Farm Blacksmithing

irm BlacksttiitMtti J.M,DREW%

A MANUAL FOR FARMERS AND AGRICULTVRAL SCHOOLS

S'9@'9@'9@'M'9^9^9@'»@'S

Cotne

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Cornell University Library

220.D77 1910 Farm blacksmithing

3 1924 003 588 450

The tine

original of

tliis

book

is in

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

restrictions in

the United States on the use of the

text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003588450

Farm Blacksmithing

J.

DREW,

M.

Unstnictor in Blacksmithing, School of Agriculture,

University of Minnesota.

ST.

ANTHONY PARK, MINN.

Second Editloa

ST,

PAUL

WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY 1910,

CoWright

BY

J.

M.

1901-1910.

DREW.

INTEODUCTIOK A

workshop on a farm

is

always a good sign.

It 13

an indication that the farmer believes in having a place

where he that

may

profitably spend his time on stormy days

would otherwise be wasted.

To such

farmers, and

hope that they some useful lessons in an easier way

their sons, this book is addressed, in the

may

learn from

it

than by hard experience.

"Farm Blackand Home. There

Several years ago a series of articles on

smithing" appeared in Farm, Stock

was then, and has since been, some inquiry for a book embodying those articles and covering the subject of iron and steel work, or so much of it as the farm mechanic would need to know.

Such a book has now been prepared, and the author has added to it such knowledge as

he has gained by an experience of seven years in

teaching blacksmithing to the farmer boys in the Minnesota School of Agriculture.

If the expert blacksmith complains that he finds

nothing to interest him in the book,

let

that it is not intended that he should.

him remember It

was written

for beginners.

The chapter on "Saw Filing" was written by Mr. William Eoss, Instructor in Carpentry at the School of Agriculture

;

FAEM BLACKSMITHING. The thoughtful reader

will at once recognize the

diffi-

culty of teaching even the elements of a trade on paper

but I hope by the aid of illustrations to

make

reasona-

bly plain all the operations which enter into the work

which the farm blacksmith will be called upon

Nowadays

a

to do.

farm blacksmith shop may be very cheap-

ly furnished with all the tools necessary for ordinary

work, and the convenience forge on every

—

—

yes, the necessity

of a

farm needs no argument.

The time that may the means and skill to

often be saved by having at hand repair damages to machinery and

much more important matter than by doing one's own work. What farmer

tools is often a

the

cash saved

has

not often been obliged, by some slight breakage, to go to

the town or village shop,

—

—perhaps

several miles

and there find that he must wait for several horses to be shod before his little job, (which he might have done himself if he had the proper tools), could be away,

attended to by the blacksmith.

While

it is

true that a

at a blacksmith's forge

about the trade,

it is

man may work and

still

for a lifetime

have more to learn

also true that the essentials of the

trade consist of only a few comparatively simple operations,

which may be acquired by any one who has melittle time and attention

chanical ability and will give a to the work. practice.

After this

is

done, skill will

come with

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

6

We

are too apt to think that

simply because thing like

we have never

we cannot do

tried to do

it,

a thing or any-

it.

"Our doubts are traitors; they make us lose the good we oft might win by fearing to attempt."

There is no good reason why every farmer who has any mechanical ability, cannot do nine-tenths of the work which he usually hires done by the blacksmith.

FUENISHING THE SHOP.

is

In furnishing a shop, the first thing to be considered There are good portable forges now on the forge.

the market which

may

To any one thinking say:

be had for a reasonable price.

of buying one of these I would

Don't get one that

pan 18x24 inches and a

The

little

is

One with

too small.

14:-inch

fan

is

a fire

small enough.

bench forges are entirely too small for

or-

dinary work.

A

cheap forge which will answer every purpose of

the ordinary

farm shop may be made of wood,

a box filled with clay.

square and two and one-half feet high. lows

may

—simply

It should be about three feet

A

36-inoh bel-

be had for $5, and a single nest tuyere iron

for 35 cents.

A tuyere

from the bottom

iron which

may

be cleaned out

A very cheap

and be made of a piece of two-inch iroi\ pipe extending entirely -through the forge.

Several

good tuyere

will cost about $2.

may

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

7

Bmall holes are drilled into the top side of the pipe for the blast,

and a plug

bellows.

When

plug will

is

is fitted

into the end opposite the

the pipe gets clogged with ashes the

pulled out,

when

blow everything

a strong blast

The

out.

from the bellows

picture on page 4 shows

the style of forge in use at the School of Agriculture.

It is simply a length of sewer pipe set

with clay.

A

hole

is

on end and

filled

drilled through the back side for

the horn of the bellows, and an ordinary single nest

tuyere iron

is

The bellows

used.

is

an ordinary

old-

fashioned one, 32 inches wide.

The most expensive part vil.

of the outfit will be the an-

always been supposed that the best anvils

It has

They cost about 10 cents per pound. Very good American anvils can now be had for about 8 cents per pound. One weighwere those imported from England.

ing 80 to 100 pounds use.

is

none too large for a farmer's

Don't make the mistake of getting a cast iron an-

vil that will

not stand hard pounding.

The same

is

Get one that you can pound on withA wrought iron vise with steel out fear of breaking. true of the vise.

jaws costs from $3.50

A

machinist's

to $5, according to weight.

hammer, shown

at Fig.

1,

weighing

one and one-half pounds, will be found the most convenient size for

common

use,

mer weighing two and

and a blacksmith's hand ham-

one-half pounds will be conven-

FARM MLACKSMiTHIN&.

8

ient to have at

about 50 cents.

hammer

hand for heavier work. Each will cost Tor sharpening plows a round-faced

should be used.

ject in a later chapter.

More will be said on this At the start the beginner

subwill

need a pair of plain tongs (Fig. 2) and a pair of bolt tongs (Fig. 3).

The plain tongs may be changed cutting off

into chain tongs by

the corners and shaping the ends of the jaws

as explained

on page 41.

This does not

affect their usefulness as plain tongg,

and makes them serviceable in handling links and rings.

A set of stocks and dies for cutting threads on bolts

from one-fourth necessity.

to three-fourths of

an inch

These will cost from $3

to

is

almost a

$10, or even

:

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

9

more, depending upon kind, quality, and the number of

A

sizes in the set.

good

set for

ordinary use, cutting

numbers of thread, and taking

three different

bolts or

nuts from five-sixteenths to three-fourths of an inch,

may may

A

be had for $3.

very good upright

drill press

be bought for $4.50.

The expense

so far is about as follows

Bellows and tuyere iron Anvil Vise

$5.35 8.00 4.00 1.00

Hammer Tongs (two pairs) Hardie Stocks and dies

70 25 3.00 4.50

Drill press

Total

$26.80

Beside tools there will be needed a supply of blacksteel.

For general "Cumberland" coal is the best fuel.

It contains but little sulphur, and is easily packed about the fire.

It gives a powerful heat, and is so free from earthy matter that but little clinker is

smith's coal and some iron and

blacksmithing, what

left after

is

known

as

burning.

In former years charcoal was used almost entirely by blacksmiths. that

it

It has the

advantage over other coals

contains no sulphur, and for this reason

cially desirable for fine steel work.

But

its

pared with mineral coal has nearly driven

Ordinary stove

coal, either

for blacksmithing.

hard or

soft,

is

cost as

it

espe-

com-

out of use.

cannot be used

It contains such a large percentage

of Bulphur and other impurities that iron cannot be

FARM SLACKSMITHING.

10

welded with

it,

contact with

it

and

steel

while hot.

presence of sulphar.

would be ruined

if

brought in

Iron cannot be welded in the

Great care should therefore be

exercised to avoid getting sulphur into the forge. <iT

Nev-

allow lead or babbit metal to be melted in the forge

ifriihout rteel

a thorough cleaning out afterward.

Iron and

unite readily with sulphur to produce iron sul-

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

jphide,

a brown powder which resembles neither iron

Qor sulphur. heat

is

When

sulphur

is

present iron at welding

slippery, whereas without the sulphur it

be sticky.

would

&ARM BLACKSMITHINtJ.

11

lEON Am) STEEL.

It is necessary, or at least desirable, that the

blacksmith should the materials he in a general

know something about work with. He, of

is to

way something about

young

the nature of course,

knows

the different kinds of

wrought iron, malleable cast, eac), him; and has, as a rule, a general knowledge of steel and the uses to which it may be put.

He has heard of cast steel, tool steel, machine steel, and Bessemer steel, and has perhaps a somewhat dim idea of what is meant by each of these terms. (cast iron,

iron,

which he

sees all about

Let us in a few words define the different kinds of iron and steel, and

what

it

may

show how each

is

made and

for

be used.

Iron, as every school boy knows, parts of the world

where

is

mined in many

found mixed with stone This mixture is called "ore," it is

and other materials. and may be in the form of solid rock or a brown powder or dust.

Iron is seldom found in the pure state, but there

is

a great difference in the purity of the ores found

in different parts of the world.

This fact will be

re-

ferred to later.

The

iron

is

separated from the ore by a melting proc-

ess called "smelting,"

by great heat form.

which

consists in melting the ore

so that the iron will flow out in a liquid

This liquid

is

not pure iron, but contains more

or less impurities, depending

upon the purity of the ore

FARM BLACkSMltiilNd.

i2

from which

it is

From

melted.

the smelter the liquid

iron flows out in a trench in the earthen floor, and led into

lump

little

side trenches of the right size to

of iron which

may

make

be handled by one man.

is

a

These

from the fancies resemblance to a litter of pigs which a row of them presents when in the trenches. For a like reason the large

lumps are

trench

called "pig iron,"

is called

Common

the "sow."

cast iron

is

made by melting pig

iron or a

mixture of pig iron and old cast scrap iron and pouring

The proper mixing of the materials is of making good castings.

Malleable cast iron, or, as it is more commonly called "malleable iron," is common cast iron from which the it

into molds.

great importance in

carbon has been baked by long-continued heating in redIt is the usual practice to bake

bot ovens. days.

By

baking out the carbon the iron

less brittle,

and hence

purposes than the

Wrought

is

is

useful for a great

common cast iron. we usually see

iron, as

it,

is

it

for seven

made much many more

made

of old

worked over by being done up in bundles held together by wire or band iron, heated to welding heat and run between rollers to give it the required shape and size.

In reworking old scrap great care must be taken to use only wrought iron scrap, and pickers are employed to carefully exclude all pieces of cast iron and steel ; for if any of these materials get wrought iron scrap, which

is

into the bundles the result will be too

much

which will cause the iron to be harsh and stead of malleable and tough.

carbon,

brittle, in-

t'ARM BLACkSMITHINO.

The

best

toughness

monly

is

13

wrought iron for purposes where great required comes from Sweden, but is com-

"Norway

kno\^Ti to the trade as

iron."

It

is

from carbon and other impurities.

The ore from which it is made is the finest iron ore known, and for this reason is used for making

very tough, because

free

it is

No

the finest grades of tool steel.

making Swedish

scrap iron

is

used in

iron.

STEEL. Steel is simply iron to

which has been added a very

small amount of carbon.

common the

We

substances.

form of

Carbon

is

are most familiar with

The diamond

charcoal.

one of the most

is

it

in

almost pure car-

bon.

There are other elements

to be

found in

steel in

very

we

take

small amounts, but for

all practical

pure iron and add to

a small percentage of carbon

will have steel.

it

Steel such as

chisels contains less

is

purposes

if

we

used for making cold

than 1 per cent of carbon.

In the usual process of making fine tool steel, rods of pure wrought iron are packed in charcoal in long iron troughs, or boxes, which are sealed with fire clay and placed in a furnace, where they are subjected to a high heat for several days.

The heat

is so

regulated

that the rods do not melt, but are kept nc ar the melting point.

During this process the iron absorbs some oi from the charcoal, and is thus changed to The proper amount of carbon is determined by

the carbon steel.

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

14

drawing out one oÂŁ the rods occasionally and testing

The

flteel

made by

this process is called "blister steel,"

for the reason that the surface of the lods

with small

it.

What

blisters.

is

known

is

covered

as "shear steel" is

these rods of blister steel and w aiding them together under a steam hammer, or by running them between rolls.

"Cast steel" is made by melting blister steel in earth-

made by heating

en pots called "crucibles" and pouring into molds forming ingots, which are afterwards heated and rolled or

hammered

out into bars.

It will easily be seen that cast steel all

tools

than blister

steel or

shear

is

much

steel,

better for

because the

melting insures a thorough mixture of the carbon so that ail parts are sure to contain the

same amount.

In

blister steel the outside portions of the rods contain a

much

greater percentage of carbon than the centers;

and in the shear

steel the

welding process does not cause

such a complete mixture as in the process of melting

which

cast, eteel

What is

is

undergoes.

known

as

"mild

a stsol which contains so

steel," or little

"machine

carbon that

steel,"

it is

prac-

same nature aa good wrought iron, exceptsomewhat stifFer and more durable when subjected to wear.

It is produced by several different processes, the most important of which are the Bess:eraer and the open hearth processes.

In the Bessemer process the pig iron is melted in a large crucible or converter, and air is forced through This causes the the molten metal from the bottom. carbon to burn out and leave a mass of nearly pure tically of the

ing that

it is

FARM BIjACKSMITHING. Then

iron.

a quantity of iron having a

age of carbon

is

16

known

percent-

added, thus giving any desired percent-

age of carbon to the

The open hearth

steel.

process consists in melting pig iron

in large furnaces built of fire brick and keeping

it at

a

very high temperature, until the impurities are practi-

worked or burned

cally all

nearly pure iron, which

is

out, leaving a liquid

mass of

then poured into molds form-

These ingots are afterwards heated and same as wrought iron.

ing ingots. rolled the

These processes have been so cheapened recently that soft steel is largely taking the place of

wrought iron for

many

the better grades

uses.

It

of iron, and

is

cases excepting -the

making

nothing

Iron

is

taking the place of iron in almost

where extreme

of rivets),

than

is better is

cause of

rigid,

lowed to

is

required.

Norway

For

this

purpose

iron.

First, be-

:

great strength; secondly, because

changed in shape when

it is

so

hot, but be-

same time tough, on being alWrought iron and all the milder forms

and

cool.

all

softness, (for example,

the most useful of all the metals its

easily forged or

comes

now cheaper than

at the

of steel

may

ature.

Steels containing a high percentage of carbon

be readily welded below a burning temper-

(in general, all tool steels)

from the

air

a high heat.

by borax or

may

be welded

if

protected

other flux which will withstand

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

16

PEACTICE WORK. Assuming

that the beginner has the tools mentioned

on the preceding pages, or at least the most necessary

hammer, and tongs), let us start a The first thing a blacksmith should try to learn how to manage his fire so as to get the greatest heat

onts, (forge, anvil, fire. is

just

where he wants

it,

with the least waste of fuel.

Gtart a fire by using pine shavings, or any material

which would make good kindling for a coal,

fire in

a cook

After getting a good blaze started, pack a

store.

around, not upon, the kindling, so that

it

little

will take

fire slowly.

Wow

had a

the forge there will always be coke which

may

fire in

begin to blow gently.

be used instead of coal in starting the

we

the first time

Remember

be placed upon the

fire,

all its

of

By

it.

;

but for

wood and

that coal should never

but around

the fire for a short time

ha\ ing

fire

are supposed to have only

blacksmith's coal.

nea.1

After having

it is

it.

After being

changed to coke by

sulphur and other impurities burned out

continually packing the coal about the fire

and crowding

it

toward the center the blacksmith keeps

a supply of coke burning in the middle of his

fire,

where he needs the most heat, and prevents the

fire

from spreading.

It

is

often of advantage to wet the

coal about the fire in order to

keep the

Your

fire fire

pack

it

harder and thus

confined to the middle. will

now

present the appearance of a

FARM BLACKSMITHING. mound

17

of coal with a center of burning coke, and more

or less of an opening in the middle through which the blast is coming.

Experience will soon show how

blast should be given.

er the heat

up

to the limit

of the fire begins to be

As

a

first

The

much

stronger the blast the great-

where the coke in the middle

lifted out of place.

lesson in blaeksmithing, let us

with which to manage our

make a poker

Take a piece of half Heat one end to inch round iron about two feet long. a white heat for a distance of about three inches, and bend in the form of an eye (See Fig. 5.)

Now heat the other end and flatten about four inches and bend as shown in the cut. fire.

MAKING A BOOK HOOK. Next,

let

us try to

make an ordinary door

hook.

Take a piece of f round iron two or three feet long.

Put one end in the fire so that there will be burning coke both above and below it.

Give blast enough to heat

it

quickly, but not enough to blow the coke out of

the middle of the

fire.

Get the end of the rod up

white heat and square about four inches of

to a

shown at a, Fig. 6.

Draw it out so that the comers will come out square and sharp.

After heating again, draw out The shoulder between the the end, as shown at h. part the original iron is made by holding small and against the edge of the anvil and striking so that the it,

as

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

18

edge of the anvil will cut into the iron to form the

In drawing out iron to make a point on it smaller, always draw it square first, no matter what is to be its shape finally, for you can reduce its size faster by squaring it than by trying to keep it round or any other shape. iN'ext make this small end round by flattening down the corners.

Stop pounding and heat the iron as often as it gets below a cherry red shoulder.

it

or to

make

in color.

After rounding the end, turn

horn of the anvil to make a round

eye.

it

around the

Next cut

off

and draw out to a point, as at e.

Complete the hook by bending the end and twisting the middle, as shown at /.

the iron

r

râ&#x20AC;&#x201D;~

'^nrrr

i

FIG.

The beginner

is

ÂŤ.

apt to have trouble in getting the

eye of the hook perfectly round. in being oval, rather than circular.

It usually persists

The

trouble

is

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

19

usually caused by not bending the end enough at the

The end must be given

start.

before the other part gotten

is bent, as

its full

amount of bend

afterward

it

cannot he

at.

MAKING A STAPLE. To make

draw out one end of a rod and or leave it square, depending upon the kind of staple you want.

Decide how long you want the staple, and bend the end at right angles to the remainder of the rod (Fig. Y), to form one leg of the staple.

Do not make the complete bend at this time, or the finished end will be in the way when you sharpen the other end: Out off the iron for the second leg a little shorter round

a staple

it,

than the

first,

to a point.

to allow for lengthening in

Now

drawing out

draw out the second leg

to a point,

then heat in the middle and complete the bend.

PIG.

T.

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

20

MAKING

CHAIlvr.

Machine made chains are

no farm

so cheap that

make his own, but he will often be called upon to mend chains and supply missing or broken hooks and rings.

To make a link, take a blacksmith can afford to

piece of f inch rod, heat about three inches from the end, and bend so as to form the letter "TJ" (Fig. 8).

Now

cut off on the hardy, so that both legs of the

V

be of the same length (about three inches). Then

shall

holding the bent part with a pair of chain tongs, heat the two ends

and

scarf,

Now turn

the left one.

ing corner of the other

(flatten), the inside corner of

over and scarf the correspond-

In doing

leg.

this scarfing,

do not flatten the whole end, as this would mcjce the

Simply

end of the link too thin. corners a

flatten the inside

Next, bend the two legs so that the

little.

flattened or scarfed places shall

come together and the

You

ends cross each other at right angles.

ready to make your ing heat

it is

or snow,

weld.

like a

has held for some time in his

of the

fire,

and below

make still

iron

is

at weld-

It presents the appearance of wet

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;exactly

end of the link

When

now

perfectly white and the surface is in a

melted condition. ice

first

are

hard snowball that a boy

warm

To

hands.

get the

to the required heat, hold it in the center

(there should be burning coke both above it),

and turn

it

over every few seconds to

sure of heating both sides alike.

If

it

were held

in the fire the bottom side would burn before the

top got hot enough to weld. right heat place

it

When you

have

it

at the

quickly upon the anvil and strike

FARM BLACKSMITHING. first

on one side and then on the

strike a single

make

without doing the weld any good. over the horn of the anvil.

round and the same

it

link will

Try

now be

to

the shape

After a

shown

little

The at

/.

make

off

the weld

the welded part

8,

and

To shape

strike in the

Beginners often make the

mistake of holding the link it.

the iroin thinner

Finish

too wide at one end.

shown by the arrow.

ing to shape

not

size as the balance of the link.

properly hold as at d in Fig.

place

Do

other.

blow after the iron gets below a weld-

ing heat, as that would only

Your

21

flat

on

its

side

when

try-

result is always something like

The

correct shape

is

practice one should be able to

shown

make a

at

e.

link

with only two, or at most, three heats.

2)

FIG.

The

8.

greatest difficulty with most beginners consists

in getting the iron to a welding heat without buraung.

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

22

The great majority try to weld before the iron is hot The only safe way is to watch carefully and take the iron from the fire the moment the surface hegins to flow and look wet.

If you wait until the sparks begin to fly, the iron will be burning.

With large irons no harm will be done if a few sparks are enough.

seen; but with small irons, and especially with mild steel, this is just

beyond the danger

line.

MAKIN'G A BINQ. To make foot long,

a ring take a piece of ^ or 7-16

and unset both ends, as shown

FIG.

iron a

9.

is done by heating ono end and holding on the anvil and striking the other end. In doing

This upsetting it

in.

at a. Fig. 9.

FARM BLACKSMITHING. this talfe a short heat, that

is,

heat only an inch or so

of the end, and be careful not to setting.

If

bends,

it

23

let it

straighten

it

get bent in up-

at

After

once.

and scarf it for welding.

Do this by first holding it on the anvil at an angle of about 30 degrees, and striking with the hammer held at a corresponding angle. Strike a few upsetting both ends, heat one end

blows, or until the iron assumes the shape

Now

turn the iron a quarter turn, and lay

anvil

and shape

In doing

this

like

c.

D

another view of the same.

do not strike straight down, but drive the

iron back toward you. the

is

shown at b. on the

it flat

Next, treat the other end in

same way, being careful

make the scarf on the when the ring is

to

side opposite the first one, so that

bent the two scarfs will come together.

Be

sure to

bend the ring as shown in the cut, so that in welding you can get at both ends of the scarfs with the hammer.

down

After welding, work the iron around the weld

Do

to its original size.

ring without

first

not attempt to

make

a

upsetting the ends, or you will find

after welding that the iron is too small each side of

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

a condition which cannot be remedied.

In making a ring for a chain, do not attempt to join to the weld;

the chain before welding,

but

first

finish

the ring,

then join to the chain by another link.

In case of a rush

job,

count for much, or where ference if there

make it up afterwards.

is

it

where appearances do not make no particular dif-

will

a thin place in the ring, one

may

a ring after the fashion of a chain link, rounding

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

24

MAKING A CHAIN HOOK Two ways

shown of making a ctain hook. iron is used.

The iron is first upset, then rounded off.

Then a hole is punched and worked out large over the horn of the anvil, and the iron around the hole is rounded up at the same time.

Next it is cut off and the end drawn down to a blunt point and rounded. It is next bent a

The

little

first is

are here

way when good

a good

over half

way then ;

the back

is

beveled so that

quite thin ; but the inside of the hook possible.

show how

The shaded it

is left as

portions in the figure

it is

thick as

marked

c

should look in cross-sections if cut through.

FIG.

10.

This exercise introduces an operation which wo have met with before; that is, punching.

not

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ. To punch

25

a hole in iron, heat to white heat

;

hold on

the anvil, not over the hole, but over the solid face of

the anvil it

were

and drive the punch

till

it

feels as

though

solid against the face of the anvil; then turn

iron over and you can see a clear round spac? where the punch tried to come through. Place the punch on this spot and drive it in; now place the iron over the hole in the anvil and drive the punch through.

the

This will make a clean-cut, smooth hole, whereas

if

had been punched from one side only, a ragged hole would have been the result.

Another way of making a chain hook is shown in it

Fig. 11.

This

way

one just described

is

always to be preferred to the

if the iron

used

is

not very tough.

FIG. u.

Smaller iron

may

because

doubled where the most strength

it is

also

be used than in the

first

way, is

re-

;

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

26

The

quired.

cut shows the

method of making

so clear-

ly that little description is necessary.

drawn down a little in size where and welded; then cut off and sharpened and bent the same as in the case of the

The

iron

the eye

first

is

is

usually

to be; then is bent

hook.

The beginner

quite apt to burn the iron around the

is

eye before getting be.

it

hot enough where the weld

is

to

It is a good plan to heat to near the welding

point; then dip the eye part in water until

it

turns

black; then reheat very quickly, and the eye part will

not get too hot again before the other part

is

ready

to weld.

A grab hook is

made

in the

same way, only

it is left

square after welding, and then bent on the corner, as

shown in Fig.

To

11.

start the

bend

right, place in

the square hardy-hole in the anvil.

MAKING A

CLEVIS.

There are several good ways of making a

When

good iron

tough iron,

the ends the

A

is

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;about same

used

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

that

the best

is,

way

Norway

is to

clevis.

iron, or

any

upset and punch

as in beginning the first chain hook.

makes a good clevis. shown in b. Fig. 12 and punch the ends; then bend into then flatten out The holes should be large enough to take a half shape.

piece of f iron 13 inches long Upset both ends and the middle as

inch pin.

FARM BLACKSMITHING. Another way to make a

clevis,

and

27

tlie

best

way

in

draw out the end square for about three or four inches, as shown in Pig. 13, and bevel ofE the end then bend and forge a sharp angle, as shown at a, about two inches back case ordinary or poor iron

is

used,

is to

;

FIG.

12.

towards you forge another angle (b). are formed

These angles

by bending the iron at nearly right angles, then hammering, as shown in the cut. It is not an easy thing to do, and requires practice to make a good After forming the angles, or corners, bend the job. iron so that the two corners will come together, forming a round eye.

Now weld the end fast to the side and one end of the clevis is done. The other end is, of course, formed in the same way.

FARM BLAGKSMITHINO.

28

D

FIG.

!â&#x20AC;&#x17E;â&#x20AC;˘

Another and quicker way of upsetting the end way which is usually taken to make the end of a brace) is shown at Fig. 14.

The end is hent at right angles and flattened down, making a round lump. (the

The edges must be heated to welding heat and welded down, or a crack will show where the flattened part joins the other iron.

I

FIG.

14.

B'ARM BLACKSMlTHINa.

To make

a clevis in the shortest possible time take

20 inches of 7-16

"U" weld

long

29

;

iron,

bend in the middle to form a same as in mak-

the ends together the

ing a chain link.

Now

rig. 15, and bend to

close the sides together, as in

form a

FIG.

clevis.

15.

After making a clevis we will want a pin or bolt for

This

it.

brings us

naturally to the

making of

bolts.

BOLTS. It

and

is

if

much

cheaper to buy bolts than to

make them;

one could always have access to a stock of bolts

of all sizes and lengths, he need never take the time to

make

one.

But

the farmer

vsdll

often find himself

in need of a bolt which he has not in his assortment,

and

if

he can make one himself he

is

master of the

Having a bolt of the right size, but too long, it is an easy matter to cut it down to the required length and cut new threads.

The simplest way to make a head on a bolt is to upsituation.

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

30

set the

end until

it is

about a half larger in diameter

than the bolt; then drive into a heading tool (see Fig. 16).

This

is

way

the

usually followed in

making

Large bolt heads are usually welded on. To make a welded head, take round iron a size smaller small

bolts.

FIG.

than the iron of the

bolt.

16.

For example,

if

half inch iron, use 7-16 iron for the head. ring, or eye, in the

fit

is

Form

a

end of the smaller iron by bending

around the horn of the size to loosely

the bolt

anvil.

This eye must be of a

the bolt, and must be cut so as to

reach only about three-quarters of the

way around (See

Fig 17).

PIG.

After forming this eye,

from the

17.

do not cut

entirely

off

rod, but cut it nearly off; then heat the

end

it

FARM BLACKSMITHING. of the bolt and upset

it

a

little in

31

the eye, or ring

break the ring loose from the rod, where cut through, and

hammer

it

so to

Next heat

of the bolt tightly.

Don't be afraid to hit

weld.

it

see that the ring reaches entirely it

been cut long enough

makj to

it

it

clasp the end

heat and

welding

You

hard.

around the

at first to reach

then

;

was nearly

will

around

it

now

Had

bolt.

would

have been apt to double up and cause trouble in welding.

After welding the ring to the end of the again to welding iron, to

being careful to drive

make a

take

heat and drive

it

one-sided head.

it

straight

down

heading so as not

After flattening

out and shape the head round

heat

bolt,

into the

it

down or

or square,

hexagon, to suit your needs or fancy.

When

a head

which

is

is

needed on a long rod, for instance

formed on a short piece of afterwards welded to the long rod.

a bridge rod,

it is first

rod,

HEADING TOOLS. To make

a heading iron upset one end of a piece of

good iron (Norway Fig. 16; then

is

to be preferred), as

shown

punch the hole the desired

size,

in

and

either weld a piece of thin steel on the face side or

case harden the face.

In punching the

a taper hole, smallest at the face side.

hole,

The

make

face

it

may

be case hardened by heating to a good light red heat

and sprinkling with powdered cyanide of potassium.

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

32

This chemical is a very strong poison, and should be kept in a safe place, away from the reach of children.

The handiest way

of applying

to use

it is

an ordinary

tin pepper box with perforated top.

A

clevis bolt

should have an eye, or

To make

lower end.

at the

the

and after punching dress the size while the punch is still in

slot,

slot

use a

down

bolt

for a key flat

to the

punch proper

place.

o> FIG.

Fig. 18 shows

planation

is

how

nuts

necessary.

18.

may

The

be made.

iron

Little ex-

drawn out

is

the

right width and thickness; then nearly cut off on the

hardy;

then

the

hole

is

ing a nut after cutting

handling

it

The

punched.

squared up while the punch it off

is

sides

in the hole.

from the

are

In heat-

bar, instead of

with a pair of tongs use a piece of wire, or

a one-fourth inch rod with a short bend in the end.

As

a general thing enough odd nuts

may

be found in

may be seldom be necessary to make new The farm blacksmith will appreciate the need

the farmer's workshop, in which

new

threads

cut, so that it vidll

ones.

of saving

all

the old nuts and bolts to use in cases

where they may save the necessity of making new ones.

:

FARM BLACKSMITHING. is

a very simple operation,

description.

The standard numbers

Cutting threads on bolts

and needs

little

of threads for carriage bolts are as follows 1-4

in. bolts

5-16 "

33

'

20 threads

to

an inch

34

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

.

then run the tap into the nnt

till

the threads will

fit

the end of the bolt, then reverse the nut and ran the

same depth from the other side.

The farmer's workshop should be supplied

tap in to the

assortment of

bolts,

washers, screws, rivets,

-with

etc.,

an

which,

kept in order where a bolt or screw or rivet of any

if

particular size and length

may

be found when wanted,

will prove a great saving of time.

Much may

be saved by buying such things in whole-

sale lots, rather it is

pay the

to

A

than a few at a time:

For

instance,

cheaper to buy a package of 50 carriage bolts than retail price for half that

fairly complete

made up

list

number.

of carriage bolts

would be

of one package each of the following sizes

and lengths:

5-16 diameter

J diameter.

Length. Pr. Pkge of 50

Length. Pr. Pkg. of 100.

1|

25c

li

li

26c

2

17c

2

28c

2i

18c

2i

30c

3

19c

16c

3

32c

Si

34c

3i 4

22c

4

360

^

24c

4i

39c

5

25c

5

40c 43c 45c

5J

26c

6

28c

5^ 6

21c

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

% Lengith.

diameter

35

^ diameter

Pr. Pkg. of 50

Pr. Pkg. of 50

Length.

li

18c

2

37c

li

19c

24

38c 39c

2

19c

3

2|

21c

3^

3

24c

4

45c

Si

26c

4i

47c

4

26c

5

50c

4^

29c

5|

52c

5

31c

6

55c

6

34c

An

'.

42c

assortment of washers for the different sizes of

bolts should

be kept.

WELDIITG. Let us now try our hand at welding two irons toSo far, all our welding has been done with

gether. irons

that would

naturally stay

together.

Welding

separate irons will be found to be quite a different matter.

Take two

pieces of one-half inch iron; upset

scarf one end of each in exactly the

same manner

the case of the ring already described.

Now

and as in

see that

you have a clean fire; that is, a fire with no clinkers or old burned out ashes at the bottom.

Have a good bed of coke burning nicely and a supply of coal closely banked about it. Do not allow any fresh coal to come

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

36 h) contact

side

down

with your ;

that

is,

irons.

Put the

irons in the fire face

the scarf side down.

coke both above and below the irons.

mer

Have burning Have your ham-

lying at the right-hand end of the anvil, with the

face side

away from you, and be sure that you know it is, so that you can pick it up with-

exactly where

out having to look for vil in

of the right will

it.

To

get the irons on the an-

the right position without loss of time, take hold

hand one

so that the

be upward and the

little

back of your hand

finger toward the

fire.

This will naturally bring the scarfed side up when placed on the anvil.

See Fig. 19.

FIG.

Practice this a

19.

few times before heating the irons. By steadying the left hand iron on the edge of the anvil (Pig. 19), you

FARM BLACKSMITHING. can bring

it

down upon

37

tte other one in just the right

any uncertainty. Irons at welding heat are very sticky, and if they happen to touch each other when in a wrong position will cause trouble. position without

Now this,

Do

heat to welding heat.

If one

heat faster than the other. pull

it

back a

little.

not

When you

let

one iron

inclined to do

is

get a nice weld-

ing heat on both irons take them out quickly (remem-

bering to take hold with the right hand so as to bring the iron face side

up on

the

anvil)

strike

;

sharp blow on the edge of the anvil, to shake dirt or scale that

hand iron it

may be on them

as in Fig. 19,

by guiding

it

the

you can hammer.

let

a

any

and bring the other down upon

now

anvil.

If they

stick together so

go with the right hand and pick up

Strike a light blow

one, at the place indicated

FIG.

Turn the

off

then place the right

from the edge of the

are at the proper heat they will tha+

;

them

first,

then a heavy

by the arrow in Fig. 20.

20.

iron over quickly and scriKe in the same

on the other side. welding heat, put until the surface is

way

If the iron has cooled below the it

back in the

fire

and heat again

in a melted condition; then go

all

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

38

around the

weld,'

of the iron. to

make

pounding

With

it

down

large irons it

to the original size

is

generally possible

a perfect weld with one heat; but small irons

lose their heat so quickly that it is generally necessary

two or three times before finishing.

After practicing with half-inch irons until you can make a good weld, try a smaller size. Also try weldto heat

ing a short piece to a long one by using bolt tongs for

holding the shorter

tongs

piece.

Finally

using two pairs of tongs.

pieces,

is

weld two

Where one

short

pair of

used, take the tongs in the right hand, and,

after placing the left-hand iron on the right one, let

the tongs drop to the floor while picking

up the ham-

mer.

Elat but is

is

welded in the same way as round, somewhat harder to make a good job with, as it iron

is

not easy to get

all

the corners and edges welded

down

so they will not show.

To weld flat iron at a right angle, upset slightly and draw out the side of each piece as shown in Fig. 21, and Never try to make a sharp place together as shown. inside comer in a weld of this kind, for if you do, a crack is almost sure to start there. Leave the inside rounding unless a square comer ia absolutely required, in which case, file it square rather than try to forge it.

To weld flat irons in the form of a T, upset and scarf both the end, Fig 22, and the place where it is to Great care must be taken to have no be welded on. scale or cinder in the hollow scarf at the time of welding.

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

39

FIG. 2L

MAKING TONGS. To make

a pair of ordinary blacksmith's tongs take

a piece of three-fourths inch round soft steel, heat

one end, and placing

Norway it

as at a, in Fig. 23, strike so as to drive

the it

comer of

the anvil to

iron or

upon the it

anvil,

down

past

form a shoulder, next placing

across the anvil at an angle of 45 degrees with the

length of the anvil, as at of the shoulder

first

c,

so that the inside angle

formed comes just over the further

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

40

edge of the anvil, flatten down the part on the anvil about two inches back.

This will make a beveled

shown at c. E is another view of the Cut off at the dotted line in e. Draw out and round the end just cut off, and scarf it for welding on handle, as shown at g.

Be sure to make the scarf on the same side as the beveled shoulder.

Now lay this jaw aside and make another exactly like it; then take a piece of seven-sixteenths round iron or mild steel

shoulder, as

same.

two feet long upset both ends to the size of the scarfed ends of the jaws; scarf and weld a jaw to each end. ;

Next cut

in the middle,

and draw out and

finish the

ends ; then punch the rivet holes, which should be about

an inch in size. To make the rivet, draw out a piece of half-inch iron, as shown at h, leavfive-sixteenths of

ing, a shoulder for the

head of the rivet ; cut nearly

on the hardy, so nearly that

it

off

can be easily broken

Heat it white In riveting, do hot, insert, break off and rivet down. not strike a flat blow, but hold the hammer at an angle off

after being inserted in the jaws.

so as to give a beveled

edge to the rivet head.

If the

riveting has tightened the jaws so that they do not

work easily, simply heat red hot and open and shut them a few times while hot. If intended for chain tongs, cut off the corners as at I, and shape the ends of the jaws, as shown at m, by heating and bending over a piece of three-eighths inch iron or the end of a small punch.

To make a

pair of bolt tongs

24; drawing it square Shape the end by flattening out

at Fig.

draw out the iron first,

;

then

as

then rounding.

make

the groove

TS'AMm ÂŁtLACKSMITHINC^.

11

FIG. za

by placing the iron in the angle between face and horn After bending the jaws, shape over

See Fig. 24 D.

the shoulder of the anvil the

same as in the case of the of anvil, and striking with the ball end of the hammer, plain tongs ; then cut off and scarf for welding on the

FARM BLACKSMITHINa.

42

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; ^â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

FIG.

handle.

grooves

'

-^-.--^

21.

After riveting the two jaws

may

together

the

be finished by heating hot and shaping

over a piece of roimd iron or the end of a punch.

Tongs of many shapes and sizes are useful for difwork; but the two kinds just described often, and any one who can make them most are used ferent kinds of

a

FARM BLACKSMITHING. can make any kind which, his work

may call

for.

Fig. 2P

shows two kinds which will he found handy in manj

FIG.

ways.

The

mers and

first

ones are used in dressing hand ham-

all anvil tools

second pair

is

having eyes for handles.

The

used in dressing ball pein hammers or in

handling short

made with

25.

Horse sheer's tongs are usually and wide jaws, usually rounded.

bolts.

short

See Fig. 26.

FIG.

2ÂŤ.

WHIFFLETEEE Fig. 27 illustrates a good

way

IKON'S. of ironing singletrees.

The end irons and hooks are made of 7-16 round iron and the middle iron is of 1-2 inch round. Fig. 28 shows the manner of making the hooks.

It should he

noticed that the end of the hook comes within 7-16 of

an inch of touching the inside of the hack of the eye.

This preifents the tug from coming unhooked of itself.

The hook has to be turned up as shown iu the cut, (Fig. 27), before the tug can be hooked or unhooked.

u

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

FIG.

27.

FIG. 2"

At

"Fig.

29

is

shown the way

to

make

a

bar across the end to prevent unhooking.

made by leaving

a

lump on

the end

when

hdbk with

a

The bar

is

the hook

is

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

4S

lump

in the vise and

drawn out and then

flattening the

drawing the ends out round over the edge of the anviL

shown in Fig. 30.

It is made of hickory or oak 1^ inches thick and two inches wide, tapering to If inches wide at the ends.

A strap of iron 3-16 inch thick and 1 inch wide runs Another good, strong singletree

is

T FIG.

30.

the whole length of the back and

is

fastened hy screws.

The ends are turned over to make eyes for holding the hooks.

The hooks have bars across the ends as shown in Fig. 29.

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

i&

MAKING A SWIVEL. To make a swivel for an ordinary log chain, tate a Norway iron or mild steel about half inch by

piece of

inch in size and draw out one end to about f inch and 3 inches long. Leave about one inch in length the original

PIG. a.

size of the iron ยง.

See

A

and draw out another three inches

in Fig. 31.

Punch

to

a half-inch hole in the

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

FARM BLACKSMITHING. middle of the

shown

Next make

flat part.

47

a mandrel

as

B, of J inch roimd iron by drawing out a short bit of the end to about 7-16 inch in size.

Heat at

the iron

first

made and work

of the mandrel as

shown

it

into shape over the end

^ext make the

at E.

eye, C,

by bending and welding a piece of 7-16 inch iron, heat it and insert the shank in the hole in A and put on a washer and rivet down. Finish by welding the ends of

A

the same as a chain link.

D

shows the completed

swivel.

FOEGING AND TEMPEEING STEEL TOOLS.

The making and tempering such as cold chisels,

drills, etc.,

of simple

steel

tools,

and the welding and

sharpening of plow points, should be well understood

by the farm blacksmith.

Let us imagine that we have a bar of tool steel in the fire and are about to make a very simple tool, The first and principal thing to have say a cold chisel. in

mind

is

that

we must not

overheat the

steel.

Steel,

owing to the carbon which it contains, is much more easily burned than iron, and the beginner is almost sure to

bum

the

first steel

he attempts to work, unless

warned in regard to it.

The fire for steel work should be clean; that should consist of a body of burning coke. Fresh he

is

is,

it

coal,

;

fARM

43

owing

upon

to the sulphur

The

KLAXjkSMi'THING.

which

contains, has a

it

bad

effect

must be heated slowly and evenly, in order to be of the same temperature and consequently the same degree of softness throughout. If it is

steei.

steel

heated too quickly the outside will be softer than the

and will be drawn out faster as we draw out the end of the chisel, and though we cannot see any defect center,

at the time,

tool is

a crack will be apt to develop

Heat

to a light rel or yellow color,

Hammer Do not let

the shape of a wedge. as nearly as possible. like

when

the

tempered.

a dove's

on

it

to

all sides alike

the sides spread out

but keep them

tail,

and draw out

straight

with the

original bar.

Draw

out somewhat thinner and longer than needed

then cut off three-eighths or one-half inch, to insure an

Shape the head end as shown in it a good hammering. By "good hammering" I mean a hammering that shall refine the steel at the edge of the tool and edge of sound

correct

steel.

Finish the forging by giving

Fig. 32.

any overheating that

being forged.

By

it

may

"overheating"

is

have suffered while

meant any heating

above the heat that will give the finest grain to the steel

when

it

is

burning.

Burnt

Throw

away.

it

steel

cannot be refined or "restored."

Overheated

restored to a fine grain is at

Overheating differs from

tempered.

just the right heat.

To

will heat it to a very dull red

on both

flat sides

quite heavy blows

steel

may

be refined or

by proper hammering while do this to our chisel

and hammer

it

it

we

quickly

(not on the edges), beginning with

and striking lighter as the

steel

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

48

cools; stopping altogether as the red color disappears.

This hammering will probably spread the edge of the chisel

wider than you want

the edge, as that will

ed by hammering

ground

it

it,

but do not strike

it

on

undo what you have accomplishon the sides. The sides can be

off or filed off afterwards.

ÂŁd-i:a^-s:-

T^i^

+i

FIG. 32.

Before trying to temper the

chisel

we

will allow

it

While it experiment, which will is cooling, try the following show you, more plainly than any amount of reading, the effect of heat upon steel.

Take a bar of tool steel, and after heating it to a red heat notch it on the hardy so that it will be cut to cool slowly

and then

file

it

to

nearly half off every half inch of

an edge.

its

length for three

"Now hold and turn it in the fire in such a way that the extreme end will begin to burn and throw off inches.

sparks before the last section or notch becomes red.

This will require considerable care in handling and turning the piece in the should

now form

fire.

The

different sections

a gradual scale of color, from white

and sparkling (burning), down through the different

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

50

When

shades of a red to black. take

it

from the

water and move

When

possible.

and plnnge

fire it

in this condition

it is

quickly into cold

it

about so as to cool

it is

it

as quickly as

cold break each section off

by

holding the notch over the comer of the anvil and striking a blow with the

The

hammer.

first

two or

three pieces will break off very easily, each succeeding section showing

more toughness

will probably be very

up the

ter gathering

till

the

which

last,

hard to break from the bar.

Af-

them together in

their

pieces

fit

original positions; then turn the

upper or bar end of

each section towards you, and you will have an object lesson steel.

coarse,

on the

The

effect of different degrees of

sections

heat upon

which were overheated show a

hard grain, and, as we discover in breaking This coarseness of grain diminishes brittle.

them, are as

we go up

was heated finest;

the scale toward the place where the bar

Here we

to a dull red.

find the grain the

even finer than in the original bar.

In the

two cuts show the grain of much more badly burned than No. 2. No. 3, which was heated photo engraving the steel that

first

has been overheated, No. 1 being

to a dull red, is seen to is

have the

the end of the original bav.

finest grain.

No. 4

It is thus seen that

proper heating produces a finer grain than the original steel contained.

FARM BLACKSMITHING

51

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

62

TEMPEEING TOOLS. The tempering of

consists of two proby heating, then suddenly chilling; and, second, "drawing the temper" or softening from the chilled state to the degree of hardness desired.

In the case of the chisel which we were considering, we need to have only one end the edge cesses:

Eirst,

steel tools

hardening

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

hardened.

To

accomplish

this,

heat the whole chisel to a

and holding it perpendicularly over the water, dip the end in an inch or more and keep it moving up and down for a few seconds, or until the edge is cool enough so that the water will not dry on it for the space of two seconds when it is drawn dark or cherry red

out.

Now

color,

polish one side quickly with a piece of brick

so that the colors denoting the degree of heat

may

be

These colors wiU form a band which will be seen to move towards the edge or cooler part of the tool. seen.

Eirst will be seen a pale yellow or straw color; then

darker yellow, which changes to brown; then purple,

then blue.

A

cold chisel needs to be quite soft, so

we

will wait

until the blue gets to the edge; then quickly dip the

edge into the water again and hold

it

there until the

enough so that we may dip the whole without fear of hardening it.

Tools for woodwork, such as carpenter's chisels and plane irons, are tempered to a straw color, as they require a very remainder of the

tool is cool

hard edge in order to be kept sharp, and

all

boys

know

FARM BLACKSMITHING. that they are not a success

for cutting nails,

i3,

Small

articles, as

when

53

used, as a cold chisel

etc.

penknife blades and

which

all tools

require an equal temper throughout, are

first chilled

by being thrown into water when hot; then are heated to the required color by being held in a gas flame or laid on a bar of hot iron, and are dropped into the water again when the right color appears. In chilling the end of a chisel, should not be held

still

start a crack at the

drill,

water

and down In retempering a

or any similar tool,

in the water, as this

Dancing the

line.

it

apt to

is

up

tool

while chilling will lessen the danger of crack-

ing.

tool it is a

good plan to hammer

lightly before chilling, as this seems to lessen the

it

liability of cracking.

Almost every cross-roads blacksmith has some

parti&-

ular receipt for a tempering fluid which he considers better than anything else for tempering tools.

water

is

as

Salt water

make a steel is

is

tool

harder

else

often used in case

very than

hard.

Salt

pure water,

Plain

for ordinary it

is

water

usÂŤ.

necessary to

harden

will

simply because

it

a better conductor of heat; but very few tools

need them. is

good as anything

to

made harder than water

be

Oil

is

better

than

water

will

in cases

make

where

it

desirable not to chill the steel too suddenly, as, for

instance, in the case oi thin knives or

are liable to

warp out of shape

any

in cooling.

tools

A

which

layer of

on top of the water answers as well as all oil. Steel cannot be hardened in soapy water, for the reason that

oil

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

54

the soap in the water forms a coating on the steel the instant

soap

is

conies in contact with

it

it.

This coating of

a poor conductor of heat, and prevents the steel

from cooling suddenly.

The following

table shows approximately the tem-

perature (Eahrenheit) indicated by the colors on steel: 1.

Very pale straw (Stone

color

drills for

2.

Yellow

3.

(Wood working Dark Yellow

4.

Brownish yellow

5.

Brown

6.

Brown

430

deg.

450

"

470

"

490

"

500

"

520

"

525

"

550

"

565

"

500

Âť

660

ÂŤ

hardest stone).

tools, stone drills.)

(Hammers.)

(Lathe

tools.)

tinged with purple

(Drills, hard.)

7.

Light purple (Drills.)

8.

Dark purple tinged with blue (Watch springs, swords, hard

cold chis

els.)

9.

Dark blue (Saws, cold chisels for soft iron.)

10.

Very dark blue Saws, screw drivers.)

11.

Dark

blue tinged with green

(Too

soft for

any

tools.)

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

No

great

55

amount of dependence should be placed

upon the above table as an absolute guide for practical work, for the reason that steel varies in the degree of hardness indicated by the colors for every variation

The greater

carbon content.

of

carbon in the

steel the

A

For example: of steel

may

harder will

cold chisel

the it

made

percentage of

be for each color.

of a certain brand

be just right for a certain kind of work

tempered dark purple, whereas a chisel made from

if

a steel containing a higher percentage of carbon, in

order to stand the same work without breaking would

have to be

let

down

to a blue color.

The only way

be sure of the proper tempering of a tool

A

toolsmith should never warrant tools

is to

try

made from

to it.

a

of steel until he has made and tried one from that brand. A person may tell something about the amount of carbon in an old chisel or stone drill by the way the head turns over where it is struck by the hammer. If it breaks off in small pieces, instead of turning over, it is high in carbon. If the end frays out and turns over like a sunflower, it is low in carbon.

new brand

The smith thus has something In TQaking tools of any kind steel

to follow in tempering. it is

very important that

containing the proper amount of carbon be used.

For example:

Steel containing the right percentaga

of carbon for lathe tools would be very poor material for

making

cold chisels.

from an old

of steel to suit

A good spring cannot be made

makers make different grades different uses, and the blacksmith when

file.

Steel

ordering should always state the purpose for which he

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

56

wants the

steel so that the steel

know what temper

maker

or merchant will

will best suit his needs.

DEILLS. A. in Eig. drill.

B

34 shows an ordinary blacksmith's a drill with a twisted end.

is

will cut faster

and

easier than a flat drill but cannot

be refined by hammering in the same manner as a drill

and therefore cannot be made

abuse as the

a

flat drill,

what smaller than the

C

a

trifle

use steel of about the same carbon

drill

round, to a size some-

needed, then flatten out the

larger than necessary so as to allow

for filing or grinding

down

to size.

Cut

ners on the hardy, then allow to cool, and as

flat

much

34.

Draw down,

as for cold chisels.

end as at

to stand as

flat driU.

PIG.

To make

flat

This latter

shown in the

cut.

off the corfile

to shape

FARM BLACKSMITHING. The

twisted end drill

as the flat drill.

is

started in the

67

same manner

After flattening out the end as shown

at C, the twist is started in the

end by using a small

pair of tongs, or by holding the end in the

the vise while the drill

is

started the edges are upset

and striking quick,

comer of

After the twist

turned.

is

by using a light hammer holding the steel mean-

light blows

;

time in such position that the hammering will increase the twist.

To temper a drill, if it is a large one, use the same method as in tempering the cold chisel, already described, excepting that it should be

made

a

little

harder

(purple, instead of blue).

In the case of a small

heat to a dull red and cool

off entirely, then, after pol-

ishing, heat

up

to the proper color

a piece of hot iron or

drill,

by holding against

by pinching with a pair of hot

tongs.

The average farm blacksmith would better buy twist small sizes, and make the larger ones as he

drills of

needs them.

FARM BLACKSMITHINO.

68

PLOW WORK. The sharpening

of plows

a joh which the farm

is

blacksmith will be called upon to do very often, and

while

it is

not particularly

difficult

work,

still it calls

for a knowledge of steel, and a practical knowledge

of

how

a plowshare should be shaped to run well.

For sharpening an ordinary plow share in case one man has to do the work alone, a round faced hammer weighing about 2^ or 3 pounds

is

the proper tool to

With it the edge of the share may be drawn out by hammering on the upper side while the lower side is kept straight by being held flat upon the anvil.

For use.

quick work in drawing out a very dull or thick share, especially is

when a

striker

is at

hand

to help, the share

turned bottom up and the edge drawn out by using

the cross pein of the sledge.

The

greatest care

must be used not

of the share while heating.

He

is

to

bum

the edge

a very careful black-

who never burned

the edge of a plow share.

In drawing out the edge of the share near the point,

smith

the point itself "to land."

remedy.

is

very apt to be bent around too far

This condition

is

not easy to avoid nor to

It will not do to rest the edge against the

anvil to drive the joint back, for this would dull the edge.

Usually the edge

while the

point

is

being

is

rested on a

driven back.

hardwood block This

plishes the purpose without spoiling the edge.

accom-

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

S9

The welding on of new points where old ones have worn too short is a piece of work which is apt to give trouble to the young blacksmith when he tries it for the first

time.

A

new

made

point for a share should be

of plow

from an old share is good), and not from a rasp or from any steel liigh in carbon as such will give too much trouble in welding.

The edges should be drawn down thin, and after placing on the point of the share the new piece and the old point should be covered with borax and iron filings.

The steel (a piece cut

welding should be done in the of

fire, at least

After starting the weld in this

it.

the

way

first

it

part

may

be

on the anvil; the end cut off to the proper shape, the edge drawn out sharp and the land side squared up. In making a weld of this kind it is necesfinished

sary to heat very slowly in order that the two parts

may

reach the welding heat at the same time.

heating would cause the thin

new

point to

the larger part got hot enough to weld.

Quick

bum before No amateur

smith should attempt this job until he has had considerable experience in welding steel.

certain of his ability to

manage

If he

is

at all un-

a heat of this kind, ha

should practice on two small pieces of plow steel before running the risk of burning a plow share.

To harden a plow steel that it

share which is made of such soft cannot be tempered in the ordinary way,

heat to a uniform light red heat and sprinkle over the entire

upper surface powdered red prussiate of

pot-

i'AKii

60

BLACKSMITSING.

ash; this will melt and flow over the surface of the steel,

brine. is

when

it

should be plunged into cold water or

For use in land containing no

This, in case of shares

by simply heating .

solid stones

it

usually safe to harden the plow share quite hard.

water or brine. side

made

of good

to a full red color

It

is

steel,

may

be done

and plunging into

best to plunge the share in thick

first.

Fig. 37 shows a handy tool for holding the so-called It

is

a convenience in holding them while

sharpening and

it

prevents their warping.

slip-shares.

FIG.

which

may

be taken

off the

The

shares

37.

plow with the landside and

brace on are the most convenient to handle in sharpening,

and give no trouble by warping out of shape.

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

61

SHOEING FAEM HOESES. Because the reader finds

jump

vise all farmers to do their

ing

much

been thought best to in ordinary cases

and

whether or not he

The it

he must not

own

Horse

shoeing.

shoe-

Neither can the art be learned

not easy work.

is

in a short time,

self

this chapter,

to the conclusion that the author intends to ad-

less

tell

from books

It has

alone.

how shoeing should be done him-

to let each reader decide for shall

instruction will do

do the work or hire

him no harm

it

done.

in either case, foi

often happens that the blacksmith could be benefit-

ted,

and through him, the horses which he timely

little

advice.

work seem

Workmen

in nearly

by

shoes, all

a

other

and anxious to carry out the wishes of their employers, but for some unexlines of

to be willing

plainable reason, the horse-shoer does not seem to

rel-

wants to follow his own ideas of shoeing regardless of what the horse owner thinks should be

ish advice, but

done.

The

late

Dr. Dickson presents the situation in the

following terse way:

"It

is

a strange fact, but none the less true, that

the world over the farrier artisans

who

employers. least

some

is

the one

among

all

all

our

amenable to suggestions from his Other mechanics permit their patrons at is least

discretion as to the size, shape

of the article desired, but

when

and structure

the ordinary horseowner

takes his animal to the shoeing forge he has usually to

place himself absolutely in the blacksmith's hands and

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

62

give

him permission

to cut

and carve

at his

unholj

will, or else

tate his horse elsewhere, and then probably

find himself

no better

off.

The

result

is

that his horse's

feet are mercilessly mutilated instead of being left as

nearly as possible as nature in her

wisdom made them."

There are three or four most irrational practices followed by many country blacksmiths in the shoeing of condemned. First, which is done by a majority of country smiths, is a most positive injury to the foot and can have no reasonable argument in its favor.

The frog is the natural cushion and expander of the hoof and was placed there by an all wise Creator. To cut it out means not only to rob the foot of the cushion which should soften the concussion of every step, but to horses, that cannot be too strongly

the cutting

away of the

frog,

allow the foot to contract at the heel and become mis-

shapen and crippled.

Another mistaken idea should be thinned the thumbs.

by the knife.

The

till it

is

that the sole of the foot

will yield to the pressure of

sole proper should never be touched

All loose scale

may

be trimmed away

but the knife should never cut either the sole or the frog.

All trimming on the bottom of the foot should

be done by the rasp, which will trim the edge and not

The writer has a knife in his shoeing box but he cannot remember when he last used it.

Cutting of the sole or frog in any way works an inthe sole.

jury by causing the tissues to shrink and become hard

and dry.

A frog which has been trimmed by the knife

often dries so as to

become

as detrimental to the foot

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

63

There

as a stone or other foreign body.

never any

is

good excuse for touching the knife to a healthy frog.

It will

wear away

enough

fast

The writer

if let alone.

never saw one that was too large.

Hot

fitting of shoes to horses' feet should not

may

be

al-

lowed by the horse owner. While it as claimed by some horse shoers, that a better fit is obtained in this way and that no real harm is done to the foot if properly

trimmed

after touching with the hot

good

shoe, it is also possible that a

by

cold fitting

and the

be possible,

fit

may

be obtained

latter process certainly is safer.

If the foot be perfectly leveled with the rasp and the shoe be

made

making

it fit.

perfectly level there

is

no trouble about

It ought not to be necessary to say that

made to conform to the shape of the and not the foot to the shoe, but it does seem, judging from their work, that some smiths need just the shoe should be

foot,

such hints.

A very common fault of setting a shoe a

then rasping

off

The trimming

among horse

little

shoers

is

the habit

too far back on the foot and

the toe to meet the front of the shoe.

of the hoof should

all

bottom of the foot before the shoe

be done from the

and the outby the rasp ex-

is set;

side of the hoof should not be touched

cepting to smooth off any slivers around the edge.

common

The

practice of rasping the entire outer surface of

the hoof after setting the shoe, should never be allowed, as

it

destroys the natural coating of varnish with which

every healthy hoof

dry and

brittle.

is

covered,

and allows

it

to

become

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

64

The

smallest nails that

-will

serve to hold the shoe

and the smallest possible number of them ; and they should not be driven high enough to endanger any of the sensitive tissue.

Many farm horses that are not used to any extent in place should be used,

on the road would be much better

without shoes for

off

If their hoofs are kept

the greater part of the year.

properly trimmed the average farm horses will need

no shoeing excepting when working on icy roads in winter.

By

them

level so that the feet will not

is meant keeping grow one-sided, and rounded off so as to lessen

proper trimming of the feet

keeping the edges slightly

the danger of their splitting or breaking away.

When

it

becomes necessary to shoe a horse to pre-

vent his hoofs from wearing

away

too fast,

better to use a tip than a full shoe.

it is

often

This will prevent

undue wear of the toe, and at the same time will allow the frog to rest on the ground where it properly belongs.

The accompanying a style of tip which

road horses.

On

is

illustration

in favor

shows two views of

among many

drivers of

stony roads or hard pavements, the

rubber heeled shoes, or tips with rubber heels, are

now

being largely used, and promise to take the place of the

ordinary shoe.

The only

serious objection to

them

is

their high price.

On it is

icy roads, or

this the

but

where heavy loads must be hauled, Eor

necessary that horses should be "sharp shod."

is

ordinary shoe answers the purpose fairly well,

open to several objections.

In the

first

place

FARM BLACKSMITHINa. the long calks lift the foot

up

65

no chance

so that there is

for the frog to touch the ground, hence there

is

no pres-

sure to prevent the foot from contracting; this trouble

may what

be obviated soniev7hat by the use of a bar shoe, or is better,

a half-bar shoe, which allows of

The long

some

ex-

an unnatural

lever-

age which causes severe straining of the tendons.

For

pansion.

these two reasons possible

When

and

still

calks furnish

we should make

the calks as short as

have them prevent slipping.

heavy hauling has

to

be done on frozen gravel

roads the calks must be sharpened so often that in case

ordinary shoes are used, the horses' feet are badly damaged by the frequent re-setting of the shoes.

In such

cases the patent removable calks serve a good purpose.

The

greatest objection to these patent calks, aside

their cost, is the fact that

when worn down

the shoe, as they are apt to be if neglected, sible to

the foot.

level

it is

from with

impos-

remove them without removing the shoe from

:

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

66

When ordinary winter shoes are used the may be lengthened by welding centers

calks

life

of the

of steel in

This is done by splitting the calk with a sharp and inserting a thin bit of steel, (a piece of mower section is as good as anything), and welding.

This center will wear away much slower than the surrounding iron and thus the calk will be kept sharp until worn out. Another way to prevent the calks wearing To do too fast is to case-harden them with cast iron.

them.

chisel

sharpened calk nearly to a welding heat and at the same time heat the end of a piece of cast iron till it begins to melt, then rub the melting cast iron

this heat the

over the end of the calk.

If

it is

at the

proper heat

it

and cover it with a coating of cast iron.

Now take from the fire and plunge into cold water.

This will harden the coating of cast metal so The writer has seen a set of that no file will touch it. shoes treated in this way used all winter on a snow will flow over the calk

road without re-sharpening.

A

very

common mistake

of horse owners

is to

the shoes to remain on too long without re-setting.

allow

No

more than four weeks without having his shoes re-set; and in the case of young horses, whose feet grow much faster than old Corns are alones, a shorter time would be better. most always the result of leaving the shoe on too long and allowing the heels to grow too long.

To sum the matter up let us follow these rules 1.

Do not have your horses shod at all unless it is horse should be compelled to go

absolutely necessary.

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

67

If shoeing becomes necessary, use as light a

2.

shoe fastened with as few and as small nails as possible.

If the conditions will allow, use tips instead of shoes.

Allow neither frog nor

3.

sole to

be touched by the

knife.

Do

4.

tom of the

foot.

See that the shoe

5. it

the trimming with the rasp from the bot-

all

fits

the foot; and do not allow

to be touched to the foot while hot.

Do

6.

not allow shoes to remain on longer than a

month without

When

7.

re-setting.

necessary to use calks have them as short

as possible so that the frog

may

touch the ground.

FILES.

In the average farm shop there is usually to be found one, or perhaps two or three files in, generally, With this one, or a rather advanced stage of wear. these two or three files the farmer tries to do all his enough of a mechanic to try to file his own saw, he will have one or two three cornered files. filing.

As a

It he

rule a

is

com

cob serves as a handle for the farmer's

any handle is used.

The farm mechanic ought to know that it is more economical of money and time to have at hand an asfile if

sortment of

files

to attempt to

suited to different kinds of work, than

do

all

kinds of filing with one or two

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

68

This will be better understood after some

files.

cussion of the use of

riles are classified in three ways;

according to

first,

length, second according to shape of cross section,

The

third according to cut. is

length of a

file

always measured exclusive of the tang, and

in inches.

Files are

made

(having a width of

files,

thickness), mill

cut,

is

files

given

common

five times

sometimes

files,

square," round or rattail

The cut of

or rasp is

the

(with a width of three times the

files

triangular

thickness),

and

in an almost endless variety

of shapes of cross section, but those in most

use are flat

dis-

files.

files,

called

"3

and half rounds.

designated by the terms, single

double cut and rasp cut; and the coarseness or

fineness of cut

by the terms, rough,

second cut, smooth and dead smooth.

dead smooth

files

coarse, bastard,

The rough and

are very seldom used in ordinary

practice.

Coarse and bastard cut

files

rough work where the object of tities

of metal rather than to

Second cut and smooth Single cut

files

files

are used for ordinary

filing is to

remove quan-

make a smooth

finish.

are used for finishing work.

are those which have a single course

of chisel marks or cuts, (usually at an angle of 45 de-

grees)

from end

to

end of the

file.

Double cut

files

have two courses of chisel cuts crossing each other forming raised angular teeth, instead of ridges. Easps

from the others in having teeth standing out separate from each other, which are made by a diamond-pointed, instead of flat chiseL or rasp cut

files differ

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

THE USE OF

69

EILES.

If the amateur mechanic will bear in mind that the a series of sharp, hard chisels he will plainly see

file is

that there are good reasons for the following rules for

the use of

files.

when not in use, be kept in a wooden up on wooden pins. Keeping them in a

Files should,

rack or hung

drawer or on a bench where they are knocked against each other or against other tools injures them and shortens their term of usefulness.

You would

not

think of keeping sharp chisels in such a place.

Never use a new file on rough cast iron without first removing the scale with an old, worn file. All castings have a hard scale on the surface caused chilling of the metal

molds.

may

when

it

This scale or casing

is

by the

run into the damp

is

often very thin and

be easily removed by grinding or by using an old,

worn file, whereas a new file would be ruined on it by having its thin sharp teeth broken off. When this scale is removed the cast iron is generally easily cut by a sharp file.

Never attempt to file hardened steel with a good partly

file.

No

will cut

toolsmith can temper a cold chisel so that

hardened

steel.

Remember

a series of sharp, hard cold

In

that your

file

it

is

chisels.

narrow surfaces bear on very lightly because only a few of the teeth can have a bearing on the metal at the same time, and too much force will cause filing

FARM BLACKSMITHINO.

70

them

to cut too deeply

and they are apt to be broken

off.

On wide

many

one time and

surfaces

it

will be

found necessary to bear on quite

hard in order to make the

As a that the

file

pose nothing

In order

"take hold" or "bite."

to

file is

file

should be used

to do this it

is

necessary

For this purgood wooden handle with

be provided with a handle. is

better than a

a strong ferrule.

a

file

rule the whole length of the

each stroke.

at

teeth will be cutting at

The

easiest

have a hole a

little

Then heat the tang of an old the new one and bum to a fit.

way

to

fit

too small to file

of the

The

a handle to fit

the tang.

same

size as

center line of the

handle should be exactly parallel with the length of the

file.

The

teeth of the

rection,

and the

file

file

are

made

to cut in but one di-

should be lifted from the work on

the back stroke.

The proper height elbow.

be

for heavy or

medium work

to be

on a level with the workman's For lijit work (such as saw filing), it should

held for easiest filing

much

higher.

A

to do good

is

work must be kept clean and free which tend to fill the spaces between the teeth and thus hold the teeth out from the work and prevent the file from "taking hold" of the work freely.

The filings from cast iron and brass may usually be from

file

filings

stiff bristle brush; but those from wrought iron and steel often stick much tighter and must be removed by the use of a wire brush or card.

Sometimes small particles of steel become packed

brushed out with a

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

71

and must be resorted to. A scorer is made by flattening out the end of a small rod or wire of soft iron and making a comb out of it by drawing 80 firmly that the wire brush will not loosen them,

what

it

is called scorer

across the

file

lengthwise of the teeth.

TO SPLICE A EOPE. Every farmer and every farmer's boy ought to be make a rope halter, and tie all

able to splice a rope, the useful knots is

known

To

to the sailor.

splice a rope

a simple matter, but to teach the art on paper

is

However, I think that by carefully following the directions and studying the cuts anyone may learn this iiseful accomplishment.

Eigures 74, 75 and 76 illustrate the beginning of quite another thing.

what

is

known

as the short splice.

To make

it,

first

untwist the two ends to be spliced for about a foot

(more or

less

according to the size of the rope), and

put them together as shown in Fig. 74.

Begin splicA as shown in Fig. Turn the rope toward you and put 75. aroimd E in the same manner; then B around F. Next turn ing by placing the strand

around D,

the rope around; or, in other words, place yourself on

and put the end D around strand Then put F around B in the same manner; then E around C. Now pull all the ends tight and go through the same process again always twisting the same strands together so that the spliced the other side of

it

A, as in Fig. 76.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

12

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

T'^

U

4

^

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

73

same any other part. After proceeding for a few inches cut out a few threads from each strand every time it is put around its mate; in this way the splice will be made to gradually taper toward the ends.

In splicing new rope if is often necessary to use some sort of tool to separate the strands. Sailors use what they call a marlin spike (a sort of rude needle), but a shert piece of hardwood sharpened at one end answers very well. It is pushed through between the strands and the end of the strand pushed through with it or just behind it.

In the cuts the ends of the strands

parts of the rope will consist of three strands, the as

made short for much longer.

are

be

convenience ; they should, of course,

EOPE HALTER. To make and about 4

a rope halter take 14 feet of half-inch rope, feet

from one end form a loop by doubling

the rope and passing the end under a strand in two places about 2 inches apart (see

A

Fig. 77).

Next

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

74

splice the short

B.

end into the main part of the rope

at

Finish the halter by passing the long end through

the loop and tying as in Fig. 78.

should be

wound with

The end

of the rope

a piece of binding twine, and

the ends of the twine, instead of being knotted, should

be spliced into the rope so that they will never come out.

KNOTS. The bowline knot is one which everyone should know how to tie. It never slips nor comes loose of itself, and no matter how much strain is put upon it, it never becomes jammed so that

it

cannot be easily untied.

For fastening the hay-fork rope

to the whiffletrees or

tying a rope around a calf's neck this knot cannot be excelled.

Fig. 79 shows

how

it is

made.

FARM BLiACKSMiTHINQ.

In these days of dehorned to

75

cattle it is often necessary

improvise a halter with which to lead an animal.

Such a halter may be very easily and quickly made by tying two bowline knots, one to form the loop and the other to take the place of the splice in the halter described above.

The weaver's

knot, (shown in Fig. 80), bears a close

relationship to the bowline knot, as a careful study of

both knots will show. the ends of

warp

It is used

together.

FIQ.

ao.

will never slip; neither will

it

imtie.

gether.

It

is

by weavers in tying

Like the bowline knot,

jam

so as to be

it

hard to

a good knot to use in tying two straps

to-

;

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

16

Fig.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

shows a way of attaching a rope to any

smooth or slippery object which for instance a log.

The

is to

be pulled endwise

pump, a pipe of any kind,

cut shows so plainly

how

that a description is hardly needed.

FIG.

made and object.

the rope

When

is

is

A

slip

knot

is

81.

wrapped

the end

or a round

to attach the rope

several times

around the

pulled upon, the rope hugs

the object so tightly that slipping is impossible.

The

stronger the power applied, the tighter will the rope

become.

The timber

hitch (Fig. 82)

FIG.

used in handling timber,

made and

will not jam.

is

a kind of slip knot

82.

logs,

etc

It

is

very easily

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

TJ

THE LONG SPLICE. The accompanying

cut shows

how

to

make what

sail-

ors call the "long splice" in a rope.

The length

of a long splice should be about 100

diameters of the rope for large rope and 80 diameters for small rope.

Suppose we have a splice to make in a f inch hayUnravel each rope for a distance of about

fork rope.

three feet, and set

them together in such a way

that

each of the unravelled strands shall be between two Now twist adjacent strands of the opposite rope.

t.,1

strands together in pairs as in Fig.

1.

This twisting done to avoid confusion and tangling and is no part In the cut one rope is repreof the splicing proper. is

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

78

sented as black, and the other white to

more numbered

make

the opera-

and the strands of the black rope are 1, 2, and 3, and those of the white rope are After twisting B and 2 and lettered A, B and C. and 3 together in pairs, proceed with the splicing by unlaying strand 1 a turn or two and laying strand A

tion

in

its

plain,

place; continue this process for a distance of

about 2^ feet and leave as in Fig.

Pt4

m^

2.

These figures

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ. are shortened to save space

much

and the strands are shown

shorter than they would be in the real rope.

Next unlay C and lay 3 in

as in the case of is

79

now

A

and

its

1.

place the same distance

Each pair

of strands

to be subjected to the following treatment:

YoT convenience we

will take strands 3

and C.

Unlay

each of these strands and slip in 'aalves as in Fig. 4;

80

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

then lay one half of each strand back where the whole strand came from and tie as in Fig.

to tie exactly as

shown in the

when

5.

Be

verj careful

figure, that is,

have

down tight they will form a smooth strand and not be lumpy as they are sure to be if put around each other the wrong way. pass around 3 so that

pulled

FARM BLACKSMITHING. Continue to tuck

where strand 3 was in the is

C around split

3

till

(point

D

just past the place

in the cut), then

same manner tuck 3 around C

reached.

Now

81

till

the point

E

cut off the ends of the half strands

After inch from the rope. two pairs of strands in the same man-

about a quarter of an treating the other

ner, the splice will be complete.

Two

or three precautions are necessary to observe

in order to

make

a smooth splice.

Be

sure that the

strands are set together properly at the start so that

each strand goes in between two strands from the opposite rope.

In replacing one strand with another, it had in

be sure to give the same amount of twist as the original rope.

After tying the half strands and beginning to tuck

one around the other, pull on both to draw up otherwise a bunchy, loose place will be

left.

tight,

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

82

SAW FILIiq^G.

By WILLIAM BOSS.

The saw is one and

is

grain or grain

of the woodworker's most useful tools

used for cutting wood either across or with the

is

fibre.

The one used

called the cross-cut

for cutting across the

saw; the one for cutting

with the grain, the rip saw.

It

is

poor economy to buy a cheap saw

other hand,

it is

;

and on the

sometimes unwise to buy the highest-

priced; as some saws are

made very hard and

are in-

tended to be used only by fine mechanics in dry lum-

and will not stand setting nor rough use. good saw for ordinary use is Diaston's D 8 with sway back. There are other saws which are probably as good, but the one mentioned is a standard saw and ber,

A

will give good service. at the point

The

it

lighter

to handle than the straight back.

saws

given by the length of the blade

size of

in inches.

The sway back makes

and easier is

Twenty-six inches

is

a good length for a

and twenty-eight inches for a rip saw.

Saws for small work should be shorter.

The coarseness or fineness of a saw is shown by the number of teeth to the inch. A cross-cut saw for ordinary work should have about eight teeth; for rough work or for sawing large timbers seven or six would be better, and for fine work nine or ten. cross-cut saw,

:

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

83

A rip saw for ordinary work should have about five and one-half teeth to the inch; for rough work, more, The number of teeth per inch is for fine work less. usually stamped on the blade of the saw near the handle.

SHARPENING SAWS. The

sharpening of a saw consists of four

filing or

operations which should be done in the following order

—

First, top-jointing,

^which consists in filing off the

points of the teeth tmtil they are all the

and making

same length

the cutting edge of the saw, taken as a

—never

whole, either straight or crowning

FIG.

Fig. 1 shows a

hollow.

1.

home-made saw joinder which exactly square across the saw

for holding the

file

must be taken

to

have

it

is :

used

—

care

square or the teeth will be

shorter on one side and the saw

wiU run

saw should be top jointed every time

crooked.

it is filed.

A

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

B4

Second.

Setting; which consists in setting or tend-

ing the teeth outward, one on one side, the next on the other and so on

till all

make

The

are set or bent.

object of

saw cut wider than the thickness it to run freely through the timber and not pinch.

The amount of set in a saw may be readily seen by holding it to the light with the back toward the eye, when it will appear as in Fig. 2.

setting

is

to

the

of the blade in order to allow

FIG,

8.

Care must be taken not to give the saw too much set it will run hard and not cut smoothly.

For ordinary work the teeth should be set out about one-third the thickness of the blade.

For dry lumber the saw will require less set, and for green or wet lumber, more.

The teeth should not be set too near the points nor or

too close to the blade; about two-thirds of the distance

from the points This

we

to the

will call

bottom of the teeth

the depth of

set.

is

Fig. 3 shows one

type of saw set in which the amount of set

by the screw A. less set; is

turning

it

out gives more.

may

regulated

The

The depth

Turning

the teeth nearer the point; turning

which

is

Turning the screw in gives the saw

regulated by the screw B.

nearer the blade.

about right.

plate or anvil,

it

C

it

of set

in will set

out will set

it

has four faces

be turned to suit the size of the teeth.

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

85

Filing; which consists in tiling the teeth to

Third.

sharp points.

Great care mtist he taken in

bring the teeth to sharp points.

filing to

If they are not sharp

they will not cut and will prevent those that are sharp

from

cutting.

Be

careful also not to

file

them

after

they are sharp as that will shorten them and then they will not cut.

when each

The

tooth

secret

is filed

consists

to a point.

in stopping just

To

get the best

from a saw, the teeth should all be sharp and of the same length and shape.

results

actly

Fourth. a fine

file

Side Jointing; which consists in running or an oil-stone along the sides of the saw to

even the teeth at the sides to prevent scratching. setting a

ex-

saw

it is

In

impossible to bend all the teeth ex-

same; some will be bent or set out more than and if not side-jointed they will scratch, making the cut rough and uneven, and the saw will not cut so fast as it would were the teeth in perfect line.

When a saw has too much set some of it may be removed by actly the

others,

side jointing.

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

86

This order should be followed in sharpening all saws, whether cross-cut or rip saws; the top-jointing, setting

and side-jointing being the same in all the only differfiling.

In filing any saw where a three cornered file is used, we file one side each of two If you find that one tooth is getting teeth at once. ;

ence being in the

FIG.

4.

sharp before the other, bear harder against the large or duller tooth, but be careful to keep the pitch or angle of the tooth the same.

When

carefully the position of your to the angle across the

a rip saw the cross-cut,

file

saw

as in

starting to file:

A

file

notice

First, in regard

Figs.

4 and

5.

For

should be about square across; for a

an angle of about 45 degrees.

FARM BLACKSMITHINQ.

PI4;.

Second.

Be very

87

5.

Notice the pitch of the tooth as at

careful as you proceed that the

file

B Fig.

6.

does not

turn in your hand or handle and change the pitch as at

B

in Fig. 6.

B.

FIG.

Third.

The

handle of the

ÂŤ.

hevel or level of the

file

be up or down.

Be

file,

whether the

careful to notice

these points in starting

and then keep them the same

throughout the

If these positions change, the

filing.

teeth will be of different shapes, as at E.

If a tooth he broken out, do not

file

the broken part,

but keep the teeth on each side their original the broken one will

size, and "grow" longer each time the saw

is filed irotil it finally

becomes of full size or length.

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

88

The timber

rip saw, is

which

used for ripping or splitting

is

usually filed square across; the action of the

teeth being similar to that of a

each tooth being a

chisel.

row of small

chisels,

Fig. 7 shows the shape of

the teeth in the rip saw, filed square across.

The

front

side of the teeth should be kept at right angles to the line of the cutting edge of the saw.

or cross-grained

bevel let

wood

it is

For ripping hard

well to give the teeth a

by lowering the handle of the

file

a

trifle,

little

also to

the teeth start back slightly, so as not to bite too

freely; but for clear pine, straight across, and at right

angles to the length of the blade

FIG.

the rip

saw

it is

is better.

In

filing

7.

best to file against the cutting edge of

the teeth, filing one-half the teeth

from each

side.

The cross-cut saw is filed in quite a different manner from the rip saw. As it must cut the grain or fiber of the wood in two places, one on each side of the saw, it must also break and carry out the chips or dust between the two cuts.

Let Fig. 8 represent the end view of a saw cutting a piece of timber;

A

being the saw,

B

the timber.

shows the point which does the cutting and

G

D the part of

the tooth which breaks and carries out the chip or sawdust.

For cutting

soft

wood, the point

D may

be long-

fARM BLACKSMITHINCJ.

8d

and sharper than for cutting hard wood, as the saw In cutting hardwood dust is more easily broken out.

er

more

the point should be the dust as soon as

it is

blunt, in order to break out

cut by the points.

or bluntness of these points the

file

across the saw.

is

Holding the

FIG.

The length

regulated by the level of file

level will

8.

the point long, while lowering the handle of the providing the file be will make the point blunt

make file

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

kept out an angle of 45 degrees to the length of the saw in each case.

In filing the cross-cut saw it is best to run the file at an angle of 45 degrees across the saw as this gives the best results to cut both

;

sharpening the front of the tooth so as

smooth and

fast.

FARM BLACKSMITHING.

90

Fig. 5 shows the plan, or the appearance on looking

dcvn

at the

saw and

file

from the

top.

The

file

should

be held at about this angle in filing nearly all cross-

cut saws.

The pitch of the teeth is an important feature.

Too much pitch is a common fault. It is well to have a little, but too much pitch will make a saw cut rough and push hard. Fig. 6 B shows a saw with no pitch at all, and the bevel the same on each side of the tooth.

The file is held level in filing teeth in this shape which is used largely in cutting soft wood ^principally in the

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

buck saw.

Fig. 9 shows a saw with the same amount of bevel on This form the face of the tooth and none on the back. is used in the buck saw for cutting hard wood.

To

make

teeth of this shape, lower the handle of the

but keep

it

at the

file,

same angle (45 degrees), across the

saw.

PIG.

In

saw the file should be held so from the handle towards the point of the saw.

filing the cross cut

as to file

Some

9.

filers

claim that this will cause a rough or wire

edge on the face of the tooth.

This

may

be true but

such edge will be removed when the saw is side jointed.

No saw, even though the teeth are not set, should ever be filed wholly from one side, as the file turns a This should be slight edge which increases the set. filing half the blade by the sides of distributed to both side. teeth from each

J.-ARM

BLiACKSMITHING.

01

TAP DKILLS. Table showing the different sizes of be used

The

when a

sizes

full thread is to be

drills that

tapped in a

given are practically correct.

Diam.

No. Threads

of

Tap. 1-4

9-32 5-16 11-32 3-8

13-32 7-16 15-32 1-2

17-32 9-16 19-32 5-8

21-32 11-16 23-32 3-4

25-32 13-16 27-32 7-8

29-32 15-16 31-32

1

Drill for

should

V

Thread.

hole.

CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. Diameter

CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OP CIRCLES.— Cont.

Diameter

ClRCUMFEiiENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.—Coflt

WEIGHT TABLE OF ROUND AND SQUARE ROLLED IRON. PER FOOT. Size

WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER FOOT

WEIGHT PLATE IRON, PER SQUARE FOOT Inch

..

.

TABLE OF DECIMALS. Equalling Parts of an Inch.

3%-4

.0156

.

..1313

%2

.0938

.59.38

'/64

.1094

.

.

1-16.

.

1-8

...

19,<

^32

3-10..

'%4

...

.1.56.3

2y32

.1719

*%*

.1875

11-16 *%4

.

"/b4

.2500 3-4

.

9,

.2813

'%4 764 5-16..

.2969

f/64

"/82

.3281

.

.3438

2%4.

3-8 ..

2%4 1%2

.

«y84

7-16.

.3125

.

W2

..

.7656

.

.7813

.

.7969

U-16

.8125 .'8281

.8438

S%4

.3594

.

.3750 7-8

...

.3906

"/64

.4063

29,4 ^32

.8594

.8750

.

.9063

.'92W

.4219

.4375 .4531

.7344

.7500

*%*.

2%2

="/64

.7031

.7188

.2344 .2656

^32

.6563

.687? .

1-4 ... "/64

.

.6250

.6719

.2188 .

.5629 .5781

.6406

.2031 7/

.5409

.6094

.1250 5-8 .1406

•

..il.56

>%2 .0409 3%4 .0625 9-16.. .0781 3%t .0313

•

15-16.

-9375 .9531

-.4688

.9688

.4844

.9844

.5000

4

1. t

WEIGHT

IN

POUNDS OF VARIOUS METALS