WOOD Alessandro Mariotti
Introduction Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, or it is defined more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere such as in the roots of trees or shrubs. In a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots. Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. Wood has been used for thousands of years for fuel, as a construction material, for making tools and weapons, furniture and paper. More recently it emerged as a feedstock for the production of purified cellulose and its derivatives, such as cellophane and cellulose acetate.
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Forests keep up the hydrological cycle. Forests also maintain the hydrological cycle in the ecosystem. Forests help in creating regular monsoon systems. Therefore periods of drought can be avoided. Regularity in rainfall and monsoons also helps in keeping the water table level high enough.This helps in providing man a regular supply of water for his varied purposes. Trees also help in holding the top soil. The top soil is the fertile layer of soil. Where there is deforestation the top soil gets exposed, and rains wash away the top soil thus depleting the soil of its fertility. By protecting trees and forests the fertility of the soil can be retained.
Forests have great floral diversity. There is an enormous floral diversity that can be seen in forests. A variety of trees grow in forests.There may be evergreen trees that are green through the year, and there may also be deciduous trees that shed their trees seasonally.Trees may also be flowering ones or non-flowering ones.Trees which bear flowers add great beauty to the forests. Flowers blooming in a number of colors and hues are not only a visual delight but also add fragrance to the air in the forests. Creepers, climbers, shrubs, bushes and grasses all make up the vegetation in forests.
Forests are home to diverse faunal species. A large variety of wildlife species inhabit forests. There are mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects of all types that live in forests. You can hear the roaring of the tiger and the trumpeting of the elephant in the forests.You can also see the lion, the king of the jungle, roaming in the forest. Many other mammals like the bear, fox, jackal, hyena and bison can be sighted in the jungle. A large number of beautiful and colorful birds too can be spotted in the forests. The sweet calls and songs of birds too can therefore be heard in the forests. Bright and splendid butterflies can also be seen flitting around colorful and fragrant flowers in the forest.
Forests support a large variety of wildlife. Forests are also home to a large variety of wildlife that includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects. Forests are ideal habitats for the faunal diversity that it hosts. The royal Bengal tiger, India’s national animal, lives in the forests. Animals like the elephant, lion, rhinoceros, fox, jackal and bear are also seen in forests. A variety of colorful birds, that may be endemic or migratory, and a number of beautiful butterflies too can be spotted in forests. Forests also have water bodies that provide water to drink for the creatures that inhabit it.
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The great floral diversity in forests allows for an equally varied fauna to inhabit them. Forests also have water bodies that are not only habitats for aquatic creatures but also sources of water that wildlife inhabiting the forests can drink. Forests make for ideal habitats for mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects.There are both carnivorous and herbivorous animals that live in forests. Carnivorous animals feed on flesh, while herbivorous ones derive their food from plants. Large carnivores like the lion, tiger and leopard prey on smaller animals to feed on. Animals like the jackal, hyena and fox are also carnivores. The majestic elephant and the enormous rhinoceros are, however, herbivorous creatures. Beautiful and colorful birds can also be sighted, and their trademark calls and songs listened to in forests. The bird species may be endemic, resident or migratory. A variety of reptiles like snakes, and amphibians too live in forests. Beautifully patterned and splendid butterflies, as also bees can be seen flying about in a forest. As forests are a treasure house of floral and faunal variety, they need to be protected. Forests are important for ecological balance and health. Trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide and let out oxygen during the process of photosynthesis that takes place in them. Forests also maintain the hydrological cycle in the ecosystem. Forests help in creating regular monsoon systems. Regularity in rainfall and monsoons also helps in maintaining the level of the water table. Trees also help in holding the top soil, which is the fertile layer of soil. Man’s indiscriminate activities such as deforestation and poaching of animals disturb forest habitats. Deforestation destroys forest cover, and wipes out the wildlife that inhabits the forest. Deforestation severely affects ecological equilibrium. Forests are protected areas in India, and forest areas are designated as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, bird sanctuaries, tiger reserves and biosphere reserves. Forests make for wonderful landscapes, and are favorite destinations for nature-lovers, wildlife-enthusiasts and wanderlusts.
As forests are a treasure house of floral and faunal variety, they need to be protected. Forests are important for ecological balance and health. Trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide and let out oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Nathan Dumlao and Ju On
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Forests are habitats for a large variety of fauna. The faunal diversity in forests includes mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and insects. There are both carnivorous and herbivorous species that inhabit forests. The food chain in forests is in balance unless disturbed by man and his activities.
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3.040.000.000.000 Trees in all the world
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Deforestation is one of the factors that has led to global warming and climate change. Trees must, therefore, be protected. There are trees that have medicinal uses. Clint McKoy Unsplash
Trees are very valuable for keeping ecological balance in ecosystems. Trees give out oxygen, and absorb carbon-dioxide during the process of photosynthesis.Thus, trees help in recharging the air with oxygen that is vital for life forms that breathe in oxygen to stay alive. By absorbing carbon-dioxide, trees also control the levels of the major greenhouse gas that causes warming of the air.Trees have been felled recklessly. Deforestation is one of the factors that has led to global warming and climate change. Trees must, therefore, be protected. There are trees that have medicinal uses. Certain parts of trees may be of medicinal value. The neem tree, for instance, which is native to India, is used as a curative for many health conditions.Trees also have cultural and religious significance.There are communities that respect and worship trees. The peepal tree, for example, is a tree that is highly revered and worshipped.Trees are also food for man. Tree parts such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds may be edible. All herbivorous and omnivorous animals also depend on trees for their food.
There are many different types of trees that grow.Trees are food for man and all herbivorous animals. The roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds of trees may be edible.Trees are also home to many wildlife species. Animals seek the shade and shelter of trees. Birds build their nests in trees. Reptiles and insects also live in trees. Trees help in binding the soil. Trees and forests also play a role in maintaining the hydrological cycle and rainfall patterns. Trees are Nature’s bounty.We must not cut down trees.We must protect trees, and help grow more trees. Trees give us many benefits. Trees are the green cover of the planet.Trees need water, sunshine and air to grow. The process of photosynthesis that occurs in trees, that helps them grow, uses oxygen and gives out carbon-dioxide. Thus, they contribute to the oxygen in the air that we need to breathe to stay alive. They also use up the carbon-dioxide that is present in the air, and thus prevent the accumulation of the greenhouse gas that leads to global warming and climate change.
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Why Trees are Important to Us. There are trees that have medicinal uses. Certain parts of trees may be of medicinal value. The neem tree, for instance, which is native to India, is used as a curative for many health conditions. Trees also have cultural and religious significance. There are communities that respect and worship trees. The peepal tree, for example, is a tree that is highly revered and worshipped. Trees are also food for man. Tree parts such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds may be edible. All herbivorous and omnivorous animals also depend on trees for their food. Trees are also home to many different animals, birds, reptiles and insects. Birds build their homes in trees. Insects like bees and butterflies swarm to the fragrant flowers on trees. This helps in pollination that helps flowers turn into fruits. Bee hives in trees are also the source of honey. Trees must be protected. Felling of trees must be avoided. Trees serve to maintain ecological and environmental balance and equilibrium.
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There are communities that respect and worship trees. The peepal tree, for example, is a tree that is highly revered and worshipped. Trees are also food for man. Tree parts such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds may be edible.
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Trees Provide Food to Man and Animals. Trees may bear beautiful and colourful flowers. Trees may also bear edible fruits. Edible tree parts are consumed by man as food. The edible parts include roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. Fruit trees are often cultivated by farmers. Animals, birds, reptiles and insects also depend on trees for shelter and food. Birds mostly build their nests and raise their young ones in trees. When predators chase their prey, the preyed creatures may run up a tree for safety. All herbivorous and omnivorous animals depend on trees for their food too. Trees and forests maintain the balance in the food chain. Forests are home to a large number of animals. The herbivorous animals like deer, elephants and rhinoceroses depend on trees and other vegetation for their food. The carnivores like the lion, tiger and leopard in the forests depend on animals like deer and buffaloes to satisfy their hunger.
Tree
The edible parts include roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. Fruit trees are often cultivated by farmers. Animals, birds, reptiles and insects also depend on trees for shelter and food. Birds mostly build their nests and raise their young ones in trees. Dan Sorensen Unsplash
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Trees are Nature’s bounties and are called as Green Gold. A tree full of brightly coloured and fragrant flowers is delightful. Trees make a landscape or any space we live in pleasing.
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Trees grow according to the soil conditions, Wplace also has its own local or native tree species. It is ecologically wise to grow native tree species in a place.
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Slash-and-Burn Techniques.Prior to the 1960s, restrictions kept people out of the Amazon rain forest other than clearing alongside rivers. Then farmers began colonizing this tropical area with slash-and-burn techniques, which destroy the trees without using them for other needs. It also greatly diminishes the soil’s nutrients and lessens the possibility of continued plant growth. Just how a log is cut into lumber has a large influence on the quality of the finished product. When a sawyer saws a log, usually the goal is to obtain the largest volume of usable wood. 16
Cut Deforestation and Industrialization. The invention of metal, saws and then power saws greatly accelerated the ability to clear land. Since the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s, forests have been exploited worldwide. According to Michael Williams in his 2001 article in “History Today,� in central European Russia, for example, 67,000 square kilometers (16,556,060 acres) of forests were cleared between the end of the 17th century to the start of the 20th century. The American pioneers pushed forward into the West, and cutting trees was an integral part of everyday life. Approximately 460,000 square kilometers--an astounding 177 million square miles--of forests were felled just by 1850, and nearly 300 million square miles by 1910.
Deforestation and Human Development. Clearing forests goes hand-in-hand with human development. Trees offer shelter and fuel for warmth and cooking.The fruit and nuts provide food, as well as medicines and dyes. Cutting down trees required no advanced technology. The earliest people could use their stone or flint axes to fell trees or fire to clear large expanses. As civi- Deforestation and climate lization advanced, trees were cut down first change. for agricultural use and then for increased Deforestation is considered to be one of the urbanization. The steady growth of popu- contributing factors to global climate change. lation in the European forests from 9000 According to Michael Daley, an associate to 5000 B.C. led to extensive land-clearing professor of environmental science at Lasell for agriculture, animal domestication and College in Newton, Massachusetts, the No. 1 using fire for hunting game. The situation problem caused by deforestation is the impact was similar for all continents, China, Africa on the global carbon cycle. Gas molecules and the Americas, with increased population that absorb thermal infrared radiation are called greenhouse gases. If greenhouse gases over the next several millennia. are in large enough quantity, they can force climate change, according to Daley. While oxygen (O2) is the second most abundant gas in our atmosphere, it does not absorb thermal infrared radiation, as greenhouse gases do.
People cut down 15 billion trees each year and the global tree count has fallen by 46% since the beginning of human civilization. Rawpixel
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Handicrafts are unique expressions and represent a culture, tradition and heritage of a country. The Handicraft Industry is one of the important productive sector. Various attempts have been made to define this broad and diversified industry. Zhipeng Ya Unsplash
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The near est. Woodworking in the Middle East goes back for many centuries, even to Biblical times, as evidenced in the descriptions of some items. For instance, the Book of Exodus chronicles the construction of wooden holy items for the Tabernacle of the ancient Hebrews. The ancient woodworkers of the Near East built great wooden boats out of timber that grew in the Anatolian plateau (the Asian part of Turkey) along the Levantine coast (the Mediterranean coastal lands of modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon). This wood was so coveted that invading armies often demanded it as a tribute. Archaeologists found furniture crafted from wood inlaid with bone, ivory or metal that dated as far back as 800 B.C. at Gordion, the alleged home of the mythical King Midas. Nothing can exceed the skill with which the Muslim wood-carvers of Persia, Syria, Egypt and Spain designed and executed the richest paneling and other decorations for wall linings, ceilings, pulpits and all kinds of fittings and furniture. The mosques and private houses of Cairo, Damascus and other Oriental Cities are full of the most elaborate and minutely delicate woodwork. A favorite style of ornament was to cover the surface with very intricate interlacing patterns, formed by finely molded ribs; the various geometrical spaces between the ribs were then filled in with small pieces of wood carved with foliage in slight relief. The use of different woods such as ebony or box, inlaid so as to emphasize the design,
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The mosques and private houses of Cairo, Damascus and other Oriental Cities are full of the most elaborate and minutely delicate woodwork. A favorite style of ornament was to cover the surface with very intricate interlacing patterns, formed by finely molded ribs.
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combined with the ingenious r ichness of the patterns; give this class of woodwork an almost unrivaled splendor of effect. Carved ivory is also often used for the filling. Nothing can exceed the skill with which the Muslim wood-carvers of Persia, Syria, Egypt and Spain designed and executed the richest paneling and other decorations for wall linings, ceilings, pulpits and all kinds of fittings and furniture. The mosques and private houses of Cairo, Damascus and other Oriental Cities are full of the most elaborate and minutely delicate woodwork. Carved ivory is also often used for. The Arabs are past masters in the art of carving flat surfaces in this way. As for the Intarsia style of work, objects with intarsia decoration are known from the tomb of Tutankh-Amun (fourteenth century BC). The earliest examples from the Islamic period in the Museum for Islamic Art in Cairo can be dated to the ninth century, while Syrian objects with intarsia decoration have survived from the tenth century. These early works are from the religious sphere, such as the panels of preaching chairs, Koran stands, and, more rarely, the doors of mosques and saints’ tombs. The technique of intarsia spread westwards from Egypt and Syria to Andalusia and Morocco, and eastwards to Iran and India. Syrian and Egyptian intarsia have retained their unmistakable style and even today they are technically among the best examples.
Work
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The overall size and proportions of the tool, and not the materials it may be made, though most mallets have striking faces that are softer than steel. A workbench is a table used by woodworkers to hold workpieces while they are worked by other tools. There are many styles woodworking benches, each reflecting the type of work to be done or the craftsman’s way.
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Carpentry Is a skilled trade in which the primary work performed is the cutting, shaping and installation of building materials during the construction of buildings, ships, timber bridges, concrete formwork, etc. Carpenters traditionally worked with natural wood and did the rougher work such as framing, but today many other materials are also used and sometimes the finer trades of cabinetmaking and furniture building are considered carpentry.
American Empire: 1800-1840 The American Empire period took more influence from the French than the English, with a greater emphasis on curved arms, cabriole legs, and ornate, paw or claw feet.
Timber framing Timber framing and “post-and-beam� construction are traditional methods of building with heavy timbers, creating structures using squared-off and carefully fitted and joined timbers with joints secured by large wooden pegs. It is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier. If the structural frame of load-bearing timber is left exposed on the exterior of the building it may be referred to as half-timbered, and in many cases the infill between timbers will be used for decorative effect.
Early American: 1640-1700 The Early American period was really the first period where a distinct style began to appear within furniture pieces in the colonies that went beyond mere practicality. Ornamental carvings, finials, raised panels and woodturnings were hallmarks of this period. Most joinery was of the mortise and tenon variety, with pine, cherry, birch, maple, oak and fruit woods such as apple comprising the majority of the hardwoods and softwoods used for these pieces.
Shaker: 1820-1860 The Shaker period was named after a religious movement of the period, and the furniture influence was simple and utilitarian.
Colonial: 1700-1780 The Colonial period was heavily influenced by pieces from England during this time, although the American versions tended to be far less ornamental and more conservative. Finishes were often oil varnish, paint or wax over a stain. The dovetail joint began to make an appearance along with the mortise and tenon joint as a carryover from the Early American period. Mahogany, elm, and walnut were also more predominantly used in this period. Pennsylvania Dutch: 1720-1830 The Pennsylvania Dutch period was marked by heavy German influences. The pieces were simple and utilitarian, with the predominant decoration colorful hand-painted scenes.The furniture from this period features straight lines, simple turnings, and tapered legs made from walnut, oak and pine. of this period.
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Tools
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In woodworking and carpentry, hand saws, also known as “panel saws”, are used to cut pieces of wood into different shapes. This is usually done in order to join the pieces together and carve a wooden object. A mallet is a kind of hammer, often made of rubber or sometimes wood, that is smaller than a maul or beetle, and usually has a relatively large head. A chisel is a tool with a characteristically shaped cutting edge (such that wood chisels have lent part of their name to a particular grind) of blade on its end, for carving or cutting a hard material such as wood, stone, or metal by hand, struck with a mallet, or mechanical power. The handle and blade of some types of chisel are made of metal or of wood with a sharp edge in it. The overall size and proportions of the tool, and not the materials it may be made, though most mallets have striking faces that are softer than steel. A workbench is a table used by woodworkers to hold workpieces while they are worked by other tools. There are many styles woodworking benches, each reflecting the type of work to be done or the craftsman’s way.
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Work Every trade has its tools, and woodworking is no different. Any craftsman knows that the right tool for the project is critical in manufacturing a quality end product in a timely manner.
We live in a world where hard work, when not coupled with smart work, is of no use. And, thanks to technology we’ve got so much at our hands that can help us evolve from being just hard worker to become a smart worker. Ricky Kharawala Usplash
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Japan
Woodworkers today who practice the ancient oriental woodworking techniques take pride in their mastery of the fitted joint and their skill of not using electric equipment, nails or glue to hold their pieces together. Japan is where this style of woodworking primarily originated. One reason for Japan’s success in such excellent woodworking was that they developed high-carbon steel tools early in their history. Their use of high-quality blades and the engineering of the lathe made ancient Japanese woodworkers leaders in crafting round and curved object.
More than just a trade, Japanese woodworking is also an art that draws upon Japanese aesthetics and philosophy to produce robust and consummately crafted works.
Cooperage (the making of barrels and casks) and bentwood works (wood that is artificially shaped for use in making furniture) were popular in Japan for everyday household objects. Japanese woodworkers also made exquisitely-sculpted scenery. Their popularity and the techniques used in the process spread across Southeast Asia. Another highly skilled form of woodworking was blocked prints – made from inked blocks of wood. Lacquering also was developed in the orient. It is a technique dominant in Japan, China, and Korea.
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Schools of carpentry Though there is a core practice shared by all Japanese carpenters, defined by a vocabulary of tools and joints and a methodology of working, a carpenter will typically identify with one of four distinct carpentry professions. Miyadaiku practice the construction of Japanese shrines and temples, and are renowned for their use of elaborate wooden joints and the fact that the buildings they construct are frequently found among the world’s longest surviving wooden structures. Teahouse and residential carpenters, known as sukiya-daiku, are famed for their delicate aesthetic constructions using rustic materials. Furniture makers are known as sashimono-shi, and interior finishing carpenters, who build shji and ranma, are termed tateguya.
Japan is a country with one foot eagerly frolicking in modernity and the other firmly planted in tradition.While it produces some of the most advanced technologies, from artificially intelligent androids and computers to virtual reality entertainment and bleeding edge electronics, it also cherishes steadfast traditions and preserves its centuries-old wooden buildings and furniture. Structures such as the Seven Great Temples of Nara (Nanto Shichi Daiji) and Kyoto’s many machiya townhouses have withstood the test of time thanks in part to preservation and restoration efforts. However, the bulk of the credit must be passed down to the careful craftsmanship that went into them to begin with.
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In other words, structures are created around wood’s natural elements rather than turning the wood into the structures. They typically use wood from local trees that died of natural causes, respect the wood’s natural curvature, and maintain nature’s order by using wood cut from the sturdy base of trees to form the base of structures.
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For centuries before the invention of screws and fasteners, Japanese craftsmen used complex, interlocking joints to connect pieces of wood for structures and beams, helping to create a uniquely Japanese wood aesthetic that can still be seen in the works of modern masters like Shigeru Ban. Up until recent times, however, these techniques were often the carefully guarded secrets of family carpentry guilds and unavailable for public knowledge. Even as the joints began to be documented in books and magazines, their 2-dimensional depictions remained difficult to visualize and not found in any one comprehensive source. WWWTraditional Japanese structures and furniture are held together with wooden joints.Without using a single screw, nail, bolt, or other metal hardware, Japanese woodworkers use joinery—wood-to-wood connection—to build furniture, houses, and ornate Buddhist temples with the strength and durability to weather hundreds of years.
Yukiatsugi- The joining of two ends, wood taken from the top of the tree trunk. Wakaretsugu- The joining of two ends, wood taken from the base of the trunk. Okuritsugu- The joining of the above two pieces (top and base piece).
Held together without glue, nails or metal supports — the works of tsugite craftsmen have been a staple of traditional Japanese design for centuries.The most common joint mechanism during the 12th to19th century, it employs both satisfyingly simple and fantastically complex cuts in timber, interlocking to create surprisingly strong bonds. Referring to the joining of two pieces of wood, also known as a splicing joint, tsugite is often used in conjunction with shiguchi — an angle joint using similar techniques.There are three primary arrangements for the former. Using this all-natural technique, structures are much stronger and more flexible. Joints accept the motion of the building rather than splitting, allowing them to easily withstand the destructive earthquakes so common to Japan. Although this traditional approach is fundamentally simple, woodworkers must be painstakingly meticulous when carving the wood to ensure that each piece fits together perfectly.
Using this all-natural technique, structures are much stronger and more flexible. Joints accept the motion of the building rather than splitting, allowing them to easily withstand the destructive earthquakes so common to Japan. Although this traditional approach is fundamentally simple, woodworkers must be painstakingly meticulous when carving the wood to ensure that each piece fits together perfectly.
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Everything is held together with compression: the tightness of the joint against the end grain of the wooden recess.
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Chair
Chair N° 14, Tonet When we think of a designer in the creative act of an object, we often imagine him drawing a sketch, a sketch on the first piece of paper that passes through his hands. And that this already has all the elements of that potential success. If instead we analyze the history of the Thonet model n. 14, we see that it was not so. The success of this model does not have an explanation exclusively in its design, in its production technology. So much so that the number 14 chair will be continuously perfected for over 25 years reaching perfection only at the beginning of the eighties.The success is the sum of a set of actions that Thonet puts into practice in a modern way: knowledge of the material and technology of processing, distribution and organization of factories, packaging, marketing, distribution of points of sale and direct and fast communication between these and the parent company. It is difficult to find a prevalent aspect in this successful product.The integrated quality of this chair is in fact the sum of the individual qualities of all the processes of an industrial experience of excellence, unique and perhaps unrepeatable.
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German cabinetmaker Michael Thonet dreamt about designing a chair that could be mass-produced and sold at an affordable price. After years of technical experiments he finally succeeded and the No.14 was launched in 1859; the first piece of furniture to be both good-looking and inexpensive. The chair appealed to everyone and by 1930 fifty million had been sold! The No.14 has been in continuous production since then. What is it about this simple chair that makes it so special?
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The No. 14 chair is the most famous chair made by the Thonet chair company. Also known as the bistro chair, it was designed by Michael Thonet and introduced in 1859. It is made using a unique steam-bending technology, known as bentwood, that required years to perfect. With its affordable price and simple design, it became one of the best-selling chairs ever made. Some 50 million No. 14s were sold between 1859 and 1930, and millions more have been sold since. Thonet’s No. 14 was made of six pieces of steam-bent wood, ten screws, and two nuts. The wooden parts were made by heating beechwood slats to 100 °C (212 °F), pressing them into curved cast-iron moulds, and then drying them at around 70 °C (158 °F) for 20 hours.[3] The chairs could be mass-produced by unskilled workers and disassembled to save space during transportation, an idea similar to flat pack IKEA furniture. Later chairs, as illustrated here, were made of eight pieces of wood: two diagonal braces were added between the seat and back, to strengthen this hard-worked joint.The design was a response to a requirement for cafe-style chairs. The seat was often made of woven cane or palm, because the holes in the seat would let spilt liquid drain off the chair. Chair No 14 is still produced by Ton and by Thonet (as 214).
Chair The number 14 is built in only 6 pieces; travel disassembled and with a dozen screws is assembled in stores in various countries. The price list is so low that it is the equivalent of the cost of three dozen eggs or a liter and a half of “good house wine�.
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Stool 60, Alvar Aalto Artek’s Stool 60, designed by Alvar Aalto, is one of the icons of Finnish furniture design. Aalto stool is still today a beautiful, genius product, whose simple shape will always be modern.
The 60 stools are perfect extra chairs, easily stackable as a beautiful tower when they are not needed. At the same time, Aalto stool can be used as a small table, for instance next to an armchair or in the bedroom. Aalto’s three-legged Stool 60 was presented for the first time in 1933 and it was a sensation in the design world of its time. The stool’s revolutionary L-leg structure was a major boost for all the modern Scandinavian design. To bend the leg of Aalto’s stool, the same technique is still in use: a piece of straight, solid birch was sawn open at the end in the direction of the fibres, forming the shape of a fan. Thin pieces of plywood were then glued in the grooves. This structure makes it possible to bend the wood by heating or steaming the desired angle and when dry, it will have a very strong texture that can be easily joined to the seat. Aalto helped pioneer the groundbreaking process of bending wood, and applied it in creating the legs of his three-legged stool. The design allowed the seats to be stacked easily on top of one another, taking up far less storage space. Utilising birch wood, one of the most common broad-leafed trees in Finland, first saw cuts were made into the L-leg planks of wood, before a process that bent them to a 90-degree angle using heat and steam. Aalto’s designs were created for all to enjoy, and many of them appear in Finnish homes. Helping facilitate this is Artek, the furniture company that Aalto established in 1935 with his wife Aino, visual arts promoter Maire Gullichsen and art historian Nils-Gustav Hahl. Also commemorating its 80th anniversary, the company introduced a series of special edition Stool 60s produced by various well-known architects and designers, and brought back a range with vintage coloured tops.
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“It was just genius,” says Timo Penttilä, from Artek 2nd Cycle, a branch that deals in recycled and vintage Artek furniture. “It was revolutionary back then and it has stood the test of time. There are many words to describe it: simple, beautiful, functional.” “If we have a party at home, we have a seat for everybody,” he smiles. “Some people who work here buy one stool every year. My colleague Antti has around 15. Or maybe he has more, but he isn’t telling how many.”
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Alvar Aalto
Alvar Aalto (1898-1976) is probably the most famous Finnish architect and designer in the world. In 1921 Alvar Aalto got the Diploma of Architecture at the Helsinki Institute of Technology and his career as an architect started. One of the most important works he was commissioned was the planning of the tuberculosis sanatorium in Paimio, Finland. This project meant also the beginning of Aalto’s career as a furniture designer – in fact, this was the first building planned by Aalto which was entirely furnished with pieces of furniture designed by Aalto himself – including the lighting as well. Other important projects completed by Alvar Aalto are the Viipuri Municipal Library, Villa Mairea, La Maison Carré and the Finnish Pavilions for the 1937 Paris and 1939 New York World Fairs.
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Eames Lounge Chair Wood The Eames Lounge Chair Wood (LCW) is a low seated easy chair designed by husband and wife team Charles and Ray Eames.
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The entries Charles Eames & Eero Saarinen submitted into the Organic Furniture competition were designed with the seat and backrest joined together in a single ‘shell’. The plywood, however, was prone to crack when bent into the sharp curves the furniture demanded. The competition entries were covered with upholstery to hide these cracks. Through extensive trial and error, Charles and Ray arrived at an alternate solution: create two separate pieces for the seat and backrest, joined by a plywood spine and supported by plywood legs.[1] The result was a chair with a sleek and honest appearance. All of the connections were visible and the material was not hidden beneath upholstery.The seat was joined to the spine and legs with a series of four heavy rubber washers with nuts embedded in them (later these came to be called ‘shock mounts’).
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The shock mounts were glued to the underside of the seat, and screwed in through the bottom of the chair. The backrest was also attached using shock mounts. From the front and top the seat and back are uninterrupted by fasteners. The rubber mounts were pliable, allowing the backrest to flex and move with the sitter. This unique technology is also one of the chair’s greatest flaws. The shock mounts are glued to the wooden backrest, but may tear free for various reasons. A common response to this problem was to drill directly through the backrest and insert fasteners between the backrest and the lumbar support. This greatly devalues the chair, since it changes the original aesthetic of smooth, uninterrupted wooden forms. Even though the plywood chair was a compromise of the Eames’ vision to create a single shell chair it constituted a successful design.
Even though the plywood chair was a compromise of the Eames’ vision to create a single shell chair it constituted a successful design. In tandem with the LCW the Eames created a family of plywood chairs, tables, and folding screens. The all-plywood Dining Chair Wood (DCW) was constructed in the same manner as the LCW, but with a narrower seat, and longer legs to bring the seat up to dining height. The Lounge Chair Metal (LCM) and Dining Chair Metal (DCM) were constructed of the same plywood seats and backrests as the LCW & DCW set on a welded metal frame. The success of ‘The Plywood Group’ caught the attention of George Nelson, design director of Herman Miller. Nelson convinced D.J.DePree, the owner of Herman Miller, to hire the Eames Office as designers and bring on production of the Eames plywood furniture.
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The chair continues to be an icon of modern design. It is retailed around the world and prices for new units continue to rise. In its 1999 millennium edition, Time Magazine hailed the LCW as the greatest design of the 20th century. It is valued for its comfort as well as a status symbol. Original production models are highly valued by collectors. Herman Miller has offered the LCW in a variety of wood veneers and upholsteries over the molded maple inner plies. The dates below refer to Herman Miller/North American production.
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Controlling the fire in order to produce light and heat was one of the first great knowledge learned by mankind, and most likely the most useful one in the struggle for survival undertaken by the first hominids.The ability to control fire is one of
the main characteristics that distinguish man from other animals.The ability of the fire to generate light and heat has made possible migrations to colder climates and has given men the opportunity to cook food. The signals produced by fire - as well
as those obtained with the relative smoke constituted a primitive use of fire as a means of communication. The use of fire for clay cooking in ancient times led to the invention of Ceramics.
Wildfires occur when all of the necessary elements of a fire triangle come together in a susceptible area: an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as vegetation, that is subjected to sufficient heat and has an adeWquate supply of oxygen from the ambient air. A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation, because higher temperatures are required to evaporate any water within the material and heat the material to its fire point. Toa Heftiba
Unsplash
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Shou sugi ban Yakisugi is a traditional Japanese method of wood preservation. Yaki means to heat with fire, and sugi is cypress. It is also referred to in the West as shō sugi ban, which uses the same kanji characters but a different pronunciation. The ban character means “plank”.
Originally, Japanese carpenters looking for an artistic and unique finish that also improved durability used recovered driftwood from the coastlines of Japan. Because of the weathering process wood undergoes when it is subjected to the harsh environment of saltwater, surf, and sun, Japanese driftwood was prized for its unique appearance and durability in many different carpentry mediums. Driftwood that had undergone the appropriate weathering process was in short supply while demand in Japan for such a product was high. So the Japanese turned to another weathering process to achieve the durability and aesthetic. Fire in this case provided the preservative, and the unique and artistic dimension Japanese homeowners and craftsman were looking for. The practice of charring Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) commonly referred to in the United States as Japanese Cedar has been commonplace in Japan since at least the 1700s, and likely earlier. In the last 50-100 years the practice has fallen out of favor in Japan due to the advent
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of modern plastic or cement based siding, decking, and fencing. Additionally, wood in Japan has been in short supply for quite a while, and most wood has to be imported, increasing its cost. These factors caused Shou Sugi Ban to become a “lost” technique. In the early 2000s, Shou Sugi Ban was “rediscovered,” first in Japan, but then it quickly gained the attention of architects and designers in Europe and North America, and started showing up in custom designed houses and buildings. In the last few years its use has really exploded, for all the same reasons that it was popular in Japan hundreds of years ago. Charring cedar in the United States as a method of coloring, finishing and preserving siding and fencing is just catching on. Because Japanese Cedar is indigenous to Japan only, builders in North America have turned to American outdoor woods such as Western Red Cedar and Southern Cypress, and found that they work just as well, if not even better than the original Japanese Cedar.
The wood used can be leftin its natural state, but is usually finished with Tung or Penefin oil to preserve a natural finishover a longer period of time.
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CREDITS Free University of Bolzano - Bozen Faculty of Design and Art Bachelor in Design and Art - Major in Design WUP 18/19 | 1st semester foundation course Project Modul: Editorial Design Design by: Alessandro Mariotti Book | Wood Supervision: Project leader Prof. Antonino Benincasa Project assistants Maximilian Boiger, Gian Marco Favretto Photography: Aa Dil, Burst, Christin Hume, Clint Mckoy, Dan Sorensen, Eric Muhr, Federico Bottos, Jonah Pettrich, Ju On, Lennart Heim, Nathan Anderson, Nathan Dumlao, Osumi Yuso, Philip Swinburn, Ricky Kharawala, Toa Heftiba, Tom Rumble, Vincenzo Mariotti Paper: Cartamela 135 gr. Munken Pure 300 gr. Fonts: Futura Bembo Std Printed: Bozen-Bolzano, January 2019 Inside pages – Digital Print | Canon Cover – Digital Print | Canon
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, or it is defined more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere such as in the roots of trees or shrubs. In a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots. Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber.Wood has been used for thousands of years for fuel, as a construction material, for making tools and weapons, furniture and paper.