1. Context 4-13
4. Solution 44-59
1.1 - Introduction.
4.1 - FaulknerBrowns Architects.
1.2 - Mind the [knowledge] Gap.
4.2 - Pudsey Grangefield School.
1.3 - Methodology.
4.3 - Ercall Wood Technology College. 4.4 - Conclusions.
2. History 14-33 5. Opinion 60-75 2.1 - Victorian Britain to Present Day. 2.2 - Exceptions.
5.1 - Standardisation, Repetition and Fitness for Purpose.
2.2.1 - Dewey.
5.2 - Changing Philosophy.
2.2.2 - Montessori and Hertzberger.
5.3 - The Role and Value of the Architect.
2.2.3 - Waldorf.
5.4 - Omnipresent Themes.
2.2.4 - Reggio Emilia.
2.2.5 - Project Based Learning.
2.3 - Sociopolitical Context.
6. Conclusions 76-89 6.1 - Pedagogy.
3. Problem 34-43
6.2 - Space. 6.3 - Programme.
3.1 - ‘Teaching From the Front’.
6.4 - Closing Remarks.
3.2 - Project Based Learning as a Solution. 7. References i-ix
New Charter Academy : “The 1650 place New Charter Academy design is organized as 5 ‘schools within schools’ to allow each student cohort to maintain their sense of ownership and identity within the overall academy community and was featured by CABE as an exemplar of best practice.” Image and quote: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2008)
Silver Street School, Edmonton : taken in 1937 this photograph shows a ‘raked’ classroom. This particular layout didn’t stick around for long. Image: 1900s.org (1937)
“A Victorian teacher would get the hang of a modern secondary school quite easily.�
- S McDougall, educational thinker and designer The Third Teacher, 2010.
Esseg School - Built in 1894 designed by Carl Hintrager and still in obeyance of the classroom/corridor layout we see in schools today. Image: Architectural Review (2014)
2. HISTORY
20 The Key of Knowledge Sculpture that sits afront John Dewey High School - Brooklyn, New York. Image: JDHSArchives.com (2013)
2.2 - Exceptions
to Dewey’s first impulse principle. They offer practical spaces to learn and observe: impulses two and three.
2.2.1 - Dewey
The spaces also respond to the final Deweyean impulse
by providing students places to perform and express
Dewey’s philosophy is often considered the
foundation of many other educational theories. In School
themselves.
and Society Dewey states children have 4 base impulses
around which an educational philosophy should be built.
Dewey’s theories is the transfer from a knowledge based
The first is a social instinct, to interact with other people.
educational model to that of a skill and enquiry based
Secondly, the impulse to do and make using materials.
one. Tanner (1997, p.35) writes on how “emphasis was
The third is a direct consequence of the first two; children
placed on how to work out problems”, through the
“like to do things and watch to see what will happen”
application of Dewey’s principles in modern teaching
(1915, p. 43). Lastly there is the impulse to perform and
this is a daily occurrence (Domina, 2004). Emphasis
present through creative practise.
on moving away from a knowledge-centric model to an
enquiry, problem solving and skills based model can only
Through time Dewey developed this model
Perhaps the most prevalent takeaway from
into what we know today as ‘collateral learning’, or
be beneficial to children in todays society.
‘learning by accident’. Dewey argues that “the greatest
of all pedagogical fallacies is the notion that a person
mainstream educational theory. his ideas around
only learns the particular thing he is studying at the
‘collateral learning’ are more prevalent than ever given
time.” (1938, p.48). It is perhaps more relevant in todays
the increased availability of information.
Deweys theories have begun to permeate into
digital society than at the time of Dewey’s writing that a student could disappear down a rabbit hole of knowledge; accessible at their finger tips, learning constantly as they go. This modern phenomena, dubbed impulsive browsing, can be a fantastic opportunity or dangerous procrastination.
The physical manifestation of collateral learning
produces spaces which are overtly social, responding
“the greatest of all pedagogical fallacies is the notion that a person only learns the particular thing he is studying at the time.”
- John Dewey, educational pioneer School and Society, 1938.
2. HISTORY
22 De Eilande Montessori School - Amsterdam, NLD. Designed by Hertzberger and completed in 2002. It offers a warm, complex interior with few walls . Instead using levels to separate the interior condition. Image: e-architect.co.uk (2003)
2.2.2 - Montessori and Hertzberger
the central ‘internal street’ circulation and the class
Their are an estimated 20,000 Montessori
bases designed for small group work; independence
schools worldwide, making it one of the most popular
should not be confused with staunch individualism in
‘non-traditional’ teaching methodologies (Al, Sari and
Montessori methods. Collaboration is neither encouraged
Kahya, 2012). The philosophy is formed around self-
nor discouraged but the environment should facilitate all
directed, child-centric learning experiences. The method
types of working, often in the same places.
intends to design problems in order to make the child’s
learning experiences as close to real world scenarios as
has been the most successful of the methods detailed
possible, therefore making the transition from school to
herein as evidenced by some 20,000 schools in existence,
adulthood more accessible (Hertzberger, 2008).
the most of any ‘alternative method’. The child-centric
model customising education has seen a dramatic rise
When it comes to designing schools around
Montessori education as a standalone theory
this method, emphasis must be placed on the fact that
in secondary schools in recent times. It is now widely
the sole purpose of the built environment is to develop
recognised in schools that children learn in differing ways
independence at every possible juncture (Standing, 1957).
and a much broader arsenal of teaching methods are
Montessori herself believed that intellectual curiosity and
employed in mainstream schools than ever before.
discovery was only possible during a constant interaction and dialogue between a child and their environment describing the interiors typically found in Montessori schools as “simple and graceful” (Borrelbach, 2009).
By examining the physical manifestation of
these principles in Hertzberger’s Dutch Schools we can better understand how the principles translate to practice. De Eilande Montessori School in Amsterdam was designed and built between 1996-2002 and the school is essentially one continuous, articulated space with opportunity for ownership by pupils, emphasising the principles of independence. There are areas between
2. HISTORY
Steiner’s Three Phases of Child Development
Past life
24
- Physical body requires ‘bodily milk’ - Reading will damage the etheric body - TV will damage the etheric and astral bodies
- Etherial body requires ‘soul milk’ - Reading is OK - Handwriting strengthens the etheric body - Stimulating the intellect will damage the astral body
- Astral body requires ‘spiritual milk’ - Singing makes the astral body supple - Expresses itself physically in the nervous system
Physical Body
Etheric Body
Astral Body
Birth/ Reincarnation
7 years old Cutting of Teeth
14 years old Puberty
21 years old Adulthood
2.2.3 - Waldorf
1927). Consequently education until the age of 7 is
The Waldorf School movement is the physical
concerned with the physical, repetition and imitation.
application of Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner’s
This phase is intended to imitate the millions of years the
educational theory. Waldorf education originated in the
human race spent on earth before developing the capacity
tumultuous period in post-WWI Germany (O’Shiel &
of art and writing. It is in this 7th year, or the first
O’Flynn, 1998). Emphasis is placed on an appropriate
developmental node, which writing and arithmetic are
development at each of Steiner’s three proposed stages of
introduced (Childs, 1991). Middle school concerns itself
childhood; 0-7 years, 7-14 years and 14-21.; characterised
with feeling. Children are explicitly taught emotively,
by the shedding of milk teeth at 7, puberty at 14 and
encouraging play which harbours empathy, antipathy,
the ascension to adulthood at 21, paired with Steiner’s
courage, joy and fear; emotions which O’Shiel and
theory on the trichotomous system of the physical body;
O’Flynn describe as being breathing for the soul (1997).
head, chest and limb. Steiner rejected the westernised
The upper school is most akin to the age range of learners
opinion that consciousness is concern of the brain
examined within this paper. It is here which the child
alone, an opinion which is still widely held by academics
develops a critical faculty, begins to question authority
(Robinson, 2007), claiming that “the whole body is a
and develop abstract thought.
vehicle of consciousness” (Steiner, 1928, p.231). It is this
holistic view on the conscious of a child and a rejection
another child centric model but emphasis on the
of the premature intellectualisation of children, driven
relationship between child and teacher, most notably in
by the industrialisation of education or facilitating
the earlier two stages of development, lean more toward
specialisation at the earliest stage possible (Industrial
a more traditional teacher centric model. It is intended
At first Waldorf education appears to be yet
Policy Review Group, 1992), that forms the back bone of the ideology.
The curriculum is defined by the marriage of the
stages of a child’s development and activities concerning the whole conscious, specifically the head, chest and limbs; the pairing of these theories culminates in the awakening of consciousness within its pupils (Steiner,
‘Emphasis is placed on an appropriate development at each of Steiner’s three proposed stages of childhood.’ 2. HISTORY
the teacher at the youngest stage stays with the child/
2.2.4 - Reggio Emilia
children for up to 8 years allowing the teacher to better
understand the needs of the child in the most rapid
years education and is most closely linked to Dewey’s
period of development, enabling the teacher to make
ideas on child centric, democratic education (Lindsay
informed decisions on the fine tuning of a curriculum
2015). Widely regarded as the best preschool system in
(Vygotsky, 1978). Elkind (1997) postulates on the
the world (Gardner 2012; Hewett 2001) it is a model
positive impact of this high level personal relationship
which others have aspired to replicate. Interestingly
with the emergence of what he labels the permeable
the educators themselves do not see what they do as a
family. Childs further advocates this relationship saying
‘model’ nor as a theory to be applied elsewhere (Cadwell
relationships prove themselves “to advantage whenever
2003; Edwards 1995; Giamminuti 2013). Formed in the
moral or disciplinary matters arise” (1991, p.37). Elkind’s
municipal region of Reggio Emilia the education project
argument was relevant in 1997 and with the increasing
was officially established in 1963 and has expanded
diversification of what makes a ‘family’ (OECD, 2014) it
whilst maintaining its core values, set out by its founders
would be hard to ignore the seemingly positive effects
(Edwards et. al. 2012). The project is rooted in post-
of the Waldorf model of consistent teacher/student
WWII Italy when educational reform was born of political
relationships.
tension between socialists and the fascist regime (Hall et.
al. 2010). The project placed specific importance on the
The impact of Waldorf education on mainstream
Reggio Emilia is an Italian approach to early
schools in the UK can be characterised by the advanced
role of environment-as-teacher; a principle often referred
relationships seen between students and teachers. This
to as ‘the third teacher’, visual arts and the role of the
increase in personalisation of education, labelled the
teacher as a co-constructor of learning (Garrison, 1996),
‘appropriateness’ in Waldorf theory, along with the
all theories found in Dewey’s writing (Dewey 1900, 1910,
gradual change in teaching methods across age ranges
1916, 1919, 1934, 1939). The project was born of a desire,
can both be attributed, at least in part, to Waldorf-Steiner
following the fall of the fascist regime in Italy, to raise
educational theory.
children that had an extensive critical faculty; valued democracy and socialist principles and subsequently became “guardians of democracy” (Lindsay 2015, p. 450). The Reggio Emilia project is a great example of
26
a widespread application of Deweyean principles and
Reggio Emilia could be said to have had the
offers an interesting exemplar of an authority implicating
least impact in mainstream education of the theories
an ideology and pedadgogy (and subsequently an
listed here, perhaps due to the fact it is the most recent
architecture) out of a clear vision of the direction of
of the historic models. The concept of environment as
society. The reflection of pedagogy as a way of producing
‘third teacher’ was referenced heavily during BSF and
what O’Shiel and O’Flynn call “cultural conduits thus
subsequent studies in its defence since. It is also worth
providing cultural continuity into the future” (1997, p.
highlighting once more that the project was never
337) is commonplace. It is rare however to have such
intended to be transferrable, this itself could attribute the
a strong change in thought and ideology within the
lack of permeation into mainstream education in the UK.
mainstream political spectrum and even more rare for that be sustained, as was and still is seen in Italy and the Reggio Emilia project.
Reggio Emilia Classroom : Classrooms that encourage children to become guardians of democracy through collaboration and environment as the third teacher. Image: oregonlive.org (2012)
2. HISTORY
2.2.5 - Project Based Learning
The recent implication of project based learning
models in Scandinavia, whilst not an educational theory per say, is a contemporary example of how pedagogy informs place and vice versa. Its marriage of pedagogy, places and political programme offers up unique solutions. The term place is used purposefully to ensure the spaces are thought of as inhabited and characterful (Lawson, 2001). The examples examined in Leiringer & Cardellino (2011) were chosen because of of the centralist pedagogical model and its reflection in the design and/ or refurbishment of school buildings. The two Danish schools in Cardellino & Leiringer’s study are both heralded by the British Council for School Environments (BCSE) as exemplar schools.
The buildings are characterised by the diverse
learning opportunity they offer; of the four examples discussed: two explicitly employ PBL, one could be said to have firm routes in PBL theory and the fourth allows its teachers to educate how they feel the subject matter is best conveyed. All of the buildings are portrayed as being ‘flexible’. Flexibility is increasingly becoming commonplace in an architects vocabulary; used in the business sense of being conducive to change.
The Hellerup Skole is beginning to influence
the design profession in the UK school sector. The local
28
Hellerup Sköle Interior : a simple concrete, steel and natural timber pallete mean the seemingly complex geometries of the Hellerup Sköle interior stays easily ledigble and thus negotiable. Image: architizer.com (2011)
authority, acting as client, specified in the brief that the design should “reflect the challenges of modern ‘global’ society” (quoted in Cardellino & Leiringer, 2011 p. 922). This resulted in a building conducive to collaboration and offering external rationality via a rigid rectilinear form and the interplay of levels and zones internally through a central staircase which acts as meeting, dining, learning and general social space.
Programmatically and politically the school is
equally fascinating. During the consultation process no formal drawings were used allowing the end-users maximum access to information through the exclusion of a communication method specific to the construction industry (Norouzia, Shabakb, Bin Embic and Khan, 2015). Much of the success of the project is attributed to the participatory methods employed during the design consultation, allowing the end-users, community and authorities a sense of ownership of the final building long before they had begun to use it. The consultation lasted a little over a year and involved not just end-users but important community figures, like the police, when defining the vision of the school. This extensive, fluent and engaging dialogue allowed the architects to translate a collective vision into a physical reality. Teachers were then trained in how to use this new tool effectively, with enough money set aside within the project budget for 100 hours of training per staff member so that this
2. HISTORY
30
Hellerup Sköle Playground : The Hellerup School’s plain looking exterior belies its intricate interior. The playground provides a colourful canvas on which children can play. Image: architizer.com (2011)
collective vision was not only shared but understood. This polycentric focus enabled the success of the school and allowed the building to be used to its fullest capacity as ‘third teacher’ and as a catalyst for pedagogical reform.
“the design should reflect the challenges of modern global society” - Copenhagen Municipal Council Quoted in Cardellino & Leiringer, 2011
2. HISTORY
2.3 - Sociopolitical Context
though some designers would argue that the two are not exclusive terms.
The introduction of Building Schools for
Some aspects of BSF such as the large internal
the Future (BSF) saw an increase in acceptance of
‘streets’ have endured, though there are perhaps financial
some of the Montessori principles; learning streets,
reasons behind those enduring features. Consider the
outdoor learning zones, emphasis on social spaces and
cost of a maze vs. that of an industrial shed, a crude but
anthropometric design into modern school buildings.
not ill-placed metaphor. Less walls, less manipulation
of services, etc. all of which are attributes which make
The programme literature was filled with
aspirational semantics of “inspiring spaces” and an
multi-functional central spaces attractive to contractors
“historic opportunity” (DfES 2003a:6 [PAGE NUMBERS
and government economists alike.
REQUIRED]) and saw the largest planned investment in school infrastructure in generations. Its replacement the Priority Schools Building Programme (PSBP) brought in alongside the James Review, which conveniently justified huge sweeping cuts to school building by finding “little evidence that a school which goes beyond fit for purpose has the potential to drive educational transformation” (James, 2011, pp. 13), is far less ambitious and aims to “ensure that future capital investment will provide good value for money and strongly support the Government’s ambitions to reduce the deficit, raise standards, tackle disadvantage, address building condition and meet the requirement for school places resulting from an increase in the birth rate.” (pp. 4). Cynically, you might suggest those objectives are listed in priority order but even in pure semantics the difference between “inspiring spaces” and “reduce the deficit” are clear and apparent,
32
“provide good value for money and strongly support the Government’s ambitions to reduce the deficit...”
- Sebastian James, British businessman (not a teacher or anything to do with education whatsoever) The James Review of Education Capital, 2010.
It is evident even from this brief overview that
there has been some limited advancement but now more than ever architects and all those involved in school making have to justify their motivations and evidence their beliefs. But with all this conflicting and shifting ideology we stand on the brink of an exciting time for school architecture, a true paradigm shift.
So can academic research help to define a new
set of criteria, driven by designers and the people that use their spaces? How can we quantify the impact this emerging typology has on the end user: the children who
The ‘right honourable’ Michael Gove MP : former minister for education and the man responsible for comissioning the James Review of Education Capital. Image : telegraph.co.uk (2015)
are educated in these spaces?
Please repair our school : A pupil from Richard Lee Primary holds a plaquard. Pupils had to be educated in corridors following flooding and ceiling colapses due to the apalling state of disrepair of the building. . Image : coventrytelegraph.net (2013)
2. HISTORY
a situation regarded as unwelcome needing to be dealt with.
1. Context 4-13
4. Solution 44-59
1.1 - Introduction.
4.1 - FaulknerBrowns Architects.
1.2 - Mind the [knowledge] Gap.
4.2 - Pudsey Grangefield School.
1.3 - Methodology.
4.3 - Ercall Wood Technology College. 4.4 - Conclusions.
2. History 14-33 5. Opinion 60-75 2.1 - Victorian Britain to Present Day. 2.2 - Exceptions.
5.1 - Standardisation, Repetition and Fitness for Purpose.
2.2.1 - Dewey.
5.2 - Changing Philosophy.
2.2.2 - Montessori and Hertzberger.
5.3 - The Role and Value of the Architect.
2.2.3 - Waldorf.
5.4 - Omnipresent Themes.
2.2.4 - Reggio Emilia.
2.2.5 - Project Based Learning.
2.3 - Sociopolitical Context.
6. Conclusions 76-89 6.1 - Pedagogy.
3. Problem 34-43
6.2 - Space. 6.3 - Programme.
3.1 - ‘Teaching From the Front’.
6.4 - Closing Remarks.
3.2 - Project Based Learning as a Solution. 7. References i-ix
Cockburn School : “The £15m project comprised a combination of selective demolition, remodeling and extension to provide a unified ‘new’ school for 1050 students. demonstrating how investment in existing school buildings can still engender pride in students, staff and the community, while delivering good value for money.” Image and quote: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2009)
3.1 - ‘Teaching From the Front’
Whilst there is a higher uptake of higher education by the younger population with the Higher Education Initial
38
The world we live in today is very different from
Participation Rate (HEIPR) estimates a contentious 49%
the victorian world from which the school typology most
(Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, 2015)
commonplace in the UK was founded. Digital media has
there is still at least half of the school age population
revolutionised the way in which children learn outside
that will never attend university. Given that the apparent
the classroom. Bjerede (2014) talks at length about the
aims of our public school system are geared towards
impact of digital media applications or ‘apps’ and there
higher education it could be argued that our public
influence on the way children learn, her specific example
school system, along with most others around the world,
is that of her own children during homework sessions
is failing at least half of its young people. It could also
and holidays. She talks of how apps have brought Deweys
be argued that it is not only failing the aforementioned
concept of collateral learning to the masses, not just
students but those who aspire to higher education too.
those enrolled in schools that practise his ideas. She
also highlights the incredible capacity children have
front is geared towards imparting knowledge aimed at
for making their own decisions in the way they educate
childrens progression to further and higher education,
themselves. The capacity of a child to find its own way to
consequently it fails the majority of students who
a solution, with little to no guidance is also echoed in Sir
don’t progress to such an academic level. However the
Ken Robinson’s enigmatic TED talk (January 6, 2007).
pedagogical methods employed in mainstream schooling
could also be considered to be failing students who
Robinson also talks about public educations
The pedagogical method of teaching from the
goals and aims, it is this section of the talk which most
do progress to further and higher education. Pupils at
highlights the problem with teaching from the front. “If
college and university are increasingly expected to learn
you look at the output, who really succeeds by this… The
independently (Pokorny & Pokorny, 2006), with little
whole purpose of public education throughout the world
direct imparting of knowledge from a senior figure. For
is to produce university professors”. The ‘ONS annual
this reason alone the method of imparting knowledge as a
survey of hours and earnings - resident analysis’ (2012)
way of furthering a child’s academic potential is, and has
estimated that 36% of the work age population have an
for a great deal of time been, obsolete.
NVQ4 or above (equivalent undergraduate degree level).
Imparting knowledge from teacher to student or
Digital Technologies in the classroom are becoming more commonplace but there is still a tentativeness around its potential. Image: asksimplek12.com (2014)
3. PROBLEM
‘teaching from the front’ was a method devised when a
executive of the e-Learning Foundation, quoted in The
wider body of information was far less available. Large
Guardian (2011) claims “The government doesn’t seem
academic libraries held the majority of information
that interested in it”.
and subsequently the authority on a vast number of
subjects. In short the ‘fountain of knowledge’ was still an
schools is a good vehicle to explain one of the many
extremely valid concept. In todays digital world a large
reasons why the way young people learn needs to change.
proportion, estimated to be between 80-92% (Ofcom
Now more than ever it is imperative we teach children
2006, 2011), of secondary school age children have access
how to teach themselves, how to assess information
to an infinitely large pool of knowledge in there pocket
for its integrity and evaluate its worth as ‘knowledge’.
in the form of smartphones and tablet computers. This
In short we must move from a ‘teacher-centric’ or
database holds more knowledge than any one human
‘knowledge’ based industrial driven system to a ‘method-
being could possibly posses. In short, the age of the
centric’ or ‘skills’ based advanced service system and
fountain of knowledge is over. Some mainstream schools
subsequently society.
have embraced this change, in 2011 a secondary school in Kent became the first in the country to equip each of its 1,400 pupils with an Apple iPad tablet computer as a standard issue educational tool, in the same way a school might issue an academic diary or a reading list. Honywood community school in Essex, also invested in 1,200 iPads for its pupils. Some schools, such as the Oldershaw academy in Wallasey on Merseyside, have taken the concept one step further and created their own app so parents can check, via their mobiles, what homework their children have been set. This integration of technology into pedagogy in secondary schools was seen as revolutionary. Unsurprisingly it wasn’t met with open arms by the government. Valerie Thompson, chief
40
The integration of technology into secondary
The Fountain of Knowledge : immense academic libraries like the Wren Library at Trinity College Cambridge once held the access to the worlds information, now you can store and access all this and more from a pocket-sized device . Image: Trinity College, Cambridge (1870).
3.2 - Project Based Learning as a Solution
Wurdinger et. al. (2007, p. 151) define project
based learning (PBL) as: “a teaching method where teachers guide students through a problem solving process which includes identifying a problem, developing a plan, testing the plan against reality, and reflecting on the plan while in the process of designing and completing a project”.
This short definition begins to shed light on what
it is that sets PBL apart from other pedagogical methods and their potential when talking about modern education. More specifically the term “developing”. According to Dewey (1915) humans are born with four instincts meaning everything else we know or believe to be true is acquired through developmental experience. More often than not that experience is by proxy; we don’t each have to learn things are poisonous by eating them ourselves for example. It is this ability to generate, and most importantly document and communicate, the collective experience of being human which can be credited as the reason human beings have advanced to such levels of civilisation (Christian, 2011). Project based learning teaches students transferable skills, finding its theoretical roots in Deweyean theory (Domina, 2004). The promotion of transferable skills, as well as the promotion of independent evaluation of information for quality and
3. PROBLEM
The project based learning project : schools in Hong Kong have implemented project based learning. Image: japantims.co.jp (2013) integrity, is evidenced in a plethora of literature. Skills
in project based learning. Whilst some students may not
such as general problem solving, time management,
advance to high levels of metacognition or considerably
responsibility and collaboration (Hall, Palmer and
more advanced projects Bender (2012) writes about the
Bennett, 2012; Wolff, 2003; Zhang, Peng and Hung,
ability to tailor PBL to meet individual needs through
2009) are equally as useful for the university student
a teacher guiding students towards their own learning
as the retail worker. Krauss and Boss (2013) identified,
styles.
among other life skills such as task initiation, flexibility and self-control and metacognition (or the awareness of ones own thought processes) as an outcome of engaging
42
Lam, Cheng & Ma (2009) undertook a large
pedagogical methods and environments to suit their and
study in a Hong Kong secondary school to learn about
their needs and we have a synergy of environment as
intrinsic motivation in project based learning. PBL was
enabler and intrinsic motivator. In Deweyean philosophy
introduced in Hong Kong at the turn of the millennium
this leads to an “organic connection between education
by the government as a response to the “challenges of a
and personal experience” (1938 p. 25) consequently
rapidly changing society” (p. 565) as well as advancing
leading to an advancement in ‘soft’ transferable skills,
children’s generic skills as seen evidenced in Bender
knowledge and ultimately metacognition. In short we can
; Krauss & Boss; etc.. Lam, Cheng & Ma found that
use school buildings as motivational tools, when paired
intrinsic motivation, involving the highest degree of self-
with self directed PBL, to better our education system.
determination in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991) was evident in students engaged in PBL. Whilst the multifaceted nature of ‘school as organism’ makes it difficult to attribute this intrinsic motivation to pedagogy alone Cellar and Wade (1988) argued that even perceiving a person demonstrating intrinsic motivation towards a task engendered intrinsic motivation in the observers when they were subsequently engaged in the activity; this illustrates the power of perceived enthusiasm in any given task.
When framing the environment of a school as the
‘Third Teacher’ we can argue that a perceived enthusiasm for the environment, through the design and building of ‘desirable’ schools, can engender an increased level of self-motivation within students (Strong-Wilson and Ellis, 2007). Couple that with project based learning in its physical manifestation, namely the Deweyean principle of the emphasis placed on students capability to chose
‘When framing the environment of a school as the ‘Third Teacher’ we can argue that a perceived enthusiasm for the environment, through the design and building of ‘desirable’ schools, can engender an increased level of self-motivation within students’ 3. PROBLEM
a way of solving a problem or dealing with a difficult situation.
1. Context 4-13
4. Solution 44-59
1.1 - Introduction.
4.1 - FaulknerBrowns Architects.
1.2 - Mind the [knowledge] Gap.
4.2 - Pudsey Grangefield School.
1.3 - Methodology.
4.3 - Ercall Wood Technology College. 4.4 - Conclusions.
2. History 14-33 5. Opinion 60-75 2.1 - Victorian Britain to Present Day. 2.2 - Exceptions.
5.1 - Standardisation, Repetition and Fitness for Purpose.
2.2.1 - Dewey.
5.2 - Changing Philosophy.
2.2.2 - Montessori and Hertzberger.
5.3 - The Role and Value of the Architect.
2.2.3 - Waldorf.
5.4 - Omnipresent Themes.
2.2.4 - Reggio Emilia.
2.2.5 - Project Based Learning.
2.3 - Sociopolitical Context.
6. Conclusions 76-89 6.1 - Pedagogy.
3. Problem 34-43
6.2 - Space. 6.3 - Programme.
3.1 - ‘Teaching From the Front’.
6.4 - Closing Remarks.
3.2 - Project Based Learning as a Solution. 7. References i-ix
Pudsey Grangefield School : “Pudsey Grangefield School provides a transformational learning environment for 1145 students which re-allocates conventional classroom space into open, group and show-and-tell learning spaces, in response to a pedagogy which promotes personalised learning. The school was winner of the Leeds Architecture Award for Best New Building in 2009.� Image and quote: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2009)
4.1 - FaulknerBrowns Architects
As designers, postulation around the theoretical
side of a project often acts as a useful precursor to a solution, but postulation alone only serves to devalue an idea. As Nelson Mandela once said; “Action without vision is only passing time, vision without action is merely day dreaming, but vision with action can change the world”. For this reason it is important we analyse the real world solutions and the translation of educational theory into practise in learning environments and assess their successes and failures. Introducing - Paul Richardson Paul joined FaulknerBrowns in 2005, becoming a Director in 2008 and a Partner in 2013, leading the school team. Paul has been involved in a wide variety of projects in education, commercial and retail sectors from inception to completion of schemes. He has consolidated that experience on several PFI and BSF schools programmes and was the key team leader on our successful bid for the Leeds, Tameside and Telford & Wrekin BSF projects. His continued involvement across all levels of school design and presitgious record in the sector means he is well placed to comment on the views of the architectural profession with regards to school making.
Over the course of several interviews conducted
with Paul Richardson ideas around the translation of theory into practise and the problems architects encounter were discussed. The conversation was a long form semi-structured interview primarily based around two of their most successful school projects, Pudsey Grangefield School and Ercall Wood Technology College. The interview was conducted face-to-face due to the advantage ethnographic research methods can have when taking into consideration the expertise held by the interview subject (Opdenakker, 2006).
After the conclusion of Pudsey Grangefield,
FaulknerBrowns undertook an ‘internal’ evaluation of the all the projects completed to date as a design orientated post occupancy evaluation to assess what the practise
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and the sector as a whole could learn. FaulknerBrowns
an educational model as a way of consolidating work they
are huge advocates of post-occupancy evaluation (POE).
had done within the BSF and PSBP framework to take
“Sometimes we work so quickly, we produce these
to other schools as a self-generated exemplar of what
schemes, we get them done and what happens after all
‘transformational education’ meant to them. The result
that? How do we use what we’ve learnt?” (Richardson, P.
was the ‘learning loop’ which is central to many of the
2015).
discussions herein.
Whilst many practices and contractors carry out
The learning loop is a theoretical educational
post-occupancy evaluations they are normally focussed
model intended to aid the visualisation of change within
on environmental performance, this could most likely be
a school, especially when connected to a change in
accredited to the lack of clarity around ‘design quality’.
built environment. The model draws from a number of
FaulknerBrowns see POE as a way of learning about
theories and can closely be attributed to Dewey’s theories
successes and failures within the project. Alongside
around children’s impulses: communication, making,
educationalist Eddie Brady, FaulknerBrowns developed
observation and performance (Dewey, 1915). The cyclical
Learn Perform
The Learning Loop
Make
Idea
Test 4. SOLUTION
model demonstrates the acts of teaching and learning as a non-linear activities. It is recognised, as theorised in Waldorf, Reggio Emilia and Montessori literature, that children will learn in different ways. In some instances children will visit one stage of the loop several times, in other instances they will bypass stages. This model was developed following the completion of Pudsey Grangefield, a BSF scheme, and subsequently informed Ercall Wood Technology College, a PSBP scheme.
“Sometimes we work so quickly, we produce these schemes, we get them done and what happens after all that? How do we use what we’ve learnt?” - Paul Richardson, FaulknerBrowns Architects Primary Interview, 2015.
50
4.2 - Pudsey Grangefield School
Light and space - A classroom at Pudsey Grangefield with light filled boxes to the rear. Image: FaulknerBrowns LLP (2008)
The first exemplar project discussed was Pudsey
Grangefield School in Pudsey, West Yorkshire. The scheme was completed in 2008 under the Building Schools for the Future programme and was described by then Foreign Secretary, David Miliband as “a great monument to Labour government.” (2010).
Paul spoke at length about spatial configuration
as an enabler and as a deterrent to certain behaviours, as architects we believe this instinctively to be true and there is some limited evidence to support those instincts (Mahony & Hextall, 2013; Mahony et. al. 2013; Woolner et. al. 2007; Kraftl 2011; CABE 2005, 2006b, 2007; DfES 2003a, 2004b). During the development of Pudsey Grangefield School FaulknerBrowns developed a suite of spaces designed to enable PBL alongside then head teacher Ken Cornforth. He spoke about suites of rigid teaching spaces “the only activity they give you is didactic teaching, the factory model” and a different approach, “each department has 2 classrooms, 2 seminar rooms, show and tell. The idea of open learning too. Pudsey is two of those [suites] put together on a floor plate”. There is a real sense of intelligent adjacency which arises from both schemes, putting two things on a floor plate doesn’t necessarily represent the best adjacency. Paul told me that during the design phase suites that were suggested as
4. SOLUTION
Spatial Suite Development
Classroom
Classroom
Classroom
Classroom
Classroom
Show & Tell
Corridor
Staff/Resource/Store
Open Learning
Staff/Store
Corridor
Classroom
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Classroom
Classroom
Classroom
Classroom
Classroom
Container for Activity
Traditional Teaching
Flexible Teaching
Pedagogy drives space.
Activites - Traditional, didactic teaching
A regular grid accounting for circulation and standard class sizes is established.
Traditional general teaching classrooms with centralised resources provide space for didactic teaching and staff/ancillary accomodation. While this model will enable a base standard of teaching it is unflexible and uninspiring.
Activites - Traditional, didactic teaching/ Flexible Teac hing/ Lead Lecture/ Presentation / Group Work/ Open Learning An alteration of the same grid offers a greater deal of flexibility including classroom sizes, open learning, varied teaching and learning methods including lecture, group work and presentation.
adjacent by the school ended up being at opposite ends of
actually what turned out was these were like library
a 100m floor plate in a traditional organisational strategy
spaces.” This awareness of a pupils visibility to peers and
across two floors. In a cost-driven political landscape
staff encouraged pupils to improve their own behaviour
where efficiency is paramount school buildings are bound
without the need of direct intervention or active
to become more cubic, since cubes hold the most volume
supervision.
with the lowest surface area; so vertical adjacency and connectivity are becoming crucial. This has been one of the great strengths of many FaulknerBrowns’ schemes.
I’d asked Paul if any behavioural issues had
arisen from a greater degree of openness as discussed in (Vartanian et. al., 2014). “First off they’d have to be very brave because they’re kicking off in front of everyone, that’s an inbuilt deterrent… The configuration changes how people behave.” This idea of passive supervision could perhaps draw unwanted conclusions to Jeremy Bentham’s ‘Panoptican’ prison, a model which was conceived as being transferable to hospitals, asylums and schools (Gallagher, 2010). It would be an unnecessary and unwarranted comparison, the school is bright, airy and has a real quality of place. It would perhaps be more realistic to ascertain that the perceived openness has engendered a low-level Hawthorne effect on the pupils. The Hawthorne Effect is a phenomena often quoted in action research where observants change their behaviour because of an awareness of being observed (Hanssona and Wigblad, 2006). “The view was these [open learning areas] weren’t going to be quiet spaces,
“The view was these [open learning areas] weren’t going to be quiet spaces, actually what turned out was these were like library spaces.” - Paul Richardson, FaulknerBrowns Architects Secondary Interview, 2015.
4. SOLUTION
4.3 - Ercall Wood Technology College
Next, Paul and I discussed Ercall Wood
Technology College in Telford, the lead school in a batch of 5. The local authority heald a strong view on the way the schools were to operate and as such the head teachers acted as a conduit for the requirements of the school but ultimately the overarching ‘vision’ was a centrally controlled one; this involved the gradual implementation of PBL themes through open learning areas and a variety of spacial typologies. “Everywhere is a learning space, the forum is an extension of the learning space and equally the learning spaces are an extension of the forum”. I prompted Paul about the striking similarities his theories held to Deweyean theory; allowing children to choose learning environments and how this model has great potential because of its high flexibility. “It’s a very simple banal diagram which belies a complex function… there’s a huge degree of spaces there, you can chose whats comfortable, that’s different for different people”. I asked Paul if the flexibility of the schemes meant they were easily transferable across batches and if there was potential to roll-out this model beyond a traditional batch scope. “I think it helped… we’d already detailed key elements, we’d done all the Hard work on Ercall Wood it was just adapting that to fit other schools needs”. The iteration of ideas from scheme to scheme and ‘mass-
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The same, but different. - Elevational treatments from Telford Coopertaive Academy (top) and Ch to create radically different aesthetcs. Grids, relationships, proportions and rules are applied acr Images: FaulknerBrowns LLP (2015)
harlton School (bottom) from the same ‘batch’ of schools show how modular systems can be applied across multiple schemes with different intermediate treatements ross multiple schemes with carefully considered breaks to create architectural merit all the while maintaining appropriateness for the end users and value for money.
4. SOLUTION
customisation’ is something architects are educated to
‘level-up’ standards while streamlining supply chains
oppose, instead great emphasis is placed on genius loci
and construction cost and time this can only be a positive
and extreme contextualisation; this is seemingly at odds
thing. We spoke about the benefits that early research
to Le Corbusier, widely regarded the greatest architect
and development can have for a project: “We treated it
of the modern age, and his seeming incessancy to move
[the Telford batch] as a single design team, single delivery
toward “the mass production spirit” (1923 first translated
time, agreeing to do big things quick was invaluable”.
to English 1927). Paul is an advocate of batch production
There are huge monetary benefits to be had in awarding
in architecture, but only when that leads to better
contracts for multiple projects together: standardisation
buildings for all. “If [standardisation] is a levelling up
of systems, materials and the supply chain offers
of standards that’s good, if it’s a dumbing down, lowest
opportunity to save money through bulk or repeat orders.
common denominator as is more often the case, then
Standardisation of detailing materials, how one system
that’s definitely not a good thing.”
meets another for example, can offer savings in time
which of course translates to money saved.
It cannot be emphasised enough at this juncture
that the use of the word ‘batch’ within this and the
In a later correspondence with Paul he
following section, unless explicitly stated otherwise, is in reference to a group of projects which are collected together for the awarding of contracts but are designed as non-identical projects. The Telford Schools batch was one such project; it involved 5 new schools being built, all of which were designed specifically to meet the needs of that individual school.
The amount of money available for building
schools has been in ‘real-term’ decline since the scrapping of BSF and this trend looks set to continue (Institute for Fiscal Studies, 2015). If, as Paul says, batch production of schools, and indeed other buildings within the increasingly squeezed public sector, can
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“If [standardisation] is a levelling up of standards that’s good, if it’s a dumbing down, lowest common denominator as is more often the case, then that’s definitely not a good thing”
- Paul Richardson, FaulknerBrowns Architects Secondary Interview, 2015.
The same, but different. : The same elevational treatment applied to Ercall Wood Technology College from the Telord batch seen previously but with carefully considered junctions between elements creates legible entrances and architectural joy. Image: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2015)
4. SOLUTION
highlighted the value of standardising spatial
4.4 - Conclusions
relationships as well as systems. Emphasising the movement through scales in design; from systems
and components to spaces and whole models. The
implementing and developing themes rooted in PBL
relationship between these spatial types then serves
and Deweyean theory but remain grounded about the
a common transformational pedagogy or curriculum,
impact architects can have on transforming learning with
allowing designers time to research and develop
Paul telling me: “As much as we would like to think it’s
relationships across all scales; such as is seen in more
about the building, it’s an enabler. It’s a component, an
traditional industrial mass-production models, albeit at a
important one, but you need the people too”.
FaulknerBrowns have been successful in
much reduced scale of quantity.
One would hope that these savings could be
In order to properly examine Paul’s opinion, we
reinvested into better quality materials, higher quality
must examine it against the opinions of others, using
internal Furniture, Fittings and Equipment (FF&E),
a synthesis of the Delphi method as detailed in the
increased IT provision or even pooled together to allow
methodology, to find where experts are in agreement or
more projects to come to fruition.
disagreement on methods employed by FaulknerBrowns to use school buildings as catalysts for transforming learning. The other ‘stakeholders’ have been chosen because of their considerable expertise across various roles in the running and making of schools; meaning where opinions are common we can, with considerable authority, conclude these opinions, methods and strategies to be of considerable value.
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4. SOLUTION
Levels and Light. - Bright and airy aitriums provide joy to interior places within the schemes. Splashes of colour indicate ownership and personal identity. Image: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2015)
1. Context 4-13
4. Solution 44-59
1.1 - Introduction.
4.1 - FaulknerBrowns Architects.
1.2 - Mind the [knowledge] Gap.
4.2 - Pudsey Grangefield School.
1.3 - Methodology.
4.3 - Ercall Wood Technology College. 4.4 - Conclusions.
2. History 14-33 5. Opinion 60-75 2.1 - Victorian Britain to Present Day. 2.2 - Exceptions.
5.1 - Standardisation, Repetition and Fitness for Purpose.
2.2.1 - Dewey.
5.2 - Changing Philosophy.
2.2.2 - Montessori and Hertzberger.
5.3 - The Role and Value of the Architect.
2.2.3 - Waldorf.
5.4 - Omnipresent Themes.
2.2.4 - Reggio Emilia.
2.2.5 - Project Based Learning.
2.3 - Sociopolitical Context.
6. Conclusions 76-89 6.1 - Pedagogy.
3. Problem 34-43
6.2 - Space. 6.3 - Programme.
3.1 - ‘Teaching From the Front’.
6.4 - Closing Remarks.
3.2 - Project Based Learning as a Solution. 7. References i-ix
Pudsey Grangefield School : “Community and learning spaces, centered around connected internal streets of social dining and open learning, provide opportunities for anywhere anytime learning for students, staff and the community, ensuring the school becomes a well-used out of hours resource.� Image and quote: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2009)
Introducing - Dr. Sharon Wright Sharon has worked on school capital projects since 2002, acting as an Education Adviser to both clients and contractors. She has expertise in brief development, design review and evaluation, and has worked on all forms of procurement across primary, secondary and special schools. She has written and spoken about educational design in the UK and internationally and is co-editor and author of the recent book ‘Future Schools : Innovative Design for Existing and New Buildings’. Sharon is a Doctor in Education from King’s College London and a Trustee of a new Free School in West London. An educational polymath, Sharon has been chosen because of her wide reaching experience in many guises throughout education including: teaching, learning, building, policy forming and her roles as client consultant and construction consultant.
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Save Our School : Eston Park School (which changed its name to Eston Park Academy, then merged with an adjacent school to become Hillsview Academy) where Jim Rogers was head teacher for 16 years. Image: gazettelive (2011)
Introducing - Jim Rogers After graduating from Durham and training in Leicester,Jim started his teaching career in Sheffield; he moved to the North East in 1995 to take up the Headship of Eston Park,a split site comprehensive school,deemed to be failing. Under his Headship the school was transformed into a single site,heavily over-subscribed school designated “outstanding� by OFSTED. Jim oversaw the transition to a single site involving a major building and renovation project as well as the development of post 16 education facilities. He was then closely involved in proposals and negotiations under Building Schools for the Future before retiring in 2011. Jim has been included because of his active role in the school making process, both physical and programmatical on several occasions, experiences he considers both good and bad.
5. OPINION
5.1 - Standardisation and Repeating
financial decisions”.
Elements.
Had I no previous knowledge of the batch Jim
was talking about I probably would have taken the
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The first school I spoke about with Paul was
phrase “one size fits all” with a pinch of salt, but images
Ercall Wood. Part of a batch project of which Ercall
of the schools built under the ‘one-size-fits-all batch’
Wood was the lead school in the design competition.
show just how fitting the phrase is. The batch of 3 x
Telford and Wrekin Council engaged all the bid teams
750 place secondary schools (along with a 315 and 330
with a strong centralist model of what they wanted to
place primary schools) were all identical. Not one screw,
achieve. This is an interesting approach and lead to
door set or carpet tile is different. The only difference
FaulknerBrowns delivering 7 new schools on 6 different
between the schools is their signage, colour and
sites, each tailored to the individual schools needs
branding. Paul Richardson is an advocate of ‘levelling-
using the head teacher as the conduit for moulding the
up’ standardisation, he spoke about the Telford batch
toolkit into a resolved building. Each of the 7 projects
and the acceptance from the client that there would be
are noticeably different from the other, both visually and
“a common educational vision” and “similar parts across
programmatically.
the brief” but most importantly he spoke about doing
the hard work on research and development during the
When I spoke to Jim Rogers he was directly
opposed to this model telling me “they [the local
design of Ercall Wood meaning the model just needed
authority] had no intention to listen to the needs and
“adapting to fit the other school’s needs”.
vision of the school because a one-size-fits-all model was
cheaper for the architects and the developer”. I found this
wit and author of the RIBA Future Schools publication,
to be an arresting comment. Jim and Eston Park School
about standardisation across school batches, its benefits
withdrew from the batch after initial consultation as they
and drawbacks. She was keen to speak on the inherently
believed the school would have been left with a building
complicated nature of schools “I have never come across
less fit for purpose at enormous expense to the school,
two schools who want the same thing… they’re all so
so much so infact that Jim told me: “It was actually so
different and rightly so!”. Given Sharon’s extensive
severe the governors felt they would be in breach of there
background in school making from both a client and
responsibility because they have a legal responsibility for
contractor perspective she speaks with considerable
I spoke to Dr Sharon Wright, founder of creative
5. OPINION
Standardisation vs One-size-fits-all (none) - Pudsey Grangefield and Cockburn schools (top) from the Leeds BSF batch have suitably different feeling and appearance. A stark contrast to Gillbrook and Bydales Schools (bottom) in Redcar and Cleveland where the same building was built on 3 different sites. Images : FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2009) / Gazettelive.co.uk (2014)
authority. If no two schools are the same then I asked
as it is across an appropriate scale and to an appropriate
her if there was any role at all for standardisation within
degree. Jim and Sharon both agreed with Paul that the
the sector? She thought that things like systems for
standardisation of any aspect of design should never
HVAC or toilet blocks etc. can be standardised echoing
be to the detriment of function or fitness for purpose.
Paul’s approach with the standardisation of non-specific
But seemed to agree that when it involved a levelling
elements like cill heights, wall build ups and relationships
up of standards it has an important role to play in an
between materials across the scales of a project. This still
increasingly tight financial context.
allows a school and subsequently the architect to design bespoke buildings from the same toolkit. Without prompt Dr. Wright continued to talk about the poor availability of land for school buildings and how this inhibits extremely standardised buildings; though she is vehemently against off the shelf design as seen in the Redcar and Cleveland batch. Fitness for purpose is something which echoed through all of the interviews with all participants in agreement that pedagogy and building must both progress at the same rate; as one without the other is a hindrance to both. Jim was perhaps the most passionate of respondents on this topic: “because its not buildings that educate kids, it’s what happens in them”. He expanded on this view explaining how you can have outstanding schools in traditional, didactic teaching settings or an open plan building which will work for some but not for others. He shares Dr. Wright’s belief that “it’s about finding the right fit for what the schools want”.
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Standardisation appears to have a place as long
“I have never come across two schools who want the same thing… they’re all so different and rightly so!”
- Dr. Sharon Wright, Creative Wit Primary Interview, 2015.
‘Don’t Move Our School’ : Pupils and parents from Darras Hall Primary protest against plans to move to a new site under 2 miles away. Image: bbc tyne and wear (2015)
5.2 - Changing Philosophy.
BSF literature was full of notions of transformational buildings and new ways of learning (CABE 2005 2006b,
One of the biggest problems architects face
2007) but responsibility for bringing about this change
across all sectors is where to draw the line between
was never assigned to a party within the process. For
fulfilling and enriching a brief; architects can often be
some this is a purely political issue, when it comes
met with cynicism when deemed to be trying to influence
to educational philosophy Jim was clear that he was
something outside of their perceived scope. This is
“against someone centrally telling me what the correct
something Jim highlighted in simple terminology: “What
educational philosophy is” stating open plan will work
do the architects know about educational philosophy?”.
for some but will be “an absolute disaster for discipline
5. OPINION
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and whatever else”. When I spoke to Paul in an initial
to two things, both echoed by Paul and Jim: firstly,
interview I asked about the biggest challenges architects
the lack of preparation/briefing given to heads in the
face when working on school projects; he claimed that the
same batches of projects leading to wildly different
teaching profession is resistant to change. He was quick
expectations. Jim had confessed he didn’t know how
to clarify that this was not the fault of the profession
much of the apparent unwillingness to listen to the
itself. “The people at that level were very happy with
schools issues was driven by the local authority and
where they were. It [BSF] needed stronger leadership
how much was driven by the architects, I suspect the
from the government.” Paul clarified these comments at
former. When I asked him if he understood the structure
a later date, claiming the seeming desire for individuality
of the project from the school upwards, he said he
could be positive “in the sense of pursuing excellence” or
did not. It would appear a lack of communication was
just a desire to stay the same. Even these brief comments
commonplace during the procurement and development
illustrate a clear disparity in aims between the end-users,
of many BSF schemes (Mahony & Hextall, 2013; Kraftl,
government and the construction team, inclusive of the
2012; Mahony et. al., 2011; Cardellino et. al., 2011). This
architect.
lack of information can lead to suspicion from schools
about what the LA are trying to ‘push’ on them, Jim
This view was echoed by Jim: “the problem
is, the school isn’t the final client”. I also spoke about
expressed he suspected an “ulterior motive” of squeezing
this apparent resistance to change and the seemingly
up student/teacher ratios and having 60-90 children
powerless, perhaps even menial, role of head teachers
educated by 1 teacher; support staff are paid considerably
with Dr Wright. She echoed the findings of my initial
less wages than teachers and with the gradual decline in
literature review in which there was huge debate and
‘real term’ qualifying teacher numbers (i.e. offset against
very little conclusion around just what ‘transformational’
the rise in pupils) (Boffey, 2015) they are also proving
meant. She told me that as the BSF scheme in particular
much easier to recruit than their fully qualified peers. The
moved forwards “we spoke less about transformation
lack of communication and understanding in the shared
and more about managing change” that may seem a
vision can and only ever will be a hindrance to the success
throwaway semantic difference but you can quantify
of any project. Paul was vocal and adamant when we first
change, at least in the first instance: Has this changed,
spoke that change is “about people on the ground… you
yes or no? Dr. Wright attributes the resistance to change
either all get on board or nothing changes”. If the lack of
it’s little wonder people weren’t rushing to get on board.
The second shared opinion on the resistance to
change was curriculum and examination. Dr. Wright and I discussed briefly why other sectors are more susceptible to change, offices, universities, etc. and she pointed out that primary schools are much better at changing than secondaries, I had asked her if she thought that was due to the pressure of children becoming contributing members of society. She was clear that it was about exams and exams alone because a school is assessed on its successes and failures in examinations by the children and OFSTED. The view of control and restriction, rather than merely assessment, was echoed by both Jim and Paul separately. I spoke to Dr. Wright of the perceived frustration of being between a rock (the client) and a hard place (the contractor) in schools projects generally; how the client/end-user/architect/contractor arrangement wasn’t conducive to transformation and how teaching, learning, management and the building has to all move at the same pace.
“the problem is the school isn’t the final client” - Jim Rogers, Retired Head Teacher Primary Interview, 2015.
Rows and Rows : Pupils sitting exams on individual desks, seperated by 3 lonely feet desk edge to desk edge. How much resistence to change can we attribute to pressures faced by schools (and pupils) during examination. Image: the guardian (2015)
communication is as rife as Dr Wright and Jim suggest
5. OPINION
Sharon and Jim both indicated increased
5.3 - Role and Value of the Architect.
communication would alleviate resistance and help everyone involved in school making to set a common goal
and work together toward it. Sharon spoke glowingly of
interviews the topic of ‘what makes a good architect’ came
the way architects develop and communicate common
to the fore. Paul had a considered and articulate opinion
ideas through participatory methods; helping to advance
he saw the architect’s role as adding value to schemes
a sector where only a decade or so ago they had little
through “a levelling up of standards”. With particular
influence.
reference to standardisation, or iteration from scheme
Perhaps unsurprisingly during all of the
to scheme, allowing contractors and architects to deliver more, for less. This idea of adding value through design was echoed by Dr Wright when she spoke affectionately of the architects she has and still does work with as an educational consultant. She spoke of “co-creation” in the school making process and how that translates to staff and pupils alike “unless they can see it developing in front of them when they move in they don’t know how to use that space”. It struck me as remarkably resonant with the Hellerup Sköle participatory design consultation process, though perhaps this is no coincidence given Dr Wright’s continued involvement with the British Council School Environments where the Hellerup Sköle is heralded as exemplary. For someone with such a wealth of experience in assisting designers Dr Wright has a remarkably humbling opinion of the skills they possess. When talking about the design development she always encourages architects to “get [their] paper and fat pens out, because as people who can’t do it we’re amazed by that”. It is this
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Consultation in/for progress : School buildings are working harder for the community than ever before and consultation with the public is becoming more and more important. Image: the guardian (2015)
sense of seeing what others often can’t that Jim was most impressed by when he was later engaged in a project to build two 6th form buildings (again both almost identical) on two sites: one Eston Park and another 3.5 miles away. He was full of praise for the architects of this scheme. He thought the primary role of an architect was to meet the brief, “but say if I do this I can add this to your spec… and you can have open learning area and a social space, etc.” again seemingly praising the ability of an architect to manipulate a brief to fit the requirements of the school and communicate complex ideas in such a way that non-designers can understand and evaluate them.
Jim continued to talk about the 6th form and
the short term flexibility it offered, something Paul mentioned when talking about the immense complexity of a simple building offering lots of opportunity for different learning environments “it’s almost a simple, banal diagram that belies a complex function”.
5. OPINION
Above all else there were two themes across all
the interviews which could not be distilled or coded into any one category because they permeated the whole discussion. The first is the difficulty arising from the uncertainty around the objectives and approved methods in schools; whether that uncertainty arises from changes political leadership locally and nationally, a change in the national curriculum or the funding made available for building schools or indeed just for their operation. The second omnipresent theme was the inherently complicated nature of what makes a ‘good school’. Whilst literature has struggled to draw conclusions around the impact of school buildings on performance as an isolated factor; all the interested parties I spoke to on, and off, record were adamant that it is an important contributor to what makes a good school and that good school buildings can, and do, make an immeasurable difference to the start we give our young people in life.
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In it for the long haul? : Pudsey Grangefield was developed with long-term head teacher Ken Cornforth. Paul Richardson cites this consistency and stability within the school as a primary reason for its success. Image: FaulknerBrowns (2009)
5.4 - Omnipresent themes.
5. OPINION
1. Context 4-13
4. Solution 44-59
1.1 - Introduction.
4.1 - FaulknerBrowns Architects.
1.2 - Mind the [knowledge] Gap.
4.2 - Pudsey Grangefield School.
1.3 - Methodology.
4.3 - Ercall Wood Technology College. 4.4 - Conclusions.
2. History 14-33 5. Opinion 60-75 2.1 - Victorian Britain to Present Day. 2.2 - Exceptions.
5.1 - Standardisation, Repetition and Fitness for Purpose.
2.2.1 - Dewey.
5.2 - Changing Philosophy.
2.2.2 - Montessori and Hertzberger.
5.3 - The Role and Value of the Architect.
2.2.3 - Waldorf.
5.4 - Omnipresent Themes.
2.2.4 - Reggio Emilia.
2.2.5 - Project Based Learning.
2.3 - Sociopolitical Context.
6. Conclusions 76-89 6.1 - Pedagogy.
3. Problem 34-43
6.2 - Space. 6.3 - Programme.
3.1 - ‘Teaching From the Front’.
6.4 - Closing Remarks.
3.2 - Project Based Learning as a Solution. 7. References i-ix
Ercall Wood Technology College : “The school is highly transformational, with forum spaces enabling social learning at the heart of each school, and informal learning decks linked by tiered seating within dramatic three storey atria. Within ever more challenging circumstances, the building demonstrates the inspiring, vibrant learning environments we continue to rise to and achieve. � Image and quote: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2015)
6.1 - Pedagogy
are benefits to be reaped in the UK when we produce designs to “reflect the challenges of a modern global
The world we live in today could be said to be
very different to the Victorian context from which our
I feel emphasis should be given to highlighting staffing,
model of school buildings was derived. The revolution
which is scant discussed within this study. The greater
of digital media, the rise of students aspiring to higher
student-teacher ratios seen in the examined schools
education (ONS, 2012) and the transformation from an
are a contributing factor along with the outstanding
industrial to an advanced skill and service based society
environments they call schools. Without nurturing
means the demands placed on schools are greater now
pedagogy, people and environment our children run the
that ever before.
risk of not developing advanced critical faculties and high
levels of metacognition, which can surely be branded a
The once highly valid concept of the ‘fountain
of knowledge’ has long been obsolete. The average secondary school pupil has access to an exponentially expanding database of knowledge; it is therefore imperative that we develop our young peoples critical faculty in order for them to be able to evaluate the credibility, reliability and worth of the information they consume.
It is not just the digital age which has brought
about the need for reform. The movement away from traditional industrial and service occupations to an advanced services and advanced industry-based economy has seen the need for significant advancement in the critical faculty of a high proportion of the workforce.
By studying the implementation of project based
learning in Scandinavia and Hong Kong we can, from the cases presented in this study, ascertain that there
80
society” (quoted in Cardellino & Leiringer, 2011, pp. 922).
disservice to our society’s children.
06. CONCLUDE Show and Tell (and learn) : Show and tell presentation spaces at Pudsey Grangefield School offer up opportunity for informal lectures and group presentation work. Image: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2009)
Opportunity knocks : Simple buildings with complex functions offer choice for the inhabitants. This real quantifiable flexibility is central to the success of schools like Pudsey Grangefield (library pictured). Image: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2009)
82
6.2 - Place
relation to a standardised series of spaces and spatial relationships across the three scales of building: systems
Educational architecture has been in a state of
(i.e. building components), places (rooms and zones) and
flux since the introduction and subsequent scrapping of
models (or the school as a whole or part-whole).
the building schools for the future programme. Previously
architects had built very few public secondaries (Wright,
Redcar and Cleveland BSF batch should be avoided and
2015); so as the profession begins to take the lead in the
strong emphasis should be placed on contextual and
discourse around school building, thanks to the brutal
programmatic appropriateness; any building should first
and sustained withdrawal of government funding for
and foremost serve its end users and enrich their lives
educational consultancy, we should look to offer as wide
through an outstanding quality of built environment.
The one-size-fits-all approach as seen in the
a scope of solution as possible due to the volatile and changeable nature of the sector.
In the short term school buildings should offer
high-quality, diverse learning environments as seen in the two exemplar schools designed by FaulknerBrowns within this study. Seemingly simple buildings with immensely complicated functions should become the norm, not the exception. A variety of space categorisation as seen in the ‘learning loop’ would be a good start to any school project; by first understanding the workings of the school, or the vision of the local authority, architects can begin to design buildings suitable for their current modus operandi and capable of adapting to change as readily as the school has to itself.
In the longer term there is certainly a case for
standardisation of modules/grid sizes for an economically viable model of adaption. This should bare specific
06. CONCLUDE
6.3 - Programme
Richardson, 2011; Cardellino, Leiringer and ClementsCrome 2011). However since the end of that programme
An architect should make every effort to learn
how a school works currently, understand it’s curriculum
process of the successes and failures of these vital public
and pastoral structure and should look to offer up
buildings. More capacity should be made available within
alternatives as well as solutions to enable school makers
budgets to help school buildings change if they wish to
who are not designers to visualise the possibilities. This
do so; if this ‘design overflow budget’ is not required it
should be done in the most legible way possible, free
could be spent on upgrading IT, FF&E, school projects in
of traditional architectural drawings if possible such as
art, culture and sport or indeed passed back to the EFA
is seen in the participatory methods employed in the
to facilitate more projects. The continual involvement of
consolation period of the Hellerup Sköle. Architects
designers within school building programmes will not
should also be wary of designing things which are ‘too
only serve to benefit the schools which receive new or
prescriptive’, allowing room for adaptation. I spoke at
refurbished schools but will serve as a ‘learning loop’ for
length with Dr. Wright about the continued involvement
the profession to learn from previous jobs and enrich the
of architects in the schools they build. This model can be
quality of our school stock in the future.
seen in Hellerup Sköle’s adaptations of its stairwells and in other Scandinavian schools as well as architects having continued relationships with HE institutions to deliver masterplans. This would prove invaluable. She herself developed a post occupancy evaluation (POE) tool for the assessment of school buildings, applicable to new and old buildings, which is something all interested parties from the school to the architects and local authority can learn from. Design quality indicators were preferred to more in-depth post occupancy tools by the government during BSF and there is a great deal of literature around their failures as assessment tools (Mahony, Hextall and
84
there is now no formalised or quantifiable evaluation
Understanding leads to outstanding - By understanding the needs of a school architects can use budgets wisely. Saving money to reinvest in making the parts that really count outstanding. Image: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2015)
06. CONCLUDE
Pudsey Grangefield ‘Window Boxes’ - Innovation in a variety of ways 86 can serve to further the cause of outstanding buildings. Simple pallettes that are considerately composed can introduce delight to places, even within the tight public funding constraints. Image: FaulknerBrownsArchitects (2015)
6.4 - Recommendations
building is not fit for purpose, there is no place for it.
It would be easy to say that the problems detailed
Architects should look outside of the traditional
scope of building and suggest alternate ways schools and
herein are out of the remit of the architectural profession,
buildings can operate symbiotically but should remember
that the problems were political or that the rise in
that the end-users have the highest level of experience of
design and build contracts is taking control away from
their circumstances. Pedagogy and place must move at
architects and placing it in the hands of contractors. But
the same pace else the architecture can and will inhibit
that is simply not good enough. Architects have a long
teaching and learning.
and proud history of innovation, especially in the public
sector. That history should continue despite the fact the
solutions to complex problems using the concept of the
sector is proving more challenging than ever.
‘third teacher’ and its intrinsic motivational properties,
along with evidence that a good school building can raise
In the face of deep, sustained cuts to the public
Architects should offer up exciting, inspiring
sector architects should look to innovate, trying to get
attainment, increase engagement, have a positive efffect
more for less, by understanding a schools ambitions (or
on attendance and enhance well-being (Mahony, Hextal
lack thereof) to change.
& Richardon, 2011), as justification.
Architects should look to provide the best
It is a sad state of affairs that we must argue the
possible solution, within the undeniably tight constraints,
need for outstanding school buildings but the case is such
for end-users and clients. Placing emphasis on fit-for-
and we must make every effort to justify and promote the
purpose places to learn.
benefits of an excellent built environment.
Standardisation as detailed herein should be
employed to save valuable money in the ‘batching’ of schools. The increase in long-term relationships between contractors and architects in the schools sector should be viewed as a positive. It is of course always worth emphasising that standardisation in any field should lead to a levelling up of standards and never a lowest common denominator approach. If standardisation means a
06. CONCLUDE
88
Outstanding Places : Buildings are not the only things that make excellent schools but inspirational spaces as seen here in the ‘Forum’ at Ercall Wood Technology College can provide a sense of worth to school age young adults and enable new ways of teaching and learning for tomorrows adults. Image: FaulknerBrowns Architects (2015)
6.4 - Closing Remarks
Whilst there is still very little quantitative
evidence to prove or disprove that school buildings alone have a positive effect on students learning, due to the immensely complicated and multifaceted nature of what makes a good school, the qualitative research documented herein concludes that a good school building can and does help. It is also evident from the research undertaken that the involvement of architects can add significant value to a project; be that new build or refurbishment.
Buildings are certainly not the only cause of
success or failure in our school system but they are a contributing factor to an excellent school and we owe excellent schools to each and every one of our society’s children.
06. CONCLUDE
1. Context 4-13
4. Solution 44-59
1.1 - Introduction.
4.1 - FaulknerBrowns Architects.
1.2 - Mind the [knowledge] Gap.
4.2 - Pudsey Grangefield School.
1.3 - Methodology.
4.3 - Ercall Wood Technology College. 4.4 - Conclusions.
2. History 14-33 5. Opinion 60-75 2.1 - Victorian Britain to Present Day. 2.2 - Exceptions.
5.1 - Standardisation, Repetition and Fitness for Purpose.
2.2.1 - Dewey.
5.2 - Changing Philosophy.
2.2.2 - Montessori and Hertzberger.
5.3 - The Role and Value of the Architect.
2.2.3 - Waldorf.
5.4 - Omnipresent Themes.
2.2.4 - Reggio Emilia.
2.2.5 - Project Based Learning.
2.3 - Sociopolitical Context.
6. Conclusions 76-89 6.1 - Pedagogy.
3. Problem 34-43
6.2 - Space. 6.3 - Programme.
3.1 - ‘Teaching From the Front’.
6.4 - Closing Remarks.
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