irm BlacksttiitMtti J.M,DREW%
A MANUAL FOR FARMERS AND AGRICULTVRAL SCHOOLS
S'9@'9@'9@'M'9^9^9@'»@'S
Cotne
ff^Allt
Cornell University Library
220.D77 1910 Farm blacksmithing
3 1924 003 588 450
The tine
original of
tliis
book
is in
Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright
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the United States on the use of the
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003588450
Farm Blacksmithing
J.
DREW,
M.
Unstnictor in Blacksmithing, School of Agriculture,
University of Minnesota.
ST.
ANTHONY PARK, MINN.
Second Editloa
ST,
PAUL
WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY 1910,
CoWright
BY
J.
M.
1901-1910.
DREW.
INTEODUCTIOK A
workshop on a farm
is
always a good sign.
It 13
an indication that the farmer believes in having a place
where he that
may
profitably spend his time on stormy days
would otherwise be wasted.
To such
farmers, and
hope that they some useful lessons in an easier way
their sons, this book is addressed, in the
may
learn from
it
than by hard experience.
"Farm Blackand Home. There
Several years ago a series of articles on
smithing" appeared in Farm, Stock
was then, and has since been, some inquiry for a book embodying those articles and covering the subject of iron and steel work, or so much of it as the farm mechanic would need to know. Such a book has now been prepared, and the author has added to it such knowledge as
he has gained by an experience of seven years in
teaching blacksmithing to the farmer boys in the Minnesota School of Agriculture.
If the expert blacksmith complains that he finds
nothing to interest him in the book,
let
that it is not intended that he should.
him remember It
was written
for beginners.
The chapter on "Saw Filing" was written by Mr. William Eoss, Instructor in Carpentry at the School of Agriculture
;
FAEM BLACKSMITHING. The thoughtful reader
will at once recognize the
diffi-
culty of teaching even the elements of a trade on paper
but I hope by the aid of illustrations to
make
reasona-
bly plain all the operations which enter into the work
which the farm blacksmith will be called upon
Nowadays
a
to do.
farm blacksmith shop may be very cheap-
ly furnished with all the tools necessary for ordinary
work, and the convenience forge on every
—
—
yes, the necessity
of a
farm needs no argument.
The time that may the means and skill to
often be saved by having at hand repair damages to machinery and
much more important matter than by doing one's own work. What farmer
tools is often a
the
cash saved
has
not often been obliged, by some slight breakage, to go to
the town or village shop,
—
—perhaps
several miles
and there find that he must wait for several horses to be shod before his little job, (which he might have done himself if he had the proper tools), could be away,
attended to by the blacksmith.
While
it is
true that a
at a blacksmith's forge
about the trade,
it is
man may work and
still
for a lifetime
have more to learn
also true that the essentials of the
trade consist of only a few comparatively simple operations,
which may be acquired by any one who has melittle time and attention
chanical ability and will give a to the work. practice.
After this
is
done, skill will
come with
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
6
We
are too apt to think that
simply because thing like
we have never
we cannot do
tried to do
it,
a thing or any-
it.
"Our doubts are traitors; they make us lose the good we oft might win by fearing to attempt." There is no good reason why every farmer who has any mechanical ability, cannot do nine-tenths of the work which he usually hires done by the blacksmith.
FUENISHING THE SHOP.
is
In furnishing a shop, the first thing to be considered There are good portable forges now on the forge.
the market which
may
To any one thinking say:
be had for a reasonable price.
of buying one of these I would
Don't get one that
pan 18x24 inches and a
The
little
is
One with
too small.
14:-inch
fan
is
a fire
small enough.
bench forges are entirely too small for
or-
dinary work.
A
cheap forge which will answer every purpose of
the ordinary
farm shop may be made of wood,
a box filled with clay.
square and two and one-half feet high. lows
may
—simply
It should be about three feet
A
36-inoh bel-
be had for $5, and a single nest tuyere iron
for 35 cents.
A tuyere
from the bottom
iron which
may
be cleaned out
A very cheap
and be made of a piece of two-inch iroi\ pipe extending entirely -through the forge. Several
good tuyere
will cost about $2.
may
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
7
Bmall holes are drilled into the top side of the pipe for the blast,
and a plug
bellows.
When
plug will
is
is fitted
into the end opposite the
the pipe gets clogged with ashes the
pulled out,
when
blow everything
a strong blast
The
out.
from the bellows
picture on page 4 shows
the style of forge in use at the School of Agriculture. It is simply a length of sewer pipe set
with clay.
A
hole
is
on end and
filled
drilled through the back side for
the horn of the bellows, and an ordinary single nest
tuyere iron
is
The bellows
used.
is
an ordinary
old-
fashioned one, 32 inches wide.
The most expensive part vil.
of the outfit will be the an-
always been supposed that the best anvils
It has
They cost about 10 cents per pound. Very good American anvils can now be had for about 8 cents per pound. One weighwere those imported from England.
ing 80 to 100 pounds use.
is
none too large for a farmer's
Don't make the mistake of getting a cast iron an-
vil that will
not stand hard pounding.
The same
is
Get one that you can pound on withA wrought iron vise with steel out fear of breaking. true of the vise.
jaws costs from $3.50
A
machinist's
to $5, according to weight.
hammer, shown
at Fig.
1,
weighing
one and one-half pounds, will be found the most convenient size for
common
use,
mer weighing two and
and a blacksmith's hand ham-
one-half pounds will be conven-
FARM MLACKSMiTHIN&.
8
ient to have at
about 50 cents.
hammer
hand for heavier work. Each will cost Tor sharpening plows a round-faced
should be used.
ject in a later chapter.
More will be said on this At the start the beginner
subwill
need a pair of plain tongs (Fig. 2) and a pair of bolt tongs (Fig. 3).
The plain tongs may be changed cutting off
into chain tongs by
the corners and shaping the ends of the jaws
as explained
on page 41.
This does not
affect their usefulness as plain tongg,
and makes them serviceable in handling links and rings. A set of stocks and dies for cutting threads on bolts
from one-fourth necessity.
to three-fourths of
an inch
These will cost from $3
to
is
almost a
$10, or even
:
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
9
more, depending upon kind, quality, and the number of
A
sizes in the set.
good
set for
ordinary use, cutting
numbers of thread, and taking
three different
bolts or
nuts from five-sixteenths to three-fourths of an inch,
may may
A
be had for $3.
very good upright
drill press
be bought for $4.50.
The expense
so far is about as follows
Bellows and tuyere iron Anvil Vise
$5.35 8.00 4.00 1.00
Hammer Tongs (two pairs) Hardie Stocks and dies
70 25 3.00 4.50
Drill press
Total
$26.80
Beside tools there will be needed a supply of blacksteel. For general "Cumberland" coal is the best fuel. It contains but little sulphur, and is easily packed about the fire. It gives a powerful heat, and is so free from earthy matter that but little clinker is
smith's coal and some iron and
blacksmithing, what
left after
is
known
as
burning.
In former years charcoal was used almost entirely by blacksmiths. that
it
It has the
advantage over other coals
contains no sulphur, and for this reason
cially desirable for fine steel work.
But
its
pared with mineral coal has nearly driven
Ordinary stove
coal, either
for blacksmithing.
hard or
soft,
is
cost as
it
espe-
com-
out of use.
cannot be used
It contains such a large percentage
of Bulphur and other impurities that iron cannot be
FARM SLACKSMITHING.
10
welded with
it,
contact with
it
and
steel
while hot.
presence of sulphar.
would be ruined
if
brought in
Iron cannot be welded in the
Great care should therefore be
exercised to avoid getting sulphur into the forge. <iT
Nev-
allow lead or babbit metal to be melted in the forge
ifriihout rteel
a thorough cleaning out afterward.
Iron and
unite readily with sulphur to produce iron sul-
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
jphide,
a brown powder which resembles neither iron
Qor sulphur. heat
is
When
sulphur
is
present iron at welding
slippery, whereas without the sulphur it
be sticky.
would
&ARM BLACKSMITHINtJ.
11
lEON Am) STEEL.
It is necessary, or at least desirable, that the
blacksmith should the materials he in a general
know something about work with. He, of
is to
way something about
young
the nature of course,
knows
the different kinds of
wrought iron, malleable cast, eac), him; and has, as a rule, a general knowledge of steel and the uses to which it may be put. He has heard of cast steel, tool steel, machine steel, and Bessemer steel, and has perhaps a somewhat dim idea of what is meant by each of these terms. (cast iron,
iron,
which he
sees all about
Let us in a few words define the different kinds of iron and steel, and
what
it
may
show how each
is
made and
for
be used.
Iron, as every school boy knows, parts of the world
where
is
mined in many
found mixed with stone This mixture is called "ore," it is
and other materials. and may be in the form of solid rock or a brown powder or dust. Iron is seldom found in the pure state, but there
is
a great difference in the purity of the ores found
in different parts of the world.
This fact will be
re-
ferred to later.
The
iron
is
separated from the ore by a melting proc-
ess called "smelting,"
by great heat form.
which
consists in melting the ore
so that the iron will flow out in a liquid
This liquid
is
not pure iron, but contains more
or less impurities, depending
upon the purity of the ore
FARM BLACkSMltiilNd.
i2
from which
it is
From
melted.
the smelter the liquid
iron flows out in a trench in the earthen floor, and led into
lump
little
side trenches of the right size to
of iron which
may
make
be handled by one man.
is
a
These
from the fancies resemblance to a litter of pigs which a row of them presents when in the trenches. For a like reason the large
lumps are
trench
called "pig iron,"
is called
Common
the "sow."
cast iron
is
made by melting pig
iron or a
mixture of pig iron and old cast scrap iron and pouring
The proper mixing of the materials is of making good castings. Malleable cast iron, or, as it is more commonly called "malleable iron," is common cast iron from which the it
into molds.
great importance in
carbon has been baked by long-continued heating in redIt is the usual practice to bake
bot ovens. days.
By
baking out the carbon the iron
less brittle,
and hence
purposes than the
Wrought
is
is
useful for a great
common cast iron. we usually see
iron, as
it,
is
it
for seven
made much many more
made
of old
worked over by being done up in bundles held together by wire or band iron, heated to welding heat and run between rollers to give it the required shape and size. In reworking old scrap great care must be taken to use only wrought iron scrap, and pickers are employed to carefully exclude all pieces of cast iron and steel ; for if any of these materials get wrought iron scrap, which
is
into the bundles the result will be too
much
which will cause the iron to be harsh and stead of malleable and tough.
carbon,
brittle, in-
t'ARM BLACkSMITHINO.
The
best
toughness
monly
is
13
wrought iron for purposes where great required comes from Sweden, but is com-
"Norway
kno\^Ti to the trade as
iron."
It
is
from carbon and other impurities. The ore from which it is made is the finest iron ore known, and for this reason is used for making
very tough, because
free
it is
No
the finest grades of tool steel.
making Swedish
scrap iron
is
used in
iron.
STEEL. Steel is simply iron to
which has been added a very
small amount of carbon.
common the
We
substances.
form of
Carbon
is
are most familiar with
The diamond
charcoal.
one of the most
is
it
in
almost pure car-
bon.
There are other elements
to be
found in
steel in
very
we
take
small amounts, but for
all practical
pure iron and add to
a small percentage of carbon
will have steel.
it
Steel such as
chisels contains less
is
purposes
if
we
used for making cold
than 1 per cent of carbon.
In the usual process of making fine tool steel, rods of pure wrought iron are packed in charcoal in long iron troughs, or boxes, which are sealed with fire clay and placed in a furnace, where they are subjected to a high heat for several days.
The heat
is so
regulated
that the rods do not melt, but are kept nc ar the melting point.
During this process the iron absorbs some oi from the charcoal, and is thus changed to The proper amount of carbon is determined by
the carbon steel.
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
14
drawing out one oÂŁ the rods occasionally and testing
The
flteel
made by
this process is called "blister steel,"
for the reason that the surface of the lods
with small
it.
What
blisters.
is
known
is
covered
as "shear steel" is
these rods of blister steel and w aiding them together under a steam hammer, or by running them between rolls. "Cast steel" is made by melting blister steel in earth-
made by heating
en pots called "crucibles" and pouring into molds forming ingots, which are afterwards heated and rolled or
hammered
out into bars.
It will easily be seen that cast steel all
tools
than blister
steel or
shear
is
much
steel,
better for
because the
melting insures a thorough mixture of the carbon so that ail parts are sure to contain the
same amount.
In
blister steel the outside portions of the rods contain a
much
greater percentage of carbon than the centers;
and in the shear
steel the
welding process does not cause
such a complete mixture as in the process of melting
which
cast, eteel
What is
is
undergoes.
known
as
"mild
a stsol which contains so
steel," or little
"machine
carbon that
steel,"
it is
prac-
same nature aa good wrought iron, exceptsomewhat stifFer and more durable when subjected to wear. It is produced by several different processes, the most important of which are the Bess:eraer and the open hearth processes. In the Bessemer process the pig iron is melted in a large crucible or converter, and air is forced through This causes the the molten metal from the bottom. carbon to burn out and leave a mass of nearly pure tically of the
ing that
it is
FARM BIjACKSMITHING. Then
iron.
a quantity of iron having a
age of carbon
is
16
known
percent-
added, thus giving any desired percent-
age of carbon to the
The open hearth
steel.
process consists in melting pig iron
in large furnaces built of fire brick and keeping
it at
a
very high temperature, until the impurities are practi-
worked or burned
cally all
nearly pure iron, which
is
out, leaving a liquid
mass of
then poured into molds form-
These ingots are afterwards heated and same as wrought iron.
ing ingots. rolled the
These processes have been so cheapened recently that soft steel is largely taking the place of
wrought iron for
many
the better grades
uses.
It
of iron, and
is
cases excepting -the
making
nothing
Iron
is
taking the place of iron in almost
where extreme
of rivets),
than
is better is
cause of
rigid,
lowed to
is
required.
Norway
For
this
purpose
iron.
First, be-
:
great strength; secondly, because
changed in shape when
it is
so
hot, but be-
same time tough, on being alWrought iron and all the milder forms
and
cool.
all
softness, (for example,
the most useful of all the metals its
easily forged or
comes
now cheaper than
at the
of steel
may
ature.
Steels containing a high percentage of carbon
be readily welded below a burning temper-
(in general, all tool steels)
from the
air
a high heat.
by borax or
may
be welded
if
protected
other flux which will withstand
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
16
PEACTICE WORK. Assuming
that the beginner has the tools mentioned
on the preceding pages, or at least the most necessary
hammer, and tongs), let us start a The first thing a blacksmith should try to learn how to manage his fire so as to get the greatest heat
onts, (forge, anvil, fire. is
just
where he wants
it,
with the least waste of fuel.
Gtart a fire by using pine shavings, or any material
which would make good kindling for a coal,
fire in
a cook
After getting a good blaze started, pack a
store.
around, not upon, the kindling, so that
it
little
will take
fire slowly.
Wow
had a
the forge there will always be coke which
may
fire in
begin to blow gently.
be used instead of coal in starting the
we
the first time
Remember
be placed upon the
fire,
all its
of
By
it.
;
but for
wood and
that coal should never
but around
the fire for a short time
ha\ ing
fire
are supposed to have only
blacksmith's coal.
nea.1
After having
it is
it.
After being
changed to coke by
sulphur and other impurities burned out
continually packing the coal about the fire
and crowding
it
toward the center the blacksmith keeps
a supply of coke burning in the middle of his
fire,
where he needs the most heat, and prevents the
fire
from spreading.
It
is
often of advantage to wet the
coal about the fire in order to
keep the
Your
fire fire
pack
it
harder and thus
confined to the middle. will
now
present the appearance of a
FARM BLACKSMITHING. mound
17
of coal with a center of burning coke, and more
or less of an opening in the middle through which the blast is coming.
Experience will soon show how
blast should be given.
er the heat
up
to the limit
of the fire begins to be
As
a
first
The
much
stronger the blast the great-
where the coke in the middle
lifted out of place.
lesson in blaeksmithing, let us
with which to manage our
make a poker
Take a piece of half Heat one end to inch round iron about two feet long. a white heat for a distance of about three inches, and bend in the form of an eye (See Fig. 5.) Now heat the other end and flatten about four inches and bend as shown in the cut. fire.
MAKING A BOOK HOOK. Next,
let
us try to
make an ordinary door
hook.
Take a piece of f round iron two or three feet long. Put one end in the fire so that there will be burning coke both above and below it. Give blast enough to heat
it
quickly, but not enough to blow the coke out of
the middle of the
fire.
Get the end of the rod up
white heat and square about four inches of
to a
shown at a, Fig. 6. Draw it out so that the comers will come out square and sharp. After heating again, draw out The shoulder between the the end, as shown at h. part the original iron is made by holding small and against the edge of the anvil and striking so that the it,
as
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
18
edge of the anvil will cut into the iron to form the
In drawing out iron to make a point on it smaller, always draw it square first, no matter what is to be its shape finally, for you can reduce its size faster by squaring it than by trying to keep it round or any other shape. iN'ext make this small end round by flattening down the corners. Stop pounding and heat the iron as often as it gets below a cherry red shoulder.
it
or to
make
in color.
After rounding the end, turn
horn of the anvil to make a round
eye.
it
around the
Next cut
off
and draw out to a point, as at e. Complete the hook by bending the end and twisting the middle, as shown at /.
the iron
r
râ&#x20AC;&#x201D;~
'^nrrr
i
FIG.
The beginner
is
ÂŤ.
apt to have trouble in getting the
eye of the hook perfectly round. in being oval, rather than circular.
It usually persists
The
trouble
is
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
19
usually caused by not bending the end enough at the
The end must be given
start.
before the other part gotten
is bent, as
its full
amount of bend
afterward
it
cannot he
at.
MAKING A STAPLE. To make
draw out one end of a rod and or leave it square, depending upon the kind of staple you want. Decide how long you want the staple, and bend the end at right angles to the remainder of the rod (Fig. Y), to form one leg of the staple. Do not make the complete bend at this time, or the finished end will be in the way when you sharpen the other end: Out off the iron for the second leg a little shorter round
a staple
it,
than the
first,
to a point.
to allow for lengthening in
Now
drawing out
draw out the second leg
to a point,
then heat in the middle and complete the bend.
PIG.
T.
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
20
MAKING
CHAIlvr.
Machine made chains are
no farm
so cheap that
make his own, but he will often be called upon to mend chains and supply missing or broken hooks and rings. To make a link, take a blacksmith can afford to
piece of f inch rod, heat about three inches from the end, and bend so as to form the letter "TJ" (Fig. 8).
Now
cut off on the hardy, so that both legs of the
V
be of the same length (about three inches). Then
shall
holding the bent part with a pair of chain tongs, heat the two ends
and
scarf,
Now turn
the left one.
ing corner of the other
(flatten), the inside corner of
over and scarf the correspond-
In doing
leg.
this scarfing,
do not flatten the whole end, as this would mcjce the
Simply
end of the link too thin. corners a
flatten the inside
Next, bend the two legs so that the
little.
flattened or scarfed places shall
come together and the
You
ends cross each other at right angles.
ready to make your ing heat
it is
or snow,
weld.
like a
has held for some time in his
of the
fire,
and below
make still
iron
is
at weld-
It presents the appearance of wet
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;exactly
end of the link
When
now
perfectly white and the surface is in a
melted condition. ice
first
are
hard snowball that a boy
warm
To
hands.
get the
to the required heat, hold it in the center
(there should be burning coke both above it),
and turn
it
over every few seconds to
sure of heating both sides alike.
If
it
were held
in the fire the bottom side would burn before the
top got hot enough to weld. right heat place
it
When you
have
it
at the
quickly upon the anvil and strike
FARM BLACKSMITHING. first
on one side and then on the
strike a single
make
without doing the weld any good. over the horn of the anvil.
round and the same
it
link will
Try
now be
to
the shape
After a
shown
little
The at
/.
make
off
the weld
the welded part
8,
and
To shape
strike in the
Beginners often make the
mistake of holding the link it.
the iroin thinner
Finish
too wide at one end.
shown by the arrow.
ing to shape
not
size as the balance of the link.
properly hold as at d in Fig.
place
Do
other.
blow after the iron gets below a weld-
ing heat, as that would only
Your
21
flat
on
its
side
when
try-
result is always something like
The
correct shape
is
practice one should be able to
shown
make a
at
e.
link
with only two, or at most, three heats.
2)
FIG.
The
8.
greatest difficulty with most beginners consists
in getting the iron to a welding heat without buraung.
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
22
The great majority try to weld before the iron is hot The only safe way is to watch carefully and take the iron from the fire the moment the surface hegins to flow and look wet. If you wait until the sparks begin to fly, the iron will be burning. With large irons no harm will be done if a few sparks are enough.
seen; but with small irons, and especially with mild steel, this is just
beyond the danger
line.
MAKIN'G A BINQ. To make foot long,
a ring take a piece of ^ or 7-16
and unset both ends, as shown
FIG.
iron a
9.
is done by heating ono end and holding on the anvil and striking the other end. In doing
This upsetting it
in.
at a. Fig. 9.
FARM BLACKSMITHING. this talfe a short heat, that
is,
heat only an inch or so
of the end, and be careful not to setting.
If
bends,
it
23
let it
straighten
it
get bent in up-
at
After
once.
and scarf it for welding. Do this by first holding it on the anvil at an angle of about 30 degrees, and striking with the hammer held at a corresponding angle. Strike a few upsetting both ends, heat one end
blows, or until the iron assumes the shape
Now
turn the iron a quarter turn, and lay
anvil
and shape
In doing
this
like
c.
D
another view of the same.
do not strike straight down, but drive the
iron back toward you. the
is
shown at b. on the
it flat
Next, treat the other end in
same way, being careful
make the scarf on the when the ring is
to
side opposite the first one, so that
bent the two scarfs will come together.
Be
sure to
bend the ring as shown in the cut, so that in welding you can get at both ends of the scarfs with the hammer.
down
After welding, work the iron around the weld
Do
to its original size.
ring without
first
not attempt to
make
a
upsetting the ends, or you will find
after welding that the iron is too small each side of
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
a condition which cannot be remedied. In making a ring for a chain, do not attempt to join to the weld;
the chain before welding,
but
first
finish
the ring,
then join to the chain by another link.
In case of a rush
job,
count for much, or where ference if there
make it up afterwards.
is
it
where appearances do not make no particular dif-
will
a thin place in the ring, one
may
a ring after the fashion of a chain link, rounding
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
24
MAKING A CHAIN HOOK Two ways
shown of making a ctain hook. iron is used. The iron is first upset, then rounded off. Then a hole is punched and worked out large over the horn of the anvil, and the iron around the hole is rounded up at the same time. Next it is cut off and the end drawn down to a blunt point and rounded. It is next bent a
The
little
first is
are here
way when good
a good
over half
way then ;
the back
is
beveled so that
quite thin ; but the inside of the hook possible.
show how
The shaded it
is left as
portions in the figure
it is
thick as
marked
c
should look in cross-sections if cut through.
FIG.
10.
This exercise introduces an operation which wo have met with before; that is, punching.
not
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ. To punch
25
a hole in iron, heat to white heat
;
hold on
the anvil, not over the hole, but over the solid face of
the anvil it
were
and drive the punch
till
it
feels as
though
solid against the face of the anvil; then turn
iron over and you can see a clear round spac? where the punch tried to come through. Place the punch on this spot and drive it in; now place the iron over the hole in the anvil and drive the punch through.
the
This will make a clean-cut, smooth hole, whereas
if
had been punched from one side only, a ragged hole would have been the result. Another way of making a chain hook is shown in it
Fig. 11.
This
way
one just described
is
always to be preferred to the
if the iron
used
is
not very tough.
FIG. u.
Smaller iron
may
because
doubled where the most strength
it is
also
be used than in the
first
way, is
re-
;
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
26
The
quired.
cut shows the
method of making
so clear-
ly that little description is necessary.
drawn down a little in size where and welded; then cut off and sharpened and bent the same as in the case of the
The
iron
the eye
first
is
is
usually
to be; then is bent
hook.
The beginner
quite apt to burn the iron around the
is
eye before getting be.
it
hot enough where the weld
is
to
It is a good plan to heat to near the welding
point; then dip the eye part in water until
it
turns
black; then reheat very quickly, and the eye part will
not get too hot again before the other part
is
ready
to weld.
A grab hook is
made
in the
same way, only
it is left
square after welding, and then bent on the corner, as
shown in Fig.
To
11.
start the
bend
right, place in
the square hardy-hole in the anvil.
MAKING A
CLEVIS.
There are several good ways of making a
When
good iron
tough iron,
the ends the
A
is
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;about same
used
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
that
the best
is,
way
Norway
is to
clevis.
iron, or
any
upset and punch
as in beginning the first chain hook.
makes a good clevis. shown in b. Fig. 12 and punch the ends; then bend into then flatten out The holes should be large enough to take a half shape.
piece of f iron 13 inches long Upset both ends and the middle as
inch pin.
FARM BLACKSMITHING. Another way to make a
clevis,
and
27
tlie
best
way
in
draw out the end square for about three or four inches, as shown in Pig. 13, and bevel ofE the end then bend and forge a sharp angle, as shown at a, about two inches back case ordinary or poor iron
is
used,
is to
;
FIG.
12.
towards you forge another angle (b). are formed
These angles
by bending the iron at nearly right angles, then hammering, as shown in the cut. It is not an easy thing to do, and requires practice to make a good After forming the angles, or corners, bend the job. iron so that the two corners will come together, forming a round eye. Now weld the end fast to the side and one end of the clevis is done. The other end is, of course, formed in the same way.
FARM BLAGKSMITHINO.
28
D
FIG.
!â&#x20AC;&#x17E;â&#x20AC;˘
Another and quicker way of upsetting the end way which is usually taken to make the end of a brace) is shown at Fig. 14. The end is hent at right angles and flattened down, making a round lump. (the
The edges must be heated to welding heat and welded down, or a crack will show where the flattened part joins the other iron.
I
FIG.
14.
B'ARM BLACKSMlTHINa.
To make
a clevis in the shortest possible time take
20 inches of 7-16
"U" weld
long
29
;
iron,
bend in the middle to form a same as in mak-
the ends together the
ing a chain link.
Now
rig. 15, and bend to
close the sides together, as in
form a
FIG.
clevis.
15.
After making a clevis we will want a pin or bolt for
This
it.
brings us
naturally to the
making of
bolts.
BOLTS. It
and
is
if
much
cheaper to buy bolts than to
make them;
one could always have access to a stock of bolts
of all sizes and lengths, he need never take the time to
make
one.
But
the farmer
vsdll
often find himself
in need of a bolt which he has not in his assortment,
and
if
he can make one himself he
is
master of the
Having a bolt of the right size, but too long, it is an easy matter to cut it down to the required length and cut new threads. The simplest way to make a head on a bolt is to upsituation.
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
30
set the
end until
it is
about a half larger in diameter
than the bolt; then drive into a heading tool (see Fig. 16).
This
is
way
the
usually followed in
making
Large bolt heads are usually welded on. To make a welded head, take round iron a size smaller small
bolts.
FIG.
than the iron of the
bolt.
16.
For example,
if
half inch iron, use 7-16 iron for the head. ring, or eye, in the
fit
is
Form
a
end of the smaller iron by bending
around the horn of the size to loosely
the bolt
anvil.
This eye must be of a
the bolt, and must be cut so as to
reach only about three-quarters of the
way around (See
Fig 17).
PIG.
After forming this eye,
from the
17.
do not cut
entirely
off
rod, but cut it nearly off; then heat the
end
it
FARM BLACKSMITHING. of the bolt and upset
it
a
little in
31
the eye, or ring
break the ring loose from the rod, where cut through, and
hammer
it
so to
Next heat
of the bolt tightly.
Don't be afraid to hit
weld.
it
see that the ring reaches entirely it
been cut long enough
makj to
it
it
clasp the end
heat and
welding
You
hard.
around the
at first to reach
then
;
was nearly
will
around
it
now
Had
bolt.
would
have been apt to double up and cause trouble in welding.
After welding the ring to the end of the again to welding iron, to
being careful to drive
make a
take
heat and drive
it
one-sided head.
it
straight
down
heading so as not
After flattening
out and shape the head round
heat
bolt,
into the
it
down or
or square,
hexagon, to suit your needs or fancy.
When
a head
which
is
is
needed on a long rod, for instance
formed on a short piece of afterwards welded to the long rod.
a bridge rod,
it is first
rod,
HEADING TOOLS. To make
a heading iron upset one end of a piece of
good iron (Norway Fig. 16; then
is
to be preferred), as
shown
punch the hole the desired
size,
in
and
either weld a piece of thin steel on the face side or
case harden the face.
In punching the
a taper hole, smallest at the face side.
hole,
The
make
face
it
may
be case hardened by heating to a good light red heat
and sprinkling with powdered cyanide of potassium.
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
32
This chemical is a very strong poison, and should be kept in a safe place, away from the reach of children.
The handiest way
of applying
to use
it is
an ordinary
tin pepper box with perforated top.
A
clevis bolt
should have an eye, or
To make
lower end.
at the
the
and after punching dress the size while the punch is still in
slot,
slot
use a
down
bolt
for a key flat
to the
punch proper
place.
o> FIG.
Fig. 18 shows
planation
is
how
nuts
necessary.
18.
may
The
be made.
iron
Little ex-
drawn out
is
the
right width and thickness; then nearly cut off on the
hardy;
then
the
hole
is
ing a nut after cutting
handling
it
The
punched.
squared up while the punch it off
is
sides
in the hole.
from the
are
In heat-
bar, instead of
with a pair of tongs use a piece of wire, or
a one-fourth inch rod with a short bend in the end.
As
a general thing enough odd nuts
may
be found in
may be seldom be necessary to make new The farm blacksmith will appreciate the need
the farmer's workshop, in which
new
threads
cut, so that it vidll
ones.
of saving
all
the old nuts and bolts to use in cases
where they may save the necessity of making new ones.
:
FARM BLACKSMITHING. is
a very simple operation,
description.
The standard numbers
Cutting threads on bolts
and needs
little
of threads for carriage bolts are as follows 1-4
in. bolts
5-16 "
33
'
20 threads
to
an inch
34
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
.
then run the tap into the nnt
till
the threads will
fit
the end of the bolt, then reverse the nut and ran the
same depth from the other side. The farmer's workshop should be supplied
tap in to the
assortment of
bolts,
washers, screws, rivets,
-with
etc.,
an
which,
kept in order where a bolt or screw or rivet of any
if
particular size and length
may
be found when wanted,
will prove a great saving of time.
Much may
be saved by buying such things in whole-
sale lots, rather it is
pay the
to
A
than a few at a time:
For
instance,
cheaper to buy a package of 50 carriage bolts than retail price for half that
fairly complete
made up
list
number.
of carriage bolts
would be
of one package each of the following sizes
and lengths:
5-16 diameter
J diameter.
Length. Pr. Pkge of 50
Length. Pr. Pkg. of 100.
1|
25c
li
li
26c
2
17c
2
28c
2i
18c
2i
30c
3
19c
16c
3
32c
Si
34c
3i 4
22c
4
360
^
24c
4i
39c
5
25c
5
40c 43c 45c
5J
26c
6
28c
5^ 6
21c
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
% Lengith.
diameter
35
^ diameter
Pr. Pkg. of 50
Pr. Pkg. of 50
Length.
li
18c
2
37c
li
19c
24
38c 39c
2
19c
3
2|
21c
3^
3
24c
4
45c
Si
26c
4i
47c
4
26c
5
50c
4^
29c
5|
52c
5
31c
6
55c
6
34c
An
'.
42c
assortment of washers for the different sizes of
bolts should
be kept.
WELDIITG. Let us now try our hand at welding two irons toSo far, all our welding has been done with
gether. irons
that would
naturally stay
together.
Welding
separate irons will be found to be quite a different matter.
Take two
pieces of one-half inch iron; upset
scarf one end of each in exactly the
same manner
the case of the ring already described.
Now
and as in
see that
you have a clean fire; that is, a fire with no clinkers or old burned out ashes at the bottom. Have a good bed of coke burning nicely and a supply of coal closely banked about it. Do not allow any fresh coal to come
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
36 h) contact
side
down
with your ;
that
is,
irons.
Put the
irons in the fire face
the scarf side down.
coke both above and below the irons.
mer
Have burning Have your ham-
lying at the right-hand end of the anvil, with the
face side
away from you, and be sure that you know it is, so that you can pick it up with-
exactly where
out having to look for vil in
of the right will
it.
To
get the irons on the an-
the right position without loss of time, take hold
hand one
so that the
be upward and the
little
back of your hand
finger toward the
fire.
This will naturally bring the scarfed side up when placed on the anvil.
See Fig. 19.
FIG.
Practice this a
19.
few times before heating the irons. By steadying the left hand iron on the edge of the anvil (Pig. 19), you
FARM BLACKSMITHING. can bring
it
down upon
37
tte other one in just the right
any uncertainty. Irons at welding heat are very sticky, and if they happen to touch each other when in a wrong position will cause trouble. position without
Now this,
Do
heat to welding heat.
If one
heat faster than the other. pull
it
back a
little.
not
When you
let
one iron
inclined to do
is
get a nice weld-
ing heat on both irons take them out quickly (remem-
bering to take hold with the right hand so as to bring the iron face side
up on
the
anvil)
strike
;
sharp blow on the edge of the anvil, to shake dirt or scale that
hand iron it
may be on them
as in Fig. 19,
by guiding
it
the
you can hammer.
let
a
any
and bring the other down upon
now
anvil.
If they
stick together so
go with the right hand and pick up
Strike a light blow
one, at the place indicated
FIG.
Turn the
off
then place the right
from the edge of the
are at the proper heat they will tha+
;
them
first,
then a heavy
by the arrow in Fig. 20.
20.
iron over quickly and scriKe in the same
on the other side. welding heat, put until the surface is
way
If the iron has cooled below the it
back in the
fire
and heat again
in a melted condition; then go
all
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
38
around the
weld,'
of the iron. to
make
pounding
With
it
down
large irons it
to the original size
is
generally possible
a perfect weld with one heat; but small irons
lose their heat so quickly that it is generally necessary
two or three times before finishing. After practicing with half-inch irons until you can make a good weld, try a smaller size. Also try weldto heat
ing a short piece to a long one by using bolt tongs for
holding the shorter
tongs
piece.
Finally
using two pairs of tongs.
pieces,
is
weld two
Where one
short
pair of
used, take the tongs in the right hand, and,
after placing the left-hand iron on the right one, let
the tongs drop to the floor while picking
up the ham-
mer. Elat but is
is
welded in the same way as round, somewhat harder to make a good job with, as it iron
is
not easy to get
all
the corners and edges welded
down
so they will not show.
To weld flat iron at a right angle, upset slightly and draw out the side of each piece as shown in Fig. 21, and Never try to make a sharp place together as shown. inside comer in a weld of this kind, for if you do, a crack is almost sure to start there. Leave the inside rounding unless a square comer ia absolutely required, in which case, file it square rather than try to forge it. To weld flat irons in the form of a T, upset and scarf both the end, Fig 22, and the place where it is to Great care must be taken to have no be welded on. scale or cinder in the hollow scarf at the time of welding.
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
39
FIG. 2L
MAKING TONGS. To make
a pair of ordinary blacksmith's tongs take
a piece of three-fourths inch round soft steel, heat
one end, and placing
Norway it
as at a, in Fig. 23, strike so as to drive
the it
comer of
the anvil to
iron or
upon the it
anvil,
down
past
form a shoulder, next placing
across the anvil at an angle of 45 degrees with the
length of the anvil, as at of the shoulder
first
c,
so that the inside angle
formed comes just over the further
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
40
edge of the anvil, flatten down the part on the anvil about two inches back. This will make a beveled
shown at c. E is another view of the Cut off at the dotted line in e. Draw out and round the end just cut off, and scarf it for welding on handle, as shown at g. Be sure to make the scarf on the same side as the beveled shoulder. Now lay this jaw aside and make another exactly like it; then take a piece of seven-sixteenths round iron or mild steel
shoulder, as
same.
two feet long upset both ends to the size of the scarfed ends of the jaws; scarf and weld a jaw to each end. ;
Next cut
in the middle,
and draw out and
finish the
ends ; then punch the rivet holes, which should be about
an inch in size. To make the rivet, draw out a piece of half-inch iron, as shown at h, leavfive-sixteenths of
ing, a shoulder for the
head of the rivet ; cut nearly
on the hardy, so nearly that
it
off
can be easily broken
Heat it white In riveting, do hot, insert, break off and rivet down. not strike a flat blow, but hold the hammer at an angle off
after being inserted in the jaws.
so as to give a beveled
edge to the rivet head.
If the
riveting has tightened the jaws so that they do not
work easily, simply heat red hot and open and shut them a few times while hot. If intended for chain tongs, cut off the corners as at I, and shape the ends of the jaws, as shown at m, by heating and bending over a piece of three-eighths inch iron or the end of a small punch.
To make a
pair of bolt tongs
24; drawing it square Shape the end by flattening out
at Fig.
draw out the iron first,
;
then
as
then rounding.
make
the groove
TS'AMm ÂŁtLACKSMITHINC^.
11
FIG. za
by placing the iron in the angle between face and horn After bending the jaws, shape over
See Fig. 24 D.
the shoulder of the anvil the
same as in the case of the of anvil, and striking with the ball end of the hammer, plain tongs ; then cut off and scarf for welding on the
FARM BLACKSMITHINa.
42
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; ^â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
FIG.
handle.
grooves
'
-^-.--^
21.
After riveting the two jaws
may
together
the
be finished by heating hot and shaping
over a piece of roimd iron or the end of a punch.
Tongs of many shapes and sizes are useful for difwork; but the two kinds just described often, and any one who can make them most are used ferent kinds of
a
FARM BLACKSMITHING. can make any kind which, his work
may call
for.
Fig. 2P
shows two kinds which will he found handy in manj
FIG.
ways.
The
mers and
first
ones are used in dressing hand ham-
all anvil tools
second pair
is
having eyes for handles.
The
used in dressing ball pein hammers or in
handling short
made with
25.
Horse sheer's tongs are usually and wide jaws, usually rounded.
bolts.
short
See Fig. 26.
FIG.
2ÂŤ.
WHIFFLETEEE Fig. 27 illustrates a good
way
IKON'S. of ironing singletrees.
The end irons and hooks are made of 7-16 round iron and the middle iron is of 1-2 inch round. Fig. 28 shows the manner of making the hooks.
It should he
noticed that the end of the hook comes within 7-16 of
an inch of touching the inside of the hack of the eye. This preifents the tug from coming unhooked of itself. The hook has to be turned up as shown iu the cut, (Fig. 27), before the tug can be hooked or unhooked.
u
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
FIG.
27.
FIG. 2"
At
"Fig.
29
is
shown the way
to
make
a
bar across the end to prevent unhooking.
made by leaving
a
lump on
the end
when
hdbk with
a
The bar
is
the hook
is
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
4S
lump
in the vise and
drawn out and then
flattening the
drawing the ends out round over the edge of the anviL
shown in Fig. 30. It is made of hickory or oak 1^ inches thick and two inches wide, tapering to If inches wide at the ends. A strap of iron 3-16 inch thick and 1 inch wide runs Another good, strong singletree
is
T FIG.
30.
the whole length of the back and
is
fastened hy screws.
The ends are turned over to make eyes for holding the hooks. The hooks have bars across the ends as shown in Fig. 29.
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
i&
MAKING A SWIVEL. To make a swivel for an ordinary log chain, tate a Norway iron or mild steel about half inch by
piece of
inch in size and draw out one end to about f inch and 3 inches long. Leave about one inch in length the original
PIG. a.
size of the iron ยง.
See
A
and draw out another three inches
in Fig. 31.
Punch
to
a half-inch hole in the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
FARM BLACKSMITHING. middle of the
shown
Next make
flat part.
47
a mandrel
as
B, of J inch roimd iron by drawing out a short bit of the end to about 7-16 inch in size. Heat at
the iron
first
made and work
of the mandrel as
shown
it
into shape over the end
^ext make the
at E.
eye, C,
by bending and welding a piece of 7-16 inch iron, heat it and insert the shank in the hole in A and put on a washer and rivet down. Finish by welding the ends of
A
the same as a chain link.
D
shows the completed
swivel.
FOEGING AND TEMPEEING STEEL TOOLS.
The making and tempering such as cold chisels,
drills, etc.,
of simple
steel
tools,
and the welding and
sharpening of plow points, should be well understood
by the farm blacksmith. Let us imagine that we have a bar of tool steel in the fire and are about to make a very simple tool, The first and principal thing to have say a cold chisel. in
mind
is
that
we must not
overheat the
steel.
Steel,
owing to the carbon which it contains, is much more easily burned than iron, and the beginner is almost sure to
bum
the
first steel
he attempts to work, unless
warned in regard to it. The fire for steel work should be clean; that should consist of a body of burning coke. Fresh he
is
is,
it
coal,
;
fARM
43
owing
upon
to the sulphur
The
KLAXjkSMi'THING.
which
contains, has a
it
bad
effect
must be heated slowly and evenly, in order to be of the same temperature and consequently the same degree of softness throughout. If it is
steei.
steel
heated too quickly the outside will be softer than the
and will be drawn out faster as we draw out the end of the chisel, and though we cannot see any defect center,
at the time,
tool is
a crack will be apt to develop
Heat
to a light rel or yellow color,
Hammer Do not let
the shape of a wedge. as nearly as possible. like
when
the
tempered.
a dove's
on
it
to
all sides alike
the sides spread out
but keep them
tail,
and draw out
straight
with the
original bar.
Draw
out somewhat thinner and longer than needed
then cut off three-eighths or one-half inch, to insure an
Shape the head end as shown in it a good hammering. By "good hammering" I mean a hammering that shall refine the steel at the edge of the tool and edge of sound
correct
steel.
Finish the forging by giving
Fig. 32.
any overheating that
being forged.
By
it
may
"overheating"
is
have suffered while
meant any heating
above the heat that will give the finest grain to the steel
when
it
is
burning.
Burnt
Throw
away.
it
steel
cannot be refined or "restored."
Overheated
restored to a fine grain is at
Overheating differs from
tempered.
just the right heat.
To
will heat it to a very dull red
on both
flat sides
quite heavy blows
steel
may
be refined or
by proper hammering while do this to our chisel
and hammer
it
it
we
quickly
(not on the edges), beginning with
and striking lighter as the
steel
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
48
cools; stopping altogether as the red color disappears.
This hammering will probably spread the edge of the chisel
wider than you want
the edge, as that will
ed by hammering
ground
it
it,
but do not strike
it
on
undo what you have accomplishon the sides. The sides can be
off or filed off afterwards.
ÂŁd-i:a^-s:-
T^i^
+i
FIG. 32.
Before trying to temper the
chisel
we
will allow
it
While it experiment, which will is cooling, try the following show you, more plainly than any amount of reading, the effect of heat upon steel. Take a bar of tool steel, and after heating it to a red heat notch it on the hardy so that it will be cut to cool slowly
and then
file
it
to
nearly half off every half inch of
an edge.
its
length for three
"Now hold and turn it in the fire in such a way that the extreme end will begin to burn and throw off inches.
sparks before the last section or notch becomes red.
This will require considerable care in handling and turning the piece in the should
now form
fire.
The
different sections
a gradual scale of color, from white
and sparkling (burning), down through the different
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
50
When
shades of a red to black. take
it
from the
water and move
When
possible.
and plnnge
fire it
in this condition
it is
quickly into cold
it
about so as to cool
it is
it
as quickly as
cold break each section off
by
holding the notch over the comer of the anvil and striking a blow with the
The
hammer.
first
two or
three pieces will break off very easily, each succeeding section showing
more toughness
will probably be very
up the
ter gathering
till
the
which
last,
hard to break from the bar.
Af-
them together in
their
pieces
fit
original positions; then turn the
upper or bar end of
each section towards you, and you will have an object lesson steel.
coarse,
on the
The
effect of different degrees of
sections
heat upon
which were overheated show a
hard grain, and, as we discover in breaking This coarseness of grain diminishes brittle.
them, are as
we go up
was heated finest;
the scale toward the place where the bar
Here we
to a dull red.
find the grain the
even finer than in the original bar.
In the
two cuts show the grain of much more badly burned than No. 2. No. 3, which was heated photo engraving the steel that
first
has been overheated, No. 1 being
to a dull red, is seen to is
have the
the end of the original bav.
finest grain.
No. 4
It is thus seen that
proper heating produces a finer grain than the original steel contained.
FARM BLACKSMITHING
51
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
62
TEMPEEING TOOLS. The tempering of
consists of two proby heating, then suddenly chilling; and, second, "drawing the temper" or softening from the chilled state to the degree of hardness desired. In the case of the chisel which we were considering, we need to have only one end the edge cesses:
Eirst,
steel tools
hardening
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
hardened.
To
accomplish
this,
heat the whole chisel to a
and holding it perpendicularly over the water, dip the end in an inch or more and keep it moving up and down for a few seconds, or until the edge is cool enough so that the water will not dry on it for the space of two seconds when it is drawn dark or cherry red
out.
Now
color,
polish one side quickly with a piece of brick
so that the colors denoting the degree of heat
may
be
These colors wiU form a band which will be seen to move towards the edge or cooler part of the tool. seen.
Eirst will be seen a pale yellow or straw color; then
darker yellow, which changes to brown; then purple,
then blue.
A
cold chisel needs to be quite soft, so
we
will wait
until the blue gets to the edge; then quickly dip the
edge into the water again and hold
it
there until the
enough so that we may dip the whole without fear of hardening it. Tools for woodwork, such as carpenter's chisels and plane irons, are tempered to a straw color, as they require a very remainder of the
tool is cool
hard edge in order to be kept sharp, and
all
boys
know
FARM BLACKSMITHING. that they are not a success
for cutting nails,
i3,
Small
articles, as
when
53
used, as a cold chisel
etc.
penknife blades and
which
all tools
require an equal temper throughout, are
first chilled
by being thrown into water when hot; then are heated to the required color by being held in a gas flame or laid on a bar of hot iron, and are dropped into the water again when the right color appears. In chilling the end of a chisel, should not be held
still
start a crack at the
drill,
water
and down In retempering a
or any similar tool,
in the water, as this
Dancing the
line.
it
apt to
is
up
tool
while chilling will lessen the danger of crack-
ing.
tool it is a
good plan to hammer
lightly before chilling, as this seems to lessen the
it
liability of cracking.
Almost every cross-roads blacksmith has some
parti&-
ular receipt for a tempering fluid which he considers better than anything else for tempering tools.
water
is
as
Salt water
make a steel is
is
tool
harder
else
often used in case
very than
hard.
Salt
pure water,
Plain
for ordinary it
is
water
usÂŤ.
necessary to
harden
will
simply because
it
a better conductor of heat; but very few tools
need them. is
good as anything
to
made harder than water
be
Oil
is
better
than
water
will
in cases
make
where
it
desirable not to chill the steel too suddenly, as, for
instance, in the case oi thin knives or
are liable to
warp out of shape
any
in cooling.
tools
A
which
layer of
on top of the water answers as well as all oil. Steel cannot be hardened in soapy water, for the reason that
oil
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
54
the soap in the water forms a coating on the steel the instant
soap
is
conies in contact with
it
it.
This coating of
a poor conductor of heat, and prevents the steel
from cooling suddenly.
The following
table shows approximately the tem-
perature (Eahrenheit) indicated by the colors on steel: 1.
Very pale straw (Stone
color
drills for
2.
Yellow
3.
(Wood working Dark Yellow
4.
Brownish yellow
5.
Brown
6.
Brown
430
deg.
450
"
470
"
490
"
500
"
520
"
525
"
550
"
565
"
500
Âť
660
ÂŤ
hardest stone).
tools, stone drills.)
(Hammers.) (Lathe
tools.)
tinged with purple
(Drills, hard.) 7.
Light purple (Drills.)
8.
Dark purple tinged with blue (Watch springs, swords, hard
cold chis
els.) 9.
Dark blue (Saws, cold chisels for soft iron.)
10.
Very dark blue Saws, screw drivers.)
11.
Dark
blue tinged with green
(Too
soft for
any
tools.)
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
No
great
55
amount of dependence should be placed
upon the above table as an absolute guide for practical work, for the reason that steel varies in the degree of hardness indicated by the colors for every variation
The greater
carbon content.
of
carbon in the
steel the
A
For example: of steel
may
harder will
cold chisel
the it
made
percentage of
be for each color.
of a certain brand
be just right for a certain kind of work
tempered dark purple, whereas a chisel made from
if
a steel containing a higher percentage of carbon, in
order to stand the same work without breaking would
have to be
let
down
to a blue color.
The only way
be sure of the proper tempering of a tool
A
toolsmith should never warrant tools
is to
try
made from
to it.
a
of steel until he has made and tried one from that brand. A person may tell something about the amount of carbon in an old chisel or stone drill by the way the head turns over where it is struck by the hammer. If it breaks off in small pieces, instead of turning over, it is high in carbon. If the end frays out and turns over like a sunflower, it is low in carbon.
new brand
The smith thus has something In TQaking tools of any kind steel
to follow in tempering. it is
very important that
containing the proper amount of carbon be used.
For example:
Steel containing the right percentaga
of carbon for lathe tools would be very poor material for
making
cold chisels.
from an old
of steel to suit
A good spring cannot be made
makers make different grades different uses, and the blacksmith when
file.
Steel
ordering should always state the purpose for which he
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
56
wants the
steel so that the steel
know what temper
maker
or merchant will
will best suit his needs.
DEILLS. A. in Eig. drill.
B
34 shows an ordinary blacksmith's a drill with a twisted end.
is
will cut faster
and
easier than a flat drill but cannot
be refined by hammering in the same manner as a drill
and therefore cannot be made
abuse as the
a
flat drill,
what smaller than the
C
a
trifle
use steel of about the same carbon
drill
round, to a size some-
needed, then flatten out the
larger than necessary so as to allow
for filing or grinding
down
to size.
Cut
ners on the hardy, then allow to cool, and as
flat
much
34.
Draw down,
as for cold chisels.
end as at
to stand as
flat driU.
PIG.
To make
flat
This latter
shown in the
cut.
off the corfile
to shape
FARM BLACKSMITHING. The
twisted end drill
as the flat drill.
is
started in the
67
same manner
After flattening out the end as shown
at C, the twist is started in the
end by using a small
pair of tongs, or by holding the end in the
the vise while the drill
is
started the edges are upset
and striking quick,
comer of
After the twist
turned.
is
by using a light hammer holding the steel mean-
light blows
;
time in such position that the hammering will increase the twist.
To temper a drill, if it is a large one, use the same method as in tempering the cold chisel, already described, excepting that it should be
made
a
little
harder
(purple, instead of blue).
In the case of a small
heat to a dull red and cool
off entirely, then, after pol-
ishing, heat
up
to the proper color
a piece of hot iron or
drill,
by holding against
by pinching with a pair of hot
tongs.
The average farm blacksmith would better buy twist small sizes, and make the larger ones as he
drills of
needs them.
FARM BLACKSMITHINO.
68
PLOW WORK. The sharpening
of plows
a joh which the farm
is
blacksmith will be called upon to do very often, and
while
it is
not particularly
difficult
work,
still it calls
for a knowledge of steel, and a practical knowledge
of
how
a plowshare should be shaped to run well.
For sharpening an ordinary plow share in case one man has to do the work alone, a round faced hammer weighing about 2^ or 3 pounds
is
the proper tool to
With it the edge of the share may be drawn out by hammering on the upper side while the lower side is kept straight by being held flat upon the anvil. For use.
quick work in drawing out a very dull or thick share, especially is
when a
striker
is at
hand
to help, the share
turned bottom up and the edge drawn out by using
the cross pein of the sledge.
The
greatest care
must be used not
of the share while heating.
He
is
to
bum
the edge
a very careful black-
who never burned
the edge of a plow share. In drawing out the edge of the share near the point,
smith
the point itself "to land."
remedy.
is
very apt to be bent around too far
This condition
is
not easy to avoid nor to
It will not do to rest the edge against the
anvil to drive the joint back, for this would dull the edge.
Usually the edge
while the
point
is
being
is
rested on a
driven back.
hardwood block This
plishes the purpose without spoiling the edge.
accom-
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
S9
The welding on of new points where old ones have worn too short is a piece of work which is apt to give trouble to the young blacksmith when he tries it for the first
time.
A
new
made
point for a share should be
of plow
from an old share is good), and not from a rasp or from any steel liigh in carbon as such will give too much trouble in welding. The edges should be drawn down thin, and after placing on the point of the share the new piece and the old point should be covered with borax and iron filings. The steel (a piece cut
welding should be done in the of
fire, at least
After starting the weld in this
it.
the
way
first
it
part
may
be
on the anvil; the end cut off to the proper shape, the edge drawn out sharp and the land side squared up. In making a weld of this kind it is necesfinished
sary to heat very slowly in order that the two parts
may
reach the welding heat at the same time.
heating would cause the thin
new
point to
the larger part got hot enough to weld.
Quick
bum before No amateur
smith should attempt this job until he has had considerable experience in welding steel.
certain of his ability to
manage
If he
is
at all un-
a heat of this kind, ha
should practice on two small pieces of plow steel before running the risk of burning a plow share.
To harden a plow steel that it
share which is made of such soft cannot be tempered in the ordinary way,
heat to a uniform light red heat and sprinkle over the entire
upper surface powdered red prussiate of
pot-
i'AKii
60
BLACKSMITSING.
ash; this will melt and flow over the surface of the steel,
brine. is
when
it
should be plunged into cold water or
For use in land containing no
This, in case of shares
by simply heating .
solid stones
it
usually safe to harden the plow share quite hard.
water or brine. side
made
of good
to a full red color
It
is
steel,
may
be done
and plunging into
best to plunge the share in thick
first.
Fig. 37 shows a handy tool for holding the so-called It
is
a convenience in holding them while
sharpening and
it
prevents their warping.
slip-shares.
FIG.
which
may
be taken
off the
The
shares
37.
plow with the landside and
brace on are the most convenient to handle in sharpening,
and give no trouble by warping out of shape.
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
61
SHOEING FAEM HOESES. Because the reader finds
jump
vise all farmers to do their
ing
much
been thought best to in ordinary cases
and
whether or not he
The it
he must not
own
Horse
shoeing.
shoe-
Neither can the art be learned
not easy work.
is
in a short time,
self
this chapter,
to the conclusion that the author intends to ad-
less
tell
from books
It has
alone.
how shoeing should be done him-
to let each reader decide for shall
instruction will do
do the work or hire
him no harm
it
done.
in either case, foi
often happens that the blacksmith could be benefit-
ted,
and through him, the horses which he timely
little
advice.
work seem
Workmen
in nearly
by
shoes, all
a
other
and anxious to carry out the wishes of their employers, but for some unexlines of
to be willing
plainable reason, the horse-shoer does not seem to
rel-
wants to follow his own ideas of shoeing regardless of what the horse owner thinks should be
ish advice, but
done.
The
late
Dr. Dickson presents the situation in the
following terse way:
"It
is
a strange fact, but none the less true, that
the world over the farrier artisans
who
employers. least
some
is
the one
among
all
all
our
amenable to suggestions from his Other mechanics permit their patrons at is least
discretion as to the size, shape
of the article desired, but
when
and structure
the ordinary horseowner
takes his animal to the shoeing forge he has usually to
place himself absolutely in the blacksmith's hands and
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
62
give
him permission
to cut
and carve
at his
unholj
will, or else
tate his horse elsewhere, and then probably
find himself
no better
off.
The
result
is
that his horse's
feet are mercilessly mutilated instead of being left as
nearly as possible as nature in her
wisdom made them."
There are three or four most irrational practices followed by many country blacksmiths in the shoeing of condemned. First, which is done by a majority of country smiths, is a most positive injury to the foot and can have no reasonable argument in its favor. The frog is the natural cushion and expander of the hoof and was placed there by an all wise Creator. To cut it out means not only to rob the foot of the cushion which should soften the concussion of every step, but to horses, that cannot be too strongly
the cutting
away of the
frog,
allow the foot to contract at the heel and become mis-
shapen and crippled.
Another mistaken idea should be thinned the thumbs.
by the knife.
The
till it
is
that the sole of the foot
will yield to the pressure of
sole proper should never be touched
All loose scale
may
be trimmed away
but the knife should never cut either the sole or the frog.
All trimming on the bottom of the foot should
be done by the rasp, which will trim the edge and not
The writer has a knife in his shoeing box but he cannot remember when he last used it. Cutting of the sole or frog in any way works an inthe sole.
jury by causing the tissues to shrink and become hard
and dry.
A frog which has been trimmed by the knife
often dries so as to
become
as detrimental to the foot
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
63
There
as a stone or other foreign body.
never any
is
good excuse for touching the knife to a healthy frog. It will
wear away
enough
fast
The writer
if let alone.
never saw one that was too large.
Hot
fitting of shoes to horses' feet should not
may
be
al-
lowed by the horse owner. While it as claimed by some horse shoers, that a better fit is obtained in this way and that no real harm is done to the foot if properly
trimmed
after touching with the hot
good
shoe, it is also possible that a
by
cold fitting
and the
be possible,
fit
may
be obtained
latter process certainly is safer.
If the foot be perfectly leveled with the rasp and the shoe be
made
making
it fit.
perfectly level there
is
no trouble about
It ought not to be necessary to say that
made to conform to the shape of the and not the foot to the shoe, but it does seem, judging from their work, that some smiths need just the shoe should be
foot,
such hints.
A very common fault of setting a shoe a
then rasping
off
The trimming
among horse
little
shoers
is
the habit
too far back on the foot and
the toe to meet the front of the shoe.
of the hoof should
all
bottom of the foot before the shoe
be done from the
and the outby the rasp ex-
is set;
side of the hoof should not be touched
cepting to smooth off any slivers around the edge.
common
The
practice of rasping the entire outer surface of
the hoof after setting the shoe, should never be allowed, as
it
destroys the natural coating of varnish with which
every healthy hoof
dry and
brittle.
is
covered,
and allows
it
to
become
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
64
The
smallest nails that
-will
serve to hold the shoe
and the smallest possible number of them ; and they should not be driven high enough to endanger any of the sensitive tissue. Many farm horses that are not used to any extent in place should be used,
on the road would be much better
without shoes for
off
If their hoofs are kept
the greater part of the year.
properly trimmed the average farm horses will need
no shoeing excepting when working on icy roads in winter.
By
them
level so that the feet will not
is meant keeping grow one-sided, and rounded off so as to lessen
proper trimming of the feet
keeping the edges slightly
the danger of their splitting or breaking away.
When
it
becomes necessary to shoe a horse to pre-
vent his hoofs from wearing
away
too fast,
better to use a tip than a full shoe.
it is
often
This will prevent
undue wear of the toe, and at the same time will allow the frog to rest on the ground where it properly belongs.
The accompanying a style of tip which
road horses.
On
is
illustration
in favor
shows two views of
among many
drivers of
stony roads or hard pavements, the
rubber heeled shoes, or tips with rubber heels, are
now
being largely used, and promise to take the place of the
ordinary shoe.
The only
serious objection to
them
is
their high price.
On it is
icy roads, or
this the
but
where heavy loads must be hauled, Eor
necessary that horses should be "sharp shod."
is
ordinary shoe answers the purpose fairly well,
open to several objections.
In the
first
place
FARM BLACKSMITHINa. the long calks lift the foot
up
65
no chance
so that there is
for the frog to touch the ground, hence there
is
no pres-
sure to prevent the foot from contracting; this trouble
may what
be obviated soniev7hat by the use of a bar shoe, or is better,
a half-bar shoe, which allows of
The long
some
ex-
an unnatural
lever-
age which causes severe straining of the tendons.
For
pansion.
these two reasons possible
When
and
still
calks furnish
we should make
the calks as short as
have them prevent slipping.
heavy hauling has
to
be done on frozen gravel
roads the calks must be sharpened so often that in case
ordinary shoes are used, the horses' feet are badly damaged by the frequent re-setting of the shoes.
In such
cases the patent removable calks serve a good purpose.
The
greatest objection to these patent calks, aside
their cost, is the fact that
when worn down
the shoe, as they are apt to be if neglected, sible to
the foot.
level
it is
from with
impos-
remove them without removing the shoe from
:
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
66
When ordinary winter shoes are used the may be lengthened by welding centers
calks
life
of the
of steel in
This is done by splitting the calk with a sharp and inserting a thin bit of steel, (a piece of mower section is as good as anything), and welding. This center will wear away much slower than the surrounding iron and thus the calk will be kept sharp until worn out. Another way to prevent the calks wearing To do too fast is to case-harden them with cast iron.
them.
chisel
sharpened calk nearly to a welding heat and at the same time heat the end of a piece of cast iron till it begins to melt, then rub the melting cast iron
this heat the
over the end of the calk.
If
it is
at the
proper heat
it
and cover it with a coating of cast iron. Now take from the fire and plunge into cold water. This will harden the coating of cast metal so The writer has seen a set of that no file will touch it. shoes treated in this way used all winter on a snow will flow over the calk
road without re-sharpening.
A
very
common mistake
of horse owners
is to
the shoes to remain on too long without re-setting.
allow
No
more than four weeks without having his shoes re-set; and in the case of young horses, whose feet grow much faster than old Corns are alones, a shorter time would be better. most always the result of leaving the shoe on too long and allowing the heels to grow too long. To sum the matter up let us follow these rules 1. Do not have your horses shod at all unless it is horse should be compelled to go
absolutely necessary.
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
67
If shoeing becomes necessary, use as light a
2.
shoe fastened with as few and as small nails as possible. If the conditions will allow, use tips instead of shoes.
Allow neither frog nor
3.
sole to
be touched by the
knife.
Do
4.
tom of the
foot.
See that the shoe
5. it
the trimming with the rasp from the bot-
all
fits
the foot; and do not allow
to be touched to the foot while hot.
Do
6.
not allow shoes to remain on longer than a
month without
When
7.
re-setting.
necessary to use calks have them as short
as possible so that the frog
may
touch the ground.
FILES.
In the average farm shop there is usually to be found one, or perhaps two or three files in, generally, With this one, or a rather advanced stage of wear. these two or three files the farmer tries to do all his enough of a mechanic to try to file his own saw, he will have one or two three cornered files. filing.
As a
It he
rule a
is
com
cob serves as a handle for the farmer's
any handle is used. The farm mechanic ought to know that it is more economical of money and time to have at hand an asfile if
sortment of
files
to attempt to
suited to different kinds of work, than
do
all
kinds of filing with one or two
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
68
This will be better understood after some
files.
cussion of the use of
riles are classified in three ways;
according to
first,
length, second according to shape of cross section,
The
third according to cut. is
length of a
file
always measured exclusive of the tang, and
in inches.
Files are
made
(having a width of
files,
thickness), mill
cut,
is
files
given
common
five times
sometimes
files,
square," round or rattail
The cut of
or rasp is
the
(with a width of three times the
files
triangular
thickness),
and
in an almost endless variety
of shapes of cross section, but those in most
use are flat
dis-
files.
files,
called
"3
and half rounds.
designated by the terms, single
double cut and rasp cut; and the coarseness or
fineness of cut
by the terms, rough,
second cut, smooth and dead smooth.
dead smooth
files
coarse, bastard,
The rough and
are very seldom used in ordinary
practice.
Coarse and bastard cut
files
rough work where the object of tities
of metal rather than to
Second cut and smooth Single cut
files
files
are used for ordinary
filing is to
remove quan-
make a smooth
finish.
are used for finishing work.
are those which have a single course
of chisel marks or cuts, (usually at an angle of 45 de-
grees)
from end
to
end of the
file.
Double cut
files
have two courses of chisel cuts crossing each other forming raised angular teeth, instead of ridges. Easps
from the others in having teeth standing out separate from each other, which are made by a diamond-pointed, instead of flat chiseL or rasp cut
files differ
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
THE USE OF
69
EILES.
If the amateur mechanic will bear in mind that the a series of sharp, hard chisels he will plainly see
file is
that there are good reasons for the following rules for
the use of
files.
when not in use, be kept in a wooden up on wooden pins. Keeping them in a
Files should,
rack or hung
drawer or on a bench where they are knocked against each other or against other tools injures them and shortens their term of usefulness.
You would
not
think of keeping sharp chisels in such a place.
Never use a new file on rough cast iron without first removing the scale with an old, worn file. All castings have a hard scale on the surface caused chilling of the metal
molds.
may
when
it
This scale or casing
is
by the
run into the damp
is
often very thin and
be easily removed by grinding or by using an old,
worn file, whereas a new file would be ruined on it by having its thin sharp teeth broken off. When this scale is removed the cast iron is generally easily cut by a sharp file. Never attempt to file hardened steel with a good partly
file.
No
will cut
toolsmith can temper a cold chisel so that
hardened
steel.
Remember
a series of sharp, hard cold
In
that your
file
it
is
chisels.
narrow surfaces bear on very lightly because only a few of the teeth can have a bearing on the metal at the same time, and too much force will cause filing
FARM BLACKSMITHINO.
70
them
to cut too deeply
and they are apt to be broken
off.
On wide
many
one time and
surfaces
it
will be
found necessary to bear on quite
hard in order to make the
As a that the
file
pose nothing
In order
"take hold" or "bite."
to
file is
file
should be used
to do this it
is
necessary
For this purgood wooden handle with
be provided with a handle. is
better than a
a strong ferrule.
a
file
rule the whole length of the
each stroke.
at
teeth will be cutting at
The
easiest
have a hole a
little
Then heat the tang of an old the new one and bum to a fit.
way
to
fit
too small to file
of the
The
a handle to fit
the tang.
same
size as
center line of the
handle should be exactly parallel with the length of the
file.
The
teeth of the
rection,
and the
file
file
are
made
to cut in but one di-
should be lifted from the work on
the back stroke.
The proper height elbow.
be
for heavy or
medium work
to be
on a level with the workman's For lijit work (such as saw filing), it should
held for easiest filing
much
higher.
A
to do good
is
work must be kept clean and free which tend to fill the spaces between the teeth and thus hold the teeth out from the work and prevent the file from "taking hold" of the work freely. The filings from cast iron and brass may usually be from
file
filings
stiff bristle brush; but those from wrought iron and steel often stick much tighter and must be removed by the use of a wire brush or card. Sometimes small particles of steel become packed
brushed out with a
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
71
and must be resorted to. A scorer is made by flattening out the end of a small rod or wire of soft iron and making a comb out of it by drawing 80 firmly that the wire brush will not loosen them,
what
it
is called scorer
across the
file
lengthwise of the teeth.
TO SPLICE A EOPE. Every farmer and every farmer's boy ought to be make a rope halter, and tie all
able to splice a rope, the useful knots is
known
To
to the sailor.
splice a rope
a simple matter, but to teach the art on paper
is
However, I think that by carefully following the directions and studying the cuts anyone may learn this iiseful accomplishment. Eigures 74, 75 and 76 illustrate the beginning of quite another thing.
what
is
known
as the short splice.
To make
it,
first
untwist the two ends to be spliced for about a foot
(more or
less
according to the size of the rope), and
put them together as shown in Fig. 74.
Begin splicA as shown in Fig. Turn the rope toward you and put 75. aroimd E in the same manner; then B around F. Next turn ing by placing the strand
around D,
the rope around; or, in other words, place yourself on
and put the end D around strand Then put F around B in the same manner; then E around C. Now pull all the ends tight and go through the same process again always twisting the same strands together so that the spliced the other side of
it
A, as in Fig. 76.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
12
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
T'^
U
4
^
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
73
same any other part. After proceeding for a few inches cut out a few threads from each strand every time it is put around its mate; in this way the splice will be made to gradually taper toward the ends. In splicing new rope if is often necessary to use some sort of tool to separate the strands. Sailors use what they call a marlin spike (a sort of rude needle), but a shert piece of hardwood sharpened at one end answers very well. It is pushed through between the strands and the end of the strand pushed through with it or just behind it. In the cuts the ends of the strands
parts of the rope will consist of three strands, the as
made short for much longer.
are
be
convenience ; they should, of course,
EOPE HALTER. To make and about 4
a rope halter take 14 feet of half-inch rope, feet
from one end form a loop by doubling
the rope and passing the end under a strand in two places about 2 inches apart (see
A
Fig. 77).
Next
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
74
splice the short
B.
end into the main part of the rope
at
Finish the halter by passing the long end through
the loop and tying as in Fig. 78.
should be
wound with
The end
of the rope
a piece of binding twine, and
the ends of the twine, instead of being knotted, should
be spliced into the rope so that they will never come out.
KNOTS. The bowline knot is one which everyone should know how to tie. It never slips nor comes loose of itself, and no matter how much strain is put upon it, it never becomes jammed so that
it
cannot be easily untied.
For fastening the hay-fork rope
to the whiffletrees or
tying a rope around a calf's neck this knot cannot be excelled.
Fig. 79 shows
how
it is
made.
FARM BLiACKSMiTHINQ.
In these days of dehorned to
75
cattle it is often necessary
improvise a halter with which to lead an animal.
Such a halter may be very easily and quickly made by tying two bowline knots, one to form the loop and the other to take the place of the splice in the halter described above.
The weaver's
knot, (shown in Fig. 80), bears a close
relationship to the bowline knot, as a careful study of
both knots will show. the ends of
warp
It is used
together.
FIQ.
ao.
will never slip; neither will
it
imtie.
gether.
It
is
by weavers in tying
Like the bowline knot,
jam
so as to be
it
hard to
a good knot to use in tying two straps
to-
;
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
16
Fig.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
shows a way of attaching a rope to any
smooth or slippery object which for instance a log.
The
is to
be pulled endwise
pump, a pipe of any kind,
cut shows so plainly
how
that a description is hardly needed.
FIG.
made and object.
the rope
When
is
is
A
slip
knot
is
81.
wrapped
the end
or a round
to attach the rope
several times
around the
pulled upon, the rope hugs
the object so tightly that slipping is impossible.
The
stronger the power applied, the tighter will the rope
become.
The timber
hitch (Fig. 82)
FIG.
used in handling timber,
made and
will not jam.
is
a kind of slip knot
82.
logs,
etc
It
is
very easily
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
TJ
THE LONG SPLICE. The accompanying
cut shows
how
to
make what
sail-
ors call the "long splice" in a rope.
The length
of a long splice should be about 100
diameters of the rope for large rope and 80 diameters for small rope.
Suppose we have a splice to make in a f inch hayUnravel each rope for a distance of about
fork rope.
three feet, and set
them together in such a way
that
each of the unravelled strands shall be between two Now twist adjacent strands of the opposite rope.
t.,1
strands together in pairs as in Fig.
1. This twisting done to avoid confusion and tangling and is no part In the cut one rope is repreof the splicing proper. is
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
78
sented as black, and the other white to
more numbered
make
the opera-
and the strands of the black rope are 1, 2, and 3, and those of the white rope are After twisting B and 2 and lettered A, B and C. and 3 together in pairs, proceed with the splicing by unlaying strand 1 a turn or two and laying strand A
tion
in
its
plain,
place; continue this process for a distance of
about 2^ feet and leave as in Fig.
Pt4
m^
2.
These figures
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ. are shortened to save space
much
and the strands are shown
shorter than they would be in the real rope.
Next unlay C and lay 3 in
as in the case of is
79
now
A
and
its
1.
place the same distance
Each pair
of strands
to be subjected to the following treatment:
YoT convenience we
will take strands 3
and C.
Unlay
each of these strands and slip in 'aalves as in Fig. 4;
80
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
then lay one half of each strand back where the whole strand came from and tie as in Fig.
to tie exactly as
shown in the
when
5.
Be
verj careful
figure, that is,
have
down tight they will form a smooth strand and not be lumpy as they are sure to be if put around each other the wrong way. pass around 3 so that
pulled
FARM BLACKSMITHING. Continue to tuck
where strand 3 was in the is
C around split
3
till
(point
D
just past the place
in the cut), then
same manner tuck 3 around C
reached.
Now
81
till
the point
E
cut off the ends of the half strands
After inch from the rope. two pairs of strands in the same man-
about a quarter of an treating the other
ner, the splice will be complete.
Two
or three precautions are necessary to observe
in order to
make
a smooth splice.
Be
sure that the
strands are set together properly at the start so that
each strand goes in between two strands from the opposite rope.
In replacing one strand with another, it had in
be sure to give the same amount of twist as the original rope.
After tying the half strands and beginning to tuck
one around the other, pull on both to draw up otherwise a bunchy, loose place will be
left.
tight,
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
82
SAW FILIiq^G. By WILLIAM BOSS.
The saw is one and
is
grain or grain
of the woodworker's most useful tools
used for cutting wood either across or with the
is
fibre.
The one used
called the cross-cut
for cutting across the
saw; the one for cutting
with the grain, the rip saw. It
is
poor economy to buy a cheap saw
other hand,
it is
;
and on the
sometimes unwise to buy the highest-
priced; as some saws are
made very hard and
are in-
tended to be used only by fine mechanics in dry lum-
and will not stand setting nor rough use. good saw for ordinary use is Diaston's D 8 with sway back. There are other saws which are probably as good, but the one mentioned is a standard saw and ber,
A
will give good service. at the point
The
it
lighter
to handle than the straight back.
saws
given by the length of the blade
size of
in inches.
The sway back makes
and easier is
Twenty-six inches
is
a good length for a
and twenty-eight inches for a rip saw. Saws for small work should be shorter. The coarseness or fineness of a saw is shown by the number of teeth to the inch. A cross-cut saw for ordinary work should have about eight teeth; for rough work or for sawing large timbers seven or six would be better, and for fine work nine or ten. cross-cut saw,
:
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
83
A rip saw for ordinary work should have about five and one-half teeth to the inch; for rough work, more, The number of teeth per inch is for fine work less. usually stamped on the blade of the saw near the handle.
SHARPENING SAWS. The
sharpening of a saw consists of four
filing or
operations which should be done in the following order
—
First, top-jointing,
^which consists in filing off the
points of the teeth tmtil they are all the
and making
same length
the cutting edge of the saw, taken as a
—never
whole, either straight or crowning
FIG.
Fig. 1 shows a
hollow.
1.
home-made saw joinder which exactly square across the saw
for holding the
file
must be taken
to
have
it
is :
used
—
care
square or the teeth will be
shorter on one side and the saw
wiU run
saw should be top jointed every time
crooked.
it is filed.
A
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
B4
Second.
Setting; which consists in setting or tend-
ing the teeth outward, one on one side, the next on the other and so on
till all
make
The
are set or bent.
object of
saw cut wider than the thickness it to run freely through the timber and not pinch. The amount of set in a saw may be readily seen by holding it to the light with the back toward the eye, when it will appear as in Fig. 2.
setting
is
to
the
of the blade in order to allow
FIG,
8.
Care must be taken not to give the saw too much set it will run hard and not cut smoothly. For ordinary work the teeth should be set out about one-third the thickness of the blade. For dry lumber the saw will require less set, and for green or wet lumber, more. The teeth should not be set too near the points nor or
too close to the blade; about two-thirds of the distance
from the points This
we
to the
will call
bottom of the teeth
the depth of
set.
is
Fig. 3 shows one
type of saw set in which the amount of set
by the screw A. less set; is
turning
it
out gives more.
may
regulated
The
The depth
Turning
the teeth nearer the point; turning
which
is
Turning the screw in gives the saw
regulated by the screw B.
nearer the blade.
about right.
plate or anvil,
it
C
it
of set
in will set
out will set
it
has four faces
be turned to suit the size of the teeth.
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
85
Filing; which consists in tiling the teeth to
Third.
sharp points.
Great care mtist he taken in
bring the teeth to sharp points.
filing to
If they are not sharp
they will not cut and will prevent those that are sharp
from
cutting.
Be
careful also not to
file
them
after
they are sharp as that will shorten them and then they will not cut.
when each
The
tooth
secret
is filed
consists
to a point.
in stopping just
To
get the best
from a saw, the teeth should all be sharp and of the same length and shape.
results
actly
Fourth. a fine
file
Side Jointing; which consists in running or an oil-stone along the sides of the saw to
even the teeth at the sides to prevent scratching. setting a
ex-
saw
it is
In
impossible to bend all the teeth ex-
same; some will be bent or set out more than and if not side-jointed they will scratch, making the cut rough and uneven, and the saw will not cut so fast as it would were the teeth in perfect line. When a saw has too much set some of it may be removed by actly the
others,
side jointing.
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
86
This order should be followed in sharpening all saws, whether cross-cut or rip saws; the top-jointing, setting
and side-jointing being the same in all the only differfiling. In filing any saw where a three cornered file is used, we file one side each of two If you find that one tooth is getting teeth at once. ;
ence being in the
FIG.
4.
sharp before the other, bear harder against the large or duller tooth, but be careful to keep the pitch or angle of the tooth the same.
When
carefully the position of your to the angle across the
a rip saw the cross-cut,
file
saw
as in
starting to file:
A
file
notice
First, in regard
Figs.
4 and
5.
For
should be about square across; for a
an angle of about 45 degrees.
FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.
PI4;.
Second.
Be very
87
5.
Notice the pitch of the tooth as at
careful as you proceed that the
file
B Fig.
6.
does not
turn in your hand or handle and change the pitch as at
B
in Fig. 6.
B.
FIG.
Third.
The
handle of the
ÂŤ.
hevel or level of the
file
be up or down.
Be
file,
whether the
careful to notice
these points in starting
and then keep them the same
throughout the
If these positions change, the
filing.
teeth will be of different shapes, as at E.
If a tooth he broken out, do not
file
the broken part,
but keep the teeth on each side their original the broken one will
size, and "grow" longer each time the saw
is filed irotil it finally
becomes of full size or length.
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
88
The timber
rip saw, is
which
used for ripping or splitting
is
usually filed square across; the action of the
teeth being similar to that of a
each tooth being a
chisel.
row of small
chisels,
Fig. 7 shows the shape of
the teeth in the rip saw, filed square across.
The
front
side of the teeth should be kept at right angles to the line of the cutting edge of the saw.
or cross-grained
bevel let
wood
it is
For ripping hard
well to give the teeth a
by lowering the handle of the
file
a
trifle,
little
also to
the teeth start back slightly, so as not to bite too
freely; but for clear pine, straight across, and at right
angles to the length of the blade
FIG.
the rip
saw
it is
is better.
In
filing
7.
best to file against the cutting edge of
the teeth, filing one-half the teeth
from each
side.
The cross-cut saw is filed in quite a different manner from the rip saw. As it must cut the grain or fiber of the wood in two places, one on each side of the saw, it must also break and carry out the chips or dust between the two cuts. Let Fig. 8 represent the end view of a saw cutting a piece of timber;
A
being the saw,
B
the timber.
shows the point which does the cutting and
G
D the part of
the tooth which breaks and carries out the chip or sawdust.
For cutting
soft
wood, the point
D may
be long-
fARM BLACKSMITHINCJ.
8d
and sharper than for cutting hard wood, as the saw In cutting hardwood dust is more easily broken out.
er
more
the point should be the dust as soon as
it is
blunt, in order to break out
cut by the points.
or bluntness of these points the
file
across the saw.
is
Holding the
FIG.
The length
regulated by the level of file
level will
8.
the point long, while lowering the handle of the providing the file be will make the point blunt
make file
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
kept out an angle of 45 degrees to the length of the saw in each case.
In filing the cross-cut saw it is best to run the file at an angle of 45 degrees across the saw as this gives the best results to cut both
;
sharpening the front of the tooth so as
smooth and
fast.
FARM BLACKSMITHING.
90
Fig. 5 shows the plan, or the appearance on looking
dcvn
at the
saw and
file
from the
top.
The
file
should
be held at about this angle in filing nearly all cross-
cut saws.
The pitch of the teeth is an important feature. Too much pitch is a common fault. It is well to have a little, but too much pitch will make a saw cut rough and push hard. Fig. 6 B shows a saw with no pitch at all, and the bevel the same on each side of the tooth. The file is held level in filing teeth in this shape which is used largely in cutting soft wood ^principally in the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
buck saw. Fig. 9 shows a saw with the same amount of bevel on This form the face of the tooth and none on the back. is used in the buck saw for cutting hard wood. To
make
teeth of this shape, lower the handle of the
but keep
it
at the
file,
same angle (45 degrees), across the
saw.
PIG.
In
saw the file should be held so from the handle towards the point of the saw.
filing the cross cut
as to file
Some
9.
filers
claim that this will cause a rough or wire
edge on the face of the tooth.
This
may
be true but
such edge will be removed when the saw is side jointed. No saw, even though the teeth are not set, should ever be filed wholly from one side, as the file turns a This should be slight edge which increases the set. filing half the blade by the sides of distributed to both side. teeth from each
J.-ARM
BLiACKSMITHING.
01
TAP DKILLS. Table showing the different sizes of be used
The
when a
sizes
full thread is to be
drills that
tapped in a
given are practically correct.
Diam. No. Threads
of
Tap. 1-4
9-32 5-16 11-32 3-8
13-32 7-16 15-32 1-2
17-32 9-16 19-32 5-8
21-32 11-16 23-32 3-4
25-32 13-16 27-32 7-8
29-32 15-16 31-32
1
Drill for
should
V
Thread.
hole.
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. Diameter
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OP CIRCLES.— Cont. Diameter
ClRCUMFEiiENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.—Coflt
WEIGHT TABLE OF ROUND AND SQUARE ROLLED IRON. PER FOOT. Size
WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER FOOT
WEIGHT PLATE IRON, PER SQUARE FOOT Inch
..
.
TABLE OF DECIMALS. Equalling Parts of an Inch. 3%-4
.0156
.
..1313
%2
.0938
.59.38
'/64
.1094
.
.
1-16.
.
1-8
...
19,<
^32
3-10..
'%4
...
.1.56.3
2y32
.1719
*%*
.1875
11-16 *%4
.
"/b4
.2500 3-4
.
9,
.2813
'%4 764 5-16..
.2969
f/64
"/82
.3281
.
.3438
2%4. 3-8 .. 2%4 1%2
.
«y84
7-16.
.3125
.
W2
..
.7656
.
.7813
.
.7969
U-16
.8125 .'8281
.8438
S%4
.3594
.
.3750 7-8
...
.3906
"/64
.4063
29,4 ^32
.8594
.8750
.
.9063
.'92W
.4219
.4375 .4531
.7344
.7500
*%*. 2%2
="/64
.7031
.7188
.2344 .2656
^32
.6563
.687? .
1-4 ... "/64
.
.6250
.6719
.2188 .
.5629 .5781
.6406
.2031 7/
.5409
.6094
.1250 5-8 .1406
•
..il.56
>%2 .0409 3%4 .0625 9-16.. .0781 3%t .0313
•
15-16.
-9375 .9531
-.4688
.9688
.4844
.9844
.5000
4
1. t
WEIGHT
IN
POUNDS OF VARIOUS METALS