Figure 3. Total no. of pupils, by sex and age

Child development is rooted in four hierarchical levels of influence: individual (child outcomes); family resources and interpersonal

relationships; community and

neighbourhood; and the enabling

environment.

2.1 THE SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL MODEL

The development of ALDE survey and its analysis are grounded in the framework adapted from Bronfenbrenner’s Socio-Ecological Model (1979). It focuses on the individual child and his/her outcomes rooted in four hierarchical levels of influence: individual (child outcomes); family resources and interpersonal relationships; community and neighbourhood; and the enabling environment. It is an analytical tool that extends beyond the sectoral boundaries of primary education. The emphasis here is on public actions to achieve better educational outcomes through the interlinked influence of family, community, school policies and institutions. Figure 1 schematically presents the hierarchical model of educational outcomes and their drivers. Basic proficiency levels in literacy and numeracy are among the most important learning outcomes, emphasized in the SDG 4 framework. Although the 2018 ALDE survey does not measure achievement, it has been included in the framework to reflect the cumulative and continuous nature of all educational outcomes. Achievement is influenced directly and indirectly by many factors, including pupils’ motivation for learning, socio-economic status of the family, and the quality and quantity of learning. Pupils’ absenteeism and educational attainment (grade progression according to age) are the outcomes of focus in this report. Poor school attendance increases the risk of falling behind in academic work, leading to grade repetition. This in turn can directly contribute to school dropout. The ecological model and the evidence reviewed informed understanding of how measures of absenteeism, educational attainment and dropout relate to various child characteristics (e.g. sex), family conditions (e.g. poverty), school and classroom characteristics and practices (e.g. school councils), as well as the wider community as represented in the sample. At each level of interconnected ecosystems, there are factors that are facilitators of or barriers to pupils’ engagement and disengagement with schooling, hence educational outcomes such as absenteeism and/or dropout (Figure 1). The framework clearly underlines the different domains of ALDE indicators. The variety of factors hindering school attendance and educational attainment presented above has been carefully considered in the definition of the research hypothesis. The detailed list of indicators for each level of influence to be tested was identified with key stakeholders during the methodological workshop, using a literature review as a basis, as follows: > Indicators related to the child: sex, health, level of previous school experience, psychosocial components, friends, relationship with adults including teachers, and child labour. > Indicators related to the family: level of education and support of parents, family structure, level of economic stability, resilience to shocks; > Indicators related to class: level of teachers’ qualifications, teachers’ presence in the school, class size, peer influences, and monitoring procedures for absenteeism; > Indicators related to school: quality of teaching, inclusion, material resources and school management; these are in line with the concepts of the school environment, policies and practices used in the Programme for International Pupil Assessment for Development (PISA-D) questionnaires. > Indicators related to the community environment: presence and implementation of policies and interventions for children (social action, education, access to healthcare), geographical location, conflict, and natural disasters and emergencies.