Reimaging Mission : Teaching Mission for a Changing World

REIMAGINING MISSION TEACHING MISSION FOR A CHANGING WORLD

The 2019 Proceedings of The Association of Professors of Mission

2019 APM Annual Meeting, St. Mary College, South Bend, IN June 13-15, 2019

First Fruits Press Wilmore, Kentucky c2023

ISBN: 9781648170782

Reimaging mission : teaching mission for a changing world

2019 proceedings of the Association of Professors of Mission

First Fruits Press, ©2023

Digital version at https://place.asburyseminary.edu/academicbooks/40/

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Reimaging mission : teaching mission for a changing world / edited by Robert A. Danielson. – Wilmore, Kentucky : First Fruits Press, 2023.

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"The 2019 proceedings of the Association of Professors of Missions : 2019 APM annual meeting, St. Mary College, South Bend, In, June 13-15, 2019".

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1 Missions Study and teaching Congresses. 2. Missions Theory Congresses.

3 Education Methodology Congresses. 4. Teaching Methodology Congresses

I. 2019 proceedings of the Association of Professors of Mission II. Danielson, Robert A. (Robert Alden), 1969- editor. III. Association of Professors of Mission.

IV. Association of Professors of Mission Annual Meeting (2019 : South Bend, Ind.)

BV2020.A876 2023

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Table of Contents

Cross-Cultural Courses: Traveling Abroad to Strengthen Our Missions Courses

Shawn P. Behan1

Abstract

Using my own experience as both a student and teacher of travel courses as a basis, I will discuss the role and signi cance of travel courses for enhancing missiology/intercultural studies programs. When done well, such travel courses have the chance to change perspectives and expose students to issues and perspectives that they may have never known, or fully appreciated, before. As such, these courses can become an essential element to preparing the future generation of church and missions leaders, alongside their theological education. Ultimately, I will provide a thorough grounding for developing more travel courses and some tips for designing these courses as e ective training tools for our students.

Introduction

As we got o the bus for our third historical site of the day, my feet ached and my back was tired. e air was humid, the sun beat down on my tanned neck, and the water in my backpack had long turned warm as we trudged our way through this arid historical landmark. When we nally made it to the back of the property, the professor pulled out his Bible and began reading 1 Samuel 4. As we stood there, on the very spot of the ancient tabernacle in the historical site of Shiloh, I could begin to imagine the disheveled Benjamite running through the pass leading up to the city. I turned my eye toward the tabernacle grounds and I could picture old Eli,

blind from age, sitting in his chair, awaiting the outcome of the battle. And I could envision the Benjamite telling Eli about the death of his sons and the capture of the Ark of the Living God, and Eli falling over backward to his own death.

e month I spent in Israel during my MA studies radically changed the way I read scripture, and to this day images of these historic places ash through my memory every time I read the story of God’s people. I have been a proponent of traveling courses ever since. As well, when I had the chance to lead students through a church planting course in Europe and witness the radical new ideas these few days in a di erent culture spawned, I was convinced of the necessity of not only learning about mission to other cultures but experiencing it.

It is these experiences that has brought me to advocate for travel courses as an essential part of missiological and theological education, for it is in our experience of other cultures where we begin to see theory put into practice in new and innovative ways. us, through the course of this paper I will look at the pedagogical foundations for travel courses, some helpful lessons to maximize the usefulness of travel courses, and expose the bene ts to our students and our schools.

Pedagogy

We cannot enter a discussion about missions education and simply say that experiencing di erent cultures is bene cial to our students, rather we must start with the pedagogical foundations for such a claim. By turning our attention to theories of experiential learning, we have a solid foundation for beginning to develop an academic reasoning for travel courses. By placing experiential learning in conversation with other contemporary modes of teaching at the college and graduate levels - lecture and discussion - we can cra a pedagogical theory for travel courses that balances theory and practice. erefore, in this section we will look at the pedagogical groundings for both learning-centric and experiential higher education, ultimately concluding with a combined pedagogy that will begin to reveal the relevance and signi cant of travel courses for missions education.

e rst place to start this discussion is in understanding what we are attempting to do in adult higher education. In utilizing Bloom’s taxonomy, we can see that much of primary education is about remembering, understanding, and applying important concepts; the big shi that happens at the college and graduate levels is moving towards analyzing and evaluating these concepts, ultimately coming to the top of Bloom’s pyramid with the creation of new concepts at the doctoral level. Educating this adult population, then, takes on a very di erent mode, focused more on the development of the analytical muscle that will be most helpful for our adult students. is is done by one of two means, either lecture or discussion, and most o en (at least in missions education) it is a combination of both. is constitutes the traditional form of learning, which is best described by adult education expert Jane Vella,

A common pattern of teaching has been for the professor to lay out the content (skills, knowledge, attitudes) and then design exercises so that learners work with what they have heard or seen in order to learn it. is pattern is not only what teachers expect to do. It is what learners expect as well (Vella 2001, xiv).

is antiquated form of teaching focuses entirely on the professor and fails to actually move the adult student up Bloom’s pyramid, barricading them in the understanding and application stages as they simply regurgitate the professor’s lectures. Such a style not only fails the students by not helping them grow into fully formed adults, it is a failure of our society and world as well - by keeping adults in adolescent ways of thinking and learning. is is based in a false epistemology that does not see the di erence between youth and adult learners. is is exactly what Vella is trying to correct by providing “a practical guide to an epistemology for learning-centered teaching that considers adult learners as subjects or decision makers in their own learning. I propose that such an epistemology is the only appropriate one for a civil, global society that is based on inclusive democracy” (Ibid., xvi). us, this new way of thinking about adult education requires that we see each learner as a key agent in their own education. In our world today, such a perspective on adult education is sorely needed. “We are at a critical moment in history when sheer numbers and violent events are driving us to rethink current educational paradigms and practices in professional training, industrial

training, and community education in universities, schools and colleges” (Vella 2002, ix). e problem of the size of the population seeking education as adults, and current events is calling for new ways of teaching. It is to this problem that Vella proposes a move away from traditional lecture style adult education and more towards learning-centered styles. is transition focuses on moving beyond lecture alone into lecture and discussion with a concern for practical application. In this shi , she points out twelve essential principles for adult education:

• needs assessment (learns help determine what to learn)

• safety (safe environment for learning)

• sound relationships (between all members of the learning community)

• sequence (proper ordering and reinforcement of the content)

• praxis (learning by doing)

• respect (each learner is an independent decision maker)

• ideas/feelings/actions (the cognitive, a ective, and psychomotor sides of learning)

• immediacy (relevance to now)

• roles (clearly de ned and developed)

• teamwork (using small groups)

• engagement (with what is being learned)

• accountability (proving they know what they learned). (Vella 2001, 3–27)

It is these principles of learning-centered education that we strive to live out in our contemporary, discussion based missions education.2 e way Vella develops this learning-centered education is through the learning task.

“A learning task is a way to structure dialogue. It is an open question put to members of a small group who have been given all the resources they need to respond. A learning task is a way of ensuring engagement of learners with the new content. Structuring dialogue by setting useful learning tasks is one way to e ective teaching” (Vella 2001, xiii).

It is this learning task that becomes the key component to learningcentric education and which we must start with as teachers of future pastors, missionaries, and ministry leaders.

Yet, learning-centric education alone also has some holes in its execution. Higher education is run by those with PhDs who have focused on the theory of the topic being discussed. us, our classrooms may have switched the model of teaching, but the content has remained the same. And in the best cases, where we might strive to combine theory and practice through assignments, we still have an abundant focus on theory. us, we must look to other pedagogical ideas for ways to incorporate more practice in our courses. is is where experiential learning ts into the equation.

Experiential Learning

roughout the twentieth century, experience has become a more prominent component to learning, particularly adult education (Kuk and Holst 2018, 150). Because of this, various models for experiential learning have been developed, but no matter the model they all seem to follow the same basic mapping of experiential learning, which includes: prior knowledge, the experience, re ection, and learning (Ibid., 152). It is through re ecting upon existing knowledge through the lens of the experience that experiential learning begins to shi perspectives and generate new ideas among students. But what is experiential learning?

In its more current statement (Kolb and Kolb, 2013), experiential learning theory is described as a dynamic view of learning based on a learning cycle derived by the resolution of the dual dialectics of action/re ection and experience/abstraction. Learning is defended as ‘the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience’ (Chapter 2, pg. 49). (Kolb 2015, 50–51)

For those moving up Bloom’s pyramid, such generation of new knowledge is necessary as they begin to analyze and evaluate the theory they have learned in the classroom. But to more fully understand experiential learning, we must turn to one of its biggest proponents, David Kolb.

Kolb’s vision of experiential learning is meant to enhance formal classroom learning by teaching the skills necessary to re ect, learn, and apply what is learned through the experience of our life and work (Ibid., 3–4). While some may argue about whether or not experiential learning

actually ful lls this goal,3 it is still a useful theory to be utilized, at least in part, in educating missions students – especially those who plan to travel abroad in their missions callings. e reason for this is that it strives to combine “experiences, perception, cognition, and behavior” (Ibid., 31) in a more holistic learning endeavor. e reasoning behind such an approach is an epistemological shi in pedagogy for adult learners: “To learn is not the special province of a single specialized realm of human functioning such as cognition or perception. It involves the integrated functioning of the total organism – thinking, feeling, perceiving, and behaving.” (Ibid., 43) is shi is toward a more holistic approach, which highlights the interaction between the person and their environment (Ibid., 45–48). It is through such learning that new knowledge is created within the learner, whose experimentation provides new avenues and approaches to the practical problems that surround them (Ibid, 48–49).

Ultimately, experiential learning is about utilizing the learning cycle and various learning styles in order to create new knowledge for the learner – as well as teaching them a process by which they can continue to learn from their experiences throughout their lives (not just in their formal education). It moves away from being solely theory based in the classroom, but it can present new issues of being too practical and not theoretical enough. us, the best pedagogical basis for travel-based missions courses is a combination of the theory-heavy learning-centric model and the practicalheavy experiential model. is new, merged model, is what we will turn our attention to next.

Merging eory and Practice

is merged theory, as I will venture to call it, attempts to bring together the discussion-based learning-centric approach with the experiential approach in order to build a solid foundation for travel missions courses. As such, it will look at the combination of these approaches through the lens of current research of travel courses, drawing conclusions from these case studies and data in order to show how a merged theory functions within such courses. We will then apply these conclusions speci cally to travel missions courses.

Raja and Najmonnisa, in studying business communications education, compiled quantitative data that shows those who are taught

using experiential methods retain more information and techniques (what could be considered knowledge) than those using traditional methods –even when the experiential group went back to traditional methods, they retained more than their traditional counterparts (Raja and Najmonnisa 2018, 285–386).4 But experiential learning alone does not necessarily equate to learned knowledge. As we saw from Kolb, re ection upon the experience is necessary to turn it into new knowledge. “It is important for students to re ect critically on assumptions they may have coming into a course and validate those meaning by assessing reason to the new knowledge and experiences” (Tovar and Misischia 2018, 2). Re ection, both on previous knowledge or biases and on the experience, provides the ground for cra ing new knowledge. Such re ection best comes through directed discussion and projects. While projects may help re ection, they do not always lead to application; and discussion alone does not always lead to new knowledge. us, the discussion-based classroom experience of the learning-centric approach is an essential element alongside the experiential approach in creating applicable new knowledge for students.

is new merged theory calls for the combination of classroombased discussion and real-world experience. While such a combination can happen in practicum and internship courses, short-term studyabroad courses provide a very di erent perspective, especially for missions students. But what exactly are these types of courses? “Short-term studyabroad programs have been di cult to de ne; however, there is a universal acceptance that they include certain characteristics such as a duration of less than one month, eld expertise, and knowledge of the culture and society of the county that is being visited by the lead faculty member, and student immersion into the culture that results in a gainful learning experience” (Gonsalvez 2013, 1). Travel courses, when done in this merged theory, utilize the experience of the professor and relevant theory to cra a travel experience for the students that helps spur new ideas and generate practical applications for their current or future contexts. Within missions education we cannot simply rely on the relevant theory and experience of the professors – even when utilizing discussion; we must also expose students to new experiences that will foster the growth of new knowledge that is usable for them in their futures as missionaries, pastors, or in other organizations or vocations. Such travel courses provide tremendous bene ts both to our students and to our schools as we strive to build future leaders for the Church who are locally focused, globally connected, and Kingdom minded. us, we must now turn

our attention toward some of the key bene ts of such courses – primarily for students, but also for professors and schools.

Bene ts

Having now seen the educational theory behind the use of travel courses, we can look at the bene ts that these courses have speci cally for missions education. ese bene ts will incorporate issues of networking, jobs, new ideas, and global citizenship which will make both for more well-rounded graduates from our programs and develop global Christian communities by which our schools and students can continue to interact with the Church around the world.

Of the many bene ts that can be discussed from travel courses, the most prevalent and all encompassing include the following:

• Network building: First and foremost, travel courses allow for the building and strengthening of global networks. is is true for the professor (helping us strengthen our own networks and relationships) as well as the student, but it also provides a bene t to the school as deeper networks open up the chances for more students from global partners. is will aid in helping grow the global imprint of the school. Such was the trip I helped teach that worked with many current DMin students from our school.

• In uencing future jobs: For students, having international networks may both help them nd jobs upon graduation (another bene t to the school as more graduates are employed) and in uences their perspectives on becoming missionaries. One research project into criminal-justice-travel programs found them to be formative in students' approaches to their future careers. “ e travel program presented students the opportunity to learn in a completely di erent environment outside of the standard college classroom. e learning setting o ered a safe environment challenging their pre-exisiting assumptions on working in the eld” (Tovar and Misischia 2018, 8); for future missionaries, such challenges are essential for preparation to enter the eld.

• Di erent mission elds: As well, such trips expose students to opportunities or regions of the world they may not have thought of venturing to as missionaries, such as one of my students who, a er our travel course together, began to feel God placing that region of the world on their heart and is discerning with their spouse what this means for their future.

• Changed perspectives: By exposure to the world we are forced out of our cultural box and begin to view ourselves and the world around us in di erent ways. In researching travel experiences for students, Roberson found that “most of the participants discussed how travel becomes an individual tutor in helping the person to become more con dent and responsible. is personal learning o ers the individual a renewed con dence in self by cultivating a broader worldview from which one can integrate information about di erent places into one comparative picture” (Roberson 2018, 16). is shi in view of self and self-in-relation to the world, a shi of perspective, changes how students and professors address the issues they come into contact with on a daily basis. is is due to the “signi cant mental, as well as emotional, impact” (Ibid.) that travel courses can have; and it will a ect professor and student alike. Much like my Israel trip has changed the way I read scripture, missions travel courses will change how our students return to school and engage with the rest of their studies and their futures as leaders in God’s Church. Such challenges and changes will a ect the future of the Church and our schools.5

• New ideas/knowledge: is shi will inevitably bring about new ideas and the creation of new knowledge. One of the repeated utterances of the class I helped lead abroad was how students had not thought of church or missions in the way that our host partner was attempting. is is the greatest bene t of experiential learning: it spurs new ideas and forces our students to think outside of the classroom box. It is here that the lessons of contextualization can come alive as we re ect about what we have learned in the classroom being rethought within the global context the course is visiting. Such new ideas can also help the

school gain a reputation (as well as the course and the professor) that may draw more new students.

• Global citizenship: Promoting awareness and interaction with the world outside of our narrow contexts is the goal of many schools, particularly within missions departments, and travel courses can help achieve this goal. In their extensive discussion of such programs, Mullens and Cuper state “that faculty-led studyabroad programs, when intentionally designed and delivered, provide a critical opportunity for students to begin exploring their roles in the world – an important rst step that may lead to others” (Mulens and Cuper 2012, 41). So while travel courses may not directly make students better global citizens, they do provide a rst step in that direction, a step that can be built upon when they return to the classroom, making our classes better and improving the global awareness and connections of our students.

Obviously, most of these bene ts are for the students. But there are also bene ts exposed here for professors and for schools. For professors, travel courses strengthen our own networks and relationships, continuing to spur us to personal and professional growth, and it will make our classes better. For schools, it increases the recruiting base for future students, builds a reputation that can help the school grow academically, nancially, scholastically, etc., and it expands the global awareness and imprint of the school.

Part of what has gone unmentioned here is the bene t of time and cost. It has been le unmentioned because these are not necessarily issues for every student; but for some taking a short-term travel course instead of a full semester or year study-abroad, it better ts their current situations and plans.

While these bene ts are not all that students, professors, and schools may gain from such travel courses, they provide a solid foundation for considering the use of travel missions courses within our schools and missions programs. e important part for the professor is connecting these bene ts with the learning outcomes of the school, program, and individual course. is is what transforms the bene ts of travel courses into learning experiences that generate new knowledge which will transform our students

into more well-rounded graduates. But such programs are not all bene cial, so we must be aware of some of the issues that arise during travel courses.

Issues to Consider

We can see that the bene ts of such courses are tremendous, but there are some signi cant issues that must be considered in order to actually execute a travel course. ese issues include: proper preparation of students, resisting the urge to be tourist students, proper re ection upon the experience, cultural sensitivity, safety and medical awareness (checking https://travel. state.gov/content/travel.html will provide valuable information), nancial considerations, and supporting our local partners. While this is not an exhaustive list of concerns, it includes some of the most prevalent issues to be considered.6 In considering these issues, it may be worthwhile to turn to the research on Short-Term Missions, as they have dealt with many of the same concerns. us, that is where we will turn our attention to next.

Lessons from STM

Short-Term Missions (STM) has become a highly debated topic and eld of study in recent years, though the research on it is still developing. “Although STM has become an enormous movement involving millions of participants every year, the research on this phenomenon is still relatively thin” (Howell 2012, 9). Yet, there have been several important e orts that draw out the issues of concern within STM and attempt to address those issues to make STM more relevant and worthwhile for all involved. Much like STM, travel courses give a small taste of di erent cultures and are tremendously more a ordable than longer programs. “Short-term programs are increasing in popularity for many reasons: they are generally more a ordable than longer programs, they appeal to students who may be unwilling or unable to commit to a semester or a year abroad, and they allow students in structured academic programs of many disciplines … to gain experience that enhances their understanding of the profession in a global context” (Gonsalvez 2013, 1). e bene ts of travel courses, like those of STM, are to provide participants with small exposures to missions around the globe, and the concerns are similar as well. And they may draw students from other elds who will take these experiences back to the medical, legal, business, or whatever eld they came from. Issues of safety and medical problems must all be dealt with on a context-speci c basis.

One of the rst lessons we can learn from STM concerns the preparation of the participants. Brian Howell’s case-study into STMs at a church in suburban Chicago reveals the necessity of such preparation, both for growing team unity and for their execution of e ective ministry once they reached their missions location (Howell 2012, 122–145). is preparation took course over months and included applications (in order to pick the right team), fundraising, cultural training, and spiritual engagement (Ibid.). While this level of preparation was deemed necessary by this church in order to e ectively serve the missionaries and ministries the STM team was traveling to serve, they point to the reality that all short-term travel encounters: the need to be prepared for the experience. For travel courses, this means not only theoretical preparation upon the subject under study, but also cultural and spiritual preparation for the experience itself.

As well, there is the necessary consideration for returning to "normal" life a er the travel experience. In Howell’s case, he realized the necessity of integrating the travel experience into their lives back home; failure to integrate led to the loss of the opportunity the trip presents to the participants (Ibid., 171–194). us, he calls for a reimagining of the STM narrative that helps transform the lives and relationships of the participants - giving them opportunities to re ect and share the experience, as well as to continue similar ministry within their own contexts (Ibid.). In STM trips, “true humanity, community, and ideal fellowship are glimpsed, if not experienced, in ways that are ultimately transformative” (Ibid., 179). us it is necessary to nd ways to maintain and integrate that transformation a er the trip is completed and for the rest of their lives. For travel courses, this can be partially completed through assignments, but focus also must be taken to give students time to re ect and share about their experiences and develop ways to integrate those experiences into the communities they are a part of when they return.

ere is also the issue of tourism in STM which must be addressed within travel courses too. While Howell acknowledge that in such trips tourism does play a part, he cautions that we must also be careful of how we are tourists during STM trips. Speaking of one of their “tourism” days, Howell says, “What struck me at the time was the utter ordinariness of it. We didn’t do anything particularly di erent from what I presumed other visitors to the falls had done” (Ibid., 167). He laments the fact that there was a noticeable shi between missions and tourism, one that separated the two

activities. Like STM, travel courses must develop ways to remain spiritually and missionally focused while embarking on activities that other tourists might attend.

Issues of nances must be negotiated with the school. Sometimes there is money available or it can be built into future budgets. Given enough time, money can be raised to help ease the cost on students. As well, working with nancial aid also takes time. And when it comes to host partners, we need to stress the importance of leaving them better o than how we found them – their hosting is gi and we should honor it, not abuse it.

While these lessons are not all we can learn from STM, they do provide a basis for the most important issues we can learn from STM.7 With these things in mind, we can now turn our attention to some of the logistics for travel courses.

Logistics

While every travel course will be di erent – adjusting to di erent contexts and di erent course focuses, as well as dealing with di erent issues – there are a handful of similar logistical issues that must be considered in the planning and execution of any travel course. (It should be mentioned that travel courses are done best when working with established organizations or through personal contacts who can serve as host partners for the class). ese issues require a keen eye for details and must be handled diligently in order for a successful trip.

1. Plan and book early: For the sake of pricing and sanity, have meetings with and get commitments from students early, so you can book travel and housing early. ere are several ways to do this; either all handled through you (or the school) or each handled separately, but make sure that in order to book, there is a non-refundable deposit from students (this makes sure they are committed). In order to do this, you must begin the conversation ASAP!

2. Cost of the course: Cost can be a prohibitive, so working out the budget for travel, housing, food, and any other costs that may

arise is important. Being able to give this cost to both the school and the students will help make decisions, and it allows for the chance to raise money in order to help alleviate student costs. Also, make sure to build yourself a contingency in the budget, in case of prices going up between planning and executing the course; or other unexpected costs that might arise – one helpful idea for costs may be to have students pay for one meal on their own each day.

3. Paying in another country: Most American credit cards will work in other counties, as long as you give them notice of your travels. As well, there are several programs (like with MasterCard) that have developed for international travelers, such as debit cards that convert from US dollars into local currencies. Take time to research the currency and modes of payment for the countries you are visiting. is is where your host partner or the nation’s US embassy can be extremely helpful.

4. Communications: Communicating all the relevant information (currency, travel dates, locations of where to stay, necessary travel documents, necessary medical clearances, etc.) must be done early and o en. As well, you need to nd ways to stay in communication with students once you have arrived. If the nation has good WiFi, using things like Facebook Messenger or WhatsApp can be invaluable. Again, you will have to rely on your host partner to help gure out the best form of communication. I have found it helpful to buy local SIM cards for my phone, but you have to remember to clear this with your American service provider before you leave.

5. Where to stay/Getting around town: Knowing the places you will visit will help you decide where to stay. As well, access to local transportation systems (walking, bus, train, etc.) is an important piece to consider when choosing a hotel. Learning how to navigate these systems should be a top priority when you arrive. Also, it is key to develop a system to make sure no one gets le behind.

6. What to do?: is is the most important part for your host partner to help with, as they will have the local networks to help plan each day of your travel. Connecting with more local practitioners will make for a more valuable experience, but you also have to consider how to have class (in order to re ect on that experience) throughout the travel.

7. Meals/snacks: Once you are there, much of your time will be working on the next meal for your group. Groups of international travelers are not always easy to feed, so suggestions from your host partner, as well as from travel websites, will minimize the time spent on this issue. Also, knowing where to buy snacks that will appease the full group can be helpful, especially on days with lots of travel.

8. Rest: Like intensive courses, travel courses can be long days. Fight the urge to see and hear as much as you can, instead focusing on less breadth and more depth. Spend lots of time with a few cultural informants, and plan to be done by mid-a ernoon each day. is gives everyone time to process and rest from mentally, physically, and emotionally taxing days.

9. Tourism: Give time for people to site see. Part of what draws students to travel courses is getting to visit interesting places. If you build in time for this in the schedule, they will resist the urge to sneak o to do it during other times or staying up late to do it. But make sure that site seeing trips are connected to the larger course as well, helping students notice the cultural and ethnographic di erences they are experiencing.

10. Meeting spaces: One major struggle is o en coming up with meeting spaces for your full group. Your host partner and the cultural insiders you meet may be able to help, but you need to be able to access usable meeting space (perhaps at your hotel) for your group to use. Even public spaces, like the common area of your hotel or the back portion of a cafe, can be useful meeting spaces for large groups. Be thinking about such places in advance and seek local knowledge for nding such useful spaces.

11. Required reading: For a typical classroom class, all the books are geared toward the topic of the class. For a travel course, there needs to be some books about the culture the course is visiting. is means less course speci c content, but it also helps prepare students for their brief encounter with the host culture. Reading ethnographies and books by cultural insiders will aid in connecting the content of the topical books with the cultural context. It may be helpful to think of each individual piece of both content and context, then have students read one book or article attached to each of those pieces.

12. Assignments: Assignments for the course must be geared toward re ection and integration. Helping students connect their experience to the theoretical study for the course and then begin to integrate that into their future vision of missions and ministry is the nal piece to a successful travel course. us, we must be creative in the assignments we develop, especially for the end of the course (while earlier assignments can be more about the topic, later ones should be about integrating the topic and the experience).

While your travel course may come across di erent issues, if you stay on top of these twelve things you can help eliminate confusion, stress, and mistakes throughout from planning to execution. With these logistical issues in mind, it is time for class to start!

Conclusion

We have now looked at some pedagogical foundations, some of the major bene ts, some important concerns to address, and some logistical issues to stay on top of; with all that in mind, there is one last thing we need to discuss for missions travel courses – actually doing the course. Travel courses may be outside of our training and educational experiences, but for our students, these courses can become essential learning opportunities that will shape their spiritual and vocational futures. So ght for these courses in your school curriculums and venture out to teach them, and just maybe we can begin to spur a generation of new ideas that will build our students into more fully-formed disciples of Christ and leaders within His global fellowship.

Notes

1 Shawn is a PhD Candidate at Asbury eological Seminary, focusing on the congregation as hermeneutic principle within Lesslie Newbigin’s missionary ecclesiology.

2 It must be noted that not every missions course and professor follows Vella, but discussion-based courses are working o of the ideas of Vella, whether they know it or not. Lecture-only courses would be using older models of education, ones which Vella has already shown to be antiquated. Either way, lecture or discussion, leaves students with lots of theory and little praxis.

3 Cf. Arellano and Jones, 2018; Wright, Hibbert, Strong, and Edwards 2018; Bata, Cox-Lanyon, Davis, and Whitney 2019.

4 It should be noted that classroom interaction can come before or a er the travel experience, but when it takes place will change how the class is conducted – as a preparatory class or re ective class.

5 ese challenges and changes can be risky, especially for those in positions of power and/or leadership. But such risks must be taken if our schools are to survive and thrive in the new futures that God is calling us and our world into.

6 As well, there are pedagogical issues to be considered. For a deeper dive into the pedagogical issues, see above note.

7 cf. Missiology 41, no. 2 (April 2013). is entire issue is dedicated to STM.

References

Arellano, Irene and Stephanie J. Jones. “Exploration of University Faculty Perceptions and Experiences of Service-Learning as Engaged Scholarship of Teaching and Learning.” Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning 18, no. 4 (Dec. 2018):111-129.

Bata, Michelle, Vickie Cox-Lanyon, Micki Davis, and Amy Whitney. “When a Student’s ‘Right to Fail’ Harms the University Brand: How a Lack of Guidance in Experiential Learning A ects University-Organization Relationships.” Journal of Management Education 43, no. 1 (Nov. 2018); 108-120. https://doi. org/10.1177%2F1052562918811873.

Gonsalvez, Jude. “ e pedagogy of Short-Term Study-Abroad Programs.” Journal of Arts and Humanities 2, no. 8 (Sept. 2013): 1-5.

Howell, Brian M. Short-Term Mission An Ethnography of Christian Travel Narrative and Experience. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press Academic, 2012.

Kolb, David A. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Second Edition. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc., 2015.

Kuk, Hey-Su and John D. Holst. “A Dissection of Experiential Learning eory.” Adult Learning 29, no. 4 (Nov. 2018): 150-157.

Missiology: An International Review 41, no. 2 (April 2013)

Mullens, Jo Beth and Prudence H. Cuper. Fostering Global Citizenship rough Faculty-led International Programs. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, 2012.

Raja, Farhan Uddin and Dr. Najmonnisa. “Comparing Traditional Travel Method and Experiential Teaching Method using Experimental Research.” Journal of Education and Educational Development 5, no. 2 (Dec. 2018): 276-288.

Roberrson, Donald N. “Learning while traveling: e school of travel.”

Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 22 (2018): 14-18.

Tovar, Lynn Atkinson, and Cynthia Misischia. “Experiential Learning: Transformation and Discovery through Travel Study Programs.” Research in Higher Education Journal 35 (Oct. 2018): 1-15. https:// eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1194438.

Vella, Jane. Taking Learning to Task: Creative Strategies for Teaching Adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001.

_________. Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach: e Power of Dialogue in Educating Adults. Revised Edition. San Francisco: JosseyBass, 2002.

Wright, April, Paul Hibbert, Ross Strong, and Marissa Edwards. “Exposing Practical, Psychological, and Pedagogical Shadow Sides of Experiential Learning.” Journal of Management Education 42, no. 6 (Sept. 2018): 761-771. https://doi. org/10.1177%2F1052562918802327.

Dr. J. Paul Pennington

Introduction – Listening

Our journey actually began in India ten years ago as we listened to Indian Christian friends. ey described the resistance of their nation to Jesus and described some of the Christian traditions and practices that have unfortunately contributed to that resistance. We and they sought alternative approaches that might address these Christian Barriers to Jesus, as I eventually termed them (Pennington 2017a).

In that search, over the past ve years or so, the Lord has led Margaret and me on a journey of exploring, encouraging, and advocating for those who follow and serve Jesus outside of traditional Christianity or church. As we interacted with these believers from the Hindu or Muslim world, as well as the “alongsiders” (Richard 2016) who serve them, we were faced with a choice. We could dismiss this world and these believers as unfaithful to Jesus because they did not follow traditional Christian patterns or traditions. But we already knew from our Indian Christian friends that the existing approaches could actually hinder the good news. We needed to listen to these other voices about how the prevailing Christian mission paradigms had actually alienated many of their people from Jesus.

ey weren’t the only voices to call attention to the problem. Others have also questioned whether continuing to pursue church and mission using

existing paradigms will change the results of the last ve hundred years. For instance, in 2016, Mike Rynkiewich published an article in IBMR entitled “Do Not Remember the Former ings” (Rynkiewich 2016). Based on Isaiah 43:18, Rynkiewich suggested, “Repeatedly in salvation history God moves faster than his people can keep up” (Rynkiewich 2016, 308). e author then contends that “missiology continues to be hindered by outdated theories of culture and theologies of mission” and calls for deep reexamination of core assumptions in the face of globalization, urbanization, migration, and postmodernism.

Tite Tiénou, in his IBMR response to Rynkiewich’s article, notes that he too had “questioned the ideologies that were present in mission thinking, promotional literature, and strategy” (Tiénou 2016, 319). Tiénou also callsfor a more disruptive review of mission tradition:

It is indeed time to reconsider the assumptions operating in missiology and the categories used by mission practitioners and strategists. Such a task is long, di cult, and perilous because too many people and powerful organizations have a vested interest in perpetuating marketable rallying cries, slogans, and plans. (Tiénou, 2016: 319)

A er noting the di culty of such re-examination, Tiénou concludes, “We should … not be surprised that strategic categories continue to prevail in mission. Perhaps what is needed is a new articulation of the very nature of Christian mission” (Ibid., 321, my emphasis).

In the past year, I have also been engaged in multiple conversations around Mike Stroope’s recent book, Transcending Mission (Stroope 2017). Stroope, by his own admission (private conversation), has sought to provoke deeper reconsideration of the historical and terminological foundations of the “mission” paradigm. Stroope’s analysis joins the voices of Rynkiewich and Tiénou in calling for deeper reimagination of how Jesus wants his followers to serve and represent him globally.

Rynkiewich observes in the conclusion of his article: Our understanding of the world, our set of categories—our worldview, if you will—leads us to see what we expect to see, but they deceive us so that we miss what we do not expect to see. e name

for this practice is hubris; it is a lack of epistemological humility. (Rynkiewich 2016, 315)

If Christianity, church, or mission are founded upon this hubris, this lack of epistemological humility, we might actually nd ourselves pursuing missions, purposes, and agendas that are out of line with or even counter to the mission and purpose of Jesus and his Father. e only cure for hubris, is the humility to set aside our epistemological certainty and to listen deeply to corrective voices—voices that can help us hear what Jesus wants and what he is doing in the world—but voices that, if we listen carefully, will challenge our missiological and mission hubris.

In introducing this year’s APM theme yesterday ( ursday), Sue Russell (2019 APM President) noted that innovation will only happen if we listen deeply, especially to the Spirit as our guide. As we have listened to these believers in some of the challenging frontiers, they have indicated that Jesus is already shaping new wineskins for following him, new shapes and forms outside of Christianity, church, and mission.

In order to understand the coming paradigms and their implications for future missiological education, we must listen much more deeply to two important voices: the voice of Scripture (a familiar, but o en misused voice) and the voice of incarnational believers (those who follow Jesus outside of traditional Christianity and church).

Listening to Scripture

First, we need to listen more carefully to what Scripture says. On this journey, we have come to recognize that when Christians assert, “ e Bible says…,” they are o en not at all aware of how they are actually “misreading scripture through Western eyes (Richards and O’Brien, 2012) or through some other cultural lens.

Some Christians would even argue that there is little or no room for innovation in mission. If Jesus is “the same yesterday, today, and forever,” they argue, then we just need to keep preaching the same, simple “gospel” in the same way we have done.

I would counter, however, that such a naïve and simplistic view of Jesus and his good news is challenged by the New Testament itself. One thing that never changes about Jesus is his constant desire to incarnate his way and life within the families, cultures, communities, and societies of this world. And that incarnational spirit leads to variety and adaptability in the New Testament, not systematization and conformity.

A few years ago I was involved in an email discussion where one participant asked for assistance in identifying “biblical culture.” Our divisions would be solved, the writer indicated, if all believers would simply follow the “biblical culture” presented in the New Testament. I myself come from a Christian tradition where our religious forebearers claimed to have found the “New Testament pattern” that all believers should follow in order to be faithful to Jesus and Scripture.

However, as I have re ected on that idea of “biblical culture” or “New Testament pattern,” I have become increasingly impressed by a unique feature of the New Covenant scriptures—I have come to term it the “cultural non-speci city” of the New Testament. As we review the commands and instructions from Matthew to Revelation, it is amazing how many of them do not provide enough cultural detail—enough form or structure—for us to replicate the command in the same way in every instance, much less across cultures and times.

e Mosaic Law, in contrast, provided speci c rules for what to eat or not eat, material for clothing, rituals and festivals, even hair cutting. While the Jews did not always follow these commands, they did follow enough of them to become a separate nation, somewhat distinct from those around them.

In stark contrast, the New Testament scriptures provide little cultural form for any required practices or rituals. Baptism and the Lord’s Supper, while obviously practiced, are not given enough speci city to know precisely how they were conducted, who was permitted to administer them, or when they were performed. We have no “order of service” from the New Testament era to serve as a blueprint for later liturgies. Every modern worship service depends on a form and order invented a er or beyond what is recorded in the Scriptures.

is pervasive cultural non-speci city has to be intentional, not accidental. Why would Jesus lead his people to not record the speci c forms they used for essential practices and commands? I am convinced that this non-speci city is, in fact, due to the incarnational spirit of Jesus and his New Covenant. Given a choice, Jesus wants to incarnate his life, his good news, his ekklesia, and his teaching into the cultural forms and expressions of families, communities, and peoples. He does not want his followers to standardize one cultural form as normative for all believers in all contexts.

At the outset, we must rst listen to this incarnational voice of Scripture, it’s cultural non-speci city. is is the foundation for the disruptive innovation we need to consider. And it is important that we understand a corollary principle to cultural non-speci city. If the New Testament does not specify cultural forms for its commands, then it is necessary for believers to invent a form in order to obey the command or to perform the essential function. Once created, however, those forms are only normative for the believers who created them in a speci c context. Believers should never assume that the forms they created are normative or necessary for any believers in any other culture or community.

I have come to the conviction that “Christianity”, “church”, and “mission” are all cultural constructs, laden with cultural baggage and accretions. Some were legitimate “incarnations,” cultural inventions within a particular context. Some have been human departures from or even unwarranted additions to the way of Jesus. Jesus is not bound by or to any Christian, church, mission forms. While perfectly appropriate in the settings where they were created, they are not necessary or normative for believers in other contexts, especially in the most challenging frontiers, edges, fringes, and margins that have proved most impenetrable to traditional Christian mission forms.

In new contexts, Jesus, if he is given his choice (not our conformity), wants new wineskins, not cosmetically enhanced old ones. He wants new forms and new expressions.

So rst of all, our future missiological education needs to inculcate this incarnational spirit into the next generation. A radical reexamination is needed of our propensity to standardize and essentialize the forms and expressions of one culture for another community of believers. So at this

higher level, we need to teach our students to listen to the incarnational, innovative voice of scripture instead of teaching forms, structures, and traditions that are the accumulated accretions of cultural inventions from other communities.

In teaching our students to derive their missiology from scripture, I propose that we also need to teach them to listen more carefully to what scripture says about some foundational concepts that have been deeply woven into our missiology and practice.

e incarnational spirit of the New Testament is marked by variety and exibility in expression and form, in contrast to the one-size- tsall conformity and standardization o en followed by mission theorists, strategists, and practitioners. Our future missiological training must teach future practitioners to re ect on that variety and to listen more deeply to scripture, not just parts we culturally prioritize and emphasize.

ree examples will illustrate how Christian claims to “biblical missiology” actually ignore what scripture is telling us about the gospel, kingdom, and disciple.

What “Gospel”?

e gospel presents a foundational concept for our missiology. It is the person and work of Jesus, the good news of what he has done for sinful humanity. Yet, all too o en, Christians have created packages and truncated presentations of what their version of the gospel entails.

e New Testament, in contrast, demonstrates considerable variety and exibility in how the good news, the wonderful story of Jesus is told. e four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) all tell the story of the one Jesus, who is “the same yesterday, today, and forever.” Yet they present that same story in di erent ways for di erent audiences and communities. John’s Gospel presents Jesus with signi cant variation from the Synoptics.

Paul’s epistles include enough of his presentation to provide what amounts to a h Gospel. Paul tells the story at times in words and with explanations not found in any of the four Gospels. Yet Paul speci cally

asserts, “ e good news that was announced by me is not of human origin, for I neither received it nor was I taught it, but I received it through revelation from Jesus Christ” (Galatians 1:11–12; author’s translation from Greek). Paul speci cally claims that his varied presentation of the good news came directly by revelation from Jesus, not from a human source. So the di erent expressions and explanations he uses he attributes to the revelation of Jesus, not his own invention.

Additional early historical evidence also testi es to the variation of presentation in the New Testament era. Eusebius cites a report from Papias regarding Mark:

Mark, who had been Peter’s interpreter, wrote down carefully, but not in order, all that he remembered of the Lord’s sayings and doing…. Peter used to adapt his teachings to the occasion, without making a systematic arrangement of the Lord’s sayings…. (Eusebius 1989, 103–104, emphasis mine)

Given this signi cant variation in gospel presentation, future missiological education needs to challenge Christian tendencies to standardize the gospel into truncated, one-size- ts-all presentations that claim to be biblical while ignoring the Bible’s rich, varied, and diverse telling of the multi-faceted, multidimensional good news of Jesus. e earliest witnesses of Jesus were led by his Spirit to adapt and vary their presentations to their audiences. If we listen carefully to scripture, our missiology should inculcate this incarnational ability to understand and present the good news of Jesus in varied ways as we encounter radically di erent contexts from those in which we created our gospel packages.

Overuse of Kingdom

As a second example of our need to listen more carefully to Scripture, consider the pervasive use of “kingdom” language in mission and missiology today. Signi cant ink and breath have been expended on the need to “bring the kingdom,” “advance the kingdom,” “spread the kingdom,” or “build the kingdom.” Countless mission conferences and consultations have utilized the phrase in the Lord’s Prayer, “ y kingdom come,” as a paradigm for their mission emphases, o en ignoring or at least minimizing the two other

petitions that open the model prayer, “Your name be honored” and “Your will be done.”

Obviously, Jesus spoke a great deal about the kingdom (kingdom of God, kingdom of heaven)—some eighty times in fact. Given this prevalent theme, some Western Christians particularly have developed whole systems of “kingdom” teaching and paradigms that they have woven deeply into their missiology. ey have then exported this kingdom emphasis globally as part of their packaging of the good news of Jesus, teaching kingdom seminars, developing kingdom ministries, and pursuing all sorts of kingdom agendas and schemes. ose who create these emphases claim the Bible as their justi cation.

But I contend that they have not paid close enough attention to how the Scripture uses the kingdom motif in creating their kingdom packages and paradigms. eir excessive use of kingdom as an essentialized paradigm all believers in all places must adopt and utilize is actually challenged by Scripture. Innovative missiology in the next generation needs to challenge this overemphasis on "kingdom" from both scriptural and practical considerations.

Consider, rst of all, the evidence of the Gospels themselves. Yes, the kingdom theme occurs eighty times in the Gospels. But seventy ve of those are in the Synoptics. When we turn to John’s Gospel, something remarkable happens: the idea of God’s kingdom is referenced only ve times there, twice in Jesus’ conversation with Nicodemus (John 3), and three times in Jesus’ conversation with Pilate (John 18). at’s it!

John was the “disciple whom Jesus loved”, the one who had a unique relationship with Jesus, and who knew his heart well. He knew that Jesus had spoken o en of the kingdom. He was there when those conversations and sermons had occurred. So what would lead the man arguably closest to Jesus to mostly leave out that overt kingdom language in his telling of the story? His omission of the kingdom theme cannot be accidental. It must be intentional. We are not told the reason, and any speculation would be groundless. But our missiology should at least ask how one of Jesus’ dearest witnesses could tell the whole story of Jesus without feeling the need to front kingdom language to do so? Was John unfaithful to Jesus? Absolutely not.

e incarnational Jesus, for whatever reason, led John, inspired him in fact, to tell the whole story without hardly a mention of the “kingdom of God.”

e incarnational Jesus was modeling the level of variation and adaptation that his believers should follow when presenting his life and authority. Our missiology is limited and truncated if we simply and uncritically gravitate to kingdom emphases and language without considering this important direction that John took for the audience to whom he was writing.

Can you proclaim Jesus without emphasizing “kingdom” everywhere you go? John certainly believed so. And our missiology should examine both why that might be necessary and how it might be faithful to Jesus to reduce kingdom language in certain contexts. I’ll return to that in my practical considerations in a moment.

We must consider a second Scriptural phenomenon in the use of "kingdom." In summarizing the forty days of Jesus’ appearances a er his resurrection, Luke says that during that time Jesus was “speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3). Reading that phrase one would expect to nd prevalent and constant references to this theme in the post-resurrection appearances of Jesus. So read through Matthew 28, Mark 16, Luke 24, and John 20-21! How many times does “kingdom” occur in those chapters? Not once!

is is even more telling than John’s omission. Because the evidence of Scripture seems to evidence that Jesus himself was adept at speaking about his understanding of the “kingdom of God” without feeling the need to use that phrase or language to do so.

e third consideration is Jesus’ last conversation with his disciples before he ascended to heaven. He had gathered them together on the Mount of Olives. ey asked him a question: “Lord, will you at this time restore the kingdom to Israel?” What was Jesus’ answer? “ at is none of your business! God is in charge of that.”

So Jesus basically says, “ e kingdom is none of your business. at’s God’s. Your business? You will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you, and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth.”

In other words, the last thing Jesus said to his disciples was, “Don’t get hung up on kingdom! Focus on being my witnesses.” And the rest of the New Testament indicates that they took him seriously. From the prevalence of “kingdom” language in Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the book of Acts reduced references to kingdom to sixteen times in twenty eight chapters. Likewise, Paul emphasized other aspects of the authority and lordship of Christ and God and referenced “kingdom” much more sparingly. It’s there, but not nearly as frequent.

I suspect that there are two cultural dynamics that play into the reduction in kingdom language. It was an important concept for rst century Jews who had developed a number of paradigms around God’s messianic kingdom. at language resonated with their aspirations, even as Jesus tried to correct the expectations to a more internal, spiritual reign of God within. At the same time, the imperial authorities found talk of an alternate kingdom potentially seditious. Given these Jewish and Greco-Roman dynamics, Jesus led his followers to speak of his transformational life and his authority using metaphors and expressions that did not emphasize “kingdom” to the same extent he did in a Jewish context.

is reduction in kingdom language, then, is actually initiated by the incarnational Jesus himself as he leads his people to incarnate his way and life in the Gentile world.

Innovative missiology must wrestle with why the New Testament reduces kingdom language and the implications for this in contexts where using “kingdom” can actually be problematic.

You see, when Christians tout their kingdom agendas and programs in nations that were once subject to Western imperial and colonial rule, their message o en sounds like a desire to reinstate that foreign imperial and colonial control. Wrapping Jesus too tightly in “kingdom” garb can actually create an impression his incarnational spirit wants to avoid.

Why do some Western Christians love “kingdom” language and paradigms so much? Sadly, that language seems to resonate with their own cultural history of power, control, domination, and subjugation. Subtly, but with signi cant hubris and arrogance, some Christians pursue their “kingdom” agendas with too much of that spirit in mind. Recently, in

reading of a union mission that once existed in Benares (Varanasi), India, I was struck that one of the partners was actually named World Dominion Mission. Whatever the founders and members thought of that name, most Indians then and now would understand such words to refer to foreign dominion and subjugation, not the humble, compassionate reign of Prabhu Yesu (Lord Jesus).

So both from a scriptural and practical perspective, future missiology needs to challenge existing kingdom paradigms and encourage students and practitioners to listen more carefully to what Scripture actually says about how the early followers of Jesus understood and represented Christ’s authority and rule in the world. And it needs to challenge believers to nuance situations, contexts, and communities where kingdom language ought to be reduced or de-emphasized, just as the New Testament actually demonstrates.

Ignoring the Disappearance of “Disciple”

A nal example further illustrates how we must listen more carefully to all that scripture says rather than creating theologies, missiologies, and then strategies based on an incomplete reading of or Scripture.

Without question the Gospels place great emphasis on a discipling model for maturing and multiplying followers and leaders. Our eld of missiology has consumed immeasurable ink and paper just on discussing the meaning and application of Jesus’ instruction in Matthew’s version of the Great Commission—that we “make disciples of all nations.” Some would argue that since Jesus told us to do it, then of course we should not only obey his command but should use the term he chose as we do so.

So based on this partial, simplistic analysis of scripture, Christians and missions have created a plethora of discipleship programs, discipleship ministries, and discipleship strategies—all claiming to represent Jesus biblically. Yet, when I read the New Testament, the pervasive addiction to a discipleship narrative and paradigm is again challenged when we listen more carefully to scripture.

In Acts, two terms for the followers of Jesus predominate: “disciples” (twenty seven times) and “brethren” (thirty two times). Once an identity

was established to that extent, we would standardize practice and continue using that term. We should expect to nd a similar pattern in the rest of the New Testament regarding "disciple," and even distribution between it and "brethren" (adelphoi could mean brothers and sisters, siblings of any gender).

A shi in terminology occurs that is unexplained but undeniably signi cant. A er the end of Paul’s third journey (Acts 21:16) and through the rest of the New Testament, the word “disciple” is completely dropped. Mike Breen has called this complete absence of “disciple” from the later New Testament e Great Disappearance (Breen 2013). In contrast, "brother" or "brethren" occur 183 times in the rest of the New Testament a er Acts (Moulton WF, Geden AS, Moulton HK, eds. 1978, 19–21).

Paul never calls believers disciples, never speaks of disciple-making (although Luke speaks of such work in his rst journey (Acts 14:21), and never utilizes disciple language in his speaking or writing. I regularly hear Christians and missionaries talk about Paul discipling while they ignore this signi cant shi in Paul’s own terminology and methodology.

Was Paul being unfaithful to Jesus by not using the D-word to describe his ministry? Was he being disobedient to the Matthean version of the Great Commission? Not at all! He was familiar with the disciple paradigm; he was, a er all, a disciple himself of the Rabbi Gamaliel. He associated with the disciples a er his conversion in Damascus. And he was in Antioch serving the edgling congregation with Barnabas when the disciples were rst labeled “Christians” (Acts 11:26). So his prevalent use of "brother"/ "brethren" (in continuity with Acts) while completely dropping disciple terminology is a signi cant fact of his ministry that demands greater missiological attention.

In this important shi , Paul models an incarnational (or innovative) impetus in serving Jesus. He is committed to ful lling the command and purpose of Jesus. Yet, led by the Spirit of Jesus, he feels no compulsion to perpetuate the Jewish Rabbi/disciple model to do so. Yes, mathetes was also used in the Greco-Roman world for the disciples and students of philosophers and teachers. But for some unexplained reason, Paul seems to have determined that that terminology and model was not appropriate for the contexts in which he worked.

Make no mistake, Paul is committed to the function of maturing and multiplying believers, the purpose of the Great Commission. He is constantly accompanied by a team of partners (e.g., Silas and Timothy) and is continually training and deploying them in service just as Jesus did with his disciples. But instead of using “disciple” for doing so, Paul emphasizes at least three alternative models for his obedience to Christ’s command.

• Parent/child

• Coach/athlete

• Equipper (trainer)/worker (or master/apprentice)

Paul maintains his commitment to serving the key mandate of Jesus, but he adopts di erent metaphors and models in his context for how he does so. And he exhibits the utmost con dence and assurance that he is maturing and multiplying believers in obedience to Jesus.

So again, we need to listen more carefully to what Scripture says. Paul’s shi away from “discipleship” models and language has signi cant implications for the future of missiological education. We should challenge students and practitioners to stop creating arti cial, o en Western-laden discipleship models that claim to be biblical while exporting foreign emphases, packages, and explanations.

Disruptive innovation in our missiological training will only be faithful to Jesus and the Great Commission when we teach more practitioners to follow Paul’s adaptive, Spirit-led innovations. We must teach a new generation to not slavishly develop standardized, simpli ed methodologies that claim to be biblical while they actually ignore the incarnational variation and adaptation that Paul actually modeled.

e questions I have raised regarding “gospel,” “kingdom,” and “disciple” are only representative samples of the innovation and reimagining we must pursue in the next generation of missiological education. Jesus is actively shaping new wineskins, and our students will not be able to follow his incarnational lead, unless they learn to listen to Scripture with much greater discernment and sensitivity.

We must attune our hearts more carefully to the voice of scripture where it actually challenges long-held mission traditions and paradigms. At

the same time, however, if we truly intend to reimagine mission, to foster disruptive innovation, we must also listen to the voice of incarnational believers—my term for those who live out the Way of Jesus within their own socio-religious community, those who need to follow Jesus without traditional Christianity and church.

Listening to Incarnational Believers

Over the past few years of our exploration of the Christian barriers to Jesus and how to resolve them, Margaret and I have come to meet and know a variety of believers who follow Jesus and scripture only, but within their own socio-religious community. eir stories and ways of worshiping Jesus have helped us see the Lord, his Word, and experience his Spirit in new ways.

Some Christians describe them as “insider believers,” with some using that term as a derogatory epithet, assuming there are not believers at all, or are inferior, inadequate believers at best. We have talked with them in person, heard the stories of how the Lord has worked in their lives, and experienced some of how they worship Jesus and process Scripture from within their own contexts and communities. We prefer to call them incarnational believers—followers of Jesus who incarnate the Way of Jesus within their family and community, instead of following the Christian conversion path that most o en leads to isolation from family and imitation of someone’s foreign Christian expression that alienates and confuses the majority of their society.

We are convinced, from reading about them and eventually meeting them in person, that the future of missiology demands that we listen more deeply and carefully to what the Lord is doing among them. We have much to learn from their experiences.

Listening to eir Critiques

Let me say, up front, that we must encourage our students to listen carefully to the voices of those who follow Jesus incarnationally, but who point out many ways in which Christian mission tradition has, at times, actively kept people from Jesus. For instance, in my own missiology training,

I would require students to read and re-read Living Water and Indian Bowl (Bharati, 2004) and Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys (Twiss 2015). I would not consider a person ready to serve until they had listened to the pleas of these two incarnational voices, shed tears of deep repentance for the hubris of too much Christian mission, and committed themselves to follow Jesus more closely than the mission traditions that fostered these all too common misrepresentations and even abuses.

ese two books can be a painful read for people who want to maintain the Christian mission status quo. But the emic perspective of these two authors, provides a necessary antidote to the mission hubris Rynkiewich addressed above.

My 2017 article, Mandali: Bharati on Bhakta Expressions of Fellowship (Pennington 2017b), provides speci c re ections on how Hindu incarnational believers, Yesu bhaktas, view their expression of the body of Christ, the ekklesia. Based on rst-hand, written communication from a Hindu-background follower of Jesus, it attempted to listen carefully to their articulation of what is important in their walk and how they live that out as a community of Hindu believers in Jesus. I sought, in this article, to re ect the kind of deep, respectful listening we must engage in to hear what the Lord is doing in their midst—not assuming that they are wrong if they do not articulate and implement fellowship in ways that are comfortable to Christians and churches.

My conclusion to that article re ected the call to deep listening I am advocating:

Christians have much to learn, actually, from those who follow and worship Jesus in unfamiliar ways. Bharati’s perspectives have helped me to reexamine my own traditions and allegiances based on what the Word of God says, not just what church custom and practice dictate. In fact, his concerns about institutional church are becoming increasingly voiced in the Christian West, not just by incarnational believers in the East. If we have the humility to listen and learn, Bharati and the mukti mandali could help the church nd answers to challenges it faces both in the West and globally. (Pennington, 2017b: 64).

Listening to the Spirit

In April, I was blessed to spend four days hearing Ahmad, a Muslim follower of Jesus from South Asia, describe the birth and growth of a movement that has spanned multiple Muslim groups and traditions in South Asia. Ahmad originally came to Jesus in the traditional extractionist model: Christians converted him, his family disowned him because of the dishonor he caused them, and he became a Christian worker to make a living.

One day, a leader of the Christian ministry Ahmad served brought him six young Muslim men who had indicated interest in following Jesus. He was told to instruct them how to become Christians. He introduced them to Jesus and his teaching. A er a week of instruction, they asked him what they should do next.

Ahmad says that at that moment the Holy Spirit challenged him to give them radically di erent instructions than those he had been taught to give by the Christian mission. He felt deeply convicted by the Lord that he should tell these six young men, “Go home to your families and do not say anything immediately. Pray to Jesus for what he wants you to do and then obey him.” So Ahmad listened to the Spirit’s voice sent them back home as followers of Jesus, but not converted to Christianity.

Ahmad’s boss was disappointed, even angry, that he had squandered such a prime chance to convert six young men. He had wasted a golden opportunity for Christ, one that rarely happened in their Muslim country. Ahmad’s disregard for traditional methodology looked like failure and irresponsibility from the traditional Christian mission paradigm. In fact, the instruction to “keep quiet” could even be characterized as disobedience and unfaithfulness to Jesus from the standard Christian perspective.

e prompting that Ahmad listened to that day, however, was actually in line with Peter’s instructions to believers who lived in a context of persecution. Peter directed them to live honorable and faithful lives, to do their work, to shut their mouths, and to be ready to answer when people asked about their hope. Instead of inculcating a “loud and proud” faith that is o en more a product of Western (especially American) aggressive and confrontational religious tradition, Peter actually encouraged exactly the same quiet approach that Ahmad heard from the Spirit.

So was Ahmad a failed evangelist and missionary? Yes, by standard measures of strategy, methodology, and success.

One week later, though, the six young men returned, accompanied by een elders of their Muslim community. ese men said, “We have seen the di erence that Isa has made in these young men. Teach us to follow Isa also.” Never in the history of this mission (or of mission work in general in their Muslim country) had a group of elders come asking to learn about and to follow Isa.

Because Ahmad listened carefully to the Spirit, not to Christian tradition, the Lord was able to start a new thing. A er a week of teaching about Jesus and his life, Ahmad sent these elders home with the same instructions. One month later they returned with een more elders who also wanted to follow Isa. And for the next two years, groups of een to twenty elders came each month seeking to learn about the one who had changed their friends’ lives.

In year three, a Su leader came to Ahmad’s house a er being directed in a dream to do so. He too met and began to follow Isa. Today most of his community are followers also.

As I talked with Ahmad over four days, listening and learning from him, he repeatedly emphasized that he had not been strategizing or seeking new methods for reaching Muslims. He didn’t come up with a new missiology and implement it. In that moment, with those six young men, he heard and listened to the prompting of the Holy Spirit to disregard generations of Christian mission tradition and methodology and to do something that amounted to disruptive innovation—send them away, don’t convert them.

Today, as a result of his listening, this movement to Jesus crosses Sunni, Shiite, and Su lines and represents 1% of the population of their country. Rather than the Christian hubris of assuming that Jesus must always work through our established methodologies, Ahmad demonstrated the epistemological humility Rynkiewich alluded to in my introduction. He listened to the prompting of the Spirit, and a new methodology developed that has seen tens of thousands of Muslims come to follow and love Isa deeply.

So let me say at the outset that innovative missiology needs to teach the next generation to listen more carefully to the Spirit and his leading, rather than simply mastering the paradigms and methodologies that have been standardized and institutionalized within Christian mission as “the way to serve Jesus.”

How Can We Help You?

At the end of Ahmad’s presentations over three days, an exchange took place that highlighted the need of Westerners to cultivate more epistemological humility and less Christian mission hubris—in other words, to spend more time listening and learning than talking and “serving.”

During a question and answer time one retreat participant asked, “We recruit people to serve. How can we help you?”

Need for Humility

Ahmad sat quietly for a long time, pondering how to politely respond.

In that silence, I cringed. e question itself assumed that Western Christians and missionaries were somehow needed for this movement among Muslims that numbers over one million believers. e common mission paradigm includes a subtle (if not blatant) assumption that the e orts of believers in other parts of the world are not su cient, are not complete, unless Western missionaries or missions somehow come on board and “help” or “partner” with them.

Ahmad’s rst response, once he collected his thought, was, “We could bene t from people who can listen to what is happening among us and work with us to develop solutions to our growing leadership training needs from within.”

e ensuing discussion was telling. Western mission practitioners wrestled with how di cult it would be to nd workers who would commit themselves to deep listening and who would not bring pre-packaged, external models as “the way to do leadership training” in this very di erent context.

Ahmad’s response again highlighted the need for our missiological training to foster incarnational innovation and adaptation in challenging contexts—for the need to listen and learn and then work with believers and the Spirit of Jesus to shape the most appropriate forms of maturing and multiplying both believers and leaders, to teach the methodological exibility of Paul instead of standardizing “disciple-making” strategies that package a one-size- ts-all solution for all contexts and cultures.

Reconsider Denominational Allegiance

A er discussing the need for workers who could listen and truly be colleagues, Ahmad added another consideration that I believe we need to listen to carefully: “Your workers bring their ‘gospel’, but they always have something hidden that is before that: Your denomination.”

He then provided an example. A certain missionary wanted to “work with them.” Ahmad was speci c about the denominational a liation, but I don’t want to appear to target anyone, so I will be imprecise in my representation. is man kept insinuating his denominational theology and practice as essential for understanding the Bible and following Jesus. Ahmad then said, “We had to protect scripture and our people.” In order to do so they had to ask the missionary to stay away from their movement. He could not separate the human traditions of his denomination from what scripture teaches.

is movement, by the way, has spent considerable time in deep, extended inductive study of whole books of the Bible in order to deeply immerse themselves in scriptural teaching. As a result they could tell the di erence between what scripture says and this man’s foreign, EuroAmerican denominational tradition. If believers adopted or imbibed that foreign expression and interpretation, they would sound and “smell” foreign to their own people.

So in order to listen deeply to scripture and the Spirit for their context, these believers have had to be discerning about what Christian voices they listen to.

e voices of these incarnational believers can challenge Christian assumptions and traditions. ey force us, if we listen respectfully and carefully, to reconsider what is essential for following Jesus and what it means to be faithful to scripture. More than anything, their stories challenge the hubris that Rynkiewich decried. It was his conclusion that, “rather than operating from a command center in America that dictates strategy, perhaps the American church should be listening more closely to local indigenous Christians [I would add, non-Christian Jesus followers] to discover what God is doing in the world” (Rynkiewich, 2007: 232–33).

True innovation and reimagination in missiology will be impossible without deeply listening to the Spirit of the incarnational Jesus speak to us through these believers who incarnate the Way of Jesus within their own society, rather than imitating someone else’s expression of that way.

Conclusion

If we want to be used e ectively by Jesus to help shape the new wineskins in the remaining frontiers, our future missiological training will challenge students to listen deeply to Jesus, Scripture, and the Spirit in fresh ways. At the same time it will expose students to and encourage them to listen to the voices of believers who follow Jesus outside of traditional Christianity and church.

Combine those two voices, and the incarnational Jesus will call his servants to imagine, envision, and shape disruptive innovations in mission, radical new wineskins that are called for in the remaining and challenging fringes, edges, margins, and frontiers.

References

Bharati D (2019) Dayanand Bharati: Dialogue of Life. Blog of Dayanand Bharati (http://dayanandbharati.com/).

Bharati D (2004) Living Water and Indian Bowl. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library.

Breen M (2013) e Great Disappearance. Exponential Resources. Available at:https://exponential.org/resource-ebooks/the-greatdisappearance/ (accessed 23 August 2015).

Eusebius (1989) e History of the Church. Revised. London, UK: Penguin Books.

Pennington JP (2017a) Christian Barriers to Jesus: Conversations and Questions from the Indian Context. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library.

Pennington JP (2017b) Mandali (Fellowship): Bharati on Bhakta Expressions of Ekklesia. International Journal of Frontier Missiology 34(1–4). Pasadena, CA: 59–65. Available at: http://www.ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/34_1-4_PDFs/ IJFM_34_1-4-Pennington.pdf (accessed 19 September 2018).

Richard HL (2016) What Is An Alongsider? Available at: https:// margnetwork.org/what-is-an-alongsider/ (accessed 17 July 2019).

Richards ER and O’Brien BJ (2012) Misreading Scripture with Western Eyes. IVP Books.

Rynkiewich MA (2007) Corporate metaphors and strategic thinking: ‘ e 10/40 Window’ in the American evangelical worldview. Missiology: An International Review 35(2): 217–241.

Rynkiewich MA (2016) ‘Do Not Remember the Former ings’. International Bulletin of Mission Research 40(4): 308–317.

Stroope MW (2017) Transcending Mission : e Eclipse of a Modern Tradition. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic.

Tiénou T (2016) Re ections on Michael A. Rynkiewich’s “Do Not Remember the Former ings.” International Bulletin of Mission Research 40(4): 318–324.

Twiss R (2015) Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

Envisioning Possibilities: Nurturing Components for Multiethnic Interaction in Mission Classrooms

Jane Rhoades1

Abstract

e increasing diversity of mission teams across most mission organizations calls for attending more closely to preparing mission students for the complexities of working in multicultural teams. e diverse classroom provides the ideal place to model a healthy multiethnic community and to nurture components of interaction needed for co-constructing strategies and solutions to problems for future service in multicultural teams. Research ndings describe six critical components and literature supports the ongoing impact of these learned strategies: cultural humility, intellectual humility, mutual acculturation, cognitive engagement of others’ ideas, strategies for communicating and responding to alternative ideas, and a participative stance.

Envisioning Preparation for Future Service in Multicultural Teams

Most mission organizations are experiencing increased diversity of team members from across the globe working side by side. Westerners work hand in hand with nonWesterners, o en in settings strange to all of them. While Scripture o ers the positive bene ts of multicultural teams who demonstrate the strength of God’s love and project the promised hope of a global throng before the throne, one true test of e ective multicultural teams is how e ective they are in dialoguing across di erences at a deep enough level to co-construct strategies and solutions to problems (Brown 2011). is increasing diversity across the globe calls for attending more closely to preparing mission students for the complexities of working together

in multicultural teams. e increased diversity of students in university classrooms provides the ideal place to model a healthy multicultural community that pleases God and to nurture in students the attitudes and abilities to engage in deep interaction that can produce patterns for future service with multicultural teams.

Findings from research conducted in 2016 suggest critical components to be nurtured for preparing students for interaction across di erences (Rhoades 2018). ese ndings are supported by current literature that suggests the ongoing impact of these qualities for intercultural discussions.

Research of Multiethnic Students’ Participation in Case Study Discussion

I conducted an ethnographic analysis of classroom interaction to understand what and how sociocultural factors impacted multiethnic students’ participation in case study discussions in an African higher education classroom setting. All of the students were missionaries being trained in member care skills. Fi een of the participants were Africans and ve of the six facilitators were Africans. I recorded and analyzed videos of thirty-two case study discussions and conducted video-simulated recall interviews and semi-structured interviews with seventeen participants. Students described numerous factors that in uenced their participation. However, for this paper, I will focus on a number of ways the sociocultural factors impacted students’ interaction in their multicultural case study group.

rough analysis of the videos and their interviews I identi ed two features that distinguished the four discussion groups: the level of inclusiveness and the complexity of their cognitive processing of ideas. One group stood out because their inclusion extended from all-encompassing verbal participation to cognitive engagement of multiple perspectives that resulted in complex engagement of ideas. By the end of their eighth discussion this complex extended inclusion group was readily engaging underlying assumptions related to the case and totally satis ed with their discussion, in spite of obvious disagreements. One participant concluded that their group “was inclusive. It was wow! Especially the last case study we did. It was very beautiful.”

Even as I rejoiced in my discoveries, I realized that this observed depth of engagement is not always evident in multiethnic mission teams that must solve problems together. But ndings from this study revealed speci c components that contributed to the development of this level of inclusiveness, complex cognitive engagement, and dialogue of ideas across di erences.

Critical Components

I will explore six critical components that seemed to distinguish the groups with more inclusive participation and complex engagement of ideas. I present these as components that could be nurtured within students in multiethnic mission classrooms as they prepare for lives of service in diverse teams.

Cultural Humility

Cultural humility was the rst component that became obvious in the two most inclusive groups in my study. Cultural humility is described in literature as a stance in which individuals recognize the limits of their own knowledge about others’ cultures or worldviews (Hockett, Samek, and Headley 2012, 3; Hook 2014, 278). As a result of this culturally humble posture, individuals take a learning stance toward others with an open mindedness and curiosity to keep learning from them so as to understand their perspectives (Foronda et al. 2016, 211; Hockett, Samek, and Headley 2012, 10). According to the earliest cultural humility proponents, another key attribute is ongoing self-critique and re ection that leads to self-awareness and mindfulness in cultural relationships and power issues (Danso 2018; Foronda et al. 2016; Tervalon and Murray-Garcia 1998). ese attributes of cultural humility can have a powerful impact on how individuals interact within multiethnic groups.

Students in the most inclusive groups in my study had an eagerness to hear diverse cultural perspectives from others. Several students, in fact, were proactive in prompting peers to speak up so as to hear all perspectives. Furthermore, students demonstrated their learning stance as they described how they mentally collected diverse ideas from members of the group and attempted to synthesize the ideas with their own. Several students speci cally

explained mindfulness of power issues, taking a minimizing stance by not disclosing higher social status so everyone would feel free to learn together.

Not all participants in my study exhibited the same stance of eagerly learning from others across di erences or critiquing themselves in relationships and power issues. Some students repeatedly emphasized perspectives from their cultural setting rather than inviting or exploring perspectives from those of other cultures and contexts. Cultural humility is a critical virtue for avoiding the danger of ethnocentric judgements or making quick assessments based on previous cultural knowledge or experience. According to Danso (2018). “A stance of informed not knowing can provide a bu er against essentialism and stereotyping” (416).

In wonderful contrast to ethnocentrism, Foronda and her colleagues (2016) found that the attributes of cultural humility expressed in diverse situations resulted in mutual bene t for all involved and the creation of “mutually respectful dynamic partnerships” that included healthy communication and decision making (212). is describes beautifully the kind of healthy partnerships we long for in multiethnic mission teams. It is worth nurturing cultural humility in our students in the context of diverse classrooms.

Intellectual Humility

Intellectual humility was the second component that came to light in analysis of the participant interviews. Students expressed appreciation for hearing others’ alternative ideas because of their awareness of their limited ability to conceive of all the factors they needed to consider in a case. One student stated this so clearly, “ e person who is bringing a di erent perspective than what I have will help me widen my horizon of thinking and then be able to move deeper with that . . . ere are certain things that haven’t crossed your mind, but somebody may just try to point it out from his or her own perspective” (177).

e participants really appreciated the input from others for the process of making a plan to address the issues in the case study. For example, one student stated, “I love the challenging ideas, I love di ering opinions... and seeing how we can solve an issue from multiple angles” (178). eir

expressed perspectives are in line with a current surge of interest in the virtue of intellectual humility.

e literature on intellectual humility addresses a wide array of expressions of this virtue related to an individual’s relationship to knowledge and in academic settings. Jones (2012) asserts, “ e virtue of intellectual humility ows out of a proper grasp of the limit, boundary, or weakness of one’s epistemic position” (696). is solid understanding of epistemic limitations provides the basis for appropriate responses to others and “the praiseworthy disposition to withhold his or her voice when and because it is appropriate to do so” (Jones 2012, 697). Other authors expand on the impact of intellectual humility on interaction: mindfulness of one’s real and expressed con dence in speaking (Kidd 2016, 399), responding to opposing views (Porter and Schumann 2018, 148, 153), and interacting across di erences (Ritchhart 2004).

e participants in my study varied in expressions of intellectual humility. ose most vocal in describing their openness to alternative ideas were more inclusive in inviting the participation of others and in cognitively and verbally engaging their ideas, while others were more likely to contribute their ideas rather than inviting input from others di erent than themselves. Educating for intellectual humility falls in the realm of character development, making such education a rather lo y but sometimes elusive goal in missions training. However, this character quality has a distinct impact on how individuals interact in the context of discussion and problem solving and would be well worth prioritization.

According to Battaly (2017), developing intellectual humility involves the process of acquiring a tendency toward “appropriate intellectual action, motivation, emotion, and perception” that make up the moral quality of intellectual humility (172). Individuals learn these tendencies primarily by seeing the virtue exempli ed in others, imitating what they see and being given su cient opportunity to practice perceiving and responding to intellectual situations that call forth learned intellectual actions, motivations, and emotions (Battaly 2017; Ritchhart 2004). us, teachers who model intellectual humility through appropriate intellectual actions, attitudes, and perspectives in the classroom can play a signi cant role in nurturing this critical component in students. Providing su cient opportunities for challenging discussion across di erences also provides

repeated opportunities for students to practice appropriate actions and attitudes of intellectual humility needed for serving with diverse mission teams.

Mutual Acculturation

A third component that seemed to play a signi cant role in the most inclusive groups during my data collection was mutual acculturation. e students described speci c ways in which they observed fellow students so they could step into the conversation and could shape their responses appropriately for the group and even for speci c group members. Some students moderated cultural patterns of respect by extending respect across boundaries of ethnicity, gender, age, and organization. Participants also had to make accommodations for turn taking and clarifying behavior in order to participate in discussion with diverse others.

Most of the students in my study were from Africa and constantly attributed these attitudes and actions to showing respect, a value deeply ingrained from childhood. Nonetheless, not all team members equally demonstrated mutual acculturation. Without mutual e orts at accommodating one another, participants felt dissatis ed, disrespected, and excluded. One participant especially voiced frustration when their e orts at accommodation were not reciprocated:

We’ve been taught from my experience . . . that we need to respect our elders and respect the culture that we are in . . . and everything is founded on relationship . . . But I feel like sometimes there is not an understanding that there are di erent people here from di erent contexts so then they shouldn’t necessarily apply things that they do in their country.

More recent studies of acculturation have put emphasis on the impact of attitudes of both sides of a cross-cultural encounter, making all parties accountable for accommodating each other in mutually bene cial ways (Azghari, Hooghiemstra, and Vijver 2017, 21–22; Bourhis et al. 1997).

Many studies address the acculturation e orts primarily of international students in new academic settings (Jiang et al. 2009; Kormos,

Csizér, and Iwaniec 2014; Xia 2009; Yang, Noels, and Saumure 2006). A few authors allude to the mutuality needed by both host and sojourners (Du , Patricia A. 2008; Lam 1994; Zhou, Knoke, and Sakamoto 2005). Lam (1994), for example, concluded from her study that “native culture plays a vital part in shaping non-native students’ ability to acquire interactional competence” putting mutual responsibility on host and sojourners (abstract). Du (2008) used the term “bidirectional – or multidirectional” to describe how participants taught and learned from one another about communication needs in discussions in her study (311). Such intentional mutual accommodation in diverse discussion groups seems to be congruent with biblical injunctions for mutual esteem and submission (Phil. 2:3, Eph. 5:21). Discussions in the classroom across di erences are ideal for addressing and nurturing the respect that can be demonstrated by making appropriate accommodation adjustments to one another behavior and attitudes that can make a huge di erence in multicultural mission teams.

Cognitive Engagement of Others’ Ideas

A fourth component that emerged from my study of the two most successful discussion groups was cognitive engagement of others’ ideas. Individuals in these two groups described how they mentally engaged others’ ideas in a way that they pulled ideas apart, selected the best parts and combined them with their own ideas, and sometimes even synthesized ideas from multiple participants into a careful response. ese participants, in fact, described inclusion that went beyond inviting others to speak, to incorporating other’s ideas into their thinking processes. For example, one participant explained his silence: “I am really processing a lot, and that time of listening, you are just processing. And see this one—can this really t here?” is cognitive inclusion, or extended inclusion, when expressed in carefully shaped words, was intentionally honoring others.

Participants expressed their desire to have their ideas considered. For example, one participant explained, “When someone is pouring out their heart on his idea ... the people are showing they are not considering. Maybe I tell these things again but consider it. Even if it’s not the answer, but to consider the person who speaks it out.” Participants who recognized components of their ideas being communicated were encouraged, felt respected, and were motivated to continue participating. In contrast, several participants in the two other groups described feeling marginalized and

perceiving that their ideas were not even considered and thereby excluded from further discussion. is inclusive cognitive engagement of others’ ideas (extended inclusion) clearly di erentiated the four groups. Cognitive engagement was strongest in the group that reached the deepest level of discussion over di erences.

e literature most helpful to discussion of this component is Tadmor, Tetlock, and Peng’s (2009) discussion of how acculturation strategies result in cognitive integrative complexity. e authors attempt to address the gap in understanding of socio-cognitive skills that come to play in intercultural relationships. In their words,

Integrative complexity re ects the degree to which people accept the reasonableness of clashing cultural perspectives on how to live and, consequently, the degree to which they are motivated to develop cognitive schemas that integrate these competing worldviews by explaining how di erent people can come to such divergent conclusions or by specifying ways of blending potentially discordant norms and values. (106)

e participants in my study seemed to be describing cognitive acculturation as they attempted to include others’ ideas cognitively and to ponder adjustments in thinking related to countercultural ideas they were hearing. According to Crisp and Turner and Tadmor et al., such adjustment strategies may result in integrative complexity that can serve them well in future cross-culture encounters (Crisp and Turner 2011, 245; Tadmor, Tetlock, and Peng 2009, 107–8, 230). is possibility lends support to the bene t of facilitating and nurturing inclusive cognitive engagement of others’ ideas in challenging peer discussions in the classroom as a means of developing cognitive integrative complexity for future service.

Strategies for Communicating and Responding to Alternative Ideas

Another component that emerged as signi cant in my study was strategies individuals developed for communicating and responding to alternative ideas. Since every group was made of individuals from multiple cultures, students were challenged with diverse ideas, diverse viewpoints of

the place of con ict in discussion, and even diverse patterns of responding to divergent ideas. e students’ viewpoints ranged from traditional views of avoiding disagreement as disrespectful disharmony to a few that embraced di erences as highly bene cial and invited disagreement. Students described various shi s in their perspectives over the three weeks together and described evolving strategies for handling divergent ideas in their groups.

According to the participants, a primary impetus for developing strategies for handling divergent ideas was a recognition of the need to disagree for the sake of advocacy of people in the case studies! ey also described development of respectful ways to respond to ideas they disagreed with by identifying things they could agree with and building on those ideas or framing their own divergent idea as an alternative to consider for problem-solving. e considerable cognitive processing and pre-verbal shaping of ideas before speaking contributed to respectful discussions.

Tadmor et al. (2009) discuss how helpful it is for individuals to be required to explain their unique viewpoint to those of other cultures when ideas seem to collide. According to Tadmor et al. (2009), the act of explanation is fruitful in creating links between an individuals’ conceptual framework and those of others (106).

A signi cant factor in my study that seemed to account for developing strategies for discussing across di erences was students’ willingness to modify their traditional perspectives and practices for the sake of discussion with others. Acculturation literature identi es two factors that impact acculturation strategies: how important it is for individuals to maintain their own heritage culture and how important it is to build or maintain relationship with those of other cultures (Berry et al. 1987). ese two factors impact potential e orts to adapt to others and impact social and psychological adjustments. A third potential factor related to epistemic stance seemed to emerge from my study — how important it is to individuals to engage the ideas of diverse others. Together, the three factors seemed critical in my study for determining the strategies individuals took in accommodating values or behavior towards diverse others within a classroom setting and more so when confronting divergent viewpoints.

e question could be asked how willing any student is to make modi cations of communication or con ict behavior for the sake of

relationships and discussion with diverse others, regardless of whether they are in their home culture or crossing into another’s domain. According to Tadmor et al., (2009) engaging divergent viewpoints facilitates the development of the “capacity and willingness to acknowledge the legitimacy of competing perspectives on the same issue” (2009, 106). is development can contribute to critical preparation for future cross-cultural encounters and provides a challenge for missions educators to utilize classroom discussion for developing prowess and attitudes needed in discussing competing perspectives across cultures.

Participative Stance

e last component that seemed to make a signi cant impact in my study on inclusive participation and complex engagement of ideas was the participative stance each student took in their discussion group. Students’ willingness to participate was critical to the success of the group discussion.

e factor that seemed to make the most critical impact on their participation was their stance toward hierarchical status. My attention was rst drawn to several students who described how they minimized their status for the sake of relating to others in their group. For example, several students minimized drawing attention to their age, their leadership position, education level, or nationality that would traditionally give them status in a group setting. ey described a mental decision to minimize their status so they could learn from and with others, but they also refrained from drawing attention to or utilizing their status for the right to speak or make decisions.

At the same time some students maintained social hierarchical status as knowledge holders by drawing attention to their status or utilizing their status to speak rst or last, and others maintained lower status and contributed very little. A third stance was an equalizing stance in which some with traditionally lower hierarchical status equalized their status in a way that they could con dently contribute. ese students recognized the epistemic status of experience that gave them unique knowledge that was helpful in discussion of the problem cases and spoke up at appropriate times regardless of their gender or lack of formal education. ese students’ courage and quality contributions eventually gained them credibility as participants so that their ideas were considered and engaged.

e participative stance each student took had an impact on their participation, including when to speak and when to remain silent. It also impacted how inclusive they were in considering and engaging others’ contributions. ose who took a minimizing or equalizing stance expanded the pool of ideas to consider and engage since they moved out of their normal social grouping to engage others and consider their ideas. is broadened their perspectives since they heard perspectives across gender, nationality, age, and status. ey also had to learn new skills of shaping communication for those outside of their normal social grouping.

Hierarchical status and di erentials may be more acceptable in high power distance cultures (Hofstede, Hofstede, and Minkov 2010) and hold more powerful sway in discussion group settings in those cultures, but status and di erentials also have a signi cant impact in multiethnic discussion (Anderson-Umana, Lisa 2010, 22). e di culty in multiethnic discussion groups comes when individuals operate out of their normal cultural patterns and are unaware of how status impacts participation, inclusion, and especially inclusive engagement of others’ ideas. Anderson-Umana (2010) helpfully pointed out the confusion that can take place in mission teams when members are unaware of the impact of power di erentials on expectations and judgments of others’ behavior within the group.

Jesus modeled minimizing status, maintaining status, and equalizing status at various times in crossing cultural boundaries of ethnicity, age, gender, sociocultural status, and position to engage deeply with others and their ideas (Phil. 2:5–8, John 3:1–21, John 18:19–24). He also intentionally thrust his disciples into situations that required crossing boundaries that helped draw attention to ethnocentric attitudes and absorption with status and required engaging in conversations outside of normal social status circles (Matt. 9:9–13, John 4:1–32, Matt. 15:21–28).

In the same way, multiethnic classrooms can be maximized for developing awareness of the potential impact of status in discussion and engaging others’ ideas, for modeling appropriate participation stances, and creating opportunities for exposure to broader perspectives that may be uncomfortably outside of normal social domains.

Analysis of the Components

Several concepts become clear in looking at the six components that seemed to distinguish the most inclusive groups that demonstrated complex engagement of ideas. First, each of these components contributed to cutting across ethnocentrism, suggesting that nurturing each component is important for developing patterns for future service. Second, although this discussion has described each component individually, in actual practice there was constant interaction between the six components. For example, cultural and intellectual humility had an impact on student’s cognitive engagement of others’ ideas; and cultural humility in uenced mutual acculturation and the participative stance each person took. ird, the presence of the components in participants lend themselves naturally to extending inclusiveness to cognitive inclusion of ideas which creates an atmosphere of mutual respect and even joy. While participants may continue to disagree, there is a satisfaction in thoughtfully and respectfully exchanging ideas.

Fourth, Tadmor et al. (2009) o er promising evidence that the e ort of attempting to explain and negotiate across cultural di erences results in the development of cognitive abilities for integrative complexity. Such cognitive abilities can serve individuals well who are charged with acculturation to a new culture and the daunting task of contextualizing evangelism and discipleship (Moreau 2018). And last, acculturation literature also suggests that strategies used in multiethnic discussions now will be used in future multicultural encounters (Crisp and Turner 2011; Tadmor, Tetlock, and Peng 2009). is suggests that acculturation patterns used in multiethnic classroom discussion may forecast the strategies that will be used in diverse team discussions on the eld. e lasting impact of interactional patterns is a sobering reminder of the mission educator’s responsibility beyond book knowledge to attending as well to the development of virtues and interactive behaviors that will complement excellent knowledge for successful crosscultural service for the King.

Conclusion is paper describes six critical components and how they impacted how inclusive multiethnic discussion groups were and how complex cognitive engagement was in each multicultural group in an African setting.

Jane Rhoades | 55

A closer look at identi ed socio-cultural factors reveals unique in uences of shared cultural values of respect, hierarchical status, and harmony that students brought to the discussion table. In some cases, the values facilitated the development of the six identi ed components and in some cases, participants had to overcome natural cultural patterns to exhibit these interactional attitudes and behaviors. Further research could be conducted in other multiethnic discussion groups in classrooms or mission settings requiring collaborative problem-solving.

However, the positive in uence of the six components on creating multiethnic groups that demonstrated participative inclusion that extended to cognitive engagement of other’s ideas to solve problems together o ers an inspiring model. e studies’ ndings and associated literature give a glimpse into the possibility for modeling and nurturing the six components in mission students in multiethnic classrooms and maximizing opportunities for discussion for developing healthy patterns of interactional attitudes and behaviors for future service.

Endnotes

1 Jane Rhoades teaches as an adjunct faculty in Biola University’s Cook School of Intercultural Studies. She served with her husband in Zimbabwe, Zambia, and South Africa for almost thirty years with a focus on missions mobilization and training. She has traveled and taught in many other countries and still enjoys new insights gained from teaching in multiethnic classrooms around the world.

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New wine into new wineskins? Cultural training for the Christian crosscultural workers in the 21st century

Sunny Hong1

Abstract

Most of the cultural training curriculums for Christian cross-cultural workers in the universities in North America have been established in the twentieth century, re ecting how they functioned in the twentieth century. e environment of the Christian cross-cultural workers in the twenty rst century is very di erent from the twentieth century because of globalization, urbanization, multilingual phenomena, technology, diaspora, shorter terms and more di cult visa platforms. erefore, cultural training for Christian cross-cultural workers in the twenty rst century should be di erent from that of the twentieth century to meet the needs of the changing environment. is research surveyed graduates from Dallas International University (formerly Graduate Institute of the Applied Linguistics) to understand what kind of cultural topics are helpful and essential, based on their work settings, and to include new topics to equip them to be more e ective in the twenty rst century.

Text

Most of cultural training curriculums for Christian cross-cultural workers in universities in North America that were established in the twentieth century re ect how they functioned in the twentieth century. e environment of Christian cross-cultural workers in the twenty rst century is very di erent from the twentieth century because of globalization, urbanization, multilingual phenomena, technology, diaspora, shorter terms

based and more di cult visa platforms. Christian cross-cultural workers became more multicultural in the twenty rst century than previous centuries. For example, there are about 400,000 missionaries, with Brazil, South Korea and India in the top ten missionary sending countries in 2010 (Bellofatto & Johnson, 2010: 157). e geographic boundaries between the sending and receiving countries has become fuzzy. Technology changed many aspects of Christian cross-cultural workers’ endeavors. One of the potentially major impacts is that, while they are connected to their home through the internet to share their concerns anytime, this may hinder their emersion in the cultures they are working with. erefore, it is necessary to review and evaluate whether current cultural training available at universities where future cross-cultural workers are trained is meeting the needs in current changing environments.

is research surveyed alumni from Dallas International University

(formerly Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics) to understand what kind of cultural topics are helpful and essential, and to include new topics to equip them to be more e ective in the twenty rst century. Dallas International University was founded in March 1998 “to provide training and research opportunities leading to degrees in applied linguistics, culture studies, and development of languages” (Dallas Int’l). eir 1,300 plus alumni serve in over seventy ve countries.

To accomplish the purpose of this research described above, I sent out a survey to 852 Dallas Int’l alumni in April 2019. Ninety-eight surveys were returned. ose people who have served over een years in the eld and who have not taken any courses from the applied anthropology department at Dallas Int’l were eliminated from this research since the purpose of this research is to nd out the e ectiveness of cultural training in the twenty rst century. A er removing irrelevant data, this paper focuses on sixty-seven people who took at least one applied anthropology course at Dallas Int’l and had served in cross-cultural work for up to een years.

e Content of the Survey

e survey had three parts. e rst part was demographic information. e second part listed twenty topics from the various applied anthropology classes, and the participants gave them an evaluation of helpful topics based on a scale from one (not helpful) to six (very helpful). e third

was qualitative, asking them for helpful topics and suggestions. e content of the survey is found in the appendix.

Quantitative Data Analysis

is section reports the results of the quantitative data based on the importance/helpfulness/ e ectiveness of the twenty anthropological topics.

Overall data

e participants ranked twenty topics that are covered by various applied anthropology courses at Dallas Int’l from one to six based on the importance and relevance to their cross-cultural work. Here are the topics in the order of signi cance with their scores.

1. Cross-cultural communication (4.8)

2. Worldview, kinship terms, family structure, social organization, ethnographic research methods, cultural di erences in leadership (4.6)

3. Religion, gender, and cultural marriage patterns, culture change, Cultural di erences in decision making, contextualization and syncretism (4.4)

4. Guilt, shame, fear-based culture (4.3)

5. Cross-cultural con ict resolution (4.2)

6. Globalization, multicultural teamwork, grid-group theory (3.9)

7. Multicultural partnership (3.8)

8. Economic systems (3.7)

9. Anthropological theory (3.5)

e midpoint indicating between helpful and not helpful is 3.5, and the Anthropological theory marks 3.5 which is the topic that received the lowest evaluation. erefore, in general, the respondents felt that most of the topics they learned at Dallas Int’l are helpful. Cross-cultural communication ranked number one as the most important topic. Out of fourteen topics which were of average importance that received more than four (out of six, maximum value), more than een percent of the participants did not learn the topics of cultural di erences in leadership, contextualization and syncretism and cross-con ict resolution. is shows that a signi cant number of students at Dallas Int’l might have missed these very important

topics that could be helpful to their cross-cultural work. e signi cance is not statistical di erent but it indicates that students could not take available classes due to time restrictions, and it opens a door to examine if a required course meets the needs of the students in the twenty rst century.

Data between language workers vs. non-language workers

In the corpus, there were forty-six language workers and twenty-one non-language workers who were involved with church planting, scripture engagement, ethno arts, administrative work, and as a teacher. Non-language workers considered all the topics more important (4.4) than the language workers (4.2), which will be good for further research to understand the reasons. While language workers considered kinship term, ethnographic research methods, and cross-cultural communication the most important topics (4.7), non-language workers thought cross-cultural communication the most important (5.1), then cultural di erences in leadership (4.9), and then guilt, shame, fear-based culture and Culture change (4.8) the next. Only cross-cultural communication overlaps between the two groups and language workers’ priority is traditional cultural anthropology while nonlanguage workers need more practical topics.

e biggest di erence between the two groups is in the area of globalization. While language workers scored 3.6, which is just above midpoint of 3.5, non-language workers scored 4.6. Language workers gave 3.6 on multicultural teamwork but the non-language workers gave 4.5. For both topics, it would also be good to do further research with non-language workers who interact with people from more diverse cultures than language workers.

Data About the Number of Service Years in Cross-Cultural Work

ere were nineteen people who have served up to three years (group A), twenty-seven people from four to ten years (group B), and twenty-one people from eleven to een years (group C). ere are two people who scored either six were not applicable for all twenty questions for both group A and group B.

For group A, economic systems (3.1), social organization (4.1) and worldview (4.2) were relatively low compared to the other groups. For nine people who gave the score from one to three on economic systems, six people live in cities, two people in villages, and one in multiple locations.

is re ects the data di erences between the city (3.5) and village (3.9) on economic systems. ere was no statistical reason detected why group A had low scores on social organization and worldview.

Group B was the most similar to the average score in most of the twenty topics among the three groups; the more important topics for the group B were multicultural partnership (4.2) and multicultural teamwork (4.3) compared to the other groups. Twelve people from group B gave scores between ve and six on both multicultural partnership and Multicultural teamwork but there is no common denominator among the twelve. However, eleven people out of twelve people who scored ve and six on both topics were the same people. is shows a correlation between the topics of Multicultural partnership important and multicultural teamwork.

For group C multicultural partnership (3.1) and multicultural teamwork score (3.6) were relatively low compared to the other groups. ree out of eight people who gave the score from one to three for the multicultural teamwork work in Eurasia and three out of the eleven people who scored from one to three on the multicultural partnership also work in Eurasia. It re ects how people who work in Eurasia score low on multicultural partnership (3) and Multicultural teamwork (3.2). Seven people who scored multicultural teamwork from one to three also scored multicultural partnership from one to three.

Helpfulness of cross-cultural con ict resolution scored 4.3 for group

A, 4 for group B, 4.6 for group C. Considering two people scored six for all twenty questions in both group A & B, these data re ect that longevity of years of service was the reason why this is very important because there is no other signi cant factor in the background for members of group C.

Comparison Between City/Urban vs. Village/Rural

irty-four people live in city/urban environments, twenty- ve in village/rural environments, six people in both city and village, one at a translation center, and one in a suburban context. Twenty people out

of twenty- ve who live in the village are language workers. According to the di erence between city and village, there was no signi cant di erence except that kinship terms are very important to people who work in rural (5) contexts compared to city dwellers (4.3). Among eighteen people who live in a rural environment, kinship terms scored from ve to six; sixteen people were language workers and one was a non-language worker who always gave six on all topics. A higher score on the kinship terms from language workers (4.7) as opposed to non-language workers (4.2) is not because of their residence but the types of work they are involved in.

Comparison Between SIL and Other Organizations

e di erences of all the topics between SIL and other organizations is less than 0.4 except on four topics where there was more than 0.5 di erences. e reason for SIL workers to consider contextualization and syncretism, ethnographic research and worldview are more important than for non-SIL people is that 70% of SIL workers are language workers in this survey, and those three topics have high scores with the language workers.

Comparison Between Di erent Geographical Locations

ere were seventeen people who work in Africa, twelve in the Americas, twenty in Asia, nine in Eurasia and six in the Paci c, and three people work in multiple continents. People who work in the Paci c valued their anthropology training the most (4.8), and Eurasia the least (4.1). By looking at the overall topics, workers in the Paci c value traditional language topics, as they have high scores for contextualization and syncretism, and worldview (5.5) and kinship terms (5.4), while the lowest is globalization (3.6), and for both economic systems and multicultural teamwork (3.7). Further research is needed to ascertain the reasons why Paci c workers have low scores on globalization, Economic systems, and multicultural teamwork.

Eurasia has the lowest score on anthropology theory (2.3), multicultural partnership (3), multicultural teamwork (3.2) but the highest score on both cross-cultural communication and contextualization and syncretism (5.1), and family structure (5). e reason for having Multicultural teamwork might be that workers in Eurasia are not able to work with crosscultural partners due to security issues but this needs further research to verify the reason. Seven out of nine people live in the city and seven out of nine are language workers, which might be another factor impacting the results.

ere are some signi cant di erences in how di erent topics are helpful in certain geographical locations. Contextualization and syncretism are very important in the Paci c (5.5) but not very high in Africa (3.9). For people who work in the Paci c, the common denominator is the organization they are with and no other common denominators are found. is is another place where more research is needed to understand why Africa scored low on Contextualization and syncretism.

Both the Americas and the Paci c considered cross-cultural communication very important (5.3), but Africa did not value it as high (4.4). ere is no common denominator among people who work in Africa of why cross-cultural communication is less important than in the other areas.

Paci c’s view of cross-cultural con ict resolution is very high (5.2), and Africa is not very high (3.8). ere is no common denominator about why workers in Africa did not value cross-cultural con ict resolution as high as in other places. However, three people who score between two and three on cross-cultural communication also gave a score between two and three on cross-cultural con ict resolution.

Paci c’s score on cultural di erences in decision-making was 4.8, but Eurasia was 3.9. Paci c scored 5 in the cultural di erences in leadership, but Eurasia scored 4.1. No reason is detected why the Paci c has higher scores versus Eurasia with lower scores on those issues.

While culture change for the Americas was 4.7 and Eurasia was 3.8, Eurasia’s family structure was 5 and the Americas was 4.2. ere is no common denominator which makes a higher score on culture change nor

lower scores on the Family structure for the Americas, and the same goes with Eurasia.

e score for globalization for the Americas was 4.7, but the Paci c’s was 3.6. Both grid-group theory and guilt, shame, fear-based culture for the Paci c was 5, the highest, and the Americas was 3.4, the lowest. Kinship terms were relatively high in all the continents and the highest was the Paci c (5.4); the lowest was the Americas (4). On these topics, there was no common denominator to produce highs and lows both in the Americans and the Paci c.

Both the Americas and the Paci c scored 4.3 on multicultural partnership, but Eurasia scored 3. Asia scored Multicultural teamwork 4.3, the highest, but Eurasia scored 3.2, the lowest. Out of seven people who score multicultural teamwork from ve to six in Asia, ve people are nonlanguage workers, and non-language workers (4.5) gave a higher score on the multicultural teamwork compared to the language workers (3.8) as a whole.

e Paci c scored religion 5.2, the highest, but the Americas scored 3.8, the lowest. Paci c scored social organization 5.2, the highest, but Africa scored the lowest (4.3). ere are no common denominators indicating these di erences.

Paci c scored worldview 5.5, the highest, and the Americas scored 4.2, the lowest. e same four people who scored up to three on worldview in the Americas also gave low scores (up to three) to religion.

Comparison Between Master’s Program VS. Non-Degree Program

In terms of the comparison between people who nished a master’s program vs. a non-degree program, the di erences were not very signi cant. People who nished the master’s program valued their cultural training more (4.4) than people who did not work on a master’s program (4.1). Nineteen people out of twenty-two who scored ve to six on ethnographic research were language workers, and two non-language people were the ones who scored six on every topic. Twenty-two people out of twenty-seven people scored Kinship terms from ve to six were language workers, and two non-

language people who scored six for everything are included. Twenty people out of twenty-six who scored worldview between ve and six were language workers, and two non-language people who scored six for everything are included. erefore, the reason why these three topics (ethnographic research methods, kinship terms, worldview) are more important to the masters’ degree must be that there are more language workers who need that knowledge for their work. e three topics that the master’s degree program considered more important than people who did not work on their master’s program are in the following chart:

Di erences Between Women vs. Men

ere were thirty-six female and thirty-one male respondents. Women (4.5) considered all the topics more important than men (4.1). e three topics that had the greatest di erence (0.8 di erence) were contextualization and syncretism, ethnographic research methods, and social organization. ere is no reason detected why women consider those topics signi cantly higher than men.

ere were y-nine Americans, seven people from other countries, and one person who did not specify the country. Non-Americans (4.7) in general consider most topics as more important than the Americans (4.2). Two topics di erences that non-Americans scored at least one pointy higher are: cultural di erences in leadership (+1.5) and cross-cultural con ict resolution (+1.2). All non-Americans gave the top score (6) to cultural di erences in leadership, which is the one category that made the maximum score (6). It is understood that most non-Americans are supervised by di erent nationalities than their own, and cross-cultural di erences in leadership are a very real issue for them. At the same time, non-Americans who are coming from harmony/unity seeking cultures consider Con ict resolution (5.3) very important.

Qualitative Data Analysis

is section reports part three, which was about what Dallas Int’l could do to equip workers more e ectively for their work.

Topics from part two that respondents missed and desired

Among the topics that are taught currently at Dallas Int’l, the following topics were suggested more than ve times in the order of occurrences:

Multicultural teamwork (13)

Cultural di erences in leadership (12)

Cross-cultural/multicultural partnership, Cross-cultural communication, cross-cultural con ict resolution (9)

Cultural di erences in decision making, religion, guilt, shame, & fear-based culture (7)

Contextualization & syncretism, globalization and culture change (6)

Multicultural teamwork scored 3.9 in the quantitative part but it was the most wanted topic in the qualitative question. Over nineteen percent of students did not learn that topic. One respondent commented, “Perhaps one helpful topic is working cross-culturally within the mission organization. is can create huge problems. I think people expect to work cross-culturally with the locals, but not necessarily develop skills for di erences within the organization” (R8). Cultural variations require team members to be sensitive and adapt to di erent contexts: “Coexistence of cultural diversity requires respect for di erent cultures, embracing di erent cultural frameworks, and new perspectives” (Hong 2016, 24). As Christian cross-cultural teams on the eld get more diverse, the need for learning multicultural teamwork emerges and multicultural teams can bene t from the work immensely.

In the case of multinational teams, members come from varying cultures, and cultural diversity provides a base for di ering perspectives and insights, which, in turn, are important for idea generation, error detection, and group’s avoidance of groupthink or other common decision traps. (DeSanctis & Jiang 2005, 101)

Cultural di erence in leadership scored 4.6, which is the second position in the quantitative survey as well as in the qualitative survey. Again, over nineteen percent of students did not learn this topic. is could be due to the fact that is not taught in the required cultural anthropology class, but rather is an elective course that the student did not take. However, this survey shows that it is a felt need for training content.

Similar to the topic of cross-cultural leadership, the topic of Multicultural/cross-cultural partnership was not a part of the standard content of the anthropology course at Dallas Int’l. Among the respondents, the topic of multicultural partnership scored 3.8, the third most important topic in the qualitative survey. More than a quarter of the respondents did not learn this topic. “I felt adequately equipped to be in a village setting and do anthropological re ection there, but less equipped to deal with modern twentieth-twenty rst century African city life and the new realities of intense collaboration with African colleagues and partner organizations” (R66). Pocock wrote about the importance of personal relationships in partnership: “As the missionary force became multicultural, the understanding of interconnectedness opened the door to cooperation based on relationships rather than organizational partnerships” (2005, 266).

Cross-cultural communication scored 4.8 in the quantitative survey, which was the most important topic but it was the third most important topic in the qualitative survey. e discrepancy between the quantitative data and qualitative data is a result of including those who did not study those topics in the quantitative survey. As such, those participants saw crosscultural communication as a felt need.

New Topics Suggested

e most wanted topic was a missiological topic that covers spiritual aspects and how to apply the Bible in di erent cultural contexts, and the second most wanted topic was trauma associated with violence, grief and loss, and the third was migration and displaced people groups. One person commented about the lack of missiological training at Dallas Int’l: “I felt my missiological training from GIAL was signi cantly lacking and I have had to pick that up other places” (R59).

Suggestions

is section gathered suggestions from the survey. First, not only should training be theoretically sound, but it should also be practical enough that students could use what they had learned. “ e most critical tool is learning those skills of HOW to learn and observe a culture so that person can adapt appropriately” (R52). Several people commented about doing anthropology versus having cross-cultural interaction: “ e focus of the course seemed to be on 'how to do an ethnography' rather than 'how to live and work with people whose culture is di erent from your own'" (R27). omas and Inkson (2009) o er three components in dealing with cultures: knowledge, mindfulness, and skill. Knowledge deals with understanding culture; mindfulness is paying attention to cross-cultural phenomena; and skills refer to development of cross-cultural behavior skills. Unless the students could be able to understand the culture and demonstrate themselves in culturally appropriate ways, cultural training is not considered e ective.

Second, missiological issues should be properly addressed to equip the students for their work because especially students from the West might not realize excluded middle issues that they may face on the eld. ere are strong suggestions for more biblical application in training: “More application of cultural phenomenon to passages of scripture. God’s word was breathed into real cultures, addressed real socio-cultural systems, and involved real people with real dilemmas” (R14).

ird, the content of teaching and instructors should be updated, re ecting how the eld has changed. A respondent expressed how the elds have been impacted by globalization:

Impact of globalization on cultures and how that impacts anthropological study; for example, villagers now have the internet and are more aware of Western ideas; how does one pick apart and to what degree should one pick out the Western views from the traditional ones; there is a huge impact from the now global access to the world wide web via telephones. (R56)

Fourth, diversity in students and instructors are needed in order to have more realistic and maximum exposure in e ective training. “More diversity among the student body to give a cross-cultural perspective in the

classroom. Having a buddy system to partner American students partner with people of other cultures and help acclimate them here and combat loneliness for foreigners” (R11). Everybody has cultural blind spots. If instructors and students are from the same culture, there might be common blind spots both of them never realizing certain cultural issues. “Culture is ethnocentric by nature. It presents itself as a set of absolute beliefs. It does not normally equip us for living in a polycentric world full of relativities” (Simons, Vasquez, & Harris, 1993, 19).

One student shared who should be involved with teaching:

Have more of local partners involved in training westerners going to the eld instead of having westerners who have lived and worked in those countries as the so called “experts”. Natives of the cultures are the experts in reality. ere is a saying that goes: “the foreigner has big eyes, but he doesn’t see what is around him in a foreign country” Meaning there are too many misinterpretations that western experts bring back to the west which are wrong and they can’t understand the implied meaning of too many things in a new culture which only can be cleared up by a native of the culture. (R51)

erefore, it is valuable to have diverse instructors and students to enrich cultural training. “At the same time, missionary training programs should aim to have a diverse group of trainers in terms of their ethnic, denominational, and mission agency backgrounds, as well as a balance of genders that re ects the world’s missionaries” (Hibbert 2016, 177).

Fi h, di erent needs on the topics were identi ed based on the types of work (for example, language work vs. non-language work) and geography. It is worthwhile to review what topics are suitable for di erent types of ministry and geographical locations. Multicultural teamwork and multicultural leadership courses are available which covers many most wanted new topics from the survey and the Christianity across cultures course deals with missiological and spiritual issues. However, these courses are electives for most of the students.

ere have been signi cant changes in how to do Christian crosscultural work in the twenty rst century compared to previous centuries due to signi cant social changes. Both the instructors and the contents should be updated according to the changing eld. Dallas Int’l should look for diversity in both students and instructors for maximizing the impact of cultural training with a practical approach in training. is paper attempted to answer how to train Christian cross-cultural workers in the twenty rst century but raised more questions than answers. It will be pro table to do further research to nd out more detailed needs that this paper could not cover. Also, it will be bene cial to conduct research periodically to understand the changing needs in cultural training because understanding the times (1 Chron. 12:32) is very important to provide e ective and relevant cultural training for future Christian cross-cultural workers.

Endnotes

1 Sunny Hong is pursuing Ph.D. at Dallas International University. He has served with Wycli e and SIL since 1994 and currently works as a senior anthropology consultant at SIL and teaches at Dallas International University as an adjunct professor. She was born in Korea, immigrated to the US, and worked in the Philippines with Wycli e and SIL. Her publication topics in various journals include multicultural issues, diaspora issues, and Bible and culture.

References

Bellofatto, Gina A., and Johnson, Todd M.

2013 “Key ndings of Christianity in its global context, 1970-2020.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research. 37(3): 157-164.

http://www.internationalbulletin.org/issues/2013-03/2013-03-157bellofatto.html. Accessed on June 24.

Dallas International University

Our Mission. https://www.diu.edu/about-us/mission-statement/ Accessed on June 20, 2019.

DeSanctis, G., and Jiang, L.

2005 “Communication and the learning e ectiveness of multicultural teams.” In Managing multinational teams: Global perspectives. D. L. Shapiro, and M. A. Von Glinow, and J. L. Cheng, eds. Pp. 97-123. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.

Hibbert, Evelyn and Richard.

2016 Training missionaries: Principles and possibilities. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library.

Hong, EunSun Sunny

2016 “A grounded theory of leadership and followership in multicultural teams in SIL.” Ph.D. dissertation, Biola University, Portland, OR: EMS Press IEMS Dissertation Series)

Janssens, M., and Brett, J. M.

2006 “Cultural intelligence in global teams: A fusion model of collaboration.” Group & Organization Management, 31(1): 124-153.

Lee, Moonjang

2008 “Reading the Bible in the non-Western Church: An Asian Dimension.” In Mission in the 21st Century: Exploring the ve marks of global mission. Walls, Andrew and Ross, Cathy, eds. Pp. 148-156. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.

Pocock, Michael, and Rheenen Gailyn Van, and McConnell Douglas

2005 Changing face of world missions: Engaging contemporary issues and trends. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.

Simons, G. F., and Vázquez, C., and Harris, P. R.

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2009 Cultural intelligence: Living and working globally. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

Anthropology Survey

is survey is designed to assess the e ectiveness and comprehensiveness of anthropology training provided at Dallas International University and to determine ways in which we can improve that training. Please help us by completing this anonymous survey by April 26.

1. Number of years in cross-cultural work:

2. What coursework did you complete at Dallas International University/GIAL?

MA, BA, Certi cate, Multiple courses, Single courses, Other.

3. What was the focus and minor/concentration of your program (e.g. Applied Linguistics w/Bible Translation, International Service w/World Arts, Applied Anthropology w/Literacy, Multicultural Teamwork Certi cate, etc.)?

4. Anthropology course(s) completed and year(s) of completion:

5. Gender: Male, Female

6. Age

Under 31, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60, Over 60

7. Location of service

Africa, Americas, Asia, Eurasia, Paci c, Other

8. Nature of primary allocation

City/Urban, Village/rural, Remote, Other

9. Primary role

Language-related

Church-planting Administrative Other

10. Organization Name

11. Passport country

12. On a scale of 1 (not at all helpful) to 6 (very helpful), please indicate the extent to which you found your anthropology courses helpful in developing your understanding in each of the areas listed below. Please mark N/A for topics you did not cover during your training: Social organization, Ethnographic research methodology, Kinship terms, Gender and cultural

marriage patterns, Grid-group theory, Cross-cultural communication, Cross-cultural con ict resolution, Cultural di erences in leadership, Guilt, shame and fear-based cultures, Economic systems, Religion, Worldview, Globalization, Culture change, Anthropological theory (historical particularism, cognitive anthropology, functionalism, etc.), Multicultural teamwork, Multicultural partnership, Cultural di erences in decision-making, Family structure (matriarchy, patriarchy, etc.), Contextualization and syncretism,

13. Further training in which areas listed in Questions 12 could help you become more e ective or better prepare you for your current and/or future work?

14. Would training in any areas of anthropology NOT listed in Questions 12 further equip you for your work? If yes, which areas?

15. Do you have any suggestions for how anthropology training for cross-cultural workers could be improved?

God through the eyes of the Lausanne movement

Sam Kim (Asbury Seminary) and Wonsang Jo (Interserve)

Abstract

e Lausanne Movement is one of the most prominent evangelical networks in which practitioners and scholars have collaborated within the global community, discussing diverse mission aspects since 1974. For the past fourty years, discourses of Lausanne Movement about mission have resonated di erent evangelical voices from the elds and experts in mission and in uence on global evangelical communities’ understanding of mission.

Retrospection of the past fourty years of mission trends through analyzing Lausanne documents teaches us how we have participated in the mission of God and will foretell future mission trends. Regarding preparation for the future, there are diverse areas we can apply, but in this paper, we suggest how theological education prepares and equips the next leaders and practitioners for the kingdom of God as one application.

Key words: Lausanne Movement, Lausanne Foundational Statements, Lausanne Occasional Papers (LOP), Lausanne Global Analysis (LGA), whole gospel, whole church, whole world.

Under the big frame of God’s love and providence toward the world, diverse patterns of the mission of God have shown in each era. In order to analyze the present and future of mission, we need to re ect on the mission of God in various cultures and in history to connect the present to the future.

A er nishing the era of Christendom and colonialism, evangelical communities have sought God’s will for their generation. One of the most prominent representatives of evangelical communities’ discourse is the Lausanne movement in which practitioners and scholars have collaborated within the global community, discussing diverse mission aspects since 1974. Although it began by Western initiative, the Lausanne movement has tried to include di erent evangelical voices from the mission elds and global evangelical communities.

Retrospection of the past fourty years of mission trends through analyzing Lausanne documents teaches us how we have participated in the mission of God and will foretell future mission trends. Regarding preparation for the future, there are diverse areas we can apply this retrospection of the Lausanne movement, but in this paper, we suggest how theological institution and education prepare and equip the next leaders, practitioners, and scholars for the kingdom of God.

I. Understanding of e Mission of God

1. e Mission of God from the Triune Nature: e Missio Dei

In the past, we had an anthropocentric, not theocentric, perspective about mission. We had a prejudice that we had made “mission” for God. e concept of mission was limited to individuals and was too narrow in scope. In the mid-twentieth century, there were lots of crisis and challenges about the understanding of mission because of the e ects of Christendom and Imperialism. With the rising of nationalism, intense hostility towards the West and Christianity has grown in colonial countries. At the same time, secularism and liberal theology emerged. In that mood, the Willingen Conference of the International Missionary Council (IMC) (1952) made the Willingen statement on the missionary calling of the church, which was derived from the nature of God. e nature of God in mission is that God is everything in his mission. God has taken the initiatives of his mission, and he will do it and accomplish it. e Triune God’s nature is embedded in His mission.

2. Mission of God with the Church: Missiones- Ecclesiae

Changes in the view of mission as the missio Dei lead theological re ection on the mission of the Church. erefore, the Missio Dei institutes the missiones ecclesiae and all the results from our re ection on the Trinity determine missions. e epitome of the word of God is Jesus Christ. rough His incarnational life, we can experience the characteristics of God and His providence. e Bible and the tradition of the church are inherited for belief in God and to serve Him. However, God still speaks to the Church and shows His wisdom. Within the word of God and the cross and resurrection of Jesus, we can nd His will in our era through His churches. So we’ve learned that the church is not merely the functional instrument by which God accomplishes His Mission in the world, but in the church, we witness the expression of God’s Trinitarian nature.

3. e Mission of God in the World: Missiones in Mundo

God’s love towards the world and His strong will to save His people has never changed, but it is expressed in diverse forms according to the time and culture. Andrew Walls argues that we can not meet a "typical" Christianity, but rather a universal Christianity. He suggests that the indigenizing principle presents the gospel understood in speci c cultures and locals, and calls sinners. e gospel is at home in every culture and meets people where they are, whatever their situations. e pilgrim principle, however, shows that God wants to transform people into the truth out of worldly ways of living. erefore, in this sense, the gospel confronts cultures but also leads Christians to work with people outside their society and take the gospel message to people (Walls 1996, 7–9).

God’s mission is marching within pilgrim and indigenizing (universality and particularity) foundations. Our profound re ections and thoughts about the Triune God within the global body of Christ broaden understanding of the love of God and teaches us how to serve and share the life of Jesus with the world.

II. Research Methodology

Unlike the Roman Catholic church, which has a single uni ed opinion, global Protestant churches struggle to achieve unity about particular issues from diverse denominational backgrounds. In this sense, the Lausanne movement is valuable for hearing various global Christian communities and re ecting on the mission of God. In particular, all documents produced in the Lausanne Movement combine the views of practitioners and experts. Not only theoretical aspects, but practical elements are included.

1. Resources

e Lausanne Movement has held three Congresses: e Lausanne Covenant (1974), e Manila Manifesto (1989), and e Cape Town Commitment (2010). Lausanne Foundational statements are documents made a er each Lausanne Movement Congress. ey are the Lausanne Covenant, the Lausanne Occasional Papers (LOP), and Lausanne Global Analysis (LGA). ese documents provide the theological foundation of the Lausanne Movement. In particular, the Lausanne Covenant (1974) has been the basis of the Lausanne Movement, and the other two statements have shown how Lausanne Movement’s faith confession has re ected changing historical and cultural circumstances. e LOP and the LGA can be used to estimate how the Lausanne Movemnt, which is working within diverse networks, and small groups, see mission

a. Lausanne Covenant

According to Tormod Engelsviken, the Lausanne Covenant has ve characteristics: an answer to a serious threat to biblical and classical Christian doctrine, a broad consensus on mission among mission leaders, a invitation of personal acceptance and commitment, a theological basis for many ecumenical organizations and institutions, and relevant issues for the present time (2014, 38–39).

In the Lausanne Covenant (1974), con rmation of the gospel is most noticeable. A er WWII and the rise of liberalism, evangelicals needed to con rm their identity in the gospel and the authority of the word of God. Another remarkable fact of the Lausanne Movement was a rm direction

Sam Kim and

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Jo | 83 toward mission. e rst o cial Congress name was the International Congress on World Evangelization. Considering the opposition to imperialistic overseas missions, the new independence of colonial countries, and the moratorium on discussion of mission in the World Council of Churches in those days, they needed to rea rm the gospel and mission for the world. So the o cial name of the Lausanne Movement is the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization.

With these two emphases–a rea rmation of the gospel and evangelism (mission)– the re ection of social transformation has deeply in uenced the later mission direction in the Lausanne Movement. ere was deep regret over the Great Reversal in Christianity. During the time of the great revival of Protestantism from the early eighteenth century to the twentieth century, the enthusiasm for social change, which was going on at the same time, fell in the twentieth century, and the church only focused on religious expansion. With global capitalism and corrupt governments, many people su ered from poverty and dictatorships, such as in Latin America. erefore, many evangelicals have had to reconsider mission beyond evangelism and church planting toward social transformation at the rst Lausanne meeting.

e Manila Manifesto in 1989 and the Cape Town Commitment in 2010 extended these Lausanne Covenant points. Both of them discussed challenges or theological issues which required discernment and clari cation on the Lausanne Covenant. ey con rmed the integration of evangelism and social transformation. erefore, the Edinburgh Missionary Conference's (1910) motto, “the whole church taking the whole gospel to the whole of the world,” appeared again in the context of the 1989 Manila manifesto. In the Cape Town Commitment in 2010, this motto became the basic frame of the composition of the whole declaration. To see how this trend has grown, we need to look at the Lausanne Occasional Papers.

b. Lausanne Occasional Papers

In order to see precisely what the Lausanne Movement is doing, the most important document is the Lausanne Occasional Papers (LOP). Lausanne is not an organization but a decentralized movement. e various groups under the name of Lausanne have grown by networking and

collaborating on topics that they want to focus on, as seen in the slogan, “Connecting in uencers and ideas for global mission.”

e result of this kind of communal re ection and networking leads to a variety of themes, such as the LOP. Since then, a total of sixty-one reports have been published. ese reports are a collection of voices from a variety of di erent elds. ey allow us to see how practitioners are experiencing and re ecting on mission.

c. Lausanne Global Analysis

e Lausanne Global Analysis (LGA) is di erent from the LOP. e LOP, it is a group re ection of practitioners, missionaries, and theologians a er a long period of time, while the LGA is the work of experts in the form of articles.

e LGA is an online journal published every two months since 2012. According to Lindsay Brown, ex-international executive of Lausanne, the LGA is one of six products of the Cape Town gatherings 2010 (Brown 2016). All the articles in the LGA are facilitated by leaders who guide each consultation to discuss issues and describe struggles and problems in present mission elds.

2. Classi cation

A er researching all the chapters and abstracts of fundamental documents, the LOP and the LGA, this paper has classi ed a large number of issues, made frequent analysis, and found changes in the theology of mission for the past forty years.

A two-step process of content analysis was conducted to categorize the reports of the LOP and the LGA. e rst step is an inductive and taxonomical approach where a theme is chosen not with pre-set standards or logic but just with its content. A report usually contains more than one theme. For instance, “the homogenous unit principle,” the rst LOP, contains many themes, such as church planting, unreached tribe, evangelism, church growth, etc. All these themes are noted. As other reports were analyzed, themes were noted as such.

e next step is an inductive and typological approach, where the themes found in the rst step were categorized by a pre-set standard. “

e whole church taking the whole gospel to the whole world” is a motto presented rst at the 1910 World Mission Conference at Edinburgh, and has been taken to the Lausanne movement as one of the major themes.

ese three components the church, the gospel, and the world were used to categorize all the themes from the rst analysis so that the frequency of these three themes were measured. Out of these two steps, there are two ways of summarizing all the reports of the past Lausanne papers including the LOPs and the LGAs. Now, we can see a list of themes dealt with in the past Lausanne discussions, and we can see also how many times of the three themes were taken to various groups of the Lausanne.

ese frequencies were compared during the three phases of the forty-three year history of the Lausanne movement: the post–1974-Lausanne era, the post-1989-Manila era, and the post-2010-Capetown era. We can see how the Lausanne movement has evolved.

ere are y-seven LOP papers and twenty-six LGA papers. e classi cation of the total data that came out in the past forty years is table 1 and 2. Table 1 lists all of the reports that have been dealt in the past, divided by era, and table 2 summarizes some of the critical themes of the LOP and the LGA with frequency and percentages. In looking at the tables, it is essential to note that the comparison is based on the relative percentage of each period. We have not compared the absolute frequency with the frequency of the time, because the LOP and LGA reports were fundamentally di erent from the process of making them. It is important to compare a particular point of emphasis at each era.

3. Subjects

Table 1 Chronological analysis of themes appearing in the LOP and the LGA

Time

LOP a er 1974

Lausanne Covenant

Key words

Homogeneous Unit Principle, Gospel and Culture, e Lausanne Covenant, Muslim Evangelization, Refugees, Chinese People, Jewish People, Secularized People, Large Cities, Nominal Christians among Roman Catholics, New Religious Movements, Marxists, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Traditional Religionists of Asia and Oceania, Latin America & Caribbean, African Traditional Religions, Nominal Christians among the Orthodox, Simple Lifestyle, Evangelism and Social Responsibility, Urban Poor, Nominal Christians Among Protestants, Cooperating Church/Para-Church Relationships

LOP a er 1989 Manila Manifesto

Radio in Mission, Modern, Postmodern, Globalization, World Religions, Persecution, Holistic Mission, Risk People, Least Reached People Groups, Disabilities, Non Traditional Families, Cities/Regions, Partnership and Collaboration, e Local Church in Mission, Tent making, Marketplace, Future Leadership, Prayer, Missional Church, e Two- irds World Church, New age, Arts, Evangelization of Children, Media and Technology, Muslims, Religious Nationalism, Reconciliation, the Youth Generation, Women’s ministry, Oral Learners Diasporas ansd International Students, Funding for Evangelism, eological Education, Bioethics, Business as Mission, Jewish Evangelism

LOP a er 2010 Cape Town Commitment

Discipleship in the World, e Whole Gospel, e Whole Church, e Whole World, Mission with Children at Risk

LGA a er 2010 Cape Town Commitment

Arab Spring, Corruption of Indian society, e Internet and its potential, Diaspora, Immigrant churches in UK, European Immigration, Israeli-Palestinian Con ict on Ministry to Muslims, Resurgent Islam in Malaysia Public theology, Islam in India, Current Ideological Trends in China, World Christian Trends, Christian donation, Religious Freedom in Europe, Generation Loss, e New Pope and Evangelicals in Brazil, Mission in the Workplace, Global Trends, Highlights of Christianity in its Global Context, Pope Francis, Global Trends, Persecution of Christians in the World, North Korea, Russia and Other Slavic Countries of CIS Christian Peace-Building in Kenya, Business as Mission, Turmoil in the Middle East, Christian Faith in China, Indigenous Groups in Brazil, Human Tra cking, Media Engagement, Crisis resurfaces in South Sudan, Climate Change in

Oceania, e Orality Movement, Christianity in Sri Lanka, Nationalism, Sports Ministry, Food Security and Transformational Development, WCC General Assembly A ermath, China’s Churches, Emigration of Christians from the Middle East, Hindus, e Prosperity Gospel and Its Challenge, e Death of Faith and Work, Postmodern World, Western Buddhism, Megachurches and Christian Mission, Boko Haram, Europe, e Path to Confucius Ideal, e Millennials, Religious Freedom in Malaysia, Integrity, the Lausanne Movement, and a Malaysian Daniel, e UK Campaign to End Religious Illiteracy, Radical Islam, Diasporas, Europe’s Crisis, Micah Challenge, Buddhism in Asia, Strategic Foresight, Building a National Church Database Useful to All, China, Sexual Violence in War, Hispanic and Asian North American eologians, corruptions, Training of pastor, Scaling Adversity, Lausanne’s Renewed Engagement in Global Mission, Cape Town 2010, e Church in Africa, Tablighi JamaatIndian Islamic fundamentalism, e Crisis in Syria, China, Africa, Young Leaders with Disabilities, Religious Persecution, North American Messianic Jews, Economy, Mission in Europe, Anti-conversion Laws from India, Climate Change, e Ageing Church, the Women’s Movement, OMF at 150, Lausanne’s future, BREXIT and European Mission, e Refugee, YLG2016, Emerging Generation, Global Leadership, e Brazilian Crisis, the US Elections, Collaboration, Mission to Muslims in daily lives, Mining for a Living in the Majority World, the ird Wave of Missions in India, Medicine and Missions, Honor-Shame Cultures, Persecution in the Middle East.

Table 2 Frequency analysis of themes appearing in LOP and LGA

Both the LOP and the LGA analyses show the foci of Lausanne’s groups to serve and share the gospel with the whole world. e most critical topics in the LOP and LGA are understanding and approaches to evangelism, culture and other religions, global issues, and social change. In combining all these sub-categories, it can be seen that they occupy 62% and 51.6% respectively in the LOP and the LGA.

e second and most important theme was the re ection on the whole gospel. 31.73% in the LOP and 33.79% in the LGA covered this theme. e most important part of the gospel re ections was the contextualization of the gospel. From the beginning of Lausanne, it is possible to say that the Lausanne movement is mission and eld oriented.

e most uncommon topic was the re ection of the whole church. is accounted for 6.25% and 14.61% of the total, respectively in the LOP and the LGA. Although the main direction of the Lausanne movement is towards missions and evangelism, it shows a lack of discussion about the body of Christ and shows the Lausanne movement has weak connections with pastors in the local churches.

2) Changes in mission themes

a. From evangelism to social change

From the beginning of Lausanne in 1974, there was some re ection on the Great Reversal regarding social problems, and this was re ected in the Lausanne Covenant. However, according to the consultation that made the LOP, this was marginal. A er the rst Lausanne, the central interest was how to evangelize (25%) in other cultures (25%) in (Chart 1). On the other hand, in the issue of social change, only one LOP paper talked about urban poverty. However, this tendency began to change from the second Lausanne (9.7%). A er the third Lausanne Congress, the LGA has dealt with 16% of the issues related to the transformation of society. At the same time, interest in evangelism has shown a sharp decline from the total number of subjects to 4% in 2010. It is necessary to verify whether this trend should be regarded as a decline of interest in evangelism.

Chart 2 shows how social and political interests are organized more speci cally. e main concern is about the poor, the disabled, the sick, and so on. ere is an increase in interest in the anti-war and peace movements. is is due to the Arab Spring, the Syrian war and refugee situations, and the rise of terrorism in North America and Europe.

b. From cross- cultural mission to global, from global to glocal

A er the rst Lausanne, the passion for evangelism was high toward overseas mission and other religions (25%), but interest in global issues was relatively low at 13% (speci cally, diaspora, urbanization, and urbanization, culture/ arts, biotechnology, information technology, secularism, capitalism, pluralism, nationalism). is has changed to early 2000s. Attentiveness in the global issues grew by 24%, while interest in cultural and religious cultures declined to 8.9%. In the late 1900s and early 2000s, the expansion of neo-liberalism and the optimism of globalism have had a profound impact.

Since the third Lausanne Congress in 2010, there has been another change in this trend. A 15.5% increase in attention to culture and other religions and 16% of the global issue is balanced. We might say this balance as “glocal,” which is the combination of global and local. It re ects the complexity of today’s mission, in which we have to deal with global issues and the local issues at the same time.

Interest in other cultures and faiths had been relatively decreasing since the rst meeting (chart 3), but there is still a great deal of interest in Islam and China. China appeared seven times in the LGA articles while only once in the LOP a er the rst and second Congresses of Lausanne all together. In the case of Islam, there are three occurences appeared a er the rst congress, one a er the second congress, and seventeen times in the LGA. A er the third Lausanne, it is noteworthy that the interest in North America and Western Europe has increased rapidly.

Chart 4 shows how global concerns are changing over time. From the rst to the third Congress, the issues grouping over the years are concerns for globalization and capitalism. e interest in urbanization and secularism has declined. Attempts to link work and daily life to mission have also been steady. On the other hand, interest in diaspora issues has increased.

c. e Church’s involvement in mission and the increase in missional ecumenism

As mentioned earlier, although Lausanne began as a uni ed networking ministry, it has traditionally been less concerned about the organization and cooperation of the church. ere was only one LOP paper and seven LOP papers (6.73%) in the rst and the second Lausanne Congress respectively, but a er the third Congress, it is estimated that 14.6% of the total number of LGA articles are produced. It is because Christopher Wright’s the Cape Town Commitments in 2010 and theological re ection on the church.

Chart 5 shows how these changes are more concrete than others. e most signi cant interest a er the third Lausanne gathering is the missionary importance of the local churches, pointing toward the future of missionary work. e local church is no longer a supporter of mission but is on the front line of the mission. As urbanization and diaspora phenomena become more

and more common worldwide, local churches have been growing as the center of missionary work. It is also essential to recognize that among the local and global contexts, there is a need for close cooperation between local churches and mission agencies. Also, there is a great deal of obstruction in the witness of the gospel because of divisions among the world’s churches.

III. Lausanne Movement— Strength and Weakness

It is clear that looking at changes in Lausanne movement subjects is helpful to see trends in scholarship. For the past forty years, the Lausanne movement has focused on diverse areas of the mission of God and has changed its understanding of the mission of God. However, is it possible to identify the Lausanne movement with world Christianity? e Lausanne movement also has limits. We will look at the strengths and weaknesses of the Lausanne movement.

1. Strengths

1) Renew and Rediscovery

Mission is the life of the living God, and God’s mission has shown diverse forms and ministries according to the times. Religious fundamentalism has replaced the Gospel with a theological framework and religious institutional system in the past. From the beginning of church history until now, as much as the blending of faith, the church has su ered from fundamentalism which has centered human righteousness. However, the Lausanne movement keeps the centrality of Jesus, the word of God in the Gospel, and shows exibility because the world we are trying to serve is changing, and the love of God can embrace all people in each time and circumstances. Timothy Tennent shares six consequences of the Lausanne movement: rea rmation of Trinitarian Missiology and the Missio Dei, enlarging contexts of our missions, awareness of discipleship for entire nations, the emergence of a new ecumenism, rediscovery of a larger gospel (holistic gospel for the whole world), and collaboration with the whole church (2014, 57).

2) Contextualization, Re ection, and Communality

In the Lausanne movement, we can nd relevant three key codes in this retrospective processes: Contextualization, Re ection, and Communality. It is a crucial point that all discussions start from the mission elds. Regarding contextualization, if we are not going to consider cultures and local histories, we would not be connected with mission situations. rough the whole history of the church, the gospel was consistently contextualized according to circumstances. During the past several years, practitioners from various areas have discussed critical situations and shared contextual ideas. By discovering a new aspect of God’s mission, we have enriched the kingdom of God, which has come to the earth. e most signi cant bene t of mission makes us rethink the mission of God among new cultural settings.

e Lausanne movement has also spent a great deal of time on this kind of re ection and has put it in its article. Re ections of our missions make us face new issues on missional lives in unique circumstances, and retrospection on history helps us nd our mistakes and failures. erefore, theological and missiological inquiry and re ection have been centered in the forty years of the Lausanne movement.

Furthermore, all the discussion of the Lausanne movement is based on the solid relationship between the small groups. e Lausanne movement is capable of continuing to maintain exibility because of these many small groups. A variety of practitioners and scholars from di erent countries and cultures have formed these small groups, and members can make private invitations into the groups. As long as there is agreement on the basic principles, various groups are created. ey embrace all kinds of relationships and diversity. ese long-term relationship are the foundation of communal re ection that has been underway for 40 years. It is possible because the Lausanne movement did not move by order of hieratical ties, but worked based on the agreement made in 1974. In other words, it is the church that connects diverse bodies under the head of Jesus Christ. God sent the Holy Spirit to the church, and the Holy Spirit witnesses the gospel of Christ to His church and the world.

e Lausanne movement is valuable in terms of its visionary organization and in tracking the great commandment. However, the Lausanne discussions are not fully developed concrete missional strategies which any global communities can employ.

1) e limits of a Western- orientation and denominational boundaries

Most LOP or LGA papers are dependent on Western writers. Although other nationalities have joined and increased, they are small in number. On the other hand, although the Lausanne movement has re ected on missionary contexts, these re ections have been done by certain evangelical denominations, noted in Chart 6. e report shows that in the past forty years, there is only one report published in prayer, spirituality, and miracles (Chart 6). Regarding the importance of supernatural phenomenain the southern hemisphere and the most rapidly growing religious denominations of the Pentecostal churches, it is clear that the current Lausanne movement tends to be biased. It needs to hear more voices of peoples at the grassroots level.

2) e needs of re ection on the church, speci cally strategies and new issues

Re ection on the church is relatively less frequent than other subjects. Since 2010, there has been a surge in interest. Nevertheless, the discussion on the churches’ role in the mission is needed. Similarly, culture and arts, information technology, life sciences, environmental protection, and economic issues are seldom discussed, and this needs to be improved. Within the neo-liberal ideology from 1990 to the end of 2000, the ow of global capitalism has been moving forward in new directions. e fundamentalist rebellion in Islamic society, the Brexit of Britain, and the emergence of nationalism in the United States, China, and Japan have combined with existing capitalism and created a new political environment. ere is no doubt that this kind of re ection is sorely needed. e lack of consideration on these critical topics has society is shown the limits of the Lausanne movement.

IV. Envisioning the future and preparation

God’s mission will continue, and the church’s call to participate in His mission will never end until “the earth will be lled with the knowledge of the glory of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea” (Hab. 2:14). God's desire to redeem will never change, but the world we serve is changing. erefore, our missions will have diverse forms.

1. Holistic mission or integral mission

e direction of the Lausanne movement clearly shows the strength of holistic or integral mission character through changes from a limited understanding of cross-cultural mission to participation in transforming societies. e center of this integral mission is the faith that God works in the world. e gospel is “good news of liberation, of restoration, of wholeness, and of salvation that is personal, social, global and cosmic” (Padilla 2010: 5). Our mission does not merely seek to increase the number of churches and individual converts.

However, the integration of evangelism and social responsibility, which the Lausanne movement has suggested, potentially confuses the object of the mission. As Stephen Neill observes, “If everything is mission, then nothing

is mission" (1959, 157). We are confused if everything we do is mission. So then what are we to make of this integration? It is an attempt to solve a signi cant imbalance. e mission of God moves toward more into the needy, the marginalized, and the dark places that do not see the light of God.

2. e glocal approach to complexity

ere are complex, systematic, and glocal problems beyond singular in local places. For example, the problem of prostitution in Calcutta, India is not just because of problems in the local culture and religion of Bengalis, but also because of global issues such as the expansion of capitalism, urbanization, poverty in rural areas, and corruption of governmental o cers. In order to challenge and transform these problems and share the Gospel with those in it, a structural approach is required. Unlike past missions, a wide variety of issues are emerging.

3. Missional alliance with local churches

In the Lausanne movement, the local churches have been relatively overlooked. However, since 2010, interest in the missionary role of local churches is growing. ere is also a growing interest in the cooperation and unity of churches. Local churches and lay people should be the subjects of the mission. Also, when considering the diversity and complexity of future mission challenges, various forms of cooperation and union are required.

4. e direction of theological education

e Cape Town Commitment, regarding theological education and mission, declares, “ e mission of the Church on earth is to serve the mission of God, and the mission of theological education is to strengthen and accompany the mission of the Church.” e role of theological education is to serve and equip leaders and people of God to know the truth of God and communicate it in all circumstances, and further to engage in spiritual warfare against lies. Because “theological education is intrinsically missional,” it should be missional in every aspect. In “ e Missiological Future of eological Education,” J. R. Rozko asks, “Are seminaries and their programs helping students develop the kind of character and competency needed to serve faithfully as Kingdom leaders?” Rozko asserts that seminaries should help

Sam Kim and

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Jo | 101 students gain “Kingdom-oriented character and competency” through their programs (2011, 9).

1) Missional ecclesiology

Mission elds are on the move, and Christians are a mobile people. It is time to rediscover the identity and role of the church in the mission of God. e church should be understood in a cosmic-historical perspective (Eph. 1:9-10,20-23;3:10) for all creation, rather than in simply institutional terms. eological education helps future leaders and workers to have a relevant missional ecclesiology.

For instance, theological educational delivery models are already diverse. Technological access from the individual and parachurch organization to the educational institution will become easier, and it makes theological training church-centered. e church will work with the phono-sapien generation in the fourth industrial revolution. As part of this, theological institutions and other organization will encounter increased pressure to show technological relevance.

2) Missional discipleship and leadership

eological education should equip leaders and people of God to know and experience of the power of the gospel and make the church live in the gospel. On the other hand, the people of God should know how to communicate the reconciliation between God and the world. ey need to prepare to respond to global issues and di erent religious beliefs and ideologies in order to engage in this pluralistic world. Regarding religious educations and training, it is necessary to teach strong apologetics in not just knowing other religions but also understanding how to maintain dialogue with them. Future missions cannot be accomplished through money, materials, or systems but through the church discerning and following Jesus.

eological education should teach integral mission or holistic mission to engage people’s issues globally and glocally. eological education must go beyond theory to prepare students for the real world. erefore, church leaders should know how to use their gi s in discipleship for professional

and purpose-driven small groups to support missionary-theologians for the kingdom of God.

3) Missional partnership

eological education should equip students to understand the general trends of the world Christianity, to learn partnership in global churches, and to cooperate together on glocal issues. Formal and informal partnerships at local, national, regional, and international levels enlarges theological institutions’ understanding of the mission of God. eological education should provide diverse programs to teach people locally and internationally. Other cultures have di erent worldviews, histories, and situations. erefore, when we work together, aiming to glorify God, we become united brothers and sisters as the body of Christ.

Conclusion

How will global mission move forward in the future? Which direction is the mission of God going? How does the church glorify God by participating in the mission of God? How do we integrate the words and deeds of Jesus in Christian witness? For the past forty years, the Lausanne movement has addressed these concerns. e mission of God will faithfully continue within redemptive history. eological education and institutions are for serving the mission of God. It is the ecclesial vocation of theological education.

Endnotes

1 is paper is a preliminary research paper. e analysis was done by Wonsang Jo. It still needs to be revised by objective other participants. e analysis focuses on abstract and titles of papers. We will analysis these documents again.

2 Every Lausanne document can be found on the Lausanne Movement website.

References

Dahle, Lars. and et.al.

2014 “Introductory Chapter Evangelical Perspectives on Mission: from Lausanne to Cape Town.” in e Lausanne Movement: A Range of Perspectives. Edited by Lars Dahle, Margunn Serigstad Dahle, and Knud Jørgensen, ed. Pp 1-12. UK: Regnum Books International.

Neill, Stephen

1959 Creative Tension: e Du Lectures. UK: Edinburgh House Press.

Padilla, C. Rene

2010 Mission between the Times. Cumbra, CA: Langham Partnership.

Tennent, Timothy

2014 “Lausanne and Global Evangelicalism– eological Distinctives and Missiological Impact.” in e Lausanne Movement: A Range of Perspectives. Edited by Lars Dahle, Margunn Serigstad Dahle, and Knud Jørgensen, ed. Pp 45-60. UK: Regnum Books International.

Walls, Andrew F.

1996 e missionary movement in Christian history: Studies in the Transmission of Faith. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.

Website

Brown, Lindsay

“Lausanne: Whence? What? Whither? Lausanne Global Analysis.”

https://www.lausanne.org/content/lga/2016-07/lausanne-whencewhat-whither

e Lausanne Movement.

https://www.lausanne.org

Rozko, J R

2011 “ e Missiological Future of eological Education.” 1-18. www. MissionOrder. Org.

Re-Imagining Christian Mission in a Changing World: Theological Challenges and Viewpoints

Lalsangkima Pachuau

A new friend I have just met did not know exactly what I teach when he expressed his strong dislike of anything about Christian mission. He said he does not like Christian missions because they are imperialistic; and he added something to the e ect that missionaries operate with a colonial mindset. e setting was a conference on academic administration, and we had just came out of a meeting where we discussed academic policies. He is a Buddhist scholar specializing in Tibetan Buddhism. My rst inclination was to ask him what he thought about Buddhist missions and to tell him that not all Christian missionaries were colonialists. But decided to remain cordial and I tried to turn the exchange to a theological conversation. So I said to him that my understanding of mission has to do with God’s mission out of His love for the world which I believe was best expressed in the sacri cial love of Jesus Christ. erefore, true missionary practices witness to such a sacri cial love. My friend did not object to such an understanding. We happily continued to discuss the power of sacri cial love. It appears to me that for this friend, mission as a Christian practice is nothing but a colonial enterprise, and it has nothing to do with God’s act of love. e term mission denotes an invasion of innocent people by Christians to increase their breed of Christians.

While some objections to missions are themselves simplistic and unfounded, some of the practices of missions can also be unjust and some may even be deemed un-Christian. e disconnect between theology and practice can rob the missionary enterprise of its greatest asset, and the missionary’s disregard of theology has o en made mission a questionable enterprise. While it may serve as a corrective to practice or a justi cation of the enterprise, theology of mission is more than a correction and a tool of

justi cation. eologically speaking, Christian mission is about God’s work in and for the world. By discerning God’s work, we imagine God’s mission. If God is not believed to be actively working in the world, and if He is not engaging his creation now, there need not be Christian mission. Keeping this thought in mind at the backdrop of this discussion, I propose to reimagine Christian mission and the academic engagement surrounding it in the context of the contemporary world order especially as it relates to the Christian witness in the world.

Our World Today

Our world today is awfully divided and dynamically uni ed at the same time. We are being uni ed at di erent levels and on di erent scales; and we are divided in multiple and di erent ways. By brie y reviewing that all-purpose catchword globalization and that varyingly employed concept of pluralism, I hope to capture some of the complexities of our world today. I will do this not for the sake of these concepts themselves, but just to help us see the complex nature of our world. e challenges brought by these two phenomena may be simpli ed using two symbolic dates: 11/9 and “9/11 which omas Friedman describes as “a wonderful kabalistic accident of dates” (Friedman 2007, 51).1

Globalizing World

e broad-based phenomenon we call globalization is impacting the corporate, and the individual in multiple ways and at di erent levels. While it brings the human community into much closer proximity, it also ideologically divides and fragments human society. e very concept of globalization itself is complicated and somewhat divisive. Di erent people interpret it di erently and sometimes in contrasting ways. Roland Robertson’s old de nition still stands out and is most helpful for our purpose: “Globalization as a concept refers to the compression of the world and the intensi cation of consciousness of the world as a whole” (Robertson 1992, 8). e compression has been brought about largely by the ongoing technological revolution and the developing fast-paced communication superhighways. e intensi ed consciousness of globalism is both the cause and outcome of the revolution. e di erent aspects of globalization— economic, socio-cultural, and politics, inter alia,—are all interconnected to form the movement as a single phenomenon.

Driven largely by economics, globalization has become controversial and is being hotly debated. To its proponents, globalization “not only produces greater economic e ciency and prosperity but [it] also extends the ‘idea of liberty’” (Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge 2008, 13). By making free markets global, global believers see the potential of enriching all through the enrichment of capitalists. Opponents to globalization look at the history of free markets from an opposite direction and raise their concerns. From his analysis of the history of the free markets in Britain, John Gray once concluded that “the natural counterpart of free market economy is a politics of insecurity” (Gray 2008, 28, 31). Some are worried of the socio-cultural consequences of “consumerism and cut-throat individualism” (Robinson 2012, 24). William I. Robinson accuses globalization of capitalism to be “profoundly anti-democratic” (ibid., 25). While theorists debated the nittygritty of global economic theories, the crisis resulted by the new global system has swept us all up. e spirit of competition, an essential feature of capitalism, seems to be gearing all into a war of class as we speak.

Robinson is right in calling the globalization phenomenon we are describing “the globalization of capitalism” (ibid., 22). e symbolic global sweep of capitalism is most glaringly seen in the bringing down of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, or “11/9,” which ended the Cold War. e fall of the Berlin Wall, in the words of omas Friedman, “tipped the balance of power across the world toward those advocating democratic, consensual, free-market-oriented governance, and away from those advocating authoritarian rule with centrally planned economies” (Friedman 2007, 52).

e end of the Cold War was the end of communism as an economic system and the crowning of capitalism. Francis Fukuyama calls it “the end of history” or “the end point of [hu]mankind’s ideological evolution”(Fukuyama 1989, 4). e question now is not about the existence of alternative systems to capitalism, but what kind of capitalist economy is good and working well. At the global level, a major contention we are seeing is between “state capitalism” (Bremmer 2010) as now practiced in China, Russia, and the Persian Gulf nations, and the more popular democratic capitalism practiced in much of the West. In some ways, the current “trade war” between the US and China displays the strength and weakness of the two competing systems.

If globalization is here to stay, the competition to direct its course and nature is still up for grabs. e competition in the West’s democratic capitalism once was between globalists and anti-globalists at one level, and between the

state and corporations at another level. Today, it is more between two broad unde ned classes of political forces to control the globalization process for their bene t: liberal elites and populist politics. e elite globalized class that sat in the driver’s seat much of the time controlling the direction and pace is now being challenged by the working class. Members of the working class see themselves as victims of the elite-controlled globalization and are rolling up their sleeves to take control. Backing the working class is the right-wing populist political group.

Without necessarily reversing the process and direction, right wing populist politics is on the rise, aiming to in uence the future course of the global economy. If the elite groups in London, Edinburgh, and other urban centers of the UK reap their European Union harvest, those who see themselves as victims of such union united themselves for “Brexit.” e election of President Donald Trump has been seen along this line. If not a class war in the traditional sense of the term, it is at least a zone war, the war between the right and the le . Populist governments, as we have come to call them, are sprouting in every continent. Incited by massive global migrations, populist politics of the right is rising in the West to claim the interest of the lower middle class of everyday people against elite liberals and migrants.

e ri between the socio-political ideologies of the right and the le seem to be ever-widening. In many ways, political positions now follow socioeconomic class, and the underpinning economic issues have heightened the disparity. With livelihoods at stake, people in opposing political ideologies are inciting their animosity against each other in grievous manners. e pain of dissension in a compressed world is real and di cult to bear. is is one emerging global challenge in Christian witness. e call for the gospel to bear the pain and heal the wound is clear. Our world is uni ed more than ever, yet is awfully divided.

Pluralistic World

e compression of the world has to do above everything else with proximity. Distances are closed and every part of the world is reachable from everywhere else within days. With few exceptions, the world at large has entered the cyber age and no place is an island any more. Traditionally, most cultures and religions had their zones or territories, and with globalization they not only came into contact, they are now competing. e compression of the world has compelled people of di erent cultures and religions to live

109 side by side, and their ever closing proximity demands they nd ways to exist together. Co-existence between and among di erent cultural groups and religions is no longer an option, but a necessity. Religions like Christianity, with its universal and adaptable message had to deal with people of di erent cultures right from its inception. Yet, the comfort of uniformity and the security of living with one’s kind continually form a faith group into a culture in contradistinction to other cultures. Homogenization of cultures among Christians have been thought to be natural, and the dominant culture swallowed minority cultures. e emergent worldwide character of Christianity is a new lesson for all, including traditional Christianity. Christian traditions and communities are relativized to the point that each is just a slice of the pie.

e post-colonial world has been vying for a way of co-existence. e search for mutual co-existence at the global level in the second half of the twentieth century has brought tremendous change. With its principle of absolute human dignity as inscribed in the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights,2 the evolving international political order is built on the foundation of mutual co-existence. e rising condition of existence and its demands forged the concept of pluralism. As early studies on religious pluralism have testi ed, it was the new “awareness” of pluralistic existence in the second half of the twentieth century that drove the concept into prominence (Hick 2001, 157). A multiplicity of religions has always been a fact of life, but the awareness of religious pluralism came to be experienced as a new reality in the globalizing world. “Today our intercommunicating planet has made us aware, more painfully than ever before, of religious pluralism,” declares Paul Knitter (Knitter 1985, 1).

Pluralism is not a concept that can be practiced at ease. In Christian circles, the group that introduced the concept rst, who are commonly called pluralists did so unfortunately in a rather skewed and pervasive way. It came to be associated with one particular viewpoint on pluralism. e new pluralistic condition (or awareness of) came to be claimed as the theological position by this group as they sought to promote their theology. is has confused the meaning of religious pluralism for many. Perhaps for want of practical outcome, religious pluralism came to be associated with the need to make some compromises in one’s faith by its early advocates.

In his in uential book of 1985, Knitter is quite precise in naming the kind of pluralism called forth by these early advocates as “unitive pluralism.” He de nes it as “a unity in which each religion, although losing some of its individualism (its separate ego), will intensify its personality (its selfawareness through relationship). Each religion will retain its uniqueness, but this uniqueness will develop and take on new depths by relating to other religions in mutual dependence” (ibid., 9). e loss of individuality by each religion for the sake of unity is a compromise demanded by early advocates of pluralism. Knitter forthrightly identi es “the central Christian belief in the uniqueness of Christ” as “the stumbling block” to unitive pluralism (ibid., 17). e early champions of pluralistic theology such as John Hick and Wilfred Cantwell Smith, looked for a system that uni es di erent religions. Stanley Samartha of India, a pioneering advocate among Protestants, de nes religious pluralism as the variety of ways “di erent religions respond to the Mystery of Ultimate Reality or Sat or eos” (Samartha 1992, 4). His identi cation of the Hindu Sat with the Christian eos or any other divine name in other religions bothered many traditional Christians.

Identifying themselves as “pluralists,” this group of early advocates met in 1986 to voice their “pluralistic theology of religions” together. Calling the traditional Christian claim of uniqueness to be a myth, the group claimed a “paradigm shi ” of a “pluralistic turn” in its meeting in 1986.3 Using Alan Race’s three-fold typology of Christian responses to other religions as exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism, the group cleverly claims it pluralist theology as a superior position by placing it as the pinnacle in the theological progress toward other religions (1982). ey challenge the church and traditional theology in a provoking manner. e book produced from this meeting, e Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Toward a Pluralistic eology of Religions, set the seal on pluralistic theology (1987).

Beginning with some isolated voices of protest, the pluralists’ version of religious pluralism and their theological claim has been opposed vehemently. A clear rebu ng response to the voice of the pluralists represented in e Myth of Christian Uniqueness came out with a countering title Christian Uniqueness Reconsidered: e Myth of Pluralistic eology of Religions (1990). If evangelicals were cornered to the supposed narrow con nes of “exclusivism,” their new theological re ections of the position as well as its intricate relations with the other two positions (inclusivism and pluralism) became apparent as they joined the conversations.4 Not

Lalsangkima Pachuau | 111 only refusing to compromise the uniqueness of Christ, but highlighting it and claiming the nality of Christ, evangelicals came to relate with other religions. Lesslie Newbigin, who has long questioned the pluralists’ insistence on compromising aspects of faith for dialogue, rejects the boxing of all Christians into either exclusivism, inclusivism, or pluralism. Outlining his own position, he sayshe belongs to all the three and also reject aspects of all the three:

[My] position which I have outlined is exclusivist in the sense that it a rms the unique truth of the revelation in Jesus Christ, but it is not exclusivist in the sense of denying the possibility of the salvation of the non-Christian. It is inclusivist in the sense that it refuses to limit the saving grace of God to the members of the Christian Church, but it rejects the inclusivism which regards the non-Christian religions as vehicles of salvation. It is pluralist in the sense of acknowledging the gracious work of God in the lives of all human beings, but rejects a pluralism which denies the uniqueness and decisiveness of what God has done in Jesus Christ. (1989, 182-83)

In his Christological study on the meaning of “the Christ-event,” Indian theologian O. V. Jathanna rejected the pluralist position. He concludes that “the decisiveness of the Christ-event is the basic given truth of Christianity” (1981, 436). Does this contradict “the universal salvi c will of God” as testi ed in the Bible? No, as seemingly contradistinctive as they appear, the two must be held “together in an integral manner in the light of the total Christian faith” (ibid., 470). which is “a fundamental truth.” More recent works such as Vinoth Ramachandra not only insist on the uniqueness of Christ, but argue that it provides hope for the present con ictive and secularizing world (1999). Countering the compromising interreligious dialogues of the pluralists, Timothy Tennent has helpfully outlined how evangelicals would conduct interreligious dialogue on crucial doctrines and themes of Christian faith (2002).

While Christian theological voices on the fate and faith of other religions multiplied and deepened, one of the most tragic instance of our time which came to be called “9/11” happened. e attack of the United States by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda” on September 11, 2001, became a symbol of religious con ict in the globalizing and pluralizing world. While it threatened the pluralistic call for mutual co-existence, it also became a

wake-up call for many to the reality of con icts and the inevitability and the need to nd a better way of co-existence. We use “9/11” as a mark for the irrevocability of pluralistic processes in our world. What happened on September 11, 2001, has changed the religious attitude on the contemporary world in varying ways and the secularizing world’s view of the world of religions.

Our eological World

e global nature of Christianity is founded on the universality of its message. If the gospel message is not intended and not addressed to all, there would not be a missionary calling to the church and Christians. If not for its catholicity, there is no theological justi cation for Christianity to become worldwide. Because Christ died for all and God wants to save all, the Christian message is missional and the church has a global missionary calling. If there is something the church should take pride in today, it is in its worldwide reach. Despite many of its aws and de ciencies, Christianity has come of age. From being a religion of the people in the northwestern hemisphere, Christianity has become global by expanding to the South and the East. Much is still to be desired in the worldwide character of Christianity, yet its spiritual strength has become global.

If we try to locate exactly where Christianity today is, it is still transitioning into a world Christianity. e marks of the old and the marks of the new are still clearly visible in our story and our theology. e West and the Rest are still discernibly di erent and the faith characters are evidently distinguishable between western Christians and the new Christians of the “majority” (non-western) world. We have to self-re ect on this transitory moment to reimagine our mission for today and tomorrow. e tension in Christian thought between the West and the majority world is discernibly clear, and we will do well to recognize its main features. e most obvious tension is in the characteristics of the Christin faith. Overall, western Christianity has been largely swayed by the Enlightenment tradition, which was built around a faith in human rational ability. Reason is above every other human faculty to pave the way for the future of humanity. While faith in the human reasoning power has done wonders in history, it also competes with faith in God and leads to suspicion in God’s role and place in the world. Western domination of the world during the past ve centuries made the Enlightenment’s in uence felt throughout the rest of the world especially

Lalsangkima Pachuau | 113 among elite Christian leaders and thinkers in the majority world. Yet Christianity in the majority world is largely characterized by a simple faith in the supernatural power and works of God. If human emotion is suspect in the West, it has not been so in much of the majority world. Charismatic Christianity of various stripes prospers in much of the majority world, defying to some extent the rationalist invasion from the West.

e West by and large has been re ecting on its colonial past with contempt and many westerners con ate colonialism and the modern missionary movement. As the friend I met in the conference described earlier made it clear, the missionary enterprise came to be seen as imperialistic. Many western Christians feel embarrassed about the modern missionary movement and consider it a mistake. As the late Lamin Sanneh lamented, western Christians have been living with “the guilt complex about missions” (Sanneh 1987, 330). Yet, if it was not for modern missions, global Christianity as we have it today would not have happened. Were there mistakes? Certainly. Was the enterprise a mistake? De nitely not! Recounting his personal experience of trying to nd a church to baptize him for more than a year a er his conversion, Sanneh said, “I have found Western Christians to be very embarrassed about meeting converts from Asia or Africa, but when I have repeated for them my personal obstacles in joining the church, making it clear that I was in no way pressured into doing so, they have seemed gratefully unburdened of a sense of guilt” (ibid). Today, many western Christians, including thoughtful missiologists, are swayed by negative thoughts about the missionary movement.

Guilt-ridden post-Christian Western missionary thought is met by the new, post-western Christian missionary movement of the majority world. e movement has been gaining momentum in northeast Asia, southeast Asia, and south Asia, sub-Saharan and southern Africa, and most recently in Latin America.5 e movement shows clear signs of continuity of the modern missions as well as distinct characters of each region. It inherited the triumphal spirit of the modern missions and yet, in confronting secular cultures from a marginal-inferior stance, a sign of kenotic spirit is discernible. Quite like and seemingly in uenced by western triumphalism that o en accompanied missionaries from the West, the new missionary movement has also been colored by what seems like a spiritual pride and immodesty. To many of these new Christians and missionaries, the political power of the Christian West from which they have received the

faith was a special God-endowed power. ey tend to look for such. Yet, in many cases, because of their marginality in society and economic inferiority, the new missionaries and mission agencies exhibit a subservient posture characterized by humility. Some take pride in their inferior status as a sign of their spiritual superiority. Despite their poor economics, missionaries and agencies have been impelled by their spiritual con dence. Meanwhile, Christian charismatism, characterized by zealous dependency and claims on spiritual power, has also fueled aggressive evangelism characterized by spiritual arrogance. e new Christian missionary movement from the majority world is walking a tight rope between undue triumphalism, inherited and harvested spiritually from the West, and spiritual humility.

One area where change has been most discernible is in theology. Contextual theology (or theologies) by and large has rewritten the theological landscape by showing how every theology has been and should be contextual. Contextual theology arose out of the missionary setting in the majority world where both native thinkers and missionary expatriates re ected on theology in the cross-cultural context. e term and the identi cation of the concept came about in the early 1970s in the eological Education Fund circle when the leadership shi ed to majority-world leaders and thinkers at the time. It then became a contact point and platform for various theologies coming out of the majority world. At rst, most contextual theologies were sidelined by mainline Western thinkers to be mere attempts on the fringe. As it gained strength in the West, it has also helped western Christianity to re ect its own theology and to recognize the contextuality of its own theologies. Today, theology as a construct between the authoritative “text” and the essential “context” is mostly uncontested. Because every context is de ned by the existence of another (neighboring) context and the text is held above a particular context, inter-contextuality is a fundamental character of contextual theology. Contextual theology can, and o en does, deny its missionary intercultural origin. e moment it de es its missionary nature, it is also in danger of losing its theological and contextual nature.

Reimagining Mission eologically in the Changed and Changing World

Our topic of re-imagining mission appears to call for a new act of imagining mission. Yet, we must acknowledge how such re-imagining has already been going on in order to make a worthwhile imagination.

Developments in the theology of mission during the past few decades is nothing short of such re-imagination. Especially noteworthy are the dramatic changes from the early 1990s. Picking up from the developing thoughts and recasting them in connection with the demands and questions of our world today, we can o er fresh responses to the issues.

No theological theme has reshaped Christian mission more than the theme of the missio Dei. As reconceived from the perspective of God’s mission, mission has been recast, re-formulated, and renewed theologically. e depth and width of this theological renewal of mission is still being discovered as we speak. ere is much to be tapped from the rich meaning and deep practical implications of Christian mission as missio Dei. At its most basic level, the missio Dei postulates a God who is active and who takes deep interest in the a airs of the world especially humankind. If theology in general is primarily about God, theology of mission, I contend, is about God’s work in the world. e redemptive works of God in sending the second and third persons of the Trinity has revealed that He is not only interested in us, but profoundly invested in our a airs.

In its literal meaning and original use, theology is about God-talk. It is a discourse about God from which it expands to the study of the entire gamut of Christian doctrine. A return to the basic understanding of theology “as systematic analysis of the nature, purpose, and activity of God” is helpful to locate the fundamental meaning of theology of mission (McGrath 1997, 142). To explain the Tri-unity of God, Christian theologians have long used "immanent Trinity" as “the tri-unity in the essence of God,” and "economic Trinity" as “the threefold way in which God is known to us and works for our salvation” (Placher 2007, 138). Although theologians in the twentieth century have resisted the distinction between the two, I think the distinction is helpful to identify God’s mission from the larger consideration of God’s being. While Karl Rahner dismisses the validity of the distinction between the two,6 Karl Barth suggests that the two depends on each other.7 Like a number of theologians, I think the categories are useful in understanding the nature of the Triune God as long as we do not distinguish the two from each other too far apart. Speculative as it is, the attempt to understand the essence of God’s being (who God is) could be somehow distinguished from understanding His work. Yet the two cannot be separated in that it is from His revelation that we know and conceive of God’s nature and characters, as Barth argues.

Using the term mission in connection with the Trinity, omas Aquinas’ use of “mission” in connection with the economic Trinity as the “mission of the divine persons” points us in a theologizing direction of God’s mission. e threefold way by which God has revealed Himself to us is the manner by which we have received and understood his redemption of us. If theology in general deals with God’s being, nature, and attributes (immanent Trinity) based on God’s self-revelation for the redemption of the world (economic Trinity), theology of mission limits itself to dealing with that redemptive mission through which God has made himself known to us. In other words, theology of mission does not invest in the broader speculating work of God’s being and characters, but relying on such broader theological works, it focuses on God’s work of saving the world and how it involves His people and creation. eology of mission rests on the faith that God has acted and is acting in Christ and His Spirit for the world. Christians believe that God does not act remotely but works in our history, invites His people to be a part of His ongoing salvi c act.

Mission Post 11/9 and Post 9/11

Because God is at work in the world, and He calls His people in the work, there is Christian mission. Mission today, mission a er 11/9 and 9/11, starts right here in the faith that God is engaging the world and that He calls His people in the engagement. In the absence or waning of the faith in God’s active engagement with the world, the missionary call of the church withers. Witnessing to God’s engagement in our world of secularization and pluralism is a prime missional call today. Keeping this basic faith foundation in God’s active mission, we inquire how Christians should engage the world and respond to the realities facing them. Yet the mission is not so much about solving the problems and issues they face, but to faithfully witness to God’s work in the world. On this basis, we relate back to the main trends and issues of our world we have identi ed.

Informed, inspired, and propelled by the mission of God, how do Christians do mission in the post-11/9 and post-9/11 world? Speaking from a theological viewpoint, I would urge that mission should always be driven by the missionary works of God, and not by the push and pulls of the context. Yet mission is to respond to the push and pulls of the world.

e-post 9/11 and 11/9 world demands Christian mission to be justiceoriented, grace-driven and respectful of every human being. at is what a

Gospel-driven Christian mission is. Issues of our world we have identi ed such as polarization and inter-religious violence and con icts, do have their solutions in the Gospel of Christ. is is our faith a rmation, and we do not have any hesitation to promote and to practice it. Although our practice of this faith may never be the solution, the solution is in the foundation of our faith itself, and we strive for it. e world seems to be calling Christians for a conscious and intentional witness to the Gospel, a true practice of the Kingdom works of God’s mission. e mission is to counter and to coopt what is going on in the present world.

e two characters of the present world we have identi ed, globalism and pluralism, are practically exercised together. ey have elements which seem to contradict each other but are exerted in combination and o en in mutual agreements. e globalizing world post 11/9, as we have described above, is a world de ned by competing values and interests. Not only is the market economy characterized by competition in the capitalist system, the competition to in uence and control the system itself and its direction de nes global politics. Essentially led by one capitalist system in a consumerist spirit driven by competition, the globalizing system essentially homogenized the world. e homogenization of values and products, yet, is not a one-way street, and is done in a competing way. As much as western dresses came to be globalized, so are the Indian biriyani and the Chinese noodles. If products are globalized, so are services. e Kingdom values of the Gospel cannot be le out in this competing marketplace. While not competing in the same way, the competing marketplace of the world is where the Gospel should be witnessed to and proclaimed. To confront political polarization that is dominating the globalizing world, faith in the humility of the cross and belief in the position of the cruci ed is most crucial. Polarization has to do with competition for power and authority. e redeeming work of God in Christ confronts such contests for power with kenotic self-giving. Advocating for the power of the cross, the power of powerlessness, and centrality of the marginal gure is called forth.

e pluralist age, largely challenged to step up post-9/11, is gaining grounds by its expanding understanding and practice. From its very narrow and ideologically driven stance in a liberal relativist corner, pluralism has been freeing itself and is gaining more grounds. As mentioned before, the liberal viewpoints of the so-called pluralists have been challenged and critiqued from di erent quarters. As Harold Netland has rightly shown

(Netland 2011, 45–56), evangelical Christians have also come to embrace religious plurality of religions increasingly from their own theological viewpoints. e reality as well as the emerging spirit of plurality has its dual foundations in western and eastern societies. It is built on the long history of human liberty, demands for justice and equity that arose from western liberal society on the one hand, and the plurality of religious and cultural ways of non-western societies such as Hindu Brahminism and the harmonizing Confucianism and Taoism on the other hand. When western monotheistic religions which seem to have grown tired of their long history of religious wars meet the religions of the East characterized by their quest for harmony, plural ways of being religious are bound to come by.

Our pluralistic context today is driven by demands for the rights of individuals and equity of treatment; any concept and practice deemed unjust to individuals is rejected. e demand for justice is unquestioned, and yet, justice is one of the most misused concepts of our day too. A conspicuous theological and practical challenge to Christian mission today is to publicly claim the fairness of God’s work in Christ and the integrity of God’s salvation for the world. Our mission is to a rm, to witness, and to live by the goodness of the Gospel. e answer to the world’s demand for fairness and justice is in the Gospel. e failure, if any, of the Gospel to the world is not in the Gospel, but in the practice by its bearers. Christians have nothing to hide in their mission and missionary call. While one need to be mindful in the communication of the message, the inconvenience that accompanies the message should not compromise the message and the call.

e most common allegation against Christian mission in its history is its lacking of integrity in its practice. To many, such as the friend I mentioned at the beginning, Christian mission is essentially unjust in trying to convert others to Christianity. e perception o en is that missionaries do not respect the freedom of others as they condemn other faiths and promote their own religion. Such allegations may not always have grounds and evidence to support, but are very common. In the post-9/11 and 11/9 world, any religious practice that disrespects the freedom of others and operates in a condemning manner is denounced to be a wrong religion. From this angle, many today consider the very concept of evangelism as bad and wrong. Misunderstandings of evangelism like this are not only on the opposing side, but many Christians seem to agree with this understanding of evangelism. Is evangelistic mission in essence devoid of religious freedom?

Not the evangelistic ministry of the incarnate God who gives freedom to human beings. More than ever, a right and just evangelistic mission is demanded today. Justice is not an evangelistic element, so we believe; it is its foundation.

In making a sweeping overview of the di erence between European churches and churches in the United States, I have o en come away with one major observation. Churches in the United States tend to be more independent (or congregationalist) and have competing spirits. e competition to be a good church, a better church and the best church helped many churches thrive. is competing spirit is essential for their continuity. I may be wrong, but I think it is this good competition, competition to be a better or the best church that helped churches prosper in the midst of secularization. Yet there is a ne line between good and bad competitions. Political and ideological polarization are also bred by competition. Unhealthy competition has done much harm to the lives and theology of many churches. Churches joining the polarizing politics of the day may look successful but are deeply questionable.

Side by side with political polarization is theological polarity. To battle against theological polarization, an important mission is to invest in the unearthing of rich Christian theology. ere is a strong wind of temptation for a simplistic theology that is o en reduced to a dimensional viewpoint. Take a competing stress on the understanding of salvation today for an example, namely the competing emphasis between salvation as redemption and salvation as reconciliation. ose stressing personal redemption o en make it too personal to the extent that being reconciled with others is not part of the salvation, but a mere consequence. In being redeemed by God and being reconciled with Him, we are being reconciled with others. Being at peace with others and loving neighbors are not secondary, but a part of the primary works of salvation. On the other hand, those emphasizing reconciliation o en do so by disregarding the redemptive aspect of the salvation. Popular among liberal Christians is the disregard of human sin and the need for redemption. Taking reconciliation as a key soteriological theme, the call is o en to unite with others based on human goodness. Such reconciliations are o en performed with practices and practitioners traditionally considered outside the Christian faith. When everything about salvation is reconciliation with others and nothing about redeeming the sinner, every compromise is made about salvation, and compromise itself

becomes reconciliation. Salvation is rich and not cheap, and one needs to take its rich and varying dimensions together.

Mission of reconciliation is a demand of our day. e call is for a theology of reconciliation that accepts the doctrine of sin and does not sacri ce the theme of redemption and transformation of the sinful. Vested interests of political ideologues, ethnic groups, religious fundamentalists, together with all their unhealthy competitions and power struggles, are ripping our world apart. It important to rea rm and reinterpret the theology of neighborhood we learn from the story of the so-called Good Samaritan (Luke 10: 25-37). Without any regard for ideological, political and religious di erences, the good Samaritan relates with the victim of robbery, extending the needed hospitality with a promise for further services as may be needed. As I have argued elsewhere (Pachuau 2009, 49–63), theology of reconciliation should begin by respectfully recognizing the otherness of the other and living in right relationship. As the social nature of human beings has shown us, God created us to be relational beings. Reconciliation is rst between God and humans (II Corinthians 5: 18-19), through which we are at peace with each other (Eph. 2: 13-16). e righting of wrong relationship starts with God and results in peaceful relations with other creatures and fellow humans. As the story of the Good Samaritan demonstrates the relation between loving God and loving neighbors, the rightness of our relations with God is tested in the rightness of our relations with our fellow human beings and other creatures.

Endnotes

1 e “11/9” stands for November 9, 1989 when the Berlin Wall fell, and “9/11” for the coordinated Islamic terrorist attack of the United States on September 11, 2001.

2 See https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ (last accessed June 12, 2019).

3 See the papers and outcomes of the meeting in e Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Toward a Pluralistic eology of Religions, eds. John Hick and Paul F. Knitter (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1987).

4 For a brief and helpful outline of the development in evangelical circle, see Harold A. Netland, “Christian Mission among Other Faiths: e Evangelical Tradition,” in Witnessing to Christ in a Pluralistic World: Christian Mission among Other Faiths, eds. Lalsangkima Pachuau and Knud Jørgensen (Oxford: Regnum Books International, 2011, 45-56.

5 For a brief overview with case studies, see Lalsangkima Pachuau, World Christianity: A Historical and eological Introduction (Nashville: Abingdon, 2018), 150-176.

6 Karl Rahner made a famous axiom on the unity of the two as follows: “ e ‘economic’ Trinity is the ‘immanent’ Trinity and the ‘immanent’ Trinity is the ‘economic’ Trinity,” (emphasis original). Rahner, e Trinity (New York: Herder and Herder, 1970), 22.

7 See Paul D. Molnar, “ e Function of the Immanent Trinity in the eology of Karl Barth: Implications for Today,” Scottish Journal of eology 42, No. 3 (August, 1989): 367-399.

References

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Friedman, omas L.

2007. e World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, Updated and Expanded. New York: Picador.

Fukuyama, Francis.

1989. “ e End of History?” e National Interest No. 16 (Summer).

Gray, John.

2008. “From the Great Transformation to the Global Free Market,” in e Globalization Reader.

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2001. “ e eological Challenge of Religious Pluralism,” in Christianity and Other Religions: Selected Readings, eds. John Hick and Brian Hebblethwaite. Oxford: One World.

Hick, John and Paul Knitter, eds.

1987. e Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Toward a Pluralistic eology of Religions. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.

Jathanna, O. V.

1981. e Decisiveness of the Christ-event and the Universality of Christianity in a World of Religious Plurality. Berne: Peter Lang.

Knitter, Paul F.

1985. No Other Name? A Critical Survey of Christian Attitudes Toward the World Religions. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.

McGrath, Alister.

1997. Christian eology: An Introduction, second ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Micklethwait, John and Adrian Wooldridge.

2008. “ e Hidden Promise: Liberty Renewed,” in e Globalization Reader, eds. Frank J. Lechner and John Boli, ird. ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Molnar, Paul D.

1989. “ e Function of the Immanent Trinity in the eology of Karl Barth: Implications for Today,” Scottish Journal of eology 42, No. 3 (August,): 367-399.

Nebigin, Lesslie.

1989. e Gospel in a Pluralist Society. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Netland, Harold A.

2011. “Protestant Perspectives: Christian Mission among Other Faiths – e Evangelical Tradition,” in Witnessing to Christ in a Pluralistic World: Christian Mission among Other Faiths, eds. Lalsangkima Pachuau and Knud Jørgensen. Regnum Edinburgh 2010 Series. Oxford: Regnum Books International, 45-56.

Pachuau, Lalsangkima .

2009. “Ethnic Identity and the Gospel of Reconciliation,” Mission Studies 26: 49-63.

2018. World Christianity: A Historical and eological Introduction. Nashville: Abingdon.

Placher, William C.

2007. e Triune God: An Essay in Postliberal eology. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press.

Race, Alan.

1982. Christians and Religious Pluralism: Patterns in the Christian eology of Religions. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.

Rahner, Karl.

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Ramachandra, Vinoth.

1999. Faiths in Con ict: Christian Integrity in a Multicultural World. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

Robertson, Roland.

1992. Globalization: Social eory and Global Culture. London: Sage.

Robinson, William I.

2012. “Globalisation: Nine eses in Our Epoch,” in e Globalization Reader, eds. Frank J. Lechner and John Boli, Fourth ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Samartha, S. J.

1992. One Christ – Many Religions: Toward a Revised Christology. Bangalore: SATHRI.

Sanneh, Lamin.

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Tennent, Timothy C.

2002. Christianity at the Religious Roundtable: Evangelicalism in Conversation with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.

https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ (last accessed June 12, 2019).

Reimagining Domestic Missionaries to Reach the “Nones”

Mario M. Duque1

Abstract

Missions in North America has emphasized going to other nations and the “missional church.” To reach the “nones,” there needs to be a sending of missionaries within our borders beyond where the church currently has in uence. Domestic missionaries need a unique missiology. I will argue for a domestic missionary force that is di erent from the national church. e focus will be on the US but will be generalizable. I will include examples of domestic missionaries in the Bible and discuss the uniqueness of domestic missionary training and practice. Today in America we need both a national church and a missionary force.

Introduction

How can we reimagine mission to teach missions in our changing nation? When the term “missions” is used in the US we instinctively think of missionaries from “here” being sent over “there.” When the concept is explained further, that one is referring to missionary work in the U.S., the common response is “Oh yes, we are all missionaries. Our church is missional.” To re-reach this nation, we need a genuine missionary emphasis. If we are to have a genuine missionary endeavor in the U.S., we need three branches of missions at work: the Jerusalem branch, the ends of the world branch, and the Judea/Samaria branch. at is to say, we need to recognize and teach foreign missions, the missional church/individual, and the domestic missionary calling. is paper will argue for the inclusion of a domestic missionary sector within missionary academia.

When America was rst colonized, there were many missionary e orts to reach the new continent. ese e orts were successful, and a church was established. rough both religious and economic prosperity, North America became a signi cant missionary sending nation(s). Missions within the U.S. diminished. At Lausanne II, time was set aside for missionaries to discuss their geographic area. e US meeting was unique in that all the missionary e orts discussed were aimed at taking the gospel to other nations (Hunsberger 1991; 391).

When attention was again given to the need for missional work within the US, it was assumed that the church which helped to convert much of the world was capable of converting its own citizenry. e plunge into the missio dei concept led to a jingle-jangle fallacy in which church growth, evangelism, outreach, mission(s), and witness became synonymous terms. Every believer was appointed as a missionary, nearly every activity was deemed missional, and that which should have been recognized as crucial to expanding the realm of Christ became overshadowed by e orts to enhance the church.

Americans naturally seek to do ministry in ways which will bring the largest return on investment. is can be quite successful in a homogenous culture but will be less e ective with the masses. Herman Morse, writing for the Home Missions Council of North America, stated that “home missions did its work well but could never nish it because the nation has never stopped growing and changing” (1950, 11). America is still changing.

e rise of those who answer “none of the above” when asked about their religion is proof of the diminishing e ectiveness of the church. is creates a greater need for e orts that go beyond what the church is currently doing.

Domestic missions can further be partitioned into two o shoots which may be labelled “Judea” and “Samaria”. e Judea classi cation can be seen as within the same nation, same general cultural in uencers, but geographically beyond the immediate persuasion of the capital, Jerusalem. e key idea is not physical distance but rather being beyond direct in uence.

Domestic missionary e orts that would t this category include chaplaincy, church planting in new territories, and compassion ministries.

Samaria was also beyond continual contact with Jerusalem but for cultural reasons. e Samaritans were considered to be of mixed cultures. Domestic missionaries who reach out to immigrants or subculture groups could be placed under this classi cation.

Western nations are no longer monocultural. Unreached people groups can be found anywhere, even in close proximity to an existing church. Individuals and churches have a mandate to make disciples within their area of in uence. Others are called and need to be sent to peoples whom the church is either unwilling or unable to go to. is is the mission of the domestic missionary. ese men and women operate without a well-de ned missiology.

Enoch Wan in his response to Van Engen’s essay, argues for the inclusion of both a “mission for all believers” and for “individual career missionaries” (Hesselgrave 2010; 45). My contention is that career missionaries should be recognized as foreign or domestic (See Figure 1), with overlap allowances. A de nition for domestic missions is needed because there are pockets within each nation that do not have appropriate access to the salvation message. Some are in remote areas, others in overcrowded cities. Some are immigrants, and some are old demographics who have le the religion of their fathers. ere is a disparity of e ort because the ground seems more fertile elsewhere. Domestic missionary work that goes beyond the reach of the national churches needs to be de ned and activated.

De nition

e term missionary has various de nitions for di erent people. Bosch argues that no single de nition for missionary is su cient (1991: 8). Van Engen states that “we are challenged to rewrite our de nition of mission at least every year” (2017: 370). Limiting missions to merely crossing national or cultural boundaries is insu cient. Missions should be about “creating a gospel witness where it is absent or weak” (Goheen 2014: 403).

Operating within the assembly in Antioch, Barnabas and Saul were singled out by the Holy Spirit for a “special work.” Whatever that task was, it was something other than what the church was already doing. is model should be a part of any de nition of missions.

De nitions for all things missiological abound. I will present a basic explanation of how a domestic missionary di ers from foreign missionaries and from the e orts of the national church. My de nition for a domestic missionary is as follows:

A domestic missionary is a believer called by God, empowered by the Holy Spirit, and sent by the church, to expand the kingdom of God among people groups, in locations, or at assignments, within their own country, which are beyond the current activities of the national church.

Examples of Domestic Missionaries

It is possible to identify individuals in scripture who responded to the call of home missions. Moses was called by God to go to his own people back in Egypt and proclaim the lordship of YHWH. He did many things that would be associated with being a missionary. Within the nation of Israel God had his spokespersons that arose when the Jewish people, along with their religious leaders, went o track. God would call and send these men and women on a corrective ministry (Glasser 2003: 201). Regardless of how far amiss his chosen people went there was always a remnant preaching a missional message (ibid.,145–46).

Isaiah was one of these prophetic domestic missionaries. He was empowered by the Spirit and called by the Lord to do missions work in Zion. is was ministry beyond what the priests and Levites were called to do.

John the Baptist was sent as a messenger. He initiated the proclamation of the Kingdom. John went beyond the reach of the temple and its leaders.

e “new Elijah” was called to accomplish mission (ibid., 243). He served as a domestic missionary.

e church that Jesus started had its beginnings with a group of twelve early followers. If we view the establishment of the church as commencing on the day of Pentecost then we should see these pre-church undertakings as missionary work, particularly of the domestic type. e disciples were called, equipped, and sent to an unreached people group of mostly postJewish Semites. ese early followers of Jesus stayed almost entirely within their own national borders. “ e apostles concentrated their e orts among the receptive within those cultures where they were at home” (ibid., 306).

Paul is o en portrayed as a missionary. His missionary e orts were not limited to foreigners. In all of Paul’s missionary trips he o ered the gospel to the Jews rst (ibid., 313). His missionary model emphasized church planting where there was no church presence and local ministerial training to prepare workers for both foreign and domestic missions (Easter, et al., 23). Paul does not seem to make a geographic distinction. He merely desired to go where no missionary had gone before.

Jesus was sent to Earth to proclaim good news, freedom, recovery, and the Lord’s favor (Luke 4:18-19). Jesus had a mission to ful ll. He did not travel very far from where he was born. He was a typical Jew who “in every way spoke and acted from within the culture of his own people” (Glasser 2003, 201). He rarely ministered to anyone who was not Jewish (Köstenberger 2001, 94). “Christ’s incarnation has become one of the most widely used motifs in conceptualizing mission” (Ott 2010, 97). As our prime example of one carrying out the missio Dei, Jesus came rst to his own (Glasser 2003, 201).

Domestic Missions in the U.S.

e home missionary has been a part of America as long as the U.S. has been a nation. Most denominational domestic missions departments were started to reach American Indians, plant churches, and provide Christian education in communities without an active church. In 1867 the Episcopal Church set a goal of raising 100,000 “young Christian soldiers of Christ” for domestic missions (Emery 1921, 169). According to Earl Parvin (1985, x), the rst survey of home missions in the US identi ed 380 missions organizations (he includes many parachurch organizations under his de nition), twelve thousand home missionaries serving under missions

boards, and an estimated twenty thousand total home missionaries serving in the US.

Reimaging Missions for the Domestic Missionary

e rst factor that a domestic missionary needs to understand is the call to be a home missionary. Many great ministry ideas are birthed which then encounter obstacles from within the church. O en the individual will explore missionary appointment as a way to bring this idea to fruition. As Neill (1999) stated in a lecture much of what is called “mission” would be better labeled “church extension.” e call to home missions is not just to do something new or innovative. It is a call to push the faith frontiers beyond where the national church is currently willing or able to go. New ways of reaching the same people should not be automatically labeled domestic missions. Parvin (1985, 17) states that “ e (home) missionary is sent…to perform a service the local church could not o er through any of its other channels of ministry.” For Parvin the crucial factor that determines “mission eld” is a decision by that church that it cannot reach a particular group by any other means. For Gunther home missions means “an organized e ort to bring into a vital relationship with Jesus Christ persons who are not normally touched by the ministry of the local church” (1963, 11).

e “common” call to ministry is insu cient for a domestic missionary. Just as Barnabas and Saul were called to something beyond the church, so must the domestic missionary sense the leading of the Holy Spirit toward something further than what is already in the works.

Domestic nancing ows di erently than international funding. Foreign missionaries typically go to members of a national church in one nation and ask for nances. ey then go to the national church in another nation and introduce themselves as missionaries who are there to serve.

e domestic missionary also extends a hand of service to the people in the nation where he or she is called to serve, but unlike the foreign missionary the domestic missionary is asking the same national church for nancial support. Without a well-de ned missiology for domestic missions this task can be very di cult to maneuver.

Foreign missionaries are o en limited in their opportunities to seek employment in their host countries. Domestic missionaries do not have that same challenge and are free to explore co-vocational ministry. Many domestic missionaries nd that additional employment can enhance their outreach as well as provide needed income. An exploration of multiple revenue streams should be part of the domestic missionary’s training and consideration.

Contextualization is usually a major part of the foreign missionary’s training. Domestically very little of this takes place at the church or missionary level. It is assumed that Americans know America. Goheen, writing about the West, states that “the church does not have a critical distance on its own culture” (2014, 298-299). e prophetic voice of the domestic missionary can help with this.

It is crucial for domestic missionaries to acquire as much intercultural studies as possible. eir studies should be designed for domestic missions. e foreign missionary typically goes to another culture and is tasked as an outsider to learn the host culture. e domestic missionary is attempting to learn the culture of a people group which is adapting to the missionary’s culture, or the culture of a subgroup which is breaking away from the missionary’s home culture. While there are certainly similarities, the dynamics are di erent.

John Zogby has called attention to the postmodern phenomenon of inventing and selecting one’s demographic (2016, 7). He has recognized that segments of the population form into “self-identi ed a nities.” He argues that in our modern world people choose their groups (ibid., 9). Ideological connections can be rm and di cult to cross over to. e challenge for churches is that not only does the subject not go to church but neither does anyone else in his or her group. is is where many of the “nones” reside. Asking someone to be a Christian is tantamount to requiring him or her to abandon all social connections. It might take a sent missionary to cross those barriers. Glasser (2003, 340) writes “the church is to be a radical presence in society.” Where the church cannot manifest itself, perhaps their sent missionary can.

Domestic missions is a proven approach when reaching out to target groups that do not easily t in with the majority demographics. One category

of groups that o en require a missionary perspective are immigrants. e Cape Town Commitment called attention to this need, calling migration “one of the great global realities of our era” ( e Lausanne Movement 2011, 34).

Some of the immigrants are already believers. ey arrive in a new land without access to a church in their language. Sometimes they locate a church in their language but of a di erent culture. Even the most multicultural assembly cannot be omni-cultural. When the available church does not extend to any one of these communities, they are denied access even if they can be considered “reached.” In this eld the domestic missionary can nd mission either by bridging the chasm, training some of their own, or helping the immigrant community to establish their own church.

O en immigrant groups arrive with their own religion, which is intertwined into their culture and identity. Making converts from Islam, Hinduism, or Sikhism can be a very involved and lengthy process. Customary outreaches will likely have little e ect. For the local church to reach these neighbors would require immense change. It would be advantageous to enact a domestic missionary approach.

One pool of newcomers that is o en overlooked is the small immigrant group. When there is a large diaspora the sheer number obligates the church into action. If that minority is well established there may already be existing outreache. A domestic mission eld clearly exists when immigrants arrive who are of a new language or culture than those which are already established.

O en when an immigrant group arrives there is concern for the former customs and religions to be maintained in the new nation. For some assimilation becomes an enemy. Even the most missional church would nd it very di cult to bring these people in. Sending someone out to live among them would garnish better success.

Contextualization e orts will normally last for one generation. By the second generation the majority is switching over to the national tongue and pursuing the customs of the new land (Pew 2013, 50). e third generation will be typical of the greater population. If the opportunity does not exist for the children of immigrants to be accepted into the native churches, then they

will be le without access once they move away from the religious practices of their parents. A new mission eld is then created.

One of the hardest groups to reach are post-Christs society. ey might have once been Christian, but the individuals that currently make up their numbers have probably never been exposed to Christianity. Every culture will manifest some antagonism towards God’s kingdom (Tennent 2010:181). Still, the growth of the mission eld among western white society was not predicted (ibid., 17–18).

Jesus was sent as a missionary to a post-Jewish society. e Jews had le behind Moses, godly prophets, and Messiah and replaced these with religion, tradition, and human leadership. e borders of faith were pushed back with little evidence that anything had moved. Sometimes a missionary has to take new ground, and sometimes he or she needs to retake the territory. If the church is not e ective there, then the missionary needs to be sent.

Having the ability to blend in makes people invisible. If someone looks like he or she ts in, he or she can be the most overlooked person around. Most churches establish practices that they deem to be most e ective in reaching the most people. In a well-churched town one can nd great similarity in practice among assemblies of di erent doctrines. If one church were to develop a productive method of recruitment soon others would determine that this was a “best practice” and follow suit. A “bandwidth” is created of style and customs that are most acceptable among the majority of people in the community (Johnson 2015). ose who do not connect with the bandwidth become invisible precisely because they resemble those that t in.

Missional churches and individual believers are called to reach their local community. Where there are groups that cannot be reached through the usual channels, someone needs to be sent so that those people will not perish. In these cases, God will set apart some whom he will empower to cross the barriers and be a missionary geographically near yet worlds apart from the church culture.

Missions must include unreached people groups living in what are considered Christian nations (Ott 2010, 94). Local churches are able to impact some of these groups. For the most part congregations will be

too busy with the main harvest to dedicate resources for the fringes. e great commission requires that we send someone to them. Our cities are especially vulnerable.

In large metropolitan areas there are so many groups and individuals that great churches can be raised up and yet entire segments of the population remain untouched. e Cape Town Commitment ( e Lausanne Movement 2011, 38) calls special attention to four major kinds of people that need to be reached in the cities: the young, unreached migrants, culture shapers, and the poorest of the poor. With limited resources the national church is inclined to focus where there will be the greatest return on investment. People and places that are resistant to the gospel and expensive or dangerous areas can easily be discounted.

Within the scope of domestic missions there are those adjunct opportunities for evangelism and discipleship that are closed o to general church work. Most of these areas become the spiritual domain of chaplains. ese missionary men and women have doors opened to them within otherwise secular environments. ere may be some semblance of the church in these environments, perhaps there are regular services or gatherings, but for the most part they function in nonreligious settings that are closed o to the regular church.

Discipleship is more than a lesson learned, an act performed, or a script recited. Discipleship involves the entire person. erefore, some missionaries will be involved in holistic ministry, touching every area of the person’s life. Other domestic missionaries will focus on an initial contact, or perhaps one aspect of the person that the local church is unable to reach. e collective endeavor must be so that the entire person be transformed; anything less than this is “missing the mark” of missions (Neill 1999). As adjunct ministers, domestic missionaries who serve as chaplains can answer a call that will make them present when disasters hit, loved ones are injured, or terrible news is given. By being incorporated into an organization as well as being trained for ministry, domestic missionaries are present where the local church is not usually given access.

It is a disturbing misconception to think that all of the unreached people in a nation can be reached with the existing church programs (Parvin 1985, 9). Domestic missions can function as the “research and development”

arm of the church. Missionaries are o en creative entrepreneurial types. Because they are not obligated to the status quo, they are able to experiment with new practices which will o en become best practices.

Part of the training for domestic missionaries should be how to identify what not to do. Doing what is not missions will limit the work of missions. e missionary should not do something just because he or she could do it better than someone else. e domestic missionary needs to be able to identify the groups which are not being reached. e role of the domestic missionary is not to get the greatest results but rather to labor where others do not. is almost always means harder soil and a lesser harvest.

Home missionaries should study the sociological, historical, and church past of their eld. ey need to understand the current cultural trends and have a view of future scenarios (Hunsberger 1991, 406). Because the eld appears to be familiar territory, proper contextualization is necessary to ascertain that what is being seen and heard in fact relates to what is being asked by society. Like the early church, the domestic missionary should be able to answer the philosophical questions of their time and not just voice what the church likes to hear (York 2000, 119).

e three missional branches that I am proposing here will necessarily overlap at times. Where the domestic missionary ministers should be di erent from that of the church. National borders are no longer the demarcations for missional boundaries (Lewinski 2011, 50). It is more complicated to identify which people groups within our own nation are in greater need. If the “where” is seen as more than just a geographical setting, then selecting missionary targets becomes more problematic. As Johnson (2009, 6–7) argues, we can master what to do and how best to proceed much easier than we can select where to do missions. What a missionary needs to target is the movement of borders from the outskirts of faith into the territories of non-faith (Johnson et al. 2012).

e role of the domestic missionary will depend on the strength and activity of the national church. e missionaries should leave alone that which the church is doing well. When the overlap between missional churches and domestic missionaries exceeds e ectiveness, it is the domestic missionary’s job to retreat. is can be di cult to do especially when there is noticeable success that translates into greater funding. is is a major

reason why a domestic missiology is important. If the role of the domestic missionary is not clearly de ned, the lure of “success” will steal from those without the gospel and double feed those who already have access.

As prudently as one enters a mission eld so should he or she move on to another assignment. Training should include instruction on what criteria to use in order to know when it is time to move on. As a general rule when the national church becomes active among a group of people, the missionary should consider moving elsewhere. Following Paul’s example missionaries should retire from speci c ministry as the indigenous church takes up that mantle (Allen 2006, loc. 2075).

Ministry training has always been an aspect of missionary endeavors. Just as every group needs to be reached, every group should be provided the opportunity to reach others. Missionaries can o er training that will be adequate and speci c.

Some people need to see something in action before they can grasp the concept. Sometimes it is hard to imagine that almighty God can use a regular person. Domestic missions can provide training by giving opportunities for these “regular” believers to do ministry. Domestic mission trips are one way that the domestic missionary can help the local church to extend its reach.

Conclusion

In 1902 President eodore Roosevelt addressed the centennial meeting of the Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church (Lewis 1906, 21). e following are some of his comments:

In one sense, of course, all fervent and earnest church work is a part of home missionary work. Every earnest and zealous believer, every man or woman who is a doer of the word and not a hearer only, is a lifelong missionary in his or her eld of labor, a missionary by precept, and by what is a thousandfold more than precept, by practice.

Mario M. Duque | 137 (Home missionaries) ey bore the burden and heat of the day, they toiled obscurely and died unknown, that we might come into a glorious heritage. Let us prove the sincerity of our homage to their faith and their works by the way in which we manfully carry toward completion what under them was so well begun.

America was Christianized by missionaries, most of these of the domestic variety. ese missionary e orts were so successful that the national church grew and developed to the point where missions in America was seen as non-essential. ere is now a decline in those who claim Christ as savior. e domestic missionary force needs to be energized to once again help reach the lost within our nation. Professors of missions have a responsibility to see that this happens.

An academic domestic missionary curriculum will open up a new additional student base.

Endnotes

1 Mario M. Duque is currently pursuing a Doctor of Philosophy in Intercultural Studies at Assemblies of God eological Seminary. He has been a domestic missionary with Assemblies of God U.S. Missions for twenty years. He currently serves as the eld liaison for missionary church planters.

Figures

Figure 1

• Missional church/individuals operate within the local church’s sphere of in uence

• Foreign missionaries operate outside the nation

• Domestic missionaries operate within the nation but beyond the local in uence of the church

References

Allen, Roland. Missionary Methods St Paul’s or Ours? Kindle. e Lutterworth Press, 2006.

Bosch, David Jacobus. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shi s in eology of Mission. American Society of Missiology Series, no. 16. Maryknoll, N.Y: Orbis Books, 1991.

Easter, John L., Jason Beasley, Judy Graner, Mark Hausfeld, Jason McCla in, Bill Snider, and Tim Southerland. “De ning Missionary…Identity and Function.” AGWM Missiology Committee Report, n.d.

Emery, Julia C. A Century of Endeavor: A Record of the First Hundred Years of the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. NY: e Department of Missions, 1921.

Glasser, Arthur F., and Charles Edward van Engen. Announcing the Kingdom: e Story of God’s Mission in the Bible. Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic, 2003.

Goheen, Michael W. Introducing Christian Mission Today: Scripture, History, and Issues. Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic, an imprint of InterVarsity Press, 2014.

Gunther, Peter F. e Fields at Home: Studies in Home Missions. Chicago: Moody Press, 1963.

Hesselgrave, David J., Ed Stetzer, and John Mark Terry, eds. Missionshi : Global Mission Issues in the ird Millennium. Nashville, Tenn: B&H Academic, 2010.

Home Missions Council of North America. For a Christian World: A National Congress on Home Missions. NY: Home Missions Council of North America, 1950.

Hunsberger, George R. “ e Newbigin Gauntlet: Developing a Domestic Missiology for North America.” Missiology: An International Review 19, no. 4 (October 1991): 391–408.

Johnson, Alan R. Apostolic Function in 21st Century Missions. e J. Philip Hogan World Missions Series 2. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 2009.

———. “ eological Issues, Contextualization, and Area Studies.” Class notes. AGTS Spring eld, MO, July 7, 2015.

Johnson, Alan R., Dick Brogden, Anita Koeshall, Paul Kazim, Forrest Spears, and Joe Szabo. “De ning ‘Unreached People Groups’ And Developing An AGWM Strategy For Response.” Chicago, Ill: AGWM Missiology UPG Working Group, May 2012.

Kaiser, Walter C. Mission in the Old Testament: Israel as a Light to the Nations. Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Books, 2000.

Köstenberger, Andreas J., and Peter omas O’Brien. Salvation to the Ends of the Earth: A Biblical eology of Mission. New Studies in Biblical eology 11. Leicester, England : Downers Grove, Ill: Apollos ; InterVarsity Press, 2001.

Lewinski, Father. “Rekindling the Spirit of Mission in Parishes.” Origins 41, no. 4 (June 2011): 49–56.

Lewis, Alfred Henry. A Compilation of the Messages and Speeches of eodore Roosevelt. Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1906.

Neill, Stephen, Gerald H Anderson, Gateway Films, Vision Video (Firm), Christian History Institute, Overseas Ministries Study Center, Southern Baptist Convention, and Foreign Mission Board. How My Mind Has Changed about Mission. Worcester, Pa.: Gateway Films/ Vision Video, 1999.

Ott, Craig, Stephen J. Strauss, and Timothy C. Tennent. Encountering eology of Mission: Biblical Foundations, Historical Developments, and Contemporary Issues. Encountering Mission. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010.

Parvin, Earl. Missions U.S.A. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1985.

Pew Research Center. “Second-Generation Americans A Portrait of the Adult Children of Immigrants,” February 7, 2013.

Tennent, Timothy C. Invitation to World Missions: A Trinitarian Missiology for the Twenty-First Century. Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 2010.

Mario M. Duque | 141 e Lausanne Movement. “ e Cape Town Commitment. A Confession of Faith and a Call to Action, Proceedings of the ird Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization.” Cape Town, South Africa, 2011.

Van Engen, Charles Edward. Transforming Mission eology. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 2017.

York, John V., and Stanley M. Horton. Missions in the Age of the Spirit. Spring eld, Mo: Logion Press, 2000.

Zogby, John. We Are Many, We Are One: Neo-Tribes and Tribal Analytics in 21st Century America, 2016.

DIVINE HEALING

Rethinking Mission Instruction: from a “Sage on Stage” Model to a WorldStage Framework

Rhonda Haynes

Abstract

For the past forty years, theological institutions, have attempted to address internationalization/globalization of theological education from the standpoint of quality and accreditation, even providing standards aimed at curriculum, teaching, and research. is paper explores ways of integrating the reality of internationality with teaching and learning methods. It explores collaborating with sources that may be outside of the bounded “Western” system of theological education to learn and utilize a variety of methods and modes. is paper suggests that every assignment and resource for the classroom be intentionally and globally shaped to teach and reach the diversity of humanity and students.

When I learned of the theme of this conference, “Reimagining Mission: Looking Back, Moving Forward - Teaching Mission in a Changing World,” I began to imagine what my classroom will look like when I nish this journey to my PhD. Where will I be and where will my students be from? Will the class be in one place or many places? What will the students hope for and expect from me and what can I hope and expect from them? How can we bring to the classroom as many voices as possible to speak about the universal missio Dei? What methods and modes will I be able to use to show each student their invitation to not only participate in the universal missio Dei but also be hosts that invite God’s people to participate? Do I want to be a “sage on stage,” or do I want to share the world stage with sisters and brothers around the world as part of God’s ongoing grand narrative? ese questions have arisen from my experience as a missionary and female

student in a predominately White male seminary. In most of my classes, texts and articles by majority world scholars and practitioners were rare and from females even more so. I found that most of the material written about mission and the majority world came from writers in the so-called “West” or if from writers from the majority world, they were educated in the “West”. Lester Ruiz, senior director of accreditation and global engagement at the Association of eological Schools (ATS), observes that “the center of gravity in Christianity has moved from the Global North and West to the Global South and East, while signi cant resources in theological education remain in the North” ( e Association of eological Schools 2013). If the Global church is indeed the body of Christ, then we should come together in unity of purpose while being diverse in function and abilities just as our bodies operate. We will need to tap into the work of the Holy Spirit in the Global South and East to leverage the wealth of resources and incorporate them into theological education for all corners of the world.

For just as the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body, though many, are one body, so it is with Christ. For in one Spirit we were all baptized into one body—Jews or Greeks, slaves or free—and all were made to drink of one Spirit. For the body does not consist of one member but of many… But God has so composed the body, giving greater honor to the part that lacked it, that there may be no division in the body, but that the members may have the same care for one another. If one member su ers, all su er together; if one member is honored, all rejoice together. (1 Cor 12:12-14, 24b-26 ESV)

“Good theological education,” states Ruiz, “depends on meaningful bilateral and multilateral ow of scholarship, resources, and expertise” ( e Association of eological Schools 2013). I would like for us to reason and imagine together where and how this ow can happen as we consider teaching mission from everywhere to everywhere.

Brief Historical Context

e International Council for Evangelical eological Education (ICETE) was formed in March of 1980 to address partnership and collaboration among evangelical schools internationally. In 1983, they published the “ICETE Manifesto on the Renewal of Evangelical eological

Haynes | 145 Education” a rming twelve commitments to worldwide theological education: contextualization, churchward orientation, strategic exibility, theological grounding, continuous assessment, community life, integrated programs, servant molding, instructional variety, a Christian mind, equipping for growth, and cooperation (International Council for Evangelical eological Education). At this time the issue was known as globalization of education or globalization of theological education (Schreiter 1994, Ruiz 2013).

Robert Schreiter, in his seminal work on the eological Education Project understood “globalization” as having three phases, with each phase having a carrier, a mode of universality, and a theological mode.

1492–1945

1948–1989 1989–Present

Carrier Expansion/ Colonialization Decolonialization Capitalism

Universality Mode Civilization Optimism A new global culture

eological Mode Evangelization Solidarity and dialogue, Bridge building Globalization Extending the message of Christ throughout the world

Ecumenism, interreligious dialogue, and the struggle for justice

Quest between the global and the local Biblical Justi cation Matthew 28:19–20 e Nazareth Manifesto (Luke 4) and the Road to Emmaus (Luke 24)

Ephesians 2 breaking down the dividing wall

(Figure 1: from Schreiter 1994)

In the rst phase, from 1492–1945 the carrier was expansion/ colonialization, the mode of universality was the concept of civilization and the theological mode was evangelization with the result being the worldwide missionary movement. Globalization at this point was to be understood as extending the message of Christ and his church throughout the world, with Matthew 28:19–20 being the guiding biblical justi cation. e second phase

from 1945–1989, had as its carrier de-colonialization with the mode of universality being optimism and the theological mode being solidarity and dialogue. is time of globalization saw strides in ecumenism, interreligious dialogue, and the struggle for justice. e Nazareth Manifesto (Luke 4) and the Road to Emmaus (Luke 24) served as its guiding biblical justi cations. e nal phase, from 1989 to the present day, has global capitalism as its carrier. e mode of universality today is for a new global culture and the theological mode is bridge building. e breaking down of the dividing wall in Ephesians 2 undergirds the biblical justi cation, and the result becomes a quest between the global and the local (Schreiter 1994, 83–86). is schema is helpful, although we can see shades of the earlier phases continuing to overlap and shape our present-day realities in theological education.

Lois McKinny uses the term “globalized theological education" (2006, 274) while former director of the Eastern European based Higher Education Research Group (HERG) Carlin Kreber, along with other secular higher education experts, have preferred the term “internationalization” of education (2009:2). Kreber nds the term globalization problematic, as it usually refers to “increased interdependence” and a convergence of markets, economies, and cultures where local states have little power or voice. is climate creates competition, whereas “internationalization, on the other hand, describes greater mutual cooperation between states and activity across state borders” (Kreber 2009, 2). In other words, globalization leads to competition while internationalization leads to mutuality.

Higher education authorities Philip Altbach and Jane Knight view globalization and internationalization as related but distinct in their meanings:

Globalization is the context of economic and academic trends that are part of the reality of the 21st century. Internationalization includes the policies and practices undertaken by academic systems and institutions—and even individuals—to cope with the global academic environment. (Altbach and Knight 2007, 290)

Robin Helms and Laura Rumbly at Boston College Center for International Higher Education speak of “global engagement.” ey view global engagement as being committed to relationships with real partners in other parts of the world that goes beyond campus-based international

activities and instead “implies dedication to a deeper and more prolonged commitment to international partnerships for mutual bene t” (Helms and Rumbley 2012, 6).

It is important to understand the connectedness and nuances between terms as, depending on the literature and the author, a variety of terms are used to talk about the same issue. In 2010, ATS addressed this issue of terms for our guild and settled on “global awareness and engagement” to distance itself from “economic globalization” that is associated with the “Global North” but primarily to “re ect a more appropriate comportment with regard to this important reality” (Ruiz 2013).

e secular sector of secondary education found they too needed a rede nition of their long used term “internationalization” that would re ect the current challenges and changes in providers and methodologies of cross-cultural education. Jane Knight has proved a working de nition to address these new realities: “Internationalization at the national, sector, and institutional levels is de ned as the process of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of postsecondary education.” (2015, 2)

Implementations, Applications, and Recommendations

For over y years, experts have been aware and discussing the issue of globalized, internationalized, global awareness and engagement in education. As early as 1968, the secular educational system has been in discussion regarding the internationalization of education its implications, possibilities, and potential strategies.1 Since the 1983 ICETE Manifesto, with its twelve commitments, theological institutions have been experimenting with ways of implementation, and application and making recommendations toward a more globally engaged classroom. But even as the discussions, strategies, applications, and recommendations were happening, the world and the people on it continued to change and grow, creating a complex web of educational innovation and re-innovation. In 1994, Schreiter recommended preparing “ourselves and our students to understand the contextual, build strong local communities, and to interpret the global, both in its hegemonies—how it destroys human life—and in its gi s of decentralization, democratization, and local empowerment” (87). Early attempts were focused on campus-based initiatives; however, the birth

of the internet has given rapid rise to even faster change and more rapid innovations. Let us consider a sampling of ideas and recommendations from both theological and secular education sources.

In 1995 the University Center for Innovation in Teaching at Case Western Reserve University (CWRU) received a grant to fund a project designed to “prepare American students for practice abroad and for such transnational practice as social work with refugees or immigrant groups and international adoptions” (Johnson 1999, 379). e project paired American students and Romanian students through the medium of email. It was designed to connect the students at a “grassroots” level with assignments to share information and discuss social issues. While the project was not without its challenges, the project was deemed an overall success, as students “established common bonds, recognized cultural diversity, and prepared individually and professionally, for cross-cultural collaborations” (Johnson 1999, 392).

Fumitaka Matsuoka has made some important observations regarding challenges for “theological education in a globalized world,” questioning the purpose of global education experiences and warning of “theological tourism” (21). For Matsuoka, this kind of tourism fails to transform the tourist and instead reinforces the power imbalance. Altbach and Peterson (1998) suggest the same concern, stating that very few US students that study abroad “graduate with uency in another language. Increasingly, students are permitted to study abroad with no language pro ciency. is trend contributes to a growing image in many countries that American students are not there for studies but for extended tourism” (1999, 16). Matsuoka also voices the concern that because Christianity as expressed in Christendom has been complicit in the sins associated with conquest, modernity, and globalization, its ability to convey the gospel message to all cultures has been deeply compromised (1999, 22).

Roy Brubacher, pastor and director for the Mennonite Central Committee Overseas Center in the early 1990s, comments on the changes he has observed in globalization in theological education by noting that it has

changed from calculating the number of professors taking sabbaticals overseas and counting the number of international students on

| 149 campus, to exposing more students to transcultural issues, requiring students to have an educational experience in a di erent cultural context, considering international students as resources for the school (rather than just recipients) and developing partnerships for ongoing exchanges and mutual learning (2009, 9).

He was encouraged by this trend, a rming that theological education should always connect on a local level (2009, 11) and that all gi ings are valuable in the global church and should not only be celebrated but utilized for the good of the global church (2009, 22).

In another example of recommendations for “internationalized education” Knight suggests, “1) new programs with international theme, 2) international, cultural, global, or comparative dimension infused into existing courses, 3) foreign language study, 4) area or regional studies, 5) joint or double degrees” (28). In the classroom teaching and learning process she recommends, “1) active involvement of international students, students who have returned from studying abroad, and cultural diversity of classroom in teaching/learning process, 2) virtual student mobility for joint courses and research projects, 3) use of international scholars and teachers as well as local international/intercultural experts, 4) Integration of international and intercultural case studies, role playing, and reference materials” (2005, 28).

Barnes agrees with Knight’s recommendations and further advocates for strategic partnerships in order to move toward intentional international engagement (2011, 6). Altbach takes the next step, stressing the importance of each institution having a “foreign policy” that would address the overall philosophy of the university that would take into account questions of geographic priority, research foci, funding, and the proportion of focus intended for faculty, graduate, and undergraduate students. is foreign policy, Altbach suggests, should be a strategic vision, not a blueprint for speci c activities but rather intended as a guide or guiding principles (2012, 8). Schlör and Barnes add, “In order to develop and implement an international partnership strategy that is e ectively integrated into the institution’s core values and missions, what must be in place is some sort of advisory body, with representation from the key sectors of the research, education, and engagement enterprises.” (2012, 13)

In 2010, editors Dietrich Werner, David Esterline, Namsoon Kang, and Joshva Raja published the “Handbook of eological Education in World Christianity,” which aims to continue the search “for relating theological education to the wider perspectives of the Kingdom of God” (xx). is compendium is a deep well of ideas, re ections, and recommendations regarding theological education that can easily be applied to teaching mission that, unfortunately, this paper does not have time to adequately address. However, we will consider a few important ideas from a couple of its authors.

Shortly before his untimely death, Steve de Gruchy wrote that theological education requires missional praxis in at least four important ways: orientation toward the world, furthering the telos of life, learning from engaged praxis, and being intentionally interdisciplinary. At the same time, missional praxis depends on theological education to help conceive the agenda, remind mission practitioners and educators that the primary agent of mission is God, and to deconstruct the colonial missionary legacy. And nally, theological education needs to be a place where teachers and students problematize the power relations between those who “know” and those who do not “know” to nd new ways of learning and growing collaboratively (2010:49). “ eological education needs to be intentionally interdisciplinary in nature, and theological education needs to help students to understand the world just as much as they need to understand the Bible, the tradition, the creeds and the liturgy.” (de Guchy 2010, 45)

Namsoon Kang, professor of World Christianity and Religions at Brite Divinity School at Texas Christian University and president of WOCATI (World Conference of Associations of eological Institutions) recognizes that theological discourse from the West has been long observed as normative while theologies from other parts of the world have been deemed as exotic, indigenous, or contextual (2010, 35). is phenomenon has caused nonWestern theological ideas to be considered particular and lacking universal application or status (2010, 35). She proposes a “postcolonial discourse” that will cause theologians, practitioners, and we can add missiologists, to rethink how the ideas of Western theology have been embedded and disseminated through our theological education institutions and further reminds us that “theological education and its pedagogy are always inextricably linked to ‘power’ and theological educators exercise ‘power’ both institutionally and personally, whether or not they intend to do so” (2010:39). A postcolonial

discourse should not necessarily wrestle with the eradication of this Western power but rather “bring the enlargement of human liberation, equality, and justice in the world, regardless who/what one is, through the right exercise of the pedagogical power that theological educators have” (Kang 2010, 39).

Challenges

Miroslav Volf articulates some of the primary challenges of theological education in his chapter “Dancing for God: Evangelical Education in Global Context” as nancial, institutional, contextual, pedagogical, and theological (2010, 722). Financial challenges, both institutionally as well as on the part of the student, can substantially increase in a global classroom where students and professors are connecting from everywhere to everywhere. Institutions face the challenges of paying salaries, providing up-to-date technologies and libraries stocked with the most recent scholarship on the various seminary disciplines and one could add, the need for these resources to be available in multiple languages. Volf further notes that globalization itself is widening the gap between the rich and the poor (2010, 721), thus contributing to power structures rather than “leveling the playing eld.” Upon re ection of this fact, we can see that this disparity a ects not only the student at the time of their study as they spend for studies or consider student loans, but also when a student becomes a practitioner and seeks to nd funding to minister as a missionary in another country or culture. Another challenge institutions confront is creating sustainable partnerships for consistent collaboration between members of faculty and students. Volf questions how

the kind of knowledge demanded by the globalization process— knowledge understood primarily as exible technical know-how oriented toward satisfying immediate needs—relate to the kind of knowledge theological education has traditionally favored— knowledge understood as wisdom drawn from sacred texts and oriented toward life in light of the world’s ultimate future? (2010, 721)

is is a good question and one we must take seriously as we consider our movement from “sage or stage,” teaching to a world-stage framework that invites a diverse array of voices to speak into the classroom. e challenges and questions of pedagogy strike at the heart of the questions presented at the beginning of this paper. Volf asks, “To what extent is the

mass-education model appropriate for theological education—whether it is teacher or learner centered—and to what extend should we work with an apprenticeship model?” (2010, 722)?

Higher education in the secular world faces many of the same questions and challenges as well as those not articulated by Volf and others. For example, Mitchell and Nelson state that economic globalization has turned knowledge into a commodity that can be bought and sold on a global scale. is issue increases the power di erential between those that “know” and those that do not (also mentioned by Kang and implied by Volf), turning “knowledge production and distribution into symbolic status and power resources with signi cant consequences” (2012, 7). Further, institutions locked into a “state-centered” world struggle to respond to global realities of competition and increasing populations (Mitchell and Nelson 2012, 9).

DeWitt et al. experimented with a project using Globally Networked Classrooms (GNC), observing the challenges of navigating various time zones, technology, and language related issues posing the greatest obstacles to this intentionally international education initiative (2015, 88). ey recommend asynchronous spaces such as email, blogs, and Facebook where students could connect, thus nullifying most of the issues previously mentioned. To address the language issues, instructors attempted to create assignments that o ered all students, regardless of language, access to the materials: “For example, assignments drew on visual inquiry methods, academic readings were limited to those deemed essential and discussed during class, disciplinary jargon was minimized, and multimedia or authentic web resources were linked when possible.” (DeWitt, et al. 2015, 89)

We have only scratched the service of the challenges we face in creating a world-stage classroom. Many more challenges await as we continue to participate in the missio Dei and guide students to ful ll their calling to join God in his mission. McKinney articulates well our aim for what she calls “globalized theological education:” “Globalized theological education is rooted in the missio Dei, celebrates spiritual formation, a rms the missional nature of the church, and emerges from hermeneutical communities (206, 274).

Current Projects in Global Awareness and Engagement

In the summer of 2017, the Lilly Endowment through ATS awarded grants to forty four seminaries for faculty development for the facilitation and implementation of new educational models and practices. While the summaries of these projects show an array of activities and goals, a few common themes emerge. e majority of the seminaries were interested in online, hybrid, and other innovative ways of course delivery. Because enrollment of non-United States citizens in ATS accredited seminaries has risen from 3.3% in 1995 to 18.5% in 2018 ( e Association of eological Schools), these seminaries took very seriously the issues of global awareness and engagement, acknowledging the need to address their diverse classrooms in culturally relevant ways in order to prepare the students for the global engagement of ministry.2

Asbury eological Seminary had as its goal to improve faculty understanding on how to best engage a student holistically though cognitive and asocial methods. To this end, they conducted faculty seminars to augment their skills and techniques. As a result of this project, they have recommended that ATS add Continuing Education Units (CLE) as a requirement to help with faculty development for new realities in a changing world.

Boston University's school of eology’s project was to build faculty intercultural competence through the “Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI). ey found that building intercultural competence couldn’t be sustainable without creating a culture for faculty development in this area, both individually and in peer groups. In other words, the whole institution needed to be invested and developed towards this goal as its ongoing vision. is concept reinforces what Qiang has stated: “Internationalization must be entrenched in the culture, policy, planning, and organizational process of the institution so that it can be both successful and sustainable” (2003, 257–258). Church Divinity School of the Paci c also used the IDI and found that it was merely a starting point to open opportunities of development within their faculty.

Columbia eological Seminary had the goal of helping students make connections between theological disciplines and the global church through three speci c interdisciplinary classes with the same learning

outcomes: 1) to critically engage the culture and theological forces that shape our personal faith, 2) analyze social contexts using a variety of methods and tools, 3) work and appreciate unfamiliar contexts and cultures, and 4) create an implement courses of action to contexts of change. ey found that while teaching integrative courses involve many of the same pedagogical skills as teaching within their own discipline, very few were actually trained to think in multidisciplinary ways.

Grace eological Seminary’s aim was to ensure that all faculty understood the goals and best practices of competency-based theological education. is required faculty to assume the posture of a student exploring new pedagogical paradigms. eir key recommendations were to 1) embrace collaboration, 2) involve faculty stakeholders early, 3) invite all institutional parties to the table, 4) realize that just as technology must be updated so must CBTE programs, and 5) good communication and delivery or promise outcomes are essential.

e Institut de Formation éologique de Montréal’s project was to explore the idea of the “ ipped classroom,” where the teacher changes role from actor to observer while students change from observer to actor. is concept of the “ ipped classroom” was also explored by Sacred Heart Seminary and School of eology with the goal to understand speci cally the cultural contexts and learning styles of their millennial students. is is an interesting concept when applied to teaching mission as we consider the ethnic and cultural diversity of our students and what they can bring to the classroom as far as their experiences and their access to literature in languages to which the teacher and other students may not have access.

Meadville Lombard eological School’s goal was to develop faculty with an intercultural mindset able to teach in a global learning community. Some recommendations from their project were to create and implement a universally designed syllabus that would aid international and disabled students in interpreting the class and its requirements, create a policy that would make course bibliographies more accessible to international students, and to nd a learning/teaching platform that would be more accessible to international students. e also learned that they need to make their pedagogy more explicit so that international students would have greater understanding of how courses are taught and the reasoning behind assignments and assessment. Finally, they realized that they need to shi

from a transactional model of education to a more mutually transformative one.

At Northern Seminary (Lisle, IL), their goal was to address multiculturalism in the classroom to help students deal with multiculturalism in their ministry contexts. ey found that people are conditioned to think of their own culture as normal and natural and others as strange and exotic.

e same could be said for our pedagogy. One of their recommendations was to “maximize the organic resource” or in other words, use the people resources you have available in your learning community. is includes amplifying, at times, the minority voices in the classroom. As a result of their project, they developed eight strategies for diverse education: 1) e library will assist professors to select readings from a diverse range of voices.

2) Add more women and people of color to the faculty. 3) Faculty will be more intentional listeners in the classroom. 4) Develop a curriculum that is relevant in a diverse number of cultural contexts. 5) Increase number of courses for marginalized or minority students. 6) Consider adding a new orientation course to inform students of the importance of listening to an array of voices. 7) Create a multidisciplinary environment by bringing students from di erent degree programs together in the same classroom. 8) develop better ways for students to provide feedback on the curriculum.

Oblate School of eology sought to design a program for professors to more e ectively teach culturally, linguistically and theologically diverse students. eir key recommendations the following were: 1) Build assignments that allow students reading choices from their own distinct tradition. 2) Faculty become comfortable with asking students to explain how their tradition understand certain things. 3) Allow students to work in their rst language as much as possible. 4) Faculty must develop knowledge about how learning take place in di erent cultures. 5) Finally, faculty are encouraged to imagine success and unity.

At the San Francisco eological Seminary, their focus was on providing high quality online classes. ey found that it was important to create “curriculum roadmaps” that were tailor-made for each course. eir project also served to convince the faculty of the importance for online theological education for future students to thrive. Additionally, the faculty developed a greater appreciation for need to implement diverse alternative ways of learning and teaching.

e School of eology and Ministry at Seattle University sought to develop new skills in contextual education with a greater emphasis on public theology and ministry which they understand to have a collaborative posture with multiple areas of theological and ministry engagement. ey intentionally engaged community organizations, encouraged faculty to attend non-theological and non-ministerial conferences, and trained faculty in online pedagogy and course design. One of the innovative features of this project was “ePortfolios” which create an online WordPress shell where students can display their “learning artifacts.” ese WordPress blogs not only help students develop and share their own beliefs but allow them a creative platform to express a “public” theological voice. is is an important public connection for seminary students who live in a digital age but are still encouraged to publish and express their voice through analogue media.

e two key learnings were

1) collaboration with other centers is key and

2) “theological education must continue to evolve to help students claim a public voice that is bold and accessible.”

Conclusions

e conversation around globalized education is not a new one and yet as our world changes and expands, so too must this conversation. We have seen that over the years several key elements have surfaced repeatedly as educators have attempted to address the issues that have arisen as a result of globalization and realized that no one culture owns exclusive rights to knowledge and information and that there is no one way that all people learn or teach. e common themes from both secular and theological education sources are collaboration with sources in and outside of the classrooms, intentionality of engagement and selection of resources and modes of delivery, interdisciplinary pedagogy, a relational model that diminishes power distances between educator and student as well as cultures, and a university-wide commitment to a globalized education that transcends disciplinary silos.

No longer can higher education o er “sage on stage” methods where an educator ponti cates all knowledge that students must then absorb as singular truth bounded by historic power structures. Because culture is not static, our pedagogy must not be static. William Shakespeare wrote, “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players” (As You Like It 1623, Act II, Scene VII). As image bearers of God, we have all been created

Haynes | 157 to perform our part in God’s grand narrative, which is played out in this world and in theological education. e voices, stories, and experiences of all people make a valuable contribution. When educators move from being sages to fellow actors in God’s grand theo-drama, the entire educational experience is transformed, dynamic, and enriched. “In the 21st century, robust learning requires knowledge to be constructed from global dialogue, collaboration, and mutual experience” (McAuli e and Sutton 2012, 14).

Endnotes

1 See Bantock, G. H. 1968. Culture, Industrialisation and Education. Students Library of Education. London, New York: Routledge & K. Paul; Humanities P.

2 Complete summaries can be found here: https://doi.org/chromeextension:/oemmndcbldboiebfnladdacbdfmadadm/https:/www.ats.edu/ uploads/resources/current-initiatives/educational-models/summariesfaculty-development-grants.pdf-2018. “Faculty Development Forum Project Summaries.” Lilly Endowment, Inc. Grant Report. Denver, CO: e Association of eological Schools in the United States and Canada e Commission on Accrediting. is is a pdf document of combined reports with various paginations.

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Storytelling And Hospitality As A Communication Strategy For CrossCultural Relationships With MiddleEastern Diaspora

Victoria Siela

Abstract

One of the leading sociological hindrances preventing the church from befriending the Muslim Americans leaving Islam today includes a disdain or contempt toward religious others di erent from ourselves. Along with changing the lens through which the American views religious others, one of the trending approaches to e ectively sharing the gospel to those of a Muslim background in the twenty rst century includes the use of storytelling as an orality strategy. is paper explores the facets of e ective orality strategies that will help build relationships with those with MiddleEastern and Muslim backgrounds located in America.

Introduction

Preparing the American church for mission in the current and upcoming years requires a cross-cultural aptitude for connecting with the diaspora from Middle Eastern cultures. e LifeWay report (Cook, 2018) states that one in four American Muslims who were raised in Islam leave Islam, while three of those four American Muslims switch to something other than Christianity. is trend provides a signi cant opportunity for churches to engage Muslims, yet the question each biblically-based church must be held accountable to answer includes whether or not the gospel is on the table for their Muslim background neighbor. Keeping pace with the changing landscape of mission in the United States requires a robust ecclesial response creating a movement by Gospel in uencers genuinely befriending Muslim background diaspora from the Middle East.

Along with changing the lens through which the American views religious others, one of the trending approaches to e ectively sharing the gospel to diaspora peoples in the twenty- rst century includes the use of storytelling as an orality strategy. In Christianity Today Online Jerry Wiles (2017) reports ministries in Houston, Texas were nding orality methods e ective for reaching refugee populations, street gangs, prison inmates, the homeless, and others. Once people have experienced orality, the Holy Spirit o en inspires creative and innovative strategies beyond the content of the training. Stetzer notes another new movement, Orality in Business Network, as e ective in the states as well as interculturally in the West African bush.

While the end result of applying any of the orality approaches must include conveying the gospel and discipling, the caveat to this involves an issue of timing—knowing when it is wise to take the step to present the gospel. Tensions and tides exist within any cross-cultural relationships, especially in the context of building interreligious communication. Storytelling within a hospitable context allows for an exchange of sharing each other’s stories and eventually rebuilding one’s story. Or as author Tom Ste en refers to it, “restoryation” (Ste en 2018) is the development of a new life story through coming to Christ. rough two interviews with religious others, I discovered that the telling of one’s story allows for revisions of the story’s conclusions. Sharing stories is done in an atmosphere of God’s Spirit moving in the created event, space, and time to bring the dignity of listening to the religious other. When one provides an appropriate, caring response to o en tragic and traumatic events, Christ’s incarnational presence begins to build a corner of the “restoryation.” Without the dignity of listening to religious others and their stories, little if any opportunity for cross-cultural witness will develop among the diaspora stateside.

In listening to the stories of those from the diaspora, one must hear and respond to the wrongdoing toward immigrant or refugee background community members from the Middle East. If the church were to take an advocative role, serving as the living intercession between the evil demonstrations of hate among racist Americans and the loving embracing church, she may help to prevent those social injustices from happening again, rewriting the story of the American church’s historical failings while reinvigorating Christ-centered hospitality in the following generation among those giving dignity with space and time for listening.

Innovative use of storytelling strategies occurs across many disciplines for di erent purposes. Storytelling by senior executives is popular in the corporate businesses for training individuals and new executives. Executive coaching uses storytelling as a way to help workers to see their blind spots through the story’s character portraits. Education has always used storytelling as a means for literacy development, and storytelling is especially e ective in case studies in which stories train students in the complexities of problem solving across law, medical, and social science elds.

Preparing the Ground of Trust

Trust building is an essential element to any lasting discipleship relationship and must develop in order to provide a safe atmosphere for life-changing decisions. e attempt to share the Gospel with another person prior to emotional trust development could inadvertently pre-empt receptivity toward the salvation message. A more nuanced approach, with an extension of relationship and trust development prior to presenting the gospel, serves as a necessary pre-requisite to the orality strategy used to convey the Gospel and provide discipleship. Multiple life stories in a context of hospitality may need to be shared before a Muslim friend could trust the Christ-follower in a religious conversation. Sustaining an interreligious and cross-cultural dialogue requires the foundation of trust in which the atmosphere allows for consideration of life-altering change and the ensuing discipleship. Cristian Dumitrescu (2019) introduced the model that best suits reaching the religious other including three facets: belonging, behaving, and believing. Dumitrescu explains the resistance to the Gospel felt by those with other worldviews and that it is only when they rst belong to a group with a di erent worldview that they will begin to behave as a Christian and then only a er they belong and behave will they adopt Christian beliefs.

Other hierarchial dimensions of the relationship may need attening as well, including those of perceived greater community status versus those with less community status and those who are independent versus those who need assistance. Trust must be a key development on the road to longterm discipleship communication if one does not want to be dismissed from the relationship. Further detriment extends even to the entire family or clan members when trust is broken in collective and honor-shame cultures such as in Middle Eastern cultures. Seeking and receiving trust is culturally de ned and can disrupt the entire community.

Approaches to reconciliation following con ict is a key in building sustainable cross-cultural community. Elmer (2006, 85–86) points out that the western approach to repairing a relationship when trust has been broken is through directly stating an apology to the injured party. ose from a collectivist society have an indirect approach, waiting for a mediator who talks with each party to help build a bridge when they tire of the broken trust in the relationship. Forgiveness is accomplished through an attitude and behavioral change rather than through words of apology in order to indicate forgiveness.

How people experience the phenomena of storytelling in interreligious contexts as a storyteller and/or as a receptor requires a desire for a planned interaction allowing the necessary time and space. When it comes to communicating while serving in a cross-cultural setting, few see the need to reach out to the refugee with the Middle East Muslim background as the religious other, making intentional relationship connections out of the question for many in the church. In What has your Church Become?, Veroni Kruger (Kruger 2014, 223) quotes David Bosch’s (Bosch 1980) description of the church's beauty and imperfect state of helping whoever might believe in Christ:

e church has, since her birth, been a peculiarly ambivalent body. She is in but not of the world. She always moves ‘between salvation history and history’. She is a sociological entity like any other human organization and as such susceptible to all human frailties … Seen through the eyes of the world she is usually under suspicion, disreputable and shabby; in the light of eternity she is a mystery … we can be utterly disgusted at ties with the earthiness of the church; at other times we are enraptured by the awareness of the divine dimension in the church. Usually however, it is the ambivalence that strikes us: the church as a community of people—good people, weak people, hesitant people, courageous people—on their way through the world, dust-stained but somehow strangely illuminated by a radiancy from elsewhere. (Bosch 1980)

“For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life” (John 3:16).1

e “whoever” in this cited verse is now the religious other; it is this eternal

life for the other one must yearn for stemming from the root of abiding in the desires of God and walking by the Spirit.

Storytelling with Dinner Hospitality: An Orality Event

e form of meal-time hospitality in the rstcentury church has continued even into the most recent renewal of dinner gatherings, connecting unbelievers to the gospel message. In looking at the obvious growing immigrant population in the United States and European countries and the shrinking and dissolving of American congregations, there is a movement re-invigorating churches, resulting in expansion in the context of urban and suburban neighborhoods.

Another meal-time church arose in the neighborhood with primarily Middle Easterners, according to a Seattle-based pastor (Interview with Benjamin Hurst, December 17, 2018). e young millennial Pastor Ben was excited to report the dinners set up in the apartment complex housing many Middle-Eastern refugees. Pastor Hurst helps to implement the dinner church initially launched by Verlon Fosner, founder of the Dinner Church, Seattle (Fosner 2017). e national socio-political polarization does not seem to be an issue at this church nor does security in their praxis to the new neighbors of Muslim background. is renewal of biblical hospitality in the form of hosting dinner parties accompanied with intentional conversations occurs on the road to church expansion.

Verlon Fosner (2017, 83) proposes taking a lesson from Paul the Apostle for today’s missional church. Missiologists may bene t from a communication strategy that builds bridges with religious others through the common language of hospitality. Paul, instead of using the right/wrong language of following the 613 rabbinical laws for attaining righteousness, creates a nuanced approach for Gentiles to discover Christ, highlighting its contrast to the right/wrong coercive law to promote righteousness. Paul’s path of grace through Christ would prevent a cultural impasse had he used the coercive law for teaching righteousness to the Gentiles.

To unpack this intercultural communications strategy further, one must unpack the intersection of mealtime hospitality and storytelling. Storytelling by newcomers must be an authentic invitation to those from

an orality culture like that of the Middle East. Storytelling for discipleship can be designed for pre-Christian discipleship as well as for discipleship following salvation. Both must involve the contextualized and intentional use of storytelling to connect the Muslim background Middle Easterner with the gospel message through a series of little stories appropriately given in response to conversations.

While the phenomenon of storytelling may provide uidity, the use of metaphors to convey an idea in one culture will be ine ective in conveying the intended idea to another culture. Storytelling e ectiveness must include adaptations. ree major cultures exist: the North American and European western individualistic culture, the Asian and Middle Eastern honor and shame culture, and the African and Asian animistic culture.

Storytelling is a tool that crosses cultures as well various disciplines.

e obvious use of storytelling in literacy across the grade levels in the United States needs little if any explanation when it comes to engaging students. In executive coach training, one to two-minute short stories are strategically used to help clients re ect on various topics. e inroads made with those of Middle Eastern Muslim background were not due to lengthy theological discussions but rather through consistent short-story (some testimonies) exchanges over food, social gatherings, and personal struggles. Short stories such as testimonials may provide mini life lessons.

e struggles of living cross-culturally can be eased through the stories of others when it is di cult to resolve one’s circumstances. Sharing meal times and stories allows an equal playing eld cross-culturally, and storytelling may contribute to attening any power distance across cultural barriers and biases. Meal times and stories serve several functions and are illustrated in three conversations (informal interviews) with strategically guided questions designed to bring out more depth of one’s story. e couple with an Algerian and Saudi Arabian Muslim background and a woman with a Syrian Sunni Muslim background are interviewees included in samples of the cross-cultural communication strategies of storytelling during mealtime hospitality.

e Algerian and Saudi Arabian Muslim Background Couple: Sabrina

and Saleem

A er a year-long friendship with Sabrina and Saleem, a newlywed Algerian couple living in the United States, more clarity regarding their origin emerged as a few families of Green Bay origin sat down over a birthday celebration, and many surprising connections developed. My hope was to build connection, but I did not understand fully what Sabrina and Saleem’s involvement with Islam entailed. However, they joyfully explained to us that although they were seculars with Su Muslim backgrounds, their families of origin in Algeria were Arabic and French speaking. en one of the hosts asked a follow up question regarding their parents’ town of origin, resulting in more layers of ethnic origin and cultures. Sabrina described her grandparents as having come from the mountain with a monastery on it and concluded there were Berbers with Christian roots. Saleem mentioned the in uence of Saint Augustine as a Berber who converted to Christianity.

Saleem provided the history of his family of origin as belonging to the noble ruling class of Mohammed from Saudi Arabia. However, growing up as a Su Algerian French-speaking Muslim gave him a broadening world perspective. He expressed concerns for his native land regarding today’s loss of work ethic among the Algerian natives as the current in ux of Asians coming to work in Algeria take up jobs. Chinese companies developing businesses in the urban areas a ecting job status and opportunities also bring concerns.

Following the wife’s story about her people’s family of origin revealed some commonality to build from; the family of origin discussion led to the husband’s expounding on the African church father, Augustine. e Augustine discussion led to a discussion of the African Bible commentary I had read. I shared that the article noted the lack of knowledge among Christians of the origins of the early church bishops primarily from African descent. I decided perhaps he would like the new African Study Bible which has extensive footnotes on the church fathers from Africa.

At the end of the evening, I asked the Algerian couple in private whether they had desire for a family and if they would like me to pray for them in that direction. ey gleefully agreed they would appreciate our prayers for a child. As they lingered, I o ered to pray for them before they

le that cold winter Wisconsin night. ey graciously received the laying on of hands as they stood together; our host and I prayed in the name of Jesus for the divine intervention for a child.

I followed the prayer with a brief faith-building story of a couple that had spent forty thousand dollars twice for in-utero fertilization and had no success at age of forty one. One day she confessed she just could not let go of wanting a child. A er the commitment to pray for the blessing of a child, she had become aware of a dietician’s success in helping couples to conceive. I followed up the story with a meta-narrative stating that God could help them by giving them new wisdom like the couple in the story so that they would not have to use orty thousand dollars. A connection was made as Sabrina then responded with a story of a woman who became pregnant right a er the adoption of a child occurred. We all laughed at the common occurrence of such an event. e husband told my friend and I that we were welcome to call and set up more times for gathering without the formality of an event. e next day, the host decided the Algerian couple was ready to receive the French/English bilingual Bible and delivered it to their apartment.

Hybrids of communication strategies must be an option when the predominant culture is combined with subcultures. While the evening together brought much more connection than hoped for, it also showed me that one would not be able to presume a typical category of shame/honor culture for this couple, especially with the mixture of secular and Christian culture with Su sm.

E ective Storytelling through Meta-narratives

In re ecting on the ongoing use of storytelling throughout Christian history, one sees repeatedly that it has a natural t for discipling through Scripture and testimonials that convey biblical principles. However, without the plumb line of a high view of Scripture, the current use of storytelling among churches with a low-view of Scripture becomes another missional topic.

According to the description of narrative theology in the book Missiological Research: Interdisciplinary Foundations, Methods, and Integration, editor and author Paul Lewis (2016, 101) describes a movement

| 171 in the discipline of theology, as narrative theology in which focusing on believers’ life occurrences and events as expressed through the form of a story or narrative are connecting people within a community building process. While relationships are enhanced through the positive e ects of testimonies shared, some observe the contribution of testimonies among faith groups to counter biblical stances. A young professional (Interview with college graduate, December 16, 2018) suggests considerations that testimonials or storytelling has become the liberal device for justifying any agenda a person might want to a rm. Storytelling within a University of Wisconsin Madison’s Presbyterian campus dinner gathering encourages congregants to embrace all lifestyles since the Bible is not the nal authority in their theological positions.

Lewis (2016, 101) notes syncretism as a danger without a biblical worldview that lters through stories. e local church becomes the fundamental community that protects and perpetuates a person’s story within the Christian metanarrative which acknowledges that ethics, beliefs, and actions are motivated, informed, and undergirded by narratives. However, the church in some cases has a lowview of Scripture. Preparing for interreligious storytelling may require the provision of metanarratives on the front end of storytelling in order to prevent unbiblical narratives, resulting in syncretism; weak biblical exegesis and failure to appropriate biblical truths may result in misleading Christ followers.

While it is commonly understood that Christ’s parables and power encounters were key tools designed to stir transformations in perspectives during His discourse, Christ provided continual metanarratives, such as in the miracles performed to Korazin and Bethsaida in which He denounced cities for a lack of repentance upon the demonstration of power (Matt. 11:21–23 and Luke 10:13–15). Well intentioned churches may err on the side of multiple meanings connected to the storytelling of Christians and religious others.

Yet storytelling remains a form in churches and the ontological critique because storytelling rituals satisfy the disciple’s need for evidence of the unseen. Testimonials by those experiencing life in Christ are common evidences of the prophetic, wisdom, and divine, all of which creatively bring a word of intervention into people’s lives to reroute the trajectory of their life stories. e latest videography used in churches provides viewers potential

metanarratives which communicate evidence of life changes in water baptisms, life groups of fellowship and Bible study, mission outreaches and worship times.

Conveying perspectives through storytelling in order to transmit the desirable thought processing for best practices is documented from social science research. e World Science Festival. included a panel of researchers discussing the Science of Narrative: Why We Tell Stories which cited a study done at Toronto University, Canada (Haselschwerdt 2017). Researchers observed MRI brain activity responses to storytelling as they overlapped with neural processing for social understanding; there was some connection between storytelling and gained social understanding measured by responses to pictures shown a erward. Storytelling changed people’s way of thinking, but that change in thinking was temporary. While storytelling may not be enough to permanently change people’s way of thinking, sustaining the e ect of social change through story continues to be explored. Storytelling may need the metanarrative around story in order to sustain social change.

Eric Aasland (2012) refers to the idea of a metanarrative statement, sometimes referred to as narrativization, which summarizes the intended meaning of a proverb or saying following its presentation. Aaslund (2016) also writes on discourse modalities and highlights the need for three aspects: a narrative, proposition, and wisdom. e objective of a story has a proposition, which is followed by a proverb. e proverb helps listeners to understand the purpose of the story clearly when they are given a concluding phrase of wisdom highlighting the moral of the story. In application of highlighting the purpose of a conversation and initiating prayer with the Algerian couple, I did not want them to misunderstand the Christian prayer for a conception. When storytelling is followed by a concluding statement in order to keep the listener focused on the gist of the story, it can be customized to more e ectively witness Christ in the type of culture receiving the story.

Contextualizing Storytelling and Metanarrative for Middle Eastern Culture

Jayson Georges (2017) provides insight into what anthropologist Eugene Nida (1954) clari es as the three types of cultures based on the three primary emotional responses of guilt, shame, and fear: (1) A guilt or Innocence response is found in the individualistic western cultures that

view wrongdoing as a transgression of law requiring forgiveness to become innocent. (2) A shame and honor response is found in collectivistic Asian and Arab cultures that shun people who fail to meet community expectations and require restoration to avoid exclusion. (3) A fear and power response is found in animistic tribal contexts of Africa in which the people fear the unseen world of spirits, curses, and ancestors, sometimes using magical rituals to gain power over the spiritual world.

In the case of developing further communication with the complex hybrid mixing the Middle Eastern and African cultures along with the Berber and Su version of Islam, the Saudi-Algerian couple having lived in the United States, may require a more nuanced metaphor by which to connect them to faith conversation. Although one might default to the recommended Middle Eastern honor and shame perspective, commonly understood American metaphors might be more current. Georges (2017, 41-42) lists key honor/shame scriptures and narratives: e man and his wife were both naked, but they felt no shame (Gen. 2:25). Jesus endured the cross, disregarding its shame, and has taken his seat at the right hand of the throne of God (Heb. 12:2). Anyone who trusts in him will never be put to shame (Rom. 10:11). For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God (Rom. 3:23). Some of the narratives that could be e ective include the narratives of honor: Adam (Gen. 2), Ruth and Naomi (Ruth), and Israel (Ezek. 16).

Sociological Hindrances to Hospitality

Contempt for the Middle Eastern diaspora, may contribute to the downfall of the American church. According to Richard Beck (2011, 41), being hospitable toward others requires the absence of disdain or disgust for others; if one sees the other as ‘unclean,’ one is likely to disengage missionally, seeing the other as a cultural contaminant or de cit. Beck cites contempt for others among the guests at the Corinthian church’s re-enactment of the Lord’s Supper.

e discipline of family social sciences provides insight into the detrimental e ect of contempt; John Gottman’s research (Carrere and Gottman, 1999, cited in Beck 2011, 110) observed the indicators of failing emotional intimacy predicting divorce from the rst three minutes of a con ict discussion. Couples who showed contempt or

disdain (a sense of superiority over the other) during the con ict instead of just anger during the rst three minutes of a con ict were more likely to eventually end up divorced compared to those whose con ict did not include disgust for the other. Contemptuous attitudes are lethal to the most intimate relationships and could prevent relationships to the diaspora from developing.

e ethno-centrism of the average American can cut short crosscultural communication when the questions of newcomers center around how they like America. Instead, at an American Society of Missiology

luncheon 2018, Professor Eric Aaslund (Interview with Eric Aaslund, June 15, 2018) shared that he advocates for the use of questions to draw out one’s origin of family and home rather than focusing on the adjustment to the newcomers’ current location. In applying more strategy in the types of questions, (Slimbach 2002) cross-cultural conversations produced a depth in the range of responses with those of Muslim background. e results of strategic questions created a more rigorous exchange that allowed further open-ended questions that allowed dialogue over spiritual topics.

e Western perspective is another hindrance to e ectively communicating with the Middle Eastern diaspora. Tom A. Ste en (2005) advocates for a non-Western approach to discipleship through the use of storytelling as the most natural, universal, and e ective means that exists. Ste en identi es the roles and tasks necessary to become an e ective storyteller in another culture at home or abroad. Even such a strategy of intercultural communication may fail to be applied e ectively if one does not abide in the Holy Spirit who works to e ect a transformative intercultural interaction. Storytelling must be adapted through various forms to be e ective including media, songs, videos, and movies in order to convey a story.

e Damascus Road Experience

e South Side Venture is a joint e ort of the greater Milwaukee area churches and organizations providing a sustainable disciple-making movement among the unreached refugee and immigrant population on Milwaukee’s south side. South side’s workers have moved into the neighborhood in order to be catalysts in building relationships. e language center connected with Southside gains community involvement

175 from ministry programs and church organizations who desire to reach community members who are not likely to enter a church. It is through teaching English and helping with formal legal documents of immigrants that relationship is built, eventually allowing room for sharing the gospel through an established cross-cultural relationship.

A er a teacher friend nished English classes with four Middle Easterners, we drove up to the predominantly Latino district to park in a nearby business district in the historic Mitchell Street down the street from the well-maintained Basilica. Aarya (Interview with Iraqui Asylee, January 9, 2019) hosted us at the former Salas’ Burgers which was now a Syrian restaurant, e Damascus Gate. Aarya helped us to be comfortable, clarifying the menu items in Arabic.

Much to the surprise of my Milwaukee hostess friend and her Iraqi friend, we were greeted by the bearded man we had seen in the news coverage, a Milwaukee physician who had been the primary investor for the restaurant. On the business card it states: “More than a restaurant: A mission and a vision.” e physician was sporting the restaurant’s waiter sta t-shirt, explaining his presence due to a day o for a personal minor medical procedure. He ordered platters of food for us, telling us they want Americans to also enjoy the Middle Eastern cuisine. He was very hospitable and had the young twenty-something chef come out to do a brief interview.

When the young Syrian woman approached us, the physician explained to her that I would like to ask some questions. I smiled the biggest smile I could muster in hopes she would embrace us with ease. I asked Riham (Interview with restaurant chef, January 9, 2019) some questions as to how someone like myself could help build community with the Syrian newcomers to the United States. I did not expect such warmth in response when the translating physician said that my smile simply showed her that I have kind intentions toward her, and she knew I could be an authentic friend. She also jokingly said we could help if we teach her husband English so he can run the business. Realizing the open door, I asked her what she missed most from her homeland, and she surprised me with what she considered her lost treasures; she was missing the simplest pleasures, such as talking with girlfriends a er school in her neighborhood and the camaraderie of those relationships. It was clear her childlike heart had not been ready to leave all that she had known back in her Syrian upbringing.

In seeing Riham’s loss, no further questions were pursued as to why she le her childhood homeland; stirring up further emotion would have been a cruelty at that juncture with the lunch crowd nishing their meals in the restaurant, and no one likes to talk about ISIS terrorism. e rest of the interview focused on her recipes for the delicious sampler of baba ghanouj and homemade hummus.

I returned later in the spring to reconnect with Riham and this time she hugged me and kissed me on each cheek. She prepared some delicious lentil soup and warm pita for me as an employee translated for me. One of the employees (Interview with restaurant sta , June 17, 2019) explained that his father, upon seeing the impending wartime developing in Syria, established residence and a business in Dubai, United Arab of Emirates. A er the employee explained his thesis for his master’s degree in civil engineering, he assured that very helpful toward the research process I explained. A sense of belonging occurred within the restaurant sta and clientele interaction with an exchange of emails. ey handed out a yer for a National Refugee Day event their restaurant supported. ey o ered to help with any future research needed.

LifeWay Research (Cook 2018) suggests the following three steps to engage Muslims: (1) Learn the culture rst by being their guest as Jesus did, putting oneself in their place, such as in a Mosque or Middle Eastern restaurant or cultural celebration and learning their stories instead of inviting them into your domain rst and telling them your story. (2) Show hospitality just as Jesus frequently gathered with others over meals. e key is to use your home and recall Henri Nouwen’s statement that hospitality o ers people “space where change can take place.” Engaging people in real life and in natural places gives them a context for the gospel. (3) Prayer is essential. If you currently do not know any Muslims, begin with prayer. Over the next few weeks, pray for one or two new Muslim friends. As you pray, expect God to answer that prayer by making you more aware of the people around you and providing you with the possibility of new friendships.

According to the homogenous unit principle, people choose to group themselves into groups of people similar to themselves and become unconcerned with those of other groups. Kra (1991, 154) advocates for churches to transcend their homogeneous unit and potential cliquishness through (1) implementing learning experiences with dissimilar groups, (2)

leveraging the stronger opinion leaders to adopt and communicate new ideas to the others, and (3) using ethical and loving means to motivate church people to reach out and show integrity toward the recipients. Once a church attains or strives toward these goals to overcome the barriers to cross-cultural relationship building, it is essential to develop a means of communication that transcends cultures.

ere is the issue of communicating with someone who uses nonlinear reasoning that requires an alternative response. An Egyptian scholar Sobhi Malek (Malek 2013, 278) re ects that western missions to Muslim people are sometimes thrown o by the challenge of Islamic logic, as it is non-linear. Islamic logic allows for apparent contradictions that make sense to Muslims but are illogical to most Westerners. is cultural feature points to the fact that in drawing Muslims to Christ, a practical religious experience is far more important than theological reasoning and rational argumentation.

Storytelling transcends culture and can be formally or informally implemented to communicate, as illustrated in a video produced by Fuller eological Seminary’s Studio (Fuller 2015) on various conversations, including vital community building topics of reconciling race using the dinner table for others to tell their story:

Story Table ‒ a space made for unheard stories relevant to the “pain points” or topics relevant in one’s community, borrowing its mood from the intimate space of the dinner table in which a small group of non-homogenous friends or strangers, the “storytellers,” gather along with invited witnesses or observers who also share a meal and listen to the stories of the storytellers. Stories are selected to speak to a theme relevant to what the community is facing without turning it into a platform for opinions, political views, or favorite causes. e stories are heard and carried away with the recognition of their sacred nature. (Fuller 2015)

Across the readings in missiology, missiologists advocate contextualization of the gospel to the Middle Eastern diaspora in agreement with Paul who used Greek mythology references to help the Greeks to understand the message in Acts. Learning from historical gures point to relationships over apologetics with the goal of transformative in uence. Few

are trained to communicate about the Quran and the Bible with Muslim listeners and scholars while existing as true friends, such as occurred when American missionary, Samuel Marinus Zwemer, nicknamed the Apostle to Islam, stood on a literal wooden soap box in London’s Hyde Park (Zwemer Center podcast, 2015) on a Sunday a ernoon challenging a Muslim crowd. Engaging a crowd on the politico-theological stage le one vulnerable and on the verge of inciting a violent crowd while shouting over the hecklers. Yet, a er the debate, the Muslims and Christians went out for tea and lunch connecting relationally as friends. ere they listened and respected each other’s beliefs, asked good questions, and exchanged numbers to have meals together. Apologists may be able to defend the case for the Trinity, discuss the resurrection of Christ, and answer Islam on many dimensions; however, it was through the meal times and tea times in which friendships developed despite participation in the heckling crowd, according to Dr. Daniel Jonosik of the Zwemer Center for Muslim Studies.

Lack of involvement among neighbors all too o en inadvertently communicates superiority of holiness, exclusion, and hypocrisy in the mandate to love the neighbor as oneself. is trend exists in other parts of the world as well. According to a Korean Presbyterian pastor and seminary professor, (Lee 2015, 56) there is lack of desire on the part of Christians to see, hear, and care for their neighbors. Listening to one’s neighbor is not a technique; in order to truly hear the sigh of one’s neighbor in missional terms, the church must create listening eyes and hearts to pay attention to the sigh of the least of its neighbors, (196) not simply to ensure they receive a shallow understanding of salvation but rather to converse as part of where the Spirit of God is at work in their lives and neighborhoods.

Another strategic approach for engaging intercultural communication includes conversing about one’s perspective on current social injustices. O en refugees of war bring up the past injustices to self, family, and country. Matthew Kaemingk, theologian and ethicist, (Kaemingk 2018) encourages one to go beyond theories of justice to micro-practices of hospitality that focus on healing, listening, caring, reconciling, forgiving, and welcoming.

Kra (1991, 85) notes a key aspect in e ective cross-cultural communication; the priority for any communicator is to win and retain the permission of the receptors to enter their communicational space. Once given permission by the receptor to engage in a communicational transaction, one’s

communication and intended cultural forms or symbols through which the message is communicated must be accompanied by an understanding of the cultural forms. Kra (1991, 81) references the receptors of Lystra following the healing of a man lame since birth: “ e gods have become like men and have come down to us!” was followed by the crowds wanting to o er sacri ces to the apostles in deifying them. is example provides a view of the sovereignty of the receptor despite the intended meaning to bring healing for lame man in order to bring glory to God. Paul and Barnabus had to go into the crowd to keep them from sacri cing in Acts 14.

A receptor (Kra 1991) may misinterpret the meaning of an event through religious lters that include cultural meanings and conventions learned in childhood, but also with variables including personality, traumatic experiences, education levels, special needs, drug use, physical health, and mental health along with how a receptor’s culture would interpret communication.

Another aspect in developing an integrated communication strategy for reaching the religious other from Middle Eastern Islam requires determining the context by the particular sect of Islam and any cultural beliefs practiced. Especially important are any beliefs or practices that may be destructive to their physical, mental, or spiritual well-being related to the practices of Jihad and other terrorist acts.

While there are ve majority Islamic sects (Sunnis, Shias, Ahmadis, Su s and Nominal Muslims), Sunnis are the majority of Middle Eastern newcomers and may be the majority of the predicted focus group in the research phase of this dissertation. Furthermore, many of the Muslims are nominal believers, and the imminent and radical changes in Islam during the twenty rst century may trend toward a post-Islamic era in which Muslims become secular.

Variations within the Islamic sects can be di cult to navigate unless one understands the whole spectrum of beliefs. One facet to the diaspora includes those Muslims who identify with the Islamic reform movement in which believers return back to the Meccan Islam rather than the jihad of Medina Islam that fueled ISIS and Boko Haram terrorist groups. Kra (1991, 67) speaks about a bridge over the gaps of language, life experience, and tradition; before one can witness to religious others e ectively, one must rst

understand their worldview as well as the super cial or deep commitment they have to that view. Since they are the receiver or receptor, they actively decide their response to the communicated message, possessing the nal evaluation or interpretation whether right or wrong on the delivered message.

Secondly, the integrated communication strategy for reaching the Syrian diaspora, primarily of Sunni Muslim background, requires a multidisciplinary approach including (Kaemingk 2018, 300–304) navigating politics, psychology, discourse, anthropology, and theology. Listening to any trauma experienced as a refugee, hearing their places of pain and loss, helping them converse and process culture shock, all are steps to journeying with the diaspora through disillusionment over Islam or in a liminal state.

Once the friendship is mutually established, conversation may include (Global Initiative 2018, 134–35) (1) giving the written Word of God, (2) making positive statements of belief, (3) giving a personal testimony, (4) resisting the temptation to criticize Islamic faith, (5) trying to remove theological misunderstandings, and (6) remembering the primary issues (eternal life and current problems needing resolution). Appropriately placed, sacred stories or testimonies may be told in response to helping one to make more sense of a traumatic experience, act as a vehicle to deliver biblical principles that bring hope and peace in a storm of life.

Being informed of the di erences between cultures creates strategic approaches in cross-cultural relationships and storytelling orality through testimonies, biblical stories, music, or the arts. e six dimensions of cultural di erences include (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005): (1) power-distance, (2) collectivism/individualism, (3) masculine/feminine traits, (4) uncertainty/ avoidance, (5) long/short orientation, and (6) indulgence/restraint. One of the goals of Americans working stateside with Middle Easterners is to atten any superiority between the two cultures as well as put aside American individualism for a collectivistic approach when establishing a relationship, including an ongoing connection building.

Part of establishing a relationship in which each religious other may disrespect the religion of the other involves some attening of superiority in order for connecting. e intercultural communicator seeking to lead a Muslim to Christ (Moreau, A. Scott, Campbell, Evvy Hay, Greener, Susan

| 181 2014, 265) may nd it useful to appeal to shame, authority, and security in one’s story as their conversation partner values large power distance, honor, and collectivism. Furthermore, the rules for connecting with most honororiented cultures (2014, 273–274) require an ongoing social indebtedness rather than attempting to balance out or pay o any indebtedness, as the American individualistic society would be inclined to do. One should maintain a high interest in pursuing a patron-client relationship otherwise a lack of interest in staying connected may be communicated.

A former missionary to Pakistan and lecturer on Islam and Women’s Rights, Lynda Hausfeld (L. Hausfeld 2018) touched on women’s rights in the context of Islam’s underbelly, expressing the notion that one despises Islam in order to love Muslims. Hausfeld explains there is much to despise in Islam, including its institutionalized Halal prostitution of young girls under the guise of a temporary marriage license, provided courtesy of the Imam’s issued document granting a man the right to sexual grati cation services via sanctioned sex slaves when away from his wife on business. However, despite the contemptible religious practices that devalue, abuse, and harm women and girls and promote Jihad and the Dhimmitude system, the biblical mandate to make disciples of all nations remains.

From 2000 to 2013, there have been sixty-nine Muslim movements to Christ (Joshua 2019) from West Africa to Indonesia, encompassing forty-nine nations, compared to only eleven movements from 1980 to 2000. Contributing factors to these movements include disillusionment with Muslim extremism and violence, the representation of the gospel in a clear and contextually appropriate way, and the Holy Spirit visiting Muslims through dreams and visions.

Conclusion

e church must learn to be both a guest and a host in order to sit at the table with religious others. Once a church decides to sit at the table with the Middle Eastern diaspora in the United States, e ectively communicating the gospel to the religious others of a Muslim background will require some prerequisites. Not only must one overcome the sociological hindrances of disdain but also learn the keys to orality cultures, including contextualized metaphors that make sense to the honor/shame culture of the Middle Eastern diaspora when sharing gospel truths. Once these prerequisites are met, an

honor/shame culture may eventually be reached through intercultural and interreligious dialogue between Islamic and Christian worldviews through storytelling whether it is through story, interview, music, art, or print. However, e ective interreligious dialogue will see the greatest in uence when one maintains a distinctive abiding in the power of Christ to witness through the Holy Spirit’s illumination during storytelling appropriated for the Middle Eastern perspective.

Initiating an invitation to share one’s story in response to questions that focus on the other and their homeland and culture along with an invitation to share mealtime will facilitate an equitable relationship between oneself and the religious others. When equity exists between people of di erent worldviews, imperialististic attitudes are attened allowing a climate for contextualized communication in which a space is created for the possibility of a Gospel message or Christian witness.

e church must become aware of her ambivalence and hesitancy toward Muslim background community members and fully engage the Middle Eastern diaspora using a strategic orality approach. In his monograph on the diaspora of Muslims, former Assembly of God eological Seminary president and former missionary to Pakistan Mark Hausfeld states, “Today’s radical Islamic climate cannot be the Church’s excuse for abrasive, defensive responses, or for that matter, o enses” (2008, 3). Hausfeld further emphasizes the importance and attractiveness of the church to Muslims. (2008, 15–18) If the church includes a people of peace, a people of community, and a people of power rather than a people of war, individualism, and spiritual weakness, then Muslims will be drawn into the church.

Endnotes

1 All Scripture citations, unless otherwise noted, are from the New International Version.

References

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2012. Academia. May 2012. https://www.academia.edu/2008564/ Dissertation_ e_narrativization_of_Kazakh_proverbs_College_ students_language_ideologies_concerning_community_ (accessed April 25, 2019).

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2015. Cross-cultural Communications: Sharing the Bread with All People. Spring eld: Faith and Action.

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2011. Unclean: Meditations on Purity, Hospitality, and Mortality. Eugene: Cascade Books,

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1980. Witness to the World. Atlanta: John Knox Press.

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2019. Missiology at the Intersection of Di erent Worldviews. Dissertation , South Bend: American Society of Missiology.

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2006. Cross-Cultural Servanthood: Serving the World in Christlike Humility. Downer’s Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.

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2017. Dinner Church: Building Bridges by Breaking Bread. Franklin, Tennesee: Seedbed Publishing.

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2015. Story Table: Reconciling Race. September 30, 2015. https://fullerstudio. fuller.edu (accessed May 27, 2019).

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2017. e 3D Gospel: Ministry in Guilt, Shame, and Fear Cultures, Revised. Lexington: Time Press.

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2018. “Islam and Women’s Rights.” Islamic Institute. Spring eld: Assemblies of God eological Seminary.

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2008. Islam in America: Understading and Engaging Diaspora Muslims rough the Local Church. Vol. Volume 2, in J. Philip Hogan World Missions Series Monograph, by Mark Hausfeld, Vol76. Spring eld, Missouri.

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2016. “Narratives, Narrative, and Narrative eology.” In Missiological Research: Interdisciplinary Foundations, Methods, and Integration, by Marvin Gilbert, Alan R Johnson, & Paul W. Lewis, 100-103. Spring eld, Missouri: Assemblies of God eological Seminary.

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Interview with Salim and Sabrina Zerhouni, Algerian and Saudi Arabian Muslim Background on 2/20/2019

Interview Questions and Responses:

Question 1: What can you tell me about your family of origin?

Sabrina: My grandparents came from the mountain region where the Christian Berbers lived near a monastery. Now I am what I would describe as a secular with Muslim and Christian backgrounds.

Saleem: Although we are Su Muslims, my family was from the Saudi Arabian ruling class of Mohammed, but over the years there was a shi into Su sm among family members settling in Algiers, Algeria.

Question 2: How were you interacting with other social classes?

Salim: My family came from Saudi Arabia to Algeria; they were the ruling class of Mohammed

Sabrina: e location of Berbers, some Muslim some Christian such as from the in uence of Saint Augustine so there were di erent people groups. My family was a middle-class style family.

Interview with Riham, of Syrian Sunni Muslim Background, working as the Mediterranean cuisine chef translated by Dr. Ahmed Nasef, investor.

Interview Questions and Responses:

Question 1: What can you tell me about your family of origin and what do you miss most about your homeland?

Riham: I grew up in the Golan Heights area. e Golan continues to have ISIS groups in town near the border of Israel making it a hotbed of con ict in 2019.

Question 2: What do you miss most about your homeland Syria?

Riham: e thing I miss most are the friendships of my childhood, talking with my girlfriends a er school on my way home just spending relaxing times with them in my town near the Golan Heights.

My Response: I was able to agree with her as to the incredibly beautiful place of her homeland, remembering my trip to Israel and driving to the furthest road barricade in the Golan and looking over to Syria where one looked out over the valley of the Sea of Galilee on one side and the mountains of Syria on the other side.

Question 3: How can community members in the United States help their new neighbors from Syria?

Before Dr. Nasef entered the dining area with Riham, I saw her and knew I must smile much more than usual so as not to scare her with this stranger wanting to ask her some questions.

Question 4: see last paragraph on p.171

Riham replied: e rst thing is that I can tell by the smile on your face that you do genuinely care to connect allowing the wall to come down. A more practical measure you can take is to help us learn the language and tutor us in English.

Question 5: What can we help you with as you come to the United States?

Riham: You can also support us by frequenting the new restaurant as patrons as we welcome all groups of people.

Question 6: What do you miss about life in Syria now that you are here?

We connected over her homeland, and then she had to return to the kitchen from her allotted ten minute break.

Teaching in Partnership: Becoming CoLaborers as Professors of Mission

Danny Hunter1

Abstract: Teaching mission for the remainder of twenty rst century will mean working together to maximize the global engagement of our classrooms. is paper explores three possible avenues for this: generating and curating video content from diverse authors, increasing the frequency with which we share our classrooms with global colleagues, and shi ing our approach to hiring toward appointing consortia of global scholar-practitioners.

is year at the meeting of the Association of Professors of Mission we are being invited to “reimagine the future of missiology” and I have chosen to do so speci cally in the context of our teaching vocation. As this is a speculative venture, this paper is largely an exercise in imagination. I make no pretentions to a clear prescience by which to determine the future shape of missiology. But it seems very likely that the global engagement of our institutions and classrooms will become increasingly important as we seek to teach a missiology that is from everywhere to everywhere. In this paper I will suggest three ways that we can partner together with our colleagues around the world to expand the global engagement of our classrooms as we shape the next generation of missiologists. A er a brief excursus on the implications of partnership in our teaching vocation, I will suggest how reimagining the curriculum, guest lecturing, and hiring can open new avenues of global engagement for our students.

is paper actually began with an exercise I started some time ago while taking an educational theory course as part of my PhD. e irony of taking a professor’s view of the classroom while still being a student was not lost on me or my colleagues. But later it occurred to me that if I wanted to

be able to do the reverse, to re ect on a student’s experience of my classroom as a professor, I was going to need some good data. I did not want to rely

on vague memories, somewhat romanticized, and ltered through my later professional experience. So, I started re ecting on and recording some of the things that were most impactful to me as a student and comparing my notes with my colleagues. And by far the one thing that ranked above all the others was the cultural diversity of my classes. To hear and interact with cultural perspectives very di erent from my own, to see how strange the positions and arguments I was familiar with were when viewed through the eyes of another, and to draw on experiences I never could have had while forming ideas about the world and our place in it, were all invaluable processes in challenging my assumptions and leading me to a new, more complete understanding of God and his mission. I know this is very limited, anecdotal evidence. However, there are plenty of studies out there that con rm what we as theological educators usually intuit: that human understanding, and especially theological insight, thrives on diversity.2 So, this question took hold in the back of my mind: if my colleagues have been the most formative part of my education, how can I make them a part of my teaching?

My dissertation project deals with mission partnerships,3 so I suppose it should come as no surprise that I found collaboration the answer to this question. ere is a small but growing literature on educational partnerships; however, the term partnership in educational settings seems to su er from the same tragic aw that a icts it in missiological settings: namely, that almost anything is called a “partnership.”4 e ndings of one study of educational partnerships across cultures is exemplary of the main problem: we will label literally anything a partnership, even when it is simply a reiteration of colonial power structures (Major and Santoro 2016, 460–74).5 I say all this to illustrate the need when talking about “partnership” in mission or in education, to be very clear about what kind of relationship you have in mind. When I suggest we expand the global engagement of our classrooms through partnership in teaching I mean cultivating collegial relationships with our professorial counterparts the world over, ones where we approach each other as equals. I mean exchanges of time, ideas, and educational resources predicated on mutuality, respect, and sensitivity to each other’s needs. I mean a posture of invitation and generosity in sharing our class time with people who have di erent perspectives from our own. I mean a relationship where metaphors of co-laborer or friend are more apt than those of master/student or giver/receiver. Of course, this is all part of what APM is about, so I imagine I am “preaching to the choir” here. But it is still worth mentioning at the outset that if we are going to approach the

global engagement of our students as co-laborers, these are the notions that should shape and inform our practice.

In the pages that follow I will o er a few suggestions about how we can apply these attitudes and values together in rethinking our approach to teaching missiology. I have chosen to begin with the least radical suggestion, and one most likely to have the broadest appeal, then move toward suggestions that have more signi cant barriers to implementation. While I hope to make the case that each of these are excellent ways to improve the global engagement of our classrooms, I realize that not all of these suggestions will be a good t for every institution or every professor. Still, I o er them in hope of starting a fruitful discussion on where we might go together as a discipline.

Reimagining the Curriculum

First of all, I think it is helpful for us to think of the content we use in our courses as opportunities for our colleagues in missiology (past and present) to speak into our classes. e authors of this content are the people we choose to put our students into conversations with. Which begs two questions: What are the avenues through which we can engage our students with missiologists? And, whose voices are we bringing into our classrooms (or maybe better whose voices are missing)?

e rapid proliferation of digital content, a student body made up of digital natives, and a move toward more online courses are already pressuring professors to use more video content in their classes. And I think this shi toward video content should be wholeheartedly embraced. Let me be clear, though: when I say we are shi ing toward video content, I am not suggesting we do away with books. I love books! Writing is the main way that we generate content to use in our courses and make that content available for others to use in theirs. Books, edited volumes, and journals will continue to be important for the foreseeable future. But we have other media for engagement at our disposal. Ones that can be more responsive to our needs, that allow us to generate content more quickly. Long-form, unidirectional discourse, like books, has de nite advantages for communicating complex ideas. But there is a lot of information that we communicate in our classes that can just as easily be communicated in shorter, more interactive forms.

Of course, we are already doing this. I would imagine all of us have generated video introductions, lectures, and other content for use in online courses. But I wonder if we can deal more e ciently and e ectively by sharing content more widely rather than generating a new video every time we have a need. While our courses are all di erent, and should be, there are themes and subjects that all of us need to cover. ere is no need for us to continually reinvent the wheel. Instead of investing time and resources into creating, editing, and publishing a new video every time we need one, what if we created and curated video content to share in each other’s classrooms?

is video content could take many forms, and I would suggest two models for us to consider emulating. e YouTube fans among you will probably be familiar with at least one of these models: TED Talks (a short 5–15 minute format, almost like a lecture, but highly polished and focused on communicating one big idea) and Crash Course (an online learning community that focuses on producing a series of information dense, high-production-value videos coupled with heavy engagement with viewers via the comments section).6 e TED Talk format has some clear advantages, not the least being that it closely resembles a style of teaching that professors are already very familiar with: the lecture. ey are also fairly easy to produce and don’t require many resources. Crash Course is designed for use in AP high school or undergraduate classes and is a very visually engaging and content-dense way to dive into a subject and invite a wider conversation.7 Whereas TED talks treat a single idea at a time, Crash Course o ers the opportunity to weave many ideas together and watch them develop over time. It is more attuned to cra ing a narrative. It also makes use of the comments section to engage viewers in a prolonged conversation. While this approach is more labor intensive and costly to create; we could take a similar approach as the people behind Crash Course have and rely on donations from teachers and viewers who nd the content useful to o set costs. Creating this kind of content can help establish a common literature in the virtual realm much as we have with written content.

Whatever the format we choose, we cannot miss the opportunity to collaborate with and feature voices currently missing from our current curriculum. A superlative example of globally engaged video content that is nearer to our own discipline (mostly employing an interview format) is e Global Church Project by Graham Joseph Hill, et al.8 is project has done a great job of engaging scholars from all around the world and attending

to the questions that come from the Majority World as well as the West. As we seek to increase the global engagement of our classrooms, we should be looking for and funding content that features our colleagues from di erent parts of the world and invites them into conversation with our students.

So how do we do this? I think we should take advantage of meetings like this one to set the agenda for what kind of video content we need in our courses and whose voices we aren’t hearing in our current content. We could also use it to work out the logistics of producing and hosting this content so that it can bene t all of us. e key issue will be hosting. Creating a single, virtual space where professors can upload and access videos and where they can request and discuss future videos will take some time and resources. But it really only requires a little e ort to get started. And if we can get it o the ground, the reward will be content that is accessible to other classrooms, that presents our students with perspectives they are not encountering in our current curriculum, and that is sensitive to how our students are used to learning in a digital age.

Reimagining Guest Lecturing

Second, I think teaching missiology in the twenty- rst century will require us to nd more ways to invite our global colleagues into our classrooms to serve as guest lecturers for a class period or sometimes longer. is could entail the use of video conferencing so ware or a kind of “exchange program” through which we open our classrooms to our global colleagues and invite them to converse directly with our students.

Many of us are already doing this, both formally and informally, and I’m not presenting these as new ideas so much as advocating for an increased presence. In other words, we need to move guest lecturing from being a novelty to a necessity. is kind of “open door” approach asks three things of us as professors. First, it invites us to view the building of our professional networks as a way of impacting our classrooms. When we cultivate new friendships with colleagues around the world, we don’t view it only as a matter of personal and professional development but also as a way for us to enrich the educational experience of our students. Second, it requires us to view our chairs and classrooms as loci of hospitality rather than kingship.

ere is a vulnerability that comes with giving your time and your voice to another. ere are things that you want to say and do in the class that you

won’t be able to do when you give class time to someone else. Most of us are quite convinced that our students will be enriched by what we have to say. We must ask ourselves if we are willing to trust that our students will be enriched just as much by what someone else has to teach them. Lastly, this approach entails a willingness to go as well as to host. In other words, it requires a bi-directional ow of hospitality instead of uni-directional one. If our colleagues are willing to enrich the educational experience of our students, should we not show their students the same concern?

When it comes to what form this pedagogical hospitality might take, video conferencing has lots of advantages, the foremost being that it is far cheaper and easier than travel. But it does require access to the requisite technology and the infrastructure needed to use it reliably. Working out an “exchange program” essentially means leveraging our networks to invite global scholars to come teach a week or so in our classes, then returning the favor. Institutional calendars are seldom completely in sync, so we can take advantage of break weeks, time between semesters and trimesters, or January or summer terms from time to time. I could spend a week with a colleague of mine in India (for example) during our reading week, and when his fall break came around he could spend a week with my class. is kind of informal exchange can be done on an ad hoc basis, depending on need, availability of resources, ability to travel, etc. Its advantage over video conferencing is that it gives students the bene t of the real presence of a scholar working in a di erent context (which is presumably preferable to a virtual “presence”). Being physically present in a classroom allows for more unstructured interaction before and a er class time, which can o en lead to more formative experiences than structured interactions. Exchange programs do take more time and money and so may not be a t for every professor or institution, but it promises greater impact on our students, if we can make it work.

Reimagining the Hiring Pool

My nal suggestion is that we rethink how we engage the emerging hiring pool. Perhaps we should think less in terms of the serial hiring of individuals and more in terms of hiring consortia of scholar-practitioners. is would result in a more routinized, institutionalized form of the guest lecture I discussed on the last slide, where teaching appointments can be shared by several PhD grads of various cultural backgrounds and specialties.

Also, I should note up front that this proposal is geared toward entry-level positions like adjunct or “visiting”9 professors.

e current hiring pool is massive and growing, and it is no secret that universities and seminaries can have their pick of highly quali ed PhD holders to ll any position. Meanwhile, administrators keep looking for ways to cut costs, especially on less pro table majors.10 Unless missiology programs stumble unexpectedly into a giant grant, the trend of adjuncts carrying more of the teaching load is not going to slow any time soon. But rather than view this as entirely negative, let’s look at some of the opportunities that this shi (or glut) in the hiring pool brings with it.

First, it gives institutions a large pool of highly-quali ed young teachers to choose from; people from all over the world. Second, it is forcing recent PhD graduates to innovate new ways to apply their degrees. We talk a lot now about being scholar-practitioners, people who continue to research and publish while pursuing vocations as sta missiologists, NGO workers, consultants, and missions pastors. is time spent outside the academy gives scholar-practitioners new, practical missiological experience to bring to their potential classrooms.

e consortia I am proposing would be made up of these global scholar-practitioners. ey would secure a contract to teach a given number of classes for the year and assign teaching duties to members of the consortium according to availability and expertise. e result would be something like a gig economy for adjuncts in missiology departments whose vocation could be called “teaching-plus” (enriching their teaching vocation with any number of practical vocations).

Also, my seminary (Asbury eological Seminary) has been very aggressive in developing partnerships with other seminaries in Africa, Europe, South Asia, and Latin America. Among institutions who are likewise pursuing global partnerships, consortium contracts could be shared by the schools. is would exponentially increase the hiring pipelines of our global partners while helping defray some of the nancial burden of hiring faculty with earned doctorates.

e advantages to such an approach are many. It allows our departments to o er students an education from professors hailing from

every part of the globe without having to hire an enormous faculty. It puts our classrooms on the cutting edge of missiology by bringing in scholars with a wide variety of missiological experience and who remain actively engaged in their elds while teaching. is approach might also address the issue of “brain drain,” since majority world PhD graduates could remain as scholar-practitioners in their local contexts rather than taking full-time teaching positions elsewhere.

Of course, the same hiring pool, with the same advantages, is available under the current system of hiring. But I am suggesting that rather than hire professors with di erent cultural and professional backgrounds serially, our schools would do much better to hire several at a time. is would maximize the strengths of the current labor pool and make more e cient use of its potential to bring several backgrounds, specialties, and missiological expressions to bear on our classrooms. ink of it in terms of a given student’s three to four years in a degree program. If you hire one adjunct every one to three years, how globally engaged will a student’s experience be? What if they had one to three professors per semester who could teach them from a di erent cultural and theological perspective?

I realize this approach will have a limited appeal. And its actual appropriation could look very di erent based on the needs of each school. But I think there are very good reasons to risk it. For one thing, it ts with the economic realities of Christian higher education. We have too many PhD’s, too few jobs, and schools that are in an economic ght for their lives. We need solutions that enable schools to o er an education that is maximally globally engaged and minimally expensive. e consortium approach also allows us to increase the capitalization rate of our current pool of PhD holders. Our seminaries and universities have called and quali ed thousands of people for a teaching vocation; but our current practice of hiring them serially means many of the most e ective teachers will never have a chance to teach. Hiring several adjuncts together increases the likelihood that people we have called and quali ed for a teaching vocation will get a chance to spend at least some time exercising that vocation. But most importantly, hiring consortia increases the global engagement of our students. It creates a classroom that is vibrantly diverse, engaged in all kinds of global ministries, and highly mobile and exible. And isn’t that what teaching in missiology in the twenty rst century is all about?

Endnotes

1 Danny Hunter is a PhD candidate at Asbury eological Seminary in Wilmore, KY. His dissertation research is focused on global mission partnerships between American congregations and their international counterparts.

2 A concise and insightful summary of the literature can be found here: Deborah Gin, “Does Our Understanding Lack Complexity? Faculty Perceptions on Multicultural Education,” eological Education 48, No. 1, (2013): 47-51.

3 For a shameless plug in the guise of an endnote; see: cf: https:// globalchurchpartnerships.org.

4 For an example of this see: Stan Guthrie and Jonathan J. Bonk, Missions in the ird Millennium: 21 Key Trends for the 21st Century (Milton Keynes, UK: Paternoster Press, 2002), 115–25. Guthrie’s attempt to be comprehensive in de ning “partnership” essentially makes “partnership” mean anything that one can conceivably do with someone who can be construed as “other.” Hardly a useful de nition.

5 For an excellent discussion of this dynamic as the fatal aw of missiological partnerships, see Jonathan Barnes, Power and Partnership (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2013), 418.

6 You can nd examples at htpps://youtube.com/ted and htpps:// youtube.com/crashcourse, respectively.

7 For more information on the pedagogical philosophy behind Crash Course and building online communities of learning, check out: htpps:// youtu.be/NgDGlcxYrhQ.

8 https://theglobalchurchproject.com/.

9 A pleasant academic euphemism for a person with an assistant professor’s quali cations and workload, but an adjunct professor’s contract.

10 And while this is a problem scourging most humanities programs, let’s be honest, they are looking squarely at missiology. We are usually the paupers of our departments, even in departments lled with pastors and philosophers.

References

Barnes, Jonathan.

2013. Power and Partnership. Eugene, OR: Pickwick.

Gin, Deborah.

2013. “Does Our Understanding Lack Complexity? Faculty Perceptions on Multicultural Education.” eological Education 48, No. 1: 47-51.

Guthrie, Stan and Jonathan J. Bonk.

2002. Missions in the ird Millennium: 21 Key Trends for the 21st Century. Milton Keynes, UK: Paternoster Press.

Major, Jae and Ninetta Santoro.

2016. “Supervising an International Teaching Practicum: Building Partnerships in Postcolonial Contexts,” Oxford Review of Education 42, Issue 4: 460-474.

https://globalchurchpartnerships.org

https://theglobalchurchproject.com

htpps://youtube.com/ted

htpps://youtube.com/crashcourse

htpps://youtu.be/NgDGlcxYrhQ

Teaching Missiology through Film and Fiction

Stanley H. Skreslet1

My APM presentation focused on the approach taken in a hybrid course I recently taught at Union Presbyterian Seminary entitled, “Mission and Missionaries in Film and Fiction.” In my presentation, I shared with colleagues some re ections on pedagogy and what I think were the major decisions taken as I constructed this course. Since a shortage of time kept me from talking at length about any of the lms and novels actually used in the course, I am submitting below a set of brief descriptions for these materials as my paper for the APM Proceedings. Colleagues who would like to receive a copy of the syllabus may request one from me at sskreslet@upsem.edu. Within each category below (novels, feature lms, etc.), the schedule in which these creative works were used in the course determines the order of the descriptions that follow. Note that I do not include Endo’s superb novel Silence in this syllabus, because it is assigned in a di erent course that is required for all our MDiv students.

I. Novels

Ngũgĩ wa iang’o, e River Between (1965)

is book is not as well known as Chinua Achebe’s celebrated novel, ings Fall Apart (1958), but it covers similar ground in an East African setting from an early post-colonial perspective. A river separates two ridges that have engaged in opposite ways with missionary Christianity. e Makuyu ridge is the site of a mission church and is where the colonial government outpost will soon be located. e Kameno ridge is dominated by a traditional religious point of view. e book’s central character, Waiyaki,

1 Stanley H. Skreslet is from Union Presbyterian Seminary, Richmond, Virginia

is told by a seer to go to the mission school and to acquire the white man’s education in order to resist colonial rule. He returns and founds his own schools, which he hopes will become an indigenous means of social unity and empowerment in de ance of foreign ways. Ultimately, the mission Christians reject Waiyaki’s strategy, just as those who push for armed resistance to encroaching colonialism also do. Ngugi includes a critical pro le of the leading missionary educator appearing in this story, tellingly named Livingstone.

Mischa Berlinksi, Fieldwork (2007)

At the heart of this novel is the o en fraught relationship between anthropologists and missionaries. Martiya van der Leun represents the eld of anthropology. She studies the Dyalo, a hill people who migrated to Burma from China a er that country’s 1949 revolution and then journeyed on to northern ailand. In ailand, her story intersects with that of the Walker family, who had been working to evangelize the Dyalo since the 1920s. She nds their deep cultural knowledge very helpful to her research but is not at all sympathetic to their missionary aims. Martiya ends up murdering the youngest Walker, a gi ed evangelist with an intuitive grasp of Dyalo spirituality and a desire to present the claims of the gospel in a way that made sense within such a worldview. Martiya suspects that the traditional ways of the Dyalo, including the sacred Dyal ritual of rice-planting that had become her obsession, would be abandoned if David Walker were to succeed. e reader learns at the outset of the story that she dies in prison. A great strength of this novel is the background presented on the development of anthropology as an academic discipline and its appeal as a vocation. ere is a mystery element included in this novel, as the author’s autobiographical persona seeks a er clues that might explain Martiya’s thinking and actions.

André Brink, Praying Mantis (2005)

Under the in uence of Johannes van der Kemp (d. 1811), Cupido Cockroach converts to Christianity and then becomes the rst Khoi or “Hottentot” to be ordained at the Cape of Good Hope. As an evangelist employed by the London Missionary Society, Cupido works with James Read in challenging circumstances made even more complicated by Dutch settler violence on the eastern frontier of the Cape Colony. e di erent attitudes of van der Kemp and the other LMS missionaries toward

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indigenous spirituality are contrasted in the novel. Cupido himself has an intense relationship with the Christian God, whose active presence in history is signaled by the appearance of a green mantis at various points in the story. Brink uses a magical realist style to good e ect when portraying Khoi religious experience, aspects of which are woven into Cupido’s postconversion worldview. Some readers will nd the mix of mythology and history in this novel confusing, while others will admire the subtle skill of the writer. Cupido’s faith journey remains center stage throughout the book, but Brink also takes care to re ect on the motives of the di erent foreign missionaries in the story.

Gene Luan Yang, Boxers and Saints (2013)

is intriguing set of graphic novels o ers multiple perspectives on the same set of historical circumstances, the period just before the Boxer Uprising and then the spasm of violence in China directed against foreign in uences that erupted at that time. In one of the two volumes, the focus is on the Boxers and their coalescence into a nationalist, anti-Christian movement. e lead character in this part of the story is a small boy (Little Bao) who is repulsed when foreign missionaries disrespect the traditional gods reverenced in Chinese culture. As an adult, he will imagine himself to be an operatic hero gure in the manner of China’s rst emperor, endowed with superhuman powers. His Boxer colleagues are a mixed bag, who are shown operating from a variety of motives. e most nuanced of these characters may be Mei-wen, who loves books and shows compassion for the weak but leads a female contingent of violent militants, the Red Lanterns. In the other volume, a young convert to Catholicism (Four-Girl, who becomes Vibiana) and the persecution experience of many Chinese Christians and missionaries during the Boxer uprising are featured. A mixed set of reasons for conversion to Christianity are portrayed in the two novels, which adds to their complexity. One can appreciate that many di erent kinds of missionaries appear in this pair of books, including a French Catholic priest (Fr. Bey), a Chinese Christian lay evangelist, (Dr. Won) and Boxer ideologues (Red Lantern Chu and Bao). Palace politics and colonial agendas are both shown to be a ecting the behavior of the characters in these stories.

John Grisham, e Testament (1999)

In this legal page-turner, a fallen-on-hard-times attorney is hired to nd an isolated frontier missionary laboring away in the Pantanal region of Brazil. e reason for his quest is that the missionary’s biological father, from whom she has been estranged for nearly her whole life, has just passed away and le her a multi-billion-dollar fortune. Unlike her half-siblings (aided by a host of other interested parties), who are desperately grasping a er parts of their father’s far- ung business empire, Rachel has no interest in the money and refuses to sign any papers related to this unwanted bequest. Rachel’s work as a missionary doctor and gentle evangelist is portrayed in remarkably positive terms. Grisham also takes care to describe sympathetically the larger program of activities sponsored by Rachel’s sending organization, referred to in the book as the World Tribes Mission (a ctional name but the organization strongly resembles the New Tribes Mission). As the lawyer begins nally to appreciate Rachel’s sense of call, this unexpected insight prompts him to think more deeply about his own life-direction and vocation. is novel provides an excellent opportunity to discuss the subject of philanthropy and mission, as Grisham integrates this subtopic into his plot. In this regard, instructors might want to consider assigning Brian Stanley’s IBMR legacy article on Robert Arthington as students read this story. e opening scene of this novel is one of the most gripping I have ever read.

Graham Greene, A Burnt-Out Case (1960)

Greene’s protagonist is a celebrated but personally dissatis ed architect disgusted with life. All his previous achievements look trivial or false to him, since he has lost his sense of vocation. To escape an adoring public, he travels to what he imagines to be the most remote spot possible, up the Congo river to an isolated mission station, where he hopes to serve humanity in some modest way and so perhaps regain a measure of his self-respect. As the aptly-named Querry interacts with di erent parts of the extended mission community gathered around the leprosarium (an unbelieving doctor who practices modern medicine, variously gi ed foreign missionaries, cured and still-su ering lepers, and Belgian colonists who support the work of the mission), it becomes clear that his feeling of lostness has a faith dimension. rough an unlikely set of circumstances (no spoilers here), it is widely believed that Querry acted unsel shly to save a

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life. A visiting tabloid journalist publicizes the event back in Europe (“An Architect of Souls: e Hermit of the Congo”) and suggests that Querry might be a modern-day saint in the manner of Albert Schweitzer (whose work at another African leprosarium is discussed several times in this novel). Greene paints a vivid picture of provincial Roman Catholic missionary life in sub-Saharan Africa in the 1950s.

John Hersey, e Call (1985)

is is the life story of ctional missionary David Treadup, who commits to Protestant mission service at the turn of the twentieth century and remains engaged with China through World War II and the Communist Revolution. Nearly every major issue vigorously debated within the Protestant missionary establishment through the rst half of the twentieth century shows up in this novel, including European colonialism, anti-colonial nationalism, the teaching of science and social development projects as methods of mission, missionary responses to Communism, the limits of good intentions, and the importance of indigenous initiative. Hersey received a Pulitzer Prize in ction for an earlier work of his, A Bell for Adano (1944). In e Call, Hersey is processing the YMCA China mission experience of his parents and others of their generation. e book rests on considerable work in missionary archives. is is the longest of the novels included in my syllabus but is written in a linear style with a clear plot line that is quite engaging and not hard to follow.

Okey Ndibe, Foreign Gods, Inc. (2014)

Ndibe tells the story of a Nigerian cab driver in New York City who hatches a plan to return to his birth country in order to steal an image of his people’s patron god. Ikey Uzondu desperately needs money and thinks he will be able to sell the ancient statue of the war-god Ngene to an upscale Manhattan boutique that specializes in decorative religious artifacts (Foreign Gods, Inc.). ere are two missionary elements woven directly into Ndibe’s plotline: a foreign missionary in the past (Stanton) who dared to challenge the power of Ngene and a contemporary local Nigerian Pentecostal church that considers the rituals of traditional religion to be a form of idolatry that must be rmly opposed. Ikey’s plan is complicated by the fact that his uncle is a traditional priest and the designated guardian of Ngene’s shrine, while the rest of his family is fully committed to the church’s iconoclastic program.

e novel provides an evocative window onto the world of West African traditional religions.

Maria Doria Russell, e Sparrow (1996)

Russell’s story is a work of science ction, set in the middle of the twenty- rst century When unexpected radio signals are received from Alpha Centauri, the Roman Catholic Church quickly sends an expeditionary group that includes a missionary priest with advanced intercultural skills to the source of the transmission. e travelers encounter a complex alien society on the planet Rakhat and struggle to make sense of what they observe. In this completely ctional setting, Russell portrays a familiar mission scenario: rst contact with a previously unknown cultural group that has its own ideas about spirituality, social norms, and political relations. Fr. Emilio Sanchez is identi ed as a Jesuit. e story as a whole engages the experience of Jesuit mission history and at points in the novel Russell o ers re ections on that history and the missionary vocation more generally. ere are aspects of this novel that some readers may nd disturbing because of the personal violence involved.

Mario Vargas Llosa, e Storyteller (1989)

e Peruvian indigenous group at the center of this novel chooses to migrate whenever the modern world threatens to overwhelm their traditional way of life. Missionaries from the Summer Institute of Linguistics represent one part of the reality the Machiguengas are attempting to keep at arm’s length in what constitutes just the most recent episode in their long struggle to maintain cultural autonomy. e lead character in this story is a Peruvian ethnologist who so deeply identi es with the people he is studying that he eventually becomes one of their most revered memory experts, a storyteller. Saúl Zuratas’s Jewish background emerges as an increasingly salient factor in the stories about cultural identity and social alienation he shares with the Machiguengas. When this character disappears, a friend of his from college attempts to nd out what happened to him, so there is a mystery angle featured in this novel. Readers need to be patient with the prose style of e Storyteller, which intermittently veers into a form of magical realism. Vargas Llosa was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2010.

William Wilson Hunter, “ e Old Missionary” (1895)

e author of this short story served for many years in the Indian civil service, where he gained rst-hand experience in the administration of empire and had frequent contacts with foreign missionaries and Indian Christian communities. e advantages of “ rm British rule” are assumed in this story to far outweigh the loss of indigenous autonomy. In much the same way that the colonizers are praised for their e orts to keep religious and cultural antagonisms at bay, the old missionary is portrayed as a peacemaker. A lifetime of service has won for him respect from all quarters, it is said, so that various parties in dispute with each other are used to appealing to him for Solomonic judgments, a er which “there was no appeal.” e old missionary exempli es several personal qualities the author seems to want to promote among religious workers, including an intention to foster a close working relationship between the civil and religious spheres of the Raj, a preference for ministries of social reconciliation over dogmatism, interest in the classical literatures of India, and dialogical respect for many di erent kinds of religious devotion (including Roman Catholics, Muslims, and Hindus). is reading is one way to introduce students to an uncritical nineteenth century view of mission, in which missionary authority appears to be wielded for entirely altruistic purposes. e author expresses not a little condescension for “brown children” and overly zealous, lower-caste Indian Christians in the course of his narrative.

W. Somerset Maugham, “Rain” (1921)

Maugham sets out to ridicule missionaries and their pretentions in this short story of ship passengers forced by quarantine to spend some time together in a South Paci c island boarding house. e Davidsons are old missionary hands returning from an extended furlough who strike up a friendship with the agnostic Dr. Macphail and his wife. eir idea of mission is to stamp out lascivious pagan habits like dancing and the wearing of immodest clothing by instilling in the natives “a sense of sin.”

Maugham says of Mrs. Davidson, “Her hands itched to put everything in the order which came so naturally to her.” For his part, Mr. Davidson is used to working hand-in-glove with colonial o cials in order to fortify his

social power with their civil authority. Among the marooned passengers is an alleged prostitute, Sadie ompson. Her joie de vivre contrasts sharply with the dour outlook of the missionary couple. Not content just to silence her gramophone and to shut down the non-stop partying in her room, Mr. Davidson attempts to evangelize the wayward woman but with tragic results. Maugham’s story re ects the rise of an increasingly sharp cultural critique in the West against Christian mission that intensi es from the 1920s. Many tropes featured in this story will reappear in countless critical novels (and lms) about missionaries published a er the 1960s, including missionary self-righteousness, repressed sexual desire, class pretensions, cultural condescension, and colonial entanglements.

III. Feature Films

e Le Hand of God (1955; based on William Barrett’s 1951 novel, e Le Hand of God)

Humphrey Bogart plays James Carmody, a rough-and-ready American pilot whose plane is shot down over China at the end of WWII. Carmody initially agrees to work for the Chinese warlord in whose care he recovered from his injuries, but increasingly views his circumstances as a form of imprisonment. He seizes his chance to escape when the warlord’s mercenaries murder an American priest on his way to a remote Catholic mission station. Carmody assumes the priest’s identity and presents himself to the mission as his predecessor’s long-awaited clerical replacement. He is soon met with a long list of piled-up demands for confessions, baptisms, marriages, worship services, and pastoral visiting. Now a non-observant Catholic, he has only a former altar-boy’s memory of what a priest might be expected to do. e most interesting part of this lm may be the relationships Carmody constructs with the di erent members of the mission community: the wise native assistant who knows more about faithful service than any of the foreign workers, the mission doctor who represents the truth of science against the claims of religion, and the American nurse whose traditional Catholic piety is tested by her physical attraction to the disguised priest, plus a nearby Methodist missionary who counsels the imposter to confess his deception to the bishop and the two priests sent from the diocese to investigate what was going on. e missionary vocation is a major theme in this novel. In the book especially, some of the language used to describe Chinese culture is quite condescending.

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Hawaii (1966; based on James Michener’s 1959 novel, Hawaii)

Many now consider the rst part of this lm a classic post-colonial portrayal of New England missionaries, who attempt to impose an ill- tting form of Calvinism on a happy native group that lives in complete harmony with the rhythms of nature. e head of the mission group, Abner Hale, wants to protect the islanders from predatory sailors, while saving their souls through baptism. When Hale begins his work in Lahaina, he is a missionary caricature: doctrinally rigid, sexually repressed, culturally tone-deaf, and a boring preacher, to boot. His wife Jerusha is by far the most savvy and sympathetic foreign missionary in the story. On faith grounds, she rejects the native practice of killing children with birth marks. Her driving motive is to express the love of Jesus for the islanders, while responding in practical ways to their expressed desire for some kinds of Western knowledge (by teaching the Alii Nui how to read, for example). Jerusha’s tragic death leads to the conversion of her husband, who becomes an outspoken advocate for native land rights, a political position that will cause him to be expelled from the mission. One of the most interesting characters in the lm is the son of the royal couple who returns to Hawaii as a subordinate member of the mission group a er years of schooling in New England. Prince Keoki must choose between his adopted faith and the traditional ways of his preChristian culture.

Of Gods and Men (2010; original screenplay by director Xavier Beauvois and Étienne Comar)

A small community of French Cistercian Trappist monks struggles to sustain its missionary presence near an isolated Algerian Muslim village. News reports document multiplying attacks against foreigners of every kind, as radical Islamists seek to destabilize the government and dispute its authority. e action of the lm turns on a decision the monks must make when the violence of 1990s Algeria nally comes knocking at the door of their compound. Deadly threats and an o er from the Algerian military to help them escape are weighed against their sense of vocation as a community called to remain in solidarity with the villagers, who are likewise at grave risk. “You are our protection,” they tell the monks. e lm e ectively portrays several levels of Christian-Muslim relations, as the monks interact constructively with village life, with various parts of the government, and with the militants themselves. At the 2012 ASM annual meeting, Klippies

Kritzinger suggested that the Trappists were modeling “prophetic dialogue” (à la Bevans and Schroeder) as they found ways to assert gospel values opposed to the ideology of the gunmen while showing respect for them as human beings. e daily rhythms of monastic life are beautifully portrayed in this very poignant lm.

Black Robe (1991; based on a 1985 novel by Brian Moore)

A spectacular but unforgiving wilderness setting in 17th-c. French North America is featured in this lm. e plot revolves around a harrowing journey undertaken by a young French Jesuit from the colonial outpost at Quebec to a remote mission station already planted among the Huron Amerindians. Samuel de Champlain arranges for Fr. Laforgue to travel with a small group of Algonquin traders, who take responsibility for his safety. e priest is laboring under several serious disadvantages: he does not speak any of the Amerindian dialects (he relies on the language skills of an eager but even younger French colonist); he knows next to nothing about the cultural practices and social values held by the various native groups; he wavers in the face of sexual temptation and questions his missionary vocation. On the positive side, Fr. Laforgue has courage and a willingness to learn from hardwon experience. Many missiologists will be interested in the developmental arc of Fr. Laforgue’s theology of mission, from a heroic quest focused on soul-saving baptisms to a more subtle commitment to love the Hurons in the way of Christ without resorting to subterfuge. Along the way, Laforgue engages with several expressions of Huron spirituality, including a native shaman who declares him to be a devil and the power of dreams to de ne reality. Also, near the beginning of the lm is a brilliant scene showing Champlain and an indigenous leader preparing for their parley by dressing formally for the event. Without any commentary, the lmmaker juxtaposes the costume choices being made and the dances and music performed by each cultural group. Assigning Greer’s well-chosen set of excerpts from the Jesuit Relations can help students to appreciate the historical background of Brian Moore’s ctional account.

e Mission (1986; based on an original story and screenplay

by Robert Bolt)

is haunting portrayal of Jesuit missions in a remote border area in the Amazon region explores with some nuance the interface of evangelization and 18th-c. geopolitics in this contested location. Spain and Portugal both want to control the land of the Guarni. e Jesuits have nally established trust with the group and look for ways to shield them from colonial predators. When a decision is reached in Europe about the fate of the land, it is stipulated that Jesuit mission villages (reductions) will have to be razed, lest they become successful commercial competitors to the Portuguese. A high-ranking prelate visits the mission and nds a kind of paradise there, but nevertheless insists that the Guarni Christians and the missionaries living among them must abandon their refuge. is lm is packed with vivid moral choices: regarding the limits of a priest’s obedience to his superiors; whether it is right to sacri ce local projects and edgling Christian communities to advance the long-term prospects of a global religious order; about what possible circumstances (if any) might be enough to justify missionary violence on behalf of a vulnerable population that cannot defend itself. Along the way, several other big topics pertaining to mission are also raised, including the debates early modern Europeans were having about the humanity of the Amerindians, the loyalty a missionary might owe to colonial co-religionists from his or her native land, and the social power of the Jesuits within 18th-c. Catholic Christianity. Best music in a mission lm ever!

e Prodigal (alternative title, Finding the Lost; 1992)

Egyptian actors in an authentic village setting near Cairo enact the parables of lost things (the lost sheep, the lost coin, and the two lost sons) recounted in Luke 15. Noted New Testament scholar Kenneth Bailey wrote the Arabic-language screenplay (subtitles are provided). Much of Bailey’s scholarly work on the parables of Jesus has focused on the cultural background of these stories, research undertaken especially to help modern interpreters in the West read them with “Middle Eastern eyes.” One way to use this resource is to pair it with excerpts from the Jesus lm, preferably in more than one non-Western language. Students can then be invited to consider the degree to which contextualization takes place in e Prodigal, when compared to the approach of the Jesus lm. Bailey writes about his

intentions for the lm in the introduction to the second edition of his wellregarded study of the Luke 15 parables, e Cross and the Prodigal (2005).

IV. Documentary Films

“Front Line of Democracy” (1947)

e United Board for Christian Education in Asia produced this fundraising appeal directed at American mainline churches in support of China’s Christian colleges. Many of these institutions had relocated to the interior of the country during the Second World War, beyond the reach of Japan’s occupation forces. Now, in the immediate a ermath of the con ict, they were attempting to resume their pre-war programs. As depicted in this short documentary (24 minutes), the reconstituted rhythms of campus life in China’s Christian colleges strongly resembled what the lm’s domestic audience would likely expect to take place at a typical American private college. e lmmakers contextualize the work of these institutions by proposing that they are participating in the large-scale historical processes of modernization then underway in China. By helping China to advance economically and socially, it is suggested, these mission-founded institutions were serving the cause of world peace and American political interests. ough not explicitly named in the lm, the existential challenge of Communism in the 1940s had put China’s Christian colleges on “the front line of democracy.” My copy of this lm came from the Special Collections of the Day Missions Library at Yale Divinity School.

“Albert Schweitzer” (1956)

is short lm received the Academy Award for best documentary in 1957. Just a few years earlier (1953), the Norwegian Nobel Committee had awarded its Peace Prize to Dr. Schweitzer, citing a lifetime of humanitarian service in Gabon and his well-known ethic of “reverence for life.” How the lmmakers decided to portray Schweitzer’s extraordinary life is worth discussing, especially since there are now multiple biographical treatments that push back against the reverential tone of this lm. Along the way, students may want analyze Schweitzer’s relationships to Africans in the lm (patients and sta ) and his views on this slice of early to mid-twentiethcentury African culture. I have found this documentary to be a good way to

Stanley H. Skreslet |

215 conclude a course on mission(aries) in lm and ction, because it touches on so many themes encountered earlier in the term, including the mission village idea (Praying Mantis), medical care to leprosy patients (A Burnt-Out Case), colonial mentalities (“ e Old Missionary,” A Burnt-Out Case, and e River Between), missionary narratives focused on Great Men (James B. Todd in e Call), religion and the man of science ( e Le Hand of God and A Burnt-Out Case), humanitarian service as mission ( e Call and “Front Line of Democracy”), the architectural design of buildings to be used for missionary purposes (Hawaii), and missionary sacri ce (passim).

Teaching Mission for a North American Church THAT Needs It

omas R. Walls1

Abstract

is paper gives a quick perusal of various issues that were presented as possible trends that would impact Christian mission entering the twenty- rst Century. It then settles into the unforeseen impact of millennials and “nones” upon North American church and its context. Much of that impact is perceived as being detrimental to the life and ministry of this portion of Christianity. e question is presented as to what the church shall do about this situation. One possibility is a more thorough integration of mission studies and preparation into the more traditional approaches to ministerial preparation.

Introduction

It was in the early years of this century that I had the opportunity to visit a college concerning a possible teaching position. e head of the department and I had attended the same seminary some two decades earlier. He had taken the direct academic route to his position and I had taken a professional route via an international mission assignment before pursuing my doctorate. As I met with him and the department’s faculty, he began the interview with the following statement: “Tom, if you are invited to join us as a professor, I imagine you will want to turn this department into a missionary training school?” I was somewhat taken aback by the question and the

1 Tom is Associate Professor of Christian Missions at Chapman Seminary at Oakland City University. He has been a pastor in Indiana, Kentucky, and Missouri. He and his wife spent ten years as Church of God (Anderson, IN) missionaries in Venezuela. He holds a PhD from the Southern Baptist eological Seminary.

possibility of its inferences. I replied that was not the case, even though this discipline was my academic and professional background. Perhaps it was the book that I was carrying as reading material to ll the down time between meetings that initiated the discussion, for it was a somewhat provocative book for its time. It had caught the eye of the interviewers. It was Frost and Hirsch’s original edition of e Shaping of ings to Come: Innovation and Mission for the 21st Century Church. Over the next few days our discussions reverted to more than a few ideas and proposals found within that book. Today, as I think back to those days and the discussions which prevailed and to the initial statement in particular, I believe I would answer that question di erently, if given the opportunity. Many predicted issues that have developed in our societal context over the last two decades that have impacted the current and future state of Christian mission as it pertains to the North American church.

A Quick Perusal of Predicted Issues

e approach of the new century saw a plethora of predictions for almost everything in life. Who can forget waiting anxiously for the arrival of those rst few minutes of the twenty- rst Century to see if our digital technology would fail? Would our computers crash? Would your car start to take you home? Predictions for mission in the twenty- rst Century were not quite that dramatic. Some predictions looked on the bright side of life with the unlimited expansion of Christianity and its missionary e orts. Other predictions were more pessimistic and cast a negative haze over such e orts, particularly as they related to e orts emanating from the North American church.

A quick perusal of an assortment of the books dealing with mission trends for the coming twenty- rst Century quickly veri es the observation above. For example, take a look at the ve volume set of Mission Trends 1–5, edited by Gerald Anderson and omas Stransky. In these volumes, one nds a hundred plus essays from international scholars dealing with all manner of topics which are delineated into crucial issues in mission, evangelization, third-world and liberation theologies, and inter faith encounters. Study James Engel’s book on the challenge of funding North American mission organizations, A Clouded Future? Advancing North American World Missions. ere one becomes fully immersed in the statistics, diagrams, and explanations of what was happening and was predicted to happen in this

speci c aspect of projecting a missionary outreach. However, the book’s content does not and cannot be restrained to nancial and funding issues alone. Engel notes that such projections are deeply impacted by changing nancial situations; thus, he delves into such areas as a call for more in uence from two-thirds world leaders (20), a rethinking of the paradigm for world mission (22), and the restoration of the kingdom of God to its rightful place (23-24). In James Phillip’s and Robert Coote’s festschri to Gerald Anderson the chapter written by Keith Crim notes a number of issues that would be facing mission and the North American church. Included in such issues are the changes taking place in Protestantism in this region of the world (98–100), the mission to ethnic groups (101–102), opposition and competition (102-104), and the resources for missions (104–105). Such issues and patterns remain a constant in many of the other books regarding late twentieth century trends and early twenty- rst century predictions. Emphasis is given to the status of Christian mission in the world, especially as it relates to the status of the North American church in that outreach. It was a given that change would be unavoidable for this church and its mission e orts. e open question would be to what degree these changes would take place and how much would that a ect the North American church’s role in mission. All sorts of answers and guesses were attempted. Some were pessimistic in nature. Others were more optimistic in their appraisals. How close these opinions and predictions have come is still being evaluated. e substance of this paper is about a couple of issues that were not foreseen. Still, these issues deeply impact the missional outreach of the North American church. And that impact is not measured in waning nancial support and diminishing numbers of long-term missionaries alone for denominational and independent missionary agencies. e deepest impact will be upon a growing “unreached people group” within our society which will be reached by a major missiological paradigm shi and praxis in the North American churches and the seminaries and higher educational units which serve them.

e Unforeseen Impact of the “M's and N's”

In the mission literature before and a er the turn of the century, amultitude of issues are covered. It seems no geographic section of the world is le out. Phillips and Coote provide an excellent overview of the material in this regard as their contributing authors, including some of the most noted missiologists of that day, present ideas about mission within an inclusive Christian church spectrum with its geographic panorama,

noted foundational disciplines, and speci c challenges facing mission in the twenty- rst century. Another book to be taken into consideration is the second book of the Encountering Missions series from Baker Academic.

e Changing Face of World Missions was published only ve years a er the turn of the century. Its authors, Michael Pocock, Gailyn Van Reheenan, and Douglas McConnell, tackle many of the same issues and possibilities mentioned in the previously noted book, with the exception of the passage of an additional twelve years of time and experience. And that di erence is noted in some of the re nement in their conclusions. Together, these two books are representative of the issues being raised and the open predictions being presented.

But what are “M's and N's” noted in the section title? ese are not speci cally noted nor discussed by these two books or others similar to them in content. To be speci c, “M's and N's” are “millennials” and “nones” (who include not only millennials but other generations). While many of the resources dealing with the topic of this paper do not deal directly with the in uence of postmodernity upon the church and its mission outreach, two particular sources directly noted postmodernity. Pockock, Van Rheenen, and McConnell with the help of an additional decade of time, did deal with the transition from modernity to postmodernity and its in uence upon the global context (Pocock, Van Rheenen, and McConnell 2005, 105–128). e topic at hand is especially enhanced when we ask, “But will postmodernism help or hinder missionary work?” (Pocock, Van Rheenen, and McConnell, 108) e following would be a brief description of postmodernity as well as pertinent critiques concerning it.

Postmodernity is noted as “a serious challenge that confronts Christian faith and merits a clear and compassionate response” (Ibid., 113). In regards to Christian mission speci cally, these authors note that “postmodernism may a ect missions in two signi cant ways. First, it may a ect those who become missionaries, and second, it may a ect the ways non-Christian postmodernists respond to missionaries” (Ibid., 116). It can be added that the e ect goes beyond how postmodernists respond to missionaries to include Christians (and thus Christianity) in general. is challenge to Christianity and to its mission outreach is most clearly demonstrated in the “N” of this section's title. e term nones emerged into the public dialogue a er the 2016 national elections as pundits and statisticians evaluated that election and its results. It was placed in the

omas R. Walls | 221 statistical category of the religious backgrounds (or lack there-of) of those who had or had refrained from voting. It was an interesting term that caught the passing notice of many religion scholars. Since that particular event, the use of the term has continued to grow as the entities which attempt to discern the religious demographic make-up of this country (e.g., Barna, Gallup, Pew Research, etc.) have cited the growing percentages of “nones” in our society. is was brought home to me when I was reading an electronic edition of my small home town newspaper in which the lead editorial was entitled “Survey: Number of nonbelievers on rise” (Jensen, 6A). is editor notes that “those Americans who say they hold no religious belief (the standard de nition of a “none”—explanation mine) has risen by 266 percent since 1991. If these numbers are correct—or even close—that means that there are as many people who claim no religious belief as there are Catholics and Evangelicals” (Jensen, 6A). Jensen does not state in the editorial where he obtained this information, although it does coincide with a Religion News article that had been published a couple of weeks earlier and had been cited by a number of news outlets (Jenkins 2019). e Jenkins article quanti es the numbers more clearly by noting that “those of ‘no religion’ (23.1%) are statistically slightly larger than evangelicals (22.5%) and statistically tied with Catholics (23%) (Ibid.). Almost a quarter of this country’s population apparently identify themselves in this statistical category.

It should be noted at this juncture that “nones’ are not necessarily atheists, as noted in that same article, and coincides with a Pew Research article which states that only 21% of those who are “nones” take that position to a disbelief in God (Alper). What and who are moving this signi cant growth in the religiously una liated? According to another article from Pew Research it is millennials who are pushing these numbers forward. Older Millennials are at 35% of the religiously una liated while Younger Millennials come in at 36% of that grouping (Lipka). A Brookings Report does a good job of taking census data and presenting information about the millennial generation in terms that are succinct and understandable (Frey).

e conclusion of that report states that “millennials are making an indelible imprint on the nation.” (Frey).

Leading up to the turn of the century, projections upon the impact of these two groups on Christianity and North American society were not seen or perhaps they were disregarded due to the lack of discernible forecasting data at that time. Early in the century, as they emerged, it seems

that these two groups and their growing impact were downplayed, perhaps with the hopes that this would change with the passing of time. However, as noted above, this data cannot be ignored nor disregarded now or going forward. e numbers do not lie. e percentage di erentials are growing. Christianity’s in uence and impact on the North American context are diminishing as consistently as has membership in its churches (Jones). All the while “M's and N's” have expanded in numbers and in uence.

My, Oh My, What Can Be Done?

e situation appears to be dire, if not desperate! e numbers are pointing in the wrong direction. All the positive vibes of the '70s, '80s, and early '90s have evaporated. Magazines, journals, and books appear to picture a present and a future full of desperate times ahead for Christianity in North America. is will undoubtedly negatively a ect Christian mission from a North American perspective. But all is not lost, as seen in the tremendous growth in Christianity and its maturing missionary apparatus within the majority world (Jenkins 2002, 211–20). Pride and ego will be damaged with the diminishing in uence and control of mission from the western and North American church. Much like the changes which inevitably happen within a family as parents grow older and children and grandchildren mature and come into their own, the North American church and its international and intercultural mission e orts will see similar changes (whether it wants to accept them or not). But what about our countries? Our societies? Our generations? I am reminded of a couple of questions that I have o en given to congregations and classes at the beginning of mission presentations. I ask, with accompanying power point slides, “Which country provides the most missionaries to the international outreach of Christianity?” e question is readily answered with pride and joy—the USA. e answer is correct, even with all the negative numbers that have been provided in this paper. e second question is somewhat reversed: "Did you know that same country is one of the largest receptor nations of missionaries?" is conundrum leads to some very interesting discussions. Will the answer to the question posed in this section be that inevitably the USA and its sister North American and Western countries will become net mission receptor nations? is could be the way forward. Or the situation could cause a paradigm shi in the ecclesiological perspectives and practices in the church and its academy.

Some een years ago I was tasked to develop and teach a Doctor of Ministry seminar on the “Minister as Missional Leader.” e term missional was just making its appearance on the theological scene through the signi cant writings of Darrell Guder in the Gospel & Our Culture Series.

e tack which I took in those initial seminars was totally di erent than what I take today. In the beginning, the readings and seminar presentations were very conventional to the times. Essentially, the point was to explain why Christian mission was important to the overall ministry of the church and how the minister could e ectively lead his or her congregation forward in support of the international and intercultural ministry in their particular denomination. at is not the approach today. Where only a few texts were available covering the missional nature and responsibility of the local church and its ministers at that time, that is not the case currently. Texts and seminar presentations still are given which meet the course’s original description:

is course re ects on the role of the minister as the missional leader in the local congregation with a speci c awareness of the broader intercultural/international Christian movement. Attention is given to a survey of the biblical, historical, cultural, and strategic perspectives of the missional mandate of the Church. is goal is to produce a missiological awareness which will enhance and facilitate the minister’s leadership skills within a local congregational context and enable that minister to become an e ective advocate of the Church’s Great Commission responsibilities. (Walls)

e connection to the mission e orts of the church beyond the minister’s own cultural and national context is not overlooked; however, a signi cant portion of the seminar has been transformed to bring emphasis to the important cultural changes that have altered the context in which the church and its ministers now serve in a common North American context. Texts and video presentations are utilized to stimulate discussion and growth in the employment of a missional approach in the minister’s own congregational context beyond the usual cultural and ethnic parameters. Instead, the desire is for these students to begin using a cultural hermeneutic (exegesis), which enhances their ability to serve their community more holistically and to begin to move their congregations accordingly. is seminar has traveled a long way in a relatively short amount of time. It hardly resembles the original e orts and contents. But it is far more relevant

in content and terminology. And perhaps that is what this paper is really all about.

What Does is Really Mean for Mission Teaching Going Forward?

e answer in brief: everything and very little. As it relates to what is taught in the academy concerning the commonly understood aspects of Christian mission, little changes. is does not mean that the status quo is thoroughly entrenched and one will teach the common mission courses in the same ways, using the trusted “standard” texts that may have been used for generations or those which have dutifully taken their place. To maintain such a status quo is impossible, especially when those “standard” texts are disappearing from their publishers at a rapid pace. eologically oriented academe will see change (although slowly) and with that change our discipline likewise. What does not change is that missionaries are still called to service. And with acceptance to such assignments comes the responsibility for preparation for service—which is equally signi cant for those called to short-term missions as well as those who are called to career-term missions. Preparing persons to enter a ministry which will require them to enter cultures similar or diverse from which they originate will continue. e ministry to which they are called requires speci c preparations and study which go beyond accepted norms of ministerial/ pastoral preparation at the undergraduate and graduate levels. To the core classes which are readily required of ministerial course work, whether it be in a Bible college, Christian college/university, or seminary setting, are added course work in the biblical and theological foundations of Christian mission, the historical contexts of mission, cultural anthropology, world religions, intercultural communication, cross cultural preparation, language acquisition, methodological and strategic approaches (historical, current, and future trending) with Christian mission, and more. All this is required or encouraged in addition to the established ministerial prep work within an academic context. Such will not change in great measure, although there will be gradual change within an ecclesiastical environment which is constantly seeing change. However, missionary education exists in an environment which is constantly in ux, so it must remain nimble in its approach and application. What must become more exible to the environment in which it exists and to the context into which its graduates enter is the traditional

225 accepted ministerial educational cores. And mission studies is appropriately prepared to help in this process.

To the evolving multicultural context of this society, which was predicted in multiple volumes of pre-twenty- rst century forecasts, specialized training is needed. is kind of specialized training can be found in mission studies programs. e unexpected challenges of the millennial generation accompanied by its “nones” require ministry approaches which are more mission oriented than traditionally accepted ministerial approaches. One might say that millennials and “nones” are consistently developing a generational demographic as recognizable and discernible as most cultural demographics. In addition, they are becoming a demographic that is as unaware of Christian teachings and in uences and in some cases resistant to such teachings and in uences as some people groups in the distant 10-40 window. ese are not people arriving to our society with existing religious understandings. ese are people from within our society who come from our neighborhoods, schools, and families. To reach such demographics will require ministry approaches beyond the approaches which our academic programs are now prepared to o er. It is acknowledged that much of that which is o en required and o ered in current accredited ministerial preparation programs is of high quality and is historically proven. is should not disappear nor be greatly changed. What does need to change is the role of mission studies in what has been considered traditional ministry studies.

It has not been unusual in such programs to have one generalized introductory mission course, sometimes included as an elective instead of a requirement, be o ered to ministry students, leaving the more "specialized" mission courses to those persons heading into missionary service. But it is exactly these “specialized” courses which may be the most useful to ministerial students entering into a vastly di erent cultural landscape than what has been pastoral ministry in North America, especially to the demographic which includes the millennials and nones. It will be di cult to reach these two groups with current traditional methodologies. Biblical accuracy, theological orthodoxy, appropriate pastoral regimens, understandable and correct worship, hermeneutical and homiletic exactness, and so forth are not understood nor appreciated by these groups. A situation exists that is very similar to entering a cultural environment which the minister knows little of or appreciates less the vagaries of a religion which is not extant to

their historical and cultural context. Entering such contexts with the good news of Christ and with the intent of introducing Christ and his church in such a way that is contextually appropriate is what missionaries are trained (educated) and prepared to do. Our ministers and their congregations are not prepared to do so. us they revert to methodology and techniques from a disappearing era which are not only out of date but sometimes outright culturally inappropriate to such cultural and generational demographics. As one of my professors from long ago used to lecture with great redundancy: “You (future ministers) must learn to exegete your communities with as great an accuracy and continuity as you are willing to exert in exegeting of the Holy Scriptures.” e common curricular content of undergrad ministry programs and the Association of eological Schools accredited Master of Divinity requirements are not the issue. What is the issue is taking such curricula and implementing it in the “real world” of parish ministry. It is at this point where select areas of mission studies need to “come alongside” the existing curricula to help these prospective ministers, their alumni colleagues through continuing education opportunities, and vicariously their congregations through their ministers’ participation. is symbiotic curricula does not present some “quick x” or simple solution to a problem the church is confronting today. e problem is not some possible situation that may come down the road in some mysterious future scenario. e decline of the church in the North American context is a reality today. It is no longer just the conciliar portion of the family which is experiencing this decline. It includes Roman Catholics and Evangelicals as well. A quarter of our population opting out of religion and Christianity in particular is not something that might happen. It is happening and that percentage is growing exponentially. e new reality is that we now live in a context which necessitates a missional approach to ministry instead of a traditional ministerial approach. Ministers and their congregations should begin to implement missional approaches to their ministries before it is too late for Christianity within this culture to make a substantial and meaningful impact. e question is not why but how shall this be accomplished. How can the North American church confront this situation and begin to turn it around?

What Are the Speci cs?

In 1998, a trio of authors produced a small but impactful book, Choosing a Future for U.S. Missions, which o ers a series of strategic questions

omas R. Walls | 227 and observations. For the purpose of this paper, one small sentence in a chapter asking “How Shall ey Be Sent?” drives the discussion to the point for mission education. e authors state, “E ective missions education is desperately needed” (McKaughan, O’Brien, and O’Brien 1998, 58). ey go on to emphasize that “the number one priority is more mission mobilizers —mission pastors, more active mission committees, more missionary education on the local level” (Ibid., 58). What they did not foresee with this call to action was how important this would be for missional impact by the church at a local level. e projection was outward in nature with the emphasis on maintaining a mission thrust projected beyond the United States. Mission maintenance remains very important and cannot be abandoned; however, added to that responsibility is the burgeoning domestic explosion of diverse ethnic and generational contexts which require speci c missional preparation and application. eir statements remain true for the church; what has changed has been an ampli cation of the “why” and “to whom.”

e “why” and “to whom” which have been established within this paper reaches beyond a purely ethnic multiculturalism to a cultural diversity driven by a distinct cultural and generational divide. e question remains of what are the speci cs from mission education which meet this contextual need. One could imagine that most of that which has been taught in mission education would have relevance in ministerial preparation for this new reality. One could nd historical correlations from Christianity’s mission history. Major paradigm shi s in speci c ministerial contexts are not unique to our society or to this time period. How did the church and its mission apparatus handle those situations? What was done e ectively and successfully? What failed and should be avoided? Are there biblical and theological precedents to be applied to our situation? Where such precedents are absent how can the church in this societal context nd approaches that do not con ict with orthodox biblical interpretation and theological orthopraxis of twenty plus centuries while understanding the unique parameters of the twenty- rst century context?

Darrell Whiteman presents just such a discussion with a series of pertinent questions with accompanying answers in a chapter in Missiological Education for the 21st Century. He asks about "missiological education for whom and for what contexts." (Whiteman, 134–136) He goes on to explain the signi cance of the behavioral studies in missiological studies and applications. He defends disciplinary integration and vigorously calls

for the ampli cation of such practice as he states, “I believe the time is long overdue to draw on a wider range of behavioral sciences for missiological education” (Ibid., 142). I concur with Whiteman’s observations and advocacy, as such disciplines which ought to be integrated, interpreted, and applied through missiological systems that provide important insights to ministry in international and intercultural contexts. But they also pertain to the postmodern and post-Christendom environment which are now well entrenched in North America.

Another speci c point of application is in the strategic questions and decisions necessary to re-plant the church in a context where the church has essentially disappeared. e norm of late twentieth century approaches to church planting in such contexts are proving to be increasingly ine ective.

e “one size, one paradigm, mega-church or bust” approach to church plants are more di cult to initiate and sustain in a society where a quarter of the population are religiously non-a liated and a larger percentage of the population which does not have the privilege of a normative Christian religious experience (although it may be limited) that church planters draw upon in making initial contact and progressions. Going forward, church plants and re-plants will need to increasingly draw upon the lessons learned by the missiological community in evangelizing, disciplining, and church planting in situations where the contexts have been devoid or lacking of more favorable parameters. Indeed, the local situations o en appear to be closer to that which is found on the “mission eld” than readily approachable North American situations of the late twentieth century.

is brings us full circle. I began this paper by noting something which happened in my life almost two decades earlier. In re ection, I stated that I would answer that initial question di erently given the experiences of the intervening years. Indeed, I would answer that question di erently, but not solely based on personal experiences and maturity. I would have to answer in the a rmative because the status quo has changed. If the church within our society has any chance to e ectively change its impact (or lack there-of) one thing must change: it must begin to think, live, and minister like a church on mission. And this process begins in the preparation of its future leaders and ministers. e schools and entities responsible in this environment must begin to prepare these persons and their congregations to think and act more like missionaries than what we have been doing for the past century. e status quo has proven to be ine ective and out of step

omas R. Walls | 229 with the current contextual realities. Paradigms have changed. e di cult and tumultuous reality of catching up with that change must begin, or we will follow the tragic example of the multitudes of once relevant churches who did not and disappeared from the scene. e question for us become, What shall we do? Let’s answer that question and move into action.

References

Alper, Becka

2018. “Why America’s ‘nones’ don’t identify with are religion.” Fact Tank. August 8. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/08/08/whyamericas-nones-dont-identify-with-a-religion/ (accessed May 21, 2019).

Anderson, Gerald H., and omas R. Stransky

1974. Mission Trends No. 1: Crucial Issues in Mission Today. New York: Paulist Press.

1975. Mission Trends No. 2: Evangelization. New York: Paulist Press.

1976. Mission Trends No. 3: ird World eologies. New York: Paulist Press.

1979. Mission Trends No. 4: Liberation eologies in North America and Europe. New York: Paulist Press.

1981. Mission Trends No. 5: Faith Meets Faith. New York: Paulist Press.

Crim, Keith R.

1993. “North America.” In Toward the 21st Century in Christian Mission James M. Phillips and Robert T. Coote, eds. Pp. 98-106. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Engel, James F.

1996. A Clouded Future: Advancing North American World Missions. Milwaukee, WI: Christian Stewardship Association. 2-24.

Frey, William H.

2018. “ e millennial generation: A demographic bridge to America’s diverse future.” Brookings. January, 2018. https://www.brookings. edu/ research/millennials/ (accessed May 21, 2019).

Frost, Michael, and Alan Hirsch

2003. e Shaping of ings to Come: Innovation and Mission for the 21st Century Church. Grand Rapids: Baker Books.

Guder. Darrell

2000. e Continuing Conversion of the Church. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Guder, Darrell, ed.

1998. Missional Church: A Vision for the Sending of the Church in North America. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Jenkins, Jack

2019. “Nones’ now as big as evangelicals, Catholics in the US.” Religion News Service. March 21. https://religionnews.com/2019/03/21/nonesnow-as-big-as-evangelicals-catholics-in-the-us/ (accessed May 21, 2019).

Jenkins, Philip 2002. e Next Christendom: e Coming of Global Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press.

Jensen, Michael

2019. “Survey: Number of nonbelievers on the rise.” Sikeston Standard Democrat. April 14. https://standard-democrat.com/story/2601422. html (accessed April 14, 2019).

Jones, Je rey

2019. “U.S. Church Membership Down Sharply in Past Two Decades.” Gallup. April 18. https://news.gallup.com/poll/248837/churchmembership-down-sharply-past-two-decades.aspx (accessed April 19, 2019).

Lipka, Michael 2015. “Millennials increasingly are driving growth in ‘nones’.” Fact Tank. May 12. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/05/12/ millennials-increasingly-are-driving-growth-of-nones/(accessed May 21, 2019).

McKaughan, Paul, Dellana O’Brien, and William O’Brien

1998. Choosing a Future for U.S. Missions. Monrovia, CA: MARC.

Phillips, James M., and Robert T. Coote

1993. Toward the 21st Century in Christian Mission. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Pocock, Michael, Gailyn, Van Rheenen, and Douglas McConnell

2005. e Changing Face of World Missions: Engaging Contemporary Issues and Trends. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Walls, omas R.

2018. DMIN 814: e Minister as Missional Leader. Doctor of Ministry syllabus, Oakland City University.

Whiteman, Darrell

1996. “ e Role of the Behavioral Sciences.” In Missiological Education for the 21st Century: e Book, the Circle, and the Sandals. J. Dudley Woodberry, Charles Van Engen, and Edgar J. Elliston, eds. Pp. 133143. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.

The Challenge of Missions in an Age of

Silicon Valley and the Development of New Forms of Religious Expression

Daniel Topf1

Abstract

In Homo Deus, Yuval Noah Harari (2017) attempts to describe what the future of humanity might look like, a future that will be shaped by new technologies like biotechnology and arti cial intelligence. In this kind of environment, Christians will have to deal with a whole new set of questions, such as what it means to be truly human in an age of hyperintelligent machines. To develop a relevant missiology for the coming decades, Christians will not only have to interact with other world religions like Islam and Buddhism, but also with technology and its social, ethical, and political implications.

Introduction

Especially in recent years, missiologists have made it a priority to interact with other major world religions such as Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Some mission practitioners may do so in order to achieve a breakthrough for Christianity among adherents of a particular faith tradition (e.g., Ghattas and Ghattas 2009) or to pursue peace-building initiatives (Shenk 2014). Others, particularly academics, may be interested primarily in engaging in interreligious dialogue or studying comparative theology (Clooney 2010; Cornille 2013). By contrast, missiologists and theologians tend to be less eager to engage with today’s technological developments and the secular worldviews that o en undergird these advancements in science and technology. Missiologists ignore these kinds of issues to their own peril because science and technology are profoundly in uencing people’s lives, and questions related to bioengineering, advanced robotics, and arti cial

intelligence will pose some of the most pressing political, economic, and ethical questions humans will have to wrestle with in the twenty- rst century.

Since technology looms so large in contemporary daily life, an increasing number of people may place their hope and aspirations in technological advancements rather than in traditional religions. One of the most prominent thinkers discussing possibilities along these lines is Yuval Noah Harari, an Israeli historian and philosopher who became well known through his publication Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (2015a), a book that was endorsed by both Bill Gates (then the richest person in the world) and Barack Obama (then the most powerful person in the world). In the following, I begin by introducing some of Harari’s main theses, speci cally as these relate to religion. I then explore several missiological and theological implications this kind of thinking may have and invite missiologists to enter into a constructive dialogue with secular and technology-driven worldviews like liberal humanism and transhumanism.

Introducing Harari’s Worldview

Harari’s approach to explaining life and the world is a naturalistic, science-based worldview. He draws extensively from the theory of evolution, which, to him, explains how homo sapiens conquered the world and why humans behave the way they do: “Just as people were never created, neither, according to the science of biology, is there a ‘Creator’ who ‘endows’ them with anything. ere is only a blind evolutionary process, devoid of any purpose, leading to the birth of individuals” (Harari 2015b, 109).2

Based on his rm belief in evolution, Harari is committed to secularism; religions, like any other ideology, are entirely human-made and therefore not binding in any absolute sense.3 Granted, religions may have some positive e ects on society, but faith is not necessary for developing an ethical system, as “we don’t need to invoke God’s name in order to live a moral life. Secularism can provide us with all the values we need” (Harari 2018, 206). Accordingly, Harari (2018, 127-139) does not see religions as a necessary force for good in the world; on the contrary, the various faith systems have been responsible for many evils and therefore need to be critiqued.4

In addition, any other problem humans face today can and will be solved through scienti c breakthroughs. For example, to address people’s emotional needs, Harari (2015b, 389) suggests manipulating people’s biochemical system, thereby making “people far happier than ever before.” Science will not only continue to enable people to live healthier and happier lives, progress may one day even solve the problem of death, because

for men [sic] of science, death is not an inevitable destiny, but merely a technical problem. People die not because the gods decreed it, but due to various technical failures—a heart attack, cancer, an infection. And every technical problem has a technical solution. . . . True, at present we cannot solve all technical problems. But we are working on them. Our best minds are not wasting their time trying to give meaning to death. . . . ey are developing new medicines, revolutionary treatments and arti cial organs that will lengthen our lives and might one day vanquish the Grim Reaper himself (Harari 2015b, 267).

In Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow, Harari (2017, 23) further develops these thoughts, a rming that “we don’t need to wait for the Second Coming in order to overcome death. A couple of geeks in a lab can do it. If traditionally death was the specialty of priests and theologians, now the engineers are taking over.” As these quotes demonstrate, Harari’s provocative theses are diametrically opposed to what Christians have historically asserted to be true about both the beginning and the end of life. Nonetheless, I believe Harari makes an important point when he emphasizes how dramatically cutting-edge technologies like arti cial intelligence (AI), nanotechnology, quantum computing, algorithms and Big Data, virtual reality (VR), and bioengineering will alter human existence in the decades to come.

Technology-Driven Religions

As brie y outlined above, Harari does not believe in the basic tenets of Judaism or Christianity; rather, he believes that in the future, technology will take the place of religion or create new forms of religious expression. Accordingly, as Harari (2015c, 1:30-45) a rmed during a talk at Google, “ e most interesting place in the world today, in religious terms, is Silicon Valley” because “this is where the new religions that will take over the world

are being formulated.” Harari (2016) later also developed this thought in an essay, writing,

Nowadays, the most interesting place in the world from a religious perspective is not Syria or the Bible Belt, but Silicon Valley. at is where hi-tech gurus are brewing for us amazing new religions that have little to do with God, and everything to do with technology. ey promise all the old prizes—happiness, peace, justice and eternal life in paradise—but here on Earth with the help of technology, rather than a er death and with the help of supernatural beings. (Of course, this does not mean that these techno-religions will ful l all their extravagant promises. Religions spread themselves more by making promises than by keeping them.)

To make his case, Harari (Ibid. c) in his talk on “Techno Religions and Silicon Prophets” rst postulates that the dominant ideology or belief system at present is liberal humanism (or simply liberalism, as he calls it). Liberalism is based on several basic assumptions: rst, the centrality of the individual; second, the idea that individuals have free will; and third, the assumption that “only I can really know myself” (Ibid., c, 4:33). is is why liberalism promotes liberty, encouraging individuals to act according to what they think or feel. In stating that liberalism is the dominant ideology in modern societies, Harari makes a compelling argument, especially because he undergirds his thesis with several examples from the world of politics, economics, aesthetics, ethics, and education: (cf. Harari 2017, 249)

• For instance, to consider the area of politics, in a democracy, Harari explains, political decisions are made through elections, which are based on the assumption that “the voter knows best,” that “there is no higher authority than the voter” (Harari 2015c, 5:35-42).

• Similarly, the liberal approach to economics is that “the customer is always right” (Ibid., c, 6:52). Ultimately, a good product is one that is being bought by many consumers—no other authority, whether a committee, the state, or any group of experts, can make that decision.

• Traditionally, many cultures believed there are certain objective standards according to which it can be decided what makes good

art. According to the liberal view on art, however, “beauty is in the eye of the beholders” (Ibid., c, 9:20)—so, once again, the individual is the highest authority to make decisions in the realm of aesthetics.

• In ethics, how can humans know whether an action is good or evil? Traditionally, religious authorities (such as priests) determined what was good or evil. But in liberalism, “the highest authority in the eld of ethics is also the feelings of individuals—there is nothing beyond that. If it feels good, do it” (Ibid., 11:26–35)!

• Finally, in liberal education “the student . . . is the highest authority, not the teacher, not the professor.” Accordingly, the highest goal liberal educators have for their students is to teach them “to think for themselves” (Ibid., 13:53–14:09).

In our time, Harari (Ibid., 14:56) concludes, this “liberal package dominates most of the world.” It is a package which includes the idea of human rights, representative democracy, and market-driven economies (cf. Harari 2017, 283). Not everybody may accept these liberal ideas, but together they form a dominating system to which currently there seems to be no attractive alternative.5

Nonetheless, liberalism may soon be challenged—not by traditional religions (like Islam), nor by authoritarian systems (like China), but by new kinds of technological forces, speci cally the life sciences and dataprocessing capabilities. Liberalism depends on the inner core of individuals, but according to the life sciences, human beings (and other animals) are essentially a collection of biochemical algorithms since, in Harari’s worldview, there is no inner core, no soul (Ibid., 284, 285, 287).

A er all, human beings, just like any other animal, are merely calculating machines—constantly calculating chances for survival and reproduction (Ibid., 85-87). To survive and succeed, humans need to process large amounts of information, which is something computer scientists are now getting better and better at. Considering human bodily functions (including their emotions) are basically biochemical algorithms, the day may come when a data-driven algorithm may understand humans better than they understand themselves (Ibid., 333-334). is will revolutionize medicine in the twenty- rst century, and since health is such a high value

in today’s society, people will allow highly sophisticated algorithms to make decisions on their behalf (Ibid., 335).1

Consequently, over time, the authority to make decisions will gradually move away from individual humans to computer-generated algorithms. Such a switch may give rise to “a new kind of religion, a datareligion” (Harari 2015c, 52:51; cf. 2017, 371). is development is already beginning in small ways: humans follow Google Maps to decide which road to take on a trip, and customers heed the recommendations Amazon proposes to them regarding what book to buy next. Eventually, Harari (2017, 347–348, 397) believes, algorithms will also in uence more important decisions, such as what to do to improve our health and whom to choose as a life partner. is will especially be the case as humans not only read machines (such as Kindle), but also allow machines to “read” them (by constantly collecting data about them—particularly through wearable technology like the Google watch, for example).

“When the biotech revolution merges with the infotech revolution,” Harari (2018, 49) anticipates, “it will produce Big Data algorithms that can monitor and understand my feelings much better than I can, and then authority will probably shi from humans to computers.” In these developments, Harari recognizes the potential danger of digital dictatorships being established. Granted, computer-generated algorithms may get things wrong; nonetheless, they may still come to dominate the world once people decide to trust these machines and the decisions they make.

Missiological Implications of Living in an Age of Arti cial Intelligence

Despite Harari’s critique of Christianity and other faiths, he does see a role for religion, even in an age of arti cial intelligence and advanced algorithms:

Technology depends on religion because every invention has many potential applications, and the engineers need some priest or prophet to make the crucial choices and point towards the 1 A current example is a decision made by movie star Angelina Jolie: a program (an external algorithm) communicated that she had an 87 percent chance to develop breast cancer—and so she decided to have a double mastectomy (cf. Harari 2017, 337-339).

Daniel

required destination. us, in the 19th century, engineers invented locomotives, radios and the internal combustion engine. But as the 20th century proved, you can use these same tools to create fascist societies, communist dictatorships or liberal democracies. Without religious or ideological convictions, the locomotives cannot decide which way to go. (Harari 2016)

Several Christian thinkers have responded to this challenge and begun to address theological implications related to recent technological developments (e.g., Waters 2006; Cole-Turner 2011; Daly 2015). Some of these discussions are a response to the challenge of transhumanism, “the intellectual and cultural movement that a rms the possibility and desirability of fundamentally improving the human condition through applied reason, especially by developing and making widely available technologies to eliminate aging and to greatly enhance human intellectual, physical, and psychological capacities” (quoted in More 2013, 3).6 Transhumanism has been a phenomenon among intellectuals for a number of years now. e term was introduced by Max More in 1990, and in 1998 “the Transhumanist Declaration was cra ed by an international group of authors” (More 2013, 12). For the most part, transhumanism has been a theme for somewhat eccentric philosophers and scientists, but through authors like Harari the basic concepts of transhumanism have now been made known to a wider public.

In his book Transhumanism and the Image of God, Jacob Shatzer (2019, 43) formulates a response to transhumanists who “always want more: more intelligence, more life, more experience.” As a theologian, Shatzer expresses concern about how technological advances may change the very core of what it means to be human, especially once there are powerful interfaces between the human body and advanced technologies. “In particular,” Shatzer (2019, 86) warns, “di erent levels of wearable technology make us more and more comfortable with the type of interfaces that augmented reality requires. We are closer to the cyborg than we might think.”

Shatzer proposes a di erent pathway, one in which—because of the Incarnation—Christians are called to highly value the human body, which was created by God. Unlike other religious movements like the Gnostics, who wanted to leave the human body behind, Shatzer (2019, 127) contends, “we must resist the idea that the solution to human problems is escape from

the body.”7 Rather than being constantly connected to the smartphone, Shatzer proposes an alternative lifestyle in which coming together in person is essential. During such gatherings, people can live out their humanity by meeting around a home-cooked meal, telling stories, and cultivating the practice of listening. Similarly, Craig M. Gay (2018) also emphasizes the signi cance of the Incarnation and the dangers of a disembodied existence. To counter the forces of capitalism and technological advancement, Gay (2018, 180–82, 221–25) suggests reducing screen time and devoting more time to concrete and communal activities such as meal preparation, learning to play a musical instrument, and celebrating the Eucharist as the body of Christ in a particular place.

While a number of theologians (like Gay and Shatzer) have written about the challenge of transhumanism, it is now crucial for missiologists to engage in this conversation as well for several reasons. First, missiology is, by its very nature, an interdisciplinary eld of study and is therefore wellsituated to interact with topics such as anthropology, psychology, economics, and other sciences. Second, while transhumanism previously was rather a fringe movement, several of its ideas have now been presented to a wider public through the bestsellers Harari has written. ird, missiologists are passionate about translating the Christian faith into di erent cultural contexts and about transmitting the faith to the next generation. For that to happen, Christians need to remain relevant and in tune with recent developments since, as Harari (2016) recognizes, “religions that lose touch with the technological realities of the day forfeit their ability even to understand the questions being asked.”

Accordingly, Christians need to ask themselves if they are ready to be part of the conversations that are increasingly shaping the twenty- rst century. Just as theologians and missiologists today strive to learn more about Islamic theology, Hindu beliefs, and Buddhist practices, Christians need to make similar e orts to better understand those in uenced by secular and technology-driven worldviews. is is not to argue for a new kind of secularization theory; from all we know, it does look like the majority of people in the twenty- rst century will be religious (cf. Volf 2011, 119-120).8 However, some of the most powerful forces shaping people’s lives in our time are technological in nature, and advances in areas like bioengineering, arti cial intelligence, and nanotechnology will profoundly shape the social, economic, and political realities of our time. To remain relevant in the future,

Christian theologians and missiologists will need to engage with questions related to a wide range of topics, including the following:

1. AI and the Imago Dei

Once humans are not the most intelligent beings on planet Earth anymore, how will this change our view regarding what it means to be truly human (cf. Harari 2017, 271)?

2. Technological Unemployment

If more and more traditional jobs will be replaced by AI and by robots, what kind of work will humans be doing in the future (Brynjolfsson and McAfee 2014; Ford 2015; Gay 2018, 38-46)? How will those who are unable to nd (paid) work nd meaning and ful llment in life?

3. e Future of Education

Since it is completely unclear what kind of jobs will be available twenty or thirty years from now (Harari 2018, 263–64), how will Christian schools, colleges, and universities prepare young people for a world in ux (cf. Aoun 2017; Doucet et al. 2018; Gleason 2018)?9

4. Interdisciplinary Research

In what ways and through what kinds of institutions can theologians and missiologists contribute to addressing complex challenges and opportunities brought about by new technologies?

5. Data-Religions

Once algorithms understand humans better than they understand themselves, to what extent will these programs become gods that direct people in every major decision of their lives? What kind of implications will this development have for traditional religions?

6. Human Enhancement

Will the church support technologies like genetic engineering if these help to ght diseases and to enhance human life? Or are humans overstepping their boundaries as this would mean for them to play God?

7. Autonomous Weapon Systems

What are the ethical implications of ghting wars with drones and robots? Is there an opportunity to have fewer human casualties as future wars will primarily be fought between advanced machines (cf. Bhuta et al., 2016; Scharre 2018)?

8. Longevity

In their general a rmation for life, should Christians support the goal to tackle the topic of aging and mortality? People have been enjoying longer and longer life expectancy, but how will social and economic dynamics change once people can live up to 150 or 200 years?10

9. Space Travel

Considering God created a universe with countless solar systems and planets, is it part of God’s plan for humans to extend the Cultural Mandate beyond planet Earth and start colonizing space?

10. Technology and Entertainment

How will technologies like wearable devices and virtual reality change how people experience leisure and sex? What will be the church’s response to these changes?

Obviously, to engage with these ten major questions in any detail would go beyond the scope of this paper. At this point, my main goal is to encourage dialogue between missiologists and technology-based developments like transhumanism and secular liberalism. Missiologist and theologian Amos Yong (2014) has argued that through interreligious conversations and encounters, both sides can potentially experience conversion. e biblical basis for this is found in Acts 10, where the apostle Peter experiences a kind of conversion (as God deals with his prejudice and ethnocentrism), which then also leads to the conversion of Cornelius, the Roman centurion (Yong 2014, 85, 101–102, 206–207, 216).

Similarly, a dialogue between the church and those advocating a technology-based secularism may lead to multiple conversions. For example, this may be the time for Christians to acknowledge some of their

bias (and ignorance) when it comes to technological innovations like genetic engineering, quantum computing, and nanotechnology. ese technologies have great potential to nd new cures for a wide range of diseases, and as such can be seen as part of expressing God’s kingdom on earth. For transhumanists, on the other hand, it may be bene cial to recognize that humans are nite and ultimately in need of an in nite savior. As history has shown, those who promise paradise on earth and then come to power tend to create hell on earth (cf. Blackford 2013, 428), which is why salvation can only be envisioned in an eschatological perspective, a rming we live in an age of tension of the “already but not yet.”

Conclusion

In this paper, I began by introducing some of the main thoughts expressed by prominent thinker and bestselling author Harari. Harari’s worldview is based on the theory of evolution, his thinking is highly secularized, and he o en sharply criticizes religion. On the horizon of human development, Harari is now identifying a new form of religion or ideology: data religions that will be based on advanced algorithms that know humans better than they know themselves. e current dominating worldview, liberal humanism, is therefore in danger because liberalism depends on the idea that individuals and their personal choices are the highest form of authority. In the future, this authority may move toward machines and algorithms, especially if doing so will provide humans with better healthcare and advanced treatment options.11

Harari is convinced the biggest questions of the future are related to technological advances. Some of Harari’s ideas have previously been promoted by transhumanists who believe human life can be radically enhanced through technological breakthroughs that will bring about unprecedented improvements in terms of health bene ts, intellectual capabilities, and longevity. erefore, to stay relevant in the twentyrst century, theologians and missiologists will have to engage with the implications of cutting-edge technologies like arti cial intelligence, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology.

I propose a kind of interreligious dialogue between Christianity and technology-based secularist worldviews that, founded on the account of Peter and Cornelius, can lead to multiple conversions. Hopefully, both sides

will be willing to listen and learn. Christians need to learn about the latest technological developments and recognize the potential these innovations have for human ourishing. At the same time, it is our task as Christians to explain why technology will not be able to solve all of humanity’s problems in an ultimate sense. As followers of Jesus, we can a rm with bold humility that humanity’s most promising future does not lie in humans becoming gods (homo deus) but rather in the God who became human (Deus homo).

Endnotes

1 Daniel Topf is a Regional Mobilizer with World Team and a PhD student in intercultural studies at Fuller eological Seminary. His cross-cultural experience includes several years in China as a business person and three years as a Master of Divinity student at TCA College (Singapore).

2 Similarly, Harari (2015b, 397) later makes the claim, “for close to 4 billion years, every single organism on the planet evolved subject to natural selection. Not even one was designed by an intelligent creator.”

3 Harari (2015b, 210) de nes religion as “a system of human norms and values that is founded on a belief in a supernatural order.”

4 Despite his critique of religions, Harari does have an interest in spirituality, speci cally one that leans toward Buddhism and focuses on how to reduce su ering. Harari discovered Vipassana meditation when he was in college; he currently meditates for two hours every day and acknowledges that, despite his Jewish background, he has been “more in uenced by Buddha and Darwin than by the Bible” (quoted in Harari 2015a, 3).

5 Harari (2015c) recognizes that China may point to an alternative. However, while China is an economic giant, it is “an ideological dwarf.” Islamists, of course, also “oppose the liberal package, but they don’t really have an alternative to o er. e reason is that their ideas are outdated by several centuries.”

6 More (2013, 3) is here quoting from the website https://whatistranshumanism. org/.

7 is, however, might be a misrepresentation of what transhumanists long for; as Max More (2013, 15) argues, “Transhumanists do seek to improve the human body, by making it resistant to aging, damage, and disease, and by enhancing its senses and sharpening the cognition of our biological brains. Perhaps critics have made a ying leap from the idea of being dissatis ed with the body to hating it, despising it, or loathing it. In

reality, transhumanism doesn’t nd the biological human body disgusting or frightening. It does nd it to be a marvelous yet awed piece of engineering.”

8 Even Harari (2018, 127) acknowledges the in uence of religions when he writes that “secular people are a minority,” while hundreds of millions may “go on believing in Islam, Christianity or Hinduism” (Harari 2017, 271). However, he considers these religious beliefs to have little in uence on the major developments of the twenty- rst century because religions do not speak to current issues such as arti cial intelligence and biotechnology.

9 I learned this phrase from Cathy N. Davidson’s (2017) book e New Education: How to Revolutionize the University to Prepare Students for a World in Flux.

10 Damien Broderick (2013, 434–435) acknowledges that “no method recommended by science—or by magic, a rmation, or prayer, for that matter—has managed so far to extend human life beyond the naturally evolved limit of about 120 years” (cf. Gen. 6:3); and yet he envisions that, due to technological advances, health and youthfulness may be “prolonged into the hundreds of years.”

11 Healthcare is evolving, as “we are rapidly approaching a time where there is not just curative, palliative, and preventative medicine, but also augmentative medicine” (Sandberg 2013, 58).

References

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Davidson, Cathy N.

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Gay, Craig M.

2018. Modern Technology and the Human Future: A Christian Appraisal. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic.

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2016. “Salvation by Algorithm: God, Technology and the New 21st Century Religions.” New Statesman, Sept. 9, 2016. Accessed April 26, 2019, https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/uk/2016/09/salvationalgorithm-god-technology-and-new-21st-century-religions.

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The Ministry of God’s Presence Role in Addressing Urban Trauma

Mary Glenn1

Abstract

As a law enforcement chaplain, I have experienced rsthand God’s ministry of presence when responding to critical incidents and traumatized individuals. Mission practitioners have an opportunity to embody this sacred ministry of presence that encompasses physical, emotional and spiritual care and reveals God’s love and peace through being with people during times of trauma. is presence communicates the beloved value of God over each person no matter where they are on the faith journey. A rmation can bring healing and hope to city dwellers impacted by instability, pain and fear in the city. is paper explores the shared reality of urban trauma, the de nition and expressions of the ministry of God’s presence, and how the urban context provides unique opportunities for the sacred presence of God.

Several years ago I was called out to the police station to meet with a family. One of their sons was killed at a party in a case of mistaken identity. e family had three sons, the younger two were eighteen-year old twins. While attending a high school party, one of the twins was thought to be the other. e twin that was intended to be killed was a gang leader, and the opposing gang killed his twin brother instead. e family had no awareness of their son’s gang involvement. In addition to helping the family plan for services and care of the body, I sought to embody the ministry of God’s presence in the midst of their pain. I was unable to answer their questions, but I was able to sit with them in their despair, confusion, and loss.

I declined to o ciate the memorial service at the local funeral home due to safety concerns. My police agency agreed to my attendance with the caveat that they would be outside patrolling and ensuring the safety of all

in the building. At the same time, the gang provided presence to ensure all of their leaders and members would be protected just in case the rival gang decided to make an appearance. To minimize attendance, the service was held at seven in the morning. Over three hundred people came, less than ten of whom were adults. Young people were on their own to navigate their fear, grief, and despair. For many young people at this funeral, they found belonging, purpose and protection in the gang family. eir brothers committed to have each other’s backs.With the death of this young person, their vulnerability was laid bare. I was mindful of the impact of my presence and more importantly the ministry of God’s presence in that moment.

When I re ect on the “call outs” I have responded to, the speci cs were unique but the desperation and trauma were common. As a chaplain I have delivered death noti cations, responded to crisis situations, assisted in domestic disputes, and walked with people as they recovered from losing loved ones to homicide, suicide, and tra c accidents. e daily challenges of urban living and the trauma one experiences in the city can lead to depression, isolation and hopelessness. As a new law enforcement chaplain I quickly learned the power of God’s ministry of presence especially when responding to critical incidents.

e ministry of God’s presence communicates value, belonging, peace, and hope. It is an opportunity to engage with God’s missional work in the city. God calls, restores, and reconciles each of us to himself and to each other as well as to lands we call home. is transformative work of healing is a result of the sacri ce of Jesus, who laid down his life so that all might have life. One of the entry points of this understanding is the ministry of God’s presence, which facilitates a tangible face-to-face encounter with God’s love. is paper explores the shared reality of urban trauma: the de nition and expressions of the ministry of God’s presence and how the urban context provides unique opportunities for the ministry of God’s presence. e hope is for those engaged in God’s missional work in the city to respond to the call of presence.

e Shared Reality of Urban Trauma

For most of my life I have lived in an urban context. e density, limited land, and lack of green space can intensify the challenges (and joys), experiences, and realities shared in the city. City life is hard. ere is no

sugar coating of the pain. Reality can be harsh. Neighbors are not sheltered from crime, pollution, or noise. Space is limited as is privacy. Several years ago I lived on a vineyard in Northern California. I had to look long and hard to see the nearest neighbor’s house. In the city, living in close proximity to others provides access to community at the sacri ce of personal space and a bu er from trauma.

Trauma is experienced in many di erent ways, whether people are returning from military service, serving in law enforcement, living in gang territories, feeling isolated and alone, struggling to make ends meet, looking for a ordable housing, surviving abuse and neglect, or fearing deportation. ough experiences may be unique, the trauma is common.

Although the original cause of trauma can’t be changed or reversed, the response to the trauma and care o ered can make all the di erence to the healing one nds. One response that can make the di erence is the embodiment of God’s presence. e solidarity found in tragedies, although temporary, can have lasting impact. Approximately twenty percent of people traumatized will be formally diagnosed with PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder). PTSD can be impacted and determined by heredity, environment, as well as past experiences. Mitigating trauma is as complicated as the various causes and contributing factors. What is known is that exposure to and experience of trauma is on the rise.

e Family Informed Trauma Treatment Center 2010 Executive Summary provides staggering statistics regarding trauma in the U.S.:

• “Families constitute two- hs of the US homeless population, which increases the risk of trauma exposure and intense anxiety and uncertainty.

• 83% of inner city youth report experiencing one or more traumatic events.

• 1 out of 10 children under the age of six living in a major American city report witnessing a shooting or stabbing.

• 59%–91% of children and youth in the community mental health system report trauma exposure.

• 60%–90% of youth in juvenile justice have experienced traumas.”

Trauma is no longer limited to returning veterans or survivors of war. Trauma is quickly becoming more common in the urban context. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in 2016 suicide was the second leading cause of death among individuals between the ages of ten and thirty-four. ere were more than twice as many suicides (44,965) in the US as there were homicides (19,362).2 ere are varied causes and contributing factors leading to the increase of rates of suicide in the US and globally, including stress, isolation, untreated depression, and trauma.

Chaplains o en utilize CISM (Critical Incident Stress Management) as an intervention methodology for those who have experienced traumatic events. CISM provides a con dential and voluntary process and space for those impacted by trauma to share what they experienced, including their thoughts and feelings and to learn about stress reactions and symptoms. is methodology was rst developed for military combat veterans and rst responders (eg., re, police, and disaster workers) but is now utilized for the general population. It provides validation and normalization of what is experienced and the lasting impact of the trauma. Some refer to this as "psychological rst aid."3

Urban trauma impacts both the individual and community. City dwellers may struggle to nd safety and security in the constant movement around them, bombarded with chaos, pain and fear whether from lack of a ordable housing or politically unstable realities. Although CISM is a helpful resource for those dealing with trauma, for the most part, approaches like these o en do not address spiritual impact. Trauma informed theories and treatment o en focuses on neurobiological, psychological and physical issues. ere is a need to focus on the spiritual implications of trauma. e embodiment of the ministry of God’s presence acknowledges and responds to spiritual issues.

Understanding the Ministry of God’s Presence

e ministry of God’s presence is a sacred presence that reminds us we are never alone. ere is power in the concepts of “being with” and accompaniment. Standing (or sitting) with people in the trauma can have lasting e ects. My grandmother played a foundational role in my life as a child. In the midst of chaos, uncertainty, and anger in my family, I knew that I was safe with my grandma and that she loved me. Her words, prayers, and

presence are foundational to who I am today as a law enforcement chaplain. She embodied the peace and presence of God without even speaking a word.

is presence is expressed and embodied as we spend time with the other person, listening to them in their moment of crisis and time of su ering. It is a sacramental presence, expressing comfort and care in a holistic way: physically, emotionally, and spiritually. It a rms our value and reminds us that we are indeed God’s beloved. at is more than a title or role. It speaks to the core of who we are: “During the baptism of Jesus, the Father speaks a rmation and value over Jesus in Matthew 3:17, saying, ' is is my Beloved Son, with him I am well pleased.' A ministry of presence communicates the beloved value of God over each person no matter where they are on the faith journey. One of the most important things we can say and do to help someone feel safe and secure is to remind them of their core identity as God’s beloved son or daughter.” (Glenn 2019). No other thing can identify us in greater measure. We are the beloved sons and daughters of God.

Sacred Presence

I entered into law enforcement chaplaincy almost twenty years ago while serving as a local church pastor. As a chaplain I provide spiritual and emotional care to both my o cers and the greater community. A ministry of God’s presence is a sacramental presence expressing care through listening, being with, and a rming a person’s belovedness: “Neil Holm in 'Toward a theology of the Ministry of Presence,' de nes this concept as 'a faith presence that accompanies each person on the journey through life.' is presence in each of us re ects God’s presence, love, and peace. Central to this ministry philosophy is the idea of 'being with.' e love and presence of God is embodied as we are with the other person in their moment of crisis.” (Glenn 2014)

is sacred presence is in us and with us directing us into the love and care of our Creator and Savior. As we re ect on our own experiences with God’s presence, we have the opportunity to extend this invitation to those in our cities who might be experiencing trauma and pain.

I can recount several critical incidents when upon arriving on scene; it felt as if it was sacred ground. In places of great su ering, heaven touches

earth with a comfort that envelops. In circumstances like these, the presence of God comes in greater measure.

We Are Never Alone

e ministry of God’s presence proclaims that we are never alone! is is essential for those in the midst of a trauma experience. Although people may not know exactly what the other is experiencing, it is comforting to know that they do not have to go through the pain on their own. First and foremost, God is with us. Psalm 23:4 says, “Even though I walk through the darkest valley, I fear no evil; for you are with me; your rod and your sta they comfort me” (NRSV). As we sit with others, there is a declaration they are not alone by our very presence. It is also important also for them to be explicitly told that God is with them.

e Power of With and Accompaniment

Traditionally, God’s ministry of presence has been de ned as incarnational ministry. In the rst chapter of the book God So Loves the City, 4 Dr. Tiersma Watson asks “What does it mean to be incarnational when we are not the messiah? . . . When we speak of incranational mission, we speak of a theology on the way of accompaniment (del camino—on the way), of walking alongside . . . A key element of incarnational mission is the identi cation of being present with people.” (Tiersma Watson 2005, 9). Jesus walks with us and calls us to do the same. He o ers hope through his death and resurrection so that we can have new life in the city. God’s calling, hope, and presence in our own lives was intended to be shared with others. e invitation to share the journey tells us that we are not alone:

God calls us through people and experiences simply to breath, to continue to run out our own races. But we are never alone .While you may never know the depth of my su ering, depression, or pain, I feel that when I recall stories like these recorded in this book, you can run alongside me as you make your way through your own race of life. I, likewise, have been called to and will continue to run my race alongside others. (Reyes, 140)

All of this would be made easier if we lived as communal people. Life, especially in the city, has changed dramatically over the years. Humans rst experienced shared life, tribal identity and connectedness. is has changed in many regions of the world:

First agriculture, and then industry, changed two fundamental things about the human experience. e accumulation of personal property allowed people to make more and more individualistic choices about their lives, and those choices unavoidably diminished group e orts toward a common good. And as society modernized, people found themselves able to live independently from any communal group. A person living in a modern city or suburb can, for the rst time in history, go through an entire day—or an entire life—mostly encountering complete strangers. ey can be surrounded by others and yet feel deeply, dangerously alone. (Junger 2016, 18)

e ministry of God’s presence a rms God’s intent for human connectedness rather than individual isolation. e sacred presence pushes back against the tendency to be on our own in the city especially during times of great pain and su ering.

Standing and Sitting in the Midst of Trauma

Law enforcement responds to tra c accidents, suicides, deaths of young people and infants, domestic violence, and more. As I have responded in my capacity as a chaplain, I have been mindful of my words. Words o en fall short, but presence communicates powerfully. What can we speak that can provide solace in the midst of unspeakable loss and pain? When responding to a thirteen-year-old's suicide, I sat with teachers, school sta , and students grasping for answers. ere are no responses that explain why. However, there is power in standing and sitting with people in the midst of their grief, facilitating a safe space for them to share. God’s ministry of presence tells us that we are not alone in our su ering. When people embody this sacred presence by sitting with us, we experience this in greater depth.

In Tribe: On Homecoming and Belonging, Sebastian Junger discusses the role of tribal connections to our wellbeing, based on his investigative work among combat veterans who come home losing their sense of tribe

and identity. is loss of connectedness can contribute to the intensity of the PTSD they experience:

e de nition of community—of tribe—would be the group of people that you would both help feed and help defend. A society that doesn’t o er its members the chance to act sel essly in these ways isn’t a society in any tribal sense of the word.” (Junger 2016, 110)

Tribal societies o en promote loyalty, belonging and meaning:

Charles Fritz’s theory was that modern society has gravely disrupted the social bonds that have always characterized the human experience, and that disasters thrust people back into a more ancient, organic way of relating. Disasters, he proposed, create a “community of su erers” that allows individuals to experience an immensely reassuring connection to others. (Junger, 53-54)

While Junger is not advocating for war, disasters or terrorism so that belonging can be experienced, he is describing some of the ways humans o en respond in trauma: they pull together and look a er each other. e trauma itself bonds one to the other for survival. He argues that three things are needed for human contentment: to feel competent, to feel authentic, and to feel connected to others. Junger concludes that we are stronger together.

It’s important for us to share our su erings and to engage in those shared spaces and in our shared humanity. As mission practitioners, we have the opportunity to facilitate this connection to others through the ministry of God’s presence as we stand with them in their pain rather than observing from afar.

Opportunities in the Urban Context

God provides several opportunities to engage with his presence in the urban context. We are God’s image bearers, called to embrace the shared reality of wholeness (shalom) through mutuality and ubuntu and to be a voice of his hope. In all of this, God invites us into relationship and mission with him in the city.

God’s Image Bearers

e ministry of God’s presence communicates our value and declares we are God’s image bearers. At times, it is a struggle to know our worth and feel valued. e sacred presence declares that all are made in God’s image. As God proclaimed in Genesis a er the creating the universe, it is good. He proclaimed goodness over his creation. We see God’s image, beauty and face in each other. is is not a question of salvation but rather an a rmation of his creation:

In the city there is grit but there is also grace… In a city we have God’s face all around us, if we look for it, not in the sky, but in the faces of others. Whether we’re talking about Los Angeles or Louisville or Bakers eld or Bend, cities can show us how varied we are as human beings: vaired in ethnicity, race, age, style, health. We might think the cityscape hides God, but in a unique way, a metropolis (and place) reveals God’s presence through the diversity of His children, for all are created in God’s image. (Heidish 2008, 4)

Do we see one another as God’s image bearers? Do we see God’s face all around us, in each other? We re ect his image through expressions and acts of solidarity and mercy.

Wholeness is a Shared Reality

Our hope is found when we seek God’s peace and human ourishing together to be community in our cities. Jeremiah 29 declares that our peace is intertwined and interdependent. In this text, God led (carried) the people of Israel into exile to live in a city they didn’t want to be in among their enemies. In that place, God called them to seek its peace, and in the process, they would experience his peace. e Lord himself calls us from exile into home, from injustice into peace, and from isolation into community.

is Jeremiah text challenges our independent worldview and reality. Brian Fikkert and Kelly Kapic, in Becoming Whole: Why the Opposite of Poverty Isn’t the American Dream, bring attention to the ways systems and even national identity can shape individual, church, and community realities and experiences. God’s intent is for us to experience his presence

and community both personally and communally rather than in isolation. Although this book addresses a US audience, its principles apply beyond. When we nd ourselves more alone do we feel the necessity to carry and experience pain on our own as well?

Indeed individualism is at the very foundation of Western Civilization, in general and of America, in particular. At its best, individualism has blessed the world with institutions that uphold human dignity, freedom and justice for all. But at its core, individualism re ects a fundamentally unbiblical understanding of human beings and human ourishing. (Fikkert 2019, 28)

e ministry of God’s presence counters this individualism and says no, we don’t have to experience life in isolation.

Recovering from trauma demands time, e ort, and the support of others. In community, through a ministry of God’s presence, the individual is guided through grief in ritual, memory and hope as well as in community:

In the deep work of trauma recovery, understanding the human response to tragedy and grief is especially important. is knowledge orients us to a position of grace as we work to create places of safety, rituals of grief and connection, and opportunities to connect for trauma survivors. Walking with others through trauma, attending to our own pain, and engaging in God’s healing work can certainly grow us in mutual transformation. (Eriksson 2015)

e shared journey a rms mutuality and shared transformation.

Mutuality and Ubuntu

Mutuality declares that we need each other, that we have something to o er and to receive from the other. e challenge of the city is that o en we view each other adversarially: I need to protect myself from you. God speaks to this directly: we need each other by his design.

If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other (Mother Teresa) . . . We belong to each other, and that

Mary Glenn | 261 together we belong to God. For in serving and ministering to people, we can still keep a distance between them and us. When we belong to each other, a prophetic community is formed that begins to erase the lines between them and us, and we understand that there is no platform at the cross of Jesus that elevates me above Diablo. We stand together in our need for God’s grace to redeem and transform us.”

(Tiersma Watson 2015)

is interdependence is not a sign of weakness but rather a gi of strength and connectedness in the midst of our su ering. It levels the playing eld and places us all at the foot of the cross.

Father Gregory Boyle, a Jesuit priest and founder of Homeboy Industries (the largest gang rehabilitation organization in the world), advocates for mutuality and radical kinship in the life he shares with those coming out of gangs and prison life. He believes that listening to and sharing stories helps us to recognize the many ways our lives are intertwined by God’s design. e African concept of Ubuntu says that "I need you in order to be me, and you need me in order to be you.” Ubuntu demonstrates the interdependence of our lives: “A person is a person because they recognize others as persons." (Tutu 2003, 26) is idea, that we need each other to be who God called us to be and intended us to be, is a game changer. It keeps us from living an independent and isolated existence.

Being a Voice of Hope

Trauma, and pain and their e ects are real and impactful. As much as I want to, I can not promise to make things better because I don’t have the ability to make it better. One example of what to say so they we don’t bring harm is, “I am sorry you are going through this. I am here. It won’t always be this way.” It is important to sit with people where they are and also speak of God’s hope as a way to help them work through the grief. One thing that cannot be promised is that everything will be okay. A ministry of presence gives space for their pain without promising them that everything will be okay. Hope may be di cult to see and may feel far o . Hope is knowing that God cares. We hope with expectation that he will show up.

An Invitation to Relationship and Mission

e Church of Our Lady of the Angels Catholic Cathedral in downtown Los Angeles communicates the mission of God through a theology of place. At the entrance of the cathedral’s sanctuary, there are tapestries of the communion of saints adorning both sides. e saints are looking to the cross at the front of the cathedral. ese tapestries were designed to illustrate the shared journey to the cross, to Jesus. Behind the cross of Jesus is a tapestry of a downtown Los Angeles map with the scripture of Revelation 21:3 overlaid on the map: "God’s home is now among his people! He will live with them, and they will be his people. God himself will be with them."

e intentional theology of place extends God’s invitation to the cross, into relationship with Jesus, and to journey with God on his mission in the city.

ere are opportunities for us to engage with neighbors and leaders whether or not we are chaplains. God calls each of us to be present and connected with our neighbors:

is commitment to the spiritual lives of your neighbors is part of your vocational discernment. Your call to life is not just about you! It’s also about your context, your surroundings, and your com-munity . . . e connection to a community and a people are incredibly important to hearing God’s call to life. (Reyes 2018, 5)

In my capacity as a chaplain, I have an opportunity to interface with community members, many of whom do not have church homes nor identify with a particular faith. If anything, they may prefer to identify as spiritual. ere is an opportunity to engage with God’s mission in the city in a new way.

e density of the city provides access and proximity to one another. Although individualism is prevalent in the city, it is held in tension with the practical need for others. Public transportation, shared green spaces, and apartment living places people alongside one another, sometimes on top of each other.

In our cities, we can re ect this sacred ministry of God’s presence through listening and being with those experiencing trauma. is presence

a rms God’s love for them and their value no matter where they are on the faith journey. A rmation can be a balm of healing and hope for those struggling in the city. In this presence, we communicate that others are not alone because we have chosen to accompany them. As God’s image bearers, we seek our shared wellness in Christ, recognizing our need for one another. God calls us to be voices of his hope in the urban landscape. God invites us into relationship and mission with him in the city, embracing those in crisis. Mission practitioners can utilize the ministry of God’s presence in addressing trauma in the city, reminding each person of their belovedness and the hope God holds for all of us.

Endnotes

1 Mary Glenn, DMin is A liate Faculty with the School of Intercultural Studies, Fuller eological Seminary. She leads Downtown Los Angeles city walks and urban immersions. Her research and teaching centers on urban missiology, spirituality, theology, collaboration and transformation. Mary has served as a law enforcement chaplain in Los Angeles since 2001. Mary is a contributor in the Fuller Magazine June 2019 Issue 14 (“Su ering With”).

2 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, WISQARS (Webbased Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System) Leading Causes of Death Reports, 2016, https://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/leadcause. html

3CISM (Critical Incident Stress Management) https://www. criticalincidentstress.com/what_is_cism_

4 e "God so loves the city" methodology as outlined in the book of the same name advocates for a theology for urban leadership and a holistic and transformational response to places of pain in the urban context.

264 |

References

Eriksson, Cynthia

2015. Health, Healing, and Shalom: Frontiers and Challenges for Christian Health Missions. (Author: Bryant L. Myers, Editors: Erin DufaultHunter, Isaac B. Voss). Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library.

Fikkert, Brian and Kelly Kapic

2019. Becoming Whole: Why the Opposite of Poverty Isn’t the American Dream. Chicago, Ill: Moody Publishers.

Glenn, Mary

2018. “Helping Youth Find Joy in the City.” Fuller Youth Institute Journal (https://fulleryouthinstitute.org/blog/joy-in-the-city).

2014. “Ministry of Presence.” Fuller Youth Institute Journal (https:// fulleryouthinstitute.org/articles/ministry-of-presence).

2019. “Responding to Suicide with the Ministry of God’s Presence.” Fuller Magazine (Issue 14): 42-45.

Heidish, Marcy

2008. Soul and the City: Finding God in the Noise and Frenzy of Life. Colorado Springs, CO: WaterBrook.

Junger, Sebastian

2016. Tribe: On Homecoming and Belonging. New York, NY: Twelve.

Reyes, Patrick B.

2016. Nobody Cries When We Die: God, Community, and Surviving to Adulthood. Atlanta, GA: Chalice Press.

Collins, K., K. Connors, A. Donohue, S. Gardner, E. Goldblatt, A. Hayward, L. Kiser, F. Strieder, and E. ompson

2010. “Understanding the Impact of Trauma and Urban Poverty on Family Systems: Risks, Resilience and Interventions”. Family Informed Trauma Treatment Center Executive Summary. Baltimore, MD.

Tiersma, Jude and Charles Van Engen, editors

2009. God So Loves the City: Seeking a eology for Urban Mission. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock.

Tiersma Watson, Jude

2005. “We Have Forgotten that We Belong to Each Other.” Fuller Youth Institute Blog (https://fulleryouthinstitute.org/articles/we-haveforgotten-that-we-belong-to-each-other).

Tutu, Desmond

2005. God Has a Dream: A Vision of Hope for Our Time. NY, NY: Image.

WHERE SHOULD WE FOCUS MISSIONARIES FOR CHURCH GROWTH? EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM GHANA

Solomon Kwasi Kyei (Rev.) ACMA CGMA1

Abstract

Like the triune God of mission, missionaries desire that all creation be reconciled to God. is calls for missionaries to be focused on themes known to determine church growth. Using quantitative data from one of the fastest growing Pentecostal churches in Africa and employing econometric analysis, church growth was found to be signi cantly a ected by mission orientation, frequency of evangelism outreaches, water baptism, and the raising of congregations that have zeal for evangelism. e study recommends the training of missionaries and operation of churches around these themes to help make all nations disciples of Christ.

Introduction

Christian mission is rooted in the concept of the missio Dei which is a Latin theological term translated as “mission of God” (Arthur 2013). With a long history traceable at least as far back as Augustine, the term missio Dei is a description of the activity of the triune God the Father sending the Son and the Son sending the Spirit (Englesviken 2003, 482; Bosch 1991, 402). us, the mission of the Church is sourced from a loving God who, as a result of His loving nature, seeks to reconcile all creation unto Himself. If that is the spirit behind Christian mission and that mission is God’s work with the Church having no mission of its own, then it must be done in God’s way and with God’s objective of redeeming all creation unto Himself. Building on this, it will not be wrong for the Church to seek to increase the sphere of the rule of God’s kingdom in its part to redeem all creation unto the triune God. It is therefore not surprising that, irrespective of how ecclesiologists

disagree on various issues, including even the genesis of the Church, there is no ambiguity regarding the need for the growth of the Church through the mission of the Church.

Since the day that Christ declared that the Kingdom of God is at hand, the focus of the believers of this Kingdom has therefore been on its growth. Surprisingly, in both of the events in the Bible that scholars of ecclesiology divide with respects to the genesis of the Church, there are indications of a kind of supremacy (or growth) that must occur in the Church. In Matthew 16: 16–19, Jesus talks about building His Church: “ e gates of hell shall not prevail against it . . . Whatsoever though shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven . . .” (KJV). And then just before the episode in Acts 2, the essence of Pentecost was to “receive power, a er the Holy Ghost is come upon you: and ye shall be witnesses unto me both in Jerusalem, and in all Judaea, and in Samaria, and unto the uttermost part of the earth” (Acts 1:8 KJV).

Like the triune God of mission, missionaries therefore desire that all nations be blessed with the Gospel. is desire results in the search for ways of achieving growth in the converts and churches that are established through the Church’s mission. e question therefore is, should mission training and curricula be built around themes known to determine church growth? If yes, is there empirical research evidence on determinants of church growth that can inform such actions? Using quantitative data from one of the fastest growing Pentecostal churches in Africa and employing an econometric approach in analyzing and examining the data, church growth was found to be signi cantly related to mission orientation, open-air rallies and outreaches, water baptism, Holy Spirit baptism, home discipleship classes, and raising of congregations that are evangelism focused. It recommends that churches adopt various forms of mission orientation and approaches in their bids to grow in the spread of the Gospel. It further recommends the determinants of church growth as critical areas of focus in the formation of missionaries.

Having brie y placed church growth as an important objective of Christian mission, the next section seeks to highlight theories and concepts in church growth so as to direct the operational de nitions of the quantitative variables of the study. e adopted methodology is then well explained and then ows into the narration of results and ndings of the study. e paper then ends with the conclusion and recommendations.

Concepts and eories of Church Growth

e term, church growth has several connotations (Towns 1986, 63–70). However, two main schools of thought exist—Church growth as a discipline and movement, and the missional perspective preposition.

Church Growth as a Discipline and Movement

As a discipline and movement, Donald McGavran, who is said to have coined the concept is described as the father of church growth (Bush 2016, 25; Rheenen 2013). Even though the concept implies the priority of mission in church growth, it is considered not to be a synonym for soul winning, evangelism, or mission. Rather, according to Schantz (2016), McGavran intended that it replaces such words because, according to him, those words had lost their relevance through overuse and misuse to describe everything from paving the church parking lot to aiding revolutionary guerrillas. In order to distinguish his concept from those words, McGavran (1970) de ned Church Growth as “e ective evangelism” and emphasized the importance of the Great Commission of Jesus Christ (Walters 2010, 23). Schantz (2016) and Walters (2010, 4) mention students of McGavran, such as Peter Wagner, Win Arn, Eddie Gibbs, Vernon Middleton, Gary McIntosh, Lyle Schaller, Elmer Towns, and Tom Rainer as developing the church growth theory, especially in the United States. Schantz (2016), however, believes it was Peter Wagner who popularized the church growth movement, and his de nition seems to be the most accepted formal de nition of church growth. In his modi ed de nition by Towns, Vaughan, and Seifert (1982, 105), church growth is that science that investigates the nature, expansion, planting, multiplication, function, and health of Christian churches, as they relate to the e ective implementation of God’s commission to “make disciples of all peoples” (Matt. 28:18–20). Schantz (2016) rede nes it as a science that involves careful study of the methods used in Christian outreach and of the people the outreach is trying to win, with the purpose of arriving at recommendations as to which methods will procure the best results.

As a discipline, the main strategies that were developed by McGavran and his students are as follows: the priority of numerical church growth, concentration on responsive groups, recognition of homogeneity, the use of secular disciplines in church growth research, and the use of spiritual power (the Holy Spirit).

Even though McGavran has been called the premier missiologist of the twentieth century, he is also well criticized for his ideas and thoughts, especially on church growth (McIntosh 2005). e church growth movement is criticized for taking God and surprises out of the mission of God and downplaying the means of grace and work of the Holy Spirit. is is a very serious criticism as it gives the impression of the Church owning the entire mission which is supposed to emanate from God’s very nature. e movement is further accused of an excessive preoccupation with numbers (“numberitis”) and worship of numbers (“numerolatry”) (Valleskey 1990, 17). Even though these have been defended, it is still important to mention.

Missional Perspective Preposition

e missional perspective preposition is an attempt to correct the seeming shortfalls of the church growth model. According to Rheenen (2018), the missional model maintains the strengths of the church growth model while broadening its theological horizons. is preposition is rooted in the understanding that a missionary theology should permeate both theology and missiology and for that matter should be interdisciplinary and interactive (Kirk, 1997, 50). e missional model therefore highlights the intertwining, inseparable nature of theological re ection, cultural analysis, historical perspective, and strategy formation within the context of the practice of ministry. Such a helix, according to the missional model, begins with theologies (such as missio Dei, the kingdom of God, incarnation, and cruci xion) which focus and form people’s perspectives of culture and the practice of ministry. Cultural analysis and the subsequent awareness which enables church planters and Christian leaders to de ne types of peoples within a cultural context, to understand the social construction of their reality, to perceive how they are socially related to one another, and to explain how the Christian message intersects with every aspect of culture (passage of life rites like birth rites, coming of age rituals, weddings, funerals, etc), then forms the second element of the helix. It then considers historical perspective, for example how things came to be based upon the interrelated stories of the particular nation, lineage, the church, and God’s mission, as the third arm of the spiral. Finally, the helix completes with incisive contextual strategies, which are based upon theological re ection, cultural analysis, and historical perspective, for the practice of ministry (Rheenen, 2013).

Missiological Models Of Church Growth

A number of models have been suggested as means for church growth. e two major ones are however the Mega Church Model and the Multiplication Church Model.

e Megachurch Model

Megachurches emerged in the 1970s, and they continue to grow even today (Vaughan 2016). With a membership approaching eight hundred thousand the Yoido Full Gospel Church is considered the largest of such in the world (Bell 2017). Megachurches are characterized by pastoral founders who exercise strong charismatic leadership and long pastoral tenure with spiritual authority. e message of the pastors attracts the members of the church and they maintain large organizations and e ective administration systems similar to business entrepreneurs as they embrace modernity as the tools for mission.

e Multiplication Model

Multiplication model churches focus on extending their churches across the nation and overseas. ey view the centralized megachurches to be unable to use the full potential of the whole church to evangelize and transform the whole world (Hong 2003). For example, Lim (2004) indicates that unless these forms of church growth truly decentralize to let each cell function fully as autonomous (self-governing, self-supporting, and selfpropagating) churches, with their own leaders, budgets, and programs, God’s church will continue to deprive almost ninety percent (the unequipped laity) of the church from exercising their priesthood, prophethood, and rulership in Christ.

Other Models of Church Growth

ese include cell church, the Alpha Course, natural church development (NCD), and multi-variance by the Institute for Church Growth in Korea (ICGK) among others. ey are models that both Megachurch

and multiplication model churches adopt as part of their church growth approach mix.

In the cell church model, it is the small group that plays a key role in growth by mobilizing all laypersons for ministry and evangelism (Donahue and Robinson 2001, 32–33). For example, various visitations and even passage of life ceremonies are done within the cell group.

e Alpha Course model focuses on integrating non-believers into the church community. It is an evangelistic model designed to mainly target non-Christians through small group meeting at house (Hong 2003).

Developed by Christian Schwarz, the NCD model is based on the principle that as organisms grow according to the principles of life, so churches also grow according to the principle of spiritual life. In order to have a healthy growth of a church, the model suggests ten action steps which forms the spiritual life of the church: build spiritual momentum, determine your minimum factors, set qualitative goals, identify obstacles, apply biotic principles, exercise your strengths, utilize biotic tools, monitor e ectiveness, address your new minimum factors, and multiply your church (Schwarz 1996).

e multi-variance model suggests that healthy growing churches manifest ten indicators as follows: excellent pastoral leadership, functional strategies for mobilizing laypersons, e ective organizational system, systematic evangelism, vitalized nurturing system, specialized ministries, meaningful experience of God through prayer and the fullness of the Holy Spirit, social service for the local community, mission-oriented church, and multiplying church through church planting (Hong 2003).

Operational De nition of Church Growth

Hong (2003) classi es church growth into four types: internal growth (qualitative growth), expansion growth (as a result of biological growth, transfer growth, and conversion growth), extension growth (planting new churches), and bridging growth (planting new churches in di erent cultures). Paas (2017) adds that church growth can be due to births, transfers from other churches, and recruitment (conversions) and that, if gures for

Solomon Kwasi Kyei | 273 these categories exceed the losses by deaths, transfers to other churches, and church leaving, a church has grown. He then de nes and concentrates on three categories: absolute growth (all forms of growth minus all forms of decline), conversion growth (the number of converts), and net conversion growth (the number of converts minus the number of church leavers).

is study de nes church growth in terms of vertical (as in the megachurches model) and horizontal growth (as in the multiplication model). e vertical growth is the aggregate growth in numbers of the individual membership of the church. e other way of looking at church growth, the horizontal growth, is the extent to which the church is replicating itself through the creation and planting of new local assemblies. us, in this case growth is said to have taken place once a new local church is created or planted. is does not matter whether it is Hong’s extension growth (planting new churches) or bridging growth (planting new churches in di erent cultures).

Methodology

Data Type and Source

e study employs a purely quantitative approach in arriving at its ndings. Quantitative secondary data on the performance of 1,301 districts of the Church of Pentecost (CoP) in Ghana was used. As the center of gravity of Christianity has moved from the western to the non-western world of Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Tsekpoe, 2017; Shenk, 2001, 99), it was only appropriate to concentrate on data from these regions. Johnson et al. (2016, 9) and Johnson (2009, 479) describe the Pentecostal movement as forming the fastest growing Christian movement, especially in the global south. It was therefore also appropriate to rely on the Pentecostals for this study. e CoP was listed as the largest Protestant Christian denomination in Ghana by the last empirical church survey of the Ghana Evangelism Committee (Onyinah 2016, 12). Even ten years earlier, Pews Research Center (2006) named it as the largest Christian church in Ghana. As a leading Pentecostal church in Africa with the necessary data required to achieve the objectives of the study, no Church denomination was more appropriate than the CoP.

Onyinah (2012, 124), in citing Leonard (1989), traces the origin of the CoP to the ministry begun by Pastor James McKeown at Asamankese,

Ghana, in 1937. As at the end of 2018, the CoP was operating in all continents of the world, with a presence in 101 countries. In all, the CoP had 21,802 local assemblies worldwide operating in 2,381 church districts (Nyamekye 2019, 33). It runs its operations in Ghana from its head o ce in Accra with a presbytery polity. In Ghana, as at the end of 2017, the CoP had 63 church areas grouped under 8 regional coordinating councils. Out of these, 228 church districts out of 1,301 were considered internal mission areas (Ibid: 36; Onyinah 2018, 34).

Econometric Analysis

In order to establish where to focus missionaries for church growth, an econometric approach was adopted. e objective was to establish the variables that determine church growth and hence require focus in the work of missionaries. e data analysis therefore passed through all the four main stages of econometric research outlined by Koutsoyiannis (1977, 11–12) except the evaluation of the forecasting power of the estimated model— speci cation of the model, estimation of the model, and evaluation of the estimates.

Model Speci cation

e study employed a cross-sectional data methodology of ranked performance of the 1,301 Ghanaian districts of the CoP. Cross-sectional data give information on the variables concerning individual agents at a given point of time (ibid., 17). e cross-sectional regression equation only di ers from a regular time series by the representation of the various time periods in the latter with the individual cases of the former. e general form can therefore be described same as the time series form as follows:

Y_i= α_i+βX_i+ε_i

e subscript i denotes the cross-sectional dimension of the data.

e le hand variable Y_i represents the dependent variable in the model, which in this particular study were rotated to be number of assemblies opened and change in membership. X_i contains the set of explanatory or independent variables in the estimation model with α_i taken to be constant speci c to the individual cross-sectional unit i. If α_i is taken to be same

|

across units, ordinary least square (OLS) provides a consistent and e cient estimate of α and β. e OLS econometric method was adopted because the parameter estimates obtained have some optimal properties described as BLUE (best, linear, unbiased estimator); the computational procedure of OLS is fairly simple, the data requirements are not excessive, and the mechanics are simple to understand; it has been used in a wide range of econometric relationship with fairly satisfactory results and is an essential component of most other econometric techniques (Koutsoyiannis 1977, 48).

e model was the author’s own creation based on eld experience and literature on possible determinants of church growth. is takes the form of equation 1 and the variable MGROW replaced with ASSO as stated in models 1 and 2. It must be emphasized that because there is no research on the use of secondary data and building of econometric models on church growth, the current study had no option but to rely on the intuition and eld experience of the author. With even primary survey data, Barna (2017) and Norris (2012, 1–2) highlights the di culties in modelling as a result of the wide di erences in church growth approaches and strategies.

MGROW = f (WON, WB, HSB, RAL, EVANG, HOME, MISSION)

Equation (1)

MGROWi = β0+β1WONi+β2 WBi+β3 HSBi+β4 RALi+β5 EVANGi+β6 HOMEi+

β7 MISSIONi+ε [Model 1]

ASSOi= β0+β1 WONi+β2 WBi+β3 HSBi+β4 RALi+β5 EVANGi+β6 HOMEi+

β7 MISSIONi+ε [Model 2]

Where:

MGROWi = Membership growth in district i in 2017

ASSOi = Number of local assemblies opened in district i in 2017

WONi = Number of souls won in district i in 2017

WBi = Number of Converts baptized in water for district i in 2017

HSBi = Number of converts baptized in the Holy Spirit for district i in 2017

RALi = Number of evangelism rallies held in district i in 2017

EVANGi = Number of adults doing evangelism as a percentage of total adults in district i in 2017

HOMEi = Number of active home cell members as a percentage of total adults in district i in 2017

MISSIONi = Mission orientation of district i in 2017. Dummy variable was adopted such that districts with mission orientations and supports were coded 1 and others assigned 0.

ε = the error term

De nition of Variables

e Dependent Variables

For the purpose of this study, church growth is operationalized using two di erent variables, namely membership growth and number of new assemblies created or opened within the period.

e Explanatory or Independent Variable

e explanatory or independent variables of the study were converts (number of souls won in a district), additions to the church (converts baptized in water), endowment of spiritual power (converts baptized in the Holy Spirit), extent of evangelism activities (number of rallies held), zeal for evangelism (number of adults doing evangelism as a percentage of total adults), extent of discipleship activities (number of adults active in home cell meetings as a percentage of total adults), and mission orientation of the church (dummy variable with 1 assigned to church oriented to be missional and 0 for others).

Results and Findings

Correlation Analysis Results

At an exploratory level, the correlation coe cients were considered for the independent variables and the measures of church growth. Table 1 summarizes the correlation matrix. It is expected that a positive relationship

will exist between the measures of church growth and all the independent variables except mission orientation.

e correlation coe cients indicated a direct relationship between the measures of church growth and converts, additions to the church, empowerment of the converts, and extent of evangelism activities at even 1% signi cance level. Zeal for evangelism was signi cant at 5% and 10% with membership growth and assemblies opened respectively. Extent of discipleship activities was also directly related to membership growth at 5% but not signi cantly related to assemblies opened.

Regression Analysis Results

e regression result is presented in table 2. In model 1, the result con rmed a negative association between mission orientation and vertical church growth measured by membership growth at 1% signi cance level as the t-statistics and corresponding p-values were -0.070 and 0.008 respectively. e nature of the association gives a good sense of inverse relationship, which indicates that mission-oriented churches ranked better in membership growth. us, controlling for the e ects of all the other independent variables, mission-oriented districts ranked 7% better in membership growth (-0.07). e results also con rmed water baptism as a proxy of additions to the church as directly related to membership growth at 1% signi cance level. Number of souls won was also found to be positively related but at 5% signi cance level.

e rst order test of the result recorded an R squared of 0.127 meaning the explanatory variables explain only 12.7% of the variations in church growth. However, the ANOVA result of the tness of the model registered p-value of 0.000, which denotes a 1% signi cance level. With regards to the econometric (second order) test, the data was found to support all the assumptions of multiple regression. For instance, multicollinearity was found to be absent among all the explanatory variables. Even though the rule of thumb has been to interpret the existence of multicollinearity if the VIF is more than 10, other literatures indicates multicollinearity even if the VIF is 5 (Freund and Littell 2000). But even though water baptism recorded a relatively high VIF values of 4.054, it still does not indicate existence of multicollinearity even if the rule of thumb of 5 is used.

Regression model 2 recorded a stronger negative association between mission orientation and church growth measured by number of assemblies opened. is con rms that mission-oriented churches are ranked better. In this model, controlling for the e ects of adult souls won, converts baptized in water and Holy Spirit, number of rallies held, and adults active in evangelism and discipleship classes, mission-oriented churches are ranked 21.7% better in number of assemblies opened (-0.217). Again, water baptism was found to be directly related to church growth measured by assemblies opened even at 1% signi cance level. e extent of evangelism measured by number of rallies held was also positively related but at 5% signi cance level. e explanatory power of the independent variables also increased to 13.3% with the tness of the model still signi cant at 1% signi cance level.

Conclusion and Recommendations

is study attempted to highlight areas where missionaries should be focused on for church growth through econometric analysis of determinants of church growth. e study found mission orientation, water baptism, and creation of converts as key determinants of vertical church growth (growth in memberships). Again, mission orientation, water baptism, and the extent of evangelism activities were observed to determine horizontal church growth (growth in local assemblies). Mission orientation seems to in uence horizontal church growth better than vertical church growth. A similar conclusion can be made for the extent of evangelism outreaches and rallies. On the contrary, water baptism seems to impact the same on both vertical and horizontal church growth. Generally, this study found multiplicationmodel churches are more likely to grow better by adopting the factors used as the independent variables. e seven independent variables could not explain a signi cant extent of the variations in church growth in both the vertical and horizontal de nitions. Two conclusions can be drawn from this —variables that can explain church growth better were not considered, or the God factor of church growth, which cannot be explained by any variable, cannot be ignored in the missio Dei.

It is therefore recommended that in order for missionaries to be more productive per God’s objective for His mission, missionaries should be spiritually, psychologically and emotionally positioned such that they consider themselves as missionaries in their context of work and personal dispositions. As a result of this, they will manage their a airs, lifestyles, work,

Solomon

Kwasi Kyei | 279

and, for that matter, preaching of the Gospel in a way expected of missionaries as proposed by the missional model. Churches are also advised to adopt various forms of mission orientation approaches in their participation in the missio Dei. In pursuance of the Great Commission given to the Church by Christ Jesus as a way of expanding His Kingdom, churches should focus not just on mission-oriented proclamation but also on the ordinance of the church like baptism of the converts. As described in Matthew 28: 19–20, baptism may be considered right a er conversion and not a er “teaching them to observe all things that I have commanded you.” Again the urgency ordinances like the water baptism can be deduced in Mark 15:15, 16, where it was made part of salvation. Considering the extent of in uence on church growth measured in vertical and horizontal terms, megachurches should focus on winning souls in addition to mission orientation and emphasis on ordinances as approaches for church growth, while multiplication model churches employ all these in addition to holding evangelism outreaches. Because the explanatory power of the models adopted by the study were low, studies focusing on empirical evidence of other variables as determinants of church growth should be pursued.

Endnotes

1 Solomon Kwasi Kyei serves as a District Minister of e Church of Pentecost, Ghana. He is an independent researcher who has engaged in research, operations, and rural ministry for the past een years. His research interests are in Pentecostal theology and mission, gospel and culture, and church administration and Management.

Table 1: Correlation coe cient matrix for the dependent and independent variables of the regression

Dependent Variables:

MGROW = Growth in membership compared to previous year

Table 2: Regressions of Church Growth on Mission Orientation and Other Control Variables

Dependent Variable: Church Growth Collinearity Statistics

R2 = R-squared value of the regression Figures in parenthesis are probability values of signi cance of variables following t-test.

SE = Standard error of regression

P (F) = Probability of values for F test

P-values ≤ 0.05 = signi cant at 5%

P-values ≤ 0.01 = signi cant at 1% following χ2 distribution

P-values ≤ 0.10 = signi cant at 10%

P-values ≥ 0.10 = not signi cant

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Women in the Camps: A Brief History of YWAM Women in Thai Refugee Camps in 1980

Allison Kach1

Abstract

Young, female faith missionaries were a part of the large-scale refugee response that took place a er the Cambodian genocide. e experiences of the YWAM women who were a part of this response o er insight into the daily struggles, traumas, hardships, joys and triumphs of their lives of impassioned mission service to Jesus and into the lives of the refugees they felt God had sent them to serve. is case study retraces the experiences and accounts of some of these YWAM women and the brief historical context they were a part of. is study highlights the roles of prayer, humble service, and Christian community in their mission practice and aims to restore female voices to these pioneering YWAM teams and their essential place in contemporary mission history.

Introduction

How did Diane Carabello, a thirty-year-old, Denver, Colorado, woman end up in ailand, spending her days listening to Khmer refugees tell their stories of genocide, su ering, and pain? Diane was one of the thousands of relief workers that rushed to the ailand refugee camps a er the Vietnamese Military overthrew the Khmer Rouge on January 7, 1979.2 Her motivations to serve the refugees were rooted in her personal conversion to Christianity that took place six years earlier under a YWAM ministry in Amsterdam, Netherlands in 1974. Diane “met Jesus” through YWAM’s evangelistic work, and she joined the community house in Amsterdam and began reaching out to other young people who, like herself, were travelling the “hippie trail,” searching for spiritual experiences.3 Continuing in the

YWAM movement, Diane returned to the United States in 1978 to complete the YWAM School of Evangelism in California.4 Committed to mission service with YWAM in California, Diane’s life and mission trajectory was about to change.

Diane picked up a Time Magazine issue that contained an article about the Cambodian genocide and refugee crisis in 1979. As she read the article, an image of an emaciated and desperate Cambodian woman trying to cross the ailand border touched Diane deeply. is image remains etched in Diane’s memory today and was the inspiration and motivation that led her to begin praying for Cambodia (Groves 2018). rough her prayers, she became convinced that God was asking her to go and serve the refugees and love them as Jesus would (Groves 2018). What Diane did not know at the time of her praying and inquiring about how to get to ailand was that other YWAM women and men were praying for the Cambodian refugees in YWAM communities in Switzerland, Hawaii and, Holland. ey were forming a response, rst in prayer and second in action.

is paper highlights the stories and mission contributions of female faith missionaries like Diane (Carabello) Groves, of YWAM who served the Cambodian, Vietnamese, Lao, and Hmong peoples of ai refugee camps in 1980. rough the personal writings, archived documents, telephone and electronic communications of Diane and other YWAM women, I attempt to trace the history YWAM’s work among the Cambodian refugees from a woman’s perspective. e YWAM women’s stories highlight how some of the Mission’s “best men were women” working amongst the refugees (Littleton 2018).5 Not only were the YWAM women some of the “best,” they were, in their own words, ordinary, broken people who were willing to serve the refugees because of their passion for Jesus and love for others (Littleton 2018).6 It was this Christian passion and motivation that sustained the YWAM women as they served countless refugees in dire circumstances.

eir stories, experiences, and mission practice traced from a historical perspective, o er insight into the dynamic faith and works of these YWAM women and an education for students of mission history.

A Brief History: YWAM’s Refugee Response

YWAM, Leading Up to ailand

e movement of young Christians known as YWAM (Youth with a Mission) was initially organized by Darlene and Loren Cunningham to take young Christians on short-term evangelistic trips. From their beginning in 1960, they engaged in activist-oriented Christian service that echoed the Jesus People movement. ey were committed to Christ, passionate for spiritual encounters, believed they could hear God’s voice personally, and were determined to make a di erence in the world. Diane Groves’ personal conversion experience demonstrates how some of the rst Christians to join YWAM had come to faith through evangelistic outreach, inspired by the Jesus people movement (Hutchinson 2012, 207).7 e mission grew slowly and relationally for its rst decade, with a handful of Christians committed to living out their faith in Jesus as a community of disciples who relied on God to meet their needs.

e YWAM missionaries were committed to Christian practices of prayer, Bible study, and evangelism and sought to live directed by the visions and words they believed God was giving (Cunningham 1984). Members started a training program for evangelism in 1969. ey acquired their rst training center in Lausanne, Switzerland in 1970 and organized their rst large scale evangelistic outreach for the Munich Olympics in 1972. YWAM started the King Kids’ ministry in 1976 and launched the Mercy Ship ministry in 1979. at same year, YWAM was about to pioneer a new work of mercy in ailand. At that time, the Mission had 1,800 full-time international faith missionaries and training centers in multiple locations in the United States and Europe, with individuals and teams in other countries ("YWAM History").

Why ailand?

ere were multiple factors that in uenced YWAM to begin a work in ailand, but the central determinant came through a trip that Loren Cunningham, Joy Dawson, and Don Stephens made to Southeast Asia in the fall of 1979 (Portale 2010, 186). A er this trip, Loren, Joy, and Don shared their experiences with YWAM friends in the South Paci c, Europe, and the United States (186). e challenge and invitation to respond made by these

three leaders resulted in the rst short-term teams being sent from YWAM locations in Kona and Lausanne (187). What Joe Portale and Steve and Marie Goode thought was their short-term response turned into long term commitment and the beginning of what would be known as YWAM Relief Services (Goode, Goode & Wright 2014, 73).

In Solvang, California in the fall of 1979, Diane (Carabello) Groves had completed her Evangelism School and was raising funds to serve with YWAM. e Time Magazine images and stories of the unimaginable devastation of the Cambodian people were etched in her memory. She and her fellow YWAM workers felt compelled to pray for the people of Cambodia and the refugees individually and in group prayer times (Groves 2018). A guest speaker arrived to teach at YWAM Solvang on the exact day Diane was praying and asking God if she should go to Cambodia. Gary Stevens, the brother of Don Stephens, spoke about the Hong Kong and ai refugee camps he had visited that fall. He announced that YWAM was o cially starting organized work among refugees to ailand and encouraged all to respond. Diane was thrilled. To her, Gary Stephen’s visit and timing seemed like an answer to prayer. Diane submitted her application to goin ailand right away. In a few short months later in March 1980, Diane boarded a ight to Bangkok, ailand to join the new YWAM Relief Services team (Groves, 1980).

From Bangkok to the Border

Despite the preparations that the rst YWAM missionaries had made for the arriving teams, the rst groups of YWAM workers arrived to uncertainty. ey were unsure of the new culture, what work they would do, and if they would work in the border camps or transit camps of Bangkok. Surrounded by ambiguity, the YWAM teams continued to pray, asking God for guidance. ey considered that any opportunity to serve or any relational connection that developed with camp o cials was an answer to their prayers (Portale 2010, 195). In a letter to the mission community back in Solvang, Diane Groves wrote, “I must press on in prayer, and when I have I’ve seen the Lord quickly answer and I know there is a release from all those of you who prayed for me” (1981). e results of ministry opportunities in the camps were, to Diane, the results of the prayers of YWAM workers around the world. She believed they were connected in a spirit of prayer. Diane said that she saw God answer their prayers quickly when they were

working in the camps, attributing this to the prayer, fasting, and intercession of the YWAM teams around the world who were partnering in prayer (2018). Diane recounted how she and her fellow YWAM missionaries would pray for the needs of the refugees, be it food, clothing, or physical healing. She recounted that every time they would pray for the needs of the refugees, they would see a direct answer. To Diane, and the other YWAM missionaries, prayer was an invisible connection of support between the YWAM workers around the world and God, who was answering their prayers in tangible ways (2018).8

YWAM workers, like Diane, believed their prayers to have been answered in any opportunity that came for them to serve the refugees. Men and women alike did the menial tasks of life in the camps (Littleton 2018). YWAM work included cleaning the toilets and sewers, feeding malnourished babies, preparing repatriation kits, sorting clothing donations, teaching English and French, preparing refugees for resettlement, handing out daily food rations and spending time with the refugees. O en, the YWAM workers did work that they did not care for, as in Diane Groves’ case. She described her schedule as consisting of working ve or six days a week. Her schedule included teaching English each morning and helping with food and clothing distribution in the a ernoons. Her “favourite part of the day” was sitting, visiting, and talking, with the refugees which came a er her other duties were complete. She enjoyed listening to the refugees share their stories, talking about their fears of what their new life would be like in third countries, and being with them to hear how they were homesick and deeply depressed missing lost family members (1981). To Diane, and perhaps many of the women on the YWAM teams, the roles they worked in day in and day out may not have been the reasons they felt called to serve the refugees in the rst place. ey responded out of compassion to love the people who were in crisis, and even with demanding schedules they found ways to connect, build friendships, meet needs, and accompany them in their new life in the refugee camps.

Women of YWAM at Work

Spiritual Women: Rooted in Prayer

Women have been a part of YWAM since its early days as a faith mission. Over the years they have served in mission roles as general

missionaries, leaders, Bible teachers and trainers, evangelists, and more. In the ai refugee camps, the rst and most consistent ministry of YWAM women was that of prayer. rough Diane Groves’ writing and the accounts of Joe Portale and Steve and Marie Goode, prayer was the foundation for the outward work in the camps (Portale, 202; Groves 1981; 2018). e unseen work of YWAM women’s prayer and of their spiritual lives is central to the practical work that o en involved prayer with people and sometimes resulted in refugees physically being healed through prayer. Diane Groves wrote of maintaining her connection with God through the days of work in the camps: “I know He knows of my dreams, disappointments, and hopes for these people – as I ask for His wisdom and council and when I walk in it I see iron bars (bonds) broken that are too strong for me to even bend”(1981). Diane, in the same section of her album, refers to learning how to be a Mary and not a Martha so that she can “choose the better part” and remain connected to Jesus. To Diane, the presence and love of Jesus was her source of strength in serving the refugees (1981). Like Diane, the YWAM women in the ai camps relied on prayer and their spiritual lives with God to give meaning to their practical work as health care professionals, teachers, healing evangelists, friends, and much more.

Pioneering Women: Healing rough Healthcare

e rst YWAM team to work in Khao-I-Dang in December 1979 fed malnourished babies who were expected to die (YWAM Relief Services, 1980). e women used the caring professions of nursing and healthcare to serve the refugees. ere was Anne, a Swiss nurse who served in an outpatient clinic that saw three to four hundred patients each day, six days a week. Anne’s medical service was also explicitly evangelistic and reportedly resulted in Cambodians becoming Christians and Bible studies being formed (1980). ere was Grete, a Norwegian nurse who was one of six medical sta to serve sixteen hundred Vietnamese refugees in Khao-I-Dang. Grete discovered that the majority of the Vietnamese women in this section of the camp had been raped during their travel across Cambodia. Her medical ministry also included counselling and healing prayer for these women who were paralyzed by the trauma (1980). Inger Kristensen, a Danish nursing assistant, shared her faith in Christ with a Khmer couple expecting a baby.

e husband’s life was radically changed by embracing Christ’s forgiveness for him. He was able to forgive the Khmer Rouge who had killed the man’s entire family and began seeking justice free from revenge for the Khmer

Allison Kach | 293 people (Goode, Goode & Wright, 86).9 e YWAM women who worked in healthcare encountered intense need and traumatic events on a daily basis. ese brief accounts demonstrate their presence, care, and commitment to share the love of Christ in action and deed (Groves 2018).10

ere were other YWAM women who were not trained healthcare professionals but who served in the caring professions. Marie Goode and Tove Penderson o ered their presence to overworked nurses of the Catholic Relief Services. ey served both the Catholic nurses and the refugee families by feeding malnourished babies and comforting ill and emotionally depressed mothers (Goode, et al 86). ey simply sat with the mothers and cried with them in their pain. Dorothea Ho mann learned how to serve the three hundred refugees who were a ected by leprosy, although she had no formal medical training. rough her physical and spiritual touch, lepers believed in Jesus and started a church in the leprosy hospital (99). ese YWAM women used their availability and accompaniment to serve vulnerable women, children and men of the ai refugee camps (Groves 2018).11

Pioneering Women: Teachers, Preachers and Evangelists

e foundational female missionary roles of teacher and children’s worker were still tting for the YWAM faith missionaries in 1980. Gunnhild was a trained preschool teacher who ran a daily children’s program for one of the Cambodian churches in the camp. She was described in the YWAM Relief Services First Report as loving the two to three hundred children, singing songs with them, o ering a Bible story and sharing testimonies of God’s answer to prayer (YWAM Relief Services 1980; Groves 1981). Corrie, a Dutch YWAM woman, worked in Rangsit Transit camp. It was written that she had a gi of ministry to children, which resulted in children and their families believing in Jesus (YWAM Relief Services 1980). Tove Pederson, of whom it was said, “Among the women, Tove was a champion,” was a Norwegian woman in charge of all the pre-school programs (Littleton 2018; Goode, et al, 109).

Diane Groves was one of the many missionaries that lled the need for English teachers. rough her role as a teacher, Diane was able to develop culturally permissible sister-brother like relationships with the Cambodian, Vietnamese, and Laotian men. e title of “Teacher” allowed her to visit

their families, where Diane was able to meet the wives and sisters of her students who did not come to her English classes (Groves 1981). Teaching was a challenge for Diane, but it provided her an opportunity to develop relationships with the refugees. Diane, and perhaps the other women missionaries, related in a personal interview how she had been initially displeased to be relegated to the role of teaching. She described that her leaders asked her to take some time to pray about accepting the role, a er which she had peace to serve in any way she could (Groves 2018).12 Right when Diane had arrived in ailand, she was co-opted by a married YWAM woman with children who had Diane babysit her children for three weeks so she could unpack (Groves 2018).13 In both of these cases, Diane Groves, as a single female missionary, was asked to serve in ways that were di erent from her preference or purpose. She said that both times she went to be alone to ask Jesus what she should do. In both cases she said that God gave her peace to serve with a joyful heart because it was for the refugees (2018).

In Diane’s teaching and food and clothing distribution ministry, she shared the message of Jesus with those interested and prayed with people o en (1981). Two other women, Heather and Barb, who served in Suan Phlu camp, led songs and are reported to have prayed for a woman who had tubarculosis. is young woman could not travel to Australia to start a new life because of her sickness. A er the YWAM women prayed for Nhuong, she had another chest X-ray and reported to the women that her screen was now clear. She no longer had tubarculosis (YWAM Relief Services 1980). e YWAM women that are documented in the extant records shared their faith in practical ways that resulted in refugees becoming Christians. Whether they all felt ful lled in their roles or like Diane Groves were challenged to accept serving in ways that were di erent than the reasons they went is yet unknown. Diane Littleton may o er a key insight into the sense the women had of their roles and ministry, even if coupled with dissatisfaction:

We were willing and passionate to serve. However, we were also very ordinary, with lots of broken places. Our job was in many ways menial and yet because God was moving we found it a wonder and honor to be a part of it all (2018).

Women of Community, Friendship and Faith

e international women who were a central force in YWAM’s work in the ai refugee camps shared a strong sense of community. Community living was a practice that the new team in ailand continued as a YWAM value, sharing their homes together ("YWAM History"). Diane Groves wrote that there were four houses rented by YWAM and each room was shared by two or three people (1981). Living in close quarters with other YWAM women meant that life was shared and together. is was true especially for the single female missionaries, such as Diane, who lived together with the other single women. Single men shared a house with other single men and married couples and families shared their homes with single missionaries (Goode et al. 2014, 83). In Steve and Marie Goode’s house, all the YWAM workers gathered every morning for prayer and worship before going to their ministry roles in the camps. In the evenings, everyone was home to make dinner together and eat a meal while sharing about their days (2014, 84).

Another aspect of community life, was a commitment to make sense of the human pain and su ering they were encountering together. Steve Goode notes that together their team studied the Bible, the life of Mother eresa, and writings by Francis and Edith Schaefer that speci cally talked about su ering and injustice. e YWAM women had a place among their team to learn how to live before God and others with the trauma and su ering they experienced in the lives of the refugees without it crushing them (2014, 85). Both Diane Groves and Steve and Marie Goode make mention of the immense emotional strain that they submitted themselves to by making their home near the refugee camps (Groves 2018; Goode et al 2014, 85).14 And yet in the midst of the challenges and trauma of life near and in the refugee camps, the YWAM women found and created community (Goode et al 2014, 84).15 Diane knew there were people always available for her if she needed to pray or go for an ice cream (1981). ere was also regular fun and laughter shared by Diane and the single women she lived with. She described how they made a pretend television screen out of cardboard and then would assign acting roles to each person present and then “turn on the television” and entertain each other. eir evenings were lled with laughter (2018). Participating and building community, even in the mist of the di cult ministry demands, may have helped some YWAM women combat

isolation and hopelessness and restore a sense of joy and hope for them and for the precious people they served.

Conclusion

Diane (Carabello) Groves and the other YWAM women who worked in the ai refugee camps in 1980 provide an example of an internationalizing faith mission movement that continues to in uence global Christianity and mission today. e YWAM women depicted here were competent professionals, e ective evangelists, willing workers, accompanying friends and faith- lled prayers. ey were not perfect, and in fact, they own their brokenness (Littleton 2018). rough their commitment to prayer and Christian community, these women found meaning in their faith and missionary service, o en with the tangible results of physical healings, conversions to Christ and cross-cultural friendships. ese women chose to make their home among the unrest of Southeast Asia and sacri ced much in the process, and, as Diane Groves as an example, they still bear the emotional scars of their experience today (2018).

e YWAM women of the ai border camps o er examples of female mission models and gender dynamics in mission that are yet to be explored. What do present day mission movements, indigenous churches in Cambodia and Christian humanitarian aid responses owe to these women? What did these women gain from the rst women faith missionaries of the late nineteenth century who pioneered long before them? is all beckons further study and historical, missiological, and gender studies re ection. May Diane Groves and the YWAM women of the ai border camps be voices that move the conversation forward, proving that, indeed, some of YWAM’s “best men were women” serving the Cambodian refugees while also essential contributors to the establishment of YWAM Relief Services and the development of the Mission’s vision and values (Littleton 2018).16

ere is much to be learned from these women of YWAM and pioneers in cross-cultural faith mission.

Endnotes

1 Allison is a doctoral student at Boston University School of eology studying world Christianity and mission history. Her research interests include the history of mission and migration, the history of contemporary faith mission and the history of Pentecostal-charismatic mission movements. Allison has served as a full-time missionary for twelve years, the past nine being with YWAM, has lived in Ukraine and Guatemala, and hasserved short-term in around thirty other countries.

2 e UNHCR noted that there were thirty-seven NGOs working in Khao-I-Dang by March 1980, representing the “global proliferation of NGO activity” around the crisis. YWAM was likely not counted as one of these organizations because they came and mostly sta ed other NGO labor needs. (Refugees, “ e State of e World’s Refugees 2000.”93.)

3 Diane became a Christian at Floyd McClung’s Dilaram house that was purposed to reach out to hippyies traveling on the hippie trail. Floyd had been reaching out to hippies in Kabul and later moved to Holland. He and Sally later became the leaders of YWAM Amsterdam.

4 e main training that YWAM o ered its members. is later developed into a Discipleship Training School because the people that were coming to faith had not grown up with any Biblical knowledge.

5 Diane Littleton wrote this to me in response to my question if she felt that women functioned di erently then men in the refugee work. She said that Loren always used to say that “my best men are women.” Personal email correspondence, 2018. I now know that this is a direct quotation that Loren borrowed from William Taylor, the great faith mission founder. I do not know if Loren every gave credit to William Taylor, but for the purposes of this paper it is important to note its origins and how the concept was central to YWAM’s founding and the work of missionaries in the ai camps.

6 Taken directly from the following quote by Diane Littleton’s email interview, 2018. “We were willing and passionate to serve. However, we were also very ordinary, with lots of broken places. Our job was in many ways

menial and yet because God was moving we found it a wonder and honor to be a part of it all.”

7 Diane Groves’ personal conversion story reveals she was part of the drug-using hippie movement that was travelling Europe. She came to faith in Dilaram House, the YWAM outreach of Floyd and Sally McClung. Floyd and Sally McClung and Keith and Melodie Green were aligned with the Jesus People movement, while Loren Cunningham had been a part of the Assemblies of God denomination. He wrote in his book, Is at Really You, God? that he took his vision for interdenominational youth mission teams to the Assemblies of God, asking for their support, but they rejected it because it was not exclusively within their denomination. From the personal history and faith commitments that the Cunninghams used in founding the Mission, one could say that YWAM has Pentecostal roots. At the same time, their friends and associates were connected to the Jesus People. ere was certainly a cross-pollination that took place in YWAM’s early days.

8 Diane talked about how surreal it was. She said when she prayed she felt like she knew God heard her and then answered quickly. Her description bore resemblance to the apostolic fervor of the Book of Acts in the sense of immediacy.

9 e man’s name was Man “Kal” Mabaskal. He and his wife, later relocated to the US, where he has worked to see the Khmer Rouge be brought to justice through legal advocacy and Cambodian organizations.

10 Diane told me in a personal interview that she thought the medical sta had the most challenging work. She related how she had heard that many of them were deeply emotionally damaged and traumatized a er their service in the camps. She said that some le the Christian faith. Diane Groves, Personal Interview, 2018.

11 Diane Groves recalled that those who worked in the clinics, hospitals, and leprosy hospitals had the most challenging time of them all. Diane alluded that many of them were deeply damaged emotionally a er their service and some of them were not Christians a er their service.

12 is is a dynamic of YWAM leadership and ministry that relies heavily on participants “hearing God’s voice” to con rm or accept any ministry positions. In a sense, each worker has the opportunity to say no to a post, but the focus is placed on them knowing what God desires for them and following in obedience. e fact that Diane Groves was displeased to be given the role of English teacher combined with the spiritual pressure to “hear God” makes for complex decision-making dynamics. Groves, Personal Interview with Diane Groves, November 9, 2018.

13 Diane told me this story, and then I gured out the “married YWAM woman” who had later become her friend and is still her friend is Diane Littleton, the other woman I had communication with about her experience. It is interesting that Diane and Diane became friends and have remained friends for forty years. Diane Groves also noted that while she was upset about being asked to babysit for three weeks, a er she prayed about it, she said she had peace to serve. She also mentioned that because of her experience she tries to protect single women missionaries from married women with children using them as babysitters.

14 Diane’s shared that she still plans evacuations when she is a new place and feels like she “lives in a war zone.” Personal Interview with Diane Groves, November 9, 2018. Steve Goode refers to “always being ready to evacuate” and parking the car facing out with a full tank of gas. Goode, Goode, and Wright, 85.

15 Steve recalls the sound of shelling, hearing land mines going o and knowing someone had died. He talks about the trauma of “having babies die in their arms and seeing people with their limbs blown o – was extremely di cult.” Goode, Goode, and Wright, 84.

16 To be credited to William Taylor, but as aforementioned Diane Littleton quoted this as a phrase Loren Cunningham has said about YWAM women.

300 |

References

Cunningham, Loren, et al.

1984. Is that Really You God? YWAM Publishing.

Hamilton, David, J and Cunningham, Loren.

2000. Why Not Women? A Fresh Look at Scripture on Women in Missions, Ministry, and Leadership. YWAM Publishing.

Kiernan, Ben.

1990. “Cambodian Genocide.” Far Eastern Economic Review 147, no. 9 (March 1): 18–19.

Eanes, Joel.

2002. e Rise and Fall of the Khmer Rouge, Dissertation: Proquest Dissertation.

Ellis-Peterson, Hannah.

2018. “Khmer Rouge Leaders Found Guilty of Genocide in Cambodia’s ‘Nuremberg’ Moment.” e Guardian. November 16.

Goode, Steve, Marie Goode, and Jemimah Wright.

2014. Bring Your Eyes and See: Our Journey into Justice, Compassion, and Action. YWAM Publishing.

Groves, Diane.

1981.“Diane Groves’ Album,” Held at Diane Grove's home in Colorado Springs.

Groves, Diane.

2018. Personal Interview with Diane Groves, November 9.

1980. Christian Science Monitor, August 6. https://www.csmonitor. com/1980/0806/080651.html

“HONGKONG; Powerful Magnet for Asian Refugees.”

Allison Kach | 301 Hutchinson, Mark.

2012. A Short History of Global Evangelicalism. Cambridge ; New York, Cambridge [England] ; New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kamm, Henry.

1978. “Cambodians Settled in ailand Join Refugee Camps.” New York Times, May 2.

“Khmer Rouge Take over Cambodia: From the Archive, 18 April 1975.” e Guardian, April 18, 2015, sec. World news. https://www.theguardian. com/world/2015/apr/18/khmer-rouge-cambodia-1975.

Littleon, Diane.

2018. Personal communication by email.

Portale, Joe.

2010. Taking On Giants: A Pioneer Missionary’s Pursuit of God’s Vision for Ministry and Life. International Adventures. YWAM Publishing.

Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. 2000. “ e State of e World’s Refugees 2000: Fi y Years of Humanitarian Action.” UNHCR. Accessed December 17, 2018. https://www.unhcr. org/publications/sowr/4a4c754a9/state-worlds-refugees-2000- yyears-humanitarian-action.html.

Terry, Fiona.

2002. Condemned to Repeat?: e Paradox of Humanitarian Action. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Youth with a Mission.

2018. "YWAM History". www.YWAM.org.

Youth with a Mission.

2018."YWAM's Foundational Values". www.YWAM.org.

YWAM Relief Services.

1980. "YWAM Relief Services First Report" found in "Diane Groves' Album."

ASSOCIATION OF PROFESSORS OF MISSION

Minutes of 2019 Meeting

1. e APM meeting was held at St. Mary’s College, South Bend, Indiana. Sue Russell, APM President, 1:35 pm, June 14, 2019, called the meeting to order and opened with prayer.

2. Minutes for the 2018 meeting were submitted by David Fenrick, Secretary-Treasurer, and approved.

3. e Secretary-Treasurer’s nancial report was submitted and approved.

4. e next APM Annual meeting will be held, June 18–19, 2020, at Saint Mary’s College, South Bend, Indiana.

5. Executive Committee Report:

• Members of the Executive Committee and Advisory Board met at Johnson University, Knoxville, TN, January 3, 2019. In addition to preparing for the 2019 Annual Meeting, signi cant work was done on the APM Leadership Checklist.

• Sue Russell, President, presented a revised APM Leadership Checklist of the duties and responsibilities of the APM o cers and committees. (See attached handout.) e following are special appointments to the Advisory Committee: Immediate past president (1-year term). Executive Director of Annual Program (3-year term, renewable). Executive Director of Membership and Member Relations (3-year term, renewable). e two executive directors positions will provide assistance in planning a more complex annual meeting with increasing attendance, as well as institutional

memory and continuity in working on long term strategic initiatives.

6. e report of the Nominating Committee regarding the election of o cers was submitted by Margaret Guider, First Vice President.

a. Margaret Guider, Boston College, President

b. Paul Lewis, Assemblies of God eological Seminary, First Vice President

c. Jay Moon, Asbury eological Seminary, Second Vice President

d. David Fenrick, Luther Seminary, reelected SecretaryTreasurer

e. New Members of the APM Advisory Board were introduced:

• Mary Coulter, Moody Bible Institute

• Alison Fitchett Climenhaga, Australian Catholic University

Nominations closed, seconded. Slate of o cers elected.

7. Other Business and Announcements:

a. An invitation was extended to the Midwest Mission Studies Fellowship Meeting, Catholic eological Union, November 9, 2019.

b. An invitation was extended to the Eastern Fellowship of Professors of Mission Meeting, Maryknoll, NY, November 2, 2019.

c. e membership unanimously approved giving $1,500.00 to IAMS in support of the 2020 Conference in Australia.

d. OMSC is moving to Princeton eological Seminary

e. Arun Jones announced that Chandler School of eology has an open position in Biblical Studies.

8. APM noted the death of the following colleagues this past year, and their unique and enduring contributions to the eld of missiology and the proclamation of the Gospel:

• John Smith, God Squad Australia

• Don Richardson, World Team

• Janet Carroll, Maryknoll

• Evelyne Reisache, Fuller eological Seminary

• Lamin Sanneh, Yale Divinity School

• Edward Schroeder, e Crossings Community

9. Sue Russell thanked the Executive Committee and Advisory Board, as well as the presenters for their contribution to the annual meeting. She also introduced the new APM President, Margaret Guider.

10. Margaret Guider thanked out-going President, Sue Russell. She presented the theme for the 2020 Annual Meeting: Mission, Persecution, Martyrdom and Meaning-Making: Instructional Strategies and Methods of Interpretation.

11. Margaret Guider closed the meeting with prayer at 2:00 pm.

Respectfully Submitted,

David E. Fenrick Secretary-Treasurer

A Few Notes:

• e APM pages are up-to-date.

• Minutes from the 2019 annual meeting are posted.

• Announcement for the Call for Papers will be posted on the website and a notice will be sent to both the APM & ASM membership, as well as people who have attended recent annual meetings, e.g., students.

Account Balance:

We currently have $9,398.97 in our APM checking account. is is the most money we have ever had in our APM account. We can be grateful for a very pro table 2019 APM Annual Meetings. Costs for the meeting were low; attendance and additional memberships were excellent. A er expenses, we netted $4,514.00!

Looking Ahead to Presenters and Honoraria for the 2020 Annual Meeting:

As presenters are considered for the Annual Meeting, we have generally provided the following:

For APM members:

In most cases we have not paid an honorarium unless our member's travel, lodging, and registration expenses are not covered by their institution. A couple of times we o ered an honorarium to members when they have had a signi cant presentation ($250.00), but nearly all members have declined.

For non-APM members:

We have paid for all travel, meals, and lodging, including registration. Honorarium has ranged from $500–$1000, depending on signi cance of participation/ presentation. For example, we might pay someone on a panel less than a plenary speaker.

CONFERENCE EXPENSES

Item ursday Friday

Facility rental charge ($6/registrant per day; split the charge equally with ASM on Friday)

Microphones for Carroll Auditorium (wireless x 4, handheld x 3) (for urs and Fri)

The Association of Professors of Mission (APM) was formed in 1952 at Louisville, Kentucky and was developed as an organization to focus on the needs of people involved in the classroom teaching of mission studies. However, the organization also challenged members to be professionally involved in scholarly research and share this research through regular meetings. In the 1960’s Roman Catholic scholars and scholars from conservative Evangelical schools joined the Conciliar Protestants who initially founded the organization.

With the discussion to broaden membership to include other scholars from areas like anthropology, sociology, and linguistics who were actively engaged in mission beyond the teaching profession, the decision was made to found the American Society of Missiology (ASM) in 1972. Since the importance of working with mission educators was still vital, the APM continued as a separate organization, but always met in conjunction with the ASM at their annual meetings.

The APM continues as a professional society of those interested in the teaching of mission from as wide an ecumenical spectrum as possible. As an organization it works to help and support those who teach mission, especially those who often lack a professional network to help mentor and guide them in this task. Through its infuence, the APM has also helped establish the prominence and scholarly importance of the academic discipline of missiology throughout theological education.