Parking facilities: Construction

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Parking Facilities

by Shannon Sanders McDonald, AIA Last updated: 07-20-2009

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Parking as part o f an o verall transpo rtatio n system is o ne o f the crucial issues o f o ur times. As the number o f auto mo biles Building Attributes increases expo nentially, the need to ho use them in clo se Emerging Issues pro ximity creates a challenging design pro blem. The parking Relevant Codes and facility o r lo t must fo remo st deal with the Functio nal/Operatio nal Standards as in pro viding fo r safe and efficient passage o f the auto mo bile.

Major Resources This is a very co mplex challenge as auto mo tive, engineering and traffic issues relative to site lo catio ns must be integrated to create the appro priate so lutio n. Therefo re designing the parking facility requires an integrated design appro ach o f many pro fessio nals. Parking has o ften been reduced to the co nstructio n o f the mo st minimal stand-alo ne structure o r parking lo t witho ut human, aesthetic o r integrative co nsideratio ns. This has given parking a po o r public perceptio n and has frequently disrupted existing urban fabric. Ho wever, many architects, engineers, and planners have envisio ned and co nstructed far mo re co mplex, aesthetic, and integrative structures. This sho uld be the go al o f go o d parking design.

Air Decontamination Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) VIEW ALL RELAT ED (36 ) VIEW RESO URCE PAG E INDEX

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BUILDING AT T RIBUT ES SPAC E T YPES D ESIG N D ISC IPLIN ES PR O D UC T S & SYST EMS

Altho ugh parking facilities can take many fo rms as stand-alo ne o r part o f a mixed-use structure, selfpark o r valet, and auto mated in urban settings, all parking facilities sho uld seek to meet the fo llo wing basic criteria:

Funct ional Requirement s PDFmyURL.com

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The facility sho uld acco unt fo r the co mplex spatial needs o f the driver and the auto mo bile: The size, height, and turning radius o f current Hermosa Beach Parking Structure auto mo biles as well as past and future trends o f (Courtesy of Stantec Architecture) auto mo bile size and statistical quantity must be taken into acco unt these are called parking geo metries.

There are many ramp design co nfiguratio ns and different o nes are appro priate fo r the primary purpo se o f the facility to insure that yo ur intended use is co mpatible with ramp design.

The streets surro unding the facility and their traffic flo w must be taken into co nsideratio n when planning entrances and exits and deciding o n ramp designs.

The entrances and exits are very impo rtant to the smo o th functio ning o f the facility, with the type o f use again determining the length fro m the o pening and placement o f the entry bo o ths, as well as the quantity o f entrances and exits.

The type o f equipment and the necessity o f a bo o th and o ffice are also determined by the facility use.

Zo ning issues require the number o f spaces fo r parked auto mo biles. The designer must wo rk within lo cal co des to meet these requirements.

In mixed-use pro jects there has been shared parking do cumenting ho w different users can maintain full facility o ccupancy, such as mo vie/theater go ers, night use and residential use during the day. This can be calculated to the advantage o f the facility o wner and the co mmunity by eliminating the empty night facility syndro me.

Optimizing site po tential, by cho ice o f site and its relatio nship to walking, driving, o ther transpo rtatio n linkages and go o d design o ppo rtunities.

The o peratio n and maintenance o f a facility is very critical. Revenue co ntro l equipment and o ther issues related to the smo o th functio ning o f the garage must be taken into acco unt during the design pro cess.

Pro vide fo r appro priate wo rk space fo r the staff, such as cashier and mo nito ring equipment.

Pro vide an area o r ro o m fo r the sto rage and maintenance issues. This area sho uld be heated/air-co nditio ned and co ntain a mo p sink.

Acco mmo date techno lo gical to o ls fo r future upgrades o f o peratio nal systems and facility expansio n.

Plan fo r a back up po wer system.

Ventilatio n is an issue within so me types and so me areas o f parking facility design. New techno lo gies are increasing the effectiveness in design and mo nito ring o f these areas fo r co ncern. Natural ventilatio n is always a go o d metho d ho wever detailed study is required in so me areas and types o f parking facility design to determine its effectiveness.

St ruct ural Int egrat ion The efficient integratio n o f structure is crucial to maximum functio ning o f the facility: The parking facility is typically an expo sed structure and must be designed to withstand all PDFmyURL.com

aspects o f enviro nmental co nditio ns.

There are ideal structural bays that allo w fo r maximum number o f parking spaces and flo w o f auto mo biles dependent upo n site and structure.

Cast in place co ncrete, pre-cast co ncrete and structural steel can be used fo r the structural design.

Typical co nstructio n issues such as natural hazards in the lo catio n o f co nstructio n apply and co mpo und the so lutio ns in designing a structure that is co mpletely expo sed to the weather and co nstant mo vement fro m auto mo biles.

Size and length o f so me structures co mpo und the expansio n and co ntractio n issues already o f key impo rtance in facility design.

The surface o f the "flo o r" o f the facility is impo rtant to slippage issues as o ne must always design a facility as a fully expo sed building fo r the safe use by bo th the auto mo bile and pedestrian.

In very co ld climates ice, sno w, salt and o ther ro ad chemicals must be taken into co nsideratio n. So me facilities have sno w chutes where sno w can be plo wed o ff o f the to p level o f the structure. At minimum an area where sno w can be piled must be designed into the structure o r lo t.

Drainage and flo o r slo pe is very impo rtant, as po nding water can create lo ng term maintenance pro blems.

Peer review o f the design is o ften used o n facility do cuments befo re the co nstructio n pro cess. Perfo rmance o bjectives, co st-effectiveness, and building co mmissio ning are useful to o ls.

Saf et y and Securit y Safety and security o f the peo ple using the facility are o f paramo unt impo rtance: Open, glass stairwells and glass-backed elevato rs.

Security devices such as video , audio and emergency butto ns that call into the bo o th o r lo cal po lice statio n.

Public telepho nes Eliminate po tential hiding places, such as under o pen stairs.

Handicap accessibility with vehicles clo se to stair and elevato r co res having a direct path to key mo vement patterns o f the facility.

To avo id carbo n mo no xide build-up, air flo w is adequately designed fo r thro ugh mechanical and/o r natural ventilatio n.

No n-slip flo o r surface Cleanliness Design fo r the po ints o f intersectio n between man and the auto mo bile fo r adequate safety o f mo vement.

Energy efficient lighting is very impo rtant in facility safety but can po se pro blems with spillage o ut o f the facility o nto neighbo ring co mmunities. A balance between daylighting, interio r lighting and exterio r co ntro l can be addressed in many ways o n the exterio r design o f the faรงade while pro viding adequate lighting within. Lights sho uld be vandal resistant and easy to maintain.

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Use CPTED (Crime Preventio n Thro ugh Enviro nmental Design) whenever appro priate alo ng with techno lo gical equipment.

Signs and Wayf inding Co lo r-co ding, numbering, visual cues, music, and even machines fo r marking yo ur ticket with yo ur exact lo catio n to lo cate yo ur car fo r easy retrieval Lo cate signs in areas where driver can read in a timely fashio n.

Clear, simple, and direct messages.

Flo o r co ding can be useful Signage sho uld lo cate all majo r internal pedestrian access po ints as well as external majo r ro ads and buildings.

Aest het ics Aesthetics o f facility design has beco me very impo rtant to co mmunities acro ss the co untry: Recently facility design has beco me part o f an architectural style o f the surro unding architecture, respecting the language o f design and using the design pro cess.

The histo ric preservatio n mo vement was o ne o f the key issues in facility design as facilities were needed to revitalize dense o lder urban fabrics witho ut destro ying the architectural co ntext. Many excellent examples can be fo und acro ss the co untry so lving these co ntextual issues.

The Parking facility itself is no w also part o f the histo ric preservatio n mo vement as so me o lder existing structures can and sho uld be designated fo r preservatio n.

The Parking Facility has played an impo rtant ro le in design evo lutio n thro ugho ut its histo ry o ften being the leader in Bryan Street Garage many crucial design issues; it is truly a unique and impo rtant (Courtesy of Carl Walker, Inc.) civic building. Perhaps o ne o f the mo st impo rtant design labo rato ries o f the 20 th century it has beco me the gateway to o ur buildings and cities.

Maintain the urban street fro nt by having the sidewalk co nditio n o f the facility co ntain sto res o r pro vide a safe and pleasant walk experience.

Using landscaping and changes in architectural materials fo rms, and scales to enhance the facility faรงade alo ng the street. Use landscaping to shied and enhance parking lo t design.

Architecturally breaking do wn the scale o f the large structure alo ng its faรงade.

Designing beautiful stairs and elevato r co res to enhance the co mmunity and walking experience.

Mo st co stly so lutio n is to "hide" the facility by placing belo w gro und

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Left: Queensway Bay Facility (Courtesy of International Parking Design, Inc. and Erhard Pfeiffer, photographer) And Right: Landscaped rooftop of Northpark Town Center (Courtesy of John Portman & Associates and Michael Portman, photographer)

Int egrat ed and Mixed- Use Design Facilities are o ften co nnected to o ther uses: The facility has always been a mixed-use structure co mbining and o ften co nnected with all o ther building types.

Plan fo r any lo ading o r unlo ading co nditio ns required by mixed-use, so as no t to interfere with facility traffic.

Separate ro o fing and structural system fo r any human-o ccupied space within facility.

Pro vide fo r simple and well-designed mo vement systems fo r pedestrian and auto mo biles.

Many facilities are co mbined with almo st any use imaginable such as a playing surface o n the ro o f requiring green architecture, so enjo y the po ssibilities o f integrating a fully functio nal structure requiring many techno lo gical advances.

Surface parking lo ts can be designed to beco me mixed-use plaza spaces.

The facility has o ften in its histo ry been part o f a multi-mo dal system linking different fo rms o f transpo rtatio n.

Environment al Issues The car in its' early years was the enviro nmental savio r o f o ur cities and to wns, eliminating animal waste and carcasses in o ur streets, part o f the cause o f many health and enviro nmental hazards at the beginning o f the century. But as their numbers and use have dramatically increased they have beco me part o f the current enviro nmental pro blems.

New fuel so urces fo r the auto mo bile can eliminate air po llutio n hazards caused by emissio ns fro m the vehicle and auto mo bile manufactures are wo rking o n the so lutio ns. Parking lo ts as large areas o f paved surfaces co ntribute to warming trends in cities and can alter lo cal weather patterns. The additio n o f so lar panels so metimes simultaneo usly serving as shading devices o r aesthetic faรงade treatments can wo rk to address multiple co ncerns. Lo cal co des can assist with PDFmyURL.com

addressing the amo unt o f parking allo wed. Paving that has abso rbed o ils, fuels, ro ad salts and o ther materials co ntribute to pro blems in water runo ff and water po llutio n. Parking facilities can address these issues in several ways, o ne being the green ro o f. As well, pervio us paving can pro vide a so lutio n in parking lo ts.

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EMERGING ISSUES Transport at ion Parking facilities can serve an impo rtant ro le as a po int o f passage fo r the driver fro m the car into a building o r the urban fabric due to their typical use as the starting and/o r ending po int o f travel by the auto mo bile and its driver. This gateway ro le is o ften o verlo o ked in the design pro cess. In attempting to reso lve the co mplex urban and enviro nmental issues surro unding the use o f the auto mo bile in the United States, the parking facility can be seen as part o f the so lutio n fo r the integratio n o f different transpo rtatio n systems as a gateway o r transfer po int between systems, bus, train o r air. These so lutio ns are no t histo rically new but are seeing a reemergence, as traffic in many urban areas beco mes o verwhelming and extremely time co nsuming. The integratio n o f the bicycle as an alternative means o f transpo rtatio n is finding a place in parking facility design, as special places designed fo r the sto rage and retrieval o f bicycle can easily be acco mmo dated within facility design. In Euro pe, separate multi-sto ry and auto mated bicycle facilities can be fo und.

Mixed Use Parking facilities can also co mbine with o ther building types as mixed-use structures due to their very functio n. Aesthetically pleasing designs as well as land use, safety and ease o f use can be better acco mmo dated with a mixed-use structure.

Residential and Ho spital use/facility co mbinatio ns typically po se the mo st difficult design challenges due to fire co de issues. An impo rtant emerging issue is addressing fire co des as related to mixed use when co mbining buildings with mo dern facilities. Transit Villages and New Urbanist planning strategies are beco ming po pular and being built in greater frequency aro und the co unty. They each address the mo vement and sto rage o f cars in vario us ways that co mbine residential use with many o ther building types.

Center Street Park and Ride (Courtesy of Herbert Lewis Kruse Blunck, Architects and Assassi ProductionsŠ2002)

Saf et y An emerging issue with safety is a threat/vulnerability assessment in respo nse to car bo mbings.

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Risk, co st, and co nvenience must be facto red in to gether in determining so lutio ns. In certain mixed-use co nditio ns all o f these facto rs sho uld be co nsidered in determining the mo st appro priate so lutio ns. Techno lo gy may eventually play a ro le in the screening o f vehicles fo r explo sives as they enter the parking facility.

Pedest rian Access Altho ugh safety fo r the pedestrian has been a recent co ncern in parking facility design with adequate lighting and o pen stairwell and elevato r design, the actual mo vement o f the pedestrian thro ugh the facility has rarely been designed fo r. Several facilities are being designed to create a mo re pleasing enviro nment with separate paths fo r the pedestrian fro m their cars to o ther circulatio n paths to specific po ints o f destinatio n. Vertical o penings piercing the facility and landscape plantings within the structure are also creating a mo re o pen, safe, and inviting place to walk. By addressing the pedestrian within the facility and parking lo ts they can beco me a part o f a to tal urban design system addressing o ur aging so ciety and the impo rtant gateway issues o f this type.

Left: San Mateo Government Center Parking Structure (Courtesy of Watry Design, Inc.) And Right: Disney Resort Guest Parking Structure Anaheim, California (Š Disney)

Technological Changes Advances in techno lo gy are changing the way we can enter and leave a facility. Techno lo gical advances in pay systems and mo vement access systems allo w fo r easier flo w o f mo vement o f pedestrians and auto mo biles. Two are AVI - Auto matic Vehicle Identificatio n systems and LPR License Plate Reco gnitio n Systems. There are also auto mated systems that direct yo ur car to the o pen spaces available and pay-o n-fo o t systems eliminating the bo o th. Mo bile co nnectio ns can no w o ccur, so that yo ur time o f arrival to the facility is anticipated and yo ur car is ready fo r yo u to drive away, fees already paid fo r. Techno lo gical advances are also changing the way and where we wo rk. With many peo ple teleco mmuting fro m ho me the parking facility can pro vide the mixed use o f small o ffice lo catio ns to co nnect to a main o ffice lo catio n do wnto wn.

Aut omat ed Mechanical Facilit ies PDFmyURL.com

In the United States there is a lo ng histo ry o f mechanical facilities. Starting in the 19 20 's and again in the 19 50 's mechanical facility systems were built in this co untry. Ho no lulu, Hawaii built systems in the 70 's and 8 0 's. Many auto mated systems have been built acro ss the co untry typically in dense lo catio ns where the pro ject and the site required an auto mated facility in o rder fo r the pro ject to be a success. This type o f facility is mo re expensive in mo st lo catio ns than a ramp facility to build, ho wever certain site and/o r building type relatio nships allo w this type o f facility to be eco no mically feasible. There are many advantages such as mo re cars per site area, no pedestrian access to the facility and few attendants.

Summit Grand Parc Many structural and functio nal types o f auto mated (Courtesy of Space Saver Parking Company and Mid- American Elevator mechanical systems exist: such as undergro und Company) systems as part o f the building fo undatio n o r abo ve grade where they can match neighbo ring buildings in architectural appearance. The actual mechanisms and mo vement systems that carry the auto mo bile vary with each manufacturer.

Car Sharing One idea that is taking ho ld is the idea o f po int to po int use o f the car. Yo u wo uld rent the car fro m ho me to wo rk where it wo uld be left in a facility to be rented by so meo ne who can use the car during the day. The return trip ho me wo uld functio n in the same way. Depending upo n the access o f these parking rental structures many po int to po int uses co uld o ccur. The Center fo r Neighbo rho o d Techno lo gy can o ffer insights into many alternative appro aches.

Vehicle Changes The very first parking facilities were fo r electric vehicles and charging statio ns were designed within the facility structure. With the current changes in vehicle design, the parking facility o ften acco mmo dates electric vehicle use fo r perso nal auto mo biles as well as fo r campus and o ther vehicles required fo r particular o wners and users o f facilities. The way that a car is po wered in the future will so lve enviro nmental issues but traffic and parking co ncerns will remain if we as a culture co ntinue to depend o n the single o ccupancy vehicle. But, as the fuel so urce changes, the design o f the car will also evo lve and the way it mo ves thro ugh space will change with it. These design changes will have the po wer to mo dify the parking facility/building relatio nship. What this means to future architectural design is a place fo r interesting study and back to the future ideas.

New experiments in alternate fuels fo r vehicles will impact parking facility design.

As the auto mo bile changes the parking facility and related co de issues can also no w to begin to change to address the new mo vement realities. Other mo vement devices are also appearing o f PDFmyURL.com

vario us shapes and sizes which will challenge the interio r design and flo w o f the parking facility as well. The parking structure and ro ads may even beco me mo re integrative with buildings as these new changes take place such as in so me interesting histo rical and mo dern speculative examples where ro ads, auto mo biles, and parking merge.

Bicycle Facilit ies In many co mmunities acro ss the co untry, bicycles are beco ming a po pular mo de o f transpo rtatio n. While areas within facilities are acco mmo dating the safe sto rage o f bicycles and many sto rage systems exist, the facility itself needs to spatially address the different needs o f a bicycle driver. The smaller scale and slo wer speed o f the bicycle, alo ng with co ncentrated pedestrian traffic requires different spatial relatio nships and design co nsideratio ns o f separatio n o f man and machine. We are no w seeing bicycle parking facilities in the United States starting in Califo rnia and with o ne recently o pening up in Millennium Park in Chicago .

Sust ainable Designs This term discusses a set o f interrelated issues that is very co mplex when applied to the parking facility typo lo gy. The parking facility in and o f itself is a better land-use cho ice in attempting to create a mo re sustainable built enviro nment by increasing the amo unt o f parking within a limited land area o r making the co nnectio n to o ther fo rms o f transpo rtatio n reducing traffic and co ngestio n issues.

The actual co nstructio n o f the facility can begin to meet the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Enviro nmental Design) Green Building Rating System速 criteria and a new Federal Green Fairfield Multi- Modal Transportation Co nstructio n Guide fo r Specifiers will so o n be Facility available, also refer to Sustainable Design Objectives. (Photo by David Wakely / Courtesy Green Building Rating System criteria and several Stantec Architecture) LEED certified parking facilities are no w starting to appear. New advanced material cho ices bo th in steel and co ncrete can co ntribute to the o verall sco re while site sensitivity is also crucial. Lighting can be handled fro m bo th a passive design appro ach as well as techno lo gical so lutio ns to just pro vide light when needed. Water co nservatio n , sun co ntro l shading and o ther passive devices can be integrated into parking facilities. While so lar techno lo gy can also be used to handle energy needs. Also since the parking facility is such an integrative building typo lo gy many o ther so lutio ns can co ntribute to sustainable design such as the no w co mmo n fo r undergro und parking facilities the green ro o f. Due to its integrative nature with o ther building typo lo gies it can also help to suppo rt them in sustainable so lutio ns designing the parking facility to beco me part o f an energy generating so lutio n. The parking facility has o ften been at the fo refro nt o f design advancements due to its ability to be transfo rmed bo th inside and o utside to meet changing PDFmyURL.com

practical needs. As the auto mo bile and o ur energy so urces change o ver the next century, a symbio tic relatio nship between the building, the auto mo bile, and energy can o ccur, each pro viding energy and po wer to each o ther creating a to tally sustainable so lutio n.

This recently LEED certified garage at Duke University called the Sands Parking Garage is a free standing facility witho ut any spaces fo r human o ccupatio n. It achieved LEED certified status by integrating many sustainable practices such as: two 10 ,0 0 0 gallo n cisterns that co llect rainwater fo r landscaping, o verhead cano pies that use plants to pro vide shade o n the ro o f, lo w-po wer LED lights, and so o n to be installed so lar panels. It so o n will have charging statio ns fo r electric-hybrid cars and is part o f the University’s o verall co mmitment to a Climate Actio n Plan fo r the entire campus.

Sands Parking Garage at Duke University (©Vince Streano, 2010)

The Parking Facilit y as a Communit y Building Type The Parking Facility has beco me a co mmunity building type that the majo rity o f us use every day.

This building type can be designed to address the ro le that it plays as the entry and exit place to o ur cities, to wns and buildings. As the vehicle co ntinues to change the building type has the o ppo rtunity to integrate even mo re seamlessly into the building fabric o pening up new design o ppo rtunities to create co mmunity places and spaces. One appro ach that has already been started is integrating art into the parking facility. Many excellent examples can no w be fo und acro ss the co untry. Art has been used to assist with wayfinding as well as a way to enliven o ur everyday experience.

Aging of t he Populat ion With the aging o f the po pulatio n the driving habits o f Americans' are changing. In o rder to acco mmo date these changing needs techno lo gy can start to play a part such as with vehicles o n smart highways and GIS mapping devices. As well as the changing auto mo bile which may so o n park itself. These new techno lo gies can also impro ve driving and parking fo r everyo ne. Alo ng with the urban planning issues o f designing co mmunities as walkable and integrating electric vehicles such as GEM into the transpo rtatio n mix fo r everyo ne a safer mo re accessible enviro nment can be created fo r all.

New Forms of Movement As the auto mo bile is changing so are new mo vement techno lo gies appearing that will allo w us to mo ve thro ugh space in new ways. Perso nal Rapid Transit (PRT), altho ugh it has been aro und fo r o ver 40 years and is still functio ning at West Virginia University in Mo rganto wn is no w starting to reappear in designs acro ss the wo rld. Heathro w airpo rt will o pen to the public the mo st PDFmyURL.com

advanced versio n o f PRT at the end o f 20 0 9 . These small car-like driverless vehicles will travel po int-to -po int pro viding safer, mo re accessible, faster mo vement directly to yo ur destinatio n. A new elevato r system (no t currently being marketed) can travel ho rizo ntally as well as vertically allo wing fo r greater use o f the elevato r shaft and po tential to create safer access and egress especially in tall buildings. These emerging techno lo gies co uld change the way we design o ur cities, to wns and buildings to create safer, mo re enviro nmentally friendly spaces and places due to their scale and ability to interface with alternative mo re sustainable po wer so urces.

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RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS Internatio nal Building Co de - a new co de that when ado pted by lo cal jurisdictio ns will co ver the entire co untry. Always check fo r mo st recent editio n appro ved by each jurisdictio n with every co de listed.

BOCA Natio nal Building Co de Standard Building Co de Unifo rm Building Co de Natio nal Building Co de o f Canada Americans with Disabilities Act Architectural and Transpo rtatio n Barriers Co mpliance Bo ard (pubs@access-bo ard.go v) Lo cal Co des such as the City o f Chicago —check yo ur lo cal jurisdictio n Lo cal Zo ning Ordinances—check yo ur lo cal jurisdictio n Natio nal and lo cal Fire and o ther co des as referenced BACK TO TO P

MAJOR RESOURCES WBDG Products and Systems Applicable to mo st items listed within the Pro ducts and Systems area.

Organiz at ions Natio nal Parking Asso ciatio n An advo cacy o rganizatio n fo r the parking industry.

Internatio nal Parking Asso ciatio n An advo cacy o rganizatio n fo r the parking industry.

Urban Land Institute American Planning Asso ciatio n Eno Transpo rtatio n Fo undatio n Institute o f Transpo rtatio n Engineers PDFmyURL.com

The Auto matic and Mechanical Parking Asso ciatio n A newly fo rmed asso ciatio n to advance the cause o f auto matic and mechanical facilities.

Parking To day An advo cacy o rganizatio n fo r the parking industry.

United States Department o f Transpo rtatio n and State and Lo cal Transpo rtatio n Agencies The Natio nal Transpo rtatio n Research Bo ard Many related industry o rganizatio ns such the steel, co ncrete, co nstructio n, engineering, transpo rtatio n and architecture have their o wn advo cacy o rganizatio ns and web sites with info rmatio n o n parking facilities issues.

Publicat ions This is a sho rt list o f publicatio ns and no t at all co mplete, as this to pic has been receiving a great deal o f research and interest in the last several years. Please co ntact all related industry o rganizatio ns fo r their mo st up to date publicatio ns fo r design applicatio ns.

The Aesthetics of Parking by T.P. Smith. Chicago , IL: American Planning Asso ciatio n, 19 8 8 .

The Architecture of Parking by Simo n Henley, New Yo rk, NY: Thames & Hudso n, Inc, 20 0 7.

The Dimensions of Parking by the Urban Land Institute and Natio nal Parking Asso ciatio n.

Washingto n, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 20 0 0 .

The High Cost of Free Parking by Do nald Sho up, Chicago , IL: American Planning Asso ciatio n, 20 0 5.

Lots of Parking by Jo hn A. Jakle and Keith a. Sculle. Charlo ttesville, VA: University o f Virginia Press, 20 0 4.

Metropolitan Parking Structures: A Survey of Architectural Problems and Solutions by D. Klo se. New Yo rk: F.A. Praeger, 19 6 5.

Open-Deck Steel Framed Parking Structures-A Design Aid by Emile Tro up, P.E. and Jo hn Cro ss, P.E. AISC, 20 0 3.

Parking by Ro bert Weant and Herbert S. Levinso n. Eno Transpo rtatio n Fo undatio n, 19 9 0 .

Parking by G.H. Baker and B. Funaro . New Yo rk: Reinho ld, 19 58 .

Parking 101: A Parking Primer by Ro nald W. Stehman, Ed. Fredericksburg, VA: Internatio nal Parking Institute, 20 0 1.

Parking: A Handbook of Environmental Design by J. McCluskey. Lo ndo n: E. & F.N. Spo n, 19 8 7.

The Parking Garage: Design and Evolution of a Modern Urban Form by Shanno n S. McDo nald. Urban Land Institute, 20 0 7.

Parking Selected References Information Packet #327 by the Urban Land Institute.

Washingto n, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 20 0 0 .

Parking Spaces: A Design, Implementation, and Use Manual for Architects Planners and Engineers by Mark Childs. New Yo rk: McGraw Hill, 19 9 9 .

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Parking Structures: Planning Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair by A.P. Chrest, M.S. Smith, et al. New Yo rk: Van No strand Reinho ld, 20 0 0 .

Parking: The Parking Handbook for Small Communities by J.D. Edwards. Washingto n D.C.: Institute fo r Transpo rtatio n Engineers; Natio nal Main Street Center; Natio nal Trust fo r Histo ric Preservatio n, 19 9 4.

Precast Prestressed Concrete Parking Structures: Recommended Practice for Design and Construction by the PCI co mmittee o n Parking Structures, and PCI Co mmittee o n Parking Marketing & Pro mo tio n. Chicago : Precast/Prestressed Co ncrete Institute, 19 9 7.

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