Alphabet

EDITORS, AND REVISERS OF THE BIBLE. 39

If it is difficult to arrange page-headings so as to make them of practical value, still harder is it to prepare chapte1·-headings without touching on the forbidden ground of" note and comment." There is much difference of opinion as to the comparative advantages and disadvantages of chapter-headings. They certainly tend to widen the gulf between chapter and chapter, which is already in many cases far too wide. If they could be printed together at the beginning of each book this objection would be done away with, and a most valuable help would be offered to the reader of the Bible. In the first English Bible ever printed, that of Coverdale, A.D. 1535, the chapter-headings of each book were printed together at its beginning. There does not appear, on the face of it, any objection to the publication of the headings in this form by the Bible Society instead of their being printed between the chapters. The plan however has not hitherto been carried out.

Passing from the arrangement of these headings to their sub-stance we come at once to a practical difficulty. The headings are to be pure summaries of the contents of the chapters, free from anything which can be fairly called comment ; but a Christian must perforce read the Old Testament in the light of the New, and he cannot help reading both Old and New Testament through a doctrinal atmosphere tinged by the ideas which he has imbibed in the course of his life. Thus there is a constant tendency to run into comment, to give a Messianic interpretation to the prophecies and types, and to throw the concrete statements of the Scriptures into an abstract and doctrinal form. Certainly a chapter-heading ought not to be a comment, though it ought to regard the contents of the chapter from a Christian point of view, and in the light of the whole of God's revelation.

The headings prepared by the translators of the English Authorised Version are very fair on the whole, though it must be granted that they are capable of improvement. They vary very much in merit. Some are thoroughly analytical ; occasionally the theological element has been omitted altogether, as in the heading of Num. xxi. 7, wher,e we read "they repenting are healed by a brazen serpent;" or in the heading of Psalm Iii., where we are told that '' David, condemning the spitefulness of Doeg, prophesieth his destruction.'' The headings in the Apocalypse are remarkably free from comment, but those in the prophetical writings of the Old Testament have a defect running through them, namely, that promis,es and threatenings relating to Judah and Is.rael are applied (in about fifty instances) to '' the Church," whereas a neutral term, '' God's people," would not have limited them either way.

Those who prepare chapter-headings will find the work of the English translators very helpful, but they will do well to avoid the

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SUGGESTIONS FOR TRL~SLATORS,

stumbling-blocks just noticed, and they must consider themselves free to improve the headings both by addition here and there, and by alteration and elimination in other places. The following specimens may be given as calling for improvement, illustrating eccentricities and faults to be avoided :-

Gen. xxxii. 24, 'Jacob wrestleth with an angel.'

Num. xxii. 22, 'an angel would have slain him if his ass had not saved him.'

I Sam. xiv. 15, 'a divine terror maketh them beat themselves.'

I Sam. xxviii. 9, 'The witch . . . raiseth up Samuel.' 2 Sam. xiv. 25, 'Absalom's beauty, hair, and children.' 2 Kings xiii. 20, 'Elisha's bones raise up a dead man.'

I Chron. xiv. 2, 'David's felicity in people, wives, and children.'

Ps. cxiv. '.An exhortation by the example of the dumb creatures,' &c.

Ps. cxxvii. 3, 'Good children are God's gift.'

Is. liii. 'The prophet complaining of incredulity, excuseth the ecandal of the cross by the benefit of his passion and of the good success thereof.'

Mark xiii. 32, ' ... that we be not found unprovided when he cometh to each one particularly by death.'

Luke v. 34-39, 'likeneth faint-hearted and weak disciples to old bottles and worn garments.'

Luke vii. 36, 'Sheweth by occasion of Mary Magdalene,' &c.

Luke xiv. 15, ' Sheweth how worldly-minded men, who contemn the Word of God, shall be shut out of heaven.'

John xx. 30, 'The Scripture is sufficient to salvation.'

Acts xix. 13-19, ' The Jewish exorcists are beaten by the devil.' 1 Cor. x. 1, 'The sacraments of the Jews are types of ours.'

§ 13.-ON THE BEST METHOD OF EXHIBITING 'rHE STRUCTURE OF THE PROSE .A.ND POE1'RY OF THE BIBLE.

There is a general agreem~nt that much can be done in the way of typographical arrangement to elucidate the structure and design of a book ; and if we wish to promote the intelligent use of the Scriptures we ought to avail ourselves of every device which ingenuity can suggest, so as to enable readers to use them with pleasure and profit.

We must not force the style and arrangement of one country upon another. As-it is with the character of the writing, so it is with the arrangement of the printing. Some nations write up and down, some from left to right, and others from right to left. Some prefer square books, some like oblong books opening the Jong way, others must have them opening the short wny. No question of principle is involved in these things, and _we must accommodate

EDITORS, AND REVISERS OF THE BIBLE. 41

ourselves, at any rate in the early stages of our work, to the prevailing tastes and customs, gradually introducing solid improvements wherever opportunity offers itself.

The division of the books _of the Bible into chapters and verses is convenient for the purpose of reference, but for no other purpose. In many respects it is a hindrance rather than a help ; and it cannot lay claim to antiquity. 1 It must be adhered to, as a matter of course, but for the arrangement of the prose portions of Scripture most editors will be glad to fall back on the original plan-that of paragraphs.

So far as we can judge from the Synagogue Rolls and other ancient Hebrew MSS., the Old Testament (in its prose parts) was originally written in paragraphs. These were of two kinds, as may be seen in the most carefully edited copies of the Hebrew Scriptures. Principal paragraphs began a new line; subsidiary paragraphs only had a space left after the conclusion of the previous sentence.

In a Jerusalem Synagogue Roll in the writer's possession the division by no means follows our present arrangement. Thus, to take the first ten chapters of Genesis, each day's creative work has a paragraph to itself. At the end of what ·answers to our first chapter there is the space of a line and then a short paragraph, including the three verses about the Sabbath. There is no break of any kind from Gen. ii. 4 to Gen. iii. 15; the 16th verse forms a separate paragraph ; verses 1 7-21 another ; then a space of a line as if for the beginning of a new chapter before iii. 22, which describes the driving of our first parents from Eden. The next paragraph begins at chap. iv. 1, and the next at chap. v. 1; each of the descendants of Adam has a paragraph to himself, and there is also a paragraph at chap. vi. 4. There is extra space before the 9th verse, where the generations of Noah begin, and a new paragraph at the 13th verse, whence we proceed without a pause to chap. viii. 15. At ix. 8 there is another paragraph, and at the 18th verse a space of a line, with paragraphs at x. 1, 15, and 21.

The Gospels were early divided into sections, but the Greeks did not take the trouble to arrange the Scriptures in paragraphs, or even always to separate their words, partly no doubt because writing materials were scarce and expensive. Our present arrangement of chapters and verses in the Old Testament dates from the time of Cardinal Hugo or Archbishop Stephen Langton, whilst

1 The numbering of chapters and verses does not agree in all languages and editions. Some versions follow the Hebrew, and others are arranged in con• formity with the English plan. The latter course is most common in new trans• lations, though it mnst be acknowledged that the Hebrew is often the best, as in Lev. v., vi.

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the New Testament is supposed to have been divided by Robert Stephens only three .centuries ago. The searching of the Scriptures brought about by the Reformation taxed the ingenuity of printers and editors to invent such modes of setting forth the text as would facilitate the turning from passage to passage. No one can ha.ve carefully examined the editions of the German Bible which passed under Luther's own hand, particularly that of 1545 (the last which he edited) without appreciating the thoroughness with which he did his work, indicating the principal and subsidiary paragraphs by various kinds of initial letters·; and if some such plan as his were combined with verse enumeration, we should get as near perfection of arrangement for the prose parts of the Bible as we are likely to attain. The paragraph English Bible issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1877, and edited by the present writer, is intended to set forth an arrangement of this kind, av.aiding the extremes of too long and too short paragraphs, and modifying the form of the page to suit its varied contents, whether narrative, dialogue, decree, letter, catalogue, or prayer. It does not lay claim to authority, but is simply put forth as an effort in the right direction.

The only tangible objections to the adoption of the paragraph system appear to be, that it adds to the bulk and cost of the Book, that it is less convenient for finding references, that it will put a hindrance in the way of the good old plan of committing verses to memory, and that it throws too much responsibility on the editor. The first objection is a very small one, for what is lost in the poetical parts is partly gained in the prose parts ; the second and third objections are met by the truth that it is far better to find and -to learn a verse with its context than without it; with regard to the fourth objection. it is quite true that those who divide God's Word into paragraphs for the purpose of facilitating its intelligent rreading, incur a great responsibility ; but why should they not undertake it 2. In editing the Bible above-named, the w.riter willingly incurred this responsibility. He had before him the labours of other men from the days of Luther downwards, and verified the arrangement finally decided on, throughout~ hy comparison with the original Scriptures. It has been a labour, not of months, but of years, but was undertaken from a sense of its necessity, and it is hoped that the work thus accomplished may be in many respects a guide to those who come after, both at home and abroad, though of course open to further improvement.

A few words must be added on the best mode of printing the poetical parts of the Bible. In the Jewish Rolls, some portions, as the Song of Moses, are written in a special manner, but not in a style which commends itself to European taste. The peculiarity of Hebrew poetry is that it consists not in rhyme, nor in metre, but

EDITORS, AND REVISERS OF THE BIBLE. 43

in parallelisms of thought, one idea being expt·essed in two modes which are either similar, progressive, or contrasted. It should be added that whilst in all the Hebrew Scriptures there is a certain swing which is marked by the accents, and which is attended to by the Jewish reader in the intonatioll of the sacred language, the cadences of the poetical parts are peculiarly rhythmical, though not actually metrical. The following arrangement of Gen. iv. 23, 24, is offered as a specimen of the best way of exhibiting the parallelism of the original :' .And Lamech said unto his wives, Adah and Zillah, hear my voice ; Ye wives of Lamech, hearken unto my speech : For I have slain a man to my wounding, And a young man to my hurt. If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold Truly Lamech seventy and seven fold.

When a Bible is in double columns the poetical parts must either be printed in single columns, or else the lines must be subdivided, as in the Bible printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society in I 877, and almost as our ordinary hymn books are printed. Thus Jer. 13. 16 may be read:' Give glory to the Lo RD your God, Before he cause darkness, And before your feet stumble Upon the dark mountains, And, while ye look for light, He turn it into the shadow of death, .And make it gross darkness.'

Another peculiarity in Hebrew poetry may be marked in printing, viz. the subdivision of most of the Psalms and of some other poems into strophes~ that is to say. portions :separated from one another by the sense, and possibly taken up by different singers in the old Hebrew services. Thus the 19th Psalm naturally falls into three portions, containing respectively six, five, and three verses, the first subject being the silent testimony -of creation to

God, the second, the perfection of God's revelation and its -effects on the soul, the third. the devout man's reliance on God for preservation from evil thoughts, words, and deeds. These strophes ought to he separated from one another by a line of space., as is done in the Paragraph Bible mentioned above.

Some of the Psalms and a few other sacred poems in the Bible are acrostic or alphabetical. The 119th Psalm is the best known .instance, the whole being divided into twenty-two portions of eight verses, the initials of the first eight being aleph, the first

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letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and so on through all the letters. In the 37th Psalm the couplets are alphabetical, in the 25th, 34th, and 145th, the verses, and in the 111 th and 112th the clauses. Other instance;; of this arrangement are to be found in the description of the virtuous woman (Prov. xxxi.) and in the Book of Lamentations.

The Bible Society's Bible of 1877 indicates this peculiarity by inserting the Hebrew initial letter in its place, as had already been done in the Paragraph Bible of the Christian Knowledge Society.

The proportion of the poetical to the prose parts of the Old Testament is considered as twenty-two to twenty-five, or nearly half; but it is by no means easy to draw an exact line between poetry and prose, being a question rather of degree than of kind, parallelism being almost inherent in Jewish thought. Editors do not all agree, and no fixed boundary line has yet been discovered.

§ 14.-ON PUNCTUATION .AND THE USE OF INVERTED COMM.AS .AND C.A.PIT .AL LETTERS.

Editions of the English Authorised Version are not considered final authorities on punctuation, as they vary from one another, and also because our modern mode of pointing differs from that of 1 611. It is a good plan to use the colon only when a speech follows, which must begin with a capital letter. Commas are used more or less frequently in different languages. As a rule we think that it is best to err in the direction of too few commas rather than too many. In argumentative passages the punctuation needs special care ; and sometimes a doctrine may depend upon the right placing of a comma. Some passages needing· special attention are Matt. xix. 28; Luke xxiii. 32, 43; Rom. iv. 1, viii. 20, xi. 13; 1 Cor. vii. 34; 2 Cor. v. 19; Gal. ii. 20; Eph. vi. 6, 7; Col. i. 3, ii. 14, 21, 22, 23; 2 Thess. iii. 4; 1 Tim. iii. 15, 16; Tit. ii. 4; Heb. iii. 9. x. 12 ; 1 Pet. i. 23 ; Rev. xiii. 8.

The parenthesis is often of value in an intricate passage and also where the sacred writer seems to introduce something answering to a side note. The dash is also useful in such a verse as Rom. ii. 7. 'To them who by patient continuance in well doing seek for glory and honour and immortality,-eternal life.'

The note of exclamation ought not to be used too freely, but is of value in the poetical parts of Scripture.

Inverted commas are very useful for marking dfrect quotations. These have sometimes been otherwise exhibited ; either by the use of a peculiar type, as in the Rheims New Testament, or by spaced letters, as in Dr. Scrivener's edition of the English Bible. Of

EDITORS, AND REVISERS OF THE :BIBLE. 43

these three plans the ordinary one, that is to say, the use of inverted commas, seems best. They might also be introduced with advantage, not in ordinary speeches, the beginning and end of which can easily be found out, but in the case of a quotation of another's words within a speech, as in 2 Kings xix. 23, 24. They need not, however, be double, as single commas answer all practical purposes.

The Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society have been somewhat chary in permitting the use of these commas, partly no doubt because they have not been introduced into the English Authorised Version ; but their value is undoubted, and probably no opposition would be offered to their being used in the two cases named above.

With regard to capital letters, most European languages have fixed rules from which an editor must not deviate. In a few cases capitals are prefixed to pronouns referring to the Divine Name, as in Russ. In some languages the names of the winds, points ot the compass, &c., are spelt with capitals. The tendency, however, in Europe at the present time is to reduce the number of capital letters ; it would therefore be a wise plan in new translations to introduce as few as possible. The expression ' Son of Man• when applied to our Lord is generally distinguished either by one capital or by two. It is difficult to decide when the word ' spirit• should be printed with a capital. Editions of the English Authorised Version do not agree. Special attention has been given to this point in the Paragraph Bible published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1877.

The Committee of this Society have sanctioned a useful plan in many editions where paragraphs are not used, viz. only to begin verses with a capital letter where the previou~ verse ends with a full stop.

§ 15.-0N ORTHOGRAPHY .A.ND CHARACTER; AND ON ATTEMPTS TO FORM A UNIVERSAL ALPHABET.

The question of orthography is comparatively simple at home, but exceedingly puzzling abroad. We know not why our English Bible should retain such spelling as 'astonied,' 'throughly,' • strawed,' 'clift,' 'jubile,' 'ax,' 'sope,' 'ware,' 'hoised,' • musick,' &c. Why, again, should we call the plural of cherub 'cherubims• instead of ' cherubs ; • and the same with ' seraphims,' ' nethinims,' • anakims •?

The orthography in some foreign countries is in a state of constant fluctuation. Even the German is not settled. The Flemish is becoming so like the Dutch that the two languages will soon

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become one; the Portuguese is at every editor's mercy; the Rouman drifts helplessly hither and thither, being apparently connected with the popular politics. If questions of a very important kind have to be decided by editors in these languages, what must be the re!-iponsibility of those who have to start from the very beginning and frame an orthography in an unwritten language? A quick and accurate ear is needed to catch the sounds of a strange tongue, and, experience alone can enable any one to express phonetically in letters that which he believes he hears. When there are so many ways of pronouncing the same word in English, can it be thought surprising that missionaries receive very various impressions from different natives as to the best spelling of words? Patience, forbearance, and conference are needed before orthography can be settled, and what is fixed for a first edition will probably have to undergo considerable modification before very long. After one such careful revision, no further alterations, at least in important words, ought to be introduced.

In the case of proper names there are sometimes slight diversities in the Hebrew; moreover, the LXX. does not profess to reproduce them literally; and again, the New Testament writers follow sometimes the Hebrew and sometimes the LXX. It is best to spell the same name always in the same way, throwing- textual variations (where necessary) into the margin. It is most puzzling to unlettered people to read Noe for Noah, Elias for Elijah, Eliseus for Elisha, and Jesus for Joshua; nor can there be any advantage in keeping up such varieties of form as Henoch and Enoch, Seth and Sheth, Enos and Enosh, Cainan and Kenan, Jared and J ered, Core and Korab, Juda and Judah, Jona and Jonah, Gomorrha <1nd Gomorrah, Chanaan and Canaan, Sina and Sinai, Melchisedec and Melchizedek, Sara and Sarah, Gedeon and Gideon, Jephthae and Jephthah, Balak and Balac.

With regard to character, if one already exists in a language, of course it must be followed. If, however, the natives know nothing of writing, the case is very different.

There can be no doubt that the introduction of the Roman alphabet everywhere would be of unspeakable advantage to all concerned; but it can only be done gradually, and cautiously as missionaries and other literary authorities see their way. In 1858, a proposal having been made to print Indian languages in the Roman character, the opinions of many leading men were elicited. The learned Dr. Wilson of Bombay was opposed to the plan, and rather inclined to press the use of the Nagri character. Others followed in the same line. But there were not wanting some who saw the great advantages which would accru~ in the gradual introduction of the Roman alphabet wherever possible.

The question has frequently arisen in China, whether the

EDITORS, AND REVISER8 OF THE BIBLE. 47

colloquials should be printed in Chinese character or in Roman. It can hardly yet be said to be decided, but experiments in each have had some year's trial. Probably the Roman will prevail in the end. In the case of Swahili and other African languages which have Arabic words mixed up with them, and are largely impregnated with Mohammedan modes of expression, the best course appears to be to stick steadily to the Roman and root out the Arabic.

In new languages, where there is no extant literature, there hardly can be a doubt that the Roman character should be used everywhere. Dr. Duff of Calcutta wrote thus concerning its use for one of the native hill tribe languages :, Thoroughly and absolutely do I approve of your determination to print your translated works in the Roman characters. It is a strange delusion of Satan that men should strive to uphold varieties of alphabetic characters anywhere, provided they could without violence be superseded by one, at once uniform and effective, seeing that such variety is a prodigious bar and impediment to the diffusion of sound knowledge, and especially Divine Truth. But in a case like yours, where the natives had really no written characters of their own at all, to dream of introducing a clumsy, awkward, and expensive character like that of the Bengali, in preference to the clear, precise, and cheaper Romanised alphabet, would seem to me to be voluntarily raising up new ramparts to guard against the invasions of Truth. No, our object ought ever t!o be to facilitate and not to obstruct the dissemination of true knowledge of every kind; and one of the ways of doing so is everywhere to encourage the introduction and the use of the Roman Alphabet in place of the native alphabets, which are linked, associated, and saturated with all that is idolatrous.'

In the case of some of the North American Indian tribes, missionaries have resorted to a syllabic character invented by one of their body. It certainly has the merits of simplicity and ingenuity, and is said to be picked up more rapidly than our alphabet. But new missionaries are by no means inclined to undergo the labour of learning it, whilst those who have given the syllabic system their general approval, do not hesitate to suggest alterations in its structure from time to time. Probably it will die out before very long~ having served as an introduction to the art of reading, and having familiarised the Indian tribe1:1 with an occupation for which their roving life by no means fitted them.

Professor Lepsius' universal alphabet has been used for some of the West African languages, but opinions differ as to its advantages.

He recommended the use of an Italic type rather than the Roman, because it is so much more like the written character, but the p1·esent tendency is to return to the Roman and to discourage the

Italic. In some countries there are peculiar sounds requiring

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special sorts of letters to be cast. Missionaries ought to be invited to confer and agree on all such matters before any proposition is submitted to the British and Foreign Bible Society. That body is always prepared to act on any printing scheme which is endorsed by the Missionary Societies labouring in the country in question.

M. Silvestre, in his interesting work on writing, remarks that it is.as easy to learn ten alphabets of thirty letters as one of three hundred. We are not sure if this is the case, nor do we suppose that three hundred sounds need be represented by written characters. Professor Max Muller and the Rev. R. Hunt, of the Church Missionary Society, have each proposed plans of their own. The former is said to have been found inconvenient by printers. The latter is the result of the earnest convictions of a devoted missionary that far more may yet be done than has been attempted to facilitate the learning of strange languages through a set of universal signs which should not only appeal to the eye, but should be associated in the mind with a series of muscular actions. Mr. Hunt has been occupied in developing his scheme for many years, and an attempt is now ( 1877), we understand, being made to carry it into practice; with what results, it remains to be seen.

We must never forget that alphabets are, as M. Silvestre has said, a social institution, and that nations who already possess them are not prepared to give them up without undergoing something of a social revolution. Moreover, some alphabets are identified with religious creeds ; the Latin character, for example, in some countries, with the Roman faith, Arabic with Islam, Pali with Buddhism.

§ 16.-ON TITLE-PAGES, TABLES OF CONTENTS, PAGING, &c., WITH A FEW REMARKS ON PROOF READING.

Every volume of Scripture ought to have a title-page, which should indicate the contents of the book as a whole, and the language in which it is written, also the place at which and the year in which it is printed. In some cases the fact that the work has been prepared at the expense of a particular society is recorded, and in other cases the name of the translator is given. Where there are several translations, or where it is necessary to guarantee a particular edition as trustworthy, one or other of these plans may be adopted. But generally it is better to avoid all needless advertising of persons or societies on translations of the Scripture. An English imprint is often a disadvantage on a book intended for foreign circulation, and it is best to substitute for it the address of the central foreign depot where the volume may be obtained.

The table of contents ought to follow the title-page, being printed

E.DJTORS, AND REVISERS OF THE BIBLE. 49

on· a separate leaf. It should contain the names of the books, the numbers of the Chapters, and the page on which each Chapter begins.

It has become the custom of the British and Foreign Bible Society when printing Gospels and other integral Portions of the Scriptures. to prefix a complete list of the Books of the Testament from which the Portion is taken, so as to encourage readers to inquire for the whole.

All volumes of Scripture ought to be paged right through, the numbers being placed in the position where the reader would most natura1ly look for them, which is usually the outside top corner of the page.

Where several books have been printed at various times and bound up together. a Table of Contents becomes doubly important. as the paging does not run on ; but it would be desirable that, whenever practicable, the paging of portions issued from time to time should begin where the previous portion left off, so as to make the whole uniform.

It is advisable that the titles of books should be transliterated, not translated, respect of course being had to the requirements of the language in each case. Sometimes an alternative title may be given in the margin where the book begins, if for special reasons it seems desirable.

With regard to styles of printing and binding, national feeling and taste must be consulted, and the habits of the people, together with the peculiarities of the climate, must be considered. When the work is to be printed and bound in England, full information on these points is required from the missionaries. The lettering on backs of books should be as far as possible in the native language.

We may append to this section a few words with regard to proof-reading. Each proof should be read twice, once with the copy, in order to secure that nothing is omitted, and once without, in order to ensure the correctness of the sense. A revise ought to be read with equal care; and then a second revise will seldom be needed.

The mechanical toil involved in reading the proof-sheets of a Bible cannot be over-estimated. Nothing taxes the eyesight and the brain so much as this. Constant watchfulness is needed lest his interest in the sense should make the editor negligent of the letter. We know not whether an immaculate edition of the Bible exists in any language ; but perfect accuracy ought to be strenu~ ously aimed at by every editor. His hand and eye will often be weary, and he will need at times almost to goad himself to his task. But a moment's thought about the nature of the work on which he is engaged, and a moment's prayer to Him whose Message of:

l.)

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SUGGESTIONS FOR TRANSLATORS,

Salvation he is setting forth, will tend to make the toil less irksome and the prospect more bright.

§ 17.-ON METHODS OF CONDUCTING JOINT REVISIONS.

Under this head all we propose to do is to give a few examples, which may assist in the formation and regulation of the many Boards of Revision which must hereafter be called into existence. Wben the Authorised English Version was taken in hand, the translators, being forty-seven in number, were divided into six companies. Ten were appointed to take the early part of the Bible as far as 1 Chronicles, one of them being, according to Fuller's History, 'skilled in architecture, and his judgment much relied on for the fabric of the tabernacle and temple.' Eight took from 2 Chronicles to Ecclesiastes, and seven others had the remainder of the Old Testament as their charge. including Dr. Smith, who made 'the learned and religious preface to the translation.' Seven were appointed for the Apocrypha ; eight for the Gospels, Acts, and Apocalypse, and seven for the Epistles.

Their work was in many respects a revision rather than a new translation, especially in the New Testament. The following were among the rules laid down by King James I. for their guidance :' The Bishops' Bible to be followed, and as little altered as the original wil1 permit. ' The names of the prophets and the holy writers, with the other names in the text, to be retained, as near as may be, according as they are vulgarly used. ' The old ecclesiastical words to be kept. ' When any word hath divers significations, that to be kept which hath been most commonly used by the most eminent Fathers, being agreeable to the propriety of the place and the analogy of faith. ' The divisions of the chapters to be altered either not at all, or as little as may be. 'No marginal notes at all to be affixed, but only for the explanation of the Hebrew and Greek words, which cannot without some circumlocution so briefly and fitly be expressed in the text. 'Every particular man of each company to take the same chapter or chapters ; and having translated or amended them severally by himself where he thinks good, all to meet together, confer what they have done, and agree for their part what shall stand. ' As any one company hath despatched any one book in this manner, they shall send it to the rest, to be considered of seriously and judiciously; for his Majesty is very careful on this point.

EDITORS, AND REVISERS OF THE BIBLE. 51

' If any company, upon the review of the book so sent, shall doubt or differ upon any places, to send them word thereof, note the places, and therewithal send their names ; to which if they consent not, the difference to be compounded at the general meeting, which is to be of the chief persons of each company, at the end of the work.'

The translation, thus subdivided, made rapid progress, and was concluded in three years ; with what happy results all the world knows.

A revision of the English Bible was taken in hand in 1870, having been inaugurated by the Convocation of Canterbury. The following were its primary resolutions. 'That the revision be so conducted as to comprise both marginal renderings and such emendations as it may be found necessary to insert in the text of the Authorised Version. 'That we do not contemplate any new translation of the Bible, or any alteration of the language, except where, in the judgment of the most competent scholars, such change is necessary. 'That in such necessary changes the style of language employed in the existing version be closely followed. 'That it is desirable that Convocation should nominate a body of its own members to undertake the work of revision, who shall be at liberty to invite the co-operation of any eminent for scholarship, to whatever nation or religious body they may belong.'

In consequence of these Resolutions an Old Testament company and a New Testament company were formed, having on them scholars who represented the leading churches and denominations in England and Scotland. Several of these have died before seeing the conclusion of the work, which has not yet come to an end. Each company meets for several days periodically, the respective members having prepared a portion of work. A tentative revision is thus arrived at, and is printed for the consideration not only of the English members, but of an American body of revisers, whose co-operation has been secured. Absent members send their suggestions, but these suggestions do not count as votes. The mode of arriving at a decision on the introduction of changes is thus set forth :' That the text to be adopted be that for which the evidence is decidedly preponderating ; and that when the text SO' adopted differs from that from which the Authorised Version was made, the alteration be indicated in the margin. ' To make and retain no change in the text on the second and final revision by each company, except two-thirds of those present approve of the same, but on the first revision to decide by simple majorities.

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SUGGESTIONS FOR TRANSLATORS,

' In every case of proposed alteration that may have given rise to discussion, to defer the voting thereupon till the next Meeting, whensoever the same shall be required by one-third of those present at the Meeting, such intended vote to be announced in the notice for the next meeting.'

One other Resolution, worthy to be imitated, is this :-' To refer, on the part of each company, when considered desirable, to divines, scholars, and literary men, whether at home or abroad, for their opinions.'

In the case of that revision or re-translation of the Chinese Bible which is called the Delegates' Version, the work was divided among the different mission stations, and when the portion allotted to one station was completed, it was sent round to the other stations for examination and criticism. The delegates also met together occasionally.

When it was decided to revise the Malagasy Bible, a principal reviser was appointed, half his salary being paid by the British and Foreign Bible Society ; each Protestant Missionary Society labouring in the island was invited to send a certain number of delegates in proportion to their staff. A tentative revision of certain parts of the Bible was prepared by the principal reviser, in the first place, and Bent round to the delegates, who returned their criticisms ; after which a further revise wa~ issued, and the delegates were summoned to conSii<ler and vote on it. Instructions which had previously been drawn up by the present writer in his official capacity, and were printed and circulated among the delegates, calling their attention to points which would need to be decided in the first instance before the revision could be carried through satisfactorily.

We cannot conclude this paper of suggestions in a better way than by referring to the very successful revisions of the Tamil Bible, accomplished by a Joint Board, representing the various Protestant Missions in the Tamil-speaking part of India. The work took above ten years, having been begun in 1858. The principal reviser prepared a revised text of portion after portion, and after considering the suggestions made by the delegates, he prepared a second revision, which they met to consider. When the New Testament was thus accomplished, a circular was addressed by the Madras Bible Society to all missionaries labouring in the Tamil country, requesting them to state how far they thought it desirable that the Old Testament should be revised in a similar way. A majority deciding in favour of this course, the work was taken in hand and completed. The various meetings held by the

EDITORS, AND REVISRRS OF THE BIBLE. 53

delegates extended to ten months and a half, seven months and nine days of which were expended on the Old Testament. In the interesting report drawn up and signed by the revisers when the whole was completed, reference was made to the fact that all were preserved in health through their meetings, notwithstanding the arduous nature of the work. 'This result,' the report states, • we attribute partly to the regularity of our hours and the care with which our time was apportioned into periods of endurable length, and partly to the excellent climate in which the greater part of our work was carried on, but chiefly to the interesting character of the work itself.' 'We have much reason,' continues the report, 'to be thankful for the unbroken harmony which has prevailed among us from first to last. Coming as we have done from different missions, from different parts of the Tamil country, where different local peculiarities of expression prevailed, bringing to the discussion of every subject different habits of thought, and influenced probably mo!'e than we were aware by different theological predilections, there has never been the slightest jarring or discord of feeling apparent among us during our long conferences. Differences of opinion and taste there were, and ever will be, when men of independent judgment meet t9gether to settle questions of language and style by a joint decision ; but in no instance did any such difference pass beyond the limits of Christian courtesy and charity ; it being the desire of all that truth should prevail over individual opinion, that the Scriptures should speak not the language of any one man or of any one party, but their own language. and that the questions before us should be discussed and settled, not as questions of theology, but as questions of Hebrew and Greek criticism and Tamil idiom. 'The work has proved the most interesting task in which we have ever been engaged. Never have we felt so deeply impressed with the wisdom, the truthfulness, the beauty, the moral goodness -or to use a word which human philosophy knows not-the spirituality of these divinely-inspired Scriptures. Our daily work brought us so directly in contact with the great things and deep things of God, that it was a source of continual refreshment to us and continual delight, and the brotherhood of feeling with which we were united turned our toil into a pleasure. The only day that hung heavily on our spirits was the last, when we felt that our work had come to an end, and that all that remained for us to do was to prepare to part.•

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

SYNONYMS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT:

THEIR BEARING ON CHRISTIAN FAITH AND PRACTICE.

15s. LONGMANS.

"Mr. Girdlestone deserves the thanks of students of Scripture for this book. It is an attempt to give a distinct and accurate explanation of the meaning of a great number of words which occur in the Hebrew Scriptures, but many of which in the English version are scarcely distinguishable from one another; and then, by means of the Septuagint, to bring this distinctness and accuracy to bear upon the words which correspond to them in the New Testament."Literary Churchman. "To a competent knowledge of Hebrew and Greek, Mr. Girdlestone unites a wide acquaintance with grammatical and exegetical aids, fairness of judgment, and that reverential sympathy with the Old Testament without which neither an ordinary reader nor a learned investigator can possibly understand it aright." -British Quarterly Review. "A very valuable work for the critical student of Scripture."-Literary World.

"A work of well-digested learning, careful and conscientious research, and in parts of considerable polemical merit, and in a tone of Christian and loving temper, which speaks well for his charity."-School Board Chronicle. '' Combines a tone of piety with rich Biblical Scholarship.'' -John, Bull. "Thorough philological knowledge and hearty belief in the Word of God permeate the whole."-Dr. Delitzsch.

DIES IR~:

THE FINAL JUDGMENT AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF MANKIND.

3s. 6d. H.ATCHARDS.

"The special value of Mr. Girdlestone's thoughtful and well-weighed book is that the writer carefully examines the Scripture meaning of all the expressions used on the subject. Mr. Girdlestone's reasonings, however, are not confined to Scriptural interpretations. He passes in review every topic that the question has brought to the surface, and reasons upon each with a view to establish or defend

55

the Scripture doctrine. The tone of his book is both able and attractive. He is careful to keep within the limits to which man's reason is rightly confined on such subjects. He regards the subject in a Christian and loving, not in a controversial spirit. He takes care not to misrepresent opponents, or to overstate his own side of the case. And his book, in consequence, as may fairly be hoped, will influence many who are open to calm and thoughtful statement."Guardian.

"The topics discussed are solemn and important beyond all others, and have been handled by the author in a very careful and reverent spirit. Many of his suggestions merit serious consideration ; and although we might possibly demur to some of the views which he propounds, and to some of the conclusions at which he arrives, it could hardly be otherwise when such deep things of God form the subject of inquiry. His sentiments are generally remarkable for sobriety and orthodoxy, and contrast most favourably with the crude and fanciful speculations which are afloat, wherein men's crotchets are substituted for God's revelations.'' - Ohri.stian Observer.

". . . Nor does his breadth of view stop even here ; for, taught by the hints and allusions of Scripture itself, he recognises that God's dealings with the race of Adam are but a part of His dealings with the universe, and must therefore necessarily branch out into relations, and be complicated by considerations so wide and vast that the human intellect is at present totally incompetent to understand them. '' The moderation, good temper, candour, and truthfulness, for which the whole volume is conspicuous, a1·e maintained throughout, and enable the reader to differ on points of detail without compromising for a moment his frank and affectionate sympathy with the author. We refer our readers for further information to the volume itself, and cordially commend it, alike for its ability, its scholarly accuracy, its comprehensiveness of view, and its devout and Scriptural tone." -Christian Advocate.

THE ANATOMY OF SCEPTICISM:

AN EXAMINATION INTO THE CAUSES OF THE PROGRESS WHICH SCEPTICISM IS MAKING IN ENGLAND.

3s. HUNT AND Co.

"This volume condenses in a few pages the result of much study and thought; the style is lucid, the arrangement simple and logical. It is a book which we have much pleasure in recommending, as being especially fitted for young men whose minds may be unsettled by the 'divers and strange doctrines' of the present day. The concluding chapter, on 'Rules to be observed in Arguing with Sceptics,' is full of useful hints to young curates, Scripture-readers, and others, who have this controversy frequently forced upon them."-.Record.

LONDON! R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, l'RINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL, QUEF.N VIOTORIA 8TREET.

About First Fruits Press

Under the auspices of B. L. Fisher Library, First Fruits Press is an online publishing arm of Asbury eological Seminary. e goal is to make academic material freely available to scholars worldwide, and to share rare and valuable resources that would not otherwise be available for research. First Fruits publishes in ve distinct areas: heritage materials, academic books, papers, books, and journals.

In the Journals section, back issues of The Asbury Journal will be digitized and so made available to a global audience. At the same time, we are excited to be working with several faculty members on developing professional, peer-reviewed, online journals that would be made freely available.

Much of this endeavor is made possible by the recent gift of the Kabis III scanner, one of the best available. The scanner can produce more than 2,900 pages an hour and features a special book cradle that is speci cally designed to protect rare and fragile materials. The materials it produces will be available in ebook format, easy to download and search.

First Fruits Press will enable the library to share scholarly resources throughout the world, provide faculty with a platform to share their own work and engage scholars without the di culties often encountered by print publishing. All the material will be freely available for online users, while those who wish to purchase a print copy for their libraries will be able to do so. First Fruits Press is just one way the B. L. Fisher Library is ful lling the global vision of Asbury Theological Seminary to spread scriptural holiness throughout the world.