. Included in the concept were detailed specifications regarding lighting in an urban planning context and performance regulations. More importantly was the interdisciplinary approach taken by the state to address public lighting design. An advisory board was put together which included an ecologist, a sociologist with expertise in public security, urban designers with lighting backgrounds, and an Environmental Protection NGO representative. Amazingly, lighting engineers were consulted only on an as need basis.5

In the end, this unique professional advisory board produced a lighting concept that balanced economic, environmental, atmospheric, aesthetics, and safety concernes.

It is important to note also that the board along with other civil servants chose to go against the habitual practices in public lighting which would have required them to

comply more strictly with lighting engineer’s safety and task lighting standards. They felt that the minimum lighting requirements outlined in these standards were far too bright. Berlin’s historic light levels are lower than average due both to the number of gaslights still used and austerity measure throughout the war. Increasing light levels would disrupt the city’s natural character. Uniformity of light and visibility of city structures were put above light intensity, helping to keep costs and light pollution to a minimum.6

The advisory board’s method for adequate visual perception of lighting was a surprisingly human one. Instead of working from standards they worked backwards, finding the streets they felt were successful, Urban Designers measuring the light levels there, and establishing new regulations based on that. Eventually expert opinions from lighting engineers were obtained to ensure the final Environmental design of AV ÖB met Protection Ecologist requirement for security and safety.7 Thus, Agency Reps there was a formalization of long held beliefs by Lighting Engineers many professionals that more and more light was not needed to safeguard citizens at night. For Sociologist with Expertise those working on the project the design matched their own in Public Security perceptions for quality light. It was precisely the invitation of outside professionals that led to the success of this project; a project that preserved the typical Berlin nightscape, evened-out illumination around the city, and helped reduce the consequences of light pollution.

Kardoff Ingeniure Lichtplanung’s Master Plan for the Historic Berlin Mitte

Measuring Light Pollution in Berlin In the past decade or so, Germany has been at the forefront of light pollution in terms of policy, advocacy, design, and measurement. One of the trickiest areas of study for researchers and politicians has been the measurement of light pollution. Having an updated and accurate idea of a city’s contribution to local pollution is incredibly important when trying to pass legislation. A relatively new method of measurement, pioneered in part by studies in Berlin, is remote sensing.

A 2012 geospatial survey of light pollution in Berlin by Keuchly, Kyba, Ruhtz, Lindemann, Wolter, Fischer, and Holker overlaid special aerial photography with geospatial city data to determine the individual sources of light pollution throughout the city. As mentioned in the abstract, these types of studies “help fill an important gap between ground based surveys and nighttime satellite data.�8 The highest available nighttime satellite imagery had a resolution of about 45 m. By collecting photographs from a single Cessna T207A flight over Berlin in 2010, researchers were able to produce a 1 m resolution mosaic of the city at night.

The next step in the study was to spatially analyze the pixel data from the mosaic against urban land use data. Using an area-independent brightness variable, it was possible to directly compare the zenith directed light levels for each different land use class. The results from this analysis proved illuminating. Lighting from streets was determined to be the greatest contributor to astronomical light pollution at 32% followed by industrial and commercial service areas at 16%, public service areas (schools, hospitals, etc.) at 10%, block buildings at 8%, an urban core areas at 6%. The minimum resolution for this type of study is 10 m. All of the data from this survey was made publicly available through Pangea in the hopes of encouraging further scientific inquiry.9

The highest resolution publicly available photo of Berlin from the International Space Station based photo of Berlin, with a resolution of about 45 m(used with permission of ESA/NASA 2012) (a & d), is compared to the mosaic with 1m resolution (b & e) at two different distance scales (top 1:100,000 and bottom1:32,000). Land use classes are shown for reference (c & f). At lower resolution, individual lights cannot be identified, and light is falsely located in dark areas.

75 ___ THE METHOD - BERLIN CASE STUDY

Notes 1. Josiane Meier, Ute Hasenohrl, and Katharina Krause (editors), Urban Lighting, Light Pollution, and Society. (New York: Routledge, 2015), 134-135.

2. Ibid., 132.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid., 133.

5. Ibid., 133-134.

6. Ibid., 134-135.

7. Ibid.

8. Keuchly, Helga, Christopher Kyba, Thomas Ruhtz, Carsten Lendemann, Christian Wotler, Jurgen Fischer, and Franz Holker. “Aerial Survey and Spatial Anlysis of Sources of Light Pollution in Berlin, Germany.” Remote Sensing of Environment, vol. 126. November 2012, 39-50. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0034425712003203 9. Ibid.

Image List in Order of Appearance “Master Plan for the Historic Berlin Mitte and Renders.” Kardoff Ingeniure Lichtplanung. http://www.kardorff.de/en/project/light-master-plan-unter-denlinden “ISS Photo of Berlin at Night.” Image Science & Analysis Laboratory and NASA Johnson Space Center. ID ISS032-E-153454. http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/ ShowQueryResults-TextTable.pl?results=145028734069162 Series of comparative images from Keuchly, Helga, Christopher Kyba, Thomas Ruhtz, Carsten Lendemann, Christian Wotler, Jurgen Fischer, and Franz Holker. “Aerial Survey and Spatial Anlysis of Sources of Light Pollution in Berlin, Germany.”

Remote Sensing of Environment, vol. 126. November 2012, 39-50. http://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0034425712003203

“

LI VI N G O N T H E R OCK Y S H ORELI NES BE T W E E N B IR C H T R EES AND G RAS S WI T H T HE S E A B R E E Z E BLOWI NG I N Y OU R FACE . T H E L O N G D A RK WI NT ERS AND TH E E V E RL A S T IN G D A Y S OF S U MMER. F OR HELSI NK I C IT IZ E N S IT ’ S P ART OF EVERY DAY LI FE – M O R E O V E R I T REP RES ENTS TH EI R Q U A L IT Y OF LI F E”. 1 A n on y m o u s Luonnon Lyhdyt Proposal (2 01 2)

77 ___ THE METHOD - HELSINKI CASE STUDY

HEL S I N K I C A S E ST UD Y : NATURE & COMMUNITY

Lighting A New Urban Development In 2012 the City of Helsinki organized the “Lights over Kruunuvuorenranta” artistic lighting design competition for a new urban residential development. The new Kruunuvuorenranta district replaces a former oil harbor with 10 thousand residential units, a scenic urban waterfront, and several parks. The goal of the competition was to create a visually, ecologically, and technically high-grade lighting plan that would make Kruunuvuorenranta a work of light art visible from Helsinki’s city center across the water. What is interesting about this competition is that was part of a larger movement, the World Capital Helsinki 2012 program. That the city government recognized the potential that lighting design could have for the overall beautification and marketing of the city, marks an important shift.2

In Harmony with Nature The winning design by West 8 and Speirs+Major was called Luonnon Lyhdyt or “Night Lanterns.” By giving special attention to the natural environment of the district, the winning design won over critics. The district of Kruunuvuorenranta is characterized by incredible natural beauty and heritage. It features three nature reserves, a natural forest pond, the waterfront, nature trails, and estate parks of great historical value.

Two thirds of the area of the 143 hectare land will be purposefully left undeveloped and the compact residential units will be designed with respect for the environmental history of the location.3

The ideas for the winning lighting design were to emphasize the natural landscape and enhance the existing qualities of darkness, local materials, and site heritage. The concept of the natural lantern is that there are two fundamental sources of light: natural and artificial. For artificial lighting the district would feature strategically placed and human scaled light at lower illumination levels with the intention to retain the overall sense of darkness while providing a warm homely glow for safety. The other portion of the design featured passive lighting techniques and natural reflective

materials to augment both natural light from the sky and artificial lighting. Using water, luminescent paving stones, and reflective rocky surfaces designed lighting would be enhanced and more deeply connected to the natural world.

Speirs+Major, associate designers on the entry, describe the project as follows: “The concept harmonizes many aspects of light and urbanism. It considers site context, the seasonal changes in the quality and quantity of natural light, the influence of the surrounding vegetation, the contrast inherent in the rough and fine materials found in the area‌the solution is both sustainable and harmonious, as it consciously limits the amount of light by making use of water reflection, protecting the night sky for stargazing.â€?4

Lighting for a Community

Typical Lighting Street Sections, West8

The majority of people using Kruunuvuorenranta at night on a day-to-day basis will be its residents. The lighting proposal, therefore, had to first and foremost make this site a practical, unobtrusive, and pleasant place to be at night. In terms of artificial light this meant using light sensitively to highlight gateways, selected heritage sites, and neighborhood lantern pegs. One of the key design features of the entry is the use of personal lanterns that are to be stored on communal and festive light pegs throughout the community. This not also harkens back to simpler times, but helps make lighting feel precious and personal once again.

Furthermore, because the elevation of the development will be highly visible in the city center of Helsinki, which sits right across the bay, the lighting design had to

Renders of residential lighting, ommunity lanters pegs, and reflective stone paving, West8

79 ___ ABSTRACT

Overall Lighting Master Plan Board, West8

create a strong sense of place. In addition to the nuanced artificial light, intended to bounce of the water and other luminescent surfaces, the design envisions waterfront events that use festive lighting to bring community members together on special occasions. “We also put huge emphasis on the importance of light becoming a focus of the community,” writes Speirs+Major, “developing unique and engaging ideas for lighting that are directly connected to everyday lives of the residents.”5

The Lighting Master Plan There is little research done into lighting master plans. While a couple of historic precedents exist, the realization that lighting master plans can be used as a tool in urban light design and planning is only about twenty years old.6 Artificial light in public spaces can offer significant contribution to sustainable urban design provided that it is used within a structured and balanced planning system. Lighting master plans help to focus lighting design across key areas of the city under single comprehensive light concepts and uniform lighting standards. Like all tools, these master plans have short comings, particularly since light is often hyper site specific, but in general it can be a very effective tool in creating more sustainable and cohesive lightscapes in cities.

81 ___ THE METHOD - HELSINKI CASE STUDY

Notes 1. “Lights over Kruunuvuorenranta.” World Landscape Architect, 17 October 2012. http://worldlandscapearchitect.com/lights-over-kruunuvuorenranta-helsinkifinland-west-8/ 2. “West 8 wins 1st prize Lighting Master Plan Helsinki.” Metalocus.es. 27 October 2012. http://www.metalocus.es/content/en/blog/west-8-wins-1st-prize-lightingmaster-plan-helsinki 3. Ibid.

4.“Work/Architecture+Environment/Strategy+Branding/Product+Innovation/Archive/ Awards.” Speirs+Major, 2012. http://www.speirsandmajor.com/work/strategy/ lights_over_kruunuvuorenranta/ 5. Ibid.

6. Josiane Meier, Ute Hasenohrl, and Katharina Krause (editors), Urban Lighting, Light Pollution, and Society, (New York: Routledge, 2015), 141.

Image List in Order of Appearance All images from West8 and Speirs+Major Competition Entry via “West 8 wins 1st prize Lighting Master Plan Helsinki.” Metalocus.es. 27 October 2012. http://www. metalocus.es/content/en/blog/west-8-wins-1st-prize-lighting-master-plan-helsinki

P ART II I THE D E S IG N LIQUID CITY LIGHTING CONCEPT MIAMI, FLORIDA

85 ___ THE DESIGN - LIQUID CITY LIGHTING CONCEPT

LI Q U I D C I T Y L IGHT I N G CO N CE P T A New Vision for Public Lighting in Miami A liquid city is one where life moves fast, cash flows easily, and where people and places are always adapting. In Miami, where the nightlife is as vibrant as the endless sunshine, shouldn’t lighting be an extension of the city’s character and aspiration?

Organized into 7 categories, the Liquid City Lighting Concept focuses as much on technology and management as it is does on design. So let us take a journey, into the future of urban lighting!

P R O T E C T IV E , P R O - A C T IV E , & E ME R GE N C Y L IGH T IN G

O RG ANI C, T R O PI CAL, & RI CH LI G HT I NG

CONSI STE NT , LO G I CAL, & SAF E LI G HT I NG N E T WO R KE D , A D A P T I VE, & R E S P O N S IV E L IGHT I NG

A Q U A T IC & R E S IL IE N T L IGH T IN G

LOW-IM PACT , PASSI V E , & E CONO M I C LI G HT I NG

COL O R F U L , S O C IA L , & F E S T IV E L IGH T IN G

87 ___ THE DESIGN - CLEAR LIGHT

CL EA R Consistent, Logical, & Safe Lighting Imagine we lit all streets, main roads, and highways with the same level of light. This would lead to a lot of waste. Now, imagine if street lighting corresponded perfectly to density and zoning. Each land use, density, and zoning type would require a particular base level of illumination. If we overlay this information onto the previous map, and add dark areas for protected environments, we are left with a bespoke plan for lighting across the city’s transect.

Light levels, fixture types, and colors ranges, furthermore, can be easily incorporated into Miami’s existing form-based code Miami21. Instead of following general engineering standards, these specifications ensure that lighting is implemented in a way that more closely reflects people’s actual needs across space and time. Additional considerations include precedents for better illumination at metro stations and along bicycle paths to reduce accidents early in the morning and at night; as well as ways to reduce excess lighting and nuisance safety lighting at schools and gas stations.

Highways

Major Roads Streets

Lighting Levels by Street Type

LIGHT LEVELS BY DENSITY Parks

0-30%

Estate Density

30%

industrial

35%

Low Density

40%

Ports & Utility

50%

Medium-Low Density

60%

Office

70%

Medium Density

75%

Medium-High Density

85%

High Density

100%

Density & Zoning Overlay

89 ___ THE DESIGN - CLEAR LIGHT

Lighting Level by Density & Zoning

Metro Stations & Metro Mover





•

•

Add motion sensors and dimmers to all parking lots Turn off field lights when not in use

Schools

Bike Lanes





+

Gas Stations

T2 - Rural T1 - Natural

Miami 21 Lighting Code Addition

T3 - Suburban

T4 – General Urban

T5 – Urban Center T6 – Urban Core

Only allowable light sources are natural ones

T1 – Natural Zone

Only Fully Shielded Outdoor Safety Light Recommended

T2 – Rural Zone

Sidewalks lit with shielded street lamps or shielded path lights for the early morning and evening

No street lighting required

Porch lights and security lights must be shielded or concealed and preferably feature motion sensors and dimmers

T3 – Suburban Zone

In the absence of street lighting all sidewalks, street signs, and crosswalks must be lit with properly shielded lights

T4 – General Urban Zone

Street lighting not required

Porch lights and security lights must be shielded or concealed and preferably feature motion sensors and dimmers

Street lighting lightingrequired required––IfIfLEDs LEDsare are Street installed installedCCT CCTmust mustbe bewarm warmwhite whiteor or amber, amber,and anddimmers dimmersinstalled, installed,and andlight light posts posts should shouldbe beplaced placedininbetween betweentrees trees and andnever neverobstructed obstructedby bycanopy canopy

Commercial abide byby Commercialstreet streetfronts frontsmust must abide curfew indoor lights and curfewlaws, laws,requiring requiring indoor lights and signage after closing and signagetotobe bedimmed dimmed after closing and turned turnedoff offlate lateatatnight night

T5 – Urban Center Center Zone Zone

Decorative Exterior Light Elements Must be Dimmed or Turned Off During Late Night Hours Bui

Commercial street fronts must abide by curfew laws, requiring indoor lights and signage to be dimmed after closing and turned off late at night

T6 – Urban Core Zone

LEDs must be warm white or amber, with dimmers installed, and light posts should be placed in between trees and never obstructed by canopy

97 ___ THE DESIGN - FLUID LIGHT

F L U ID Networked, Adaptive, & Responsive Lighting With technological upgrades, existing municipal lighting infrastructure is just steps away from becoming a fully integrated network. Lighting is perhaps the best vehicle for implementing the Internet of Things into our cities and homes. A centrally managed network of lights that communicate with each other and with the city around them will allow urban planners and engineers to remotely control the quality and color of light as well as notifying them to any problems or outages.

While base levels of illumination will be established by zoning standards, lighting across the city can be modified with this network as needed. Adjusting to events and situations across the city in real time as well as adapting to predefined curfew and dimming hours in the span of a single night.

Imagine a Heat game is happening on Biscayne Boulevard. Light levels are increased for cars and pedestrians as people flood the area. During the game illumination is lowered and updates are projected on the outside of the arena. After a win, street lights turn red in commemoration, and as people leave the stadium light levels increase again to ensure safety. In the late hours of the night all lighting is dimmed to reduce waste.

A Network of Lights

Variations in Lighting Levels Throughout the Night

Spectral Color Choice

Consistency

Quality of Light

Diagnostics

Connectivity

Communication & Control

Awareness & Sensing Sensors & Dimmers

Controls Lighting 2.0 – The Internet of Illuminated Things

Arriving to Game: Pedestrian & Street Lighting on High

During Game: Light Levels Reduced as Updates Are Projected on Stadium

101 ___ THE DESIGN - FLUID LIGHT

Leaving Game: Pedestrian & Street Lighting on High

Late Night: Light Levels Are Dramtically Reduced to Avoid Waste

103 ___ THE DESIGN - SOLVENT LIGHT

S OLV E N T Low-Impact, Passive, & Economic Lighting Light pollution is especially important to control in Miami because the city is located within and around important ecosystems that host a number of native plants and animals as well as migratory birds and sea turtles. Correlated color temperature and intensity are the two most important factors when designing to mitigate ecological light pollution. While plants are least effected by cool colors, animals including turtles, insects, some birds, and humans are most effected by them. It is recommended that outdoor lighting not exceed 3000 kelvin and that for special wildlife habitats artificial lighting be kept amber or red.

Other protective measures include high-rise lights off agreements during migratory bird and sea turtle nesting season. Passive lighting also means reducing the overall waste associated with light. For this, fully shielded fixtures and properly directioned lights are encouraged to avoid any light spill in unwanted areas. In ecological parks, feature trees may be light in warm light around dawn and dusk hours and walkways may be lit with low shielded path lights or glowing pavers.

Along urban waterfronts unshielded bollard lights can be replaced with soft glowing light sources such as punctured lanterns and bioluminescent pavers.

Environmental “Dark Areas�

Correlated Color Temperature Range

Infrared

Ultraviolet

1800K

Candle

2200K

High Pressure Sodium Lamp

2800-3200K

Incandescent & Halogen

Preferred Maximum for Outdoor Lighting

4000-4700K

Metal Halide & Fluorescent

4800K

Direct Sunlight

5000-6000K Noon Sunlight

Higher CCTs May be Used for Special Zones and Circumstances

Unshielded vs. Shielded Fixtures Unacceptable

Acceptable

6500-8000K Monitors & Shaded Sun

10000K

Blue Skylight

Migratory Bird Season – Lights Off Periods for High Rise Lighting

Turtle Nesting Season – All Coastal Areas will Switch to Shielded Amber & Red Lights





Ecological Park Lighting: Feature Tree Lighting, Low Shielded Path Lights, and Glowing Pavers

107 ___ THE DESIGN - SOLVENT LIGHT

Miami River Before: Unshielded Boolard Lights with Lots of Glare

Miami River After: SoftBollard Lanters and Bio-Luminescent Pavers

109 ___ THE DESIGN - BUOYANT LIGHT

BUOYANT Aquatic & Resilient Lighting Miami is best known for its coastline and barrier islands. This unique geography allows for a rich marine life beyond just plants and animals, with leisure boaters, cruise ships, and container ships navigating in and out of the bay or mooring just along the ocean ridge. Properly lighting our docks and marinas with more subdued or more dramatic lighting can help redefine the aquatic edges of the city while also allowing for safer navigation for boats at night.

Miami is faced with the ever present threat of climate change in the form of sea level rise and increased severe weather. To help improve the city’s resilience, technology such as solar powered street lights and solar road studs can ensure that streets remain lit when and if the power is cut out.

Marine Navigation

Shielded Dock Lights

Irridescent Paint Outlining Dock Perimeter

111 ___ THE DESIGN - BUOYANT LIGHT

Shielded Marina Dock Lights

Irridescent Paint Outlining Marina Docks Perimeter

6 ft of Sea Level Rise

Solar Road Stud Light

Solar Street Lamps

115 ___ THE DESIGN - TURBULENT LIGHT

TU R BU L E N T Protective, Pro-Active, & Eemrgency Lighting While lighting can help build up a city’s resilience against extreme weather events, it can also play a pro-active role in such emergency situations. Street lights and road studs can be programmed for wayfinding around the city by blinking and changing colors to indicate important locations. In this example red lights flash in the direction of a hospital, and green lights flash in the direction of a hurricane shelter. Both become more intense as drivers near their destination. Lighting can also be programmed to adapt to heavy rains, reducing the dangerous glare that can result when driving through water at night. In the future, new technologies like solar roadways will allow streets to communicate directly with drivers, alerting them to different hazardous conditions.

Evacuation Routes

Hospital Hurricane Shelter

Emergency Wayfinding Lighting

Wayfinding Emergency Road Studs Blinking Towards a Hospital

FutureRoadways Tech: Solar Roadways Solar

Dynamic Street Paint Street Paint Future Tech: Dynamic

Driving in the Rain Before

119 ___ THE DESIGN - TURBULENT LIGHT

Driving in the Rain After Street Lights Have Adapted to Reduce Glare

121 ___ THE DESIGN - SUCCULENT LIGHT

S U CC U L E N T Organic, Tropical, & Rich Lighting Lighting in Miami can do more to enhance the sub-tropical climate in the area. New developments are being made in biological engineering which, while controversial, could genetically modify plants to glow at night. Imagine the orange sodium haze of coconut grove replaced with softly glowing trees. During exceptionally hot and humid nights, lighting designers could modify the street lights and building lights to produce a cooling effect over our skyline, keeping warm colors at the top and cooling them as they reach the street level.

Succulent Lighting Potential Sites

Coconut Grove Banyan Tree Typical Lighting

Coconut Grove Banyan Tree Modified to Glow in the Dark

123 ___ THE DESIGN - SUCCULENT LIGHT

Cocowalk Current Lighting

Cocowalk with Bio-Luminescent Tree Lighting

Miami Typical Skyline

125 ___ THE DESIGN - SUCCULENT LIGHT

Miami Skyline with ‘Cooling Effect’ Lighting for Hot and Humid Nights

127 ___ THE DESIGN - INTOXICATING LIGHT

I N TO X I C A T I N G Colorful, Social, & Festive Lighting Lighting is much more than a utilitarian development. It can be used to transform places at night and bring people together. In the Wynwood arts district, instead of lighting walls like paintings, light itself can become art. Neon, black lights, and glow in the dark paint can be used by artists to enhance their work and turn regular and mundane objects during the day, into stunning urban focal points at night.

In addition to installation lighting, annual light festivals can become beloved recreational events for locals and popular attractions for tourists. Imagine a bridge light festival where people come out on boats to watch as Miami’s main bridges and monuments are projected upon with different light shows and music. An equally spectacular event could be Miami’s dark sky nights, when during particular hours on pre-selected clear nights, the entire city turns off its lights so that citizens can admire the spectacular show that lies just outside of reach most nights and to pay homage to a heritage as old as time.

Social & Installation Lighting Potential Sites

Wynwood Walls Current Lighting

Wynwood Streets Current Lighting

129 ___ THE DESIGN - INTOXICATING LIGHT

Wynwood Walls with Installation & Artistic Urban Lighting

Wynwood Streets with Glow in the Dark Elements

MacArthur Causeway Bridge at Night

131 ___ THE DESIGN - INTOXICATING LIGHT

MacArthur Causeway Bridge During Bridge Lights Festival

MacArthur Causeway Bridge During Bridge Lights Festival

133 ___ ABSTRACT

Family Stargazing from Downtown Balcony During Dark Sky Hours

135 ___ THE DESIGN - INTOXICATING LIGHT

Aerial View of Brickell During Dark Sky Hours

137 ___ ABSTRACT

139 ___ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliography “2010 U.S. Lighting Market Characterization.” US Department of Energy: Building Technologies Program, January 2012. http://energy.gov/eere/ssl/market-studies Aveni, Anthony. People and the Sky: Our Ancestors and the Cosmos. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2008.

Bogard, Paul (editor). Let There be Night: Testimony on Behalf of the Dark. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press, 2008.

Bogard, Paul. The End of Night: Searching for Natural Darkness in an Age of Artifical Light. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2013.

Brandi, Ulrike, and Christoph Geissmar-Brandi. Light for Cities: Light Design for Urban Spaces, A Handbook. Basel: Brikhauser, 2007.

Brox, Jane. Brilliant: The Evolution of Artificial Light. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010.

“Brief History of Lighting.” Illuminating Engineering Society, 2011. http://www.ies.org/ lighting/history/timeline-of-lighting.cfm Cinzano, Pierantonio and Fabio Falchi. “Quantifying Light Pollution.” Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, 139, May 2014. 13-20.

Danko, Atilla. “Miami Light Pollution Map.” ClearDarkSky.com, 2015. http://www. cleardarksky.com/lp/MiamiFLlp.html Davies, Katie. “Lights out – France to force shops and offices to go dark overnight” TheGaurdian, 30 January 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/30/ lights-out-france-shops-offices El Nasser, Haya. “More U.S. cities dimming the lights,” USA Today, 30 December 2010, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/weather/environment/2010-12-29-lightpollution_N.htm Ferris, Timothy. The Mind’s Sky: Human Intelligence in a Cosmic Context. New York: Bantam Books, 1992.

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M Y FE E LIN G IS T H AT AN OB SERVER NEEDS TO SE E 4 5 0 ST AR S A T A T IME TO GET THAT FEELING O F I N F I N IT U DE A ND B E SWEPT AWAY...THAT’ S TH E N U M BE R O F ST ARS AVAILAB LE ONCE Y O U G E T D IM M E R T H AN THIRD MAGNITUDE...

A N D N OW Y OU ’R E T OUCHING THAT ANCIENT CO R E , W H E T H E R IT ’S COLLECTIVE MEMORIES O R G E N E T IC M E M O R IES OR SOMETHING ELSE F R O M W AY BAC K BEFORE WE WERE EVEN H U M A N. SO Y O U G OTTA GET THAT , AND A N YT H I NG SH OR T O F THAT DOESN’ T DO IT.” B o b B e rman (20 13 )

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