Re-Hydrating Landscapes in Cyprus

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DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS

Re-Hydrating Landscapes in Cyprus eco-cultural waterscapes under a climate change scenario 2015 K.U.Leuven, Master of Urbanism and Strategic Planning [MaUSP] European Master of Urbanism [EMU] Author: Anastasia Angelidou Promoter: Bruno De Meulder

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DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS

Re-Hydrating Landscapes in Cyprus eco-cultural waterscapes under a climate change scenario 2015 K.U.Leuven, Master of Urbanism and Strategic Planning [MaUSP] European Master of Urbanism [EMU] Author: Anastasia Angelidou Promoter: Bruno De Meulder

LANDSCAPE URBANISM THESIS PROMOTER Bruno De Meulder TUTORS Cecilia Furlan Julie Marin Matteo Motti MORE INFO MAHS / MAUSP / EMU Master Programs Department ASRO, K.U.Leuven Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium Tel: + 32(0)16 321 391 Email: paulien.martens@kuleuven.be

© Copyright by K.U.Leuven Without written permission of the promotors and the authors it is forbidden to reproduce or adapt in any form or by any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the right to reproduce or utilize parts of this publication should be addressed to K.U.Leuven, Faculty of Engineering – Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee (België).

Telephone +32-16-32 13 50 & Fax. +32-16-32 19 88.

A written permission of the promotor is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests.

All images in this booklet are, unless credits are given, made or drawn by the author.

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Acknowledgements

First of all I would like to thank my Professor Bruno De Meulder for his precious advises and guidance, during the process of this thesis but also, for the enthusiasm I could derive within each of his words, during this master.

I thank Cecilia, Julie and Matteo for their guidance as well as their care that actually shaped this thesis, also for being alert even in distance to give feedback whenever asked.

I thank my parents Takis and Elli for their patience and enthusiasm to accompany my field trip adventures. Special thanks to my father for his courage to overcome his personal obstacles for the sake of my secureness. More field trips to come!

I thank Makis, for his support in knowledge, materials and useful contacts who gave me access to, as well as his willingness to help anytime.

I thank my sisters Natalie, Sylvia and Evangelia for being there, in all circumstances, making sure that I am enjoying life through my “troubles”.

I thank Rui for his support in this thesis, in each step and each decision, and for being the inspiration he is to me, in all projects of life.

I thank my “couples” Caterina, Marine, and Yufei (in alphabetical order) for their nest in both easy and difficult days of Belgium and Venice.

I thank my (ex) landlords, Karel and Gerda for being both friends and parents in Belgium.

I thank Morphou Museum of Natural History for the “officer’s tour in the buffer zone”.

Many thanks to the Water Development Department and specifically to Stella Evlogimenou, Monica Stylianou, Evdokia Efthymiou, Angeliki Larkou and Maria Postekki.

I thank Giorgos Charalambous, assistant district inspector, for his extensive description of local irrigation practices and Panayiotis, regional forest assistant officer for his important contribution in material collection.

The final thank you goes to Splinter, for being such a great companion, anywhere I go.

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Table Of Content 6-7

ABSTRACT

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PREFACE

| Introduction

| Research Objectives

| Methodology and Study Area

| Research Hypothesis - what if

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CYPRUS - BETWEEN RADICAL CHANGES AND CULTURAL CONFLICTS

| Geographies of Cyprus

| Mapping the “Stepping Stone”

| Climate conditions and Climate change

| Political Landscapes, the act of “Becoming”

| Mapping the “Inversion”

62-123 WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

| Traces of the Past

| Water Storage and Management

| Productive Landscapes

| Ecological Landscapes

124-143 DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES

| Desertification and Climate Change

| Groundwater at Risk

| Surface Water and Soil Pollution

| Habitat Conflicts

144-213 REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

| Statement - The “Next Becoming”

| Water Strategies - “Tools”

| Productive Waterscapes

| Cultural Waterscapes

| Ecological Waterscapes

| Waterscapes of Exchanges

214-215 CONCLUSION 216-221 BIBLIOGRAPHY

+ List of Figures

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Efficiency in Water Use Purification

Qanat Reuse Urban Waste

Water Collection

Purification

Summer Back to Nature

Farm Waste Ecological Rehabilitation

Winter

Water Collection and Purification

Air purification and Steam Production

Rain

Agroforestry

Groundwater Recharge

Irrigation

Local Productivity

Water Use

Grey Water

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Infiltration

ďż˝ Local Economy

Abstract Investigating Landscapes of Cyprus as “living fields”, dealing with ongoing political, cultural and economic transformations, this thesis turns its attention to a global, environmental crisis of the 21st century. Climate change contributes to the mentioned transformations, resulting to radical shifts in our ecosystems.[1] Our realities lay on interrelationships between multiple layers of man-made and natural systems. Building up sustainable societies has to do with elaborating a symbiotic agreement between those systems through their complexities. Nina-Marie Lister, in her discourse about Landscape Urbanism, positions design, in “the context of complex and dynamic cultural-natural systems”, proposing a “multiscaled and multilayered urbanism”.[2] This thesis experiments through “mapping”, crossing scales and field work survey, to express actual landscapes and their possible future. Mapping, as James Corner describes it, is an agency for creativity and imagination, a liberating instrument.[3] Thus, political and cultural complexities are intentionally emphasised, within a frame of environmental fragility. A story of radical changes and cultural conflicts, leads us to the exploration of “ecologies”, studied and interpreted as complex systems of man-nature collaborations. A series of “becoming” stories, of which peoples of Cyprus shaped their identities, leads to today’s realities. A combination of division and unity, post-war, two sided, economic and cultural growth, and a crisis of water shortage, put a question mark in future adaptation to climate change. A left-over space, a land with 1 “Impacts from recent climate-related extremes, such as heat waves, droughts, floods, cyclones and wildfires, reveal significant vulnerability and exposure of some ecosystems and many human systems to current climate variability”: IPCC, 2014, Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland p8

out economic or social activity for forty years, in between two self sufficient communities, invert rules and normalities of both, proposing a “landscape of mediation”.

Past traces, expensive contemporary projects, productive landscapes and finally ecological landscapes, lead us to define the dehydrated landscapes of Cyprus. Desertification, ground and surface water pollution combined with the eternal shortage of water challenge ecosystems’ adaptation. Moreover, habitats are in conflict. Natural resources are diminished while population growth and people’s habits are stretching their limits.

Reading existing waterscapes, discovering potentialities of the past, transforming “waste” into “gold”, the proposal focuses on a set of water strategies. It aims to the re-hydration of Cypriot Landscapes. Design, under such environmental conditions on an already fragile, abused land, is all about ecological cycles. “Recycling” and “reuse” define a systemic approach in design processes based on ecologies of waste. Waste produced by human activity is by itself part of a life cycle. By closing a cycle, an opportunity of design is generated. “Scaping” life cycles define the spatial subsistence of man-made and natural systems’ collaboration. “Systemic design”[4] as Alan Berger describes it, forms the inspiration of this work as man-nature collaborating method, which places Landscape Urbanism in-between sciences, politics, economics and poetics.

4 BERGER Alan, “Systemic Design can change the world, a lecture from Alan Berger” in: Systemic Design can change the world, Amsterdam: SUN, 2009, pp10-37

2 LISTER, Nina-Marie, “Insurgent Ecologies: (Re)Claiming Ground in Landscape and Urbanism”, in: Ecological Urbanism, Zürich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2010/2013 p537 3 CORNER James, HIRSCH Alison Brick, “The Agency of Mapping, Speculation, Critique and Invention” in: The Landscape Imagination, Collected Essays of James Corner 1990-2010, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2014, p197 7

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PREFACE

Preface

| Introduction

| Research Objectives

| Methodology

| Future Hypothesis - what if

PREFACE

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PREFACE

On the left: part of: Catalan Atlas by Abraham Cresques, 1387 “Majorcan Style of mapmaking”, the most important map of the Medieval ages, commissioned by Charles V of France.

Cartography of the world in great detail - Cyprus, at the time under the Frankish rule, flag of “House of Lusignan”

Introduction Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean sea, characterized by a cultural and political complication due to its long history of conquerors. It has been repetitively a stepping stone for intercontinental communications and of imperial interests. The specificity of this land lays on political landscapes combined with ones of ecological and cultural importance.

A country where everything is politically charged, a divided nation, and more, a violent past, penetrate as counter creative factors in any conversation about future projects. Obstacles as such are not only political. A water problem grows in parallel with social issues.

Long periods of droughts, negligible amounts of annual rainfall, global warming and desertification, threat basic sufficiency on the island. Ironically, might on one hand human forces have tried to divide the island in two, on the other hand, nature is asking for unity. Nature in both North and South sides, is responsible for the exact same resources and it has made clear the “commonness” of the threats.

An east-west Buffer Zone ensures the separation between the two communities. In this research, the “Buffer Zone”, is intentionally emphasized as part of waste landscapes as a result of a post-war effect: a rapid development of two separated parts with the si-

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multaneous abomination of the space in-between. Both North and South sides today, face an environmental crisis related to water. The crisis of water is related with a crisis of identities. As an opposition to the East-West political cut, water, flows in South to North direction, passing through the Buffer Zone. The recognition and re-interpretation of those waterscapes, in the plain, as potential spaces for communication, emphasizes, in this thesis, the role of nature in spatial negotiations.

“Like the history of many other semi-arid lands, the history of this island reflects the story of its water supplies”.[1] Water resources have been a struggle for Cypriot habitants since the very early civilizations until today. Desertification and population growth, both continuously crescent, aggravate the struggle. Dehydrated landscapes are expected to form the ground of future development and urban space. Urbanism is subject to ecological distortion. Even though, urban and natural spaces are not static but they are rather subject to a time line[2] which transforms space into a renewable resource. Landscapes consist of different, overlapped, interrelated or unrelated to each other life cycles. Water is a key element in ecological cycles. Dealing with water cycles, is therefore essential, in man-nature collaborations, envisioning a sustainable future for both.

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Above: Cyprus: Buffer Zone and Water Flows Crossings

1 ANGELAKIS Andreas, MAYS Larry, KOUTSOYIANNIS, Demetris; MAMASSIS, Nikos; Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia, London: IWA Publishing, 2012, p304 2 “Crises, interruptions, even catastrophes can be inserted into a time line where they become part of a sequence in which different cycles may superimpose and interact with one another”: VIGANO Paola, “Elements for a theory of he city as renewable resource” in: FABIAN Lorenzo, GIANNOTTI Emanuel, VIGANO Paola, Recycling City, Lifecycles, Embodied Energy, Inclusion, Pordenone: Giavedoni editore, 2012, p17 PREFACE

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PREFACE

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On the left: Study Area Mapping water flows and land “buffers”

Research Objectives This thesis positions the design process in a scenario of Cyprus released from military forces, exploring the island’s ecosystems adaptation to environmental changes. If we consider the Buffer Zone as a left over landscape, a nonproductive space, a space of exclusion, the backside of development, then we can refer to Alan Berger’s term: “Drosscape”. Landscape Urbanism, in this case, is a tool for dealing with “waste landscapes”[1] based on ideas as recycle and reuse.

The objective of this research is to examine adapting landscape possibilities through ecological systems, in a scenario of climate change. Water forms a tool of understanding and reshaping those ecosystems. Desertification mitigation and reaction of existing ecologies to it, form the driver of creativity, imagining landscape transformation of the future. Water is mapped and designed as a time-based element, able to transform and be transformed in different ecosystems. Thus, water is the mediator of adaptability in extreme scenarios of radical changes.

1 BERGER Alan, “Drosscape” in: Wasting Land Urban America, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2007, p.35

PREFACE

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Mapping Scales Mapping through scales crossing

Cyprus

Buffer Zone

Study Area 8x8km

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PREFACE

Methodology and Study Area This thesis is a combination of an intensive field work with a parallel process of cartographic research and interpretative mapping, through a process of “research by design”. Three field trips took place in different time periods. The first, took place in the beginning of February, the second in the end of March and the last one in the end of May. Field work consisted of material collection from press, books, archives, on site survey and map gathering. Existing cartography has been an informative tool and an inspiring research leading to a multilayered historical-cultural-spatial reading. Photography, video attempts, spontaneous interaction with locals, shaped issues and potentials in the first place. In parallel, contacting water related sectors and consultants, interviews and scientific material collected, enhanced the whole perception.

Mapping has been a “productive and liberating instrument”[1] for positioning realities. Complex realities have been sources of creativity, in their graphical representation of both understanding and questioning. Mapping existing waterscapes, discovering past and present practices in water use and management, shaped the perception of local ecological cycles, landscape specificities and potentialities. Mapping ecologies as part of systems of nature and culture made possible the envisioning of new realities and evident the role of landscape urbanism approach in recovering, reshaping, adapting ecosystems.

of any design process, first disclosing and then staging the conditions for the emergence of new realities.”[2] Mapping realities can never be objective, on the contrary, it can be intentionally provocative. Crossing scales has been part of mapping and design attempts. Mapping has been explored in three major scales: the scale of the island, the scale of the Buffer Zone and the scale of the selected study area 8x8 km which is crossed by the Buffer Zone.

The study area is chosen as such due to several reasons: Firstly, in those 8x8 km we can distinguish mainly two river branches, formed by the flow of the same river called “Serrahis” with direction from South to North. Those meet in an artificial wetland (dam), placed inside the Buffer Zone, which diverts the flow of the water to the West. The presence of this river creates a unique relationship between man and nature, North and South. Serrahis is the third largest river in Cyprus and originally one of the most important of the island in terms of ground water recharge.

The presence of such river made the study area one of the most productive areas in Cyprus. Citrus trees, olive trees and cereals are for hundreds of years a significant economic force for the inhabitants of the neighbour villages, as well as a cultural artefact which characterizes Cypriot identities both Muslim and Christian.

Mapping in such a conflicted spatial and political context, cannot escape from positioning the author in ideological frames. “Mapping is never neutral, passive or without consequence; on the contrary, mapping is perhaps the most formative and creative act

The eternal water problem of the island and Climate change have arisen several ecological issues in areas such as the study area.

Desertification threat drives the plain along the Buffer Zone in an emergency state. Productivity is challenged by soil degradation, global warming and water extinction. The study area is a sample of a wider problem identification and experimentation in design, focused on the Mesaoria plain.

1 CORNER, James, “The Agency of mapping”, in The Landscape Imagination, New York, Princeton Architectural Press, 2014, p197

2 CORNER, James, “The Agency of mapping”, in The Landscape Imagination, New York, Princeton Architectural Press, 2014, p200

PREFACE

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PREFACE

On the left: Study Area Map data ©2011 Google, DigitalGlobe

Future Hypothesis - what if “The largest relative decreases in population (in Europe) were reported by Cyprus (-12.9 per 1 000 persons), Greece (-8.4) and Latvia (-7.7). Data for Cyprus show a sharp change in recent years from a fast growing population to one that is decreasing, due mainly to high rates of negative net migration.”[1] Although population growth rates in the few last years are negative, forecasts for the future show a population increase of 20% by the year 2050 and 40% by the year 2080[2]. Population is aging but we cannot ignore the fact that Cyprus has always been an important migration destination of Asia, Africa and Europe. The amount of immigrants arriving in Cyprus, only in 2011, has reached the 2% of the total population.

and precipitation decreases about 1mm per year.[4] A warmer and dryer climate together with wind erosivity lead to desertification, abandoned rural landscapes, expanding cities, fewer job opportunities, environmental crisis and economic decline.

The total legal population of Cyprus has been estimated at 949 thousand in the end of 2013 recording a decrease of 0,8% comparing to the previous year. The composition of the Cypriot population in 2013 was formed by 72% of Greek Cypriots, 9.5% of Turkish Cypriots and 18.5% of foreign population[3]. Since 1974 there is an amount of illegal population (Turkish settlers in the North) which is not officially reported by the state and it is estimated to be equal to 20% of the current legal population on the island.

What if we focus on adaptability in terms of landscape transformation and multicultural development? What if we imagine a united island? What if North and South cooperate, reshaping ecosystems and identities? What if we imagine the Buffer Zone as a land of negotiation of both sites and the Water as the tool, in healing processes, regarding cultural, productive and ecological landscapes?

At the same time, according to statistics of 20th century regarding Cypriot climate, temperature increases up to 0.01°C per year 1 Eurostat, Statistics Explained, “Population and population change statistics”, [online] Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php/Population_and_population_change_statistics [Accessed on: 25 July 2015] 2 Eurostat, “Population Projections”, [online] Available at: http:// ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&plugin=1&langua ge=en&pcode=tps00002 [Accessed on 25 July 2015] 3 Statistical Service, “Demographic Report 2013” [online] Available at: http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/6C25304C1E70 C304C2257833003432B3/$file/DEMOGRAPHIC_REPORT-2013-231214. pdf?OpenElement [Accessed on 25 July 2015]

Division of an island of less than a million people is counter effective in cultural and environmental evolution. The Buffer Zone, containing active mine fields, keeps the Muslim and Christian separate, not only spatially but also mentally. A present of miscommunication obfuscates the urgency of environmental rehabilitation, while climate change puts deadlines in the ongoing process of over exploitation of natural resources.

Is mitigation of desertification possible through ecological cycles applied to existing ecosystems? Can productivity of the land increase by water strategies, providing sufficient water for irrigation? May the buffer zone form a new “green heart”, accelerating environmental rehabilitation? Will a future of new job opportunities, together with adequate housing for all, reach the needs of 2050? Can this work in decentralized system putting the “countryside” back to the map?

4 Prais, UNCCD, “Cyprus Report for Combating Desertification”, [online] Available at: http://www.unccd-prais.com/Uploads/GetReportPdf/ cdc86239-afb8-4b6c-b2e5-a0fa014a4b27, [Accessed on 5 April 2015]

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“Cyprus is an island of sudden changes. Both climate and landscape are subject to rapid variations.”

“The climate changes from great heat to chilling cold.”

“After the winter of 1877, the great Messaeria plain was a lake of water and slime.”

“There is no doubt that the resources of the island are great, if properly developed” “Without water, the hot sirocco winds from the east, soon dry up any vegetation. Irrigation, however is not a difficult matter. On the plain the water is found almost everywhere at from 18 to 20 feet below the surface and along hillsides there are many springs and rivulets that run to waste through the inertness of the people.” “...there is undoubtedly great mineral wealth beneath the soil, capable of paying largely by any outlay.” “...it is odd to see the parties in the fields, reaping, almost always one man to two women, both Greek and Turkish alike.”

Notes From Cyprus by Kitchener[1]

1 SHIRLEY Rodney, “Notes from Cyprus by Kitchener”, Reproduced from Blackwood’s Magazine, August 1879, in: Kitchener’s Survey of Cyprus 1878 - 1883, The first full triangulated survey and mapping of the island, Nicosia: The Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation, 2001, p57

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CYPRUS, BETWEEN RADICAL CHANGES AND CULTURAL CONFLICTS

Cyprus, Between Radical Changes and Cultural Conflicts

| Geographies of Cyprus

| Mapping the “Stepping Stone”

| Climate conditions and Climate change

| Political Landscapes, the act of “Becoming”

| Mapping the “Inversion”

CYPRUS, BETWEEN RADICAL CHANGES AND CULTURAL CONFLICTS

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On the right: Cyprus’ Position Cyprus between different worlds - fact that defined its historical evolution Below: Cyprus’ Historical evolution Cyprus through its historical evolution has been conquered by different civilizations leaving back their traces - evidences of the island’s eternal shortage of water.

Geographies of Cyprus

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Cyprus is an island located in the eastern Mediterranean sea with a surface of 9250km2. Its geographical position “in-between” Europe, Asia and Africa radically affected its history. Different waves of occupations, from the three surrounding continents, left their traces on Cyprus’ landscapes and society. The first traces of urbanization date back to 8200BC, while, each cultural artefact, evidence of Cyprus’ historical evolution, declares the island’s eternal shortage of water.

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   







 

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   CYPRUS, BETWEEN RADICAL CHANGES AND CULTURAL CONFLICTS

jects of the territory. An important, hidden layer under the productive soil, mainly in valleys, formed the main source of water in Ottoman period. Ottomans used the “qanat” systems to access shallow aquifer layers and transport ground water, to dry areas.

This practice, so called “laoumia” in Cypriot dialect, with Persian origins, came to Cyprus from prehistoric years and today, there are more than 200 underground tunnels, with length from 40 up to 3500m, on the island.[1] The system benefited from sloppy areas, and alluvial soils. A related horizontal tunnel could transport ground water from underground to the surface, with a stable water flow, and arrive to the inhabited land for supply and irrigation.



1 CONSTANTINOU Georgios, PANAGIDES Ioannis, Κύπρος και Γεωλογία, (Cyprus and Geology), Nicosia: Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation, 2013 (in Greek) p315



Nevertheless the inhabitants continued to choose their settling spots close to river beds, the water supply was never sufficient for their necessities, in a year cycle. Therefore, during the Venetian period, transportation channels and aqueducts, together with strong fortifications for the main cities, formed the large scale pro-

Below: Larnaca’s aqueduct A gravure dating back to British colonialism, describes water transportation practices constructed in earlier periods (Venetian aqueduct) and use of camels, for people’s transportation needs.



The first civilizations on the island where settled on the shoreline and close to riverbeds due to the water supplies from rivers and food supplies from fishing, farming and hunting. However, rapidly, peoples started inhabiting the inlands to protect themselves from the raids, coming from the sea. “Mesaoria” plain, formed the ground of the new urbanization with the appearance of a Roman city, Nicosia, attached to Pedieos river.

Below, on the left: Typical Qanat Qanats were extensively used during Ottoman period. Benefiting sloppy grounds and alluvial soils of the valleys in “Mesaoria”, there have been constructed more than 200 underground tunnels of up to 3500m length.



On the left: Cyprus’ Radical Morphological Transformation Conceptual visualization of Cyprus’ Neolithic shape and formation of “Mesaoria” plain due to soil transportation from the mountains to the plain, through the rivers. First settlements - along the coast - close to river beds. Later, protection from raids pushed the urbanization towards inland, where surface water was minimal, fact that explains the existence of underground advance technics, “qanats”.

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Above: Ancient Wells, 8200BC First evidence of human on the island. Surface water was not present during the whole year - ground water turned to form a main source of water for ancient civilizations until today

Above: Underground Tunnel of Amathus Underground tunnel of 120m length transported water from a natural spring into caved sacred place, the Nymphaeum of Amathus, in Hellenistic times. This is an archaic example of the “qanat” systems, technic, widely used in Cyprus.

Below: British Water Storage Dams Indeed, many irrigation projects have been realized during the British Empire like water channels in Mesaoria productive plain. The high amount of dams constructed since British Colonization until today is indeed remarkable.

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Below: British Artesian Drilling After a geological study, British discovered artesian basin under Mesaoria’s land and planned artesian drilling. The project was of high cost, as a result it was interrupted.

Above: Aqueduct in Salamina Aqueduct of around 40km, for Salamina’s irrigation needs, constructed during the Roman Empire

Below: British River diversion British covered the stream passing through the centre of Nicosia with urban tissue while planted Eucalyptus trees on flooded surfaces and diverted the flow of Pedieos River to the North.

Above: Cistern in “Vouni” Palace Cisterns in the Palaces are evidence of water collection during drought periods through the history. The Palace above dates back to 2nd century AD.

Above: Larnaca’s Aqueduct Venetians constructed long aqueducts and transported water to the cities, for water supply.

Below: “Laoumia” or “Qanat” during Ottoman period Ottomans extended and build new qanat systems while continued using river water and spring water.

Ground water was the main source of water supply and irrigation.

Below: Nicosia’s Venetian Fortress Nicosia as well as all main cities on the island were well fortified during the Venetian period. Nicosia’s fortress project aimed to fill in the excavated ditch surrounding the fortress with water from Pedieos River. Although the plan was quite relevant, it never worked in practice and the ditch remains still today dry.

General Note: Information found in: CAMBANELLAS C.et all, Development of Water Resources’ in Cyprus, A Historical Review, Nicosia, Water Development Department, 2003 RESMYE, Alpar, Atun; NACYE, Doratli; “Walls in Cities: A Conceptual Approach to the Walls of Nicosia” in Geopolitics, London, Routledge, 2009 14:1 CYPRUS, BETWEEN RADICAL CHANGES AND CULTURAL CONFLICTS

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Below: Fernando Bertelli “ Isola di Cipro� Rome, 1562 Venetians were the first advanced cartographers for Cyprus. This rare map of Cyprus, engraved during the Venetian Empire, demonstrates clearly the Venetian domination and perception of Cypriot landscapes. Rivers from Troodos Mountain connected the cities which are represented as well defined and with strong fortresses, emphasizing Nicosia in Mesaoria and Famagusta as a port city.

Nicosia was attached to Pedieos River.

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CYPRUS, BETWEEN RADICAL CHANGES AND CULTURAL CONFLICTS

Below: Ioannes Deutecum, “Cypri Insulae Nova Descript 1573”, Antwerp: ORTELIUS, 1600 A map engraved two years after Ottoman Empire conquers Cyprus. Rivers and urban centres are the main figure on this map as well as Salamina’s aqueduct, southeast of the island.

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Below: Albert Gaudry, The First Geologic study and first Geologic Map of Cyprus, 1862 Geological references for Cyprus, concerning Cooper and other minerals of the island, has been made and known today since Aristoteli’s period (2nd century BC). Later, Geography of Strabos (1st century BC), mentions Cooper extraction in Cyprus. The first document though, that demonstrates, in great detail, Cyprus geology, is the map of Gaudry, published by the Geological Society of France in 1859.

He describes the landscapes of Cyprus as such: “The traveller who enters the plain of Nicosia and sees in the distance the abrupt precipices of these rocks rising behind the ‘macigno‘ hills would suppose that he was looking at immense walls built on the top of slopes. Their scarps contrast with the rounded forms of the igneous masses of the Olympian chain [Troodos range] on the other side of the plain. Their outlines stand out with splendid boldness against the almost perpetual azure of the Cyprian sky. On three of the most lofty summits there still exist the ruins of strong- holds which from their position were impregnable; these castles seem as it were suspended in mid-air; they are the castle of Buffavento, the castle of St. Hilarion, and that of Kantara.”[1] 1 BELLAMY, Charles Vincent; JUKES-BROWNE, Alfred John, 1851-1914 “The geology of Cyprus”, Plymouth : William Bredon & Son, Ltd., 1905, p10

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Belowt: Unger and Kotschy, Map of Cyprus, 1865 A topographic map of Cyprus from 1865 can demonstrate the main morphological figure on the island, Troodos mountain. Troodos mountain range covers 1/3 of the total area of Cyprus and it has its highest point, Olympos, with the level of 1951m. The topography of this Troodos regulates the climate conditions of the island.[1] In 1859, Kotschy, an Austrian botanist, visits the island and mentions the presence of cypress trees on Kerynia mountain and dense forest of deciduous trees, green spruces, bushes of olive, myrtile and other Mediterranean species on Troodos Mountain.

1 CONSTANTINOU Georgios, PANAGIDES Ioannis, Cyprus and Geology, Nicosia: Cyprus Bank Cultural Association, 2013, p33

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On the right, above: Geological map by Albert Gaudry, 1878 After British colonized the island, Gaundry revisits the island and surveys under British State orders. A geological map demonstrate the local practices of agriculture as well as spontaneous vegetation on various soil and topographic conditions. Higher levels consisting of Plutonic rocks are mainly covered by Pine trees, Oaks and Maple trees. Mastic and Juniper bushes grow spontaneously on limestone in the valleys in lower levels, as well as Olive trees. Cotton and Cereals are cultivated in the plain on sandy and clay soils.

Below: Geological Sections through Nicosia After British colonized the island, a detailed study of Cyprus has been made, regarding geology, topography, towns and antiquities. The geological transformations combined with topographical ones, create a variation of different ecosystems and varying conditions in terms of productivity of the land.

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CYPRUS, BETWEEN RADICAL CHANGES AND CULTURAL CONFLICTS

On the right, below: Agricultural Map by Albert Gaudry, 1878 Gaundry goes further and describes the distribution of agricultural production on the whole island. Cultivated fields are where there are water stream passing while Mesaoria plain is shown as fully productive and cultivated. Patches of orchards can be found in the valleys, on the mountains as well as in the plain while vineyards are found on the southern and northern valleys of Troodos Mountain. Woodlands are concentrated mainly on the two mountain ranges with some exceptions along the coasts. Finally, a quite big area of the island is described as wasted land, mostly concentrated around the forested area, on the foothills of Troodos Mountain. Degraded forests have been stated since Unger and Kotchy’s descriptions of the island. “Unger in 1866 publishes an additional article suggesting that Turkish rule has ruined the productivity of the island and forced the forests into the most inaccessible parts of the island.”[1] 1 HARRIS Sarah Elizabeth, Colonial Forestry and Environmental History, British Policies in Cyprus 1878-1960, Texas: The University of Texas in Austin, 2007, p68

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Mapping the “Stepping Stone” This land of permanent and countless raids, of geological wealth, of forests, was for travellers, besiegers, kings, scientists and traders, a reference point, a stepping stone during their travels, a conquer target and a source of wealth. It has been called with countless names: The actual name of Cyprus, “Κύπρος”, comes from ancient Greek times, also, “cyprum” in Latin means Copper.

Cyprus wealthy period in its prehistoric times, “Chalcolithic Era” (3900-1500BC), was the period of discovery and exploitation of copper. Copper attracted ancient Greeks to the island, who ruled Cyprus for 1350 years and shaped its language and culture.

The first inhabitants, Josephus claims, were descendants of Kittim, son of Javan, son of Japheth and the first colonization was from the Phoenicians,[1] (1050BC) while, the last colonization was in modern times, from British Empire which gave Cyprus its independency in 1960.

1 SAVILE, Albany Robert; Cyprus, London 1878, p7, in: Oxford University, Internet Archive [online] Available at: https://archive.org/details/cyprus00savigoog [Accessed on 9 August 2015]

On the right: Rogel Hans, Insola Cipern, Augsburg 1570 - Arrivals to Cyprus A map made in Germany just one year before the island falls under Ottoman Empire. What Rogel shows on his map, which was not emphasized before, in any cartographic document, is the “arrival” part of the different civilizations to Cyprus. Travellers, crusaders, besiegers, kings, scientists, traders, were arriving to Cyprus with their ships to stop for a while or to stay.

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Cyprus has ever since been a stepping stone, not only from the anthropological cycles but also from the ecological one. In particular, bird migrations characterises landscape dynamics. In spring, different species of birds from Africa use Cyprus, to stop by, during their journey to Europe, while some stay longer to breed or even for an entire season before they continue to the north. The same happens in autumn, when they travel with the opposite direction towards South this time[1].

Wetlands close to the coasts, forested mountains and productive plains make up, within their micro climates, attractive habitats for different types of birds. Climatic conditions vary from high to low levels, from the coast side to the inlands, from one season to the next. Therefore, variation of environments attracts varying visitors.

1 STYLIANOU Jane, BirdLife Cyprus, Birds of Cyprus, Nicosia: Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation, 2009, pp28-30

On the right: Flamingos in Larnaca’s Salt Lake Larnaca’s salt lake forms an important ecosystem on the island which attracts Greater Flamingos. In winter is full of water and in summer gets totally dry. Flamingos’ unlikely with other birds, migrate to Cyprus in winter when the Salt Lakes of Larnaca and Limassol are full and they continue their journey towards North when climate gets too warm for them.

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Below: Desertification Vulnerability - environmental forecasts An environmental study, concerning desertification, from the Department of Environment in Cyprus, shows that 57% of the island is in state of emergency regarding desertification, 42.3% is vulnerable for desertification and only 0.7% is not in threat of desertification.[1]

Climate conditions and Climate change

1 Department of Environment, Εθνικό Σχέδιο δράσης για την καταπολέμιση της απερείμωσης (National Plan of combating Desertification), Nicosia: Press and Information Office, 2008, p137 (in Greek)

Radical changes characterize not only Cyprus’ historical evolution, but also Cyprus landscapes. Climate conditions and climate change cause landscape’s transformation. Cyprus is located in a basin with a dry, semi-arid climate. Specifically, climate in Cyprus has mainly two transformational periods per year, a hot and dry summer and a wet and mild winter. Spring and autumn are rather short periods in-between. Although Cyprus climate is affected by the waves from Asia, Africa and Europe, it forms special climate conditions according to its geo-morphology.

Troodos mountain, with its high elevation, receives an amount of 500-1100mm of annual rainfall while the lowest plains, 200300mm per year. Normally, if there is a wet winter, the springs on the mountains continue to feed the rivers running towards the plains with water for irrigation, but droughts are an often phenomenon in Cyprus. The average annual rainfall of 500mm, gives 4600 million cubic metres of atmospheric precipitation of which the 3550 million cubic meters evaporate[1]. Therefore, more than 3/4 of the total atmospheric precipitation are of no use. That is one of the reasons that, since ancient times till today, surface water sources are unable to cover human needs.

Today, desertification threatens Cyprus’ land with erosion, minimized productivity and decreased biodiversity. “Almost all land area of Cyprus is sensitive to desertification. The percentage of areas very sensitive to desertification may increase from 57% in 2008 to 70.4% in 2050”[2] Rural areas, gradually lose their agricultural capacity, therefore, their population. People tend to leave rural centres and move to the main cities - that is another factor that compounds the phenomenon.

1 CONSTANTINOU Georgios, PANAGIDES Ioannis, Κύπρος και Γεωλογία, (Cyprus and Geology), Nicosia: Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation, 2013 (in Greek) p300 2 SHOUKRI, Elpida, ZACHARIADIS, Theodoros; “Climate change in Cyprus: Impacts and Adaptation Policies”, Environmental Policy Research Group Report 01-12, Limassol: Cyprus University of Technology 2012, p23 36

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  

     



 

On the left: Solar radiation allocation Due to its small size and its position, the island has high levels of solar radiation, in all its area. According to the diagram, only Troodos Mountain has less solar radiation in its higher spots. Once more, the morphology of the island affects its climate conditions. The areas with more solar radiation is the western “Mesaoria” and the southern coast. The productive plain suffers from high temperatures, therefore evaporation can minimize surface water, even in winter.













On the left: Average annual rainfall allocation Topography clearly affects rainfall. Rainfall is concentrated on the two mountain ranges, North and South, while the plain has almost no rainfall during the year.

Troodos Mountain has the highest levels of rainfall on its highest points.

On the left: Desertification Vulnerability The plain of Mesaoria is in state of emergency, like the 57% of the island, regarding climate change. Desertification threatens the productivity of its land, the economy of the country and results to demographic changes.

Nicosia, appears to be surrounded with the most vulnerable areas for desertification. In 2050, if no action for climate change mitigation takes place, the 70.4% of the island would turn to arid, nonproductive land.

This is in contrast with demographic forecasts predicting that population will increase 20% of the population of today.

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Taking a distance from this spot in the Mediterranean, to see the big picture, world’s population is generally increasing, while “each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the Earth’s surface than any preceding decade since 1850”.[1] Sea level rise, species extinction, undermined food security, human health are some of the consequences of climate change. It is projected that climate change will increase extreme conditions in urban areas such “heat stress, storms and extreme precipitation, inland and coastal flooding, landslides, air pollution, drought, water scarcity, sea level rise and storm surges”(IPCC 2014).

Do our urbanized landscapes have the proper infrastructure to adapt to those extremities? What is there to be done in order to avoid a possible disaster? As François Perier suggests, “we need to see the fragility of the planet and its resources as an opportunity of speculative design innovations rather than a form of technical legitimation for promoting conventional solutions... ...to incorporate and accommodate the inherent conflictual conditions between ecology and urbanism”[2] 1 IPCC, 2014, Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, p2 2 PERIER, François; “The city is so vast that we have so much to say to each other.” in: Ecological Urbanism, Harvard University, Zürich: Lars Müller Publishers 2010/2013, p17

Going back to where this argument started, climate radical changes, result to great spatial transformations. Just taking a look on the study area, a system of rivers, suggests seasonal, landscape transformation. Time, the fourth dimension, can make a flowing river visible or hidden just with a couple of months time difference. Everything is part of a cycle.

Rivers that are totally dry during years and years, or during drought periods, can suddenly fill in with water and flow with great speed after a storm in winter. That, obviously, causes problems in urban centres and agricultural areas. In 1936 Peristerona River is described by the locals as an enormous entity that such has never been again during 90 years. The fact that rainfall can be sudden, heavy and nonstop for days, weather has been sunny, finds people surprised and their territory unprepared for that.

Drainage in urban centres, usually does not have the capacity of great amounts of water and worse, urbanization extending inside the riverbeds make the possibility of flooding higher.

When there is a sudden flow of a dry river, floods of streets, agricultural areas and houses are inevitable. Although this is a phenomenon that happens rarely, it happens during big storms. On one hand, storms feed the countless dams of the island, one the other hand, flooding problems happen wherever there is a river passing, even a forgotten one.

On the right: Rainfall per month - Landscape transformation Rainfall is limited to the five winter months from November until March while the rest seven months there is negligible amount of rainfall. This transforms landscapes from wet to totally dry. Most of the year period, water does not exist on the surface of Serrahis River (in the study area) while in winter, water covers its whole width. This phenomenon made people to construct small dams all along its branches to collect water for longer periods and eventually use it for irrigation purposes.

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CYPRUS, BETWEEN RADICAL CHANGES AND CULTURAL CONFLICTS



 



 Average rainfall per month in millimetres

 





  









  CYPRUS, BETWEEN RADICAL CHANGES AND CULTURAL CONFLICTS

39

On the right: Serrahis river flowing towards west, April Water presence inside the river and in the green grass

11 April 2015

On the right: Serrahis river flowing towards west, June Not only water disappears from river beds but the whole landscape change texture and colour.

5 June 2015

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13 April 2015

29 May 2015

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Above: Waterscapes Transformations Periodical transformations can be interrupted by periods of droughts while a sudden storm can bring a sudden river flow with great speed in to the previously dried out river bed.

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On the right: Checkpoint of Nicosia Checkpoints are since 2003, the only way of actual communication between North and South. People from both sides pass often to the “other side”.

Political Landscapes, the act of “Becoming” “The most basic political element in any landscape is the boundary.”[1]No doubt why communities, always stockade their territories. This way, they define an urban centre or a rural periphery, any kind of hierarchical system to organize their landscape.

Even in the small scale of a household, a fence, claims a territory and even a sense of belonging. Lets speak about a boundary, that not only buffers territories, but it forms a landscape by itself. A landscape of radical transformation that does not affect natural flows but affects people’s flows, is the “UN Buffer Zone”.

United Nations drew a line over the island, the “green line”, in 1963 after “intercommunal violence” between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots. This line was permeable until 1974 when Turkey invaded to the island witch resulted the Turkish occupation of the Northern Part of Cyprus. The division, resulted in huge demographic transformation on the island and the “green line” became impermeable. People became refugees from one day to another in their own country. Migration of people from North to South and vice versa resulted to a crisis of identities and cultural conflicts. Cultural conflicts translated to space was the result of the creation of the Buffer Zone.

The buffer zone, the space in between, has been separating the two main communities of Cyprus for 41 years, so far. This piece of land keeps memories of violence alive in the daily life of Cypriots, both Turkish and Greek speaking. Furthermore, it does not allow free communication of the two sides and uncontrolled accessibility by man on its surface. The only way of communication is through the “check points” which opened up for public flows in 2003.

 



 



1 JACKSON, John Brinckerhoff, Discovering the Vernacular Landscape, New Heaven and London: Yale University Press, 1984, p13

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On the left: Mr Pendaris, a Turkish Cypriot living in Phylia village in the North

Document equivalent of Visa to cross the check-points

On the left:

A document of identification and a filledin paper with data as such shown in the image, are the requirements to cross to the “other side”. After the elections of 2015 in June, the new president, Mustafa Akinçi changed the regulations and today, no document from Greek Cypriots is required to fill in or be stamped.

He runs a coffeehouse business. He spoke to us in Greek and to his neighbours in Turkish. He offered us coffee and he got offended when we offered to pay. He is from Paphos and moved to Phylia after the war. He used to work for Public Constructions and he still receives pension from the Cypriot State. He knew an ex-colleague of my father, a Greek Cypriot from his (mixed) village.

 



 Mother: I left my house in the North to study in 1968. I went on a ship to Russia. At those times telecommunication was rare.

When the war happened I learned it from the news. When I finish my studies I found my parents in an new place. Them and a lot more refugees left immedietely from “Morfou” and moved: others to Nicosia others to Limassol, away. Since then, I never saw my house again until 2003 when the checkpoints opened by Turkish initial. Turkish Cypriots habitated my house. Today the house is empty, those people moved.

Morfou was a rich town with plenty of citrus caltivations. A lot left abandoned after the war.

 Father: I left my house in the North before the war. We decided to move to the city. I am not officially a refugee. I have a lot of fields and olive trees in my village, “Larnakas tis Lapithou”. If Cyprus problem gets solved I will take my land back according to “Anan Plan” of 2003. For many years I refused to pass the border and show my passport or my id card. It’s my country and I want to move freely. I decided to go last year (2014) to see my village. I will never go again until they give our land back.



 CYPRUS, BETWEEN RADICAL CHANGES AND CULTURAL CONFLICTS

45

Cyprus, has always been a multicultural island, and its people mixed. However according to the ethnic majority of each area, there have been Catholic villages, Christian villages and Muslim villages. Many were also mixed. Peristerona, in the study area was one of the previously peaceful mixed villages. This is evident today by the presence of an ancient orthodox church and an ancient mosque very close to each other. Furthermore, parts of the village, which is now inhabited only by Greek Cypriots, are empty, abandoned, waiting for their owners.

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mosque in use

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ASTROMERITIS

AKAKI

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PERISTERONA

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

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

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

On the right: Study area 8x8km Two growing villages in the South and three shrinking villages in the North, are separated by the Buffer Zone in-between. Serrahis river passes through it, transporting water used by all the villages in winter (when there is water flow in the river bed) 50

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Topography, transformed into a communication method between the two sides. After the war, signs on hills and a huge flag on the Northern mountain range claim the identity of the land.

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The Buffer Zone remains a vast, abandoned land of exclusion. No interests, no owners, no identities. A no-man land, or, a land for everyone(?). A land of restrictions, or, a land of “commonness”(?).

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Mapping the “Inversion” Conditions of inclusion and exclusion create landscapes of the ordinary and the extraordinary in the frame of division of Cypriot landscapes. The Buffer Zone, an interface between two entities, a land in-between two civilizations, questions its own identity.

This buffered space has its own entity, its own ecosystem. It is a fact that, in the study area, a complicated situation, based on formalities and informalities, takes place, regarding the edges of the Buffer Zone. The drawn shape exists on “papers” but it does not exist on concrete space. The edges vary according to the spatial conditions around them.

United Nations is the only authority controlling this land. Therefore, the two communities negotiate with them, in order to take advantage of their properties, inside the Buffer Zone. UN law allows both Turkish and Greek Cypriots to cultivate their land or construct a farm under certain regulations. Therefore, the actual, non-accessible part of the Buffer Zone, varies in width. In some areas the width is up to several kilometres and in some others, down to 3 meters. In fact, most of the area of the official Buffer Zone is used, and what remains out of it is the actual, dead, zone.

This zone is characterized by emptiness, at the moment, uncultivated fields, spontaneous vegetation, active hidden mines and UN outposts all along its length to check and control, from above.

The fact that this land is under “special treatment” naturally, led to its perception as the “other”, the “different”, the “inversion”.

Here, I would like to state that its transformation to let alone landscape, poses great potential for its future. Birds are attracted in the Buffer Zone because there, they are safe from hunters and

traps. Also, they take advantage of the diverse spontaneous vegetation that takes place in much of its area. Why not imagine then those conditions into extremes and let nature take over this land?

Lets speak about a land where wilderness rules, while the two opponent sides are domesticated. The Buffer Zone has its own ecosystems, based on its own ecologies, of which man is not the dominant inhabitant. Man’s attention, in this case, has to turn to reserve Nature’s wilderness, regarding the role of the Buffer Zone after a hypothetical solution of the Cypriot Problem. If population expansion is forcing nature to adapt to its requests, there, is the space to reverse this fact. In the Buffer Zone, what rules is Nature.

Nature should put the rules in future populations and force them to adapt to its requests.

If, division has brought up cultural conflicts, the Buffer Zone, is the first space to let go. In the Buffer Zone, no conflicts should drive any cultural identity. This land may belong to no-one and it should be used from everyone. A land where “commonness” overcomes every interest and sharing can take place. Division of cultures may transform to cultural exchanges, and no use should be set as permanent, but rather flexible and adaptable. If real estate and agriculture consume the land’s resources on the two sides, the Buffer Zone may remain a space of reservation. In the Buffer Zone, what grows may be for pleasure of sights, smells, tastes, regarding human interaction with it. Hosting activities should exist to support people’s exchanges and not to claim a future business. Therefore, activities and structures should only be public and for everyone, poor, rich, Muslim, Christian, Greek or Turkish speaking.

On the left: Collage expressing landscapes of actual inversion Topography in combination with the aerial picture shows where the concrete space starts having a degree of inversion and where it is actually, totally inverted: Coloured aerial picture in between landscape sections: ordinary laws under two different administrations.

Black and White aerial picture in between landscape sections: under United Nations authority, some degree of exploitation from human with UN permission Aerial picture on landscape sections: not accessible, no human activities since 1974, contains active mines in several places.

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Above: Collage expressing ordinary and extraordinary landscapes Urban centres, within their transformations and complexities, speak of rather ordinary spaces, while the not permeable part of the Buffer Zone is where ordinary is prohibited

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Above: Topography - Degrees of permeability for the Buffer Zone Topography leads water towards north-west which passes through landscapes of exclusion such as the Buffer Zone, with several degrees of impermeability for human but not for water flows

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Above: Collage expressing perception of landscapes on-site Both pictures speak of vast landscapes in the permeable part of the Buffer Zone, where production is related to human activity while in the not permeable part there is no reference of human activity.

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Above: Collage expressing ecological qualities and military control in the Buffer Zone The productive part of the buffer zone attracts many migratory birds of which most of them find safety in the not accessible part, even though, watched and controlled by human

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WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

Waterscapes [Existing to potential]

| Traces of the Past

| Water Storage and Management

| Productive Landscapes

| Ecological Landscapes

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Traces of the Past

Speaking of memories, of people’s relationship with their land, of traditions and local practices, lets look to landscapes as living organisms that tell us a story, a story of identities: “...celebrating a different past, not the past which history and books describe, but a vernacular past, a golden age where there are no dates or names, simply a sense of the way it used to be , history as the chronicle of everyday existence.”[1] 1 JACKSON John Brinckerhoff, The Necessity For Ruins, Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1980, p94

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On the right: Outlet of chain of wells Qanat systems provide water for irrigation to the village, flowing until today in surface channels. The system seems to be hidden and fading in peoples’ memories. Not all qanat systems work due to the aquifer’s depletion.

Traces of the Past “Qanat” - “Laoumia” Qanat systems contributed in a tremendous degree to the agricultural production where they functioned. Four qanat systems between 2000 and 3500m length, have been constructed in Katokopia, during the beginning of 20th century, even after British took over the island’s administration. The last qanat constructed is the one in Katokopia area, starting from the junction of the two branches of Serrahis River, (Akaki and Peristerona) and worked with (236) shares. Each share could have one hour of running water each fourteen days.[1] Qanat systems stopped functioning around 1950 due to the aquifer’s depletion after the construction of extensive extraction from boreholes. However, some qanats are still capable for use and, if ground water reaches the levels it used to have, qanats can be a great eco-technology included in future waterscapes.

1 CONSTANTINOU Georgios, PANAGIDES Ioannis, Κύπρος και Γεωλογία, (Cyprus and Geology), Nicosia: Cyprus Bank Cultural Association, 2013 (in greek), p319 On the right: Surface channels Both ground water and surface water has its infrastructure of flows in Akaki village.

On the right: Old mill in Akaki village Ground water used to arrive in an aqueduct (not existing anymore) and let the water fall on the mill (in the picture). The mill used to grind wheat from people’s fields.[1] 1 Mr Drousios, resident of Akaki village, personal Interview during on-site visit 66

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f wells

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Above: Chains of wells, aqueducts, mills Qanats exist as a hidden layer underground, the wells are mostly covered. Mills are abandoned and some ruined. An old aqueduct outside Avlona has an admirable structure and presence in the landscape.

ells fw ct hain o c

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peristerona village

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In Avlona area, an aqueduct used to transport ground water from existing qanat to a mill, which nowadays remains a ruin. As for the aqueduct, except of its admirable presence in the landscape, it still transports ground water, today much less than it used to, which is diverted into surface channels in its sides, east and west.

Being a breath away from Avlona, following it all along its length, you can hear sounds of the other side, people working in the fields, birds above, and feel the controlling eyes from high points (outposts). It’s length, between here and there, between different worlds, a ruin with great potential, can form the next reference point in people’s flows.

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On the right: Famagusta Station 1913 The rail line started functioning in 1905 and it has been totally de constructed in 1951. During its lifetime, locals have been using it, usually in special occasions and less often for their daily routine. It has been, in any case, a symbol of British Colonial period. British were definitely the ones who took advantage of it concerning inland transportation of products and mineral extractions that resulted to exportation from Famagusta harbour, a mechanism that aimed to contribute to a “world economy”.[1] 1 KING, Anthony; Global Cities: Post-Imerialism and the Internationalization of London, London: Routledge, 1991, p73

Morphou Station Argaki Nikitas Katzivera Pentayia Kalo Chorio Skouriotissa



Linou

On the right: Mix of cultures at Famagusta station 1920 Cypriot lifestyles and attempts for modernization. A Greek Cypriot coffee - man working at the station, two Turkish Cypriot women waiting for their train and an officer of the British State controlling.

On the right: Train admiration by locals, 1904 All along its route, the rail line had to solve various landscape specificities. One attempt was the bridging of the rivers, which were dry during most of the year, but with rainfall, they could appear flowing with high speed, drift whatever interrupted their flow. After the establishment of Cyprus Governmental railway by the Colonial State, people’s main reaction was to admire the train and its structure since their rural identity didn’t fit with imported modernization.

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Evrychou Station

Agios D Avlona

Katokopia Peristerona

Denia

Airport

Kokkinotrithia Station

Trachoni Station Nicosia Station

Dometios

Epicho

Kourou

Exo Metochi Mia Milia

Angastina Station Vitsada Marathovounos

Genagra Pyrga

Prastio Station Gaidouras Stilloi

Engomi Famausta Harbour English Famagusta Famagusta Municipal City Station Store

A trace of a previous mobility line, passes through the Buffer Zone several times, crossing it repetitively, reminding us its present impermeability, suggesting the opposite. If the Buffer Zone is considered as reserved land, a land where people’s flows stop, respecting the rhythms of nature, which is the interface that could make the two interact? Perceiving this trace as an opportunity to slow down people’s flows and let them pass through the buffer zone following it all along, can form a possibility of rule-making, a spatial agreement between man and nature.

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Above: Cadastre plan, 1920[1] showing the existence of a train line A cadastre plan, drawn by hand, originally in 1920 by the Lands and Surveys office of British Colonial administration in Cyprus, revised in 1982, 1985 and 1995

by Lands and Surveys office of Cyprus State. This map of great detail shows the railway, the chains of wells, surface channels, administrative boundaries, plot numbers and ownerships, toponymies and everything related to the rural landscape.

1 72

Lands and Surveys, “Sheet XX Plan 53�, scale 1:5000, Nicosia 1920

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earth - controlled by military

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river path mount

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Above: Train line - its own “becoming” story The train line trace took several, other than its original, spatial forms in the today’s landscapes. It transformed to roads, to ditches, to earth roads, to mounds, in some cases it blended with the earth and others with the river.

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On the right: Beginning of aqueduct as stone channel Regulating doors for water distribution from the main water flow to secondary ones. Not all old regulating systems work today.

On the right, middle: Naos main earth channel On the right, bottom: Main, stone channel, in

Peristerona, in use

The study area has several irrigation works, dating back to Ottoman times, which ensure the distribution of the river water to the agricultural land. Those, are traditional infrastructures consisting of main earth channels, stone channels and secondary earth channels: “...Practically, when the river comes, water is distributed to the fields through the main earth channels. Part of the water goes to Peristerona and part of it to the main, earth channel of Katokopia, “Naos” channel. There is no other irrigation infrastructure than the earth channels. ...Water ramifies through secondary channels, which follow the morphology and topography of the land. Each land owner (upstream) is responsible to reopen the secondary channels of their plot for the next plot (downstream). ...All plots, in this area, have the right for irrigation with river water, if and when this exists. Irrigation Departments regulate irrigation with river water in each area. The only expenses of the Irrigation Department, actually regard the cleaning and reopening of the main earth channels. ...Peristerona’s irrigation Department consist of 10 000 decares (daa). Seasonal crops, mostly, are irrigated whenever the river flows. Land owners pay a fixed fee to the Irrigation Department, managed by the irrigation committee, of which the District officer is the chief. ...Firman, from the Ottoman Empire, still valid, states that when the river flows, in a cycle of eight daysnights, four give the right to Meniko the village upstream and the next four to the village downstream, Akaki. This happens when the river water is not enough for everyone and its flow is regulated by man. The village upstream is responsible to unblock the river flow again after their fourth day-night cycle”.[1] 1 CHARALAMBOUS Giorgos, assistant district supervisor, personal interview, 29 May 2015

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peristerona village Above: Existing irrigation network - surface channels Author’s interpretation from aerial picture (Map data ©2011 Google, DigitalGlobe)

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Water Storage and Management

Until 1970 water supply and irrigation was based, in a large degree, on ground water. This resulted in depletion of the aquifer and salt water intrusion in eastern and western Mesaoria, fact that worsens with population raise, touristic and industrial development.[1] This resulted to the construction of big projects, water dams, desalination plants and lately, waste water treatment plants.

1 OMORPHOS C., IOANNOU H., Έργο Νοτίου Αγωγού (Southern Conveyor Project), Nicosia: Water Development Department, 2000, p1

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On the right: Dam Construction - the study area Masari Dam, the largest Dam of the study area, is constructed in 1973, on the junction of the two branches of Serrahis river (Akaki river, Peristerona river). It is considered a large dam with volume of 278 000m3, and a surface of 620000m2. It is an earth fill dam and it is constructed for recharge purposes.[1] 1 CHRISTOPHIDES N., KYROU K., PISTI E., IOANNOU H., AVGOUSTI M., CHADJIYIANNI N., Dams of Cyprus, Nicosia, Water Development Department, 2009, p59

After Cyprus’s independency, the state started the construction of storage and recharge projects. Dam construction has begun long before that, in 1900 under the British Colonial State. Today, Cyprus has more than 100 dams and their total capacity is approximately 327.5 million cubic metres of water. Dam construction increased the storage capacity of the island, while since 1970, the average annual rainfall decreased from 550mm to 450mm.[1] 1 OMORPHOS C., IOANNOU H., Water Development Department, Έργο Νοτίου Αγωγού (Southern Conveyor Project), Nicosia: Press and Information Office, 2000, p3,4

Below: Southern Conveyor Project After Cyprus’s division, Cyprus state manages only for the southern part of the island. Water supply is based on water treatment plants which process the water from five desalination plants and partially from the dams. The largest project constructed is the Southern conveyor project that takes advantage of water from the dams and diverts it towards agricultural areas for irrigation in parallel with the coast line. This system works only for the southern areas while areas in the inland such as the study area, is still based in a large degree on ground water resources for irrigation.

           

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   80

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    





 







 



  



 

 



 

 





    









                                       

   

  





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81

Above: Naos earth channel Management Sketches from Water Development Department during British Colonialism[1] 1 Cyprus State Archives, TAY1/1279, p112, [digital scan] 5 June 2015

Above: Irrigation Works - Detail drawing Drawings of detailed structure of a stone channel from Water Development Department during British Colonialism[1] 1 Cyprus State Archives, TAY1/1279, p28, [digital scan] 5 June 2015 82

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]









































Above: All irrigation projects combined - interpretative map Sketch (by author) of all irrigation projects collected from Water Development Department’s Map Archive.

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

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84

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WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

85

Katokopia Distribution Channels Project 1965

Water Development Department [digital scan] Map Archive, Water Development Department, 3 June 2015, combined with aerial picture, Katokopia area (Map data Š2011 Google, DigitalGlobe)

86

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

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Akaki Completition Plan - Irrigation Scheme 1973

Water Development Department [digital scan] Map Archive, Water Development Department, 3 June 2015, combined with aerial picture, Akaki area (Map data Š2011 Google, DigitalGlobe)

88

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WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

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Irrigation works of the past, show man’s indelible need and, at the same time, ability, to collaborate with nature for his survival. Nature’s responsibility is to give to the human supplies for his existence, while, his responsibility is the mindful management of those natural resources. Therefore, mankind’s survival is based on responsibilities.

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

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Productive Landscapes Productive landscapes remind, the strong bond, man has with land. “Katokopites (people of Katokopia village), never abandoned their fields”, even after their displacement, “...they have been going during the night to water their fields, to keep their land.”[1] 1 CHARALAMBOUS Giorgos, assistant district supervisor, personal interview, 29 May 2015

Peristerona aerial picture, indicating “Naos” water channel: Map data ©2011 Google, DigitalGlobe WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

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WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

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WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

Speaking about landscapes, what can be defining a landscape better than a productive landscape? “...A landscape is not a natural feature of the environment but a synthetic space, a man-made system of spaces superimposed on the face of the land, functioning and evolving not according to natural laws but to serve a community... A landscape is thus a space deliberately created to speed up or slow down the process of nature.�[1] 1 JACKSON, John Brinckerhoff, Discovering the Vernacular Landscape, New Heaven and London: Yale University Press, 1984, p8

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1 NICOLAOU Giorgos, Department of Agriculture, Βελτιωμένα υστήματα άρδευσης (Improved irrigation systems), Nicosia: Publicity Sector, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, 2009

98

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

      

Cyprus, because of serious shortage of water, developed advanced methods for irrigation with the latest technologies applied on site.

Traditional methods of irrigation are the surface flooding and surface channels. Both are not efficient methods regarding water loss since 60% of the water used, evaporates. Sprinklers have been extensively used generally speaking in the area’s productive fields with efficiency between 60% and 85%. The least water consuming method though, is the method of Dropping with 80-99% efficiency.[1] The latest, has been recommended to Cypriot farmers and many use it today, while some prefer the traditional methods such as the flooding.

Carob trees and olive trees have always been characterizing the Cypriot landscapes, since they can grow in dry land and live for ages while they don’t need intense treatment from the man. Olive and Carob trees can form hedges in agricultural landscapes, can grow wild on cliffs or can be part of a domestic garden. Traditionally, even if you didn’t owe a plot but olive trees grow there, you could buy only the olive trees and take advantage of their harvest.

Harvesting olive and carob trees resulted to the production of local olive oil and carob syrup. Both, typical traditional products, labelled and exported.

      

The most water demanding sector, is the sector of agriculture by far, in Cyprus. Agriculture demands reach the 64% of the total water demands while the domestic sector only the 28.4%. Local production is mainly based on vegetables, cereals, citrus trees, potatoes, olive trees, carob trees, and vineyards. The plain, and most specifically the study area, consists of citrus trees, olive and carob trees as well as potatoes, cereals and vegetables. The most water demanding cultivations are the citrus trees with 800m3/daa/y (after alfa alfa cereal) which are the base of this area’s production.

Potato crops are the next most water demanding with approximately 600m3/daa/y. Less consuming are the cereals, vegetables and the least consuming are the olive trees with water demands 430m3/daa/y. Cultivation kind is definitely an important factor regarding water consumption but the most important factor is the irrigation method.

    





Below: Harvesting a carob tree - Gathering the locust beans: sketch made during British Colonialism[1]

Carob trees, locals use to say, is the “black gold” of the island. Carob seeds were, in historical times, one of the most important exportation product of the island. Every part of the seed can be used and no waste is made out of it. Each tree can produce up to 80kg of seeds. The seeds are used for eating or making syrup, while their shell can feed the animals (especially ships and goats). If seeds are harvested before maturing they can produce paint, used on textiles while part of the shell can produce glue used in pastry and fabrics.

1 Cyprus States Archives, “The Illustrated London News, Oct. 5 1878-312” in: The beginnings of the British administration of the island of Cyprus, Unpublished Documents of 1878, Nicosia: Cyprus State Archives, 2007, p43

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100

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

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 



 

  

 

 

 

  

102

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

 

Above: Irrigation methods practiced in Cyprus Based on: NICOLAOU Giorgos, Department of Agriculture, Βελτιωμένα υστήματα άρδευσης (Improved irrigation systems), Nicosia: Publicity Sector, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, 2009



















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





other crops



farms













fruit trees

Above: Productive Landscapes Mapping of productive landscapes with categorization of orchards (mainly citrus trees), other crops (mainly cereals) and farms (mainly dairy farms)

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Ecological Landscapes Speaking about ecologies, let’s remember the term “waste ecologies”, emerging ecologies, ones that acquired ecological potential due to their original character, of left over spaces. Alan Berger’s term “drosscape”, describes the combination of an emerging left over land (post-industrial) and a rapid horizontal expansion of other parts of the city (periphery).[1] Here, I would like to argue that post-industrial landscapes can be paralleled to post-war ones.

Vast, vacant landscapes, stay as the backside of urban development. In fact, people’s abomination to the Buffer Zone, pushed activities away, even from Nicosia’s city centre. Urban centres close to its edges became the “periphery”, while others, in the actual periphery have emerged. A mental realignment of societal structures translated to space, created little by little “drosscapes” of great potential.

1 BERGER, Alan; “Drosscape”in: The Landscape Urbanism Reader, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006

Katokopia aerial picture, indicating the Buffer Zone: Map data ©2011 Google, DigitalGlobe WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

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WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

Vast, left over spaces, in the study area, are not only the ones inside the Buffer Zone. Mapping the nonproductive land, the one where the wilderness characterizes the landscapes, more than the domesticated nature, new ecologies emerge. Those landscapes tell a story, according to where their location. Some are left to nature because the soil type is not suitable for cultivation. This does not mean that plants cannot grow there, in contrast, native vegetation creates beautiful diverse ecosystems. Some others are restricted to man entry, they are buffered and dangerous, since mine fields are still active (Buffer Zone). This, forms an opportunity to wild life such as birds, reptiles, rodents, cats and others to form their own civilization. Some others, are periodically or exceptionally flooding, fact that makes their exploitation useless, since nature will request back its space to do its job.

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

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WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

Some, are even a combination of those nonproductive kinds of landscapes. Buffered, flooding landscapes, for instance, raise even more the diversity of inhabitants, emerging in and around them.

Buffers, this time, ensure reservation and recovery, like if the dam in the picture, has never been a work of society. The “boundary”, the most basic element in political landscapes, transforms to nature’s tool to protect itself.

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WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

Some, are not even in question of used or not used, productive or nonproductive. They are untouchable because they need to be.

Those, are the ones that for thousands of years, guided flying visitors to this island. Rivers are the flyways of several kinds of birds, migrating between Africa and Europe, stopping by to enrich the island’s ecosystems.

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Barn Swallow best known migratory bird from Africa to Europe in spring to breed in Cyprus they can be seen since early February until early October when they return to Africa

Cyprus Wheatear visits Cyprus in spring to breed coming from Ethiopia and Sudan and goes back in September it is common all over the island and nests anywhere

118

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

Yellow Wagtail visits Cyprus both spring and autumn, they like to spend the winter on the isCyprus has the biggest bird land. In spring they fly towards North to population of this bird in Eu- breed and in autumn towards South. rope - game species - hunted can be found in coast, fields, reed beds November - December likes coast, fields, reed beds Black Francolin resident bird

Bee Eater pass through Cyprus from Africa to Southern and Eastern Europe to breed in spring and again in autumn on their way to Africa where they spend the winter

Cyprus Warbler most stay in Cyprus the whole year, some leave for the winter to nearby Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Egypt they like dense vegetation, thus they are seen mostly in the southwest of the island

Serins resident bird moves from mountains to lowlands of Cyprus during winter

Wood Pigeon resident in Cyprus, increasing in numbers flocks from Europe may fly to Cyprus for the winter to escape the cold and can be found all over the island

Turtle Dove passage migrant, nests in the summer on Troodos mountain - flies through Cyprus from South towards North in spring and back in autumn to southern Africa for the winter

Cattle Egret passage migrant

Glossy Ibis passage migrant from Africa to Europe in spring and back in autumn

their population in Europe is declining because of extended use of pesticides and cutting down hedge rows, in autumn it can be legally shot Blackcup passage migrant migrate through Cyprus in thousands every spring and autumn, sometimes in winter too. they can be found in gardens and wooded areas in lowlands and they are illegally hunted

Goldfinch resident bird very common in the lowlands and in the mountains those who nest in the mountains tend to come to the lower areas for the winter

Chiffchaff common summer visitor to northern, central and eastern Europe, it leaves in autumn to fly South and many spend the winter in Cyprus he can be found in parks, gardens and other areas with trees

General Note: Information found in: STYLIANOU Jane, BirdLife Cyprus, Birds of Cyprus, Nicosia: Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation, 2009

Fan-tailed Warbler resident bird flies above open areas and likes wetlands, wheat and barley fields, low land areas where there is tall grass or reeds

Crested Lark resident bird very common in the lowlands of Cyprus likes the countryside and urban areas

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























WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]





 

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

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       

 

   





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













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

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

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

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non tillable soil

non tillable soil

left over land





buffered land



left over land





periodical flooding

periodical flooding



periodical flooding Above: Nonproductive Landscapes Mapping of nonproductive landscapes with categorization of causes

WATERSCAPES [EXISTING TO POTENTIAL]

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Dehydrated landscapes

| Desertification and Climate Change

| Groundwater at Risk

| Surface Water and Soil Pollution

| Habitat Conflicts

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Desertification and Climate Change Climate change stresses the island’s natural resources which are already stressed due to its semi-arid climatic conditions. Forecasts for 2050 show a temperature increase with amount of 1.3-1.9oC and a rainfall decrease with amounts of 2-8%[1]. Climate change threats the island’s water resources, ecosystems and biodiversity, agriculture, human health and economy. Desertification is the result of a combination of the island’s fragile ecosystems and the over exploitation of natural resources. Rural areas will suffer the most from climate change, since desertification decreases the productivity of soil. “The crop growing season, the timing of the cycle of agricultural crops and average yields will be affected by a changing climate. ...Annual crop yields may decrease by 41-43% in the immediate future compared to the recent past (Bruggeman 1 SHOUKRI, Elpida, ZACHARIADIS, Theodoros; “Climate change in Cyprus: Impacts and Adaptation Policies”, Environmental Policy Research Group Report 01-12, Limassol: Cyprus University of Technology 2012, p25 126

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et al., 2011); this can bring about economic losses up to €80 million on an annual basis”.[2] The study area is not only one of the most vulnerable ones for desertification but indeed one of the most productive. Cyprus coordination with FAO, UNDP, WB, IE and EU led to experimental research programs applied specifically in agriculture for adaptation to water shortage like HORTIMED (“Sustainable water use in the Mediterranean Horticulture), IRRISPLIT (“Partial root drying: A sustainable irrigation system for efficient water use without reducing fruit yield”) and INCO-DC (““Sustainability and Optimization of treatments and use of wastewater in Agriculture”).[3] 2 ZACHARIADIS, Theodoros; “Climate change in Cyprus: Impacts and Adaptation Policies”, in: Cyprus Economic Policy Review, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2012, pp26-27 3 Prais, UNCCD, “Cyprus Report for Combating Desertification”, [online] Available at: http://www.unccd-prais.com/Uploads/GetReportPdf/cdc86239-afb8-4b6c-b2e5-a0fa014a4b27, [Accessed on 22 April 2015]

        



  



  



 





  



          





 



 



           



 



 







On the left: Desertification’s Vicious Circle The population is growing, consumption is growing with population, and worse, people’s habits are changing: “anything we want, can be in our plate, anytime”. The result: over exploitation of natural resources to fulfil people’s demands. This results to high amounts of water consumption in agriculture, which exceed the surface resources of the island.

Naturally, ground water replaces surface water. Thousands and thousands of boreholes are sucking out tremendous amounts of water, not only interrupting natural cycles of water recharge, but disturbing water’s quality with salination processes. Irrigating with saline water or water of low quality decreases the productivity of the land which leads to extensive use of fertilizers to replace soil’s nutrients. Fertilizers pollute the soil and water table as well as surface water’s natural flows. All these factors lead to degraded land where man grows his food with the same principles. Desertification grows together with man’s demands from nature.

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The effects of desertification are not proven to decrease the ecological value of landscapes. Decrease of biodiversity might be a consequence, where humid landscapes used to host more kinds of habitants, but, even deserts have their own ecosystems and ecological cycles, different from humid areas, but important in a global overview. Therefore, in this thesis, mitigation of desertification, focuses on ecosystems that include human activity such as residential and agricultural. Moreover, a degree of desertification will be always present, due to natural climate change phenomena that we cannot control. The most important factor for our existence, regarding climate change is the adaptation of our ecosystems to new conditions.

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almost arid







totally arid 















semi-arid





almost arid





totally arid











semi-arid

almost semi-arid

almost semi-arid

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129



  



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

































 

   



Groundwater at Risk Water consultants, describing ground water bodies of the island, use adjectives such as “tragic”, to characterize their current state.

The existence of wells as the most ancient evident of human civilization, claims Cypriot inhabitants’ everlasting dependency on ground water resources. Groundwater extraction went far beyond its ecological limit: “Namely, in 2007 Cyprus extracted more than 100% of the groundwater available for annual abstraction (Eurostat, 2010).”[1] Boreholes provide water for irrigation and water supply. Extensive extraction lead to aquifer depletion. In coastal areas, this phenomenon leads to salt water intrusion with the result of ground water salination. In many cases, farmers irrigate their crops with brackish water which results to a vicious circle 1 SHOUKRI, Elpida, ZACHARIADIS, Theodoros; “Climate change in Cyprus: Impacts and Adaptation Policies”, Environmental Policy Research Group Report 01-12, Limassol: Cyprus University of Technology 2012, p28

of ground water pollution in parallel with soil degradation. Fertilizers applied to coop up with poor water and soil quality, infiltrate into ground water with irrigation, resulting ground water pollution. Ground water pollution is a result of human waste too.

Absorbent pits that used to be the only management of human waste from households in the past, before the establishment of sewage system networks in urban areas, directed liquid waste into the ground layers. The amount of liquid waste infiltrated into the ground, not only caused a degree of pollution into ground layers, but it has been a non-sustainable action regarding water loss. Today, unconventional methods managing liquid waste have been introduced, resulting to new resources of water, by recycling and reuse.

  





 

    

  



   

  DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES

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DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES









































Above: Water Consuming Landscapes Darker the colour, more water consuming practices: Boreholes, Orchards, Famrs, Other crops and lastly Urban tissue

DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES

133







 

 

Surface Water and Soil Pollution Surface water is threaten from climate change but also from human modifications on the landscape. “Not even a drop of water lost in the sea” was the slogan of Cypriot water consultants in the 60’s, fact, that led to the continuous construction of water dams.

This might have increased the island’s capacity of water storage, while at the same time, it disturbed the natural flow of river water: from the mountains to the sea.

The fact that normally rivers are dry during most of the year, and some even permanently, led to several phenomenon of surface water pollution from human behaviour. Using riverbeds as left 134

DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES

over spaces, led to treat them as waste lands. Waste disposal in dry riverbeds is a common combination. Common are also farming practices close to river beds which result to a high degree of liquid waste mixing with natural water flows.

Also, the horizontal expansion of urban tissues towards the periphery, led to a confliction between riverbeds and residential areas. Many flooding cases happen during wet periods, even if they are not during heavy storm cases.

Moreover, Cyprus mineral wealth, which was exploited since an-

cient times, led to extensive mine construction which left behind its waste landscapes such as open pits and tailing dams. Those, mainly on hills or on mountains, are responsible for water pollution in lower lands. Many riverbeds are extremely close to an abandoned or even active mining site.

Lastly, shortage of water resulted to the use of low quality water in agriculture and extensive use of fertilizers. This combination together with the extensive ground water extraction and depletion of aquifer, resulted to vast areas with nitro-pollution sensitivity.

DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES

135

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DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES

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DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES

139

Above: Human disturbance of productive landscapes’ ecosystems An important part of the productive landscapes ecosystems is the birds presence. Human takes advantage of it by “trapping” them, while some form a special delicacy of Cypriot plates.

 

  140

DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES

 

 

 

 







Habitat Conflicts “Cyprus has rich biodiversity and is a centre of endemism for birds, mammals, insects and plants”[1] Landscapes of Cyprus consist of 18.8% of state forests and 81.2% of different land use such as non arable land (12.12%), an amount of 11.91% covered with bush vegetation such as maquis, 35.8% of dry farming, 7.84% of wild vegetation combined with olive and carob trees, 6.08% of arable land, 4.56% of vineyards, 2.33% of private forests, 0.24% of wetlands and 0.95% of build areas. Human, 32 kinds of mammals, 126 kinds of amphibian and 364 kinds of birds are the main animal residents of above landscapes.[2] Human, as well as climate change, have declining effects on eco1 SHOUKRI, Elpida, ZACHARIADIS, Theodoros; “Climate change in Cyprus: Impacts and Adaptation Policies”, Environmental Policy Research Group Report 01-12, Limassol: Cyprus University of Technology 2012, p31 2 Department of Environment, “Biodiversity of Cyprus”, [online] Available at: http://www.moa.gov.cy/moa/environment/environment.nsf/All/0BF2

C758642216FBC225794B003520D0/$file/%CE%97%20%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%80%CE %BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%BB%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1%20%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD%20%CE%9A%CF%8D%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF.pdf [Accessed on:

2 April 2015]







systems’ biodiversity and ecological value. Ecosystems are capable and responsible to provide services on which human well-being is based on, such as food, water, air, heat, energy, purification of water, soil and air, primary production, etc. Human over exploitation of those services affected their degree of adaptability to climate change. Ecosystems though, have the potential of climate regulation, fact that calls human attention in conditions of emergency such as the ones of today. Human factor can reduce desertification degree by affecting ecosystems. Irrigated and cultivated land or protected land, for example, has advantages, compared to left over land exposed to wind, erosion, extreme heat or solar exposure, regarding desertification. Man-made environments, have the potential of high ecological value if they work in a systemic way. As Alan Berger propose, Systemic Design can change the world: “Systemic Design merges the existing stresses on the landscape, with multi-layered, time-based strategies, that work to reclaim value and increase sustainability, in the built environment”[3].

3 BERGER Alan, “Systemic Design and Research” in: Systemic Design can change the world, Amsterdam: SUN, 2009, p14

 

 

      DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES

141

      

142

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











 





 





DEHYDRATED LANDSCAPES

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REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

Re-Hydrating Landscapes

| Statement - The “Next Becoming”

| Water Strategies - “Tools”

| Productive Waterscapes

| Cultural Waterscapes

| Ecological Waterscapes

| Waterscapes of Exchanges

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Statement - The “Next Becoming” Since Cypriot land and people are permanently in the state of “becoming”, Landscape Urbanism is a great opportunity to explore next steps, concerning social structures, economic forces, environmental specificities and their interrelationship. Mediterranean ecosystems have always been fragile thus the threat of desertification is challenging the quality and productivity of the land with erosion and degradation. Dry and windy summer days in productive valleys as well as mild and rainy winters (after dry summers) along rivers beds and natural water flows, are combination examples that put in danger the soil quality. Additionally, over exploitation of ground water resources results to sea water intrusion and irrigating with low quality water adds another factor in soil pollution and degradation. All these combined, are present in the study area where a scenario of climate change adaptation takes shape.

Which is the “next becoming” and how that affects the actual space, will be indicated below. Will Cyprus appear with new desert patches all along Mesaoria plain? Will Nicosia isolate itself and turn into an oasis? How this will affect the local productivity of the island and eventually its economy? What will happen to the rural centres in the so far productive plain if soil pollution confute its productivity? Into which state the two communities (north and south) will develop themselves and will they, even? Landscapes of waste, landscapes of transformation, give the opportunity to listen to them and realise that societies are the ones to be part of this transformation, adjusting it to what benefits both.

This project aims to explore landscapes’ transformation based on ecological cycles. It aims to the envisioning of the “next becoming” of both ordinary and extraordinary landscapes: Ordinary landscapes based on human activity and human exploitation of natural resources and extraordinary ones, based on elimination

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of human activity and reservation of natural resources. The proposal is based on Alan Berger’s idea about Systemic Design: “Systemic Design can Change the World”: “Systemic Design merges the existing forces on a landscape with multi-layered, time-based strategies that work to reclaim value and increase sustainability in the build environment”.[1] Water purification and reuse, water collection and reuse when needed, qanat clean water reuse and afforestation, work together in order to increase productivity, local economy, social interactions, exchanges with “the other”, biodiversity and ecological rehabilitation.

Additionally, the project criticises the division, as a counter creative factor that freezes social evolution and furthermore, keeps unexplored the opportunity of bi-communal dynamics in culture, environment and economy. Ecological issues raise gradually, more and more threatening endemic ecosystems, thus managing an island of less than 10 000 km2 in separate regions (north/south) just doesn’t make sense in the big picture. Claiming the role of an important stepping stone for bird migration across continents, Natura 2000 for Cyprus indicates the importance of biodiversity in ecological corridors, most of them along river beds and water surfaces. The project deals with a site rich in ecological ecosystems but at the same time fragile in climate change conditions. “Serrahis” river, in the study area, is perceived as a potential ecological corridor directing flows from north to south and vice versa which in combination with a reserved land (Buffer Zone), appears to be a fortunate site concerning biodiversity and wilderness existence (even if, at the moment, it is not included in Natura 2000 protection sites).

All this project is about, is a celebration of landscapes and landBERGER Alan, “Systemic Design and Research” in: Systemic Design can change the world, Amsterdam: SUN, 2009, p14 1

scape rehabilitation from exhausted ecosystems to enriched ones defining water cycles in rural contexts. This project aims to “heal” the dehydrated and abused landscapes of the specific study area but it also demonstrates an example of an extreme scenario of water recycling in the Mediterranean region. Providing with sufficient amounts of water the productive landscapes, a challenge within today’s data of water shortage, this project claims its necessity as well as its feasibility. Using water as a mediator, following its natural and man-made flows, arid, degraded lands transform to productive ones, residual spaces to spaces of new social oriented development (in opposing to real estate profits) and abandoned, inaccessible land to a new “green heart” attracting wild life but also allowing intercommunal exchanges. Designing adaptivity in existing ecologies claims the role of a threshold between radical changes and cultural conflicts.

The three branches of the main river “Serrahis”, besides their role as a natural resource of water for irrigation and ground water recharge, are strengthen as a magnet of wild life which is eventually guided towards the forested buffer zone, where it can be “safe”.

Vegetated banks are proposed to mediate soil erosion and create a microclimate of shadows to eliminate high amounts of evaporation.

The existing main earth channels connected to the rivers are selectively emphasized claiming space to retain more water in their route. Further more they enrich the existing irrigating channel network of the productive land while increasing the surface of wetland habitats, one of the most important in biodiversity terms.

Retaining ponds in the form of subsurface wetlands are proposed along their route which allows the collection of water in wet periods and its reuse in dry periods concerning agriculture.

The existing irrigating network is also recharged by urban waste water purification and rain water purification system of subsurface wetlands in selected points. Those points are combined with natural water flows, responsible to recharge the aquifer. They are also combined with the retaining earth channels described above, responsible for the productive cycle. Purifying wetlands and selected retaining channels are combined with bike/pedestrian routes connecting the village centres with the main civic access to the buffer zone, a train line trace.

The train line trace is redefined as the only human accessibility in the buffer zone. It is transformed into a public path crossing the buffer zone as it passes through it, several times, and on which, cultural spaces with public activities are punctually attached, aiming to attract both communities from the north and south to meet and mix.

The presence of ancient ground water transportation structures, such as the qanat systems and an old aqueduct are highlighted in the study area and they become reference points where new public space opportunities are taken place. In the rural context based on agricultural production, those spaces - where ground water appears naturally on surface without the violent extraction of it through boreholes - form a precious opportunity of gathering and gardening.

Five water strategies, the tools of reshaping waterscapes will be explained in the next pages. Those propose water recycling, water collection and water management. Lastly, the strategies are tested in four design projects in various scales, which consist of productive, cultural, ecological waterscapes and waterscapes of exchanges.

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bike/pedestrian route connecting “Phylia” with civic access to buffer zone

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existing earthfill

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civic access to buffer zone - ex

eco - bufferzone

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bike/pedestrian route along main earth channel connecting water recyclng wetlands with public market and civic access to buffer zone

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axis with enhanced

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restored aqueduct with water collection pond

bike/pedestrian route along “Naos river” (natural stream) connecting “Peristerona” with botanical garden, civic access to buffer zone and “Katokopia”

chain of wells

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bike/pedestrian route connecting “Akaki” with “Avlona” and civic acess to buffer zone

waste water purification wetlands and rain water purfication wetlands with communal fruit/vegetable gardens

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social housing with common gardens

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Water Strategies - “Tools” Tool 1| Waste Water Recycling [see pp160-161] This highly productive area which can be partially self sufficient when the river is flowing in winter, faces serious shortage in water during the rest of the year. In this project, waste water from urban areas is transformed into a “new spring” concerning agriculture. The proposal suggests a new urban waste water recycling system, enriching the traditional earth channel network, with new amounts of water.

The existing swage system of the existing agglomerations of the study area is mainly based on individual management of waste water in each household, using septic and absorbent pits. According to the Article 3 and 4 of Council Directive 91/271/EEC concerning urban waste-water treatment agglomerations with population equivalent (pe) of more than 2000, there is the need, that they are articulated with urban waste water collection networks and secondary or equivalent urban waste treatment plants.[1] The study area consist of two villages in the south and three in the north.

The northern ones don’t exceed the population of 1000 inhabitants each, while “Akaki” and “Peristerona” in the south, consist of around 4000 and 3000 inhabitants respectively. Additionally, those are placed on the highest levels of the topography of the study area. Newly constructed is an industrial water treatment plant, at the downstream village in the west, and a transportation network, which would curry (it is not in function yet) black water for more than 10km in the case of “Akaki” village for water recycling.

Therefore, opposing to energy consuming actions, the project 1 EUR Lex, Access to the European Union Law, “Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment” [online] Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ TXT/?uri=CELEX:31991L0271, [Accessed on: 4 May 2015]

proposes an alternative method of urban waste water management. Taking advantage of the constructed swage network, black water from Akaki and Peristerona is strategically directed towards their middle point, using the area’s topography to direct the liquid flows, where a biological system of phytoremediation is proposed to offer waste water purification. This phytoremediation system is intentionally placed in a relatively high level but also nearby a natural water flow, with direction south to north. The clean water after purification is given partially back to this natural stream and partially to the irrigating network. The method used in the project is called “Root Zone Method” and it regards to a natural tertiary treatment method concerning urban, farming and industrial waste water.

The proposed system consist of one precipitation cistern and a system of wetlands: four ponds of 0.8m depth. The cistern, located on the higher point of the topography, in the ground, collects the waste water through the sewage network and drains it into the first pond, transmitting water horizontally from the highest to the lowest. The ponds are all constructed with a layer of gravel on their perimeter and filled in with sand, insulated from the ground with a special layer to prevent ground water pollution and loss of water. The sand is planted with reeds (Phrogmites australis) of which the roots are transmitting oxygen to the water passing through, where the microorganisms are degrading the organic compounds. This results to a biochemical process of cleaning even the most difficult kinds of waste water.[2] Working in a subsurface layer, this method of purification, has an advantage compares to others. It prevents the high risk of evapo2 Smart Technical Solutions, “Root Zone Process, a Natural Method of Wastewater Biological Treatment” [online] Available at: http://www. stseurope.com/?page_id=12851 [Accessed on 27 April 2015]

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ration in the case of the hot summers of Cyprus. Additionally, it eliminates possible odours from waste water concentration. Actually, the reason that no urban waste treatment plant was constructed in this area so far, was that the inhabitants of Akaki and Peristerona villages have been refusing it due to the fear of odours in their neighbourhoods.[1] Additionally, this regards to a self regulating operation, absence of secondary sludge, very low energy requirement and very low operating and maintenance costs, long life left and harmonic adaptability in natural landscape.[2] In the project, the large urban waste purification wetland has the capacity to serve around 15 000 inhabitants which cover the estimated needs according to the growth of population until 2050.

Open remains the possibility of expansion towards north, in case of unexpected rapid urbanization of those villages, in a scenario of a solution to the “Cypriot problem” when massive migration from the north would inhabit the southern rural urban centres. In the design proposal, this method is also tested punctually in smaller scale in collective farm areas near the river of Akaki [see Cultural Waterscapes] and in a unit scale in a dairy farm close to the proposed urban waste treatment wetlands [see Productive Waterscapes]. Each designed wetland system is attached to the existing water flows where it gives back the already processed water.

Tool 2a| Rain Water Recycling - collective scale [see pp162-163] Rain water collection is a practice that in Cyprus is extensively present by large dam construction mostly on the mountains where rainfall is present more frequently. In the valleys, like the one of 1 EFTHYMIOU Evdokia, Waste Water and Reuse Division, Water Development Department, personal interview 2 ANDREADAKIS Andreas, Special Secretariat for Water, “Guidelines for Management of Wastewater in small settlements”, Athens, Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change, April 2012

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the study area, dam construction is less usual but still existing. In the study area, there is an earth fill dam for recharge purposes constructed in 1973, the Masari Dam in the Buffer Zone. The dam actually collects the water from the two branches of Serrahis river flowing from the southern mountain and diverts it by controlling it to the west where the water is used for irrigation. That appears to form a safety measure in controlling water flows from north to south passing through the buffer zone. Apart from the presence of this dam, rainwater is nowadays “wasted” from the urban as well as the agricultural areas.

In the project, rain water purification wetlands are proposed in the lower points of the topography, collecting the rain water from urban and agricultural areas, purifying it and giving it back to the natural flows or to the irrigating network. Those wetlands are responsible for water purification through phytoremediation. They actually work with the “Root Zone Method” like above, but they need much less space than the urban waste treatment wetlands and can consist of one or two ponds in relation. Even if the rainfall is limited during the whole year concerning the plains, rain water collection in the winter can make a big difference in amounts of water added to the water system used in agriculture in a dryer period of the year. In the design proposal rain water recycling is demonstrated by a subsurface wetland attached to a natural water flow stream [see Productive Waterscapes].

Tool 2b| Rain Water Recycling - unit scale [see pp164-165] Apart from the collective rainwater recycling, rain water collection is proposed to be practiced individually, in small cisterns in households’ gardens, and reuse in their own gardens. This way, rainwater in private plots is not wasted but it is used in place of the water supply water for gardening. Thus, amounts of water

used per person per household, will diminish to the basic needs of the household and not for gardening.

Most cases nowadays use the purified water from the water supply network outdoors or, even worse, take funds to construct a private borehole system, which was introduced during the British Empire and still works today the same way.

The project, criticizes those practices as water consuming and ground water depleting practices, therefore it demonstrates a design example in the case of Akaki village, where the new housing proposed for low income young families works with rainwater collection per unit and reuse in the collective gardens [see Cultural Waterscapes]. Rainwater from the roofs, is directed into individual ponds where it is collected or collected and purified, if the ponds are filled in with sand planted with reeds (the same method described above, in a simpler version). In the design proposal, the rainwater is combined with the grey water from each household directing both kinds to the same pond - subsurface wetland. The project aims to argue new ways of recycling, even in the unit scale, by applying simple, long term and low cost solutions.

This way, loss of water is diminished even with high usage of water in the hot summer days. In the design example, the gardens are collective, which makes possible the reuse of the rests of water from the gardens themselves, by collecting it to surface channels and directing it to the existing channel network of the village.

What makes a difference from the so far habits of the inhabitants, is that, using this method, they are encouraged to be no longer terrified of wasting water in their household, because that water will be reused, and more, even if they use more water for their needs, they will have more water in their garden. [see Cultural

Waterscapes] Another example that takes full advantage of the rainwater in the proposal is the case of “the market”[see Waterscapes of Exchanges]. The market is a public platform, attached to the civic access in the buffer zone, covered by a system of roofs which directs the rainwater in the interior of the market, where it is collected in a subsurface wetland. This wetland purifies it with the previously explained “root zone method” and directs it into a clean water channel on the market’s platform. The clean water is used for the market purposes (to clean fruits and vegetables) and the grey water after the usage is returned back to the wetland for purification.

The wetland that passes through the market actually connects the two branches of the river transmitting water from the eastern one to the western one. This way, even if there is no rain, which is very possible, the wetland is charged by the river flow. Having the same characteristics with a retaining wetland, it is imagined that water will be present almost the whole year cycle without the necessity to connect to a water supply network. The market is a space where cultural and economic exchanges take place. It is positioned symbolically in the buffer zone, in between the two branches of the river and articulated by the ex-train line public path. The ex-train line trace is transformed to a pedestrian path except of some points, like the case of the market, that gives accessibility to the vehicles in order to lead them to a forested car park. [see Waterscapes of Exchanges] Tool 3| Retain Water from Surface water flows [see pp166-167] Retaining water from natural flows is essential in the context of year cycle irrigation. As mentioned before, unless this land passes through a drought period, usually water in winter is plenty due

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to the river “Serrachis”. Water, in the study area, comes from the mountain and recharges the branches of the river, which charges the main earth or stone channels responsible for most of the irrigation systems in the area. In the summer though, there is no other choice while there is no drop of water remaining in the river or the channels, than to extract from the aquifer extensive amounts of water, for irrigation.

The existing irrigating network consisting of earth and stone channels is reused and ideally combined with modern technologies of irrigation with efficiency from 70 up to of 99% like micro sprinklers or dropping method. Those methods are already part of the local practices in some cases but in the specific area, most of them are following the traditional ways of irrigating, like the flooding of which the efficiency reaches only the 40% while the rest of the water is evaporating .

The proposal suggests a network of widened earth channels that transport more water from the river to the productive area combined with retaining ponds along their route. The purpose of retaining water along the water flows is to save water when it is present (usually in winter) and use it in periods when the rivers are dry (usually in summer). Those ponds have the form of subsurface wetlands. That means that in clay grounds are filled in with sand to prevent evaporation and in sandy soils are insulated with a layer of clay or an artificial membrane in order to avoid losses of water. Those retaining ponds can be just filled with sand or vegetated with trees and plants that create shadow, like the “oriental plane tree” or the “calabrian pine” / “pinus brutia”. Those spaces then, form natural resting spaces in the agricultural fields where ecology and biodiversity is increased and attracts wild life like bird habitats.

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In the proposal, bike and pedestrian routes are combined with some of those important earth channels. One of them is connecting “Peristerona” village in the South with “Katokopia” village in the North passing through the Buffer Zone. Following the water flow, in parallel to the bike route, the design project focuses on the part where the bike route reaches the ex-train line trace. At this junction the design proposal suggests a system of retaining ponds which are charged with water coming from “Naos river”.

“Naos river” is the name of the natural stream that transports water from the river to a channel network of the agricultural fields.

Several earth and stone channels are attached to it, from which, one is widened and combined with the bike route. The retaining wetlands on the junction are transformed into a botanic garden and public park [see Ecological Waterscapes]. They are planted with different species of water plants while some are filled in with sand and some are filled in only with water from the channel(s).

This variation aims to increase the biodiversity in existing ecosystems and attract different kinds of wild life. This system of retaining ponds is articulated with public paths in between them which lead to the main public path (the ex-train line route) and to the botanic garden .

A system of small planted plots follow the trace of the previous division of land, which remains, without use, in the Buffer Zone for 41 years. This trace is reborn not to form productive land, but to shape a public park - garden and attract both communities to visit it. Those small plot pieces are attached to both sides of the main civic access to the buffer zone and they are articulated with pedestrian accesses in between. The plot pieces contain species of aromatic plants used in traditional medicine and cooking practices. The two cultures, Muslim or Christian use the same ingredients in their kitchens. Cinnamon, cumin, mastic, oregano, thyme, lavender, rosemary, marjoram, sage, laurel are some of those spe-

cies that grow without special treatment and with little amounts of water and which, are widely used in the “common” traditional cuisine. The project aims to remind this to the inhabitants and the visitors of the botanic garden. A space full of familiar odours and colours claim the symbolic symbiosis of cultures through nature.

Since the “Buffer Zone” becomes a “green heart”, the garden is surrounded by it and penetrates with a variety of trees in the garden’s interior. In this case, species of carob trees and olive trees are suggested since they characterize Cypriot landscapes and they offer precious shadow for the public routes. All species are imagined to be maintained from both communities and the products sold in low prices for the maintenance of the garden. [see Ecological Waterscapes] Tool 4| Afforestation / “Agroforestry” [see pp168-169] In 2008, Ministry of Agriculture, published a rural development program for Cyprus where measures for afforestation suggest economical profit perspective for land owners. Afforestation of agricultural land, afforestation of non-agricultural land and installation of agroforestry systems are funded from the state.[1] Agroforestry, According to Nair, is the practice of growing trees and crops in interracting combinations. From an ecological point of view, “Agroforestry systems have attracted special attention in climate change mitigation and adaptation discussions.”[2] According to Nail and Garrity, plants have the ability to restore soil productivity by increasing the C content in the plant’s roots and soil, while offering oxygen in the atmosphere through photosynthesis.

1 Forest Department, Branch of Agricultural Applications, “Program of Rural Development 2007-2013”, Nicosia, Ministry of Agriculture, 2008 2 NAIR, P.K. Ramachandran; GARRITY, Dennis, “Agroforestry - The Future of Global Land Use”, New York, Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London, 2012, p31

This is called “carbon cycle” and it results to calcium and magnesium carbonates increase in the soil where the C is stored.

Furthermore, agroforestry can be in the form of “windbreaks”: rows of trees along plot divisions, practiced in agricultural areas, in order to prevent wind erosion or in the form of “shade systems”: rows of trees protecting sensitive plants like vegetables growing in between, or even in the form “silvopasture”: animal grazing on forage surfaces under trees providing shadow.

Water quality is significantly increased by riparian buffers close to water flows. This application of agroforestry in this case, can eliminate erosion by slowing down the force of run off water on sloppy edges, offer shade and decrease evaporation, while offering great added amounts of water for aquifer recharge, in permeable soils.

Cyprus, has been, according to travellers descriptions, covered by thick forest in prehistoric times. Nowadays forests are diminished and that affects not only the atmospheric qualities but also the water, soil and temperature. Agroforestry has been in the past part of Cypriots agricultural practices but in modern times forest have been eliminating in the sake of food production. Visiting the forest to collect food, though, was, and still is, part of local traditions.[3] Collecting fruits, mushrooms, snails, honey, and medicinal plants from the forest are particular pleasurable activities for the majority of the population.

Also, cypress tree lines used as wind break is very common in the traditional agricultural landscapes. In addition, olive and carob 3 LEONTIADES L., “Traditional agroforestry practices under the edaphoclimatic parameters of Cyprus”, World Agroforestry Centre [online] Available at: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Units/Library/ Books/Book%2077/meteorology%20and%20agroforestry/html/traditional_agroforstry_practices.htm?n=32, [Accessed on: 3 August 2015]

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trees are often combined with annual crops in the same field.

This allows the exploitation of several harvest cycles combined, such as fruit harvest combined with barely harvest. The left overs of both can be later used for grazing, usually of goat and sheep.

Large trees such as carob and olive, are precious presence in the vast agricultural land during summer, while providing shadow, under 40oC in the summer, form great spots for the farmer to rest.

Learning from traditions, the proposal focuses along the river beds and natural water flows, as well as widened earth channels to address the benefits of agroforestry in the specific case study. oriental plane, calabrian pine tree, carob and olive tree are the target species that the project propose, to inhabit those water axis, due to their capability of survival in dry soils, high temperatures and their wide diameter that creates precious shades. Along those water flows, riparian buffers are responsible to adjust in sloppy lands while in flat lands, vegetables or pasture are proposed to benefit from the shadow and the soil quality (in the case of vegetables).

Afforestation is proposed to form the future shape of the buffer zone, envisioned as the new green heart of the island. In between the two forested mountains, the valley, has always focused on food productivity. Being such, the project respects farmers interests but addressing environmental opportunities, the proposal claims the role of the buffer zone as essential in terms of wild life and biodiversity. The project claims the quality of the Buffer Zone as reference for wilderness. Birds, mice, foxes, snakes and of course spontaneous vegetation transformed this buffer into a self sustained ecosystem. The project wants to emphasize this qualities, taking advantage of the political situation, and state, that the buffer zone becomes a reservation space letting the land and the peoples’ memories to “heal” by themselves.

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Afforestation, in the buffer zone takes place randomly, to support the existing patches of vegetation and trees, while in the rest of the land, in the productive plain, afforestation has a structured shape with specific tree distances (12x12m) to let space to the crops below the trees to grow and the animals to graze. Concerning the buffer zone, man accessibility stays minimized, but NorthSouth interrelationships are articulated by access points, access paths and facilities. Public activities also take place as the extraordinary human activities of the area. The botanic garden is a public activity which enforces the biodiversity of the buffer zone and forms the ground for human recreation and spontaneous meetings while in the rest of the land, human activities are based on daily ordinary life. Similarly, the market, a space of intercommunal exchanges is the common ground for farmers and visitors, an exception to the otherwise separate food production. The two examples above, and every other punctual common ground, will be of course, an opportunity of crossing, while accessibility is offered from both sides, North and South. Crossing though, is not imagined as a today check point, but rather an afternoon, forest-side, walking path, or a Sunday bike tour in the countryside.

Tool 5| Reuse of “qanat“ systems [see pp160-171] Investigating the study area, starting from the higher levels, at the foothills of the mountain, the example of an ancient water transportation practice remind the fading bond between man and natural forces. The proposal considers qanat systems as a culturally appropriated and an ecological sustainable design.[1] Comparing 1 GOKCEKUS Huseyin, ENDRENY A. Theodore, “Ancient ecotechnology of qanats for engineering a sustainable water supply in the Mediterranean Island of Cyprus”, presented at: International Conference on Environment: Survival and Sustainability 19-24 February 2007, Near East University, Nicosia 2007, p4219

with the modern ways of accessing the ground water (intensive pumping through boreholes), this tradition offers the possibility of shallow ground water access in hills and transportation to low slopes using local morphological specificities. This is realized by a chain of wells which allows the construction of an underground tunnel in sandy or stony soils.[1] The memory of this ancient technology, called “qanat” or “laoumia” by the locals, is fading, many times unknown to the new generations and kept as a legend in the cultural history of the villages.

the surface, by constructing collection ponds where this water is collected and stored. From the ponds, an irrigation system of concrete based channels distributes the clean water into vegetable gardens. Vegetable gardens are combined with agroforestry close to the river while in the village, they form collective spaces of urban agriculture. The urban agriculture, in the future, will support and be supported by the residents of the village, old and young since the population will grow and rural development will be able to offer job opportunities in the local food production.

After British introduced the borehole practice which access deeper levels of ground water, so called “artesian drilling”, ground water levels depleted and left the majority of those systems non-functional, since ground water cannot reach the level of the underground tunnel of the qanat. The project envisions that after the establishment of water strategies described above, with more water recharging the ground levels, the aquifer, with time, will reach its normal levels. In this case, the reuse of the qanat systems will be in favoured of contemporary technologies and able to be reused.

The vegetable gardens as well as the collective water ponds aim to enhance the community life of the village [see Cultural Waterscapes]. The example of the chain of wells just above the river bed, between the river and the existing cluster of social infrastructure along the road, forms a great opportunity to claim a relationship between the river and the village, as a public space. Nowadays, the river forms just a view from the village, while on the opposite site, a farming complex is a dominant figure in that view.

The proposal, aims to transform this in-between space into a reference point which combines the clean water “welcoming” with vegetable production under the afforested buffer along the river.

The pool is intentionally designed to stay mostly underground, ensuring ventilation and light access. Diminishing the evaporation of the ground water and creating a microclimate of cool temperature, this space offer an outdoor gathering spot even in hot summer days. The access is shaped by an amphitheatric public space where public events can take place temporarily while during regular days can attract young people to skate, play, meet and so on.

Likewise, in the case of Akaki, such a system exist and transports water to the village from higher levels. The wells are covered by spontaneous vegetation in higher levels and by hard surfaces in the village, fact that makes their presence ghosted. The aim of the design project is to claim those systems as cultural artefact and embrace their function into the daily life of the village inhabitants.

The project suggests to restore those water structures, uncover the wells and embrace the point where the ground water meets 1 For further explanation of qanat systems see previous chapter, “Traces of the Past”, Waterscapes [Existing to Potential], pp64-67

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On the right: Strategies Overview Scheme ecological cycles: Waste water reuse / Rain water reuse / Retaining water / Afforestation / Qanat reuse

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On the right: Waste Water Reuse urban waste purification from Akaki and Peristerona - recharge of irrigation network

 

  

Closing water cycles Increasing vegetated surfaces to attract migrating birds and other species Creating public spaces combined with recycling systems

Reeds providing oxygen to the water during photosynthesis process through the roots, purifying it before the output

sand

black water collection communities

Purification

Waste water collection

forested areas

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reeds

collective septic tank

input

Root Zone Method

gravel

output

clean water collection pond

Providing more water for irrigation agriculture : fruit trees and crops

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

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recharge of irrigation network

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waste water purification wetland

sewage pipe

akaki village



peristerona village

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

161

On the right: Rain Water Reuse (collective) rain water purification wetlands - recharge of irrigation network

 

   

River Waterflow

Rain Water collection and purification Aquifer Recharge

Rain Providing more water for irrigation

Root Zone Method or Subsurface Wetland Vegetable gardens

Collect Rain water from public surfaces in collective wetlands. purify and reuse in gardens, orchards and crops

Fruit trees and crops

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rain water purification wetland

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recharge of natural water flows

recharge of irrigation network

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rain water purification wetlands

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

163

On the right: Rain Water Reuse (unit) rain water collection combined with grey water purification - reuse in gardens

 

Collect Rain water from household roof in individual pond and reuse in garden

  

Rethinking roof typologies which don’t throw away the rain water but collcting as much of it possile...

reeds

sand gravel

input Subsurface Wetland to eliminate evaporation Separate grey from black waste water in household scale, collect Rain water and Grey water in individual wetland, purify and reuse in garden

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output

Reeds providing oxygen to the water during photosynthesis process through the roots, purifying it before the output

collection and purification of rainwater and grey water from building in a unit subsurface pond planted with reeds

collection and purification pond from surface channel collection and purification of rainwater and grey water from building in a unit subsurface pond planted with reeds

qanat reuse

   

  



   

 

 



 

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES











165 

On the right: Retaining Wetlands storage water from main earth channels in wet periods and reuse in dry periods

 

  

Working with seasons to eliminate waterloss Increasing vegetated surfaces to attract migrating birds and other species Creating public spaces combined with retaining wetlands

Winter retaining water in subsurface wetlands along surface water flows - eliminating evaporation by covering the pont with sand and planting vegetation that creates shadow like mediterranean plane trees or calabrian pines

Summer using saved water for irrigation in summer or when the natural stream is dry

sand

can be vegetated or not

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

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



retaining subsurface wetlands

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

retaining subsurface wetlands



retaining subsurface wetlands



"naos river" main earth channel

retaining subsurface wetlands



retaining subsurface wetlands



retaining subsurface wetlands

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

167

On the right: Afforestation agroforestry along river bed and main natural water flows, afforestation of buffer zone soil purification, water retention, elimination of erosion, shadows, micro-climatic action

 

  

Providing shadow for vegetables and animals with trees like oriental plane trees or calabrian pines / pinus brutia Reducing soil erosion by wind and water Adaptation to climate conditions and global warming

Silvopasture: Grazing on forage under shadow from trees

Steam production from trees Raising Rain possibilities

Vegetable gardens protected by tree (shadow, wind breaks)

 

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REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES



 

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structured tree planting combined with vegetable growing, grazing



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random tree plantation enforcing of endemic wild vegetation of buffer zone

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

169

On the right: Qanat Reuse scenario of aquifer level raise: collection ponds of ground water combined with public uses, vegetable gardens, natural wetlands (buffer zone)

 

  

Collecting ground water flow from qanat systems and reusing in vegetable gardens Providing cooler temperature in collective spaces combined with new residences

Retain Ground Water - cool temperature public space

Enhancing local production providing sufficient water for local cultivations

Providing clean water to vegetable gardens of new residents

Gardens and Vegetable Gardens

Existing Qanat system New residences New public space



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natural wetlands from qanat in buffer zone

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qanat

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case of akaki - ground water collection pond combined with public use and vegetable irrigation

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

171

On the right: “Systemic Transect” a conceptual section cutting through interrelationships of different environments in the study area, in form of context (2015) and strategy (2055).

The context above shows natural resources and practices regarding existing ecological systems and the proposed scenario below shows their systemic transformation, result of the application of recycle and reuse strategies indicated in-between the two

The Systemic Transect indicated is a graphical exercise to simplify and understand ecologies consisting of social, economic, ecological and political interrelationships, while valuing their potential and proposing a transformation. Adapting ecological systems in a cultural and economical context of ongoing shifts, the strategy focuses on waste ecologies, claiming the potential of waste in the design process.

An abandoned ancient practice of accessing ground water, Qanat systems, in the context of arid surfaces and semi-arid climatic conditions, is strategically restored and reused [Tool 5] replacing borehole drilling practices. Clean water from natural resources is welcomed and reshaped in an underground space with proper light and ventilation, and public accessibility. The clean water provides cooler temperatures underground, while it is used in vegetable gardens on the ground surface. The vegetable gardens proposed together with a social housing project, aim to the enhancement of local economy and a degree of self sufficiency for low income families.

Rain water that today is mainly wasted from urban areas, is strategically guided, into small purifying subsurface wetlands [Tool 2], on the edges of the “official buffer zone”, where agricultural practices form the main land use. Those wetlands consist of ponds, insulated from the ground, in case of sandy soils, filled in with sand and planted with reeds. Water is purified due to the oxygen that the plants release from their routes and guided to natural water flows for aquifer recharge or to the existing network of irrigation channels.

Natural water flows are recharged also by neighbour farm waste water treatment in subsurface wetlands working with the “Root Zone Method” [Tool 1]. This method is in a subsurface layer, thus, does not let water evaporate or unpleasant odours in the environment. In contrary, it has a high ecological value, increasing biodiversity with the parallel afforestation of its surroundings. Likewise,

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existing individual urban waste water management which pollutes the aquifer, is replaced with a collective urban waste network and treatment plant, where water is purified with the same “Root Zone Method” mentioned above.

After purification, water is guided to retaining wetlands [Tool 3] and to the existing irrigation network. The retaining wetlands, (subsurface ponds in clay ground attached to main earth channels, placed in previously flooding areas) retain water in winter which is reused in drier periods. Rain and waste water recycling add extra amounts of water to the existing water structure, which enhances local productivity, and encourages agricultural practices. Agriculture is projected as the main economic force of the area, specially the area under UN authorities which cannot be urbanized and works with special permissions to individuals.

Apart from economic forces, ecological rehabilitation is proposed through afforestation [Tool 4]. Afforestation along the river beds and other natural water flows, allows water infiltration to the ground, provides shadow, decreases evaporation and restore the soil, on which agroforestry practices are proposed. Afforestation can contribute to rainfall possibilities, and attraction of wild life.

Afforestation takes place in the non-accessible part of the Buffer Zone as a reservation method, where nature exists by itself.

Water, in contrast with people, continue to flow inside the inaccessible part of the Buffer Zone, while punctually, civic accessibility is allowed, forming the common ground for cultural mix. The case demonstrated is the market, which is placed on a proposed wetland system. This transmits water from one branch of the river to the other, meanwhile it purifies it and provides clean water to the farmers / vendors to wash their products, in the interior of the market. Rain water is also guided to this wetland from the roofs, as well as grey water after washing, where it is purified and drained back to the river which ends up into the big ground water recharge dam, the Masari dam.

 



  





  

 

  





















 

 

     













 















 



 

 



 

 

Waste Water purification from households

Retain Ground Water - cool temperature public space

Irrigation with Flooding efficiency: 40%

Providing clean water to vegetable gardens of new residents

Rain Water collection and purification



Waste Water purification from farms

Retain water in subsurface wetlands along water stream - save water in winter and use in summer

Natural Waterflow

Micro-springlers for each tree efficiency: 75-85%

Enforcing local production - providing sufficient water for local cultivations

Silvopasture combined with Agroforestry

Water distribution in orchards

Rain Water collection and purification

Harvesting from agricultural areas North and South side of Buffer Zone

Vegetable gardens combined with Agroforestry Grey Water purification and reuse

Selling local products at the Market (exchanges)







Fruit and Vegetable wash to prepare for selling



  

or

Increasing biodiversity Eliminating global warming

Winter

 

Raising Rain possibilities

Summer Aquifer Recharge



Steam production from trees

  

  

   

 





       



REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

173



 

  

  





       





      







174

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES



























PHYLIA VILLAGE



bike/pedestrian route connecting “Phylia” with civic access to buffer zone



KATOKOPIA VILLAGE

existing earthfill

ECOLOGICAL

water dam

fruit/vegetable



WATERSCAPES market WATERSCAPES water retaining wetlands OF EXCHANGES with botanical gardens bike/pedestrian route along main earth channel connecting water recyclng wetlands with public market and civic access to buffer zone

civic access to buffer zone - ex

eco - bufferzone

trainline

AVLONA VILLAGE

axis with enhanced

fruit/vegetable 

production

restored aqueduct with water collection pond

bike/pedestrian route along “Naos river” (natural stream) connecting “Peristerona” with botanical garden, civic access to buffer zone and “Katokopia”

chain of wells



existing

bike/pedestrian route connecting “Akaki” with “Avlona” and civic acess to buffer zone



PRODUCTIVE

WATERSCAPES waste water purification wetlands and rain water purfication wetlands with communal fruit/vegetable gardens

social housing with common gardens

AKAKI VILLAGE



PERISTERONA VILLAGE

CULTURAL

WATERSCAPES

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

175





 

 





  











     

 

     





 











Waste Water purification from households

Waste Water purification from farms

h Flooding 0%

Rain Water collection and purification

Retain water in subsurface wetlands al stream - save water in winter and use

Natural Waterflow

ers for each tree -85%

Summer Aquifer Recharge Water distribution in orchards

Winter



   

 

       

176

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES







   

Productive Waterscapes

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

177









 



 





178

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES



 

 









 



 













 

EXISTING





 

 







 

 









 REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES 





179





 

   











 

  

180

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

 



 









   















 





 

 



 





PROPOSED 



 







 

 









 REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES 





181





  







       







Retain w stream -

    



Micro-springlers for each tree efficiency: 75-85%



Enforcing local production - providing sufficient water for local cultivations

Irrigation with Flooding efficiency: 40%

Providing clean water to vegetable gardens of new residents

 



Section B-B’

          

Retain Ground Water - cool temperature public space





  

      



182





REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES





    



        

Aquifer Recharge

Steam production from trees

Rain Water collection and purification



Raising Rain possibilities

    





   



Summer

Harvesting from agricultural areas North and South side of Buffer Zone

Vegetable gardens combined with Agroforestry

Increasing biodiversity   Eliminating global warming

 

Natural Waterflow

Retain water in subsurface wetlands along water stream save water in winter and use in summer

Winter

 or



Waste Water purification from farms

Water distribution in orchards

 Silvopasture combined  with Agroforestry  Section A-A’  

Waste Water purification from households



 

     

Rain Water collection and purification

            









Grey Water purification and reuse

 

Fruit and Vegetable wash to prepare for selling

Selling local products at the Market (exchanges)

 

Below: Orchards benefit from urban waste recycling Recycling of urban waste water is suitable, in preference order, for forest trees, industrial crops, citrus tress, deciduous trees, grass and parks for public use, vegetables, tubers and bulbs.[1] 1 PHOTIOU, Christodoulos, Agricultural Department, “Use of recycling water in agriculture”, Nicosia: Publicity Sector, 2000, p9



      





 

   

      



      





Below: Efficient Irrigation methods Recycling and retaining combined with efficient, farmer’s scale irrigation methods, diminish water loss to the minimum. Today, when the river flows, farmers use high amounts of water, which if proper stored and reused later, when the river is dry, borehole drilling will not be necessary.

                       

 

 

     







   

   

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

183

On the right: Existing - From motorway looking north A landscape of periodical flooding, in the official Buffer Zone. UN authorities five personal permissions for mostly agricultural use of the land. Thus, it is not urbanized, while further to the north, landscape become “quiet”.

On the right: Proposed - From rain recycling to retaining wetlands Taking advantage of natural water flows (with rain), a system of wetlands purifying rain water lead to retaining wetlands on the sides of a widened earth channel (in clay ground) provides with water the communal vegetable fields on the left. On the other side, the afforestation around the urban waste treatment plant forms increase biodiversity and attracts wildlife, leading it towards north (to the non accessible part of the buffer zone - “green heart”)

184

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

185



  





 

 











 

 

 

  

 

Retain Ground Water - cool temperature public space



Irrigation with Flooding efficiency: 40%

Providing clean water to vegetable gardens of new residents



Rain Water collection and purification

Micro-springlers for each tree efficiency: 75-85%

Enforcing local production - providing sufficient water for local cultivations

Water distribution in orchards 

 

  

















 

186

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

       

   

 



 

Cultural Waterscapes

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

187









     



 











 

 188

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES





  

 





 





 















EXISTING 

   



   



 



 

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES











189 





    

     



 190

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

 

 

 

  





 

 





 



 



   

 



PROPOSED 

  



   



 



 

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES











191 

192 On the right: Qanat Reuse Reuse of qanat systems is a great opportunity to gather clean water from nature and replace borehole drilling. Although this can work today for some qanats, the majority of them are dry. With aquifer recharge, the proposal envisions their future restoration.

Qanats have a cultural importance and curry information of identities. Thus, public spaces combined with their reclamation and clean water source form great opportunities of social gatherings.

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

Section B-B’

Section C-C’

    





 



 





  





 

 

 

    







 











                                

   

   



 



       

  

 

 







 



 

R

p



Rain Water colle and purific







Waste Water purification from households

 

Rain Water collection and purification





Retain water in subsurface wetlands along water stream - save water in winter and use in summer Water distribution in orchards

Summer

Winter

Section D-D’

Waste Water purifi from house

Steam production from trees Irrigation with Flooding efficiency: 40% Waste Water purification from farms Natural Waterflow Micro-springlers for each tree efficiency: 75-85%

Aquifer Recharge

Fruit and Vegetable wash to prepare

Waste Water purification from households

  



 

Water distribution in orchards

Grey Water purification and reuse

Winter

Harvesting from agricultural areas North and South side of Buffer Zone

Natural Waterflow

  

ection cation agricultural South side

Waste Water purification from farms Rain Water collection and purification

Summer

Groundwater Recharge



    

Providing clean water to vegetable Retain Ground Water - cool gardens of new residents Raising Rain temperatureSilvopasture public spacecombined or with Agroforestry possibilities Vegetable gardens combined with Agroforestry Enforcing local production - providing sufficient water for local cultivations Ecological Rehabilitation

Retain water in subsurface wetlands along w stream - save water in winter and use in sum

Retain water in subsurface wetlands along water stream save water in winter and use in summer Summer



 

 Selling local products at the Market (exchanges)



 Silvopasture combined or A-A’  Section  Agroforestry with Vegetable gardens combined  with Agroforestry    



 REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

Winter

193















 





    

  





 

Waste Water purification from households Retain water in subsurface wetlands along water stream - save water in winter and use in summer

Steam production from trees

Rai pos

Summer Silvopasture combined with Agroforestry

or

Vegetable gardens combined with Agroforestry

Increasing biodiversity Eliminating global warming

Winter

p









 

 

  

194

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

  

      





 





Ecological Waterscapes

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

195

 





 





196

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

















 



EXISTING 

  



   



 



 

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES











197 









  

       198

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

 

 













   

 



PROPOSED 

  



   



 



 

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES











199 

On the right: Botanical Garden in the Buffer Zone View from above, west towards below east. A system of small planted plots follow the trace of the previous division of land, which remains in the non-accessible part of the Buffer Zone for 41 years. This trace is reborn not to form productive land, but to shape a public park - garden and attract both communities to visit it. The ex-train line which becomes a pedestrian/bike route, passes through the garden providing it with access. Along this route, small retaining ponds are storing water for garden use from earth channels flowing from east to west.

The botanical garden contains endemic wildflowers as well as species of aromatic plants used in traditional medicine and cooking practices. Cinnamon, cumin, mastic, oregano, thyme, lavender, rosemary, marjoram, sage, laurel are some of those species that grow without special treatment and with little amounts of water and which, are widely used in the “common” tradition. A space full of familiar odours and colours claim the symbolic symbiosis of cultures through nature.

Since the “Buffer Zone” becomes a “green heart”, the garden is surrounded by it and penetrates with a variety of trees in the garden’s interior. In this case, species of carob trees and olive trees are suggested since they characterize Cypriot landscapes and they offer precious shadow for the public routes. The existing UN outpost transforms into birds observatory remaining in the gardens.

200

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

201

Below: Existing - From aqueduct towards Northern Site The non accessible part of the Buffer Zone in this case is less than 100 metres. Only sounds: the sounds of birds and few people watering their fields. The outposts, are signs of prohibited access, and prohibited “getting close”.

Turkish Military oupost

202

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

UN oupost on top of Avlona’s Water Tank

cation

Below: Proposed - Bird observatories In a proposed afforested Buffer Zone Waste (non accessible part), birds will Water purification be attracted by its safety since no hunters willfrom be able to reach them. households Outposts form the new observatories of wild life and punctual accessibility in the reserved area.

Steam production from trees

Retain water in subsurface wetlands along water stream save water in winter and use in summer

al Waterflow

Summer

Silvopasture combined or with Agroforestry Vegetable gardens combined with Agroforestry

Raising Rain possibilities

quifer Recharge

m production from trees

Ecological Rehabilitation Winter

Raising Rain possibilities

Rain Water collection and purification Rain Water collection and purification

Harvesting from agricultural areas North and South side of Buffer Zone Grey Water purification and reuse

Grey Water purification and reuse

Fruit and Vegetable wash to prepare for selling

Harvesting f areas North of Buffer Zo

Selling local products at the Market (exchanges)

Fruit and Vegetable wash to prepare for selling

Selling local products at the Market (exchanges)

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

203













 

 

 



Steam production from trees

Silvopasture combined with Agroforestry

or

Grey Water purification and reuse

  

      

204

Rain Water collection and purification

Harvesting from agricultural areas North and South side of Buffer Zone

Vegetable gardens combined with Agroforestry

Increasing biodiversity Eliminating global warming



Raising Rain possibilities



REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES



Fruit and Vegetable wash to prepare for selling

Selling local products at the Market (exchanges)



Waterscapes of Exchanges

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

205









 

















 

206

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

 























   

 

  

 

EXISTING

 







 

  







 

 REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES







207 





  

    208

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES







   





   

 

 



  











PROPOSED













 

 





 



REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES







209 



     















 



210

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

      



On the right: Market and Wetland View from above west looking towards below east: The market is placed on a proposed wetland system. This transmits water from one branch of the river to the other, meanwhile it purifies it and provides clean water to the farmers / vendors to wash their products, in the interior of the market. Rain water is also guided to this wetland from the roofs, as well as grey water after products’ washing, where it is purified and drained back to the river which ends up into the big ground water recharge dam, “Masari” dam. 



    

Above: Market attached to the ecological buffer A cultural space positioned right on the edge of the afforested part of the buffer zone and in between the two branches of “Serrahis” river, tangent to “Masari” dam. A punctual intervention articulated with the public trail (pedestrian/bike route) on the trace of the ex-train line. Fruits and vegetables produced in both sides (North and South), are there exchanged. A common place for the two communities that does not belong to none of the sides but to the reserved buffer.













REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

211

Below: The old aqueduct in the Buffer Zone

The aqueduct, positioned right on the edge of Avlona’s restricted area, with direction and water flow from South to North stands in the middle of this vast, implied land ending up in a ruined building, used in the past as a mill.

212

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

Below: The old aqueduct as reference of people’s flows Following the aqueduct, passing through the reserved buffer, we access the public trail - ex train line. This route is one of the selected ones to pass through the reserved buffer due to the existence of this aqueduct. Since the aqueduct transports ground water (which today is diverted) it is envisioned that on its end, the ruined water mill will be transformed to a water collection pond combined with a resting spot for farmers and visitors.

REHYDRATING LANDSCAPES

213

Efficiency in Water Use Purification

Qanat Reuse Urban Waste

Water Collection

Purification

Summer

Ecological Rehabilitation

Infiltration

Winter

Water Collection and Purification

Air purification and Steam Production

Back to Nature

Farm Waste

Rain

Groundwater Recharge Irrigation

Water Use

Grey Water Agroforestry

214

CONCLUSION

Local Economy

Local Productivity

Conclusion

Post-industrial, post-war, post-colonial landscapes remind man’s bond with land and his necessity but also his ability to shape it.

The result is living organisms of everyday realities. Landscapes tell stories of their past and their present, letting man imagine and intervene in their future. Waste Landscapes, tell a story of radical changes of the past, a degree of present abandonment and a high environmental potential for the future “becoming”. What Mapping, Landscape Urbanism and Systemic Design propose as agencies of creativity, is to discover hidden potentialities in ecologies. Ecologies of political, economic, cultural, natural dynamics and their interrelationships, lead to the discourse of ecological systems. Those are the ones that designers need to understand and envision.

possibilities of “becoming better”. Social structures, economic forces, climatic conditions, political decisions, natural phenomena have all an interdependent relationship with landscapes.

Waste, is part of every ecological cycle. Ecological cycles are capable to transform it into a renewable resource either this is water either it is electricity or biomass. In the case of water shortage under a climate change scenario, the degree of emergency is too high to ignore it. Taking action is societies’ duty in order to envision human presence within landscapes. Creativity and imagination, is always a result of a problem processing, which contains

Desertification in the Mediterranean region, for instance, is a spatial result of human activity combined with natural phenomena.

Even if human can do little for changing this reality, he needs to be able to adapt to it. Collaborative systems including human and nature’s activities are able to result in a radical shift. Ecological cycles including human resources, are the ones to be rediscovered, taking advantage of their productive relationships.

Waste ecologies, suggest a better future, reserving a place for waste in ecological systems. Expensive and rather greedy practices of water resources exploitation such as ground water extraction, can be replaced by an alternative. Biological purification and recycling of waste water, gives a low cost environmental answer.

Nature itself is able to clean man-made “mess” and provide societies with its resources. Due to the fact that landscapes and identities are interconnected, adaptability to every environmental transformation is, in fact, indispensable.

CONCLUSION

215

216

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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List of Figures p10 Catalan Atlas by Abraham Cresques, 1387 | http://www.loc.gov/resource/g3200m.gct00215/?sp=4 p22 Cyprus’ Radical Morphological Transformation | by author, based on: CONSTANTINOU Georgios, PANAGIDES Ioannis, Cyprus and Geology, Nicosia: Cyprus Bank Cultural Association, 2013, p100, p303, p315 p22 Typical Qanat | WARD, Paul; “The Origin and Spread of Qanats in the Old World” in: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 112, No. 3, 1968, p. 171 p23 Larnaca’s aqueduct | Cyprus State Archives, “The Illustrated London News, August 1878-200”, in The beginnings of the British administration of the island of Cyprus, Unpublished Documents of 1878, Nicosia: Cyprus State Archives, 2007, p62 p24 Ancient Wells, 8200BC | http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?t=arch-427-1/dissemination/jpg/Figures/Fig29.jpg p24 Underground Tunnel at Nymphaeum of Amathus | ANGELAKIS, Andreas; MAYS, Larry; KOUTSOYIANNIS, Demetris; MAMASSIS, Nikos; Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia, London: IWA Publishing, 2012, p 306 p24 Aqueduct in Salamina | CAMBANELLAS C., OMORPHOS C., IOANNOU H., FRANCESCOU T., KOULLI A., Development of Water Resources’ in Cyprus, A Historical Review, Nicosia, Water Development Department, 2003, p5 p24 British River diversion | RESMYE, Alpar, Atun; NACYE, Doratli; “Walls in Cities: A Conceptual Approach to the Walls of Nicosia” in Geopolitics, London, Routledge, 2009 14:1, p120 p24 British Artesian Drilling | CAMBANELLAS C., OMORPHOS C., IOANNOU H., FRANCESCOU T., KOULLI A., Development of Water Resources’ in Cyprus, A Historical Review, Nicosia, Water Development Department, 2003, p9 p24 British Water Storage Dams| CHRISTOPHIDES N., KYROU K., PISTI E., IOANNOU H., AVGOUSTI M., CHADJIYIANNI N., Dams of Cyprus, Nicosia, Water Development Department, 2009, p24 p25 Cistern in “Vouni” Palace | CAMBANELLAS C., OMORPHOS C., IOANNOU H., FRANCESCOU T., KOULLI A., Development of Water Resources’ in Cyprus, A Historical Review, Nicosia, Water Development Department, 2003, p6 p25 Larnaca’s Aqueduct | http://www.telegraph.co.uk/incoming/article35371.ece/ALTERNATES/w620/kamares+aqueduct+larnaca+republic+of+cyprus+eu rope+the+aqueduct+was+built+in+1750+by+Bekir+Pasha+the+Ottoman+governor+of+Cyprus.jpg p25 Nicosia’s Venetian Walls| http://cyprussite.com/img/map19.jpg p25 “Laoumia” or “Qanat” during Ottoman period| ANGELAKIS, Andreas; MAYS, Larry; KOUTSOYIANNIS, Demetris; MAMASSIS, Nikos; Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia, London: IWA Publishing, 2012, p 313 p26 Fernando Bertelli “ Isola di Cipro” Rome, 1562 | http://cyprussite.com/map/history-all.html, map14 p27 Ioannes Deutecum, “Cypri Insulae Nova Descript 1573”, Antwerp: ORTELIUS, 1600 | http://cyprussite.com/map/history-all.html, map06 p28 Albert Gaudry, The First Geologic Map of Cyprus, 1862, CONSTANTINOU Georgios, PANAGIDES Ioannis, Cyprus and Geology, Nicosia: Cyprus Bank Cultural Association, 2013, p31 p29 Unger and Kotschy, Map of Cyprus, 1865|HARRIS Sarah Elizabeth, Colonial Forestry and Environmental History, British Policies in Cyprus 1878-1960, Texas: The University of Texas in Austin, 2007, p104 p30 Geological Sections through Nicosia | BELLAMY, Charles Vincent; JUKES-BROWNE, Alfred John, 1851-1914, The geology of Cyprus, Plymouth : William Bredon & Son, Ltd., 1905, p19 p31 Geological map by Albert Gaudry, 1878 | https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/LANG%281878%29_p281_GEOLOGICAL_MAP_OF_ CYPRUS.jpg p31 Agricultural Map by Albert Gaudry, 1878 | https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/LANG%281878%29_p010_AGRICULTURAL_MAP. jpg pp33 Rogel Hans, Insola Cipern, 1532-1592 | http://ids.lib.harvard.edu/ids/view/42968482?buttons=y p37 Solar radiation - Cyprus| by author, based on Mappery, Solar Radiation Map of Cyprus: http://www.mappery.com/Solar-Radiation-Map-of-Cyprus p37 Average annual rainfall | by author, based on CONSTANTINOU Georgios, PANAGIDES Ioannis, Cyprus and Geology, Nicosia: Cyprus Bank Cultural Association, 2013, p28 p37 Desertification Vulnerability | by author, based on Υπηρεσία Περιβάλλοντος, Εθνικό Σχέδιο δράσης για την καταπολέμιση της απερείμωσης, Λευκωσία: Υπουργείο Γεωργίας, Φυσικών Πόρων και Περιβάλλοντος, p137 (in Greek) p39 Rainfall per month - Landscape transformation | by author, based on diagram of rainfall per month in: CONSTANTINOU Georgios, PANAGIDES Ioannis, Cyprus and Geology, Nicosia: Cyprus Bank Cultural Association, 2013, p280 p45 | By author, based on Ethnic Distribution: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/europe/cyprus_ethnic_1973.jpg p50-51 (pictures above map) | http://like.philenews.com/data/2014/03/28/mia-diethnis-kallitechniki-synantisi-sti-nekri-zoni-sti-lefkosia.jpg ,http:// boraeinai.blogspot.be/2014/04/blog-post_1147.html , http://cdn1.bbend.net/media/com_news/story/2013/12/05/378496/main/f2970f586ee5084c3103f229a095f95f.jpg 220

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p70 Train admiration by locals, 1904 | http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-MVjIaLw6FeY/UXr3SqM9e3I/AAAAAAAAB-k/pSYCd1IxZmo/s1600/MKP-CRS-KH-12_1904. jpg p70 Mix of cultures at Famagusta station 1920 | https://allikypros.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/railway3-kafetzis19201.jpg?w=490, [Accessed on 14 June 2015] p70 Famagusta Station 1913 | https://allikypros.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/railway3-kafetzis19201.jpg?w=490, [Accessed on 14 June 2015] pp 86-87 Katokopia Distribution Channels Project 1965 | Water Development Department [digital scan] Map Archive, Water Development Department, 3 June 2015 p78 Southern Conveyor Project | by author based on OMORPHOS C., IOANNOU H., Water Development Department, Έργο Νοτίου Αγωγού (Southern Conveyor Project), Nicosia: Press and Information Office, 2000 p81 (graph) | by author, based on data in: CHRISTOPHIDES N., KYROU K., PISTI E., IOANNOU H., AVGOUSTI M., CHADJIYIANNI N., Dams of Cyprus, Nicosia, Water Development Department, 2009 pp 88-89 Akaki Completition Plan - Irrigation Scheme 1973 | Water Development Department [digital scan] Map Archive, Water Development Department, 3 June 2015 p98 Water Demand by Sector | HADJIGEORGIOU Panayiota, Water Development Department, “Reuse of Treated Effluent in Cyprus”, presentation for WG PoM 2nd Meeting (25-26 March 2014) [online] http://www.moa.gov.cy/moa/wdd/wdd.nsf/All/267EB77879999BBBC2257DE70045AE31/$file/Water%20 Reuse_Cyprus%20Case.pdf p 99 Harvesting a carob tree | Cyprus States Archives, “The Illustrated London News, Oct. 5 1878-312” in: The beginnings of the British administration of the island of Cyprus, Unpublished Documents of 1878, Nicosia: Cyprus State Archives, 2007, p43 p102 | by author based on NICOLAOU Giorgos, Department of Agriculture, Βελτιωμένα υστήματα άρδευσης (Improved irrigation systems), Nicosia: Publicity Sector, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, 2009 pp118-119 | http://www.pbase.com/reinhildwaschkies/birds_of_cyprus | http://www.twootz.com/bird/Blackcap | http://www.realbirder.com/CyprusBirdPhotos.html | https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Common_Wood_Pigeon_(Columba_palumbus).JPG | https://cyprusnorth.wordpress. com/ http://www.davidtomlinsonphotos.co.uk/birds/warblers/warblers.html | http://cyprusbirdingtours.com/tag/hoopoe/ | https://www.flickr.com/ groups/824360@N24/pool/philphotography/ | http://www.birdbarrier.com/birds/swallow/ | http://mjyfoley.blogspot.com.cy/2010_05_01_archive. html pp120-123 | by author, based on GIS data found at: http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/natura-2, http://www.diva-gis.org/gdata pp126-127 by author based on: Υπηρεσία Περιβάλλοντος, Εθνικό Σχέδιο δράσης για την καταπολέμιση της απερείμωσης, Λευκωσία: Υπουργείο Γεωργίας, Φυσικών Πόρων και Περιβάλλοντος, p137 (in Greek) pp134-135 | by author, based on: COTZIAGEORGIS Giorgos, ENVECO consultant, Water Development Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, “Τα σημαντικά ζητήματα νερού στη Κύπρο” (in Greek) pp140-141 | ZOGKARIS Stamatis et al, “Water Body Status Evaluation and Proposed Measures for Riparian Zones in Selected Rivers of Cyprus”, for: Project ΥΥ09/2012, Water Development Department, 2013 (in Greek) | COTZIAGEORGIS Giorgos, ENVECO consultant, Water Development Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, “Τα σημαντικά ζητήματα νερού στη Κύπρο” (in Greek), | others: [online] Available at: http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_round_up/2782374/uk_allows_songbird_slaughter_on_cyprus_military_base.html | http://cyprus-mail. com/2014/03/28/natura-2000-site-a-vast-wasteland-of-rubbish/ | http://imgkid.com/baby-loggerhead-turtle-in-water.shtml | http://www.masterfile.com/ stock-photography/image/610-01578063/Cyprus-Troodos-Mountains-Solea-Valley-terrace-vineyards | http://www.sigmalive.com/en/news/local/138066/ larnaca-takes-part-in-eu-cities-with-salt-lakes-network | http://www.easyviaggio.com/cipro/le-colture-710 | http://visitnorthcyprus.com/things-to-do/ karpaz-tour, http://www.teyatik.com.cy/tey/userfiles/documents/omilos-orivasias-maios-iounios-2015.pdf | http://www.costacroisieres.fr/fr/vacances_ croisi%C3%A8re/m%C3%A9diterran%C3%A9e_orientale-chypre.html | http://www.cypenv.eu/nature/nattrees.html [Accessed on 2 April 2015] pp142-143 | by author, based on: COTZIAGEORGIS Giorgos, ENVECO consultant, Water Development Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, “Τα σημαντικά ζητήματα νερού στη Κύπρο” (in Greek) | GIS data found at: http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/ natura-2, http://www.diva-gis.org/gdata pp184-185 Proposed - From rain recycling to retaining wetlands, p203 Proposed - Bird observatories, pp200-201 Botanical Garden in the Buffer Zone, pp210-211 Market, p213 The old aqueduct as reference of people’s flows | in collaboration with Rui Santos

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