LivingontheEdge:HousingDevelopmentatTbilisi’sPeriphery
EvangelineLinkous,PhD,AICP
UniversityofSouthFlorida
Introduction
Housingdevelopmentattheurbanperipheryisthesubjectofextensiveresearchacrossavarietyof disciplines Inthepost-socialistcontext,peri-urbandevelopmentdemonstratesdistinctivesocio-spatial characteristics Thesestemfromstateplanningandlandownershipduringcommunistregimes, socio economicandinstitutionalturmoilinthe1990stransition,andtheimpactsofeconomicrecovery andglobalizationinrecentdecades Arecurringthemeincontemporaryresearchonsuburbanizationin post socialistcountriesistheroleofglobalandWesternforces includingmarketization,foreigncapital, andtheEuropeanUnion onperi urbanhousingdevelopment Theresearchalsocallsattentiontofactors thataccountforregionalvariationsinfringeformsandprocesses
ThispaperexploreshousingdevelopmentatTbilisi’surbanperipheryandisorganizedasfollows:Ifirst brieflyreviewtheliteratureonSovietandPost Sovieturbanperipheries Second,Iprovideanhistorical overviewofTbilisi’sfringe,chartingthesocio economicandplanningprocessesthatshapedTbilisiand itshinterlands.Third,IdescribethreehousingdevelopmentscurrentlyshapingTbilisi’speriphery:Tbilisi SeaNewCity,LisiGreen Town,andSatibe.ThepaperconcludeswithafindingthatTbilisi’sfringeis beingconstructedinwaysthatreflectmarketizationandglobalization,whiletheprojectsalsodemonstrate anembeddednessinGeorgia’spoliticalandfiscalcontext.
SovietandPost SovietPeripheries
Atthedawnofthe20th century,manyofthenation statesthatwouldbecomepartoftheSovietUnion werelargelyagricultural,anddevelopmentattheurbanfringewasmostly“self built,”drivenby rural to urbanmigrationofthepoorandwarrefugees(HirtandKovachev,2015).Bythe1920s, empoweredgovernanceregimesfosteredstate ledplanningsolutionsfortheperiphery.LiketheirWestern counterparts,earlySovietsuburbswereinfluencedbyGardenCityidealsandconceivedasanalternative todisorganized,congestedurbanareas a“modernistendeavoraimedatthetransformationofurban formandlifestyle”(Hirt,2018).Theinnercitywasseenasoldfashionedandbourgeois.InRussiancities, mikrorayons Soviet eraresidentialdistrictsusuallybuiltinablockformcombiningmultifamilyhousing andopenspace werefirstproposedinthe1920salongwithavisionofmassiveperipheralexpansion. Soviet eranewtownswereconceivedasautonomouscommunitiestobeseparatedbygreenbelts(Hirtand Kovachev,2015).
Inpractice,massdecentralizationprovedtoocostlytoimplement,somasshousingdistricts constructedaroundoldurbancentersbecamethedominantformofSoviet erafringedevelopment IndustrializationwascentraltoplannedurbanexpansionintheSovietUnion Earlymicrorayonplanning typicallylinkedhousingtofactoriesdevelopedonformeragriculturallandsatthefringenowunderpublic ownership Withoutmarketconstraintsandinconformancetosocialplanningobjectives,mikrorayons typicallyincludedlargeparkandopenspaceareas(usuallyatleast30%ofthedistrict),healthcare services,educationalfacilities,culturalvenues,andsubsidizedtransit(Shavishvili,2009) Althoughin theorySovietsocietywasclasslessandurbanspacenotsociallysegregated,infactcentrally located neighborhoodswerefavoredbypartyandculturalelites,andhousingblocksattheperipheryweremore oftenthedomainoftheworkingclassandethnicminorities InthelateryearsoftheSovietUnion, housingestatesdeclinedinqualityandamenitiesasnationaleconomiesweakened
Inadditiontohousingblocks,theurbanperipheryalsoaccommodatedsummercottagesandcountry estatesknownasdachas Originallyassociatedwiththearistocracy,dachasweregrantedtopartyand culturalelitesduringtheSovietperiod Post warfoodshortagesfosteredapolicyofgrantinggardenplots
indachadistricts,oftenallottedingroupstoworkers.AlthoughSovietrulesaimedtopreventpermanent residencesongardenplots,theconstructionoftinyhomesonplotsgrewinpopularity expandingthe Russiandachaidealtoabroadersegmentofthepopulation
ThefalloftheSovietUnionandtheintroductionofthemarketeconomyintroducedprivate led developmentattheurbanfringeandincreasingsuburbanization Hirtidentifiesanemergingtrendofgated formsofsuburbanhousingdevelopment areflectionofthefailedsocialistandpost socialistpublic realmthatresultedinaturntoward“privatism”(Hirt,2012) Growingeconomicprosperitybeginningin themid-2000scontinuedthetrendtowardsuburbanization,oftenaccompaniedbyretailintheformof largershoppingcentersandmalls Informalsettlementsalsocontinuetocharacterizetheperi-urbanzone ofpost-socialiststatesandmayincludesettlementsforvulnerablepopulationssuchasthosedisplacedby waraswellasillegalsubdivisionswhereprivately ownedlandistransformedforurbanusewithout planningpermissions(Tsenkova,2010)
Tbilisi’sPeripheryinHistoricalPerspective
Tbilisiis“shapedlikedlikealargeamphitheatersurroundedbymountainsonthreesides”andbifurcated bytheMtkvariRiver(SalukvadzeandGolubchikov,2016,40) Developmentontherightbankofthe Mtkvariishemmedinbymountains,whiledevelopmentalongtheleftbankextendsalongthehighway thatparallelstheriver AlthoughTbilisidoesnotexceedsevenkilometerswide,itextends40kilometers alongtheriver,creatingan“impractical,elongatedstructure”(Salukvadze,2009,162)
LikemanyotherformerSovietstates,GeorgiaundertheSovietUnionwaslargelyagricultural withmostoftheurbanpopulationandinfrastructureconcentratedinthecapitalcity.Soviet industrializationpolicyofthe1930 1950sdroveurbanizationinTbilisi(Salukvadze,2018).Sincethe 1960s,muchofTbilisi’sgrowthoccurredthroughincorporationofnon urbanareasformasshousing developmenttoaccommodateaninfluxofnewresidents(Salukvadze,2009).Fromthe1950stothe 1980s,Tbilisi’spopulationdoubled,reachingahighof1.2millionin1988.Theterritorialexpansionof TbilisialsooccurredthroughthecontinualextensionofTbilisi’sadministrativeboundaries,from approximately200squarekilometersattheendofWorldWarIItothecurrentsizeof504square kilometers(Salukvadze,2009).
Therealcity(thebuilt uppartofTbilisi)madeuponly1/3oftheareawithintheofficial (administrative)boundaries,slightlyexceeding100km2.Theremainingareawas reservedforfurthergrowth,mostlyfornewmasshousing.Suchanapproachoftencaused conflictsbetweentheadministrationofTbilisiandneighboringruralsettlementsabout possibleland useandlandtenureregimeofthevase“reserved”lands.Suchconflicts becamemorevisibleandtenselater,intheperiodofmarkettransition,causing administrativeandevenjudicialinterventions.(Salukvadze,2009,164).
UndertheSovietregime,threemasterplanscalled Genplans werecreatedforthecity:in1934, 1953,and1969(SalukvadzeandGolubchikov,2016).Althoughthethirdmasterplanattemptedtoresolve someofthechallengesofTbilisi’slinearsprawl,itfailedtoproducesubstantialchange(Salukvadze, 2009) In1965TbilisibecamethefourthSovietcitywithanundergroundmetrosystem,complementinga diversepublictransportsystemincludingtrolleysandcablecarsandenablingmobilitytopreviously isolatedandremotedistricts(SalukvadzeandGolubchikov,2016)
ThecollapseoftheSovietUnionbroughtdeepinstabilityandrapidmarketizationtoGeorgia Duringthe1990sandintotheearly2000s,factoriesstoppedandurbantransportfailed,isolatingfringe areas BuildingactivitieswerelooselyguidedbyoldSovietrules,althoughmuchdevelopmentinthis periodwasofthe“do it yourself”varietywithlittlepublicoversight The2004RoseRevolutionushered inplanningreformsincludingrealpropertyregistrationandcadastralization However,privatizationunder conditionsofweakgovernanceandrampantcorruptionmeantthatmanypropertieslongprotectedby conservationandrecreationdesignations bothintheurbancoreandattheperiphery werenow privatelyheldandvulnerabletodevelopment
Economicrecoveryinthe2000striggeredredevelopmentofTbilisi’surbancoreaswellasnew developmentatthefringe Followingtrendsevidentinmanypost socialiststates,Tbilisi’sfringesawnew,
suburban stylehousingdevelopmentsattheurbanperiphery,accompaniedbylargeretailcenters.Atthe northend,Tbilisi’sexpandingperipherycentersaroundtheDidiDighomidistrict.DidiDighomiincludes manyolderSoviet erahousingblocksaswellasnewconstructionmulti family AlthoughmuchofDidi Dighomiisurbanincharacter,itisnotconnectedbytraintothecentralcity,leadingtohighlevelsof congestionandtraveldelaysfortripsbybusandcar Inadditiontohigh density,urbandevelopment,the districtishometosuburbanhousing,suchastheDiplomaticVillage adjacenttothenewAmerican Embassybuildingthatopenedin2005andfeaturinglarge,single familyhomes Capitalizingonthis growingmarket,TbilisiMallopenedatthenorthedgeofthecityin2012 AtTbilisi’ssouthernend,East PointMallopenedin2015
Althoughthefirstpost-independenceMasterPlanwasintroducedin2009,itwaslargely ineffectiveandgenerallymaintainedthestatusquo(SalukvadzeandVanAssche,2022) In2018,Tbilisi adoptedalandmarknewRevisedLandUseMasterPlanthatsetsathree prongedvisionforTbilisi’s future:compact,connected,andpolycentric(SalukvadzeandVanAssche,2022) Inadditiontothese framingpolicyfoci,theMasterPlanestablishesstrictnewcontrolsondevelopmentofconservationand recreationlands TheMasterPlanningprocessbroughttoaheadlong simmeringcontroversiesabouthow thecity’surban ruralfringeshouldbedeveloped Whileestablishing“bigpicture”policiesthatprioritize protectionofopenspace,theMasterPlanningeffortcalledfordevelopmentofDetailedAreaPlansto addressregulatoryframeworksforsomeofthemostcontestedandchallengingpartsofTbilisiincluding fringedistricts,aprocessthatisnowunderway
Tbilisi’sFringeFormsToday
ThissectiondescribesthreedevelopmentsshapingTbilisi’sfringetoday.Theprojectsareallsimilarin thattheyeachenvisionanewtownbothremovedfromandindialoguewithTbilisiandofferingamodern wayofliving.Inspiteofthesesimilarities,theprojectspresentstrikingdifferencesinthewayseach respondstoitsfringelocationandthewayeachimaginesacontemporaryfringelifestyle.
Tbilisi Sea New City
Tbilisi’samphitheatershapecurvestotheeastaroundtheTbilisiSea(orTbilisiReservoir),anartificial lakethatprovidesdrinkingandirrigationwaterforTbilisi.Theseaformsthebulkoftheeasternedgeof thecity,beyondwhichthelandscapeismoremountainous.Whiledevelopmentonthecity’sleftbank hugsthesea,theareadirectlyaroundthereservoirhaslongbeenprotectedforrecreationaland conservationuses.TheTbilisiSeaofferspublicbeach,fishing,andothernaturalrecreationareas,butis alsohometocommercializedrecreationincludingtheGinoParadiseTbilisiwaterandamusementpark andtheTbilisiSeaClub apopularswimming,boating,andeventcomplex.TheTbilisiZooandthe TbilisiDendrologicalPark(anarboretum)arealsolocatednearby.
TheTbilisiSeaNewCitywasconceivedasan“anall inclusive,macro plannedintentionalcityin thepreviouslyundevelopednorthofGeorgia’scapital,rightonthebanksofthecity’smassivereservoir” (Shepard2016Forbes) TheprojectistheresultofaneconomicdevelopmentdealbetweentheGeorgian governmentandHualingGroup,aChinesedevelopmentandinvestmentfirm,reportedlythe single largestinvestorinGeorgia Inexchangefordevelopingtheinfrastructureandresidentialvillage necessarytohostthe2015YouthOlympics,theGeorgiangovernmentgrantedHualingtherightto develop420hectaresofland Theten yeardevelopmentplanbeganwithcreationoftheOlympicVillage and250-roomhotelin2015 In2016,theHualingTbilisiSeaPlaza asprawling120,000squaremeter retailandwholesaletradingcenterbilledasthelargesttradecenterintheCaucasus openedonthesite Buildoutplanscallforarangeofurbanamenitiesincludingadditionalapartments,schools,ahospital, andluxuryvillas
A2016Forbesmagazinearticleprofiledthecityinitsearlyphase:“rolling,verdanthillsabruptly gavewaytothetightphalanxofidenticaltenstoryapartmentblocksthatsatonaperfectlyalignedstreet grid,withasturdygatesurroundingtheperimeter”(Shepard,2016) Whilegatedcommunitieshave emergedinmanypost Socialiststates,theyarenewtoGeorgia Althoughinsomecasesgated
communitiessignalAmerican styleglobalization,TbilisiSeaNewCitystrikesadifferenttone oneof “modernurbanChinatransplantedupontheGeorgiancountryside”(Shepard,2016).
WhiletheTbilisiSeaprojectwaspitchedasofferingmodern,high amenityurbanlivingatthe fringe,thecurrentrealityisastarkcontrast After2018,theprojectfelloffthemediaradar,makingit difficulttoascertainthecurrentstatusofdevelopmentplans Onlinerealestateadvertisementsshow no frillsunitsthatappeartoattractmanyshort termstays GooglereviewsoftheAdenApartmentsat TbilisiSeaNewCitydescribeaquietbutisolatedplace,changingmanagement,alackofupkeep,and constanthighwindsfromtheseaandexacerbatedbythestreetgrid Thepromiseofproximitytonature, inthiscase,seemstoyieldsignificantproblems
Theproject’slocationalsomeansthedevelopmentisdisconnectedfromTbilisi’seconomic engines GooglereviewsofTbilisiSeaNewCitydescribethetradecenteraslargelyempty While modernbutaffordablehousingismuchneededinTbilisi,thisarea whichisnotwellservedby transit lackslinkagestoemploymentandservices,limitingitsattractivenesstohomebuyers Itisalso justnorthofVarketili,oneofTbilisi’smostethnically diverseandaffordabledistricts Varketiliis dominatedbypoorly constructedandoutdatedKhrushovkaapartmentblocks Severalhousingprojects forinternallydisplacedpersonsandveteransarealsolocatedinthearea Thesefactorscontributeto spatialandeconomicisolationforTbilisiSeaNewCitythatappeartobelimitingtheimpactsofthe investmentsinitiatedinthearea Theprojectsuggeststhatstateeconomicdevelopmentobjectivesand largescaleforeigninvestmentmuststillbeattentivetomarketrealities
Lisi Green Town
LisiLakeisanaturallakelocatedatthewesternedgeofTbilisiandisapopulardestinationforwalking, running,andbiking.MuchofthelandinthevicinityofLisiLakewaslongprotectedaspartof recreationalandconservationzones.However,landgrabsduringperiodsofweakpublicoversight resultedinprivateownershipofmuchofthearea.Althoughmanylargeparcelsremainundeveloped,the areaishometofast growing,low densityresidential.LisiLakeislocatedonthecity’sleftbank,andis closetoneighborhoodsthatattractaffluent,newconstructionhomebuyers,suchasVake,Saburtalo,and Dighomi.TheLisiLakeareaisalsohometosomeofTbilisi’smostprestigiousprivateschoolsaswellas theHippodrome,plannedforredevelopmentasTbilisi’sCentralPark.Together,thesefactorscreate significantdemandfordevelopmentinthearea.
ThecentralforceinthedevelopmentoftheLisiLakeareaisLisiDevelopmentandrelated companiesorganizedbyMamukaKhazaradze,co founderofTBCBank,oneofGeorgia’slargestbanks. In2007,oneofthecompaniesformedbyKhazaradzebid$182millionforthepurchaseof354hectaresof landnearLisiLake.ThepurchasewaspartofaprogramtheOrganizedCrimeandCorruptionReporting Projectdescribedin2015asfollows:
ARepublicofGeorgiagovernmentprogramtosellvaluablepubliclandfor below marketortokenpricestoencouragedevelopmenthasturnedintoalandgrabfor politicallyconnectedindividualswhohaveeithernotmetorsignificantlynegotiated downconditionsoftheprogram (Shermadini,2015)
Thebidofferingraisedsomehopes TherewasenthusiasmthataGeorgianfirm,ratherthanforeign investment,wouldchampiontheproject Thepurchasecontractalsorequireda$30millioninvestment withinfiveyearsthatwouldsupportcommunityamenitiesandinfrastructureincludingrecreationalareas, waterqualityimprovements,andanenvironmentally-friendlycablecarsystem(Shermadini,2015)
Ultimately,thelandwaspurchasedthroughKhazaradze’sfirmsforjust$55millionandwithout obligationsforcommunitybenefits ThecentraldevelopmentprojectisbilledasLisiGreen Town The masterplanandmarketingmaterialsfortheprojectportrayamixof“green”attributescombinedwith luxuryapartmentslivinginsleekmid risetowers ThewebsitedescribesLisiGreen Townasa “full fledgedsmalltowninacity”offeringopenspace,landscaping,andparkingamenities“thereal estatesectorinTbilisicouldnolongerphysicallyfulfill”(LisiGreen Town,2021) Themasterplanfor theprojectindicatesthatonly20%oftheprojectareawillbeusedforresidentialdevelopmenttoensure plentifulcommonareas Theopenspaceistheprimarygreenfeaturepromotedontheproject’swebsite
andundoubtedlyappealstoresidentsofTbilisi,whereairqualityandalackofopenspaceare long standingissues.TheprojectalsoenvisionedapartnershipwithTBCBanktooffermortgageswith just10%down asignificantopportunitysinceatypicaldownpaymentinGeorgiaisbetween30 50% (YourHouseinLisiGreenTownAwaits,2016)
PhaseOneopenedin2011andfeaturesa160 unitapartmentcomplexaswellasinstitutionaland retailspace Theprojectcontinuestomakeprogresstowardbuildoutgoals,buthasencounteredbumps alongtheway DevelopmentoftheLisiLakeareawasamongthemostcontroversialissuesraisedduring therecentTbilisiMasterPlaneffort Somesawthecity’sMasterPlanasanopportunitytolimit developmentinonce-protectedconservationandrecreationzonessuchasLisiLake Ontheotherhand, privatepropertyownersanddeveloperssoughttoprotecttheirinvestments CityHallwasconcerned aboutthepotentialcostofprovidingcompensationforpropertyrightsinfringementsiftheplanrestricted growth Intheendandinconjunctionwithadevelopmentmoratorium,theMasterPlancalledfora DetailedAreaPlantobedevelopedforLisiLakebasedonfurtherstudyandengagement The recently adoptedDetailedAreaPlancallsforamixofconservationanddevelopment aformula reflectedinthelargeamountsofopenspaceallottedinthemasterplan AlthoughtheimplicationsforLisi Green Townarenotapparent,Khazaradzewasrecentlyfoundguiltyoffraud Thecriminalcharge coincidedwithKhazaradze’seffortstoformapoliticalpartyopposingtheGeorgianDream,promptinga statementofconcernbytheUSEmbassyinGeorgiathatthechargesmaybepoliticallymotivated
Satibe
AlthoughbeyondTbilisi’slimits,thenewSatibedevelopment fiftyminutesbycarfromFreedom Square isnoteworthyforofferingadistinctiveapproachtohousingonthefringe. SatibeisanewsettlementnearTbilisi,whichisformedontheoutskirtsofthevillage Orbeti.Thepurposeistoconnectpeoplewithnature,witheachother,leisureand productivitytoexistincompleteharmony.(Satibe,n.d.)
ThewebsiteforSatibeshowsphotographsandarchitecturalrenderingsofsingle familyhomeswithan organicaesthetic,featuringearthtones,stoneexteriors,andwoodfloorsandceilingbeams.Anexclusive, luxuryorientationisevidentintheimages,whichfeatureprivatebackyardpoolsandgateddriveways. Potentialbuyersareencouragedtofilloutaformindicatingwhethertheyareinterestedinasummer homeorpermanentresidence.Thesiteindicatesthat“Satibealreadyhasalotoffutureresidents.Mostof themaremembersofthearts,creativeindustries,innovative technological,andbusinesssectors”(Satibe, n.d.withGoogleTranslate).Asiteplansketchonthewebsitesuggeststhatapproximately100parcelsare envisioned.
DiscussionandConclusion
ThedevelopmentstakingshapeonTbilisi’sfringeshareavisionofprovidingamodernlifestyleinanew townsetting,butpresentdivergenttakesonwhathousingattheurbanfringesignifies TbilisiSeaNew Cityoffersmuch neededaffordablehousingbutsuffersfromspatial,economic,andsocio cultural disconnectsfromTbilisi Theprojectisnotdesignedormarketedtocapitalizeonitsfringelocation TbilisiSeaNewCitycallsattentiontotheroleofforeigninvestmentandstateeconomicdevelopment policyinshapingGeorgia’sbuiltenvironment LisiGreen Townoffersaluxurytakeongreenlivingand boaststhedesignandlocationcachetoattractnewhomebuyers Asortofgardencityforcontemporary times,LisiGreen-Townattemptstoofferthebestoftownandcountrythroughamodern,urbanaesthetic andgenerousopenspacesetasides Whiletoutinggreencredentials,theprojectcontroversiallyextends developmentintoonce protectedareas Theprojectalsoencapsulatespowerandcorruptionissuesthatgo hand in handwithlarge scaledevelopmentinGeorgia Satibeistheonlyall single familyprojectamong thethree,andpresentsavisionoffringelivingthatisclosetonature Whilepromotingaback to the land character,theprojectsquarelytargetsTbilisi’screativeclassandtechno financeeliteswhocanwork remotelyorenjoysummervacationsatthisruralidyll
Takentogether,theprojectsdemonstratethatTbilisi’sfringe likeurbanperipheriesacrossthe globe isincreasinglyshapedbyprocessesofmarketizationandglobalizationbutremainsembeddedin processesuniquetoGeorgia TbilisiSeaNewCityillustratesthegrowinggeopoliticalandfiscalpowerof Chinainshapingurbanspaceacrosstheglobe Italsopointstoacontinuedroleforthefringein accommodatingaffordablehousingdevelopments albeithousingthatisproblematicallydisconnected fromeconomicandsocialopportunities Theapparentfailureofthisprojecttoprogresstowardbuildout suggeststhatGeorgianstatedevelopmentpolicymaystillbetoomiredintechnocraticdecision making andinadequatelyequippedtocooperatewithmarketrealities TheluxurypositioningofbothLisi Green-TownandSatibereflecttheaspirationsoffootloose,affluent,amenity-seekingurbanitesandthe importanceofmarketprocessesinshapingthecontemporaryfringe Theseforcesdominatefringe developmentaroundtheworld,linkingTbilisitoglobalpathways BothprojectsarealsodeeplyGeorgian LisiGreen TownrespondstoTbilisimodesandconcernsincludingapreferenceformodern,urban aestheticsandaninterestinairqualityandopenspace,andtheprojectisinseparablefromthekindsof corruptionissuesthatplagueGeorgia SatibeinvokesGeorgianvillagetraditionsbutwithacontemporary twistforurbanelites
WhiletheseprojectsofferinsightsaboutTbilisi’sfringetoday,manyissuesandquestionsremain Fromapolicyperspective,the2018MasterPlanoffersahopefulplatformforstrongerenvironmental conservationattheurbanperiphery Otherissuesthatinterrelatewiththefringe suchasaffordable housing,spatialisolationofdifferentsocialgroups,andregionalmobility arebeyondthescopeofthis paperbutmeritincreasedpolicyattention.Whatiscertainisthatthefringewillremainanareainflux, boththelocusofconflictandapersistentideal.
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