Malaysian Townplan Journal 5 by R&D, JPBD

Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Malaysia

FDTCP July 2007: Malaysian Townplan. Copyright ÂŠ 2007 by the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Malaysia. All Rights Reserved. No part of this journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any other means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing of the publisher. ISSN 1675-7629. Published in Malaysia by the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Malaysia.

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN

04 MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN This journal is a publication of the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Malaysia. Jalan Cenderasari, 50646 Kuala Lumpur. Tel : 603 - 2699 2146 / 2691 5472 Fax : 603 - 2693 3964 Webpage : http://www.townplan.gov.my E-mail : jamil@townplan.gov.my

Contents 04

Editor’s Jottings

Features

Performance Indicators To Evaluate Urban Parks From The Safety & Security Perspective

Applikasi GIS: Penilaian Destinasi Pelancongan Di Kelantan Selatan

Designing For A New Urban Image: Odaiba Waterfront City, Tokyo

Palaver

ADVISORS

Dato’ Mohd. Fadzil Hj. Mohd. Khir Kamalruddin Shamsudin

CHIEF EDITOR

Mohamed Jamil Ahmad

COORDINATOR

Sustainable Tourism Planning Approaches: Theory And Practice

Mohd. Nasir Shaari

EDITORIAL BOARD

Ramli bin Zulkiﬂi Lilian Ho Yin Chan Khairani binti Muhammad Dr. Zainah binti Ibrahim Suraya binti Badaruddin Sanisah binti Shaﬁe Toh Lay See

EDITORIAL STAFF

Urban Thingy

Review

Books: Editor’s Choice

Nor Aini binti Sulaiman Azlin bin Mujir Tuan Zuraihan binti Tuan Lah

EDITORIAL POLICY

The contents of this journal do not necessarily reﬂect the views of the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning nor are they ofﬁcial records. Manuscripts or articles submitted which do not conform to the conventions of the journal may be returned to the authors for revision. The Editorial Board will not take any responsibility for any information published in this journal for their authenticity.

40 46

Updates

Planning Updates

Blast from the Past

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN JULY 2007

VOL. 04 / ISSUE 01 / JULY 2007

EDITORS JOTTINGS

NAY, FLY TO ALTARS; THERE THEY’LL TALK YOU DEAD; FOR FOOLS RUSH IN WHERE ANGELS FEAR TO TREAD. An Essay on Criticism: Alexander Pope (1688-1744).

FOOLS RUSH IN WHERE ANGELS FEAR TO TREAD

Mohamed Jamil Ahmad jamil@townplan.gov.my

Another year another issue. This time around the editorial board of the journal has managed to rush in to produce yet another publication of townplan. It is hoped that the last commemorative issue entitled “What Heritage” has if not evoked some sentimental journey of the mind with its conservation pieces. Many moons have passed and under the bridge of time, water ﬂows with unending abatement. The editorial board heartily congratulates the former chief editor Mr Kamalruddin (KLDin) on his appointment as the Deputy Director–General 1 or in plain English he is now the Numero Dos! Thus the responsibility of being chief editor is now entrusted upon yours truly although I must confess that under no circumstances is that an easy job to partake. What do we have to showcase in this issue? Many things! “Urban thingy” is the subject of interest in Sanisah’s Palaver this time around. While urban is the major theme, tourism is also another main concern in the feature articles presented here. The subject of urban or urbanisation has since time immemorial been the classic planning topic as much as the urban-rural deﬁnition dichotomy, which will always be the eternal bone of contention. Period.

Cover Design

The performance indicators used in evaluating urban parks from the safety and security aspect in the cities is the subject of interest of FRIM’s Sreetheran Maruthaveeran in this issue’s feature article. A WYSIWYG approach can sometimes be more practical than the traditional must-research-first angle. Azizan Marzuki et al from USM meanwhile dwells on a tourism destination analysis using Geographical Information System application. Fadzli Zubi meanwhile takes us to Odaiba Waterfront City in Tokyo and concentrates on Designing a New Urban Image. The other feature article is sustainable Tourism Planning Approaches by Ahmad Puad Mat Som and colleagues of USM. It is also a coincidence that all the feature writers are men. Thus in a sentence this issue can be summarised as an urban-tourism–man thing! Where are the women? Town planners are sometimes fools! (including yours truly)–not bloody nor poor fools. Take for instance the recent flood calamity in Jakarta and Kuala Lumpur. While the press and others are quick to blame poor town planning as the probable cause and the subsequent inevitable public perception that town planners are the sole culprits, the lack of understanding by the medium of the whole town planning process and the players involved is to the brink of ad nauseum. Town planners should not take the blame lying down! It is foolish to be only a mild mannered Clark Kent. Stand up and fight!..... ……or else fools will rush in where angels fear to tread.

Mohamed Jamil Ahmad

Chief Editor

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FEATURES

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM PLANNING APPROACHES: Theory And Practice

1. AHMAD PUAD MAT SOM puad@usm.my, puadusm@gmail.com, 2. AZIZAN MARZUKI chik72@usm.my 3. ABDUL AZIZ HUSSIN abdaziz@usm.my

School of Housing, Building and Planning, University of Science Malaysia, Penang.

ABSTRACT Good planning and careful management of tourism are essential in order to optimise the beneďŹ ts of tourism and prevent or at least mitigate any problems that might be generated. A more responsible and responsive approach to tourism planning, singled out as being one of the key critical areas for success of a destination, is one that is multidisciplinary and continues to recognise the importance of formal planning. It is an approach that should be designed to encourage innovative and creative thinking, attempt to improve the overall understanding of tourism, recognise the political aspects of planning, speculate on the future as an essential background for current planning and consider broadly based qualitative considerations (instead of viewing all decision-making as resource allocation). There is a growing awareness that the efďŹ ciency and effectiveness of tourism planning comprises advances in tourism planning theory and practice. Hence, in recognising the fact that tourism planning is still looking for its own approach, body of knowledge and relationship with other better disciplines, this paper attempts to identify and critically appraise the prevailing practice and approaches to tourism planning in Malaysia.

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INTRODUCTION

Planning for tourism is as important as planning for any type of development in order for it to be successful and not create problems. Inskeep (1991) acknowledges that good planning and careful management of tourism are essential in order to optimise the benefits of tourism and prevent or at least mitigate any problems that might be generated. Mill and Morrison (1998) argue that five basic purposes of tourism planning are identifying alternative approaches, adapting to the unexpected, maintaining uniqueness, creating the desirable and avoiding the undesirable. The tourist destination has two choices: (1) react to changes after they occur; or (2) develop a method or plan to assess the present situation, and select an appropriate course of action to make the most of available opportunities. There are many good reasons for tourism planning. Gunn (1994) suggests five basic reasons: • Tourism development has both negative and positive impacts. • Tourism is more competitive than ever before, and there has been a proliferation in the promotion of tourism destinations. • Tourism is a more complicated phenomenon than it was previously thought to be. • Tourism has damaged many natural and cultural resources. • Tourism affects everyone in a community, and all people involved in tourism should participate in the tourism planning process. The negative and positive impacts of tourism are well demonstrated through the ‘destination life cycle’ concept (Butler, 1980; Butler and Waldbrook, 1991; Getz, 1992), which suggests that the evolution of all destination areas follow several predictable stages: exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation, decline and rejuvenation. Butler’s (1980) concept of tourist area life cycle evolves from discovery through development and eventually declines and the types of visitors at the exploration stage are different from those at the consolidation or stagnation stage. The model is neither specific with regard to actual tourist numbers nor to its time horizon, thus the judgement of where a

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destination is situated in the life cycle is impossible to make. It is not really a planning tool, but its main strength is that it enables tourism planners to understand the tourism system and the potential of the destination area to wander through a boom and a bust cycle. Similarly, Plog (1973) proposes that tourist destination areas go through cycles based on the types of tourists they tend to attract, suggesting that all destination areas eventually decline. Plog states that those tourist destinations can carry with them the potential seeds of their own destruction if they allow themselves to become over-commercialised and lose their unique qualities that attracted tourists in the ﬁrst place. However, this has not always been the case. With good planning and imagination, older tourist destinations have been maintained and in some cases revived, and the planning approaches now being applied are aimed at maintaining the continued vitality of newly developed destinations (Inskeep, 1991). In other words, new areas can be planned to allow for future ﬂexibility of development and older tourism areas can be planned for revitalisation.

APPROACHES TO TOURISM PLANNING

Tourism planning operates at various levels, with each level focusing on a different degree of specificity. Although not always possible to achieve, planning should be prepared in sequence from the general to the specific, because general levels provide the framework and guidance for preparing specific plans (Inskeep, 1991). Furthermore, according to Inskeep, the general approach being applied to planning is a continuous process and must be flexible, depending on changing circumstances, but still seek to achieve the basic development objectives. As part of the flexibility approach, planning should be done incrementally and with continuous monitoring and feedback on effects of previous development and evaluation of new trends, both of which may influence decision making within the next stage of development. With reference to planning for tourism, it is useful to make a distinction

between developed and developing countries (Lickorish and Jenkins, 1997). In most developed countries, there is no formal tourism planning mechanism and whatever planning is done is usually incorporated into regional rather than national planning. Planning at national level is usually a function of the size of the country and its tourist resources, so it would be virtually impossible to plan for tourism development in the USA and may be even in the UK. In developing countries, on the other hand, development planning is a wellestablished practice, normally based on five-year development plan periods. Where tourism is important in a country, for example in Malaysia, then it is usual to find a chapter devoted to the tourism sector in the national plan. According to Gunn (2002), experience with tourism planning demonstrates that even though the goals may be similar, there are differences in objectives and processes from the macro to the micro scale. The most popular today is at the site scale – individual property development for hotels, restaurants, resorts, roads and attractions. However, when tourism functions are better understood, it becomes clear that there are many opportunities for better tourism success by planning at the scale of the destination zone, here defined as a community (or several) and the surrounding area. In order to determine greatest potential for a larger area, a regional scale (nation, province, state) of planning is needed. Even though planning is slightly different at these separate scales, integrating tourism development at all scales holds greatest promise for guiding development towards the desired goals. Getz (1987) observes that there are four traditions to tourism planning - boosterism, an economic-industry approach, a physical-spatial approach and a community-oriented approach, while Hall (2002) has recognised that a fifth approach now exists – sustainable tourism planning (see Table 1). Sound tourism planning is obviously essential because planning can ensure tourist development has the ability to realise the advantages of tourism and reduce the disadvantages. Good

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Table 1: Tourism Planning Approaches: Assumptions and Problem Deﬁnitions Planning tradition

Underlying assumptions and related attitudes

Deﬁnition of the tourism planning problem

Boosterism

• Tourism is inherently good • Tourism should be developed • Cultural and natural resources should be exploited • Industry as expert • Development deﬁned in business/corporate terms

• How many tourists can be attracted and accommodated? • How can obstacles be overcome? • Convincing hosts to be good to tourists

Economic

• Tourism equal to other industries • Use tourism to: create employment, earn foreign revenue, improve terms of trade, encourage regional development, and overcome regional economic disparities • Planner as expert • Development deﬁned in economic terms

• Can tourism be used as growth pole? • Maximisation of income and employment multiplier • Inﬂuencing consumer choice • Providing economic values for externalities • Providing economic values for conservation purposes

Physical/spatial

• Tourism as a resource user • Ecological basis to development • Tourism as spatial and regional phenomenon • Environmental conservation • Development deﬁned in environmental terms • Preservation of genetic diversity

• Physical carrying capacity • Manipulating travel pattern • Visitor management • Concentration or dispersal of visitors • Perceptions of natural environment • Wilderness and national park management • Designation of environmentally sensitive areas

Community

• Need for local control • Search for balanced development • Search for alternatives to ‘mass’ tourism development • Planner as facilitator rather than expert • Development deﬁned in socio-cultural terms

• How to foster community control? • Understanding community attitudes towards tourism • Understanding the impact of tourism on a community • Social impact

Sustainable

• Integration of economic, environmental, and sociocultural values • Tourism planning integrated with other planning processes • Holistic planning • Preservation of essential ecological processes • Protection of human heritage and biodiversity • Inter and intra-generational equity • Achievement of a better balance of fairness and opportunity between nations • Planning and policy as argument • Planning as process • Planning and implementation as two sides of the same coin • Recognition of political dimension of tourism

• Understanding the tourism system • Setting goals, objective, and priorities • Achieving policy and administrative co-ordination in and between public and private sectors • Co-operative and integrated control systems • Understanding the political dimensions of tourism • Planning for tourism that meets local needs and trades successfully in a competitive market place

Source: Hall (2002)

Table 2: Priority and Goals of Tourism Planning Planning tradition

Circumstances

Initial Needs

Goals

Demand Led Development

Destination offering suitable resources which need to match facility developments to particular market requirements

Market identiﬁcation selective development incentive

Economic beneﬁts leading to other development opportunity

Supply Led Development

Risk damage to vulnerable environment or socio-cultural resources by excessive or inappropriate use

Management and regulation of use

Conservation of resources long term sustainability of tourism

Diversiﬁcation of Demand

Decline or saturation of existing attractions. Need to create new products or alternative destinations

New product research, design, development and marketing

Extension of economic beneﬁts. Establishment of new images

Implementation of New Products

Development of proposal to implement a network of theme parks, parks,etc

Market identiﬁcation evaluation of regional and/or local impacts

Ascertaining attractions and feasibility proposed facilities

Reduction of leakages

Excessive growth, shortages leading to high importation of supplies

Phasing of development inter-sectoral coordination

Widening of economic beneﬁts Reduction of external dependency

Community recreation

Increasing urbanisation, encroachment of attractive landscapes, loss of amenities

Reservation of land, improved public access and facilities

Beneﬁts for local communities and domestic tourism

Source : Baud-Bovy & Lawson

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planning defines the desired result or goal and works in a systematic manner to achieve success, which would eliminate problems and provide user satisfaction (see Table 2). Getz (1986) has made a comparative review of models in tourism planning and concludes that they all have certain deficiencies in integrating tourism systems theory and the planning process. A review of tourism models suggests that tourism planning is predominantly projected and development orientated, based on problem-solving planning processes. What is generally absent is a link between development planning and systematic research and modelling, and tourism planning is often narrowly defined and lacks comprehensiveness. This is evident in many instances where tourism is considered the only viable economic alternative for future growth with limited natural resources for commercial development. Choy (1991, p. 328), for example, pointed out particular weaknesses in a selection of Pacific island tourism plans, mentioning failure to include social, cultural and environmental concerns in some plans and the lack of a ‘helpful body of knowledge’ for planners to use. Meanwhile, Hall (2002) argues that while the desirability for tourism planning is generally accepted, the most effective form and method of planning remains a contested concept. The consequences of tourism development are wide ranging and often unpredictable. As a result, planning can often only articulate concerns or uncertainties; society must guide planners in assessing their acceptability. Haywood (1988) further demonstrates that the practical challenge for tourism planners is to match the planning approach to the needs of the community. Planning, as currently practiced, cannot help but be ad hoc, informal, non-rational and concerned with values and power. In contrast, planning theory is deliberate, rational and sequential.

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TYPOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF TOURISM PLANNING

Tosun and Jenkins (1998) define tourism planning as a process based on research and evaluation. In the process, tourism seeks for optimum contribution to host community and tourists, and maintained the quality of destination areas. The definition explains about general goals of tourism development of gaining the benefit to community and also protects and conserves the environment. The destination areas remain as the most important component in tourism because this is the place where the attraction places are. Another reason is, destination areas also indirectly helping other components such as transportation, services and information rise up. According to Gunn (1986), destination areas become the pulling factor for visitor to visit certain places and other components will benefit the growth significantly. To be more precise, Miossec’s (1976; In Pearce (1989) model of tourist development elaborates the evolutions and typologies of attraction places development. Miossec’s model of tourist development focused on structural evolution of tourist region through time and space (Figure 1). Pearce (1989; p. 16) recognise this model as ‘the clearest and most explicit conceptualisation of the process of tourism development’. The early phases of 0 and 1 show just a little or no tourism development at all. At that time, the places are not recognised as destination areas and the economic activities still not involve with tourism until the first resort is build. Significantly, others resorts are established later (phase 2), as tourist numbers are increased and the awareness of tourist destination has spread up. At this time, local attitudes towards tourism will change due to their experiences, and the consequent can be either positive or negative in acceptance or the demand for planning policy and control or the limit of tourism development (phase 3 and 4). Accordingly, tourists will be more aware of destinations attractions and facilities and it will bring the hierarchy and specialisation among each resort in the region. Finally, the development will reach saturation level but the region is characterised by a clear hierarchy with a strong tourism image. Moreover, the model shows how the evolution of every destination areas start and the process involved as long as the consequent of the development. As a result, Pearce (1989) identify several useful points in Miossec’s model as follows: 1. It embodies a dynamic element; the development of the region through time space. The spatial evolution is crucial in analysing the past, present and future development. 2. It attempts an overview from the destination evolution; changes in behaviour of the tourists and local citizen are related to the growth of resorts and the expansion of transport network.

FEATURES Figure 1: Model of Tourist Development

Source: Miossec (1976; in Pearce 1989)

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Figure 2: Integrated Systems Model of Tourism Theory and Practice

Problems identiﬁcation and solutions Goals to pursue Problems to solve/avoid

Controlling the tourism system Problem solving processes

Understanding the tourism system Research and theory

Goal formulation

System description inventories Typologies classiﬁcations

Projection and evaluation of goals

System modelling (descriptive and explanatory) whole system sub-systems impacts

CONTINUOUS

Evaluation and selection of alternatives

System projection Forecasting alternative futures

Control/implementation

Control strategies needed to obtain desired futures

Evaluation and feedback

Feedback

Source : Getz (1986)

Table 3: Malaysia’s International Tourist Arrivals and Receipts (1987-2005) Year

Tourist arrivals

Tourist receipts (MYR million)

1987

3,358,983

1988

3,623,636

1,795 2,012

1989

4,846,320

2,803

1990

7,445,908

4,500

1991

5,847,908

4,283

1992

6,016,209

4,595

1993

6,503,860

5,066 8,298

1994

7,197,229

1995

7,468,749

9,175

1996

7,138,452

10,354

1997

6,210,921

9,699

1998

5,550,748

8,580

1999

7,931,748

13,000

2000

10,200,000

17,300

2001

11,700,000

19,100

2002

13,290,000

25,781

2003

10,580,000

21,291

2004

15,700,000

29,751

2005

15,430,000

31,954

Source: Sharif (2002), GOM (2001, 2006).

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Pearce (1989) also criticises this model for not explored on the question of public participation in development process and the actor involved in development because it is not clear, who will become the developer, private or public sector, local people or foreigners. However, since this model explains tourism development typologies and also interaction between the host and guest, it might be useful for the town planners’ references. As the town planning approaches interact with physical elements, the destination evolution has at least pictured the role and challenge faced by town planners in tourism planning and development process. Getz (1986) through his integrated systems model (Figure 2) urges the planners to understand the system through describing and modelling its dimensions and the inter-relationships among its components. Implementing the integrated system model required three elements, considerable research, planning expertise and resources. The integrated system model modiﬁed typical development-planning model by includes the description, the modelling, the projection and the implementation of control strategies (right branch). Getz (1986) stated;

‘Model of the whole system serves to encourage comprehensiveness and general impact model direct planner to anticipate general consequences of tourism development’. The model proposed that tourism planning should be more scientiﬁc and tourism planners should include social, economic and environmental perspectives in their practise.

TOURISM PLANNING IN MALAYSIA

Tourism was virtually unknown in Malaysia until the late 1960s. In the

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1970s, the government’s involvement in tourism development was initiated to accomplish several development objectives such as increasing foreign exchange earnings, increasing employment and income levels, fostering regional development, diversifying the economic base and increasing government revenue (Khalifah and Tahir, 1997). During this period, the emphasis was on the provision of basic tourism infrastructure, and the government played a central role and at times engaged as entrepreneur and guarantor for overseas investment (Jenkins, 1994). In the 1980s, more incentives were given for the development of new accommodation, visitor centre facilities, manpower and greater participation of native Malays in the tourism industry (GOM, 1981, 1986). The participation of the private sector in tourism development was encouraged through various incentives, while the government continued to develop certain facilities and locations where the private sector was reluctant to venture (Khalifah and Tahir, 1997). Even when private- or voluntary-sector management was involved, public agencies generally retained overall responsibility or provide operating funds, land and capital (Veal, 2002). During the Fifth Malaysia Plan 19861990, the development of secondary tourist nodes, especially the coastal resorts, was also emphasised, in addition to developing primary tourist nodes such as Kuala Lumpur and Penang (Wong, 1990). The establishment of the Ministry of Tourism and Culture in 1987 acknowledged the important economic contribution of tourism to the country. It was renamed the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism (MOCAT) in 1990. Since then, the industry has had full support in terms of funding, planning, coordination, regulation and enforcement (Musa, 2000). Government commitment to the tourism industry is also reﬂected in increased spending in the development of tourism infrastructure, marketing and promotions during each Malaysia Plan, from RM17.2 million in the Second Malaysia Plan to RM966 million in the Seventh Malaysia Plan (Hall, 1997; Khalifah and Tahir, 1997).

In the 1990s, the Seventh Malaysia Plan 1996-2000 provided for extensive development of tourism products, marketing and promotion, private-sector involvement and local participation (Hall, 1997). The economic crisis in 1997 and 1998 affected the industry, but concerted efforts by the public and private sectors and successful implementation of measures outlined in the National Economic Recovery Plan quickly revitalised the tourism industry (GOM, 2001). For the Eighth Malaysia Plan 2001-2005, the policy thrust is to achieve rapid tourism growth on a sustainable basis. Greater efforts will be undertaken to provide a wider variety of quality tourism products to stimulate tourism demand both internationally and domestically. In addition, effective promotional strategies in established and emerging markets will also be carried out continuously to capture a larger share of the tourism market (GOM, 2001). Tourism has become the second biggest foreign exchange earner and employs 102,833 people in the country (Tourism Malaysia, 1997). In 2000, arrivals reached a record of 10.2 million tourists, which surpassed the target by 3.7 million. In fact, tourist arrivals grow at an average rate of 7 per cent per annum to reach 15.4 million by 2005, and tourism receipts grow at an average annual rate of 9.5 per cent to reach almost RM32 billion in 2005 (GOM, 2006) (see Table 3). The elevation of Tourism Ministry’s status as a single portfolio ministry, after the 2004 post-election cabinet reshufﬂe, was a further boost to the tourism industry when the tourism portfolio was separated from Arts and Culture. Hence, the tourism sector will assume an even greater role in stimulating the future economic growth of the country, particularly during the Eighth and Ninth Plan periods.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The main objective of this research is to identify and critically analyse the prevailing practice and approaches to tourism planning in Malaysia. The study adopted the emic-study method by conducting in-depth interviews among ofﬁcers from government agencies and town and country planners in Kedah and Perlis, where the main ﬁeldwork had been conducted in Perlis State Park (PSP) and Ulu Muda.

However, it should be noted that additional interviews were conducted among town and country planners in Kuala Lumpur, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan to strengthen the data and to substantiate some claims made in the findings with regards to tourism planning practice in the country. In principle, informant samples for qualitative research tend to be relatively smaller and non-random, and the selection of interview informants is also driven by objectives other than generalisability (Kwortnik, 2003). The respondents are selected from a combination of criteria and snowball sampling to include people with experience of the phenomena being studied, on the assumption that ‘one wants to discover, understand, gain insight; therefore, one needs to select a sample from which one can learn the most’ (Merriam, 1988, p. 48). The researcher uses their knowledge to determine who or what study units are the most appropriate for inclusion in the study based on the potential study units’ knowledge base or closeness of fit to criteria associated with the study’s focus (Jennings, 2001), for examples, state planners on planning issues and state directors of government agencies on various implementation issues. The initial steps in data analysis involve methodical procedures to classify and organise data, and thematic analysis approach is used to organise this raw information. There are a number of competencies to use thematic analysis effectively: 1) pattern recognition is the ability to see patterns in seemingly random information, 2) openness and flexibility of the researcher to perceive the patterns, 3) planning and systems thinking that enable a person to organise his or her observations into a usable system, that others can use or the person can use consistently at other times, and 4) relevant knowledge to the area being studied (Boyatzis, 1998). In the first stage of thematic analysis, the researcher must be able to ‘sense themes’ or to recognise the codable moment. The next stage is to develop a coding scheme inductively and manually, which involves giving names to codes only when the notes and analysis start suggesting possible labels, in order to capture the essence of the observations and to organise

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concepts from the transcripts. The themes are then clustered into main headings, which are juxtaposed against one another to ensure they are conceptually distinct. These are further discussed in the section that follows.

FINDINGS OF RESEARCH

In general, tourism in Malaysia is a government-led industry. As mentioned earlier in the paper, the industry, as the second biggest foreign exchange earner, continues to receive full support from the government due to important economic contribution of tourism to the country. Visit Perlis Year 2003-2005 and Perlis State Park (PSP), in particular, are examples of government-initiated tourism products, and these initiatives are to accomplish several development objectives such as increasing state government revenue, diversifying economic base and generating job opportunities. Lickorish and Jenkins (1997) argue that tourism planning in developing countries is normally based on fiveyear development plans. This is the case in Malaysia where a chapter is devoted to the tourism sector in the long-term plan, as tourism gains prominence in the country’s economy in recent decades. The plan approach is also sectoral and development orientated, such as the formulation of National Ecotourism Plan and Rural Tourism Master Plan. Generally, tourism planning in this country is also inseparable from politics. There are many examples of tourism plans that are initiated by political masters, particularly in Ulu Muda because Kedah is the home state of the former Prime Minister for over two decades. For example, Haywood (1988), recognises the importance of formal planning and its political aspects, especially power inside and outside the tourism industry. The literature (Styles, 1971; Whitehead, 1976; Healey, 1983) frequently claims that planning is characterised by a high degree of political sophistication, and the confusion regarding its function is closely linked with the political process in which it operates. The findings also disclose that assessment is another conventional approach to tourism planning, particularly when planners are responding to specific tourism interest

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or the needs of particular groups in the community (Veal, 1963). Gua Kelam in PSP, however, is turned into a recreational and tourist spot by coincidence. Due to its unique features, Gua Kelam, at the site scale development (Gunn, 2002), is transformed into a popular tourist destination through a landscaping project that beautified the surrounding area. This is in line with Mill and Morrison’s (1998) argument that among the basic purpose of tourism planning is to adapt to the unexpected, to create the desirable, and to maintain uniqueness. Meanwhile, the findings indicate that there are many examples of failed tourism projects in the country due to absence of feasibility studies, improper planning and a poor maintenance culture. This is in contrast with Inskeep’s (1991) emphasis that good planning and management are essential to maximise the benefits of tourism and to promote orderly development. It also indicates that the tourist destination fails to react to changes as they occur and to develop an alternative approach (Mill and Morrison, 1998), especially when the area is over-commercialised, underused for a significant period of the year or loses its unique qualities that attracted tourists in the first place. It is also necessary for the government to provide basic infrastructure and tourism facilities before private sector can play an active role in tourism. Khalifah and Tahir (1997) claim that the government continued to develop certain facilities and locations where the private sector was reluctant to venture. Even when the private sector is involved, public agencies or state government generally retain overall responsibility (Veal, 2002). The participation of the private sector in tourism development is encouraged through various incentives, and in the case of Ulu Muda, investors were offered cheap land to build resorts by the state government. However, their viability is dependent upon continuous support from the state government because tourism industry in Ulu Muda is frequently affected by natural hazard such as the drought season. In a similar argument, Veal (1963) acknowledges that effective tourism planning requires close links between private and public organisations.

Ideally, tourism planning in the enterprise stage is a private-sector function, but in Perlis, on the contrary, private sector involvement in tourism is still lacking. It is shown in the ﬁndings that successful tourism should be treated as a basic economic sector, not as a secondary sector. This is true because tourism planning should be supported by a holistic system approach, taking into consideration the social, economic and physical characteristics of an area (Murphy, 1985). Furthermore, as tourism industry is becoming a more complicated phenomenon than ever before, tourism products need to be continually improved to remain competitive and viable. In a related development, it is interesting to highlight that the overall planning approach in Malaysia is urban-biased. The two main reasons are: i. the territory of the local authorities is within urban areas, and built-up areas of local plans are also within urban areas, and ii. as a developing country, the best approach to accelerate growth and development is through urbanisation and industrialisation. It is the urban area that has factors of production to sustain the economy. Planning applications generally concentrate on traditional kind of development such as residential, commercial and industrial. In a similar argument, the literature (Goh, 1991) also acknowledges that rapid growth has always been the policy thrust and intended strategy in New Economic Policy (NEP), National Development Policy (NDP), Outline Perspective Plans (OPP) and Five-Year National Development Plans. As a result, it is alleged by some planners that rural planning has been neglected. There is no proper planning for rural areas, and many of these areas have been subjected to resource exploitation to accelerate development. One typical example is the Rural Growth Centre, which has been developed in a similar manner to an urban area. The development is conﬁned to roadsides, and the area is gradually transformed into a small town. Nevertheless, National Physical Plan has recently been drafted to guide

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overall physical planning of the country including rural areas. Rural planning and, specifically the development of rural tourism, have been given serious emphasis in Rural Tourism Master Plan, which was drafted in 2001 (see Section 5.2). Future Tourism Planning Approaches In spite of the fact that there is no consensus on the format and content of future planning approaches, it is, nevertheless, possible to observe that agreement is being created around several critical areas which will decisively encompass a more unanimous planning approach that is likely to emerge in the near future (Costa, 2001). Amongst the most important areas that will support the future planning paradigm (or approaches), the following may be cited. Firstly, policies should no longer be produced in ‘laboratory atmospheres’, and should not be designed by only professionals. Planning is to be seen as a social constructive process that is supported by a holistic (system) approach, taking into account the social, economic and physical characteristics of a place (Mill and Morrison, 1985; Murphy, 1985). Moreover, Martin and Uysal (1990) argue that each stage in the destination life cycle will reveal different capacity thresholds and requires distinct policy responses. Secondly, there is a growing awareness that the efficiency and effectiveness of tourism planning comprises not only advances in tourism planning theory and practice, but also improvement in the organisational framework within which decisions are designed and put into practice (Costa, 1996). Effective and efficient organisations demand lateral (and not hierarchical) interaction, better coordination of the tourism stakeholders, and closer links between private, public and non-profit organisations (Amabile et al., 1996; Drucker, 1998). Research on network, collaboration and partnership theory published in the field during the 1990s is a good example of how academics are becoming sensitive to this matter (Healey, 1990; Cappellin and Batey, 1993; Jamal and Getz, 1995; Costa, 1996; Hall, 1999). Academics have

already realised that one of the cornerstones of tourism planning in the future will be how to allow ideas to escape from institutional boundaries, i.e., how to escape from dominance in our present structures (Forester, 1989; Healey, 1990). Thirdly, planning should become an activity mainly oriented towards bringing knowledgeable solutions into the core of the decision-making and decision-taking processes as well as in coordinating all the actors involved in the planning process (‘mediation’). In a world of increased competitiveness, ‘power’ will no longer be based on its traditional forms, i.e. ‘wealth’ and ‘violence’, but instead on ‘knowledge’ (Tofﬂer, 1990). The construction of knowledgeable solutions entails the concepts of ‘lateral thinking’ (Roberts, 1974) and the idea that planning has to be designed bit by bit according to the actors’ creativity and availability of resources (Healey, 1990). This situation cannot be disassociated with the characteristics of the organisational structures responsible for the planning process set up for that purpose. Fourthly, policies have to be supported by public participation (inclusive planning) (Darke, 1990; Healey, 1990) because increased levels of public participation may lead to the development of more knowledgeable, creative and better adjusted policies.

Fifthly, planners should look for the right balance between substantive and procedural forms of planning (Faludi, 1978). Nowadays, planners are faced with the dilemma of having to base their policies on rigorous studies (substantive planning), and, at the same time, they are demanded to design policies more rapidly and in accordance with markets and the citizens (procedural planning). The creation of working groups where planners, representatives of the tourism industry and citizens, i.e. stakeholders of the tourism development process, can actively participate in the decision-making and decision-taking process seems to be one of the possible ways forward to deal with this matter. Finally, planners have to be aware that globalisation is decisively affecting the way in which policies are designed and put into practice (Capellin and Batey, 1993; Ohmae, 1995; Cooper, 1999). Strategies have to be designed by taking into account guidelines set both by national government and by other supranational organisations such as EU (European Union), GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) and NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement). Tourism actors have to look wisely for their partners, and alliances, and be aware of their competitors not only within the country’s borders but also abroad.

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FEATURES Biodata : AHMAD PUAD MAT SOM (DR) joined USM in June 2005 after completing his Ph.D. in the U.K. Prior to joining the institution, he worked in a few public-listed companies and non-profit organisations mainly in the fields of corporate planning, research and development, and training. His area of specialisation is in ecotourism and nature tourism, but his research interest covers a wider area such as tourism planning and development, border and regional tourism, community participation in tourism, and tourism marketing. AZIZAN MARZUKI joined USM in November 2006 after submitting his Ph.D. in Australia. Prior to joining the institution, he worked with the Federal Town and Country Planning Department from 1993 until 2001. His area of specialisation is in tourism and urban planning, but his research interest covers a wider area such as tourism planning and development, urban and regional planning, and public participation in decision making. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR ABDUL AZIZ HUSSIN is an advocate and solicitor of the High Court of Malaya. He served various government bodies and companies, including Road Transport Department (1978-79), Kelantan Selatan Development Authority (KESEDAR) and its four subsidiary companies as the Legal Adviser (1984-1996) and Administrative Division Manager (KESEDAR)(1997-1999). He was a part-time criminal law and construction law lecturer at the Universiti Malaya (1984-1985 & 2005), module writer, the Open University Malaysia (2006-2007), and Visiting Fellow, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (2005). He is currently teaching at the School of Housing, Building and Planning, University of Science Malaysia (USM) in Construction Law, Tourism Law, Housing Law and laws relating to development (since 1999). His academic qualifications including Law (LL. B.Hons., LL.M), Public Administration (DPA) and Management (Dip. M. Mgmt. & MSc. Project Management). He is an avid writer, contributing 32 books in law, management and Islamic history. He also writes articles for journals like Journal of HBP, MATRA, KANUN, HABITAT, The Malaysian Surveyor, International Journal of Construction Research, Planning Malaysia, etc. He is also active in research and consultancy including for the Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Department of Environment, etc.

References : 1.

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Amabile T., Conti R., Coon H., Lazenby J., Herron M. (1996). Assessing the work environment for creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 39 (5), 1154-1184. BaudBovy, M. and Lawson, F. (1998). Tourism and Recreation: Handbook of Planning and Design. Oxford: Architectural Press. Boyatzis, R.E. (1998). Transforming Qualitative Information: Thematic Analysis and Code Development. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Butler, R.W. (1980). The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle of Evolution: implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24 (1), 5-12. Butler, R.W. and Waldbrook, L. (1991) A New Planning Tool: The Tourist Opportunity Spectrum. Journal of Tourism Studies, 2(1), 2-14. Cappellin, R. and Batey, P.W.I (1993) Regional Networks, Border Regions and European Integration. London: Pion. Choy, D.J.L. (1991). Tourism Planning: The Case for Market Failure. Tourism Management, 12, 313-330.

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15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

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Cooper, C. (1999). Tourism in globalised society. In: Proceedings from the Tourism Industry and Education Symposium, Jyvaskyla, Finland, 33-46. Costa, CMM (1996). Towards the improvement of the efﬁciency and effectiveness of tourism planning and development at the regional level. Planning, organisations and networks. The case of Portugal. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Surrey. Costa, CMM (2001). An Emerging Tourism Planning Paradigm? A Comparative Analysis Between Town and Tourism Planning. International Journal of Tourism Research, 3, 425-441. Darke, R. (1990). Introduction to popular planning. In: J. Montgomery and A. Thornley (eds) Radical Planning Initiatives: New Directions for Urban Planning in the 1990s. Gower: Aldershot, 165-171.Drucker, P. (1998). The Discipline of Innovation. Harvard Business Review, November-December, 149-157. Faludi, A. (1978). Essays on Planning Theory and Education. Oxford: Pergamon. Forester, J. (1989). Planning in the Face of Power. Berkeley: University of California. Getz, D. (1986). Models in tourism planning towards integration of theory and practice. Tourism Management, 7 (1), 21-32. Getz, D. (1987). Tourism Planning and Research: Traditions, Models and Futures. In: Paper presented at The Australian Travel Research Workshop, Bunbury, Western Australia, 5-6 November. Getz, D. (1992). Tourism planning and destination life cycle. Annals of Tourism Research, 19, 752-770. Goh, B.L. (1991. Urban Planning in Malaysia: History, Assumptions and Issues. Petaling Jaya: Tempo Publishing (M) Sdn Bhd. GOM (Government of Malaysia) (1981). Fourth Malaysia Plan 1981-1985. Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer. GOM (Government of Malaysia) (1986). Fifth Malaysia Plan 1986-1990. Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer. GOM (Government of Malaysia) (2001). Eighth Malaysia Plan 2001-2005. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad. GOM (Government Of Malaysia) (2006). Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad. Gunn, C.A. (1994). Tourism planning: Basics, concepts, cases. Third Edition. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. Gunn, C.A. (2002). Tourism planning: Basics, concepts, cases. Fourth Edition. New York: Routledge. Hall, C.M. (1997). Tourism in the Paciﬁc Rim: Developments, Impacts and Markets. Second Edition. South Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman. Hall, C.M. (1999). Collaboration, strategies and partnerships: perspectives on their relevance to tourism. In: Proceedings from the Tourism Industry and Education Symposium, Jyvaskyla, Finland, 87-92. Hall, C.M. (2000). Tourism Planning: Policies, Processes and Relationships. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Hall, C. M. & Page, S. J. (2002) The geography of tourism and recreation: environment, place and space, London, Routledge. Haywood, K.M. (1988). Responsible and responsive tourism planning in the community. Tourism Management, 9(2), 105-118. Healey, P. (1983). Local Plans in British Land Use Planning. Urban and Regional Planning Series, Vol. 31. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Healey, P. (1990). Planning through debate. In: Proceedings from the Conference Planning Theory: Prospects for the 1990s, Oxford Polytechnic, Oxford, 2-5 April. Inskeep, E. (1991). Tourism Planning: An Integrated and Sustainable Development Approach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Jamal, T.B. and Getz, D. (1995). Collaboration Theory and Community Tourism Planning. Annals of Tourism Research, 22, 186-204.

30. Jenkins, C. L. (1994). Tourism in developing countries: the privatisation issue. In: A.V. Seaton et al. (eds) Tourism: The State of the Art. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 3-9. 31. Jennings, G. (2001). Tourism Research. Milton, Queensland: John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd. 32. Khalifah, Z. and Tahir S. (1997). Malaysia: tourism in perspective. In: F. Go and C.L. Jenkins (eds), Tourism and Economic Development in Asia and Australasia. London: Cassell, 177-196. 33. Kwortnik, R.J. (2003). Clarifying ‘Fuzzy’ Hospitality-management Problems with Depth Interviews and Qualitative Analysis. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Cornell University, April, 117-129. 34. Lickorish, L.J. and Jenkins, C.L. (1997). An Introduction to Tourism. Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann. 35. Martin, B. and Uysal, M. (1990). An Examination of the Relationship between Carrying Capacity and Tourism Life-Cycle: Management and Policy Implications. Journal of Environmental Management, 31, 327-333. 36. Mathieson, A. and Wall, G. (1982). Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts. Harlow, UK: Longman Scientific and Technical. Merriam, S.B. (1988). Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 37. Mill, R.C. and Morrison, A.M. (1985). The Tourism System: an Introductory Text. Third Edition. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. 38. Mill, R.C. and Morrison, A.M. (1998). The Tourism System: an Introductory Text. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 39. Murphy, P.E. (1985). Tourism: A Community Approach. London: Routledge. 40. Musa, G. (2000). Tourism in Malaysia. In: C.M. Hall and S. Page (eds) Tourism in South and Southeast Asia: Issues and Cases. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 144-156. Jabatan Perhutanan Negeri Perlis. 41. Ohmae, K. (1995). The End of Nation-State. The Rise of Regional Economies. How New Engines of Prosperity are Reshaping Global Markets. London: Harper-Collins. 42. Pearce, D. G. (1989). Tourist development, Harlow, Longman Scientific & Technical Plog, S.G. (1973). Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 14 (3), 13-16. 43. Roberts, M. (1974). An Introduction to Town Planning Techniques. London: Hutchinson. 44. Sharif, N. (2002). Developing scale to leisure resident attitudes towards impacts of tourism in Langkawi, Malaysia. PhD thesis, University of Strathclyde, United Kingdom. 45. Styles, B.J. (1971). Public Participation: A Reconsideration. Journal of Town Planning Institute, Vol. 57, April, 163-167. 46. Toffler, A. (1990). Power Shift. New York: Bantam. 47. Tosun, C. & Jenkins, J. (1998). The evolution of tourism planning in third world countries: a critique. Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4, 101-114. 48. Tourism Malaysia (1997). Annual Tourism Statistical Report. Kuala Lumpur: Tourism Malaysia. 49. Veal, A.J. (2002). Leisure and Tourism Policy and Planning. Second Edition. Wallingford: CABI Publishing. 50. Whitehead, P.T. (1976). Public Participation in Structure Planning. Town Planning Review, 47(4), October, 374-383. 51. Wong, P.P. (1990). Coastal resources management – tourism in Peninsular Malaysia. ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 7(2).

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PERFORMANCE INDICATORS TO EVALUATE URBAN PARKS FROM THE SAFETY & SECURITY PERSPECTIVE SREETHERAN MARUTHAVEERAN sreetheran@frim.gov.my Urban Greenspace Planning Unit Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Kepong, Selangor Darul Ehsan.

ABSTRACT In the excitement of transforming Malaysia into a Garden Nation through planting trees and establishing public parks around the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, special attention should also be given particularly to the assessment of green areas or open spaces by the Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL). However this cannot be done without setting appropriate targets and measurable standards of quality. The introduction of Performance Indicators, which requires the local authority to make arrangements to secure continuous improvement in the way in which they carry out their functions, offers an excellent opportunity to develop standards of care and meaningful measures of performance in their achievement. The essence of performance indicators is the continuous improvement in the quality of the services provided to public. It is therefore vital that local councils have a comprehensive baseline of performance against which they and the people they serve, can judge the progress being made. With this in view, a preliminary study was conducted to develop a set of performance indicators for urban parks in Kuala Lumpur, particularly from the safety and security aspect.

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INTRODUCTION

Parks and green spaces should be at the centre of the revitalisation of our towns and cities. Urban parks are great asset for cities and urbanites. According to Yuen (1995), an urban park is any public area of land set aside for aesthetic, educational, recreational or cultural use amidst essentially urban surroundings. Urban parks foster many valuable functions which can be categorised as social, environmental and economic importance. However people are questioning the safety and security of living in the city. In fact, safety and security is one of the six human needs besides physiological well-being (e.g. food and shelter), affection and sense of belonging (need to belong to a group or community), esteem (need to be accepted), self-actualisation (fulﬁlment of potential) and cognitiveaesthetic satisfaction (Maslow, 1954). The objective of the ‘Safe City’ concept is to work with the police and other city stakeholders to promote, develop and implement initiatives designed to prevent crimes against the society and anti-social behaviour and also towards minimising the fear of crimes in the city (Lam, 2000). Many existing parks are underused, in part because they are often seen as undesirable, threatening places where crimes frequently occur (Jacobs, 1961). Among urbanites’ range of psychological and behavioural reactions to crime includes distrusting others, avoiding particular places, taking protective action, changing their daily activities and participation in collective action (Miethe, 1995). The relationships between crime, the setting of the crime and the environment of the criminal’s background are long standing topics in sociological research (e.g., White 1932). Only recently have attempts been made to reﬁne the study of crime ecology by examining more precisely the settings in which criminal acts have occurred (e.g., Ley & Cybriwsky, 1974) and users’ perception of crime risk in different settings (Nasar, 1982). However such studies on crime ecology are conducted mostly in the western countries. The absence of good information, and the extensive press coverage given to some crimes occurring in public places like parks, have established possibly undeserved reputations for parks as high risk crime areas. These reputations discourage

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many potential site visitors from using and enjoying available recreation resources (Schroeder & Anderson, 1984).

opportunity to develop standards of care and meaningful measures of performance in their achievement.

Malaysian crime occurrence is comparatively small compared to other developed nations (Yong & Kho, 2004) Nevertheless, recent public concerns and outcry of snatch thefts and rape cases have prompted the government to tackle this issue head-on. Tan Sri Dato’ Dr. Lee Lam Thye, Vice President of Malaysian Crime Prevention Foundation (MCPF) has mentioned that almost everyday, at least one crime, anti-social behaviour or personal safety issue like street crime, snatch thefts, rape cases and so on takes place in Malaysia (Yong & Kho, 2004). Statistical data show that there is an average of 820 criminal cases for every 100,000 population, with the ﬁgure increasing day by day especially in property crimes (Berita Harian, 19 October 2004).

Performance indicators are statistics and other type of information which help you to judge how well a service is being delivered, how successfully it is meeting the needs it is supposed to meet and what it costs (Nicholson, 1993). Performance indicators can be used to regularly assess the delivery of existing services and the contribution of groups and individuals to that delivery (Nicholson, 1993).

Apart from preventing crime, safety aspects in urban parks particularly on the facilities should also be considered as part of the performance or quality of any parks. Open spaces like urban parks account for the majority of play spaces for children. This can range from formal areas to rough open land. At present these account for a signiﬁcant number of injuries to children but are not subject to any inspection regime. Poor quality parks can appear depressing, dirty and dangerous too. They can become neglected, with poorly maintained grass, broken-down seats and shelters covered in grafﬁti. Places like these drag the neighbourhood down. In the excitement of transforming Malaysia into a Garden Nation through planting trees and establishing public parks around the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, special attention should also be given particularly to the assessment of green areas or open spaces by the City Hall of Kuala Lumpur particularly from the safety and security aspect. However this cannot be done without setting appropriate targets and measurable standards of quality. The introduction of performance indicators, which requires local authorities to make arrangements to secure continuous improvement in the way in which they carry out their functions, offers an excellent

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

The essence of performance indicators is the continuous improvement in the quality of the services provided to customers. It is therefore vital that local councils have a comprehensive baseline of performance against which they and the people they serve, can judge the progress being made. It is also important to be able to intelligently assess whether improvement is being achieved quickly enough and identify performance trends as soon as possible. Performance indicators are fundamental to this process. At present, virtually there is no standard method or indicators to measure improvement in the quality of urban parks in Malaysia, yet such measurement is fundamental to the development of public parks and the monitoring of continuous performances from local authorities. For example, in England there are already indicators in the national suite of Best Value Performance Indicators which are relevant to parks and green spaces. Apart from that there is a great deal of support for the Green

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Flag Awards scheme in promoting quality standards. The Green Flag Award is the national standard for parks and green spaces in England and Wales. This discretionary award scheme began in 1996 as a means of recognising and rewarding the best green spaces in the country (National Audit Ofﬁce, 2006). It was also seen as a way of encouraging others to achieve the same high environmental standards, creating a benchmark of excellence in recreational green areas. The performance indicators for park services will provide a measurement

Instrument A structured interview protocol was developed for the in-park interview to ensure uniformity of coverage across the interviewers. The interviewer began by asking information about the person’s visits to the park (e.g. how often do they visit the park?). The questionnaire was designed to reveal how the park users feel about their safety and security in the park and what City Hall needs to look into in order to enhance the safety and security aspect in the park. Visitors then were asked to rate the importance of safety and security aspect which

(7:00a.m.–11.00am), afternoon (11:00a. m.-3.00pm) and evening (3:00p. m.–7:00p.m). The survey method, based on a detailed questionnaire, was designed to interview users within the park in which they felt at ease, by conducting a random sampling. The interviewers did not use the term ‘performance indicators’ during the survey, because it was thought the park users might not have a clear understanding of that term. Instead, a much simpler phrase such as ‘factors to improve the quality of urban parks’ was used.

RESULTS

14 indicators were identiﬁed and further divided into 3 sectors (Figure 1) following the sectors which have been endorsed by the National Council for Local Government for the “SAFE CITY” Programme in October 2004. Although 15 indicators (Table 1) were identiﬁed only those indicators with mean value 4 to 5 (very important – extremely important) were chosen as performance indicators.

standard for assessing the performance of city hall in park management system. It is also important to be able to intelligently assess whether the safety and security aspect is being achieved quickly enough and identify performance trends as soon as possible. With this in view, this study aims to develop a set of performance indicators for urban parks in Kuala Lumpur from the safety and security aspects within the park users’ perception.

METHODS

Study Area To achieve the research objectives, three urban parks in Kuala Lumpur were selected. These include Taman Tasik Permaisuri (Pemaisuri Lake Garden), Taman Tasik Perdana (Perdana Lake Garden) and Taman Tasik Titiwangsa (Titiwangsa Lake Garden). The choice of parks was based on the deﬁnition of urban parks given by the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia (JPBD).

City Hall needs to taken into account by using a 5-point numerical rating scale (1 = not important, 2 = slightly important, 3 = moderately important, 4 = very important and 5 = extremely important). The interviewer concluded by requesting additional descriptive information (e.g., marital status) from the participant. The Survey A survey was conducted from September to November of 2006 in all the three urban parks. A total of 420 park users (140 from each park) were interviewed on the importance of performance indicators and their park use patterns. Interviews were conducted by graduate students from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) who enrolled at Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) for their practical training for two months. Each of these students was briefed about the interview procedures by the researcher. Visitors at each park were surveyed on-site on both weekdays and weekend days in the morning

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Table 1: Mean Importance Rating by Park Users of the Performance Indicators for Safety and Security Aspect (n=420)

Performance indicators

Mean

Std. Deviation

Pathways (e.g no cracks, suitable for disable people)

4.84

.02

Play equipments

4.81

.02

Landscape treatment (e.g. hazard trees, grass not maintained, species selection, maintenance)

4.80

.02

Improved visibility of public toilets/pathways

4.80

.02

Security guards

4.74

.03

Security equipments (e.g. CCTV and Audio visual TV)

4.61

.04

Anti-social activities (e.g. grafﬁti, vandalism)

4.45

.04

Improved lighting

4.41

.03

Locking devices for motorcycles

4.40

.04

Setting-up safety and crime awareness signage

4.36

.03

Construction of bollard

4.21

.03

Brochures (Educational information)

4.17

.04

Setting-up public phones in parks

4.14

.03

Safety mirrors or reﬂectors

4.07

.03

Lockers for park users

3.99

.05

Note: Rating of safety and security importance: (1 = not important, 2 = slightly important, 3 = moderately important, 4 = very important and 5 = extremely important).

Fig. 1: Classiﬁcation of the Developed Performance Indicators According to Safe City Programme Sectors

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

PUBLIC AWARENESS STRATEGIES . Brochures on safety and security aspect

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PHYSICAL PLANNING & DESIGN STRATEGIES

TARGET HARDENING STRATEGIES

. Improved visibility along pathways . Improved visibility at toilets . Treatment of landscaping . Construction of bollards

. Provision of safe play equipments . Security guards Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) and Audio Monitors . Improved lighting . Locking devices . Setting-up security and crime awareness signage . Public phone . Safety mirrors and reﬂectors . Prohibition of anti-social activities (e.g. grafﬁti, vandalism)

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study has developed the performance indicators from the user perspective. This is because park provisions are meant for the public use, hence their needs should also be incorporated in the parks development process. Torkildsen (1992) highlighted that the performance of parks management not only depends on the administrative relationship, which is between central government, state government and local authority but should also include the consideration for users’ needs. In addition, the majority of local authorities have been actively implementing Local Agenda 21 that focuses on the public as the main stakeholder for the city. These indicators would indicate whether the parks in Kuala Lumpur show any progress towards achieving a quality urban park from the safety and security aspect. However further investigations needs to be conducted with the expert groups in Malaysia such as the town planners, landscape architects, architects and urban crime researchers before implementing it on the ground. With this in view, the second phase of this study which involves expert opinion on the performance indicators will be conducted.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author is greatly indebted particularly to Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL) who has allowed for the carrying out of this study in their urban parks and also to the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia (JPBD) and Malaysia Crime Prevention Foundation for providing the required information. Biodata : SREETHERAN, MARUTHAVEERAN is a research ofﬁcer with the Urban Greenspace Planning Unit, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM). He also has served as an editor at Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka (DBP) and as a lecturer in a private college before joining FRIM in 2003. He obtained his degree in Conservation Biology from Universiti Malaysia Sabah in 2000 and subsequently his M.Sc degree in Hazard Tree Management from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2002. Since obtaining his M.Sc, he has been involved in activities related to hazard tree management particularly for Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL). His current research interest lies in the area of built environment. At present he is conducting a study on developing performance Indicators to evaluate urban parks from the safety and security perspective and also on the perception of personal safety and preference on vegetation composition in urban parks by using photo images. Sreetheran has published articles locally and internationally. He is also the Deputy Coordinator for the Urban Forestry Division under IUFRO (International Union of Forest Research Organizations) and a certiﬁed Arborist.

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Berita Harian, 19 October 2004. Bottoms, A. E.1994. “Environmental Criminology”, in M. Maguire, R. Morgan & R. Reiner (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Criminology. Oxford University Press, pp. 69-74. Brantingham, P.J. & P.L., Brantingham (Eds.). 1991. “Environmental Criminology”. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Jacobs, J. 1961. The Life and Death of Great American Cities. New York: Vintage Books Lam, S.C. 2000. Kawasan Kajian: Bandar Baru Bangsar, Rumah Awam Sri Johor 4C, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur dan Taman Universiti, Skudai, Johor Bahru. Thesis Ijazah Sarjana Muda Perancangan Bandar dan Wlayah, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai. Ley, D. & Cybriwsky, R. 1974. The Spatial Ecology of Stripped Cars. Environment and Behaviour, 6: 53-68. Maslow, A. 1954. Motivation and personality. New York: Harper. Miethe, T. 1995. Fear and Withdrawal from Urban Life. Annals, AAPS (No. 539) May: 14-27. Nasar, J.L. 1982. A Model Relating Visual Attributes in the Residential Environment to Fear of Crime Jour. Of Environmental Systems, 11: 247-255 National Audit Ofﬁce. 2006. Enhancing Urban Green Space. Report by the controller and Auditor General, London, UK. Pp 86. Nicholson, N. 1993. Performance Indicators an Introductory Guide. The Local Government Management Board, UK. Pp 26 Schroeder, H.W and Anderson, L.M. 1984. Perception of Personal Safety in Urban Recreation Sites. Jour of Leisure Research, 16(2): 178-194. Torkildsen, G. 1992. Leisure and Recreation Management, 3rd Edition, Spoon Publication, London. White, R.C. 1932. The Relation of Felonies to Environmental Factors in Indianapolis. Social Forces, 10: 98-513. Yong, C.K and Kho, N.L. 2004. Safe City: Some Initiatives in Crime Prevention. Malaysian Townplan Vol. 1 (3):23-28.

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APPLIKASI GIS: Penilaian Destinasi Pelancongan Di Kelantan Selatan

1. AZIZAN MARZUKI chik72@usm.my 2. ABDUL GHAPAR OTHMAN ghapar@usm.my 3. ABDUL AZIZ HUSSIN abdaziz@usm.my 4. BADARUDDIN MOHAMED bada@usm.my School of Housing, Building and Planning, University of Science Malaysia, Penang.

ABSTRAK Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menilai potensi destinasi pelancongan semulajadi di Kelantan Selatan. Sebanyak 15 buah destinasi pelancongan yang bercirikan tarikan semulajadi terdiri daripada kawasan air terjun dan gua telah dipilih sebagai kes kajian. Karektor setiap destinasi dinilai bersandarkan kepada 23 indikator yang merangkumi nilai gandaan yang telah ditetapkan. Proses penilaian setiap destinasi pula dilaksanakan dengan menggunakan kaedah pemerhatian dan pemarkahan di lapangan semasa lawatan tapak ke tempat kajian dijalankan. Selepas itu, semua data yang diperolehi dimasukkan ke dalam applikasi sistem maklumat geograďŹ (GIS) untuk proses penilaian pemarkahan, analisis potensi dan pengkategorian destinasi. Hasil penilaian mendapati bahawa cuma 3 buah destinasi berada di dalam kategori pertama, 11 buah di dalam kategori kedua dan sebuah destinasi di dalam kategori ketiga. Kajian juga mendapati bahawa kebanyakan destinasi berpotensi tinggi namun terdapat masalah penjagaan yang serius dimana kebanyakan destinasi telah hilang kecantikannya akibat tidak terurus. Selanjutnya, telah dipaparkan dengan lebih terperinci bagaimana proses penilaian destinasi pelancongan dilaksanakan dengan menggunakan applikasi GIS. Juga turut dibincangkan tentang kelebihan dan potensi applikasi ini untuk digunakan di dalam kajian destinasi dan produk pelancongan khususnya.

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN

FEATURES PENGENALAN

Industri pelancongan secara umumnya melibatkan rangkaian industri yang menghasilkan perkhidmatan atau pengeluaran yang berbeza antara satu sama lain. Perbezaan tersebut bukan sahaja diukur dari segi perkhidmatan yang disediakan, tetapi berkaitan dengan lain-lain faktor saiz perkhidmatan, lokasi, keadaan persekitaran, fungsi, organisasi yang mengelolakannya dan kaedah pemasaran produk pelancongan. Dalam hal ini, produk pelancongan adalah aset utama yang memainkan peranan penting dalam membantu pembangunan industri pelancongan. Jesteru, ianya boleh dimaksudkan sebagai semua perkhidmatan yang diperlukan oleh para pelancong bermula daripada meninggalkan tempat tinggal mereka sehinggalah tamat percutian iaitu setelah kembali ke kediaman masing-masing. Daripada pelbagai jenis produk pelancongan yang ditawarkan seperti alam semulajadi, kebudayaan, acara dan buatan manusia, terdapat tiga komponen sokongan iaitu faktor tarikan, infrastruktur dan aksessibiliti yang berperanan penting untuk memenuhi keperluan dan kehendak pelancong. Kronologi terhadap tiga komponen tersebut melibatkan keputusan dan proses yang dilalui oleh pelancong untuk membuat pilihan tentang destinasi yang hendak dilawati, perkhidmatan yang diperlukan dan disusuli dengan tindakan dan proses yang perlu diambil. Seterusnya, berdasarkan kepada empat produk pelancongan utama iaitu alam semulajadi, kebudayaan, acara dan buatan manusia, aspek alam semulajadi telah difokuskan untuk dibincangkan dengan lebih lanjut di dalam artikel ini. Berasaskan kepada kajian kes di Kelatan Selatan, aspek alam semulajadi dinilai berasaskan kepada tiga komponen utama iaitu faktor ďŹ zikal, infrastruktur dan aksessibiliti.

PENILAIAN DESTINASI PELANCONGAN SEMULAJADI

Menurut Mitchell (1989), Moss dan Nickling (1980), destinasi pelancongan semulajadi boleh dinilai berdasarkan tarikan atau kualiti pemandangan menggunakan teknik penilaian lanskap berasaskan tiga pendekatan, iaitu: 1. Bancian lanskap, melibatkan pasukan pakar mengenalpasti

kawasan yang mempunyai nilai pemandangan yang tinggi berdasarkan kerja di tapak, analisis fotograďŹ dan lain-lain maklumat. 2. Menerusi inventori ciri-ciri lanskap. 3. Mengenalpasti aspek alam semulajadi yang menarik. Litton (1968), pula mengkelaskan lanskap sebagai entiti ďŹ zikal dan menggunakan pendapat pakar untuk menilai kualiti pemandangan. Dalam kajian di Scotland, beliau membahagikan sistem penilaian kepada 2 kategori, iaitu bentuk mukabumi dan gunatanah. Sistem penilaian bernombor diaplikasikan untuk setiap kategori dan pelanpelan dihasilkan. Leopold (1969) pula menggunakan kaedah bancian secara kuantitatif. Beliau mengambilkira faktor ďŹ zikal, biologi dan faktor manusia bagi setiap estatika lanskap dan menghasilkan 46 kriteria untuk menjelaskan ciri-ciri lanskap dalam kajian lembah-lembah sungai di Idaho, Amerika Syarikat. Kaedah matrik turut digunakan untuk menilai impak alam sekitar dengan menggabungkan senarai aktiviti projek dan senarai semakan elemen alam sekitar yang berpotensi untuk mendapat impak (Leopold, 1971). Ia juga digambarkan sebagai kaedah semakan dua dimensi untuk mengenalpasti tindakan daripada komponen projek serta impak berpotensi terhadap alam sekitar. Sebagai contoh, kesan tidak langsung daripada pembinaan di kawasan pantai terhadap ekologi terumbu karang dapat dikenalpasti (Archer, 1985). Kaedah tapisan (Mc Harg, 1969) juga sering diaplikasikan di dalam analisis perancangan gunatanah dan landskap. Beberapa siri peta tapisan digunakan untuk mengenalpasti elemen semulajadi atau faktor gunatanah yang sensitif kepada pembangunan. Dalam konteks pelancongan, kaedah tapisan melibatkan prosedur pemetaan samada secara manual (Laventhol dan Horwath, 1982), teknik pemetaan berdigital (Gunn, 1988) atau yang lebih terkini, sistem maklumat geograďŹ (Geographic Information System / GIS) (DPA, 1990), telah digunakan untuk mengenalpasti kawasan yang paling sesuai untuk pembangunan pelancongan.

VOL. 04 / ISSUE 01 / JULY 2007

FEATURES

PENDEKATAN SISTEM MAKLUMAT GEOGRAFI (GIS)

Penggunaan GIS telah meningkat untuk pelbagai aktiviti, projek dan kajian seperti pembangunan bandar, mengenalpasti kawasan sensitif, pemuliharaan ekologi, dan lainlain (Bishop dan Gimblett, 2000). Aplikasi ini mampu untuk memproses, menganalisis, mengurus serta mempersembah data dengan lebih berkesan di samping menjimatkan penggunaan tenaga dan masa (Milam dan Jones, 1995). Menurut Burrough (1986), terdapat dua elemen penting di dalam penggunaan GIS: 1. GIS sebagai alat yang boleh diaplikasikan dalam pelbagai bidang seperti geograďŹ , perancangan dan rekabentuk bandar, kejuruteraan, senibina lanskap, sains persekitaran dan lain-lain. 2. Keupayaan GIS membantu para profesional memperbaiki dan meningkatkan kualiti kerja yang dihasilkan. Dangermond (1988) menegaskan bahawa penggunaan GIS sebagai alat menilai produk pelancongan berupaya untuk memperkemaskan kaedah sediada menerusi penambahbaikan ciri-ciri berikut: 1. Meningkatkan keberkesanan dan produktiviti melalui penggunaan peta-peta dan maklumat geograďŹ . 2. Memperbaiki pengurusan sistem maklumat 3. Proses membuat keputusan boleh dilaksanakan lebih lebih cepat dan berkesan. Malahan aplikasi GIS bukan sekadar untuk menyimpan dan mempersembah data, tetapi mampu untuk menganalisis data dengan lebih sistematik menerusi kaedah analisis ďŹ zikal yang berasaskan pendekatan kuantitatif. Kaedah ini seterusnya dapat digabungkan dengan pendekatan kualitatif untuk menghasilkan data-data dalam bentuk spatial dan tekstual. Oleh yang demikian, berdasarkan kepada hujah-hujah di atas, pendekatan GIS didapati mempunyai keupayaan dan kelebihan untuk diapplikasikan di dalam memenuhi matlamat kajian ini untuk menilai produk pelancongan semulajadi di Kelantan Selatan.

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN

KAJIAN KES: DESTINASI PELANCONGAN DI KELANTAN SELATAN

Sebagai negeri yang kaya dengan segala sumber semulajadi dan warisan budaya, sektor pelancongan berperanan penting di dalam menjana pertumbuhan ekonomi negeri Kelantan. Pembangunan sektor pelancongan di Kelantan juga selari dengan polisi pembangunan negara untuk menggalakkan aktiviti pelancongan domestik dan antarabangsa. Malahan, jumlah ketibaan pelancong ke Kelantan juga telah meningkat daripada 201,000 pada tahun 1984 kepada 1.2 juta pelancong pada tahun 1995 dan 4.27 juta pada tahun 2004 (Kerajaan Kelantan, 2006). Perkembangan tersebut telah meningkatkan jumlah pendapatan daripada sektor pelancongan pada kadar 8.0% setahun di sepanjang tempoh tersebut. Bagaimanapun, pemilihan Kelantan Selatan (Rajah 1) sebagai kawasan kajian adalah berdasarkan kepada potensi destinasi pelancongan sediada untuk dibangunkan dan dimajukan. Tambahan pula, dengan keluasan yang meliputi hampir daripda 2/3 keluasan Negeri Kelantan yang merangkumi jajahan (daerah) Gua Musang, Jeli dan Kuala Krai dan sebahagian jajahan Tanah Merah. Oleh yang demikian, Kelantan Selatan dilihat cukup berpotensi dan berupaya untuk muncul sebagai sebagai salah destinasi pelancongan utama di Semenanjung Malaysia. Di dalam kajian ini, sebanyak 15 buah destinasi telah dipilih sebagai kes kajian iaitu: 1. Taman Negara-Kuala Koh, Gua Musang 2. Gunung Stong, Jeli 3. Gua Gunung Reng, Jeli 4. Gua Madu, Gua Musang 5. Gua Cha, Gua Musang 6. Gua Ikan, Kuala Krai 7. Lata Renyok, Jeli 8. Lata Berangin, Kuala Krai 9. Lata Rek, Kuala Krai 10. Lata Hujan, Tanah Merah 11. Taman Etnobotani, Gua Musang 12. Dataran Renok Baru, Gua Musang 13. Empangan Pergau, Jeli 14. Kolam Air Panas, Jeli 15. Air Terjun Panggung Lalat, Gua Musang

Rajah 1: Destinasi Kajian

FEATURES

Metodologi Kajian Di dalam menjalankan kajian ini, kaedah matrik digunakan untuk menilai dan mengklasiﬁkasikan destinasi pelancongan semulajadi yang dipilih berdasarkan kepada tiga elemen utama berikut:

Rajah 2: Analisis Taman Etnobotani

1. Ciri-ciri fizikal/alam semulajadi 2. Kemudahan sokongan/infrastruktur 3. Aksessibiliti Setiap elemen dinilai berdasarkan kriteria yang ditetapkan menggunakan borang matrik penilaian. Menerusi pemarkahan di dalam borong matrik penilaian yang diberikan semasa penyelidikan tapak, Skala Likert diaplikasikan untuk mengukur setiap destinasi dengan mengkategorikan aspek-aspek yang dikaji. Semua data yang diperolehi dianalisis dan semakin tinggi jumlah markah menjelaskan bahawa destinasi tersebut berpotensi tinggi manakala markah yang rendah adalah sebaliknya. Sistem pemarkahan seperti ini memudahkan setiap destinasi diklasifikasikan menerusi kaedah penilaian di dalam aplikasi GIS. Selanjutnya, hasil analisis dibentangkan di dalam bentuk maklumat spatial (peta/ rajah) dan tekstual (jadual) untuk mengkategorikan setiap destinasi. Penilaian Elemen 1: Aspek Fizikal dan Alam Semulajadi Sungguhpun penilaian terhadap keadaan fizikal dan alam semulajadi sesuatu destinasi merupakan sesuatu yang sukar dan abstrak. Oleh itu, penetapan indikator yang dikehendaki adalah perlu untuk memudahkan proses penilaian dilaksanakan. Seterusnya, di dalam kajian ini, sebanyak 11 indikator untuk aspek fizikal dan alam semulajadi telah ditetapkan seperti di bawah: 1. Keadaan fizikal semasa 2. Keadaan topografi tapak 3. Potensi untuk pembangunan 4. Kategori saliran saliran/sungai 5. Tahap kualiti air sungai 6. Kategori air terjun 7. Kualiti kawasan air terjun 8. Kategori gua 9. Kualiti kawasan gua 10. Kategori Hutan Simpan 11. Kualiti spesis tumbuhan Dengan menggunakan Skala Likert, setiap indikator diberi markah daripada 0 sehingga 5 berdasarkan kepada

kualiti aspek tersebut. Seterusnya, nilai pemberat di antara 1 hingga 3 diberi berdasarkan kepada kepentingan kriteria tersebut (kurang penting, penting atau sangat penting) terhadap produk pelancongan. Nilai pemberat ini kemudiannya didarabkan dengan jumlah markah yang diperolehi untuk mendapatkan jumlah markah keseluruhan. Kaedah yang sama juga telah digunakan semasa menganalisis aspek kemudahan sokongan dan infrastruktur dan aspek aksessibiliti. Rajah 2 memaparkan contoh bagaimana proses menganalisis salah satu destinasi kajian dilakukan menerusi applikasi GIS. Penilaian Elemen 2: Kemudahan Sokongan dan Infrastruktur Menurut Pearce (1989), meskipun pelancongan berasaskan alam semulajadi lebih bergantung kepada faktor tarikan semulajadi, penyediaan kemudahan sokongan dan infrastruktur juga merupakan salah satu tarikan kepada para pelancong. Kekurangan kemudahan dan infrastruktur yang tidak berkualiti boleh mengurang minat pelancong untuk berkunjung ke sesebuah destinasi. Oleh itu, kajian ini telah menyenaraikan sebanyak 10 indikator kemudahan sokongan dan infrastruktur yang dianggap penting dan perlu ada di sesebuah destinasi pelancongan. 1. Penginapan pengunjung 2. Gerai makanan

3. Kaunter penerangan 4. Tandas awam 5. Surau 6. Papan tanda 7. Tempat meletak kenderaan 8. Tapak perkhemahan 9. Bekalan elektrik 10. Bekalan air Penilaian Elemen 3: Aksessibiliti Menurut Gunn (1988), aksessibiliti berperanan untuk membolehkan kesampaian secara fizikal ke sesuatu destinasi dengan mudah, cepat dan selamat. Kualiti infrastruktur dan kemudahan yang disediakan berperanan menarik minat pelancong merancang perjalanan dan percutian mereka. Sehubungan itu, aksessibiliti destinasi kajian dinilai berdasarkan kepada dua indikator iaitu: 1. Kualiti laluan 2. Kelas kenderaan. Analisis Kajian Semua destinasi yang dikaji merupakan mempunyai produk pelancongan yang berasaskan sumber alam semulajadi. Sebahagian besar daripadanya merupakan kawasan air terjun dan gua manakala yang lain merupakan taman tumbuhan semulajadi. Hasil analisis terhadap semua destinasi tersebut telah diklasifikasikan kepada tiga kategori iaitu “sangat berpotensi”, “berpotensi” dan “kurang berpotensi”. Pengklasifikasian terhadap ketigatiga elemen yang dinilai (aspek fizikal dan alam semulajadi, kemudahan

VOL. 04 / ISSUE 01 / JULY 2007

FEATURES Jadual 1: Klasiﬁkasi Faktor Fizikal dan Alam Semulajadi Kategori 1 2 3

Klasiﬁkasi

Markah

Bilangan

Kategori 1 2 3

Sangat Menarik Menarik Kurang Menarik

67 - 100 34 - 66 0 - 33

13 2 -

86.67 13.33 -

100

Jumlah

Klasiﬁkasi Lengkap Tidak lengkap Tiada/Rosak

Jumlah

Markah

Bilangan

67 - 100 34 - 66 0 - 33

3 1 11

20.00 6.67 73.33

100

Rajah 3: Analisis Faktor Fizikal dan Alam Semulajadi

Rajah 4: Analisis Kemudahan Sokongan dan Infrastruktur

PETUNJUK

Sangat Menarik

Lengkap

Menarik

Tidak Lengkap

Kurang Menarik

Tiada/ Rosak

sokongan dan infrastruktur, dan aksessibiliti) telah dijalankan dengan merujuk kepada aggregat pemarkahan dimana melaluinya 3 kategori telah diwujudkan. Kategori 1 telah diklasifikasikan sebagai “sangat berpotensi” iaitu bagi destinasi yang mencatat peratusan markah di antara 34% - 66% dan kategori 3 pula diklasifikasikan sebagai “kurang berpotensi” untuk destinasi yang mencatat peratusan markah kurang daripada 33%. Selepas semua kategori dinilai, penilaian keseluruhan dijalankan untuk mengklasifikasikan kategori setiap destinasi. Pada peringkat ini, markah daripada setiap kategori telah dicampur untuk mendapatkan purata pemarkahan keseluruhan. Elemen 1: Aspek Fizikal dan Alam Semulajadi Analisis terhadap elemen ini mendapati hampir semua destinasi diklasifikasikan sebagai “sangat menarik” kecuali Air Terjun Panggung Lalat dan Gua Ikan. Bagaimanapun, aspek penjagaan

Jadual 2: Klasiﬁkasi Kemudahan Sokongan dan Infrastruktur

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN

dan penyelenggaraan setiap destinasi merupakan isu penting yang perlu diberi perhatian untuk mengelakkan penurunan tahap kualiti alam semulajadi serta keadaan persekitaran. Disamping itu, di sesetengah destinasi, pembangunan infrastruktur yang tidak terancang telah menjadi punca kepada berlakunya masalah kerosakan keadaan ﬁzikal kawasan sekitar yang membawa kepada runtuhan tanah (Jadual 1 dan Rajah 3). Elemen 2: Kemudahan Sokongan dan Infrastruktur Di dalam kategori ini, analisis yang dijalankan mendapati kebanyakan daripada destinasi berada di dalam kategori ketiga iaitu “tiada/rosak”. Cuma 3 buah destinasi iaitu Taman Negara, Gunung Stong dan Taman Etnobotani berada di dalam kategori 1 iaitu ‘lengkap’ manakala sebuah destinasi iaitu Lata Hujan berada di dalam ketegori 2 iaitu “tidak lengkap” (Rajah 4). Secara umumnya, majoriti destinasi langsung tidak mempunyai kemudahan sokongan dan infrastruktur, malah sekiranya ada,

ianya telah terbiar dan mengalami kerosakan yang serius. (Jadual 2). Tahap Aksesibiliti Walaupun semua destinasi mampu dihubungi, analisis yang dijalankan mendapati hanya 6 buah destinasi berada pada kategori 1 iaitu “mudah dihubungi”, oleh semua jenis kenderaan. Lapan buah destinasi berada di dalam kategori 2 iaitu “sederhana”, hanya mampu dihubungi oleh kenderaan ringan dan sebuah destinasi berada di dalam kategori 3 iaitu “sukar dihubungi”, destinasi tersebut hanya mampu dihubungi oleh kenderaan pacuan empat roda (Jadual 3 dan Rajah 5). Penemuan Kajian Penilaian keseluruhan telah mengklasiﬁkasikan destinasi kajian mengikut tiga tahap. Tahap pertama ialah Kategori 1 untuk destinasi yang berpotensi ke peringkat antarabangsa. Kategori 2 pula untuk destinasi yang berpotensi pada peringkat kebangsaan dan Kategori 3 untuk destinasi yang potensinya terhad cuma pada peringkat daerah atau

FEATURES Jadual 3: Klasiﬁkasi Tahap Aksessibiliti

Jadual 4: Klasiﬁkasi Potensi Keseluruhan Destinasi Kajian

Kategori

Klasiﬁkasi

Markah

Bilangan

1 2 3

Mudah dihubungi Sederhana Sukar dihubungi

67 - 100 34 - 66 0 - 33

6 8 1

40.00 53.34 6.66

100

Jumlah

Rajah 5: Analisis Tahap Aksessibiliti

Kategori

Klasiﬁkasi

1 2 3

Sangat berpotensi Berpotensi Kurang berpotensi

Jumlah

Markah

Bilangan

67 - 100 34 - 66 0 - 33

3 11 1

20.00 73.33 6.67

100

Jadual 5: Hasil Kategori Destinasi Kajian Kategori

Lokasi

Taman Negara Kuala Koh Air Terjun Gunung Stong Taman Etnobotani

Gua Cha Gua Madu Gua Ikan Gua Gunung Reng Dataran Renok Baru Empangan Pergau Air Terjun Lata Hujan Air Terjun Lata Beringin Air Terjun Lata Renyok Air Terjun Lata Rek Empangan Pergau

III

Air Terjun Panggung Lalat

PETUNJUK Mudah dihubungi Sederhana Sukar dihubungi

negeri. Seterusnya, semua data yang diperolehi hasil analisis yang dijalankan dimasukkan ke dalam pangkalan data GIS. Hasil penilaian mendapati 3 destinasi berada di dalam Kategori 1 setelah mencatat markah melebihi 67% manakala 11 destinasi pula berada di dalam Kategori 2 apabila mencatat markah di antara 34% - 66% dan hanya sebuah destinasi berada di dalam Kategori 3 apabila hanya mencatat nilai kurang daripada 33% (Jadual 4 dan Jadual 5). Secara umumnya, walaupun cuma 3 buah destinasi berada di dalam kategori 1 iaitu “sangat berpotensi”, penemuan tersebut tidak bermaksud yang destinasi lain tidak berpotensi untuk dimajukan (Rajah 6). Malahan, kebanyakan destinasi berpeluang untuk berada di dalam kategori 1 sekiranya memenuhi ciriciri yang ditetapkan. Bagaimanapun, kebanyakan destinasi yang di lawati mempunyai kemudahan infrastruktur

dan sokongan yang kurang baik ataupun tiada langsung. Selain itu, kebanyakan destinasi juga didapati terbiar tanpa sebarang penjagaan. Situasi ini bukan sahaja mempengaruhi aspek pemarkahan tetapi realitinya sekiranya tiada langkah susulan dilaksanakan oleh pihak berwajib, keadaan tersebut boleh menyebabkan persekitaran semulajadi yang indah rosak dan terbiar tanpa sebarang manfaat. Langkah yang sewajarnya perlu dilaksanakan untuk memastikan semua destinasi tersebut mampu dikekalkan dan dimajukan pada masa hadapan. Sekiranya tiada langkah diambil, kesan terhadap kurangnya tumpuan pelancong tidak dapat dielakkan. RUMUSAN Secara umum, penggunaan applikasi GIS di dalam menganalisis potensi destinasi pelancongan telah memberikan nilai tambahan berbanding dengan penggunaan kaedah-kaedah analisis secara manual seperti pemerhatian dari lawatan tapak

yang biasa digunakan. Walaupun kaedah yang diaplikasikan turut menggunakan teknik pemerhatian di dalam menentukan pemarkahan setiap kategori yang ditetapkan. Perbezaan ketara mula terlihat ketika proses memasukkan data di dalam applikasi GIS dilaksanakan dimana ianya telah membantu penyelidik untuk melakukan analisis dan mengkategori setiap destinasi dengan lebih berkesan. Ciri-ciri hubungan terus antara data spatial dan tekstual yang disediakan oleh applikasi GIS juga telah memudahkan pengurusan dan pengolahan maklumat ketika menjalankan analisis. Pengolahan, penganalisisan dan pemodelan data secara efektif dan eﬁsyen seterusnya menghasilkan maklumat yang berkualiti dan mudah difahami untuk membantu proses membuat keputusan. Aplikasi ini juga dapat menjimatkan kos dan tempoh perlaksanaan kajian serta tidak memerlukan gunatenaga yang ramai. Seterusnya, di dalam mengklasiﬁkasikan setiap destinasi mengikut kategori yang ditetapkan, VOL. 04 / ISSUE 01 / JULY 2007

FEATURES

situasi tersebut telah membantu penyelidik untuk memahami dan menjelaskan penemuan penyelidikan dengan lebih berkesan. Oleh yang demikian, kajian ini mendapati bahawa penggunaan applikasi GIS untuk menilai sumber pelancongan merupakan satu pendekatan yang berkesan serta mempunyai potensi yang besar untuk dipertingkatkan lagi pada masa hadapan. Rajah 6: Kategori Destinasi Kajian

PETUNJUK Kategori I Kategori II

Biodata : AZIZAN MARZUKI menyertai USM pada bulan November 2006 selepas menamatkan ijazah kedoktoran Ph.D di Australia. Sebelum menyertai USM beliau bertugas di Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa dari 1993 hingga 2001. Beliau mempunyai kepakaran dalam bidang Pelancongan dan Rekabentuk Bandar tetapi bidang penyelidikan beliau merangkumi bidang yang lebih luas seperti Perancangan dan Pembangunan Pelancongan, Rekabentuk Bandar dan Daerah serta Penyertaan Awam dalam Proses Membuat Keputusan. ABDUL GHAPAR OTHMAN adalah seorang pensyarah di Pusat Pengajian Perumahan, Bangunan dan Perancangan, Universiti Sains Malaysia sejak September 2004. Sebelum menyertai USM, beliau telah berkhidmat sebagai penyelaras pusat PEGIS (Penang GIS) di bawah pentadbiran Kerajaan Negeri Pulau Pinang. Beliau terlibat dengan banyak projek GIS untuk kerajaan negeri dalam pengurusan data dan pembangunan spatial. Minat utama beliau adalah dalam Sistem Maklumat Geograﬁ (GIS), perancangan guna tanah dan pengangkutan. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR ABDUL AZIZ HUSSIN adalah seorang peguambela & peguamcara Mahkamah Tinggi Malaya. Dia pernah berkhidmat dengan pelbagai badan dan syarikat kerajaan, termasuk Jabatan Pengangkutan Jalan (1978-1979), Lembaga Kemajuan Kelantan Selatan (KESEDAR) dan empat anak syarikatnya sebagai Penasihat Undang-undang (1984-1996) dan Pengurus Bahagian Pentadbiran (KESEDAR)(1997-1999). Dia pernah menjadi pensyarah sambilan undang-undang jenayah dan undangundang binaan di Universiti Malaya (1984-1985 & 2005), penulis modul Universiti Terbuka Malaysia (20062007), dan Felo Pelawat, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (2005). Pada masa kini beliau mengajar di Pusat Pengajian Perumahan, Bangunan dan Perancangan, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) dalam Undang-undang Binaan, Undang-undang Pelancongan, Undang-undang Perumahan dan lain-lain undang-undang berkaitan pembangunan (semenjak 1999). Kelayakan akademik beliau termasuklah Undang-undang (LL.B Hons., LLM), Pentadbiran Awam (DPA) dan Pengurusan (Dip. M. Mgmt. & M.Sc. Project Management). Beliau adalah seorang penulis yang gigih, menyumbang 32 buku dalam bidang undang-undang, pengurusan dan sejarah Islam. Beliau juga menulis artikel untuk jernal seperti Journal of HBP, MATRA, KANUN, HABITAT, The Malaysian Surveyor, International Journal of Construction Research, Planning Malaysia, dan lain-lain. Beliau juga aktif dalam penyelidikan dan perundingan termasuk untuk Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan, Jabatan Alam Sekitar, dan lain-lain. DR. BADARUDDIN MOHAMED merupakan seorang Professor Madya di Pusat Pengajian Perumahan, Bangunan dan Perancangan, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Beliau telah berkhidmat sebagai seorang pensyarah di USM bermula pada tahun 1997, setelah memperolihi ijazah Sarjana dan Kedoktoran dalam bidang Perancangan dan Pembangunan Pelancongan dari Rikkyo University, Tokyo. Sebelum itu, beliau merupakan lulusan Sarjana Muda dalam bidang Perancangan Persekitaran dari University of Northern Iowa, Amerika Syarikat. Beliau merupakan penyelaras Program Sarjana Pembangunan Pelancongan di USM. Pengajaran dan minat penyelidikan beliau lebih tertumpu kepada pelancongan alternatif, pelancongan bandar, trend perjalanan pelancongan domestik dan juga pelancongan di Jepun. Penulis beratus artikel dan jurnal, beliau juga telah menulis beberapa buah buku seperti Perancangan Pelancongan (2007), Heritage Tourism Management in Japan (2005), Prinsip-Prinsip Perancangan (2001) dan juga Pelancong Jepun (2000). Beliau boleh dihubungi di bada@usm.my atau dengan melawat laman web: www.hbp.usm.my/tourism/.

Kategori III

Rujukan :

MAKLUMAN

Penulis ingin merakamkan ucapan terima kasih kepada USM di atas peruntukan geran IRPA jangka pendek yang membolehkan kajian ini dilaksanakan dengan jayanya. pemberat di antara 1 hingga 3 diberi berdasarkan kepada kepentingan kriteria tersebut (kurang penting, penting atau sangat penting) terhadap produk pelancongan. Nilai pemberat ini kemudiannya didarabkan dengan jumlah markah yang diperolehi untuk mendapatkan jumlah markah keseluruhan. Kaedah yang sama juga telah digunakan semasa menganalisis aspek kemudahan sokongan dan infrastruktur dan aspek aksessibiliti. Rajah 2 memaparkan contoh bagaimana proses menganalisis salah satu destinasi kajian dilakukan menerusi applikasi GIS.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Archer, E. (1985) Emerging environmental problem in a tourist zone: the case of Barbados. Carribean Geography 2(1): 45-55. Bishop, I. D., Gimblett. H. R. (2000) Management of recreational areas: GIS, autonomous agents, and virtual reality. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 27(3): 423–435. Bourough, P. (1986) Principles of geographical information systems for land resources assessment. Monograph on Soil and Resources Survey. No. 12. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dangermond, J. (1988) A technical architecture for GIS. GIS/LIS 88 Proceeding. ACMS, ASPRS, AAG, URSIA Vol 2: 61-70. DPA Group (1990) Sustainable and GIS technology: a demonstration project. Government of British Colombia. Gunn, C. A. (1988) Vacationscape: designing tourist regions. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Kerajaan Kelantan (2006) Statistik Pelancongan. http://www.kelantan.gov.my. Laventhol & Howath (1982) Tourism development strategy for the Peterborough-Haliburton tourism zone Prepared for the Ontario Ministry of Industry and Tourism. Leopold, L. B. (1969) Quantitative comparison of some aesthetic factors among rivers. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 620. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Leopold, L. B. (1971) A procedure for evaluating environmental impact. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 645 Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Litton (1968) Forest landscape description and inventories: a basis for land planning and design. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Research Paper PSW-49. Pasific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Barkeley, CA. Mc Harg, I. L. 1969. Design with nature. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Milam, R., & Jones, M. (1995) Engineering a Bikeway Master Plan. Prepared for the 1995 ITE District Annual Meeting. Denver, CO. Mitchell, B. (1989) Geography and resource analysis. New York: Longman. Moss, R. M., Nickling, W. G. (1980) Landscape evaluation in environment assessment and land use planning Environmental Assessment 4(1): 57-72. Pearce, D. (1989) Tourism development. Harlow: Longman Scientific & Technical. Priskin, J. (2001) Assessment of natural resources for nature-based tourism: the case of the Central Coast Region of Western Australia. Tourism Management. 22(2): 637-648. Smith, S., L., J. (1994) The tourism product. Annals of Tourism Research. 21(3): 582-595.

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DESIGNING FOR A NEW URBAN IMAGE: Odaiba Waterfront City, Tokyo FADZLI ZUBI E-mail: fadzli@ud.tu-tokyo.ac.jp Masters Degree Student, Urban Design Laboratory, Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan

Paper presented at the Planning Research Conference 2007, School of the Built Environment, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland ‘Thinking Spaces for Making Places’, 10-12 April 2007

ABSTRACT Tokyo aims to achieve the image of a 21st century capital, as a worldleading international city that is attractive and lively to ensure its international competitiveness and continuous prosperity. Towards this end, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government (TMG) for the past few years has undertaken various efforts in city planning in ‘rebranding’ the image of Tokyo. The recent development of Odaiba Waterfront City can be seen as an effort to realise the vision of creating a distinctive future urban image of Tokyo. Odaiba was born as a result of development that puts emphasis on quality built environment through a pragmatic approach in urban design via co-operation between the Government and private sector. Odaiba demonstrates a brand new Tokyo meant for working, living and visiting, and provides the driving force for the vitality of tomorrow’s Tokyo. Odaiba has well designed public transportation system, work places, shopping and entertainment, parks and recreation, and residential neighbourhoods; which are generally uncommon in other parts of Tokyo. This paper is based on the on-going Masters research on the same subject which attempts to analyze the overall urban design qualities of Odaiba with respect to the TMG’s vision of creating a distinctive future urban image of Tokyo. The outcome of the research is expected to help to determine to what extent Odaiba contributes to achieve the TMG’s vision and what steps are necessary to fully realise the vision.

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INTRODUCTION

Odaiba (77 hectares) is part of the New Waterfront City (442 hectares) developed by the TMG on a reclaimed land in the Tokyo Bay. The development of the New Waterfront City on the artiﬁcial island started in 1995 to revitalise the area which was left under developed, under populated and full of vacant lots due to the ‘bubble economy’ burst in 1991. Odaiba since then has been successfully transformed into a new shopping and entertainment district of Tokyo, popular among tourists from local and abroad apart from offering a new working and living environment. Odaiba is well served by the highly popular Yurikamome New Transit system which provides panoramic views of both mainland Tokyo and Odaiba from the Rainbow Bridge as well as giving the sense of futuristic Tokyo. The aims of the paper are: i. To examine the history behind the development; ii. To examine the urban design approach adopted and implemented; and iii. To examine the urban form and image created.

LAND RECLAMATION, DECENTRALISATION POLICY AND BUBBLE ECONOMY BURST

It is very important to understand the history behind the development (See Table 1 below) in order to get a better understanding of the reasons for Odaiba Waterfront City’s existence and the resultant current urban form and function. Quoting from Moughtin, Cuesta, Sarris and Signoretta, ‘peeling back the layers of history which encrust the modern city reveals the reasons for its present form and function’ (Moughtin, Cuesta, Sarris and Signoretta, 1999: pp.51). Land reclamation work in the Tokyo Bay started during the Edo period (1603 to 1867) followed by the Meiji period (1868 to 1912) and continued until the end of the last century. Odaiba (Daiba in Japanese means fort) was originally built in 1853 by the Tokugawa Shogunate as a series of 6 fortresses in order to protect Tokyo from attack by sea. In 1985 as the policy to decentralise Tokyo’s function took

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place, the newly developed artiﬁcial island in the Tokyo Bay was planned as a new sub-centre with business and residential function called the ‘Rainbow Town’. However, the ‘bubble economy’ burst in 1991 halted the development of the area leaving many vacant lots until the plan to revitalise the area took place in 1995 allowing more commercial and entertainment related activities in the area. The revived development is called the ‘New Waterfront City’ and consists of four areas: Aomi, Ariake-Minami, AriakeKita and Daiba on 442 hectares of reclaimed land. However, Daiba or Odaiba as known commercially which covers an area of 77 hectares forms the main development of the New Waterfront City and is the focus of this paper.

URBAN DESIGN POLICIES AND GUIDELINES

Eventhough the plan to create a new sub-centre in Tokyo Bay’s reclaimed land started in 1985, it was not until 1990 the TMG produced the ‘Rainbow Town Machizukuri Guidelines’ as a guide for development of the new sub-centre. The reasons being the early stage of development was spent on basic provision of infrastructure and utilities. The guidelines were later prepared through active citizen participation like many other ‘machizukuri’ plans in Japan in which consultation with professional bodies, academicians, developers, business communities etc were sought. Beginning 1990, land parcels started to be opened for sale and lease to private enterprises. However, the bubble economy burst in 1991 forced development in the area to be halted until the plan to revitalise the area was implemented in 1995. The Guidelines were revised in 1998 to accommodate some ﬂexibility and changes in the 1995 revitalisation plan. The guidelines have become an important reference not only for the authority but also for developers and other interested parties who wish to invest in the area. The guidelines clearly specify the urban design objectives for the area including detailed aspects such as land use plan, landscape plan, density and mix, scale and appearance which are all basically aimed at producing the best urban environment in the Tokyo Bay. The guidelines cover four main

development components including business, commercial, residential as well as park and recreation. It is understood that Japan’s city planning deregulation in the 1980’s which aimed at encouraging development by relaxing regulations (Sorensen, 2002) has helped towards both the development and revitalisation of Odaiba Waterfront City in the 1980’s and 1990’s respectively. City planning deregulation continued in the 1990’s and has affected many areas including the Odaiba Waterfront City. The 1995 Odaiba’s revitalisation plan for instance allowed more commercial and entertainment related activities in the area as a result of a rezoning exercise. The 1995 revitalisation plan was a divergence from its original plan which was designed purely for business and residential function. Obviously, the changing economy and aspiration forced for a more ﬂexible implementation plan to be adopted to ensure a more successful development strategy. In addition, the ‘Rainbow Town Machizukuri Guidelines’ prepared were pre-determined through consultations with various bodies and a close co-operation between the Government and private sector. This makes it easier for developers and investors to understand the spirit and purpose of the whole development and thus making high compliance on their part. In addition, the TMG also work closely together with the private companies to provide the best infrastructure in the area.

TOKYO METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT (TMG)’S VISION

Tokyo has 12.54 million inhabitants (as of September 1, 2005) or 10% of Japan’s population. With a population density of 5,736 persons per square kilometer, it is one of the most densely populated cities in the world and on a larger scale the Tokyo Metropolis is inhabited by approximately 33 million people. High rise ofﬁce and commercial buildings plus extensive network of train lines make up the façade of the city but many areas in Tokyo are also densely packed with old wooden houses. Tokyo’s attractiveness as a major capital city needs to be enhanced and the TMG’s idea of the image of a 21st century capital encompasses the followings:

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Table 1: Odaiba Waterfront City’s Development History

1985

Policy to decentralise Tokyo’s function. Creation of a new sub-centre with business and residential function in Tokyo Bay’s reclaimed land. Daytime workforce was expected to be 110,000 with a night-time population of 60,000.

1990

Rainbow Town Machizukuri Guidelines produced to guide development.

1991

Bubble economy burst. Development halted.

1993

Rainbow Bridge, a two-tiered suspension bridge completed with a total length of 3.75km linking the development with Tokyo city centre.

1995

Revitalisation plan. Creation of a New Waterfront City (442 ha) in ten-year stages from 1995-2016 including Daiba district (77 ha). Odaiba - Promotion of optimum land use according to its characteristics ie: development of a seaside commercial zone along Odaiba marine park with business functions sited to take advantage of the easy access to transportation to the business and commercial functions in the Aomi Area, and development of urban-life housing on the eastern side of Odaiba Marine Park to take advantage of the excellent seaside views. The revitalisation plan also allowed more commercial and entertainment related activities in the area and a revision of daytime workforce to 70,000 and a night-time population of 42,000. For Odaiba, the target daytime workforce and night-time population are 17,000 and 5,000 respectively. Tokyo Waterfront New Transit ‘Yurikamome’ (in Japanese means black-headed seagull) began operation linking Shimbashi and Ariake stations on a 12km track (extended to Toyosu Station in 2005).

1996

Hotel Nikko Tokyo, Decks, Searea opened and restaurants, game centres and other amusement facilities completed. A public marine transportation system (water bus) was also established connecting downtown Tokyo.

1997

Fuji Television Network (Fuji TV) moved its operation to Odaiba which building was designed by famous Japanese architect Kenzo Tange.

1998

Rainbow Town Machizukuri Guidelines revised to accommodate changes made by the 1995 revitalisation plan.

2000

Aqua City opened offering more shopping, dining and entertainment experience.

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i. ii. iii. iv. v.

vi.

The world’s largest metropolis, supporting approximately 33 million people; The world’s leading city with an economic vitality on a national level; A living city at the head of a new civilisation in Asia; An attractive cultural city with 400 years of history; An environmental city co-existing with abundant nature, such as mountains, the ocean and rivers; and A disaster-conscious city that can overcome natural disasters such as earthquakes.

Source: Bureau of Urban Development, Tokyo Metropolitan Government (2006)

Whilst the national population is shrinking, Tokyo’s population is increasing thus demands a balance between the attainment of economic prosperity and the need for a better living environment. As Tokyo is getting bigger and bigger as envisioned under the ‘Tokyo Megalopolis Concept’ which is part of the Tokyo Plan 2000, the potential of new areas are considered important in achieving this balance as a measure to create an attractive and dynamic Tokyo which will be a global city for all. Obviously, a new image of Tokyo which is attractive not only for the locals but also foreigners is crucial to sustain its economy in the long run. The new image of the city should be a reﬂection of all concerted efforts in urban design and place making which seek to achieve the best in creating a city image that is beautiful, vibrant and prosperous. Obviously the public decision on where to live, to visit and businesses to invest etc is very much inﬂuenced by the image of the city apart from other factors such as economic, social and politics. Kevin Lynch’s work ‘The Image of the City’ for instance serves as a good guide for the building of a city image. However, creating a city image that is beautiful, vibrant and prosperous is no easy task and it takes a careful planning and commitment from the authority and other relevant parties to ensure its success. Quoting from Lynch, ‘different environments resist or facilitate the progress of image-making’ (Lynch, 1960: pp.7). Obviously, there are also many other waterfront or coastal city

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developments around the world but with varying degree of approaches in urban design in response to varying degree of local complexities. The development of the New Waterfront City was given more impetus when the TMG in October 2001 established a ‘New City Planning Vision of Tokyo’ as an effort to enhance the image of Tokyo as a 21st century capital. The visionary effort sees the division of Tokyo into ﬁve zones and one of the policy implementations is the creation of a distinctive future urban image for each zone including the ‘Tokyo Bay Waterfront Vitalisation Zone’. The other four zones are ‘Central Core Revitalisation Zone’, ‘Urban Environment Vitalisation Zone’, ‘Nuclear City Regional Collaboration Zone’ and ‘Natural Environment Preservation and Utilisation Zone’. In the case of the ‘Tokyo Bay Waterfront Vitalisation Zone’, the creation of an attractive Waterfront City has been promoted with the following three goals: i.

enhancing the quality of life and harmony with nature; ii. fostering international exchange and a better future; and iii. contributing to the urban development of Tokyo. Source: Waterfront Development Division, Bureau of Port and Harbour, Tokyo Metropolitan Government (2006)

According to the Bureau of Port and Harbour, Tokyo Metropolitan Government (2006): “The Waterfront Subcenter plays an important role in stimulating the future vitality of Tokyo and supporting the livelihood of the local residents as Tokyo’s seventh subcentre featuring an optimum balance of workplace and residential environments. While responding appropriately to the currently progressing IT revolution, the globalisation of the economy and other changes in the socio-economic environment, the well-balanced compound development of the community is being furthered by organically linking work, residential, academic and recreational functions”.

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An association called the ‘Machizukuri Kyogikai’ was formed in 1997 with the objective of creating an attractive urban environment in the New Waterfront City. The association meets once a month and its members include representatives from the TMG, companies operating within the area as well as resident groups. They have played an active role in helping to realise the TMG’s ‘New City Planning Vision of Tokyo’ and they are also particularly active in organising festivals and events in the New Waterfront City throughout the year.

ODAIBA WATERFRONT CITY’S CURRENT URBAN FORM AND IMAGE

It is understood that unconventional design codes have been adopted in Odaiba Waterfront City in which there is no intention to harmonise the building designs in the area. In 1993, there was a competition held for architectural designs of individual buildings in Odaiba attracting local and foreign architects as part of the 1995 revitalisation plan thus resulted in striking and varied architectural styles on the ground today. A view from across the mainland looking into the Tokyo Bay obviously shows that Odaiba has changed the skyline of Tokyo and has given a new character to Tokyo. It literally creates a new ‘face’ or urban image of Tokyo using water and green features. The development may also be considered as a successful urban regeneration project involving a close co-operation between the Government and private sector. Land parcels were sold to developers selectively who eventually constructed their buildings according to the TMG’s overall plan. This is perhaps in line with the TMG’s intention of creating and diffusing an urban culture, developing a waterfront urban resort that gets noticed easily and distinctively as well as exploiting the attractiveness of the coastal region within Tokyo. The development is also unique in the sense that it created a seaside which Tokyo previously never had. In addition, the urban design approach adopted

and implemented in Odaiba also provides users with different kinds of experience as they navigate through the area and most importantly users feel a sense of place, safe and comfortable being in the area. The general public’s perceptions on Odaiba Waterfront City’s urban image should be given the utmost attention. Obviously, the public image of any given city is the overlap of many individual images and the public has a mental map of a city by its identity and character (Lynch, 1960). Arguably, the city image can be easily identiﬁed depending on how unique its identity and character and psychologically they have a profound effect on the memory of the public and visitors. Most visitors view that the development in Odaiba is unique and distinctively characterised by modern facilities and striking as well as varied architectural designs taking advantage of the waterfront. Odaiba also offers the public from all age groups a new shopping, entertainment and leisure experience. People have ease of movement within the area, access to high quality and plentiful open public spaces, excellent pedestrian environment, public transportation etc which can be summarised as follows: i. ii.

iii.

iv. v. vi.

Users are clearly informed through the clear identiﬁcation of public spaces. Safe, attractive and functional public space. Good linkages between public spaces especially within the commercial areas. Pedestrians are well connected to all developments within the area by a comprehensive pedestrian network. Users may understand well development within the area aided by landmarks, signages etc. Public areas are quite ﬂexible to accommodate changes eg. events and festivals. A good mix of land use and activities gives users different experiences within the area.

In fact, many say that even the ride on the Yurikamome transit system gives users a new experience within Tokyo and is an attraction in itself. Thus many tourists prefer to take the

Yurikamome instead of other modes of transportation to visit Odaiba despite its expensive fares. According to Japan Railway & Transport Review, seventy percent of people going to the subcentre use Yurikamome, instead of cars. Their reasons are as follows: • Good views and comfort; • Excellent accessibility to facilities, most of which are directly connected to stations; and • Convenient starting point in downtown Tokyo. Source: Japan Railway & Transport Review No. 16, June 1998 (pp.15–19)

According to the report again, “Yurikamome is an exciting example of how transit facilities can contribute to the shaping of a new urban area. The continuing growth of Rainbow Town is certain to attract more people, increasing the need to expand the current capacity. Based on the experience of the Yurikamome AGT, there is no doubt that this unmanned system is destined to be the future of urban transportation.” The design of Odaiba Waterfront City also takes into consideration of the local context. People who visit Odaiba can relate to this historic part of Tokyo in which the original Edo-era battery islands are well preserved as parks and also for tourist attractions. The buildings especially fronting the waterfront also incorporated sea elements in their designs and so as the motives on signboards, pavements, sculptures etc thus creating Odaiba’s own distinct image. Without doubt, the number of tourists visiting Odaiba is increasing each year and many also will not miss taking photos of a replica of the French Statue of Liberty in Odaiba erected in 2000. In addition, there are many events and festivals organised in Odaiba throughout the year for visitors to enjoy. It is through such events and festivals that help to strengthen Odaiba’s image and character to the public. There is always something to celebrate in Odaiba that

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is appealing to the public. The annual summer festival organised by Fuji Television for instance attracts millions of visitors to Odaiba coupled with other events at the local and international level throughout the year. The giant Christmas tree erected in Odaiba every year also never fails to attract visitors. It is also worth noted that tourists come to Odaiba due to other attractions also available in the rest of the New Waterfront City. The Palette Town in Aomi for instance offers visitors a ride on one of the world’s largest ferris wheels apart from offering different kinds of shopping and entertainment facilities. Other attractions in the near vicinity include the Museum of Maritime Science (Fune-no-kagakukan), National Museum of Emerging Science and Innovation (Miraikan), Telecom Center, Oedo Onsen Monogatari, Tokyo International Exhibition Center (Tokyo Big Sight) and many others. It is no wonder that in 2005 alone, the whole Waterfront City attracted about 42 million visitors. Workers who come to work in Odaiba also have an easy access to the area by the public transportation system and work in a beautiful, ultra-modern and comfortable ofﬁce environment. They also have a lot of choices to wine and dine in the area and to entertain clients. The residents who occupy the eastern side of Odaiba Marine Park also have easy access to various facilities within the residential enclave. There are schools, community halls, supermarkets, neighbourhood shops, convenient stores, post ofﬁce, ATMs, clinics etc to cater for their daily needs. The barrier free design also makes life easier for people with disabilities and the disaster resistant design (against earthquakes) also makes residents feel safe living in the area. As for companies operating in Odaiba, this is what Mr. Hisashi Hieda, the Chairman and CEO of Fuji Television Network Inc. has to say about Odaiba:

“A unique town is now being constructed in Tokyo Waterfront City. It is completely different from such downtown areas as Marunouchi and Otemachi, and from such shopping districts as Ginza, Shibuya and Shinjuku. The Waterfront City is growing with diverse functions and facilities, such as companies housed in intelligent buildings, hotels, amusement centers, shopping malls and superhigh-rise condominiums. The greater part of the area faces the sea, and the landscape is superb. This town is really unique.” Source: Waterfront Development Division, Bureau of Port and Harbour, Tokyo Metropolitan Government (2006)

However, some general negative perceptions have also been noted. Some members of the public have commented that the image of Odaiba as being too futuristic and not human in scale. This futuristic image is probably projected by the Fuji Television building which is well known for its eccentric architecture and has become the landmark of Odaiba. Standing at 123.45 metres high with a unique spherical observation platform, it has easily become the iconic symbol of Odaiba. The Yurikamome transit system on the other hand is an automated guideway transit which is rare in other parts of Japan and sets a new era in future urban transit system. In addition, the whole New Waterfront City itself is built on an artiﬁcial island, thus strengthen the public’s image of the area as being futuristic. Quoting from Shirvani, ‘problems associated with the human dimension are not the only ones urban design faces, but they are strongly interrelated with its other problems and ultimately interdependent with them’ (Shirvani, 1985: pp.51). The public have also commented that the main streets in Odaiba are congested during weekends and holidays. This is due to the high number of visitors who come to Odaiba by cars especially for

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shopping because cars are more practical to carry goods rather than the public transport. Another reason is because they prefer to park their cars nearest possible to the shopping malls eventhough there are ample parking spaces available in the near vicinity for park-and-ride. There is a free bus shuttle service called the ‘Tokyo Bay Shuttle’ covering the main attractions within the area. The public have also commented that the Odaiba beach is polluted in which active swimming is prohibited and thus the beach is limited to activities such as strolling, beach games, sun bathing, etc. Many articles have also been written about Odaiba which portray its image as lonely spots for lovers or silent couples due to its popularity among young couples who go there at night to enjoy the Tokyo Bay scenery and the illuminated Rainbow Bridge. Interestingly, this is the webpage of tokyoessentials.com has to say about Odaiba: “Prepare to be hit by the 22nd century! With space age buildings, electric cars and fantasy shopping malls, Tokyo’s newest district is futuristic and surreal. Built on reclaimed land in Tokyo Bay, a monorail links Odaiba to the mainland. Watch out too for the silent couples. As the site of the world’s largest Ferris wheel, it’s also a popular, if not compulsory, dating spot”. Source: http://www.tokyoessentials.com/odaiba.html (2007)

Some other negative aspects can be summarised as follows: i. ii. iii. iv. v.

vi.

Public spaces are more open and do not give much sense of enclosure. Lack of softscape to soften the concrete image. Lack of shade to protect from the sun during hot summer days. Less legible connection between development fronting and backing the waterfront. Private environments are less ﬂexible to accommodate changes. The commercial development on the ground ﬂoor is generally hostile, not taking full advantage of the waterfront area. Lack of urban design relationship between Odaiba and the rest of the Waterfront City and also Tokyo as a whole.

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CONCLUSION

Many cities around the world have undertaken various efforts to reinvent themselves through excellence in urban design. A good urban design adds value (Bartlett School of Planning, Cabe and DETR, 2001) and contributes to a good city image and identity and thus attracts people and investments and consequently brings other social, economic and environmental benefits. Odaiba Waterfront City clearly demonstrates some excellence in urban design worthy of emulation in other parts of Tokyo. The overall urban design qualities reflect the TMG’s desire to have a new urban image which is lacking in other parts of Tokyo. It sets an example of a serious commitment by the Government and private sector towards the creation of a distinctive future urban image of Tokyo meant for working, living and visiting. Based on the present situation, the Governor of Tokyo Mr. Shintaro Ishihara has full confidence in the overall development of Tokyo Waterfront City: “The Waterfront Subcentre area of Tokyo is endowed with advantages not found elsewhere including waterfront scenery and a substantial urban infrastructure as well as amusement, convention and other functions. We will move ahead with the creation of a community that encourages tourism by establishing a structure for attracting tourists hand in hand with outlaying areas taking full advantage of the charm of the city while forging ahead with the further development of the Waterfront Subcenter”. Source: Waterfront Development Division, Bureau of Port and Harbour, Tokyo Metropolitan Government (2006)

Biodata : FADZLI ZUBI is a town planning ofﬁcer from the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning. He holds a B.Sc. (Hons) in Town Planning Studies from Birmingham Polytechnic, England and a PostGraduate Diploma (CNAA) in Town Planning from University of Central England in Birmingham. He has served in various divisions in the Federal Department as well as the Selangor State Department of Town and Country Planning. Currently Fadzli is on study leave from the Federal Department pursuing a Masters Degree in Urban Design at the University of Tokyo, Japan.

Reference : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Sorensen, A. 2002. The Making of Urban Japan - Cities and planning from Edo to the twenty-ﬁrst century, Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies Series. Waterfront Development Division, Bureau of Port and Harbour, Tokyo Metropolitan Government. 2006. Creating a New Waterfront City. Waterfront Development Division, Bureau of Port and Harbour, Tokyo Metropolitan Government. 2006. Port of Tokyo 2006. Bureau of Urban Development, Tokyo Metropolitan Government. 1998. Rainbow Town Machizukuri Guidelines. Japan Railway & Transport Review, No. 16 June 1998, East Japan Railway Culture Foundation. Lynch, K. 1960. The Image of the City, The MIT Press. R. Cuthbert, A. 2003. Designing Cities: Critical Readings in Urban Design, Blackwell Publishing Limited. Shirvani, H. 1997. Urban Design Process, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Moughtin, J C; Cuesta, R; Sarris, C and Signoretta, P. 2003. Urban Design: Method and Techniques, Architectural Press. DETR. 2000. By Design: Urban design in the planning system: towards better practice, Thomas Telford Publishing. Bartlett School of Planning, Cabe and DETR. 2001. The Value of Urban Design, Thomas Telford Publishing. English Partnerships and The Housing Corporation. 2000. Urban Design Compendium. Websites i. http://www.metro.tokyo.jp/ENGLISH/ ii. http://www.tokyoessentials.com/odaiba.html

VOL. 04 / ISSUE 01 / JULY 2007

PALAVER

URBAN THINGY SANISAH SHAFIE sanisah@townplan.gov.my Federal Department of Town and Country Planning Peninsular Malaysia.

Plate 1

‘Urban’ in the Malaysian context, as defined in the National Urbanisation Policy (NUP) launched in August 2006, refers to : a gazetted area with its adjacent builtup and consolidated areas located within the urban limits including : i) settlement and committed areas that have been approved; ii) minimum population of 10,000 people; iii) at least 60% of population are employed (15 years and above) in nonagricultural activities; iv) estimated population density of 50-60 persons per hectare and; v) urban amenities. This definition alone perhaps can give a preview of how complex and multidimensional (in other words, ‘ever sprawling’ and ‘takes time to understand’) an urban area is. Note that, until August 2006, the working definition of urban is as provided by the Department of Statistics, and though it focused on demography, is indeed shorter.

Of course, not unlike other changes that we are facing today, this new infrastructure too has contradicting effects like a double edge sword – while it makes some people’s life richer, it makes others poorer, and while it integrates and connects some communities, it disintegrates and marginalises others.

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‘Urbanisation’ on the other hand is deﬁned by NUP as : an evolutionary process that incorporates urban values for a certain area that involves the in-migration of rural population, changes in economic activities, the expansion of the urban area, the increase of urban amenities, social changes, changes in traditional community value and character to that of a modern and changing land use as a whole. Again, one has to be urban enough to straight away comprehend this. Anyhow from the physical land use planning perspective, urbanisation is largely about the expansion of the urban area, for which a planned expansion is considered ‘growth’ while an unplanned one is considered ‘sprawl’. To date, our rapid urban expansion that has created many suburbans and even exurbans (meaning a prosperous area beyond a city’s suburb), unfortunately constitutes a combination of both. In view of this, NUP is meant to provide the framework for a more planned urbanisation, to accommodate the estimated rise in the level of urbanisation to 75% in Peninsular Malaysia by the year 2020. While our policies have just set for implementation, elsewhere, particularly in the USA, various urbanisation phenomena have been given names. This time, for this feature, only one particular book has been used as a ‘one stop centre’ reference, as it contains a very real overview of today’s process of urbanisation, and of course very interesting terms - the book is Splintering Urbanism – networked infrastructures, technological mobilities and the urban condition (2001), by Stephen Graham and Simon Marvin.

PALAVER

1. Cyborg urbanisation – the notion that contemporary cities are seamlessly mediated by technological and cybernetic systems which completely mediate the city’s relationship to society, culture and nature. 2. Rebundled city – term coined by Dick and Rimmer (1999) to capture the movement away from functional single–use zoning and towards ever larger-scale building and complexes that encompass multiple uses and facilities under a single roof (Fig. 1)

To a layman, some striking features of ‘urban’ includes a fast pace of life, varieties of fashionable goods and services, a cosmopolitan city, and activities all around the clock, consequently contributing to a very different lifestyle vis-à-vis ‘rural’. Hence, to a certain extent, telemovies’ characters like Pah Bedah (Orang Gaji) and Cik Kiah (Rombongan Cik Kiah..) are not really ‘made for television’ or an exaggeration of the difference between urban and rural. In addition, urban is also the hotbed of innovation and new lifestyle. According to Paquot (1999, pp. 86) “ Urbanisation is more than a demographic, quantiﬁable phenomenon; it is civilisation, and civilisation determines our ways of living “. Indeed these days, with globalisation and the continuous advancement of information and communication technology, infrastructure which is the backbone of a city is becoming so dynamic that often it is the distinguishing factor to rate the attractiveness of cities. Of course, not unlike other changes that we are facing today, this new infrastructure too has contradicting effects like a double edge sword – while it makes some people’s life richer, it makes others poorer, and while it integrates and connects some communities, it disintegrates and marginalises others. Take the endless construction of highways for example, it provides convenience to the motor vehicle users, but at the same time, inconvenience the pedestrians and disintegrates the local communities (Plate 1). A week ago the kedai kopi and surau may be just in front of your house, but today you have to cross a busy 6-lanes road to have your daily kedai kopi chit-chat. On a positive note, these days, most people ﬁnd megamalls (a rebundled city infrastructure) so convenient as they provide everything, from restaurants, shops, cinemas, clinics, banks and playgrounds, under one airconditioned roof. Fig. 1: Rebundling of Cities

3. Autonomous infrastructure – refers to the development of stand alone or decentralized technologies that allow users to lower their degree of reliance and increase their autonomy from centralized infrastructure networks. Examples include combined heat and power, renewable technologies, local water and waste treatment, and mobile communications technologies. 4. Black box (or Technological black box) – a technological assembly including infrastructure networks whose inner workings are so completely unknown or hidden to its users that its successful functioning is totally taken for granted (the reverse is termed ‘unblackboxing). Using a phone, turning a tap, flushing a toilet or plugging in a power plug for example, is so woven into the fabric of daily life and so ‘normalised’ that (whilst they function adequately) it scarcely seems important. 5. Customised infrastructure – the process by which infrastructure networks are packaged together to meet the precise needs and demands of specific user groups, often inward investors and large commercial users. 6. Glocal by-pass – the development of an infrastructure that is configured to support interaction between valued users and places across local and global circuits of infrastructure. Examples would include specialist international telecommunication services designed to service specialist ports and enclaves (Fig.2 & Plate 2) 7. Hubs, spoke and tunnel effect – a conceptual framework to capture the geographical effects of contemporary infrastructure networks. Hubs are the dominant nodes that articulate and connect the flows of major infrastructure systems. Spokes are infrastructure connections that radiate from hubs to serve subservient places. Tunnel effects are the ‘wormholing’ effects of fast and highly capable infrastructure networks that pass through, above or below a territory without allowing access (Fig. 3)

VOL. 04 / ISSUE 01 / JULY 2007

PALAVER

Plate 2

Fig. 2

In the urban area, life alone is not enough, lifestyle is a very important thing, if not everything to most urbanites. So important that in Washington DC, its Metropolitan Area has been segmented into nine discrete ‘lifestyle communities’ using a geodemographic profiling system (the nine communities are : i) money and brains; ii) blue blood estates; iii) young influentials; iv) black enterprise; v) emergent minorities; vi) downtown dixie style; vii) bohemian mix; viii) young suburbia; and ix) furs and station wagon) (Stephen Graham and Simon Marvin, 2001). It is these lifestyles that then help determine the suitable infrastructures and amenities in that locality. At the same time, urban physical development, urban management and governance also have to live up to the rising expectation of the more knowledgeable and sophisticated urban population, who may have reviewed their priority from growth to well-being. Safety, economic competitiveness, liveability, identity and of course creativity being some of their main concerns. Somehow these days, to a certain extent, efforts to achieve all these seem to revolve around smartening the home and the neighbourhood, i.e. through alarm system, home entertainment, soho (small office home office), smart appliances, green building and fat internet pipes. Perhaps the rules of real estate ‘location, location, location’ would soon be changed to ‘bandwidth, location, bandwidth’. 8. Back office or call centre – an office complex with no face to face contact with customers, which delivers services entirely via the telephone, internet or private telecommunications connection. 9. Flying base station – an aircraft or airship that hovers permanently over a metropolitan region, delivering telecommunications services. 10. Innovative milieu – a social, economic, cultural and institutional environment which fosters and sustains on-going economic and technological innovation.

Fig. 3

11. Premium network space – a combination of urban and networked spaces that are conﬁgured precisely to the needs of socio-economically wealthy groups and so at the same time are increasingly withdrawn from the wider citizenry and cityscape (Plate 3) 12. Technopole – planned space of high-technology innovation

Plate 3

13. Business Improvement District (BID) – an urban policy instrument widely employed by the U.S and other countries in recent years within which a local board of property owners is set up to raise speciﬁc local taxes to be spent on extra local services (sanitation, street cleaning, environmental improvements, new infrastructure, etc.). 14. Town centre management – a UK movement, similar to that of BID, to set up dedicated private and public management bodies for town and city centres for the purpose of upgrading their economic performance.

References : 1. 2.

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN

Graham, S. and Marvin, S. (2001), Splintering Urbanism – networked infrastructures, technological mobilities and the urban condition, London and New York : Routledge. Paquot, T. (1999), The post-city challenge. In R.Beauregard and S. Body-Gendrot (eds), The Urban Moment : Cosmopolitan Essays on the Late Twentieth Century City, Thousand Oaks CA : Sage, 79-98.

REVIEW

BOOKS: Editor’s Choice TOH LAY SEE toh@townplan.gov.my Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia.

Tony Champion and Graeme Hugo (2004),

NEW FORMS OF URBANIZATION - BEYOND THE URBAN-RURAL DICHOTOMY Ashgate Publishing Limited, England ISBN : 0-7546-3588-0

This book provides information about the United Nation’s work on urbanization, examining the key features of its approach to the deﬁnition and measurement of urbanization, surveying the recommendations made by two reviews of UN practice published in the early 1970s. It shows the overview of world urbanization using the UN’s most recent set of estimate and projections of world urbanization. It shows truly remarkable increase in the number of people living in urban areas since 1950. Clearly world urbanization levels increased markedly during the twentieth century and continued to rise. Besides that, it touches on broad regional perspectives on recent developments in urbanization and then home in on case studies that illustrate particular types of urban change at national and sub-national levels. A set of country-based studies (Mexico, Delhi, India, Brazil and Fujian province, China) in which the authors examine the speciﬁc aspects of recent urban transformations are included in this book. This book also includes issues involved in developing new ways of conceptualizing the settlement system and then attempt to provide a bridge between the conceptual and operational aspects of this challenge, including assessing the potential of new GIS and remote sensing technologies.

VOL. 04 / ISSUE 01 / JULY 2007

REVIEW

Jane Jacobs (1993)

THE DEATH AND LIFE OF GREAT AMERICAN CITIES

Modern Library Edition, United States ISBN : 0-679-60047-7 The Death and Life of Great American Cities was described by the New York Times as perhaps the most influential single work in the history of town planning. This book is an attack on current city planning and rebuilding. It is also and mostly an attempt to introduce new principles of city planning and rebuilding, different and even opposite from those now taught in everything from schools of architecture and planning. The author wrote about the common and ordinary things of city planning that non-planners should read : for instance what kind of city streets are safe and what kind are not; why some city parks are marvellous and others are vice-traps and death- traps; why some slums stay slums and other slums regenerate themselves even against financial and official opposition; what makes downtowns shift their centers, what if anything, is a city neighbourhood, and what jobs if any, neighbourhoods in great cities do. She also touches how cities work in real life because this is the only way to learn what principles of planning and what practices in rebuilding can promote social and economic vitality in cities and what practices and principles will deaden these attributes.

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Robert B Gibson, Selma Hassan, Susan Holz, James Tansey and Graham Whitelaw (2005)

SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT : CRITERIAS, PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS Earthscan, United Kingdom ISBN : 1-84407-050-6

This book works on how to translate a general commitment to sustainability into a workable set of practical assessment criteria, process design characteristics and implementation methods. The authors clarify what sustainability requires, and identify well integrated means of ensuring that these requirements are addressed. It also provides guidance on how to deal with trade-offs. In a world as imperfect as this one, most proposed undertaking will bring sustainability losses as well as sustainability gains. It will therefore be necessary to determine which certain sustainability objectives may have priority over others, which compromises and sacrifices may be acceptable and how overall contributions to sustainability may be identified. It spells out the practical means – the essential characteristics of deliberative and decision-making processes, the necessary and useful tools and the openings for adjustment by which the considerable challenges of sustainability assessment can be met by ordinary officials, proponents and citizens with limited resources and plenty of other obligations.

REVIEW

Paul J. Maginn (2004)

URBAN REGENERATION, COMMUNITY POWER AND THE (IN) SIGNIFICANCE OF RACE Ashgate Publishing Limited, England ISBN : 0-7546-4166-x

This book is based upon an ethnographic study of community power and the significance of race within urban regeneration partnership (URP) and local community forums in three ethnically diverse neighbourhoods in London. The ethnographic story presented herein paints a generally positive, but complicated picture of the nature of power wielded by local communities over decision making within URPs. It argues that “pluralist theory” provides an appropriate framework to analyse and understand the nature of community power within URPs. It focuses on the methodological framework for the empirical analysis, providing justification for the use of an ethnographic methodology. It also provides a detailed empirical narrative and analysis of the community regeneration experience. A range of issues is discussed in this book, including the sense of community within each neighbourhood, the composition of community forums, the nature of community power within URPs and community forums as well as the significance of race within community forums, URPs and the regeneration process in general.

VOL. 04 / ISSUE 01 / JULY 2007

PLANNING UPDATES

PLANNING UPDATES NOR ZALIZA MOHD PUZI zaliza@townplan.gov.my

JANUARY 2007 1. NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SUSTAINABILITY MALAYSIA (SM2007) Date

30 & 31 January 2007

Venue

Sime Darby Convention Centre, Bukit Kiara, Kuala Lumpur

Organiser

Malaysian Environmental NGOs (MENGO)

Web site

-NILThe National Physical Plan (NPP) and the Ninth Malaysian Plan (RMK9) are signiﬁcantly in the new approaches towards national development, whilst addressing environmental problems and sustainable development promoting proactive approach. Hence this seminar through its workshop, collectively formulated action plans based on the ideas from the participants, which managers and decision makers can implement, consistent with the text and spirit of NPP and RMK9.

Federal Department of Town and Country Planning Peninsular Malaysia

FEBRUARY 2007 1. WORKSHOP ON DYNAMICS OF HIGHER PERFORMANCE TEAMWORK Date

27 – 28 February 2007

Venue

Crown Princess Hotel, Kuala Lumpur

Organiser

Space UTM

Web site

www.spaceutm.edu.my/seminar This programme emphasised skills and techniques required to facilitate the needs of achieving high performance teams. It included management techniques for evaluating team performance as well as rewarding and recognising team work.

MARCH 2007 1. LAND TENURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (LATEM) INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON : LAW, LAND AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE AGE OF GLOBALISATION Date

12 – 14 March 2007

Venue

Kuala Lumpur

Organiser

Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah Of Laws, International Islamic University Of Malaysia

Web site

http://www.uii.edu.my/events/events. shtml?month=11&year=2006 The conference evaluated some old themes relating to law and tenure issues in the light of new changes and developments, whether globally, regionally or nationally. It touched on historical, legal and institutions changes, the nature of the conflicts between official laws and customary practices and the effect of such conflicts in hampering or enhancing the development of rural people, interdisciplinary aspect of rural development and globalisation and its impact on rural development.

2. SEMINAR RETHINKING OUR PLAN

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN

Date

27 March 2007

Venue

The Royal Bintang Hotel, Kuala Lumpur

Organiser

Persatuan Pegawai Perancang Bandar dan Desa Malaysia

Web site

http://www.townplan.gov.my

PLANNING UPDATES

3. SEMINAR ON 2007 AMENDMENTS OF THE STRATA TITLES ACT 1985 Date

28 March 2007

Venue

Concorde Hotel, Shah Alam, Selangor

Organiser

Selangor and Property Board

Web site

-NILThe conference touched on the issues of land management, strata and gated communities. It also identiﬁed the opportunities and challenges for stratiﬁed and gated community development.

APRIL 2007 1. A HANDS-ON SEMINAR ON VISUALISATION DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ARCHITECTURE, ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY Date

11 – 12 April 2007

Venue

Palm Garden Hotel, IOI Resort Putrajaya

Organiser

Kulliyyah Of Architecture And Environmental Design International Islamic University Malaysia

Web site

http://www.iuu.edu.my/event/event_detail. shtml?eventid=195

2. PERSIDANGAN MEMPERTINGKATKAN SISTEM PENYAMPAIAN PERKHIDMATAN KERAJAAN – PENAMBAHBAIKAN URUSAN-URUSAN PEMAJUAN SERTA PENYELENGGARAAN DAN PENGURUSAN HARTANAH Date

13 -14 April 2007

Venue

Sunway Resort Hotel & Spa

Organiser

Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan

Web site

http://www.kpkt.gov.my/kpkt

3. “TRADE, WTO AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT : A CAUSE FOR CONCERN?” Date

23 - 24 April 2007

Venue

Seri Pasiﬁc Hotel, Kuala Lumpur

Organiser

International Islamic University Malaysia

Web site

http://www.iuu.edu.my/event/event_detail. shtml?eventid=195 The Globalisation and WTO Unit of the International Islamic University Malaysia organised a regional conference on 23 – 24 April 2007 on “Trade, WTO and Sustainable Development : A Cause for Concern?”. The co-organisers of this conference were Southeast Asian Council for Food Security and Fair Trade, Education and Research Association of Consumers Malaysia, Federation of Malaysian Consumer Associations and United Nations Development Programme. The focus of this conference was to discuss the effects of trade and the WTO rules on the three pillars of sustainable development, i.e. economic, social and the environment. It sought to bring together academics, practitioners, policy makers and civil society organisations with the goal of initiating a serious dialogue. The conference also sought to explore the possibility of suggesting appropriate policy recommendations to national governments.

VOL. 04 / ISSUE 01 / JULY 2007

PLANNING UPDATES

4. EXPERT TALK : LAND USE PLANNING APPRAISAL FOR RISK AREAS PROGRAMME (LUPAR) – DISASTER MANAGEMENT Date

20 April 2007

Venue

Dewan KR Soma, Wisma Tun Sambanthan, Jalan Sultan Ismail, Kuala Lumpur

Organiser

Bahagian Penyelidikan dan Pembangunan JPBD

Web site

http://www.townplan.gov.my From the land use perspective the genome principle can be used as a tool to identify the cause and effect of urban decay, to give an input to urban morphology study and to relate how a changing global environment (natural and man made) is giving rise to potential new public risks. There is a need to understand changes occurring in paradigms for risk assessment of ecosystem, human derived changes and human well being. This has impact on the quality of life. It is therefore imperative to reduce and manage risks especially in disaster prone areas which can lead to human loss and health implications. This can also be done through disaster management in land use planning. This expert talk session examined the relationship between genome principles and land use planning. It also gave basic understanding on disaster management and its application in land use planning through urban governance. This session is part of capacity building in LUPar Programme.

MAY 2007 1. BUILD – THEN – SELL : THE WAY FORWARD Date

11 May 2007

Venue

Matrade Hall (Level 3) Menara Matrade, Jlaan Khidmat Usaha, Off Jalan Duta Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Organiser

The Institution of Surveyor Malaysia

Web site

http://www.iuu.edu.my/event/event_detail. shtml?eventid=195 This seminar looked into the following : a. the effectiveness of the Build – Then – Sell concept b. the advantages and disadvantages of the concept c. the potential ﬁnancial impact of the concept d. the legal implication e. the role of Bank f. the impact on abandonment of future project g. recommendations to Government based on forum/ discussion

2. COURSE ON IMPROVING DELIVERY SYSTEM OF PUBLIC SERVICE VIA EGOVERNMENT : EU BEST PARCTICES Date

9 – 11 May 2007

Venue

Crown Princess Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Organiser

Uni-Link Smart Venture Sdn Bhd

Web site

http://www.u-link.com.my The focus was to present experiences in policy and practices from Europe, taking account of the situation and needs of Malaysia. In order to highlight common issues and facilities mutual learning relevant experience from North America and Australia was drawn upon where useful.

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN

PLANNING UPDATES

JULY 2007 1. WORLD HOUSING CONGRESS 2007 : AFFORDABLE QUALITY HOUSING (WHC) Date

2 – 5 July 2007

Venue

Primula Beach Resort, Kuala Terengganu

Organiser

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Web site

http://www.mip.org.my The WHC was jointly organised by Universiti Putra Malaysia, the Federation of Islamic Countries (FEIIC) and Terengganu State Government. Theme for WHC 2007 is “Affordable Quality Housing : Global Challenges and Issues in the Provision of Shelter for All”. This congress provided a platform for sharing of knowledge and expertise as well as interaction amongst experts, researches, designers, builders, developers and policy makers form all over the world in the area of affordable quality housing.

2. INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR : KNOWLEDGE CITIES – FUTURE OF CITIES IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY COLLABORATION OF AUDI, MIP, MBSA, STATE OF SELANGOR & MADINAH CITY COUNCIL. Date

16 – 18 July 2007

Venue

Shah Alam

Organiser

Malaysia Institute Planners

Web site

http://www.mip.gov.my

3. THE 2ND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY : “PLANNING AND MANAGING HERITAGE FOR THE FUTURE” Date

30 July 2007 – 1st August 2007

Venue

Marriot Putrajaya

Organiser

Faculty of Tourism Hospitality Management University Utara Malaysia & National Heritage Department Ministry of Culture Arts and Heritage

Web site

http://fpha.uum.edu.my/

VOL. 04 / ISSUE 01 / JULY 2007

BLAST FROM THE PAST

EMPIRE THEATRE IN ALOR STAR, BUILT IN 1938, WELL KNOWN FOR SHOWING BOLLYWOOD FILMS. IN 1997 IT WAS REPLACED BY FOOD AND CLOTHING CENTRE KNOWN AS EMPIRE ARCADE.

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