Biomimicry: the answer to environmentally sustainable architecture? A dissertation presented to the Department of Architecture at the University of Strathclyde 2015 / 2016
Annabelle Joy Brading | 201112053
Tutor | Branka Dimitrijevic
Declaration AB 420 Dissertation 2015/16 BSc Honours Architectural Studies BSc Honours Architectural Studies with International Study MArch/Pg Dip Advanced Architectural Design MArch Architectural Design International
Declaration “I hereby declare that this dissertation submission is my own work and has been composed by myself. It contains no unacknowledged text and has not been submitted in any previous context. All quotations have been distinguished by quotation marks and all sources of information, text, illustration, tables, images etc. have been specifically acknowledged. I accept that if having signed this Declaration my work should be found at Examination to show evidence of academic dishonesty the work will fail and I will be liable to face the University Senate Discipline Committee.”
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01
CONTENTS PAGE
01
Statement of Originality and Authenticity
01
Contents Page of Figures
04
Acknowledgements
12
Abstract
13
Introduction
15
Research Method
21
Industrial Revolution and Sustainable Development 01.1 The development of the Industrial Revolution
27
01.2 From mass production to over-consumption
31
01.3 Why do we need sustainable architecture?
35
02
03
Biomimicry 02.1 What is biomimicry?
45
02.2 Examples of biomimicry
53
02.3 Limitations of biomimetic architecture
69
Case Study 03.1 Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park
04
75
Discussion 04.1 Analysis and potential future research
85
Conclusion
97
Bibliography
102
CONTENTS PAGE OF FIGURES Figures Used on Cover Pages
Figure 1.1| Front and Back Cover: Author’s Own (2016) Photograph taken by Jay Mantri Available at: http://jaymantri.com/post/104375101928/download [Accessed 7th March 2016] Figure 1.2 | Acknowledgements & Abstract: Authors Own (2016) Image is an abstract sketch of man and nature Available at: http://alex-quisite.tumblr.com/post/75724980649/via-the-absolute-photo-blog [Accessed 22nd February 2016]
Figure 1.3 | Introduction: Authors Own (2016) Manipulated Photographs by Sali Boli showing the effects of Industrial Revolution Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/salaboli/3182318912/sizes/o/in/photostream/ [Accessed 25th February 2016] Figure 1.4 | Research Method: Authors Own (2016) Photograph of nature inside a light bulb by Adrian Limani (2012) Available at: http://adrianlimani.portfoliobox.io [Accessed 4th March 2016] Figure 1.5 | Background 01.1: Authors Own (2016) Photograph of train from the Industrial Revolution by Mike Spencer (2008) Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/7303030@N04/3201383442/ [Accessed 22nd February 2016]
Figure 1.6 | Background 01.2: Authors Own (2016) Photograph of the Titanic at its launch in Belfast, Northern Ireland (1912) Available at: http://www.thedailytop.com/20-pictures-titanic-rarely-seen/ [Accessed 25th February 2016] Figure 1.7 | Background 01.3: Authors Own (2016) Photograph of a couple in gas masks getting married in Beijing by HAP (2014) Available at: http://indulgd.com/chinese-couple-take-wedding-photos-in-gas-masks-to-protest-beijing-pollution/ [Accessed 25th February 2016]
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Figure 1.8 | Literature Review 02.1: Authors Own (2016) Image of a cross-section through a three year old lime tree Available at: http://beyondthehumaneye.blo.gspot.co.uk/2010/11/trees-inside-story.html?m=1 [Accessed 29th February 2016] Figure 1.9 | Literature Review 02.2: Authors Own (2016) Photograph of Blue Morpho Butterflies Available at: https://www.matthewwilliamson.com/mw-daily/tag/escapespot.co.uk/2010/11/trees-inside-story. [Accessed 29th February 2016] Figure 1.10 | Literature Review 02.3: Authors Own (2016) Photograph of Honeycomb Housing Available at: http://inhabitat.com/slovenias-gorgeous-honeycomb-housing-complex/beehiveapartments4/ [Accessed 1st March 2016] Figure 1.11 | Case Study 03.1: Authors Own (2016) Photograph of the Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park Available at: http://www.iisd.org/business/viewcasestudy.aspx?id=77 [Accessed 3rd March 2016] Figure 1.12 | Analysis 04.1: Authors Own (2016) Photograph of Amazon Rainforest Available at: http://www.popsugar.com/smart-living/Best-South-American-Sights-29239215#photo-29245419 [Accessed 22nd February 2016]
Figure 1.13 | Conclusion: Authors Own (2016) Image is a render of the conceptual Tree Hopper project by OTCO Architects Available at: http://cargocollective.com/otco/TREE-HOPPER [Accessed 6th March 2016]
05
Figures Used Within Text Figure 1|Diagram showing Inductive Research: Authors Own (2016) Image adapted from Research Methodology (2016a) Available at: http://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/research-approach/inductive-approach-2/ [Accessed 21st November 2015] Figure 2|Table of designs created within the Industrial Revolution and the corresponding years: Authors Own (2016) Figure 3|Pie Chart of Energy Consumption by Sector: Authors Own (2016) Adapted from Architecture (2030)’s case study (2012) Available at: http://architecture2030.org/buildings_problem_why/ [Accessed 2nd February 2016] Figure 4|Circles of Sustainability: Authors Own (2016) Adapted from composite creative Available at: http://www.compositecreative.com/blog/2014/11/6/movenn [Accessed 27th February 2016] Figure 5|Resource flow in the building ecosystem: Authors Own (2016) Adapted from Kim and Rigdon (1998) Figure 6|Drawing of a building ecosystems linear cycle: Samuel Castano (Artist) Available at: http://ensia.com/features/urban-infrastructure-what-would-nature-do/ [Accessed 3rd January 2016] Figure 7|The Vetruvian Man: Leonardo Di Vinci Available at: http://blog.world-mysteries.com/science/sacred-geometry/ [Accessed 6th March 2016] Figure 8|Restoration of Buckminster Fuller’s iconic Fly’s Eye Dome at America’s Cup: ArchDaily Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/139238/restoration-of-buckminster-fuller%25e2%2580%2599s-iconicfly%25e2%2580%2599s-eye-dome-at-america%25e2%2580%2599s-cup [Accessed 6th March 2016] Figure 9|Santiago Calatrava’s art museum in Milwaukee, America. Available at: http://gedsrl.org/h/a1eda0b0e1 [Accessed 6th March 2016]
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Figure 10|Diagram showing how to begin to apply biomimicry to design at all three levels (Verbeek, 2011) Available at: http://bioinspired.sinet.ca/content/biomimicry-and-industrial-design-karen-verbeek [Accessed 10th February 2016] Figure 11|Comparison of biological systems and human-made systems: Authors Own (2016) Adapted from Pawlyn (2011) Figure 12|A Humpback whales interesting flippers Available at: http://www.whalepowercorporation.com/p/tubercle-technology_24.html [Accessed 27th December 2015] Figure 13|Whalecorporation Turbine inspired by these flippers Available at: http://www.whalepowercorporation.com/p/tubercle-technology_24.html [Accessed 27th February 2016] Figure 14|Diagram of the adaptable pine cone Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/769820/chao-chens-pinecone-inspired-material-reacts-to-water [Accessed 7th February 2016] Figure 15|Responsive material inspired by the pine cone Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/769820/chao-chens-pinecone-inspired-material-reacts-to-water [Accessed 7th February 2016] Figure 16|The responsive material could be used to create small shelters and further intelligent cladding systems Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/769820/chao-chens-pinecone-inspired-material-reacts-to-water [Accessed 7th December 2015] Figure 17|Diagram explaining how an oak tree performs like an ecosystem to conserve material, enery and water and the synergies within it: Authors Own (2016) Adapted from Drake (2011) Available at: http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1740&context=thesest [Accessed 15th February 2016]
07
Figure 18|A conceptual image of the Mobius Project by Exploration Architecture Available at: http://www.exploration-architecture.com/projects/the-mobius-project [Accessed 10th February 2016] Figure 19|Diagram showing the Mobius Project performing like an ecosystem: Authors Own (2016) Adapted from Pawlyn (2011) Figure 20|Wright Brothers with their aeroplane that was inspired by birds in 1904 Available at: http://www.old-picture.com/wright-brothers/Wilbur-and-Orville-Wright-with-Airplane.htm [Accessed 27th December 2015] Figure 21|A series of bombs that were dropped by German Gotha aeroplanes in World War One (1914-1918) Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_strategic_bombing_during_World_War_I#/media/File:Gotha_ Bomben.jpg [Accessed 27th December 2015] Figure 22|Nine core elements of Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park Available at: http://www.symbiosis.dk/da/diagram [Accessed 22nd February 2016] Figure 23|Aerial view of Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park in Denmark Available at: http://www.dw.com/en/eco-parks-offer-firms-a-low-carbon-road-to-growth/a-6532982-1 [Accessed 22nd February 2016] Figure 24|View from around the AsnĂŚs power station Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalundborg_Eco-industrial_Park#/media/File:View_from_Asnaes_power_station_Kalundborg_Denmark.jpg [Accessed 22nd February 2016] Figure 25|Diagram of how Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park uses ecosystem thinking: Authors Own (2016) Adapted from Suarez (2012) literature Available at: https://d3gxp3iknbs7bs.cloudfront.net/attachments/ccc64d96a2efa7ed7a0e4eb1e0c0e868d1f4af70. pdf [Accessed 15th February 2016]
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Figure 26|Comparison of biological systems and human-made systems: Authors Own (2016) Adapted from Pawlyn (2011) Figure 27|X-ray of bird skulls showing structural make up Available at: http://www.andres.harris.cl/about/32-2/ [Accessed 25th February 2016] Figure 28|Zoomed x-ray of bird skull showing more detail Available at: http://www.andres.harris.cl/about/32-2/ [Accessed 25th February 2016] Figure 29|Elephant Foot Plant (Discorea Elephantipes) Available at: http://www.warrenphotographic.co.uk/19276-elephant-foot-plant [Accessed 22nd February 2016] Figure 30|Aerial view of the Everglades in Florida, America by Allan Detrich (2009) Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/detrichpix_movingpictures/3199505280/ [Accessed 4th March 2016] Figure 31|Aerial view of London, England by Thomas Boelaars (2007) Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/puurthomas/1016153495/ [Accessed 4th March 2016] Figure 32|Figure 32: Table of ecosystem services a city should aim to use as ‘metrics’: Authors Own (2016) Adapted from Benyus (2014) online video Available at: http://ben.biomimicry.net/category/news/. [Accessed 26th February 2016]
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & ABSTRACT
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The initial interest to research this topic
topics. I would like to take this opportunity to
spurred from my exchange to Sweden in third
thank all those who have offered their time
year, here I was taught about the subject
and support to me through the completion of
of biomimicry and the sustainable small-
this dissertation. I would like to thank my family
scale designs it had inspired. This prompted
for their endless support and patience. I would
my enthusiasm to research if nature could
also like to give a special thank-you to all of
motivate architects to design environmentally
the staff in the Architectural department of
responsive structures that will benefit the planet
The University of Strathclyde for their warm and
in the long term. As a result, this became the
valuable teachings and the effort they have
basis of this dissertation. I would therefore like
put into my development. Finally, I would like
to give thanks to the University of Chalmers
to thank Branka Dimitrijevic for her continual
for their wonderful teaching of inspirational
support while writing this dissertation.
12
ABSTRACT
Discursive perspectives have outlined the
incorporated biomimetic ecosystem thinking,
contrasting
Industrial
the research provides a critical analysis of
Revolution has had on design and the need for
both the positive and negative outcomes
sustainable architecture as a consequence.
of applying biomimicry at building scale. It
This research explores biological models at the
concludes that while this technique could
three different levels of biomimicry (organism,
be applied at the organism level, significant
process and ecosystem) in order to determine
challenges
the extent to which biomimicry (design inspired
ecosystem levels of biomimicry that would
by nature) can influence environmentally
require to be overcome if this approach were
sustainable design in the built environment.
to influence the development of future cities.
influences
that
the
remain
at
the
process
and
With consideration to the Kalundborg EcoIndustrial Park, an architectural model that has
13
INTRODUCTION
15
“From my designer’s perspective,
Through the rapid consumption of our fossil
I ask: Why can’t I design a
fuels and the subsequent increase in the rate
building like a tree? A building
of global warming, we as a species should
that makes oxygen, fixes nitrogen,
arguably reflect on our actions and consider
sequesters carbon, distils water,
if we can mitigate the damage we have so
builds soil, accrues solar energy
easily reaped?
as fuel, makes complex sugars and food, creates microclimates,
One answer is Mother Nature. Living organisms
changes colours with the seasons
have managed to exist in total harmony with
and self replicates. This is using
the world she created, for billions of years
nature as a model and a mentor,
(Benyus, 2002). Through analysing specific
not as an inconvenience. It’s a
biological examples we could begin to
delightful prospect...” (Braungart
develop a true synchronisation between man
& McDonough, 2008)
and nature (Baumeister et al., 2014).
BI-O-MIM-IC-RY is design inspired by nature
Biomimicry (design inspired by nature) has
and comes from the Greek ‘mımos’, which
been applied to small-scale examples but has
means mimic and ‘bios,’ which means life
arguably not been successful in architecture
(Benyus, 2002).
due to its complexity (Pawlyn, 2011). The idea
16
of using nature as the ultimate inspiration is an
reject toxins, and work as a system to
exciting and interesting topic to explore.
create conditions conducive to life” (Baumeister et al., 2014).
Dayna Baumeister, a doctor and professor of practice at Arizona State University and
We could therefore assume that biomimicry
co-writer of the book Biomimicry 3.8, outlines
not only means respecting nature but asking
the idea that nature has resolved numerous
for its advice before we design. Baumeister et
predicaments we currently face and how to
al (2014) use the term ‘Life’s Genius’ to explain
apply this to design. By analysing the three
that natural design is more than intelligent,
levels of organism, process and ecosystem,
as it does not only apply itself to maintain
architects could learn to mimic these designs:
“one life but all life on Earth.” To understand nature’s design on a much deeper level we
“Biomimicry is learning from and then
must therefore understand the three levels of
emulating natural forms, processes,
biomimicry: “nature as a model, nature as a
and ecosystems to create more
measure and nature as a mentor” (Benyus,
sustainable
Mimicking
2002). The first is mimicking natural form, for
these earth-savvy designs can help
example Antonio Gaudi used inspiration from
humans leapfrog to technologies
the tree outside his window to create the
that sip energy, shave material use,
structural forest of the Sagrada Familia. Gaudi
designs.
17
once said, “originality is returning to the origin”
building ecosystem in the way a tree does. A
(Berlin, 2010) for him this meant returning to
tree not only supports itself but also gives life to
nature, which can be seen in his designs.
a network of animals and plants, so why could a building not do the same?
The second level mimics the natural process
This dissertation will consider the contrasting
of how things are designed as Benyus (2002)
effect the industrial revolution has had on
explains “after 3.8 billion years of evolution,
design and examine the influence biomimicry
nature has learned: What works. What is
has had on design solutions. Ultimately, this
appropriate. What lasts.” For example not
dissertation seeks to ascertain the extent to
using trees as inspiration for form but looking
which biomimicry can influence sustainable
at how they sequester carbon and applying
design.
this process to technology. To achieve this, the author will undertake Finally, the last level of biomimicry is mimicking
an investigation into the development of
an ecosystem. The tree is within a forest, which
biological progression in order to determine
is within a biome, which is within the biosphere
if this can solve architectural challenges
(Baumeister et al., 2014). With this in mind, we
and create a positive, sustainable future.
need to ask ourselves how to invent products,
By considering examples from nature for
which are both sustainable and provide for a
inspiration, the author will seek to establish the
18
potential for architectural development and
of biomimicry at a building scale and the
ultimately the extent to which biomimicry can
potential to influence future cities.
influence environmentally sustainable design in the built environment.
Discussion
The research will comprise the following
Key issues identified within research and
chapters:
consideration of the application of biomimicry to the field of architecture
The Industrial Revolution and Sustainable Development
Conclusion
The consequences of the Industrial Revolution
Research outcomes and potential areas for
and
future research
the
subsequent
requirement
for
sustainable architectural solutions Before consideration of the Implications of the Biomimicry
industrial revolution, this dissertation will firstly
The inspiration of nature and its application to
outline the applied research method.
architecture and future design
Case Study Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park: An analysis
19
RESEARCH METHOD
21
This chapter focuses on outlining the
• Research the effectiveness biomimicry
methods of research chosen to explore
has had on evolving technologies and
the research aim and the theoretical
architectural functions.
justifications for implementing this method of research.
• Analyse
if
biomimicry
can
inspire
architecture to work harmoniously with the Aim:
environment through analysis of a practical
To determine the extent to which biomimicry
example
can influence environmentally sustainable design in the built environment
• Identify the future improvements biomimicry can make to architectural design.
Objectives: To achieve the aim, the following research
Inductive research was chosen as opposed
objectives will be completed:
to deductive, qualitative or quantitative research. Due to the specific research chosen
• Identify
problems
created
by
the
the methodology chapter is placed at the
Industrial Revolution to our planet and
beginning of the dissertation. This requires
why this has generated the importance
finding a pattern within the research rather
of sustainable architectural design.
than having a theory and testing it.
22
To
begin
was
must be tested to prove if it is right or wrong.
as
“Deduction begins with an expected pattern
according to Bryman & Bell, (2003) it is
that is tested against observations, whereas
a
considered
with, not
positivistic
fundamentally
quantitative to
be
approach, on
data
appropriate
which
focuses
induction begins with observations and seeks
mathematical
analysis.
to find a pattern within them� (Research
Qualitative research was also considered
Methodology, 2016b).
not beneficial, as it is a phenomenological approach, which is concerned with thoughts,
The author feels the method of inductive
feelings and attitudes of participants, involved
research will provide the most effective
in the research study. As this dissertation aims
source of data, as comparing and contrasting
to analyse theory and practice, applying a
research is essential to address the aim.
research method that supports comparing
Although deductive research would also do
and contrasting data was essential.
this, the nature of the topic requires the author to observe and identify patterns which will then
According to Kitchen & Tate (2000) inductive
lead to a theory of whether we can apply the
and deductive reasoning highlights the extent
idea to atrchitecture or not.
to which theory and practice are connected. Deductive research begins with a theory,
The inductive approach begins by making
which is then developed into a hypothesis and
observations;
from
these
observations
a
23
INDUCTIVE APPROACH
OBSERVATION
PATTERN
THEORY
Figure 1: Diagram showing the Inductive Approach
24
pattern will develop resulting in an end theory (Research Methodology, 2016a). Figure 1 explains that the inductive method does not require theory at the start of the research; this may develop throughout the process of the dissertation. As a result, no theories need to be tested throughout as they develop through learning: “patterns, resemblances and regularities in experience (premises) are observed in order to reach conclusions (or to generate theory)� (Research Methodology, 2016a). This dissertation will therefore give consideration to a range of source material including related literature, journal articles, research, relevant published reports, and other related academic materials in order to arrive at a theory.
25
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 01.1 The development of the Industrial Revolution
27
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION DESIGN
YEAR OF DESIGN
Hydrogen Powered Car
1807
Steam Locamotive
1814
Reinforced Concrete
1850
Telephone
1876
Phonograph
1877
Incandescent Light Bulb
1879
Brooklyn Bridge Opened
1883
Petrol Powered Car
1886
Eiffel Tower
1887
First Aeroplane Flies
1903
First Mass Produced Car
1908
Titanic Set Sail
1912
Radio Tuner
1916
Short Wave Radio
1919
First Robot Built
1921
Penicillin
1928
Atomic Bomb
1945
Figure 2: Table of designs created within the Industrial Revolution and the corresponding years
28
The Industrial Revolution began as early as the
power locomotives, ships and factory machines.
16th century in Nottingham where the Stocking
Transportation
Frame was invented, a mechanical device for
advanced by allowing raw materials to be
knitting stockings (Landow, 2012). It was at its
transferred much faster than the previous horse
peak between the 19th and mid 20th centuries,
powered methods. Communication was made
during which time it was largely attributed with
easier with the invention of the telephone and
creating the developed world as we now know
telegraph, in turn expanding the demand and
it. However, as Braungart and McDonough
market for businesses, creating more jobs and
(2008) state: this development was created at
ultimately opportunities for people in the cities
the expense of our world and its resources.
(Staff, History.com, 2009b). However, all this was
also
became
much
more
arguably created at the expense of our planets Figure 2 displays the variation and progression
natural resources (Goodall, 2012).
of design in many fields during this time period. As the standard of technology increased, so did the ability to design and mass-produce goods at a lower cost.
This subsequently improved
the standard of living as products were more affordable and accessible for consumption on a large scale (Staff, History.com, 2009b).
The steam engine was a very important design in this transformation, as it had the ability to 29
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 01.2 From mass production to over-consumption
31
On April 10, 1912 one of mankind’s
in its design presage tragedy and
greatest industrial accomplishments left
disaster” (Braungart & McDonough,
Southampton, England and set sail for New
2008)
York - the ocean liner Titanic. Behe (2015) describes Titans as “a race of people vainly
Britain was the birthplace of the Industrial
striving to overcome the forces of nature”
Revolution due to its abundance of fossil
and nothing could explain the period of
fuels in the form of iron ore and coal (Staff,
the Industrial Revolution better. Braungart
History.com, 2009a). Fossil fuels take millions of
& McDonough note in their famous book,
years to form from the decomposing tissue of
Cradle to Cradle, that the vessel is a brilliant
dead plants and animals (Goodall, 2012). Oil,
metaphor for the Industrial Revolution:
natural gas and coal are the three carbonrich fuels created in this process (Senior,
this
2015). Through the continued need to grow
by
industry and develop technology, we now
brutish and artificial sources of
know that these natural resources are running
energy that are environmentally
out. However, the question of exactly when
depleting. It pours waste into the
is a difficult one (Senior, 2015). Chris Goodall
water and smoke into the sky. It
(2012) explains in his book Sustainability that
attempts to work by its own rules,
“it is indisputable that there are vast reserves
which are contrary to those of
of fuels left”. Natural gas is expected to last
nature. And although it may seem
for 50 years (Senior, 2015) and oil is to run out
invincible, the fundamental flaws
between 2025 and 2070 (Senior, 2015). It could
“Like
the
infrastructure
famous is
ship,
powered
32
therefore be contested that these are not
alternative solutions to stop damaging our
‘vast’ reserves, as we will run out of most fossil
planet or there will be severe consequences for
fuels within our lifetime and certainly within the
the next generation (Senior, 2015). Renewable
next generation’s lifetime. Our only realistic
energy is a possibility and already makes a
option in the short terms would be to use coal
significant contribution to energy generation
as it has the largest reserves and can be found
around the world. In 2014 it overtook nuclear
and mined cheaply almost anywhere in the
energy as Scotland’s main power source
world (Goodall, 2012). If we were to continue
(Shankleman, 2014). However, it is dependent
using coal at the rate we do it would “last over
on provision from the renewable source in
a thousand years” (Senior, 2015) and can be
question. It can be intermittent in supply and
converted to oil and gas when they run out
facilities are also not yet fully developed which
(Senior, 2015).
enable a large scale solution for storage when supply outstrips demand. Further to this, it is still
However, the residing problem is that carbon
largely the case that our urban areas remain
dioxide (CO2) is produced through burning
fossil fuel dependent cities that create air
fossil fuels. This is currently accountable for
pollution, discharge sewage and produce
almost “two-thirds of the rise in atmospheric
significant volumes of waste materials (Kim &
levels of carbon dioxide” (Goodall, 2012) in
Rigdon, 1998). We can therefore argue that
turn contributing to global warming and the
to create a truly sustainable approach, it is
change in weather patterns (Senior, 2015).
urgent to design holistic buildings and cities
Therefore, although we will not run out of
that use and store renewable energy to sustain
fossil fuels imminently it is imperative to find
themselves. 33
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 01.3 Why do we need sustainable architecture?
35
TRANSPORT OF PEOPLE 26%
BUILDINGS 45% TRANSPORT OF GOODS 8%
INDUSTRY 21%
Figure 3: Pie Chart Showing Energy Consumption by Sector
36
Buildings are the main culprits when it comes
blocks, residential buildings and factories (Kim
to guzzling fossil fuels, according to a study
& Rigdon, 1998). During a buildings lifetime
(Figure 3) done by Architecture 2030 “the
it will have an effect on “local and global
building sector was responsible for nearly
environments via a series of interconnected
half (44.6%) of U.S. CO2 emissions in 2010.
human activities and natural processes” (Kim
By comparison, transportation accounted
& Rigdon, 1998).
for 34.3% of CO2 emissions and industry just 21.1%” (Architecture 2030, 2012). Norman
In the initial phase, site development and
Foster points out in his TED talk My Green
construction manipulate the original land
Agenda for Architecture that if we combine
and environmental characteristics; once the
buildings with their related transport, which
building is erected it will have a long-term
includes the transport of people, then 71%
impact on the local and global environment.
of energy consumption is produced by the
For example, the energy and water used by
relationship between our cities and their
the residents will create CO2 emissions and
infrastructure. Therefore “the problems of
sewage.
sustainability cannot be separated from the nature of the cities in which the buildings
Architects must recognize that as a city
are apart” (Foster, 2007).
or country’s economic status increases, its demand on resources will as well, for example
Buildings are one of the most obvious
for land, energy and buildings (Kim & Rigdon,
factors of economic activity, as a country’s
1998). This “increases the combined impact of
economic growth will require more office
architecture on the global ecosystem, which 37
SOCIAL
BEARABLE
EQUITABLE
SUSTAINABLE
ENVIRONMENT
ECONOMY VIABLE
Figure 4: Circles of Sustainability
38
is made up of inorganic elements, living
‘sustainable’. However, the generalisation of
organisms and humans” (Kim & Rigdon,
this term has proved problematic and one of
1998). It is therefore the architect’s obligation
the key problems surrounding ‘sustainability’
to create “solutions that guarantee the
and ‘sustainable design’ (Veeman, 1989).
coexistence of these constituent groups” (Kim & Rigdon, 1998). For this reason it is
Presently ‘sustainable design’ in architecture
essential that architects design solutions
is more ethical than scientific: it is described
to solve the problems our current buildings
on the PNAS (Proceedings of the National
and cities are causing and to also better
Academy of Sciences of the United States of
future designs.
America) website in 2011 as “an emerging field of research.” Although it is a developing
The United Nations World Commission on
field it is urgent to enforce skills, techniques
Environment and Development has defined
and methods of sustainable design into every
sustainability as “meeting the needs of the
architectural project. To achieve sustainability
present without compromising the ability
it is imperative to have coexistence between
of future generations to meet their own
the economy, environment and society.
needs” (UN WCDE, 1987). The premonition
The Brundtland report (UN WCDE, 1987)
for the term ‘sustainability’ exists today as it
describes these three aspects of life (Figure
did in 1987: preserving today’s resources for
4), to be “mutually dependent, interrelated
the generations of tomorrow. This provided
areas of sustainability and a change in any
an
organisations
one will somehow upset the other two.” For
throughout the world to strive to be
example, economic growth uses extreme
impetus
for
various
39
RESOURCE FLOW IN THE BUILDING ECOSYSTEM
Upstream (Flow 1)
Building
Downstream (Flow 2)
Energy
Polluted Air
Water
Graywater Sewage
Material
Used Materials
Figure 5: Resource flow in the building ecosystem
Figure 6: Drawing of the linear cycle within a building ecosystem
40
amounts
of
non-renewable
resources,
resources throughout its life, beginning when it
releasing detrimental emissions that affect the
is manufactured and continuing throughout its
environment and social well-being, therefore
lifetime to produce a sustainable environment
“a building must holistically balance and
providing comfort for human activities (Kim
integrate all three principles” (Kim & Rigdon,
& Rigdon, 1998). When observing this flow of
1998).
resource it is clear that there are two streams (Kim & Rigdon, 1998) .Flow 1 can be referred to
This raises the question of how this interaction
as ‘upstream’ and includes any resource flow
would work if we were to place the environment
going into the building ecosystem for example
and nature at the heart of sustainability,
energy, water and building materials. Flow 2
potentially through biomimicry. The research
can be referred to as ‘downstream’ consisting
therefore has the opportunity to explore the
of resources flowing out of the building as
environmental aspect of Figure 4; and focus
output, for example pollution, used materials
on finding solutions to the damage buildings
and grey water sewage (Figure 6).
and cities cause to the natural world. “In the long run, any resources entered into When designing a building, sustainability begins
a building ecosystem will eventually come
by economising resources. As Kim & Rigdon
out from it. This is the law of resource flow
note, the architect must “reduce the use of
conservation” (Kim & Rigdon, 1998). However,
non-renewable resources in the construction
the resources that go into a building (flow
and operation of buildings” (Kim & Rigdon,
1) will inevitably be different when they
1998). A building requires a constant flow of
exit. This change from input to output is 41
due to mechanical processes and human
renovation. Residents bring in a small flow of
interference with the resources during their
materials to support human activity. These
time within the building. A drawing by Samuel
materials eventually become output and they
Castano (Figure 7) vividly explains this linear
are either recycled or discarded in a landfill
cycle; it emulates how resources flow into a
(Kim & Rigdon, 1998).
building, are then used and exit as waste that harms the natural world.
Energy waste Once the building is complete, it needs a
“The three strategies for the economy
continuous flow of energy input throughout
of resources principle are energy
its life cycle to heat, cool and light the
conservation, water conservation,
building, this energy cannot be recovered
and material conservation. Each
as it outputs the building as pollution. The
focuses on a particular resource
scale of environmental impact differs in every
necessary for building construction
building due to the level and type of energy
and operation� (Kim & Rigdon, 1998).
consumption. Coal power stations release many harmful gases into the air; nuclear
Material waste
power stations generate radioactive waste,
Vast ranges of building materials are used
which currently has limited management
during
usually
solutions and hydro power plants need a dam
generate significant waste. Once the building
and reservoir to store large amounts of water.
is completed, a small amount of materials are
This type of construction puts an end to river
required for maintenance, replacement and
ecosystems and creates habitat loss for plants
construction
stage
and
42
and animals (Kim & Rigdon, 1998).
Water waste Buildings need vast amounts of water for cleaning, cooking, flushing toilets, irrigating plants, drinking, etc. However this input requires energy due to treatment and delivery and the output of grey water sewage also must be treated (Kim & Rigdon, 1998).
Therefore, finding sustainable solutions to these three sections is absolutely vital, as by developing ecological inputs we will be able to provide inoffensive outputs. We must figure out how to achieve this within a reasonable budget and without harming the environment. Inspiration for this could be found by looking at how nature has developed itself through 3.8 billion years of evolution to conserve water, energy and materials without harming the Earth. Can nature show us how to conserve these properties? 43
BIOMIMICRY 02.1 What is Biomimicry?
45
Figure 7: The Vitruvian Man; Leonardo Da Vinci believed the symmetry of man compared to the symmetry of the universe
Figure 8: Buckminster Fuller’s iconic Fly’s Eye Dome at America’s Cup
Figure 9: Santiago Calatrava’s art museum in Milwaukee, America. Influenced by biomimetic ideas such as skeletal systems, palm leaves and the human eye
46
In this chapter the author will review and
creations for decades but are only now starting
critique literature to explain Biomimicry,
to take advantage of their real potential
determine how well it has been used in
(Baumeister et al., 2014).
recent inventions and analyse if nature can inspire ideas to solve architectural
Leonardo Di Vinci, Frank Lloyd Wright, Frei
predicaments. To do this the author will
Otto, Buckminster Fuller, Santiago Calatrava
examine plants and animals to discover
and Antonio Gaudi are all examples of
if they can teach us how to conserve
early
materials, energy and water and ultimately
“unfortunately these were isolated instances
inspire sustainable solutions.
but not the start of a succession” (Baumeister
pioneers
of
biomimicry.
However,
et al., 2014). Baumeister (2014) explains her is
beliefs that this time will be different, as so many
learning from and then emulating
different types of industries are becoming
natural
“BI-O-MIM-IC-RY.
Biomimicry
processes
and
involved with ‘biomimetics’ or ‘bio-inspired’
create
more
products and designs. Perhaps this has been
sustainable designs” (Baumeister
brought on by changes in climate patterns or it
et al., 2014)
may simply be due to the fact that we have the
forms,
ecosystems
to
technology to make these inventions possible. The
connection
between
structural
For whatever reason, we are seeing more and
design and the natural world is not a new
more examples of nature inspired creations in
phenomenon; architects and designers
medicine, agriculture, transportation, energy,
have taken inspiration from the earth’s
manufacturing and product design. But can 47
Figure 10: Diagram showing how to apply biomimicry to design at all three levels
48
we explore biomimicry to its full potential and
another is copying a process, like
apply this thinking to architecture to create
photosynthesis in a leaf, and the third
a type of design which establishes harmony
is mimicking at an ecosystem’s level,
between the environment, buildings and
like building a nature-inspired city�
consumers? The way we design our buildings and cities Janine Benyus is an innovation consultant and
is central to the social, environmental and
a co-founder of the Biomimicry Institute. She
economic factors of sustainability shown in
is known as the originator of the biomimicry
earlier Figure 4. This traditionally determined
movement and educates people around the
if we are designing sustainably or not.
world about nature and its potential (Maglic,
Conventionally,
2012). Benyus (2002) describes in her book
savings,
Biomimicry: innovation inspired by nature,
needs. However, achieving sustainability has
the depth of Biomimicry and that to fully
become more complex.
product
this
depended
improvement
on
cost
and
user
understand its potential we must appreciate the variety of design and place each
Sustainability is not just another design criteria;
imitation into one of three categories. Benyus
it must be integrated into all phases of design
(2002) explains the three levels of biomimicry
progression to achieve the greatest benefit
conveyed in Figure 10:
(Verbeek, 2011). Figure 10 explains the 3 levels of biomimicry and how they have integrated
“There are three types of Biomimicry
over 3.8 billion years to create models that
- one is copying form and shape,
form life. 49
B I O LO G I C A L SYSTEMS
MAN MADE SYSTEMS
Complex
Simple
Closed Loop flows of resource
Linear flows of resource
Adapt to constant change
Resistant to change
Zero waste
Wasteful
No long term toxins used
Long term toxins frequently used
Regenerative
Extractive
Use local resources
Use global resources
Densely interconnected
Monocultural
Run on renewable resources
Fossil Fuel Dependant
Figure 11: Comparison of biological systems and human-made systems
50
“Biomimicry is increasingly becoming part of
What better models could there be?”
the regular lexicon of industrial design and
- (Benyus, 2002)
sustainability” (Verbeek, 2011). Verbeek (2011) explains that biomimicry could become the
Figure 11 demonstrates these comparisons.
link between the strength of the industrial revolution and sustainable design, as it
There are few case studies of biomimicry being
provides a “framework and methodology” for
used successfully in design and engineering
industrial designers to implement sustainable
strategies. However, Verbeek (2011) expresses
solutions. However, biomimicry is collaborative,
that the “numerous environmental challenges
complex, densely interconnected and diverse.
we face are forcing us to move fast” and
Therefore it is difficult for the built environment
biomimicry presents the benefit of “being
to replicate this approach (Verbeek, 2011). To
based on an existing body of time-tested
determine if biomimicry can become this link
solutions.” By mimicking how nature works
it is important to examine how humans and
and collaborating this with current technology
nature treat these inputs to determine the
we could arguably use biomimicry to solve
differences and if there is something we need
problems from a new perspective. This is an
to be taught (Figure 11).
area that nature could potentially inspire, as the 3 levels of biomimicry have integrated for
“In short, living things have done
over 3.8 billion years to create models that
everything we want to do, without
form life. The following section will investigate
guzzling
examples of biomimicry that have or could
fossil
fuel,
polluting
the
planet, or mortgaging their future.
create sustainable designs. 51
BIOMIMICRY 02.2 Examples of biomimicry
53
Figure 12: A Humpback whales interesting flippers
Figure 13: Whalecorporation Turbine inspired by these flippers
54
NATURE AS A MODEL (ORGANISM LEVEL)
than designing solutions that, like nature, use
The first level is the shallow level and the
less energy at the start of the process. We
mimicking of natural form (Baumeister et al.,
are currently facing many problems due to
2014); it refers to the imitation of an organism,
climate change and for this reason, as well as
for example its shape.
fossil fuels depleting; energy generation is one of our most important challenges (Pawlyn,
During
the
Industrial
Revolution,
2011).
standardization and brute force where used to create an ideology of ‘one size fits all,’
As explained previously, human-made systems
although this brutish approach to design had
have a linear flow of energy, whereas if we
many prosperous outcomes it devastated and
examine the flows of energy in nature we find
disregarded nature and its diversity (Braungart
they have a closed loop system, essentially
& McDonough, 2008).
meaning nothing is wasted. For example biological systems run entirely on renewable
Whereas organisms are extremely diverse,
‘income’ creating no waste output (Pawlyn,
through
2011). The energy dilemma is a peculiar one.
evolutionary
progression
and
modification they are constantly improving (Farnsworth, 2013a). This conflict between
Pawlyn
(2011)
argues
that
“the
energy
man and nature is most obvious when it
received from the sun every year represents
comes to energy (Pawlyn, 2011). Where
approximately 10,000 times as much as we
energy is concerned we have, in general, met
currently use,” we just need to find a better
our requirements by using more energy rather
way of harnessing it. Goodall (2012) supports 55
this argument by stating “our planet is bathed
which
explored
a
Humpback
Whale’s
in enough light and heat every few hours to
(Megaptera novaeangliae) flippers (Figure
provide all the world’s power demand for a
12). They discovered the flippers were not
year” yet industries do not utilize this energy to
completely smooth but had bumps on the
its full potential (Goodall, 2012). As previously
leading edge, which produced the ‘tubercle
explained, half of Scotland’s electricity comes
effect’ (Whalepower Corporation, 2011).
from renewable energies including wind and solar power; they plan to have 100% equivalent
Tubercles are the bumps at the front of a
of their electricity produced by renewable
humpback whale’s fins and they permit this
sources by 2020 (Shankleman, 2014). However,
very large creature to be agile in water. By
Goodall (2012) explains that the two difficult
decreasing drag and increasing lift (Baumeister
challenges of this ambition will be to store
et al., 2014) they allow the animal to manoeuvre
energy when it is not being used, and providing
itself at slow speed (Pawlyn, 2011). Dr Frank E.
energy when there is no resource. Biomimicry
Fish, a marine biologist, discovered this when
in architecture could be a potential solution
examining a structure of a humpback whale.
as energy could be stored within cities and
He then teamed up with Dr. Laurens E. Howle,
could be used when renewable energies are
the leading naval engineer in fluid dynamics
not available.
and two other naval engineers to develop the wind turbine (Chapdelaine, 2011).
A
prominent
example
of
biomimicry
influencing the development of a sustainable
Through their exploration of the humpback
technology is a Toronto based corporation,
whale
and
its
marvellous
flippers
they 56
discovered how to create a wind turbine,
20 per cent over a year and result in quieter
which will remain working at slow speeds
operation” (Pawlyn, 2011). Their intuitive design
(Whalepower
is
creates a new type of flow management
important as wind turbines have a “minimum
to maximize energy and uses inexpensive
speed of operation, below which they will
materials. This impressive product would not
stop turning and only turn on again once
have been possible without the investigation
the wind speed has picked up enough to
into the humpback whale; it proves that
overcome inertia” (Pawlyn, 2011). Therefore
renewable designs could be improved by the
this new discovery allowed Dr Fish’s turbines
use of biomimicry. It begins to provide answers
(Figure 13) to continue to move when there
to how we could gain energy from a very
is very little wind at a very slow speed, which
small amount of power and designers could
continues to create energy. “Smooth blades
study biological models for inspiration on how
produce a sheet like flow of air, tubercles
to improve sun and tidal power.
Corporation,
2011).
This
force air into accelerated streams between bumps” (Maglic, 2012) causing less turbulence
This directs us to the next section, where the
between blades and increasing efficiency
author will analyse natural processes and
(Chapdelaine, 2011).
discover if we can be inspired to create new building materials.
Whalepower
Corporation
product
is
a
prominent example of how nature can teach
NATURE AS A MEASURE (PROCESS LEVEL)
us how to maximize design to minimize waste.
“Deeper
They claim the blades can “improve output by
level”(Baumeister et al., 2014), it mimics
biomimicry
adds
a
second
57
Figure 14: Diagram of the adaptable pincone
Figure 15: Responsive material inspired by the pinecone
Figure 16: The responsive material could be used to create small shelters and further intelligent cladding systems
58
how an organism works and then copies its
sensitive
materials)”
(Bridgens
&
Farmer,
behaviour, for example how an animal may
2013), such as wooden cladding systems that
change shape to survive. Biomimicry has
respond to the environment by shrinking and
been excellently explored at organism level,
swelling with no human input.
however as the levels of biomimicry become more complex, we are yet to see designs
Pawlyn (2011) makes it clear that this area
mimic the process and ecosystem level to its
potentially expresses the biggest gap between
full potential, although there are promising
engineering and biology, merely because
examples in the early stage of development
buildings are not ‘alive’ in a way that is similar
(Farnsworth, 2013a).
to any life form. However the ability to develop hygromorphic materials and integrate them
Current intelligent building systems generally
into a building would present architects
try to use climate responsive technologies
with the opportunity of passively adjusting
to reduce buildings energy consumption.
their designs to the changing internal and
However, they lack the sophistication and
external environments, addressing a variety of
competence of naturally responsive systems
sustainability challenges (Bridgens & Farmer,
(Bridgens & Farmer, 2013). Natural materials
2013).
possess
intrinsic
properties
such
as
the
“moisture induced opening and closing of
Chao Chen, a student from the Royal Collage
the pine cone” (Bridgens & Farmer, 2013). This
of Art, has attempted to do exactly this with his
reactive response can be mimicked to inspire
project ‘Water Reaction’ (Figure 14). This was
“low-tech, low-cost hygromorphic (moisture-
inspired by the pine cones ability to open and 59
close in response to humidity (Goodwin, 2015).
2013). As previously explained, a pinecone
Chen discovered that a pine cone consisted
reacts to humidity levels, staying closed when
of two layers; one is absorbent and the other
it is on the tree and opening once it falls to the
impermeable. When the pine cone becomes
ground and begins to dry out (Pawlyn, 2011).
wet the porous outer layer expands “causing
Schittich (2006) reported that “improving
the scale to bend and close the cone”
the thermal properties of the skin layers and
(Goodwin, 2015). Chen imitated the intricate
their fixation” could reduce buildings energy
“seed-preserving tactic by using fabric, a thin
consumption.
film and a layer of veneer,” the absorbent veneer fibres swell and envelope the fabric,
The development of their seeds depends on
creating a tile (Figure 15) which curls when dry
the pine cones ability to control its internal
and flattens when wet (Goodwin, 2015).
temperature. If designers can mimic the pine cone’s ability do this we can “reduce 40%
The tiles could be arranged to create an
of heating ventilation and air conditioning
awning for a small-scale project such as a bus
(HVAC),
shelter (Figure 16) in which the material would
consumption in a hot climate” (Jaheen &
curl up in the sunlight to allow natural light into
Taleb, 2014). This could be useful to solving
the structure and flatten when wet to provide
energy demands as buildings would firstly
protection from the rain (Goodwin, 2015).
require less energy and secondly if a similar
The pine cones inspiration for responsive
system was designed to react to sunlight, the
materials allows architects to potentially lower
skin could close at night and back insulate the
a buildings energy use (Bridgens & Farmer,
building. This would keep the heat gained that
and
20%
of
lighting
energy
60
day within the building to heat the structure at
deepest and requires an understanding of the
night-time. It is possible to develop this idea to
ecosystem that the organism lives in; it explores
create weather responsive cladding systems
how this network thrives and what elements
for buildings that have the potential to control
are needed for it to succeed. Ecosystems
their internal environment (Pawlyn, 2011).
maintain themselves through the ability to
However, there are challenges to integrating
conserve and reuse water, energy and raw
these ideas into a building skin. The design
materials sustainably (Pawlyn, 2011); can they
would have to become stronger to handle
teach us to do the same?
extreme weather conditions, air-tightness and insulation standards which may also prove
“Nature as a mentor. Biomimicry is
difficult to meet (Pawlyn, 2011). Never the less,
a new way of viewing and valuing
it is a very interesting beginning to what could
nature. It introduces an era based
inspire naturally responsive buildings and even
not on what we can extract from the
cities.
natural world, but what can we learn from it.� (Benyus, 2002)
This directs us to the next level, where it is possible to analyse natural ecosystems and
Firstly, as Benyus (2002) has described above,
discover if we can apply their efficiency to our
architects could potentially learn from the
man-made communities.
efficiency of ecosystems, how to design buildings and cities that no longer need to
NATURE AS A MENTOR (ECOSYSTEM LEVEL)
extract from nature. It is at this level that we are
The third and final level of Biomimicry is the
able to examine examples of a closed loop 61
Figure 17: Diagram explaining how an oak tree performs like an ecosystem to conserve material, energy and water
62
flow of resources and compare them to the
Braungart and McDonough (2008) support
built environments linear flow. Some designers
this argument by saying “that using fire to fight
have already begun to mimic nature and how
‘waste’ is medieval behaviour. It is a type of
it does this. The transformation from a wasteful,
paranoia. The Cradle-to-Cradle approach is
contaminating linear flow of resources to a
to see waste as food, as a nutrient for what’s
closed loop model is vital if we are to achieve
to come.” It is important, in this modern age to
truly sustainable architecture (Pawlyn, 2011).
move away from the ‘Cradle-to-Grave’ linear way of thinking and provide opportunities to
One of nature’s most interesting achievements
conserve our resources, especially now that
is how it respects waste, human-made systems
we understand the destruction that the fossil
see waste as a useless leftover, which exits a
fuel age has caused.
building as pollution, sewage, or is sent to a landfill to be destroyed (Pawlyn, 2011). This is
The goal of Biomimicry is to take inspiration from
the main difference between our linear system
nature and create sustainable and holistic
and nature’s circular one: we do not use the
human-made systems (Drake, 2011). The Oak
end product to create a continuous cycle.
tree is one of nature’s brilliant examples of
However, noteworthy solutions are beginning
sustainable ecosystem design. As a model, it
to
reinterpretation
manages to do everything we as architects
of nature’s use of energy and nutrients, in
want to achieve when it comes to buildings
turn permitting us to obtain better resource
and cities. Reiterating Kim & Rigdon’s (1998)
efficiency
point that “in a long run, any resources entered
transpire
through
and
design
industries (Pauli, 2010).
the
innovative,
clean
into a building ecosystem will eventually come 63
Figure 18: A conceptual image of the Mobius Project by Exploration Architecture
64
out from it. This is the law of resource flow
forest floor slowing down evaporation, giving
conservation.” The Oak tree reuses the output
the roots time to absorb water. This water is then
resources as input materials creating a closed
transported up through the tree to the leaves
loop ecosystem that conserves materials,
through the water column where it will be
energy and water (Figure 17).
released through the stomata and evaporate into the air. If any part of one cycle fails the
The material, energy and water cycles of the
closed-loop opens and the system becomes
oak tree are separate closed loop systems.
inefficient, as “these cycles thrive on each
However, there are many synergies that coexist
other, and the oak tree is healthiest when they
between them that collaborate together.
are all functioning together” (Drake, 2011).
Maximizing these synergies permits the oak tree to grow and sustain itself (Drake, 2011).
This type of ecosystem thinking has inspired
Figure 17 outlines these three closed-loop
Exploration Architecture to design a biomimetic
cycles and the synergies that connect them.
building that mimics the oak tree’s ability to
For example, carbon dioxide enters the leaves
conserve materials, energy and water in a
through the stomata in the energy cycle then
closed loop system that supports itself.
sunlight causes a chemical reaction that will turn carbon dioxide and water into oxygen
The Mobius Project (Figure 18) is a scheme
and glucose, allowing the tree to grow. Raw
inspired by ecosystems that has a variety of
materials such as leaves, twigs and acorns will
innovative processes, which “allow inputs
fall to the ground and need water and oxygen
and outputs to be connected up to form a
to decompose. This waste material covers the
closed loop model” (Pawlyn, 2011). There 65
Figure 19: Diagram showing how the Mobius Project performs like an ecosystem
66
are three focal sequences: water treatment,
mimicking biological models at the ecosystem
food production and energy generation
level. That said, if the building had alternative
(Pawlyn, 2011). There are many examples of
methods to access elements of its material,
these components individually, which have
energy and water cycle, then the Mobius
been previously explored in the dissertation,
project could potentially inspire self-sufficient
however like the oak tree, the Mobius Project
environmentally sustainable schemes.
innovatively integrates these processes into a harmonious cycle (Thomson, 2012). The scheme assimilates elements shown in Figure 19.
Innovative schemes like the Mobius Project have the potential to transform buildings and cities from problematic linear systems into closed loop models that address the challenges we face with material, energy and water conservation (Thomson, 2012). However, like the oak tree, the Mobius project has separate closed loop systems that are connected by synergies and if an element fails the system will not function. As explained previously, this is a designer’s biggest challenge when 67
BIOMIMICRY 02.3 Limitations of biomimetic architecture
69
“Ecosystems are networks of interrelations
the ecosystem remains stable. However if
between organisms and their environment in a
the amount of prey or predators alters then
defined space” (Schulze, 2005). Therefore, the
this affects the entire food chain and could
organisms within this ecosystem are entirely
potentially endanger the whole ecosystem
reliant on the processes of other organisms
(Buraczynski,
within the same bio-network (Buraczynski,
developed itself over 3.8 billion years through
2013). An example of this is the basic carbon
cruel and calculated selection. This would
dioxide-oxygen cycle: plants take in carbon
not be possible in the built environment, as a
dioxide and change it into oxygen, animals
biomimetic city would have to be designed
then breathe in the oxygen and exchange
and constructed before we were to know if its
it back to carbon dioxide. The cycle will
ecosystem would thrive or not.
2013).
Similarly,
nature
has
continue to create this balance of gases as long as both organisms exist within that given
Buraczynski (2013) argues that examples
area (Buraczynski, 2013).
such as these are not thoroughly considered by architects and designers who believe
A possible architectural comparison would be
biomimetic architecture is the answer to
zero-energy buildings, which strive to produce
sustainability problems. She expresses concern
as much energy as they use (Verbeek, 2011).
about biomimetic designs performing as
The food chain is an example of how each
ecosystems and explains that although they
organism is affected by the process of other
inspire “safe and functional building solutions on
organisms as they feed on one another. As
an individual scale, the ways in which designs
long as these numbers do not fluctuate then
function cohesively is often neglected.” This 70
does not mean that individual biomimetic
the world sees what nature is capable of, it may
systems should not be applied to buildings
be used to create designs that “campaign
but rather combining systems without proper
against life” rather than provide for it. She
investigation could be detrimental to the users.
uses the Wright Brothers aeroplane as a prime
This shift in the design approach could cause
example, the brothers studied birds, (vultures
human error. This must be considered when
specifically), “to learn the nuances of drag
investigating the limitations of biomimetic
and lift.” In 1903 the bird taught humans how
architecture, especially when creating a
to fly for the first time (Figure 20) and in 1914
building like an ecosystem. If an error were
we were using this technology as a weapon
to occur in one area then the entire system
of war to drop bombs from the sky (Figure 21).
could become unbalanced and potentially fail. There is also the possibility that the
Benyus (2002) explains that if we are to “fit
biological model could be falsely mimicked,
in on Earth” then our basic understanding
or become unbalanced somewhere down
of nature has to change. Firstly it will begin
the line causing the biomimetic architecture
by squandering the philosophy that we are
to malfunction.
the ultimate species and “the world was put here exclusively for our use.” Twain (1962)
Benyus (2002) makes an intriguing case in
supports this argument and writes in his book
her book Biomimicry: Innovation inspired by
Letters From the Earth of the “damned human
nature, in which she asks: “what will make the
race” that believe they are at the top of
Biomimicry revolution any different from the
this hierarchical pyramid and will eventually
Industrial Revolution?” She argues that once
exterminate themselves: 71
Figure 20: Wright Brothers with their aeroplane that was inspired by birds in 1904
Figure 21: A series of bombs that were dropped by German Gotha aeroplanes in World War One (1914-1918)
72
“Man is the only animal that deals in
level there are also many limitations. To
that atrocity of atrocities, War. He is
discover if this level is too complex for current
the only one that gathers his brethren
architectural design, the author will investigate
about him and goes forth in cold
a case study of Kalundborg Eco-Industrial
blood and calm pulse to exterminate
Park in the subsequent chapter. This example
his kind� (Twain, 1962)
uses ecosystem thinking at building scale and could potentially inspire how architects design
This is perhaps not so much a limitation but
future cities.
a pessimistic view of what biomimicry could influence though it could arguably limit designer’s enthusiasm to create biomimetic projects.
As outlined above, it is clear from examples such as the Humpback whale that biomimicry can be applied to architecture at organism level. Furthermore there is undeniably the opportunity to advance biomimicked designs at process level and use them to create sustainable architecture. However, although there are some great conceptual ideas that could be applied to architecture at ecosystem 73
CASE STUDY 03.1 Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park
75
Figure 22: Nine core elements of Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park
Figure 23: Aerial view of Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park in Denmark
76
Kalundborg Symbiosis is an industrial park within
other organisms. Similarly, like an ecosystem, it
the city of Kalundborg, “the municipality is the
has slowly evolved from a small collaboration
largest area in the Zealand region” and has
of a few companies to a complex system
a range of innovative clean tech systems that
of
work like an ecosystem (Kalundborg Symbiosis,
Symbiosis, 2016).
integrated
establishments
(Kalundborg
2016). The combined elements within the industrial park are innovatively designed by
Nine core systems construct the Kalundborg
using nature as a mentor (Suarez, 2012).
Eco-Industrial Park (Figure 23); collectively these systems convert waste products into
The industrial ecosystem creates a network
useful resources and aim to create “greater
of valuable relationships, where the waste
efficiencies in the use and reuse of energy,
product of one company becomes a useful
water and materials” (Suarez, 2012). When
resource
these companies work in isolation they
for
another
company
(Suarez,
2012). The Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park was
encounter
problems
“manufacturing
bi-
established in 1961 (Kalundborg Symbiosis,
products and material efficiency” (Suarez,
2016) and has developed over three decades
2012). Conventionally companies would use
to become a “complex network of companies”
a considerable amount of time, money and
(Figure 22) constructed from the bottom
energy to collect materials and water and
up (Suarez, 2012). This example of industrial
then dispose of the waste product (Suarez,
symbiosis mimics nature in the sense that
2012). Therefore the relationships within this
companies rely on other companies within the
industrial ecosystem depend on the core
system in the same way that organisms rely on
elements: material, energy and water. 77
Figure 24: View from around the AsnĂŚs power station
78
Material conservation Materials
are
conserved
saving the companies money and creating throughout
this
environmentally sustainable solutions.
ecosystem, for example; DONG Energy’s Asnæs
power plant (Figure 24)
“removes
Energy conservation
over 98% of sulfur within its flue gas through a
Energy is conserved throughout this ecosystem.
desulphurization process” (Suarez, 2012). This
DONG Energy’s coal fired power station
captured sulfur is then mixed with calcium
“produces 10% of the electricity consumed
and
produce
in Denmark and operates at about 40%
industrial gypsum, which replaces imported
thermal efficiency” (Suarez, 2012). Surplus
natural gypsum. This industrial gypsum is
heat from the factory’s electricity production
used by Gyproc to make plasterboard; used
is used to generate steam, which is used by
plasterboard is then collected by Kara/
Novozymes, Novo Nordisk and Statoil. Excess
Noveren and delivered back to Gyproc for
heat also provides central heating, which
reuse. “This closed cycle replaces tons of
is used to heat homes within the city of
natural gypsum that would otherwise have
Kalundborg (Kalundborg Symbiosis, 2016). The
been imported” (Suarez, 2012).
Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park uses surplus
recycled
wastewater
to
energy throughout the ecosystem to power The Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park has created
other components. However the coal fired
a closed loop solution to this linear problem
power plant still produces the waste output
by reusing materials that would usually end
of pollution and although it is much less than
up in a landfill within the ecosystem. This
an average power station, there is still waste
eliminates the need to import natural gypsum,
material that is not being fully harnessed. 79
Water conservation
Industrial Park as a successful representation
Water is conserved throughout the system. For
of a biological model that “delivers both
example, excess heat from the power plant
environmental and economical benefits.” He
is also used to sterilize wastewater. This water
expresses that the general concept of the park
is then recycled throughout the industrial
is straightforward; one corporation’s waste
ecosystem to minimize the amount of water
becomes another’s valuable resource and the
being used from nearby Lake Tisso. For instance,
result is “reduced consumption of resources
the water required to cool the power plant
and a significant reduction in environmental
(Suarez, 2012). The Kalundborg Eco-Industrial
strain.” This therefore gives each component
Park has solved this linear problem, by using
the opportunity to manufacture products
excess energy within the industrial ecosystem
more efficiently without “increasing the use
to treat the grey water and recycle it.
of energy, water and raw materials” (Suarez, 2012). The Industrial Symbiosis at Kalundborg
The ability to reuse and recycle these three
offers the ability to study biomimicry at
elements has reduced pollution, sewage and
an appropriate scale for application to
waste material whilst also generating income
architecture.
for the companies within the system. This bionetwork mimics a natural ecosystem where
Suarez (2012) states that the overall complex
organisms reuse one another’s waste to their
seems to be a perfect blueprint of how
own advantage (Suarez, 2012).
to design a collection of buildings that synchronize
Suarez (2012) describes the Kalundborg Eco-
with
one
another.
However
looking at the industrial park in more detail, 80
it becomes apparent that the individual
components to create a more sustainable
components could be more sustainable.
development.
For example recycling one another’s waste
products are, the more sustainable the
should not give these companies the right to
corporations are and ultimately the more
guiltlessly deplete natural resources. Similarly
sustainable the overall development will be
the products, packaging, systems and services
(Benyus, 2002).
The
more
sustainable
the
that the companies provide have the potential to be more sustainable. This is highlighted by
Biomimicry has the potential to provide
Braungart & McDonough (2008):
answers to architectural problems. However, it is how well we dissect nature, and apply the
“To eliminate the concept of waste
subsequent solutions to the built environment,
means to design things--products,
that will judge if we can create truly biomimetic
packaging, and systems--from the
architecture. “As of now it appears that its
very beginning on the understanding
application to architecture is still premature”
that waste does not exist”
(Buraczynski, 2013).
The industrial park does recycle most of its
We could begin to develop a sustainable
waste effectively, however until the individual
model by applying isolated design elements
systems become more efficient, the complex
to buildings, or designing at a smaller scale,
offers a reasonable, thought short term, answer
for example the Mobius Project. Further to
to urban design (Suarez, 2012). It is necessary
this the Kalundborg Industrial Park is a useful
to evaluate the efficiency of individual
example of how biomimicry could inspire a 81
Figure 25: Diagram of how the Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park uses ecosystem thinking
82
city. However to design an accurate and
sustainable and ultimately the cities they
practical biomimetic model for a city means it
belong to more sustainable. Baumeister et al
would have to mimic nature at the organism,
(2014) support this idea and argue:
process and ecosystem level, therefore an overall system and minor systems that work
“If we can biomimic at all three
holistically within it (Benyus, 2002). For cities
levels—natural form, natural process,
to perform like ecosystems, they must mimic
and natural system—we’ll begin to
every detail of it, where buildings, transport,
do what all well-adapted organisms
services etc imitate organisms and belong to
have learned to do, which is to
a superior system. Every design must rely on
create conditions conducive to life.”
the other to create an overall balance in the city.
Although cities could eventually perform like ecosystems, we firstly need to develop the
Biomimicry presents enticing options for the
individual design components that make
future of architecture. However we first have
up a building and discover how these could
to study how each individual system could be
interconnect
applied at a larger scale and then how they
chapter will discuss the author’s findings and
interconnect to make a building and more
discuss potential future research.
sustainably.
The
following
intricately to form a city. Initially, biomimicry can help us discover how to design systems that conserve water, energy and materials to make buildings more environmentally 83
DISCUSSION 04.1 Analysis and potential future research
85
NATURES DESIGN
ARCHITECTURAL CHALLENGE
MODEL
Whale Fin
Energy Efficiency: Whales have lumps (tubercles) on the front of their flippers which improve hydrodynamic performance at slow speed
Amazon Water Lily
Material Efficieny: The water lily uses mimimal materials to create robust structures, its has a network of ribs that stiffen the large area without adding excessive thickness
Eastern Tent Caterpillar
Insulation: The communal nests of the eastern tent caterpillar are an
Buttress Roots
Foundations: Trees growing in the shallow soil of the rainforest have evolved buttress roots that resist overturning
Branching Vessels
Service systems: The diameter of branching vessels in animals and
example of insulation and solar orientation that produce temperatures inside the nest 4 °C above ambient
plants and the angles formed by their junctions follow a formula that uses minimal energy. This could be applied to duct and pipework
MEASURE MENTOR
Cacti
Solar Shading: Cacti use a lifeless material to protect them from the
Bird Skull
Lightweight Structures: The effective thickness of the skull is increased by creating multiple surfaces connected by a matric of ties and struts
Eucalyptus Tree
Fire Resistant Materials: The eucalyptus tree can survive forest fires
Pinecone
Responsive Materials: Pinecones open because the stems of each scale are made from two materials which shrink at different rates when they dry out causing them to bend
Human Lungs
Sequester Carbon: Alveoli in the human lungs create an effective
The Stone Plant
Temperature Control: The stone plant has adapted to survive the
Elephant Foot Plant
Water Storage: When there is heavy rainfall these plants retain large volumes of water underground in their root structure, which expands and contracts depending on the amount
Rainforest
Waste Management: When a tree falls, a community of organisms breaks down the tree's chemical compounds into other compounds and individual molecules, which are then used in other organisms.
Prairie
Diversity: More diverse communities have been shown to have higher
sun, which also traps air allowing them to cool themselves
and could potentially inspire new fire resistant materials for buildings
total surface area roughly equal to that of a tennis court
extreme diurnal swings in temperature by exploiting the stable temperature of the ground
and more temporally stable ecosystem functioning than less diverse ones, suggesting they should also have a consistently higher level of functioning over time.
Figure 26: Table showing how biomimicry could solve architectural challenges at all three levels
86
This chapter will consider the many influences
form, it has been widely explored as a design
biomimicry has had on design and explore
method and is arguably the most successful
possible future outcomes of biomimicry at
out of the three levels of application. It could
each level.
prove useful in architecture, for example due to extreme pressure on weight reduction birds
“When you’re looking at biological
have evolved lightweight skeletons (Figure
systems,
27), the structure of a birds skull is essentially an
they
tend
to
solve
problems in very different ways from
“engineering miracle” (Pawlyn, 2011)
engineering systems, which is why the area is so interesting. But that means
“‘Lightweight’ can be defined by the ratio of
that if you’re looking for an answer,
the active or life load is carried over its dead
you shouldn’t look for it in the most
load, being the longer the better” (Harris,
obvious place.” Julian F V Vincent
2010). Correspondingly, the largest structural
(2000)
load carried by the lowest structural weight, the better (Harris, 2010). Architect Andres
NATURE AS A MODEL (ORGANISM LEVEL)
Harris (2010) explains “skulls in general are
As shown in the modified table (Figure
extraordinary impact-resistant structures and
26) adapted from ideas of Pawlyn (2011)
extremely light at the same time.” Skulls are
in Biomimicry in Architecture, this level of
designed to be robust as they protect vital
biomimicry as a model has been extensively
organs whilst being extremely light to allow the
researched and applied to areas of design.
birds to fly. With consideration of the related
Although these projects will only mimic natural
literature and materials used for this study it is 87
Figure 27: X-ray of bird skulls showing structural make up
Figure 28: Zoomed x-ray of bird skull showing more detail
88
my belief that this is relevant to architecture
architectural ideas are beginning to be
and this property can be applied to a buildings
applied. This level mimics natural process
structure.
and has the potential to create some cutting edge designs. As previously outlined in this
Large songbird skulls are made from “non-
dissertation, the sustainable management
directional
are
of water is increasingly becoming another
constructed of “pneumatized cells,” which
environmental challenge (Pawlyn, 2011). The
create air gaps between the dense materials.
belief amongst climate scientists is that most
This decreases the structures weight, as less
tropical countries in the developing world will
material is used, without disturbing its strength.
face huge destruction of their agricultural
Buildings could follow this principle and have
industries due to temperature increases and
the potential to be built similarly to nature by
rainfall reduction (Pawlyn, 2011).
spongiosa
cells”
that
using concrete, which surrounds “a web of inflated void formers” (Pawlyn, 2011). Further
It is of my opinion that future research
research could expand Andres Harris’s work
could look to organisms that thrive in desert
and
such
conditions, as many plants and animals in
as these that could be used as a form of
these barren surroundings have the ability to
temporary housing or emergency shelters.
store water. One of the best examples of this
develop
lightweight
structures
would be the Elephant Foot Plant (Discorea NATURE AS A MEASURE (PROCESS LEVEL)
Elephantipes) (Farnsworth, 2013a). When there
This level of biomimicry as a mentor has been
is heavy rainfall these plants (Figure 29) retain
researched
large volumes of water underground in their
(Figure
26)
and
conceptual
89
Figure 29: Elephant Foot Plant (Discorea Elephantipes)
90
root structure, which expands and contracts
is the most underdeveloped of biomimetic
depending
(Farnsworth,
application, this is due to it being the most
2013b). These swollen bases can store water
complex (Baumeister et al., 2014). Examples
for six months to a year as the plant has a
such as the Mobius Project and Kalundborg
“water capacity of 97% in its fibrous tubers”
Eco-Industrial Park were shown previously in
(Farnsworth, 2013a).
the dissertation as studies of architectural
on
the
amount
ecosystem thinking. Although they begin to Buildings commonly store our water in rigid tanks
create a bio-network by using waste to create
below ground, which will only hold so much,
resources, the buildings themselves are not
this plant could inspire expandable water
made from biomimetic materials. Pawlyn
tanks that could be made of a “lightweight
(2011) supports this argument in his book
membrane, which could be incorporated
Biomimicry in Architecture:
into walls or landscape features” (Pawlyn, 2011). This would allow structures to conserve
“Generally we manufacture materials
maximum rainfall and reuse it throughout
with high energy bonds, which makes
drier parts of the year. In wetter climates, for
them difficult to integrate into systems
example Britain, the tank could store water
modelled on biology”
during floods, which would minimize disaster and again could be used later in the year.
If we could design and construct materials, buildings and cities with “natural polymers”
NATURE AS A MENTOR (ECOSYSTEM LEVEL)
and
As can be seen in Figure 26, the ecosystem level
would
“low energy bonds”, then structures embed
themselves
within
these 91
Figure 30: Aerial view of the Everglades in Florida, America
Figure 31: Aerial view of London, England
92
cycles. As previously explored, ecosystem
designing a sustainable city does not only
inspired models “involve complex interactions
depend on the buildings within it, considered
between different processes that require
planning “that embraces food, transport and
design input if they are to be optimized.” Due
energy as well as health and well being” is
to analysis of related literature and academic
required (Pawlyn, 2011).
material it is my belief that there is the opportunity for buildings to achieve this and
A sustainable world already exists (Figure 30)
become innovative examples of architecture.
where organisms work together to create
In general the built environment has exploited
a harmonious ecosystem. This is because
natural capital, “whereas ecosystem thinking
organisms cannot take care of their offspring
is an opportunity to do the opposite.” For this
10,000 years from now so they take care of the
reason resource savvy self-sufficient design
place that can (Benyus, 2014). This poses the
such as the Mobius Project is influential to
question: can we design our cities (Figure 31)
architecture.
to function in the same way?
Future research could challenge current cities
Benyus (2014) explains that we are not going
and determine if they could become more
undertake this challenge until we have ‘metrics’
sustainable by applying biomimicry to building
that she describes as ecological performance
components. The elements would collaborate
standards. For example if a forest gathers x
to potentially create a bio-network within the
amount of water or sequesters x amount of
building; these buildings could work together to
carbon a year then a city should be able to do
create an ecosystem within the city. However,
the same, the very fact that these wild lands 93
TABLE OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 1. Moderate weather extremes and their impacts 2. Purify the air and water 3. Pollinate crops and natural vegetation 4. Generate and preserve soils and renew their fertility 5. Cycle and move nutrients 6. Detoxify and decompose waste 7. Maintain biodiversity 8. Mitigate droughts and floods 9. Disperse Seeds 10. Protect people from the suns harmful ultraviolet rays 11. Protect stream and river channels and coastal shores from erosion 12. Control pest numbers 13. Contribute to climate stability 14. Regulate disease and carrying of pathogens
Figure 32: Table of ecosystem services a city should aim to use as ‘metrics’
94
can do this proves it is not impossible. If we are
be used by the city (Benyus, 2014). Ideas such
to design cities that abide by these ecosystem
as these build upon Kalundborg Eco-Industrial
services (Figure 32), we cannot simply just plant
Parks ecosystem thinking; similarly they take
plants to do the work for them; they must work
waste and turn it into resource, however they
like organisms within an ecosystem. Moreover,
would do this through the building skin without
every city will have a different brief and to
the use of factories.
meet the needs of every individual design we could look at the organisms that survive within
Although the purpose of this study was to look
similar environments. By studying the deep
at how biomimicry could create sustainable
patterns of plants, animals, fungi, insects etc
architecture through energy, material and
there is arguably the potential to come up
water
with design principles for the entire project.
shows that there are biomimetic solutions to
conservation,
extensive
research
many architectural challenges. As previously For example, in a cloudy city like Bogotรก the
stated, designs at organism level have used
buildings could mimic the fog basking beetle;
biomimicry exceptionally. While there are still
they could be wrapped in a skin that captures
many architectural challenges to overcome
fog and turns it into water, which is then
when
recycled throughout the city (Benyus, 2014).
process and ecosystem levels, there are
Buildings within a polluted city such as China
arguably benefits from at least encouraging
could be made from Calera concrete, which
biomimetic thinking.
truly
implementing
biomimicry
at
mimics how coral reefs sequester carbon; this is then turned into building resources that could 95
CONCLUSION
97
The aim of the dissertation was to determine
produced by burning them, it is imperative
the extent to which biomimicry could influence
for architects to find alternative sustainable
environmentally sustainable design in the
solutions for both existing buildings and
built environment. Through the application
future designs.
of inductive research, the study involved
• The primary requirement for architectural
the review and analysis of related literature
sustainability
is
resource
conservation
and academic materials in order to fulfill the
within a building ecosystem; the three
identified research objectives.
main sections are material, energy and water conservation.
Objective 1 - Identify problems created by the Industrial Revolution to our planet and why this
Objective 2 – Research the effectiveness
has generated the importance of sustainable
biomimicry has had on evolving technologies
architectural design.
and architectural functions.
Key Findings derived from researching this
Key Findings derived from researching this
objective:
objective:
• Although the Industrial Revolution was a
• Human-made systems are simple, wasteful,
phenomenal time for design, it depleted
mono-cultural and fossil fuel dependant
a vast amount of the world’s natural
compared to biological systems, which
resources.
are
complex,
regenerative
and
run
• Due to the immense use of fossil fuels
entirely on renewable energy. Architects
within cities and the amount of CO2 waste
and designers can learn a lot from these 98
biological models. However, there are
Objective 3 – Analyse if biomimicry can inspire
few studies of biomimicry being used
architecture to work harmoniously with the
successfully in design and engineering
environment through analysis of a practical
strategies.
example
• There are three levels of biomimicry; it is currently being used well at the first level
Key Findings derived from researching this
- organism level. However, there is the
objective:
potential for development at both process
• The Eco-Industrial Park uses ecosystem
and ecosystem level. The problems mainly
thinking to effectively convert waste into
stem from the fact that a building is not
valuable resources; material, energy and
alive and therefore it is difficult to design it
water are all conserved in this project.
to respond and adapt.
• However the project only mimics a natural
• Combining systems to create a building
ecosystem by reusing waste as a resource,
inspired by ecosystem thinking could
it is still powered by fossil fuels and therefore
prove too complex at this current period
not
of architectural design, however designing
architecture.
and applying responsive materials to a
an
example
of
truly
sustainable
• For cities to perform like ecosystems;
building could make it more sustainable
buildings
must
mimic
organisms
and
as it would be self reliant and could adapt
there systems should mimic the processes
to change; for example cladding systems
these organisms use to survive. This case
could close at night autonomously to form
study supports the theory that creating
back insulated shutters.
architecture that mimics an ecosystem is 99
too advanced. However we could begin
could also inspire integrated systems that
to develop isolated design elements that
store water and sequester carbon.
could be applied to a building to make it
• Ecosystem level is the most underdeveloped
more sustainable and therefore the city it
of the three and is where future research
belongs to more sustainable.
could be applied, however it still has inspirational qualities and could be used
Objective 4 – Identify the future improvements
to create innovative systems that manage
biomimicry can make to architectural design.
waste and make cities more diverse rather
Key Findings derived from researching this
than mono cultural schemes.
objective: As detailed above, this dissertation identified • As previously stated biomimicry has been
three main issues within architectural design:
extensively researched and applied to
material, energy and water conservation.
areas of design at organism level. It could
Through biomimetic innovations in technology
also be widely applied to architecture
and design, architects have begun to find
to provide better solutions for: insulation;
solutions to some of the problems associated
foundations; lightweight structures; fire
with these issues. The research considered the
resistant materials and services etc.
application of biomimicry at three key levels:
• Biomimicry is beginning to develop at the
organism, process and ecosystem. From this, It
process level and could be applied to
became clear from the findings that biomimicry
architecture in terms of inspiring weather
is extremely useful within architecture at
or daylight responsive cladding systems. It
organism level. Therefore, in relation to the 100
evidence presented, it is possible to conclude
exists, emphasized by the table of ecosystem
that there is a place for biomimicry within
service (Figure 32) that could be but are not
architectural design. However, the study also
yet mimicked by the built environment.
found significant challenges at the process and ecosystem levels of biomimicry that would
This dissertation specifically focused on key
require to be overcome before the practical
case studies examining material, energy and
benefits of biomimicry could be realized.
water conservation, as it is arguable that conserving these three resources will create a
Potential areas for future research
truly sustainable design approach. However
The limited scope of this research did not allow
through research the author has discovered
for a full appreciation of the breadth of topics
that there are many areas of design that can
that biomimicry could inspire. Therefore, any
be improved through the use of biomimicry.
further research should firstly give consideration
Due to limited scope if this dissertation, it
to the biomimicry taxonomy created by
was not practical to cover everything that
Baumeister et al (2014; 113).
biomimicry could inspire, but what Is certainly apparent, is the ability of biomimicry to inspire
To progress discursive insight into the field
and potentially begin to address the key
of biomimicry, future studies may also wish
challenges that face architects in the pursuit
to conduct research based around the
of a truly sustainable built environment.
issues raised the application of this process in architecture at the ecosystem level. It is evident from this study that a significant gap 101
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[Accessed 2nd February 2016] Gebauer, G. and Wulf, C. (1996) “Mimesis” Berkeley: University of California Press, Print. Goodall, C. (2012) “Sustainability.” London: Hodder & Stoughton, Print. Goodwin, D. (2015) “Building Elements Come Alive With This Pinecone-Inspired Material That Reacts To Moisture”. ArchDaily Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/769820/chao-chens-pinecone-inspired-material-reacts-to-water
[Accessed 7th February 2016] Harris, A. (2010) “Andres Harris - 1.0 Biomimetics”. Andres.harris.cl. [online] Available at: http://www.andres.harris.cl/about/32-2/
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Jaheen, N. and Taleb, H. (2014) “Pinecone From Nature To Construction: Inspired Design Strategies For A Sustainable Roof.” [online] Available at: http://urst.org/siteadmin/upload/5947U1214317.pdf [Accessed 15th February 2016] Kalundborg Symbiosis. (2016) “Kalundborg Symbiosis”. Symbiosis.dk. [online]
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Kitchen, P. and Tate, N. (2000) “Conducting Research in Human Geography: Theory, Methodology and Practice.” England: Pearson Education Limited. Print. Kim, J. J. and Rigdon B. (1998) “Sustainable Architecture Model: Introduction To Sustainable Design” Michigan: National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education: 9-22 Print. Landow, G. (2012) “The Industrial Revolution: A Timeline” [online] Available at: http://www.victorianweb.org/technology/ir/irchron.html [Accessed 23rd December 2015] Maglic, M. (2012) “Biomimicry: Using Nature As A Model For Design”. Masters Dissertation. University of Massachusetts [online] Available at: http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1984&context=theses [Accessed 30th December 2015] Pauli, G. (2010) “The Blue Economy | Paradigm Publications.” Paradigm-pubs.com. [online] Available at: http://www.paradigm-pubs.com/catalog/detail/blueco [Accessed 7th February 2016] Pawlyn, M. (2011) “Biomimicry In Architecture.” [London, UK]: Riba Publishing. Print. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) “Sustainability Science: The Emerging Research Program.” 100.14: 80598061. Available at: http://www.pnas.org/content/100/14/8059.full [Accessed 6th February 2016]
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Research Methodology. (2016a) “Inductive Approach - Research Methodology” [online] Available at: http://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/research-approach/inductive-approach-2/ [Accessed 21st November 2015] Research Methodology. (2016b) “Deductive Approach - Research Methodology” [online]
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Schittich, C. (2006) “In Detail - Building Skins.” München: Ed. Detail. Print. Schulze, E. D. and Beck E. (2005) “Plant Ecology.” Berlin: Springer. Senior, K. (2015) “When Will Fossil Fuels Run Out?” Carboncounted.co.uk. [online] Available at: http://www.carboncounted.co.uk/when-will-fossil-fuels-run-out.html [Accessed 5th January 2016] Shankleman, J. (2014) “Renewable Energy Overtakes Nuclear As Scotland’s Top Power Source.” The Guardian. [online] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/nov/27/renewable-energy-overtakes-nuclear-as-scotlands-top-power-source [Accessed 28th February 2016] Staff, History.com. (2009a) “First Airplane Flies” [online] Available at: http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/first-airplane-flies [Accessed 22nd December 2015] Staff, History.com. (2009b) “Industrial Revolution - Facts & Summary”. HISTORY.com. [online]
Available at: http://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution [Accessed 1st February 2016]
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Suarez, R. (2012) “Industrial Symbiosis In Kalundborg Offers A Blueprint For The Structuring Of Both Current And Emerging Industrial Parks And Ecosystems.” [online] Available at: https://d3gxp3iknbs7bs.cloudfront.net/attachments/ccc64d96a2efa7ed7a0e4eb1e0c0e868d1f4af70.pdf [Accessed 6th February 2016]
Thomson, D. (2012) “The Mobius Project - Exploration Architecture”. Exploration-architecture.com. [online] Available at: http://www.exploration-architecture.com/projects/the-mobius-project [Accessed 8th February 2016] Twain, M. (1962) “Letters From The Earth.” New York: Harper & Row, Print. United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987) “The Brundtland Report.” Oxford University Press. Print.
Veeman, T. S. (1989) “Sustainable Development.” Edmonton: University of Alberta, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Department of Rural Economy. Print. Verbeek, K. (2011) “Biomimicry And Industrial Design” Bioinspired.sinet.ca. [online] Available at: http://bioinspired.sinet.ca/content/biomimicry-and-industrial-design-karen-verbeek [Accessed 10th February 2016]
Vincent, J. F. V. (2000) “Deployable Structures In Nature: Potential For Biomimicking”. Proceedings of the I MECH E Part C Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 214.1: 1-10 [online]] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245387194_Deployable_Structures_in_Nature_Potential_for_Biomimicking [Accessed 28th December 2015] Whalepower Corporation. (2011) “TUBERCLE TECHNOLOGY”. Whalepower Corporation [online] Available at: http://www.whalepowercorporation.com/p/tubercle-technology_24.html [Accessed 27th December 2015]
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Further Reading Adrover, E. R. (2015) “Deployable Structures.” London: Laurence King Publishing, Print.
Armstrong, R. (2009) “Architecture that Repairs Itself?” [online video] Available at: https://www.ted.com/talks/rachel_armstrong_architecture_that_repairs_itself?language=en#t-17160 [Accessed 4th January 2016]
Attenborough, D. (2015) “Great Barrier Reef with David Attenborough” Episode 1 [online video] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06t4j41 [Accessed 1st January 2016]
Biomimicry 3.8. (2013) “The 3D Printing Revolution Explained In 20 Minutes” [online] Available at: http://biomimicry.net/videos/2013/the-3d-printing-revolution-explained-in-20-minutes/
[Accessed 2nd January 2016] Blackburn, A. (2015) “How will global warming affect polar bears?” Skepticalscience.com. [online] Available at: https://www.skepticalscience.com/polar-bears-global-warming.htm
[Accessed 5th January 2016] Bond, E., Gingerich, S., Archer-Antonsen, O., Purcell, L. and Macklem, E. (2003) “Innovations of the Industrial Revolution.” [online] Available at: http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/innovations.html [Accessed 20th December 2015]
Crouse, M. (2015) “3D Printing Revenue Growing In Space Defense Sector.” SmarTech Publishing. [online] Available at: http://www.pddnet.com/news/2015/09/3d-printing-revenue-growing-space-defense-sector
[Accessed 2nd January 2016] Gascoigne, B. (2001) “History of The Industrial Revolution” HistoryWorld. [online] Available at: http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1236&HistoryID=aa37&gtrack=pthc
[Accessed 20th December 2015]
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Golenda, G. (2015) “Architecture Inspired By Nature: Biomimicry From Art Nouveau To Neo-Futurism” Architizer. [online] Available at: http://architizer.com/blog/biomimicry-binet-som/ [Accessed 25th January 2016] Harrigan, S. (2011) “Relics to Reefs.” National Geographic. [online]
Available at: http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/02/artificial-reefs/harrigan-text [Accessed 4th January 2016]
Krugerpark. (2015) “Umbrella Thorn | Acacia Tortilis | Southern Africa...” [online] Available at: http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_umbrella_thorn.html [Accessed 29th December 2015]
Lott-Lavigna, R. (2015) “Watch This Giant 3D Printer Build A House” WIRED Magazine [online] Available at: http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2015-09/21/giant-3d-printer-builds-houses [Accessed 2nd January 2016]
Meinhold, B. (2009) “Qatar Sprouts A Towering Cactus Skyscraper” Inhabitat.com. [online] Available at: http://inhabitat.com/qatar-cactus-office-building/ [Accessed 25th January 2016]
Metzger, J. and Rader Olsson, A. (2013) “Sustainable Stockholm.” Print. Morse, E. (2016) “Non-Renewable Energy” National Geographic Education [online] Available at: http://education.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/non-renewable-energy/ [Accessed 23rd December 2015]
Tibert, G. (2002) “Deployable Tensegrity Structures For Space Applications.” Stockholm: Tekniska högsk., Print. Willmott, D. (2015) “A Shocking Solution To Save Coral Reefs.” The Huffington Post. [online] Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/x-prize-foundation/a-shocking-solution-to-sa_b_8217600.html [Accessed 3rd January 2016]
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“The world will not evolve past its current state of crisis by using the same thinking that created the situation� - Albert Einstein