Undergraduate Thesis - Order & Artifact

ORDER & ARTIFACT

ORDER & ARTIFACT

Thesis Documentation Atharva Ranade 2019

This document contains a body of work submitted to the VIRGINIA TECH SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE + DESIGN

in partial fulfillment of BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE

DEDICATION This book is dedicated to those who provided their unwavering guidance, support, inspiration and wisdom throughout this process. I could not have done this without your help.

Nitin Ranade Archana Ranade Parth Ranade Hilary Bryon Jim Bassett Marie Paget Edward Becker Henri T. de Hahn Aki Ishida

CONTENTS Structure Abstract 01

PROLOGUE

15

To Question To Thesis 02

THE STUDY

21

Order Artifact 03

CONSTRUCTING THE STUDY

27

Syntax Autonomy Semantics Ideal and Virtuel 04

TESTING THE STUDY

53

Site: Mumbai, India Artifact: Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus [CST] Program: British Colonial Museum The Great British Entry Hall Hall of British Colonization Hall of Freedom 05

APPENDICES

147

Thesis

Project

Site + Context

Program

STRUCTURE

The thesis is studied in the context of a project in Mumbai, India.

The documentation of this project establishes the significance of the architectural question and is followed by earlier supporting explorations.

The initial explorations reveal the questions under investigation and the development of the thesis question. These investigations, which tested specific conditions and scales, eventually led to the articulation of a British Colonial Museum in Mumbai, India. While the project itself has been brought to a formal conclusion, the thesis questions relating to context and syntax will live beyond the book.

10 11

To create architecture is to put in order. Put what in order? Function and objects.

- Le Corbusier

ABSTRACT

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus [CST] railway station, located in the heart of the city of Mumbai, is an axial, ordered, British colonial building. The station has a formal, central volume flanked by two horizontal wings, styled with a Romanesque arcuated system and ordered by a bilateral grid that has primary, secondary, and tertiary sub-axes. The station has always been an identifiable artifact, first as an insertion by the colonial Brits, when they occupied and ordered the development of Bombay, and today as a vestige in a hybrid city of Mumbai in which modern development in the urban fabric pushes and pulls with the past.

The thesis studies concurrent and multiple orders and proposes an overt confrontation between the triad of colonial axis, Indian axis, and current city grid of Mumbai, thus supporting an inquiry into the varying presences of British influence and an autonomous India.

The project is a Museum of British Colonial Rule in India, located partially inside and outside the railway station building. The museum is a narrative through time, a timeline of almost 200 years spanning the Indian freedom movement for autonomy, and through order, the tangible manifestations of form as influenced by local and global crafts, styles, and geometries.

12 13

01 PROLOGUE

Question, n.

1. That which is inquired about, discussed, or

debated.

2. A point or topic to be investigated or discussed; a problem, or a matter forming the basis of a problem.

3. A matter or concern depending on or involving a specified condition or thing.

4. A subject or proposal to be debated, decided, or voted on in a meeting or deliberative assembly, esp. in Parliament; the putting of this proposal to the vote.

5. A (subject of ) debate, dispute, or contention.

6. An issue concerning disputed factual evidence.

7. An issue concerning a disputed point of law upon which a legal judgment or opinion is required.

8. That which is asked.

9. The action of inquiring, asking about, or contesting.

10. The action of questioning, interrogating, or examining a person; the fact of being questioned.

Formerly also: talk, discourse. Obsolete.

11. The raising of a doubt about or objection to something.

12. To cast doubt upon; to challenge, dispute, spec. in a court of law.

13. To come (also fall) into question and variants: 14. (a) to become the subject of controversy or dispute; (b) to become an issue for discussion or consideration.

15. In dispute, in contention; in a doubtful or undecided state.

16. Under consideration, forming the subject of discourse; that is being discussed or referred to.

Source: The Oxford-English Dictionary

TO QUESTION Questions are inherent to architecture. The art of questioning can be linked to Socrates.

Socrates is given credit for the development of a scientific system of testing a hypothesis through definition and induction based on empirical or measurable evidence.

In The Thinkers Guide to The Art of Socratic Questioning, R.W Paul outlines nine types of Socratic questions: • Questions of Clarification • Questions that probe Purpose • Questions that probe Assumptions • Questions that probe Information • Reasons, Evidence, and Causes • Questions about Viewpoints • Questions about Perspectives • Questions that probe Implications & Consequences • Questions about the Question • Questions that probe the Concept • Questions that probe Inferences and Interpretations The ability to question is the ability to discover and explore knowledge that pertains to the topic of study. Perhaps, the most important question to ask of a thesis in architecture is, “What is an architectural question?”

“What is your thesis, in three words?”

– Hilary Bryon “A question is worth more than the answer.”

– Gene Egger “To create, one must first question everything.”

– Eileen Gray

Prologue

16 17

Thesis, n.

1. In Prosody: Originally and properly, according

to ancient writers, The setting down of the foot or lowering of the hand in beating time, and hence (as marked by this) the stress or ictus; the stressed syllable of a foot in a verse; a stressed note in music.

2. By later Latin writers (e.g. Martianus Victorinus a400, Priscian c500) used for the lowering of the voice on an unstressed syllable, thus practically reversing the original meaning; hence in prevalent acceptation (from the time of Bentley, 1726): The unaccented or weak part of a foot in verse (classical or modern), or an unaccented note in music; spec. in Old English prosody and in the prosody of other Germanic languages.

3. Logic, Rhetoric : A proposition laid down or stated, esp. as a theme to be discussed and proved, or to be maintained against attack (in Logic sometimes as distinct from hypothesis n.

2, in Rhetoric from antithesis n. 3a); a statement, assertion, tenet.

4. A dissertation to maintain and prove a thesis (in sense 3); esp. one written or delivered by a candidate for a University degree.

Source: The Oxford-English Dictionary

TO THESIS A thesis is not simply, what you are doing, rather by its logical definition, it requires taking a stand and manifesting a principled position.

In simple terms, a thesis, defined as a ‘statement or theory that is put forward as a premise to be maintained or proved,’ is two-fold. It comprises firstly, a question and secondly, a concurrent reasoning which helps validate work in relevance to the question.

In the Socratic method of questioning, a series of questions are formulated as tests of logic and intended to help people find their beliefs about a certain topic. Essentially, the method poses questions, which people then reflect upon and respond to in their own way. It is clear by this method that questions and theses are intertwined.

An architecture thesis, specifically, should be aimed directly to the discipline of architecture as the target of discourse.

Prologue

18 19

02 THE STUDY Order & Artifact

Order, n.

Order, v.

1. A rank, row, or series.

2. Mathematics: The degree of complexity of

1. To put in order; to classify, regulate.

2. To set or keep in order or proper condition;

an analytical or geometrical form, equation, expression, operator, etc., as denoted by an ordinal or cardinal number.

3. The number of elements in a group.

4. Architecture: An architectural system or style in which the components of a building are assembled according to certain uniform established proportions; (Classical Architecture) any of the five styles of architecture (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite) based on the proportions of columns, type of capitals, amount of decoration, etc. In Gothic and Romanesque architecture: each of a series of moldings on an arch.

5. A system classifying the arrangement of architectural columns on the basis of their distance apart.

6. Sequence, disposition, or arrangement; arranged or regulated condition.

7. Arrangement of things in which one thing, or each of a number of things, follows another; sequence or succession.

8. In general sense: the condition in which everything has its correct or appropriate place, and performs its proper functions; the force for harmony and regularity in the universe.

9. Formal, regular, methodical, or harmonious arrangement in the position of the things contained in a particular space or area, or composing any group or body.

10. A fixed arrangement found in the existing state of things; a natural, moral, spiritual, or social system in which things proceed according to definite, established, or constituted laws.

Source: The Oxford-English Dictionary

3.

4.

5.

6.

to adjust, arrange, or carry on according to rule; to regulate, direct, conduct, rule, govern, manage; to settle.

To bring into order or submission to lawful authority; to inflict disciplinary punishment on; to correct, chastise, punish.

To take a certain course with (a person or thing); to treat, deal with, or manage in a specified manner.

Transitive. To make an order for; to give a verbal, written, or electronic request that (something) be made, supplied, or served To command or direct

ORDER Order can be defined as the arrangement or disposition of people or things in relation to each other according to a particular sequence, pattern, or method. [The Oxford-English Dictionary] In the discourse of architecture, order itself is intangible, yet apparent as a system or style in which the elements of a building are assembled or placed according to certain established relationships.

Form-making in design is the physical manifestation of order. The physically built aggregation of wall, column, floor, and roof have embedded characteristics which govern the descriptive qualities of the form, yet there exists an overarching autonomous mathematical system of sequences, symmetries, and patterns which bind these physical elements in space.

Inhabitable space is a manifestation of the overlap of the qualitative characteristics and the mathematical systems.

Centralized, Imperial Axis: Colonial British “Raj Path”, Delhi, India

The thesis studies multiple orders concurrently, but specifically confronts a British, Imperial, formal, axial, hierarchical order with an Indian, Democratic, circumambulatory, and egalitarian order.

• Circumambulation: Typical Indian Temple Plan

The Study

22 23

Artifact, n.

1. An object made or modified by human 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

workmanship, as opposed to one formed by natural processes.

Archaeology. An excavated object that shows characteristic signs of human workmanship or use.

Science. A spurious result, effect, or finding in a scientific experiment or investigation, esp. one created by the experimental technique or procedure itself.

A non-material human construct.

An object made by a human being, typically an item of cultural or historical interest.

Something observed in a scientific investigation or experiment that is not naturally present but occurs as a result of the preparative or investigative procedure.

Source: The Oxford-English Dictionary

ARTIFACT An artifact is an object made by man, typically an item or building of cultural and historical interest. An artifact’s value lies in the presence of the time in which it was built or had significance.

In architecture, a building might be considered an artifact if its scale or historic significance or contextual engagement is durable after its construction. This artifact likely still influences the experience within and outside its immediate context.

The thesis addresses the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus [CST] railway station as an artifact.

The building is an axial, ordered, British colonial monument which has stood as a symbol of power and authority since the British rule in colonial India. The station has always been an identifiable artifact, first as an insertion by the colonial Brits, when they occupied and ordered the development of Bombay, but also today as a vestige in a hybrid city of Mumbai in which modern development in the urban fabric tries to push back against the past.

Artifact: Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, Mumbai, India

The thesis challenges this artifact with respect to its presence in the city of Mumbai as it juxtaposes itself with the physical city grid and grapples with the varying presence of British influence and an autonomous India.

The Study

24 25

03 CONSTRUCTING THE STUDY

Syntax, n.

1. Senses relating to language.

2. The set of rules and principles in a language

according to which words, phrases, and clauses are arranged to create well-formed sentences.

3. Grammar. The ways in which a particular word or part of speech can be arranged with other words or parts of speech.

4. The order and arrangement of words in a particular sentence or text, or by a particular person, esp. (with modifying adjective) as judged for correctness, elegance, comprehensibility, etc.

5. Logic. More fully logical syntax or formal syntax. The order and arrangement of elements in a formal language, without reference to meaning; the set of rules governing this.

6. Computing. The set of rules according to which code in a particular programming language must be structured in order for it to be properly processed by a compiler or interpreter.

7. Other senses relating to arrangement and connection.

8. Orderly or systematic arrangement of parts or elements; structure, organization.

9. Connection or correlation between abstract things; congruity.

10. A connected order or system of things.

11. Mathematics. In the terminology of J. J. Sylvester: the branch of mathematics dealing with combinations of objects belonging to a finite set; combinatorics.

Source: The Oxford-English Dictionary

SYNTAX Syntax in an orderly notational system of organization, arrangement, and geometry [The Oxford-English Dictionary] or a formal principle.

Syntax has been studied by many artists, architects, and historians. A selective number of such architects considered in the thesis study are Andrea Palladio, Louis Kahn, John Hejduk, and Peter Eisenman along with historian Rudolph Wittkower and artist Piet Mondrian.

Palladio

Kahn

Hejduk

Eisenman

Wittkower

Mondarian

Each implemented their own methodology to interpret and use syntax.

Andrea Palladio: Palladio implemented a plan-based composition based on classical proportions.

Louis Kahn: Kahn used tectonic and structural elements to order space.

John Hejduk: Hejduk deployed spaces and tectonics to overlay his understanding of Palladio’s architecture.

Peter Eisenman: Eisenman’s syntactical systems, autonomy, and visual graphics ordered his architecture which is devoid of external influences.

Rudolph Wittkower: Wittkower analyzed the work of Palladio to establish a relative syntactical order of proportions and spatial organization.

Piet Mondrian: Mondarian used rhythmic graphical representation to order his paintings.

Constructing the Study

28 29

A set of plan drawings of Palladio’s Villas

Wittkower’s syntactic diagrams show the organizational similarity across Palladio’s Villas.

Geometric Pattern - A Classical Paradigm Rudolph Wittkower, in a paper entitiled, Principles of Palladio’s Architecture, identified a geometric pattern as an architectural paradigm through the plan-based study of every villa designed by Italian architect Andrea Palladio.

A

B

A

A

B

A

A

B

A

A

A

B

A B

La Rotonda, - Andrea Palladio

A

A B

A

Texas House, - John Hejduk

Trenton Bath House, - Louis Kahn

Adler House, - Louis Lahn

Investigation of plan drawings with a common 3x3 grid

A

A

B

A

B

B

A

B

A

A

B

A

A

A

A

B

B A

Study discloses a rhythm of syntax; A” refers to an outdoor space and “B” refers to an enclosed space.

Tectonic Pattern - A Modern Paradigm A common syntax hierarchically connects the tectonic elements across the floor plans.

Superimposing multiple plans helped to investigate similarities and differences across the tectonic syntax within floor arrangements

Constructing the Study

30 31

AUTONOMY Autonomy (and field) were integral parts to the study of syntax. The study revealed order at the scale of one single element and over a larger field of elements bound by a syntactic system.

A series of operations relative to geometry and volume were studied concurrently, drawing inspiration from works of Peter Eisenman and Le Corbusier. Eisenman uses methods of transformation, a series of steps transforming elemental units and spatial voids, while Corbusier uses unification, a method of compounding elements to create fused systems of identifiable units.

A focused set of inquiries were made relative to transformation in Peter Eisenman’s House VI, part of a series of eleven houses built to study the interplay of syntax and autonomy. In parallel, Villa Savoye, built by Le Corbusier was studied to draw from ideas of unification.

These studies led to a self-directed set of spatial and syntactical drawings and models in which the relationships between the quantity of elements and the autonomy of elements in space, as well as a field of elements bound by a grid or an ordering system, were examined.

House VI - Peter Eisenman Peter Eisenman’s work is founded on systemizing syntax. His search for a universal, autonomous architecture is based upon the syntactic structure of formal values, neglecting external influences.

Eisenman states that, “syntactic relationships

among structural systems is where the discipline of architecture resides and critically engages the 3-dimenions of architecture.” [1] Eisenman neglects the incorporation of social, political, and economic influences. By doing so, his work concentrates on elements of form itself via the self-determining syntactic system of development through a series of transformations.

One of the most important works of Eisenman is the House VI residence, completed in1975.

The architect utilized syntactic operations such as repetition and transformational progressions.[2] This highly formal manifestation evolved as a construct of elements organized and articulated by geometric and spatial relationships.

The design process of all the houses were embedded in geometry, order, and proportion, and had less to do with aesthetic value or function. Consequently, at House VI some beams or columns have no structural function, but simply enforce a uniform formal order. For example, columns sit tight to the kitchen table, challenging and separating diners while eating.

In the bedroom, a vertical opening slices from the ceiling to the wall to the floor, prohibiting the placement of a double-sized bed and forcing inhabitants of the master bedroom to sleep in twin-sized beds, separated, yet framed, by the house’s spatial void.

House VI is a testimony to the independence of architectural elements and three-dimensional space in which architecture is based on a concept of autonomy to generate distinct and varied spaces.

1. Frank, Suzanne Shulof, and Peter Eisenman. Peter Eisenman’s House VI: A Clients Response. Whitney Library of Design.

2. Trasformational (def ): an act, process, or instance of transforming or being transformed.

Eisenman’s diagrammatic series of transformations

Interior photographs of House VI detail the tension between form and function.

Constructing the Study

32 33

Syntax through Transformation Eisenman’s series of “transformational” oblique projections drawings constructed for House VI show the acts of iteration through operations of addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication.

1

2

3

1 1

2 2

Deducing a methodology of nomenclature in ordering elements in space.

3 3

4

Villa Savoye columns-beam unified syntax.

Syntax through Unification The autonomy of architecture resides in the architect’s ability to organize and articulate a syntactic structure with the fundamental elements of architecture. In Corbusier’s case, we see the unification of column to beam.

Constructing the Study

34 35

Quantitative investigation into syntax A study examined the minimum number of physical elements required to recognize the presence of a syntax.

Field from autonomous elements Concurrent studies show the emergence of an ordering system. The autonomy of a single element in space is tested.

Subsequently, the same element is multiplied over a grid to help articulate the relationships formed by the multiple elements.

Constructing the Study

36 37

3-Dimensional Drawing study Axonometric projection drawings were used as a means to study syntax through compositions of point, line, and plane in space.

Constructing the Study

38 39

3-Dimensional Drawing study Oblique projection drawings were used as a method of studying syntax. In architecture, a column may be regarded as a sculpture in space and a wall as a planar boundary demarcating space.

Constructing the Study

40 41

Semantics, n.

1. The meaning of signs; the interpretation or

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

description of such meaning; (chiefly Semiotics) the study of the meaning of signs, and of the relationship of sign vehicles to referents.

The branch of linguistics or philosophy concerned with meaning in language; the study or analysis of meaning in words, sentences, etc.

Chiefly depreciative. The use of words with particular meanings, esp. for euphemistic or tendentious purposes. Also: (the act of making) pedantic distinctions regarding the precise or technical meaning of words; verbal quibbling.

The (system of ) meanings in a language, word, grammatical construction, etc.

A theory or description of meaning.

Computing. The meaning of the strings in a programming language.

Source: The Oxford-English Dictionary

SEMANTICS In English, words are the conventional elements of communication and each word carries with it a meaning. Language has conventional rules and operates within pre-defined, cultural semantics; however, users often overlay their own meaning, or semantics, on top of the accepted, defined convention. Cultural agreement changes meaning, as can the context of syntax, i.e. sentence structure.

Similarly, within the disciplinary discourse of architecture, elements of structure can carry meaning by definition or cultural agreement.

Even though conventional building elements and materials have, or can operate, within predefined meanings, or interpretations, often the observer utilizes other lens’ of viewing and evaluating the physical built in addition to universally accepted conventions. Today, timehonored architectural conventions have been undermined as everyone has the capacity to see the world through their own lens. Now, architecture is assessed in countless ways.

Roman columns: Ionic, Doric and Corinthian

As presented by Eisenman in his recent book Palladio Virtuel, published in 2015, every element in architecture becomes a two-fold object in space, namely an ideal [signifier] and a virtual [signified]. The sign refers to the ideal [3] or structural and formal aspect of an element, while the “signified” refers to the resulting topological [4], spatial, and virtuel [5] engagement in space.

Modern Column: a simple, uniform, cylinder of concrete 3. Peter Eisenman, in his book Palladio Virtuel defines ‘ideal’ as a characteristic of architecture which is literal, material, measured by scale and proportions.

4. Topology (def ): The study of properties of geometric forms that remain invariant under certain transformations, as bending or stretching.

5. Peter Eisenman, in his book Palladio Virtuel defines ‘virtuel’ as a characteristic of architecture which is the latent, immaterial, possibility of multiple readings of the same space through topological conditions such as adjacency, overlap, or superimposition.

Constructing the Study

42 43

“Ideal” & “Virtuel” As noted by Eisenman, Leon Battista Alberti’s work embraces an idea of a homogeneous space, with “ideal” geometry and proportions, along with direct engagement of tectonic elements. Whereas Andrea Palladio’s work conveys a sense of heterogeneity, Palladio’s spaces are considered by Eisenman to have both geometric and topological relationships. The transformation from a homogeneous space to a heterogeneous space is considered as dissipation or disintegration--or a move from a supposed “ideal” toward “virtuel” spatial qualities-- as well as a geometric analysis to a topological one.

Here, the idea of a spatial syntax creates a condition beyond the simple functional need for more structure.

For example, the ideal refers to an organizational form, such as nine squares, a modular grid, or bi-axial symmetry.[6] The “virtuel” refers to the architectural relationships that are implied by a condition of presence, but exist beyond the literal or the ideal. Eisenman indicates that it is necessary to separate the “ideal” and the “virtuel”. For example, a column is simply a column. It can be thought of as a structural element in two ways: the object and the sign of a structuring element.

Eisenman discusses the double columns on the edge of the portico at the Palazzo Chiericati. The doubled columns are seen less as an imprint of a structural need or geometrical condition and more a topological or relational one. One set of columns are lined parallel to the street to create a façade, while another set of columns form a roman temple front. The overlap of the two spaces creates a moment of doubled columns.

Palazzo Chiericati, Vicenza, Italy - Andrea Palladio

6. Bi-Axial Symmetry: The property of being divisible into symmetrical halves on either side of a unique plane.

Treptow Krematorium, Berlin, Germany

Kunsthal, Rotterdam, Netherlands - OMA

Plasticity [7] There is a sense of plasticity exhibited by the irregularly spaced columns at Treptow Crematorium in Berlin, Germany and the folded truss structure at the Kunsthal, Rotterdam, Netherlands. In both cases, a structural element exhibits a plastic property, being adjusted according to a desired the spatial articulation.

7. Plasticity (def ): The quality of being easily shaped or molded.

Constructing the Study

44 45

O CEILING

PHYSICAL MANIFEST OF OVERLAPPING ORDER

ATE AN ORDER MOVING ON THE FLOOR TO THE

WALL INSET INTO ANOTHER WALL PART TO WHOLE ONE WALL? TWO WALLS?

AN ORDER SUGGEST EXTENSION OF AN ORDER O CEILING

TE AN ORDER MOVING ON THE FLOOR TO THE

L INSET INTO ANOTHER WALL T TO WHOLE WALL? TWO WALLS?

COLUMN GRID - ROOF SLIT - WALL LINE STUDYING THE CONTINUITY IN STRUCTURE

PHYSICAL MANIFESTATION OF AN ORDER VISUAL INFINITY TANGIBLE BREAK A LINE OF ORDER FABRICATING

LINEAR - RADIAL COLUMNAR GRID WALL GRID - PLAN

READING A WALL AS A P READING A COLUMN AS A

COLUMN GRID - ROOF SLIT - WALL LINE STUDYING THE CONTINUITY IN STRUCTURE VISUAL INFINITY TANGIBLE BREAK

SUGGEST EXTENSION OF AN ORDER

ERSECTING GRIDS YSICAL MANIFEST OF OVERLAPPING ORDER

FABRICATING A LINE OF ORDER

INTERSECTING GRIDS PHYSICAL MANIFEST OF OVERLAPPING ORDER

LINEAR - RADIAL

COLUMNAR GRID - SCULPTURAL LINEAR - RADIAL WALL GRID - PLANAR COLUMNAR GRID - SCULPTURAL READING A WALL AS A PLANE - LINEAR ORDER READING A COLUMN AS A SCULPTURAL - RADIAL GRID WALL GRID - PLANAR

WALL INSET INTO ANOTHER WALL PART TO WHOLE ONE WALL? TWO WALLS?

READING A WALL AS A PLANE - LINEAR ORDER READING A COLUMN AS A SCULPTURAL - RADIAL GRID

LINEAR - RADIAL COLUMNAR GRID - SCULPTURAL WALL GRID - PLANAR

OVERLAPPING ORDER

READING A WALL AS A PLANE - LINEAR ORDER READING A COLUMN AS A SCULPTURAL - RADIAL GRID

GRIDS FEST OF OVERLAPPING ORDER

LINEAR - RADIAL COLUMNAR GRID - SCULPTURAL WALL GRID - PLANAR

THER WALL

READING A WALL AS A PLANE - LINEAR ORDER

GRIDS LS? FEST OF OVERLAPPING ORDER

WALL AS SPATIAL ELEMENT RELATIONSHIPS SPATIAL QUALITY STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY

THER WALL

LS?

LINEAR RADIAL READING A-COLUMN AS A SCULPTURAL - RADIAL GRID COLUMNAR GRID - SCULPTURAL WALL GRID - PLANAR READING A WALL AS A PLANE - LINEAR ORDER READING A COLUMN AS A SCULPTURAL - RADIAL GRID

HOW CLOSE DO TWO WALLS NEED TO BE TO BE READ AS A SINGLE WALL? HOW FAR APART DO TWO WALLS NEED TO BE TO GET A MORE SPATIAL QUALITY THAN A PURE STRUCTURAL QUALITY?

WALL AS SPATIAL ELEMENT RELATIONSHIPS SPATIAL QUALITY STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY HOW CLOSE DO TWO WALLS NEED TO BE TO BE READ AS A SINGLE WALL? HOW FAR APART DO TWO WALLS NEED TO BE TO GET A MORE SPATIAL QUALITY THAN A PURE STRUCTURAL QUALITY?

LL AS SPATIAL ELEMENT LATIONSHIPS ATIAL QUALITY RUCTURAL INTEGRITY

W CLOSE DO TWO WALLS NEED TO BE TO BE READ AS A SINGLE WALL? W FAR APART DO TWO WALLS NEED TO BE TO GET A MORE SPATIAL LITY THAN A PURE STRUCTURAL QUALITY?

NT

Syntax Collage The sheet on the right contains a series of studies drawing out syntactic connections between a single element and architectural conditions as an over-arching system binding multiple elements in spaces.

TO BE TO BE READ AS A SINGLE WALL? EED TO BE TO GET A MORE SPATIAL L QUALITY?

AL ELEMENT S TY NTEGRITY AL ELEMENT WALLS NEED TO BE TO BE READ AS A SINGLE WALL?

WO WALLS NEED TO BE TO GET A MORE SPATIAL

MOVEMENT OF AN ORDER FROM FLOOR TO CEILING

PHYSICAL MANIFESTATION OF AN ORDER FABRICATING A LINE OF ORDER

CAN A WALL TRANSLATE AN ORDER MOVING ON THE FLOOR TO THE CEILING? CAN A VOID IN A ROOF SUGGEST EXTENSION OF AN ORDER

COLUMN GRID - ROOF SLIT - WALL LINE STUDYING THE CONTINUITY IN STRUCTURE VISUAL INFINITY TANGIBLE BREAK

INTERSECTING GRIDS PHYSICAL MANIFEST OF OVERLAPPING ORDER

LINEAR - RADIAL COLUMNAR GRID - SCULPTURAL WALL GRID - PLANAR

WALL INSET INTO ANOTHER WALL PART TO WHOLE ONE WALL? TWO WALLS?

READING A WALL AS A PLANE - LINEAR ORDER READING A COLUMN AS A SCULPTURAL - RADIAL GRID

WALL AS SPATIAL ELEMENT RELATIONSHIPS SPATIAL QUALITY STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY HOW CLOSE DO TWO WALLS NEED TO BE TO BE READ AS A SINGLE WALL? HOW FAR APART DO TWO WALLS NEED TO BE TO GET A MORE SPATIAL QUALITY THAN A PURE STRUCTURAL QUALITY?

46 47

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48 49

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VOID SOLID

INVERSION CONTRAST 50 51

04 TESTING THE STUDY

A SITE TO DRAW FROM: CST MUMBAI, INDIA “Architecture is bound to situation, and I feel like a site is a metaphysical link, a poetic link, to what a building can be.” – Steven Holl “The task of the architectural project is to reveal, through the transformation of form, the essence of the surrounding context.” – Vittorio Gregotti “To dwell means to belong to a given place.” – Christian Norberg-Schulz

54 55

“We lived in Bombay, and we lived in Mumbai, and sometimes I lived in both of them at the same time�

- Suketu Mehta

A SITE TO DRAW FROM: CST MUMBAI, INDIA Architects build on sites and therefore, each site acts as ground for experiment and inspiration. A site is what Ernesto Rogers calls preesistenze ambientali, or surrounding preexistences, which includes both the physical and historic context. Rogers writes that, “to consider l’ambiente means to consider history... To understand history is essential for the formation of the architect since he must be able to insert his work into the preessistenze ambientali and take it dialectally into account.” [8] Rogers argues that the surrounding pre-existences, the visible site and its invisible history, are intimately linked.

As a result, the site offers material history and immaterial influences that can be harnessed by the architect to generate architecture and deepen the meaning in the project.

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus: Main historical façade

In grounding the thesis project, the site was thoughtfully selected. A site would support, enrich, nourish, and challenge the thesis question of order and artifact. The selected site is in the Fort Area of Mumbai, inside the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and adjacent to the main entrance walkway of the extension of the existing Terminus completed in 1980.

The site is rooted in a robust legacy of constructive knowledge in the city with: an attention to scale, orientation to the city, and a monumental, iconic presence. The site relates to both Colonial and Contemporary footholds in the architecture of the city and provides a framework to provoke an understanding of order and artifact.

Completed in 1980, the new entrance is also a part of the site.

8. Ernesto Nathan Rogers. Tra Razionalismo e Continuità.

Testing the Study - Mumbai

56 57

MUMBAI [BOMBAY], INDIA Mumbai, known as Bombay (until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra.

Mumbai is the financial, commercial, and entertainment capital of India.

Mumbai lies on the Konkan, west coast of India and has a deep natural harbor. Mumbai is home to three UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Elephanta Caves, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus [CST], and the city’s distinctive ensemble of Victorian and Art Deco buildings.

Construction of major roads, the railway, and land reclamation projects, completed in 1845 under colonial rule, transformed Bombay into a major seaport on the Arabian Sea. During the early 20th century, Bombay became a strong base for the Indian independence movement.

For centuries, the seven islands of Bombay were under the control of successive indigenous empires (Mughal Empire) before being ceded to the Portuguese Empire and subsequently to the entrepreneurial, then British East India Company.

Portuguese and British Rule The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent during the mid-16th century. Growing apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun, Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, was obliged to sign the Treaty of

Bassein with the Portuguese Empire on 23 December 1534. According to the treaty, the Seven Islands of Bombay, the nearby strategic town of Bassein, and its dependencies were offered to the Portuguese.

The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their Roman Catholic religious orders in Bombay. The Portuguese established monopoly over trade and export through land-reclamation projects which were carried out to connect the seven islands. They called the islands by various names, which finally took the written form “Bombaim”. The English, recognizing the strategic natural harbor of Mumbai and its natural isolation from land attacks, were in a constant struggle with the Portuguese. By the middle of the 17th century, the growing power of the Dutch Empire compelled the English to acquire a railway station in western India [Bori Bunder].

Thus, in 1687, the English East India Company transferred its headquarters from Surat, Gujarat to Bombay. The city eventually became the headquarters of the Bombay Presidency.

Following the transfer, Bombay was placed at the head of all the company’s establishments in India. By the middle of the 18th century, Bombay began to grow into a major trading town and received a huge influx of migrants from across India. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Bombay into one of the largest seaports on the Arabian Sea.

Seven islands of Bombay

Bombay, 1700

Bombay, 1900

Bori Bunder

Bori-Bunder Railway Station, 1780

Fort Area of Bombay, 1771

Testing the Study - Mumbai

58 59

N Arabian Sea

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Arabian Sea

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Mumbai Mainland

Mumbai Mainland, India Fort Area is the former British parliamentary outpost in Mumbai, where the Railway meets the Harbor. The site is located adjacent to the former railroad’s headquarters of East India Company – Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus [CST].

VICTORIA DOCKS

SITE

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PORT OF MUMBAI CHHATRAPATI SHIVAJI TERMINUS

N

Testing the Study - Mumbai

60 61

Colonial and Indian Architecture in Mumbai [1500-1900] The architecture of Mumbai blends Victorian, Gothic, Art Deco, Indo-Saracenic, and contemporary architectural styles. Many buildings, structures, and historical monuments date to the colonial era.

and Tudor casements-- often inter-fused with traditional Indian features.

Victorian Gothic Architecture At first, Mumbai had a Neo-classical style [9] of architecture, but later the Victorian Gothic style (also known as Gothic revival) dominated city constructions.

Ornamentally, the Gothic style in Bombay is comprised of expressive, disjointed surfaces with lively colors, carved figurative elements, lancet windows, and stained glass. Structurally, the Victorian Gothic style consists of heavy stone and brick work with pure geometric volumes, gabled roofs, and flying buttresses. Formally, the buildings have a strong central mass, with a high tower as a marker, and consist of sub-divided building elements which are used in repetition, such as groups of colonettes or a horizontal array of windows. The circulation pattern is very axial, with a dominant line of symmetry and a centralized plan.

According to writer Jan Morris, “Bombay is one of the most characteristically Victorian cities in the world, displaying all the grand effrontery of Victorian eclecticism.�[10] A British influence from the colonial era is evident in a broadrange of architectural features with European architectural influences such as German gables, Dutch roofs, Swiss timbering, Roman arches,

Mumbai University Campus has pitched roofs and uses a clock tower as a landmark object.

Mumbai High Court uses lancet windows, a heavy central mass, and rows of pointed arches.

9. Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century. The style is principally derived from the architecture of classical antiquity, Vitruvian principles, and the work of the Italian architect Andrea 10. Palladio.

Jan Morris. Stones of Empire: The Buildings of the Raj

Indo-Saracenic Indo-Saracenic (also known as Indo-Gothic, Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal, and Hindu style) was a revival architectural style used by British architects in India in the later 19th century, especially in large scale public and government buildings of the British Raj, reflecting and promoting a notion of an unassailable and invincible British Empire.

The Indo-Saracenic style is hybrid of VenetianGothic Architecture,[11] Moorish architecture,[12] Indian Hindu-Temple architecture, and Mughal-Islamic architecture. The basic layout and structure resemble buildings in the Gothic revival and Neo-Classical styles with exotic Indian features and decoration added. The use of onion domes, chhajjas,[13] and overhanging eaves; along with spires, minarets, horse-shoe arches contributed to an eclectic style of building and construction.

Drawing from Islamic and Moorish architecture of Spain, the Indo-Saracenic architecture style experienced a shift in structure from masonry massing to columnar and arcuated spaces. The buildings derived influences of circulation and syntax from the Hindu Temples of India. The use of bilateral symmetry, a circumambulatory movement, [14] and gnomonic proportions [15] were prime features of the buildings. Spanish and Venetian architectural features, such as honeycomb vaulting and the use of contrasting stones to create banding were blended with carving and detailing which resembles the Hindu temples, such as calligraphic ornament and fractal geometry [17] derived from Islamic architecture style.

Mumbai Municipality Building has a symmetrical, heavy central mass, and uses onion-shaped domes.,

Taj Mahal Hotel in Mumbai uses arcuated spaces with contrasting bands of color and Italianate windows.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai uses a central mass, onion domes and minarets, along with venetian arches and chajjas for ornament.

11. Venetian-Gothic architecture: This style is closely associated with influences from trade and canals. The term is given to the Venetian building style that combined the Gothic lancet arch with Byzantine and Ottoman influences.

12. Moorish architecture is the articulated Islamic architecture of North Africa and parts of Spain and Portugal, where the Moors were dominant between 711 and 1492.

13. Chhajjas: A chhajja is the projecting or overhanging eaves or cover of a roof, usually supported on large carved brackets.

14. Circumambulatory: To walk or go about or around, especially ceremoniously.

15. Gnomonic Growth: The Gnomon, is a succession of increments of growth through time. The Gnomon is a primary feauture present in Hindu Temples are forms the underlying order which alters the size and distribution of structure and spaces.

62 63

The Great Indian Peninsula Railway The Great Indian Peninsula Railway, whose headquarters were at the Bori-Bunder in Mumbai (later, the Victoria Terminus, and presently the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus), was incorporated on 1 August 1849 by an act of the British Parliament. While the railroads helped connect different parts of India, a stark discrimination between the British luxury carriages and the over-occupied Indian carriages instigated revolt against the British government. The railroads contributed the first spark to the Independence Movement in India.

British Battleships at Victoria Dock

Victoria Docks, 1870

Coat of Arms, British East India Company

Bori-Bundar [First Indian Dock]

Mumbai Port Trust

British Imports in India

Bombay Port and Victoria Docks Bombay Port and Victoria Docks are currently in use under the same name as established by the East India Company in the late 19th Century. The geographic location of Bombay, along with strong trade routes to Europe, helped the East India Company establish imports and exports with the Bombay Providence. Later, the Company established a complete monopoly over trade to eventually annex Bombay Port from the Mughal Ruler of Bombay. The Bombay Port was renamed as Victoria Docks and helped the British Empire thrive during the Industrial Revolution in London.

64 65

Mahim-Bay

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CST

Eastern Districts

Bombay Mainland is isolated from its Northern and Eastern Districts.

Bombay Harbor [Victoria Docks]

CST Railway Station Bombay Port

Back-Bay

Bombay Port and Victoria Docks are located on the east-coast of Bombay Mainland.

Bombay Port [Alexandra Docks] aligns axially to the CST Railway Station.

Mumbai - Mainland and Eastern Districts Mumbai’s geographic location with neighboring districts helps its natural sea-cut harbor obtain a strategic location. The harbor is located towards the east side of the Mainland and is safe from military invasions while also providing a proximity to railroad tracks which connect the mainland to the eastern suburbs of Mumbai.

Harbo r

Coastli n

Roads

e

ads Railro

CST

N

Map shows the formal alignment between the railroad tracks, roads, buildings, coastline, and the harbor. The CST Terminus is not aligned to the harbor or the railroads.

Mumbai - Harbor and Railways Above, an investigation of the geographic location and alignment of the Harbor with regards to the Railway Station tries to find nodes of connection and formal similarities between the ordering of the port and railways.

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Open parking lot which is visually connected to the railway station and could house a large program and corresponding parking requirements.

Two adjacent buildings to the railway station provide a similar architectural style and direct connectivity to the station.

An existing park, adjacent to the railway station which could house a program and act as an oasis in the middle of the city.

The CST Railway station itself provides for a possible adaptive re-use or an architectural intervention.

Sites to Draw From A range of sites were studied in and around CST for a richness of historical context, connectivity to the city, and visual connection to the harbor. The sites were analyzed to distill relationships within immediate context.

on exit from CST Extensi

on (1980)

CST Extensi

trains

ntrance CST Main E

N

Selected Site CST itself is studied as a potential site for and an architectural intervention. The main exit of the new extension of CST completed in 1980 is most suitable to develop as it forms a direct connection to flow of trains and people. Moreover, the site will serve as a platform to experiment a program which will either accentuate the Colonial architecture of the Railway station or juxtapose a more contemporary architectural style against the Victorian-Gothic Architectural Artifact.

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ARTIFACT CHHATRAPATI SHIVAJI MAHARAJ TERMINUS [CST]

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, also known by its former name Victoria Terminus, is still a functional railway station today and serves as the headquarters of the Central Railways of India.

The station was designed by British engineer Frederick William Stevens in the 1870s in the style of Victorian Italianate Gothic Revival and named Victoria Terminus after the then reigning England’s Queen Victoria. The final design bears some resemblance to St. Pancras railway station in London. Victoria Terminus took ten years to complete, the longest for any building of that era in Bombay.

The new railway station was built to the south of the former Bori-Bunder railway station. Today, it is one of the busiest railway stations in India, serving as a terminal for both long-distance trains, suburban trains, and freight travel.

The Bori-Bunder railway station, in the Bori Bunder area of Bombay, was a prominent port and warehouse area known for its imports and exports. As Bombay became a major port city, a bigger station was built to meet increased demand.

St. Pancras Station, London, England

Artifact: Power and Resistance TThe station is a large government building built in an Indo-Saracenic architectural style which is seen not only in Mumbai, but all over India as an Imperial Architectural style symbolizing power and authority of the British Empire. Syntactically, the building follows a highly ordered Gothic style floor plan which is very centralized and axial. The use of masonry and arches bound by a rigid grid system and sub-axes makes the building feel heavy and dominating. A highly ordered and symmetrical front entrance of the building houses a courtyard garden and a sculpture of a lion which represents Great Britain. The station has always been an identifiable artifact, tied to the colonial Brits, and their occupational structured development of Bombay.

city of Mumbai in which modern development in the urban fabric tries to push back against the past. The east façade of the station has seen many crude renovations and adaptive-re-use projects, including an extension completed in 1980 which is very functional and pragmatic-devoid of any stylistic articulation and therefore juxtaposes itself against the British railway station.

The thesis challenges the CST as an artifact in the city of Mumbai and proposes a juxtaposition of the building with the physical city’s ordering system to grapple with the varying presence of British influence and an autonomous India.

Today the building stands as a vestige in a hybrid

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus - West facade

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus - East facade Extension [1980]

16. Refer map on pg. 67

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The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus as viewed from the west facade

1920 plaza between CST and the Mumbai Municipal Corporation Building

Trams and buses parked in front of the west side entrance.

“Local� - The train system used by Indians during the Independence movement.

Wrought iron, steel, and glass train shed bounds the railway platform.

The Mughal railway station platform during CST construction

The Victoria Terminus - 1920 The station is significant as an example of 19th-century railway architecture for its advanced structural and technical solutions.

Not only did CST use a high level of engineering, but is notable as a monument to British Political Power and as a symbol of an architectural prestige imprinted by the Brits onto India.

Pick-up and drop-off area outside the CST extension, completed in 2001.

South side of CST facing the former British hotel, now used as residential housing.

Traffic and bus entry

“Local� - the train system still used by Indians connecting Mumbai Mainland to the suburbs.

Wrought iron column details after renovation at CST

CST north facade as viewed during train approach

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus - Context [2019] Even today, the Railway Station experiences heavy traffic of both people and freight. Located in the lower half of Mumbai city, the station acts as a visual cue for incoming trains from the suburbs of Mumbai and the rest of India. It is the first mark of British Architecture influence as seen during the final approach into the city. The south side of the station is rich in British architecture, while the north side has seen recent modern development of towers and modular housing complexes.

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Visitors to the railway station are welcomed by two sculptures-- a lion representing Great Britain and a tiger representing India. The tiger sculpture was added by the Indian government post-independence.

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus - Entrance The building exhibits a fusion of influences as Victorian Italianate Gothic Revival architecture, Moorish Architecture, and Indian Hindu Temple styles. The columns of the entrance gates are crowned by figures of a lion (representing Great Britain) and a tiger (representing India).

Fusion of Indian and British Ornamnt

Venetial Gothic Architectural Detailing

Moorish [Islamic] Architectural Detailing

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus - Exterior Details The facade presents the appearance of rows of colonnettes and windows branching out from a central mass, resembling nuances of Gothic Revival Architecture. The turrets, pointed arches, and floral and faunal detailing are close to classical Indian palace architecture. Externally, the wood carving, tiles, ornamental iron and brass railings, grills for the ticket offices, the balustrades for the grand staircases, and other ornaments were the work of Indian artisans which introduced a flourish of Saracenic style for the building.

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The central atrium space shows arches with bands in a Moorish architecture style along with Indian detailing on windows.

The central staircase acts the primary mode of vertical circulation for the building.

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus - Central Atrium Space The main entrance of the railway station recieves visitors with a large central atrium crowned by a Moorish octagonal dome, which acts as the focal point. The atrium space holds a grand staircase which wraps around the atrium and connects various levels of the building. Finely articulated by both Indian detailing and British ornament, the staircase acts as the primary mode of vertical circulation for the building.

Moorish Octagonal Dome

Gothic Ribbed Vaults

Medieval Great Hall

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus - Interior The interior of the building was conceived as a series of large rooms with high ceilings. The ornamentation in the form of statuary, bas-reliefs, and friezes is exuberant, yet well controlled. The main structure is built from a blend of Indian sandstone and limestone, while denser, high-quality Italian marble is used for the key decorative elements. The interior space exhibits a strong sense of an Indo-Gothic style of architecture, formal aisles and wings have carvings and details of ornamentation inspired from the Indian Temples of the South.

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Drawing out proportions, symmetries, and relationships of immediate context by studying the South and West elevation concurrently with the multiple levels of floor plans.

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus - Architectural Analysis CST has a U-shaped plan, which is symmetrical along an east-west axis. All the elevations of the building are given equal value in the design. The side wings enclose a courtyard, which opens on to the street. In section, the building has three levels and a mezzanine.

West Elevation

South Elevation

North Elevation

Section

Level 01

Unfolding the Chhatrapati Shivaji Railway Terminus building reveals connections between the central axis, sub-axis, bilateral geometry, and proportions of celling heights across floors.

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Section shows iron and wood construction over massive masonry structure.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus – Material and Construction Details Wood, metal, marble, and brick [terracotta] form the structure of the massive railway station construction.

Arcuated Spans

Masonry Spans

Iron ornament and structure

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A PROGRAM TO DRAW FROM: BRITISH COLONIAL MUSEUM “Where function does not change, form does not change... form ever follows function. This is the law” – Louis Sullivan “It is a bit rich to oppress, enslave, kill and torture for 200 years and then celebrate the fact that they are democratic at the end of it” – Shashi Tharoor “Real museums are places where Time is transformed into Space” – Orhan Pamuk

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“A museum is a place where one should lose one’s head” - Renzo Piano

BRITISH COLONIAL MUSEUM The city of Mumbai has a strong history in developing an autonomous city after British occupation. Nevertheless, a strong historic presence of British Rule exists as it was one of the first places the East India Company established a port, and therefore convey British goods and influence to the interior parts of India. The Brits eventually established a monopoly over trade, and this was followed by totalitarian rule over the country.

The people of Mumbai, who have suffered the causes of the British Empire, now celebrate autonomy even while embracing the British institutions and using the same colonial buildings. Every Mumbaikar (the person of Mumbai) confronts British Rule daily as he travels through the railways and occupies government buildings built by the British.

The thesis aims to engage the historic significance of the British Legacy by deploying a British Colonial Museum inside the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus. The museum will facilitate the visitor to see the railway terminal and its adjacent colonial buildings with a new perspective. The museum will not only hold artifacts, but highlight the building as an artifact through juxtaposed interventions in and adjacent to the colonial building.

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Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Destruction of Indian Textile Industry

Bengal Famine

Industrialization of Britain = De-Industrialization of India

India - Pakistan Partition Military Executions

Public Hanging without trial

Worst Atrocities

Looting of Indian Resources

Moderate Effects

The British Rule in India The Colonial rule in India had severe implications, such as genocide and famines. However, the one hundred and ninety years of colonial rule also helped the country evolve to the competent and united nation it is today.

The Great Indian Peninsula Railway

Unity between regions - Common means of Transport

Reperation

Hindu League - Muslim League

Hindu - Muslim Tension Government System - Indian Parliament

Trade and Harbor

Beneficial Influences

The English Language

Colonialism Aftermath

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Selective events of the British rule in India Collage of notable events from the one-hundred-and-ninety-year British rule in India with prominent figures of those who helped India achieve independence through blood and acts of non-violence juxtaposed.

British Monopoly

Indian Independence Movement

East India Company and British Rule

India’s struggle for Independence

Independence + Partition

• • • • • • • • • • •

• Sepoy Mutiny • Indian Mutiny • Civil-Disobidence Movement • Non Co-operation Movement • Quit India Movement • Simon Commission • Satyagraha • Freedom Fighters

• India - Pakistan Partition • Congress Colition • Hindu League Muslim League • Looting of India • British Reperations • Construction of Colonial Buildings • Indian Parliament

Trade and Exports Harbor and Freight Shipping Artillery Guns Tanks Cannons Bengal Famine Jallianwala Bagh Mughal Emperors Killed Construction of Railroads

BRITISH SECTION OF MUSEUM

BRITISH-INDIAN SECTION OF MUSEUM

INDIAN SECTION OF MUSEUM

Extracting a Programmatic Organization The programmatic, internal organization of the Museum was discovered by dividing the history into two broad categories-- British Monopoly and the Indian Independence Movement. This division informed the development of the three primary halls of the museum.

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Stylistic Juxtaposition The programmatic distribution of the Colonial Museum addresses the British Rule in India and India’s struggle for independence. These two events in history are highlighted in the museum through use of architectural style, syntax, and details. As a result, the program required a detailed inquiry into the architectural style of Indian and Colonial Architecture.

The study considered three different scales-- the scale of the city, the scale of the railway station, and the scale of the human. Questions relating to syntax, ordering systems, circulation, material use, and structure were addressed simultaneously at each scale.

Site Orientation: The Chhatrapati Shivaji Railway station is located at a 5o rotation to the city grid. Today, the flow of people in and out of the station occurs at two primary locations. One path of circulation follows the old Victorian tracks, while the second follows newer tracks meeting the building at an angle which aligns to the city grid. This duality demands consideration of both orientations.

The site orientation comes to dominate the second level of the museum specifically, where visitors will take in the picturesque views of the city of Mumbai while aligned to the city grid.

Railway Station: The Colonial Railway station is an axial, symmetric, formally ordered building and its central axis aligns directly with the Mumbai Harbor. The interior of the railway station follows a rigid 23' x 23' major grid with a subaxial grid of 12' x 12'. The structural, arcuated spaces of the museum are bound by this incremental grid system.

However, an exterior, continuous balcony wraps around each floor of the museum and addresses an Indian mode of peripheral circulation. Manifestation of both types of circulation resulted in focused study of Indian architectural circulation pattern and Colonial axial circulation.

Stylistic Detailing: The Victorian train station, as well as current day Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, is a hybrid of British and Indian Architecture. Its architectural style is Neo-Gothic with local artisans implementing Indian calligraphy, ornamental detailing, and religious symbolism to articulate both the exterior facade and interior elements.

The existing juxtaposition of material usage and detailing resulted in a study into use of material and ornamental detailing relating to Colonial methods of construction as opposed to contemporary methods of construction.

Studying the orientation of the railway station with regards to its placement into the city of Mumbai

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Kailasa Temple, Ellora, India

Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar, India

Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho, India

The Kailasa Temple holds four spaces of worship placed on a sacred axis. However, the sizing of the spaces follows an incremental proportion (Gnomon) built around the centre of the temple.

The Lingaraja Temple holds 4 halls of worship, each dedicated to a specific deity. The halls are bound by a central axis, but the sizing of the halls, wall thickness, and column sizing is sequenced by a Gnomic system of measurement.

The Kandariya Temple showcases a central expansion of mass where a basic square is successively multiplied and placed on the periphery. A Gnomic methodology of multiplication orders the temple floor plan.

Indian: Gnomonic Growth The Gnomon is a succession of increments of growth through time. The Gnomon is a primary feature present in Hindu temples and forms the underlying order which alters the size and distribution of structure and spaces.

CST, Mumbai, India

Holocause Memorial, Berlin, Germany

National Holocaust Museum, Washington D.C

The arcuated first and second levels of the CST Mumbai Railways Station is bound by a 23' x 23' rigid grid system.

Holocaust Memorial built by Peter Eisenman is bound by a grid system, however the rectilinear stone masses create paths which make the visitor inhabit the grid lines.

The 4 towers of the National Holocaust Museum appear to be bound a major grid system as viewed from outside the museum, however the complexity present in the interior spaces reveals smaller subdivisions of the same grid.

Grid System Each grid consists of a elemental node and the module--the interstitial space of the grid. A module of a grid refers to the actual dimension between the elements bound by the grid, while the interstitial space refers to the depth of the element node itself. Colonial architecture follows a rigid grid system, where each structural element is bound by the grid.

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Stupa: Karli

Ajanta Cave Temple, Aurangabad, India

Krishna Temple, Satara, India

Buddhist Stupa, India

The Ajanta Temple has multiple rock-cut structural load members and an ambulatory movement around the central shrine: Karli.

The Krishna Temple in Satara holds a sacred tank in the center of the space which collects rainwater. Peripheral movement around the collected water signifies a religious ritual of worship.

The Buddhist Stupas in India have a heavy center mass which holds the shrine, while the circulation occurs on the circumference of the structure away from the central axis (axis mundi).

Indian: Circumambulatory Movement Circumambulation (def ) is the act of moving around a sacred object or idol. (OED) In Hindu temples, the temple structure reflects the symbolism of the Hindu association of the spirituality. Ambulatory passageways for circumambulation are present through which worshipers worship through movement in a clockwise direction around the deity enshrined.

Raj Path, Delhi, India

India Gate, Delhi, India

CST, Mumbai, India

Raj Path is a 3km long road constructed by the British Government in India and acts as a central axis which connects the Federal government buildings of India.

India Gate is a symbol of triumph placed by the Britishers on the Raj Path. The gate acts as a primary node on the linear artery road.

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus is a highly ordered building and its main entrance lies on its bi-lateral axis of symmetry.

Colonial: Axial Movement Axial movement may be defined as a linear, direct movement pattern situated in the direction of, on, or along an axis.

In Colonial architecture, the buildings and their respective placements reflect power and authority. Axial alignments and movements along a straight path or a line of symmetry have always been distinct features of Colonial architecture and Imperial rule around the globe.

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Town Housing, Blacksburg, VA

Castel Veccio Intervention, Vicenza, Italy

Documentation Center Nazi Party Rally Grounds, Nuremberg, Germany

The Town Housing is Blacksburg uses contemporary methods of construction, such a brick veneer and soldier blocks.

Carlo Scarpa uses load-bearing steel structure along with partition walls in the renovation of Castel Vecchio.

The Museum juxtaposes a steel truss structure across a column grid to create multiple visual orientations across the space.

Modern Building Methods Modern methods of construction showcase the use of non-load bearing facade material and non-load bearing partition walls. As well, modern buildings often support intersecting paths, where building materials can be juxtaposed.

CST, Mumbai, India

CST, Mumbai, India

Taj Hotel, Mumbai, India

CST Mumbai uses pure masonry brick as its primary method of construction.structure.

CST Mumbai uses load bearing walls and arches as its primary method of structure

The Taj Mahal Hotel uses orthogonal orientations across multiple levels.

Colonial Building Methods Colonial methods of construction showcase the use of load bearing structural material such as walls of masonry brick and stone. As well, colonial buildings often engage orthogonal orientations.

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Gnomonic growth, as seen in Indian temples, is juxtaposed by a regular grid system. The visitor is forced to inhabit the interstitial space of the grid to notice a strong order present in the space.

The drawing shows a single atrium space which allows both interior and exterior movement. The interior movement is very linear and axial, while the exterior movement follows a circumambulatory path.

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Investigations of architectural spaces relate program requirements with regard to India’s Independence movement.

Building materials were studied as the baseis on use of material and a sense of visual orientation. A concrete load bearing wall is oriented in two directions, while a longitudinal truss structure moderates the difference by juxtaposing itself along one direction of the concrete wall.

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Investigating Syntax and Program The sheet (24'' x 36'') holds studies of syntax as a tool to order the spatial conditions required for the organization of the multiple spaces required of a museum. Spaces such as exhibition wings, halls, and atrium spaces were studied relative to the British Colonization of India.

Three towers hold three distinct events of the British rule in India.

An entry sequence narrows onto the visitor, creating a sense of captivity.

A narrow walkway opens into a large atrium space creating a feeling of awe and sublimity.

Visual orientations are challenged as the visitor approaches the large atrium space.

Board-formed concrete meets concrete panels to showcase how a change in the spatial quality can be brought about by changing tectonic qualities

The heavy concrete mass of the atrium space is made lighter through pin-hole skylights.

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Investigating Syntax and Site Orientation The drawing sheet (24'' x 36'') focuses on different means by which to order the orientation of the colonial building relative to the site. The study allows inquiry into multiple spaces which will hold exhibits relating to India’s Independence.

Notable freedom fighters of the Indian Independence movement are identified.

A long walkway with delicate columns creates a feeling of lightness as the visitor ascends through the space.

The site is studied simultaneously relative to visual orientations and urban fabric.

A sharp light at the end of the staircase creates a space of contemplation as the visitor is reminded of sacrifices made by the Indians for Independence.

Multiple staircases branch out from a single point to amplify the British act of Divide and Rule.

The staircase creates visual connections to remind the visitor that India is united through its diversity.

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Investigating an Architectural Intervention: CST Railway Station Study of architectural interventions within the railway station reveal proposals and challenges of the existing building with regard to the extent of structural integrity, spatial conditions, and British colonial order.

The central dome of the CST railway station is renovated to install a glass dome and so bring ambient light into the interior of the building.

The modular grid system can act order interior spaces with varying structural dimensions and interior spatial qualities.

Non-load bearing walls can be installed to create distinct spaces which are bound by the same ordering system of the train station.

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MUSEUM HALLS AND CIRCULATION Museum:

Circulation:

The Colonial Museum’s structure interweaves into the Railway Terminal and extends outwards into the city of Mumbai. The physical engagement instills a sense that today, India is stronger due to its British history, while the autonomous extension into the city addresses the aftermath of colonial rule. The addition transitions the visitor to the contemporary city after re-visiting the British past relative to perspectives of India and its colonial history.

The circulation within the museum follows the historic timeline of the British Rule in India. The museum experience is divided in three exhibition spaces. Two of the spaces, a ‘Great British Entry Hall’ and ‘Hall of Colonial Expansion’, lie inside the train station, while the third exhibition space, a ‘Hall of Freedom’ straddles the exterior boundary of the colonial building.

The entrance to the Museum lies at the formal, bilateral entrance of the railway station. The visitor enters and encounters the museum in the ‘Great British Entry Hall’ of the railway station which is a large vertical space housing the colonial era staircase beneath the central dome.

The entrance space will house a large lobby with reception, coat storage, and small café. The colonial building itself will act as the artifact in this space.

The “Great British Entry Hall” transitions the visitor into a single hallway and forces the visitor to experience the structural grid of the colonial building. This Central Hallway branches out to smaller hallways which hold three ‘Towers of Remembrance’. The towers hold exhibits that identity three tragic atrocities carried out by the British rule in India. The end of the Central Hallway leads to a tower dedicated to the Indian freedom fighters and acts of non-violence carried out under Gandhi’s rule.

The strict walkways then open into a larger space, identified as a ‘Hall of Freedom’. This space has free-standing columns and no walls. A floor-to-ceiling curtain wall admits views of the city into the museum and orients the visitor to the contemporary city of Mumbai, yet this time with a different perspective.

Outdoor Plaza

HALL OF FREEDOM

Museum Cafe

TOWERS OF REMEMBRANCE HALL OF COLONIAL EXPANSION GREAT BRITISH ENTRY HALL

Tower of Independence

Museum Entrance

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GREAT BRITISH ENTRY HALL A visitor enters the Colonial Museum along an axial entrance sequence which aligns itself to the central line of symmetry of the British station. The visitor is welcomed by its colonial, monumental entrance and an atrium space with a central stair. This central atrium space serves as a reception area desk, with coatroom and small cafe.

The colonial building itself acts as the artifact in this space. Masonry construction is juxtaposed with highly articulated Venetian-Gothic arches, Moorish banding, and Indian floral ornamentation. A large lion sculpture sits at the base of the stairs and represents Great Britain.

The vertical space holds picture frames and photographs relating to some of the acclaimed leaders of India’s Independence movement along with notable British Viceroys and Commanders. A stair wraps around the central void and creates a feeling of containment at the entrance. The heavy masonry construction and tall atrium space prohibits light from penetrating to the bottom of the staircase—the room feels heavy and sublime.

The journey into the museum develops on the left side of the lobby with the first section, a ‘Hall of Colonial Expansion’, which holds exhibits relating to trade and colonization between India and Britain, such as ships, railroads, cannons, and artillery equipment.

Line of symmetry of CST

Viewpoint

Great British Entry Hall

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CST Level 01 Plan

Identifying Structural Walls

Atrium entrance

Atrium Entrance The central atrium space of the colonial building is studied for its structural and spatial qualities.

Tectonic elements present in the space were investigated concurrently with ornamental and stylistic detailing.

Extant structure of vertically stacked Moorish Arches

Natural and artificial light illuminate the atrium.

Red colored carpet guides the centralized movement along the staircase.

Great British Entry Hall

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The Great British Entry Hall The Great British Entry Hall serves as the primary encounter with the narrative of British rule in India, specifically the power and dominance of the colonial rule onto an autonomous Indian subcontinent.

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HALL OF COLONIAL EXPANSION Following the ‘Great British Entry Hall’, a visitor enters the primary exhibition gallery of the museum— the ‘Hall of Colonial Expansion.’

This hall holds exhibits of British colonization of India and India’s struggle for Independence within its centralized walkway with branching secondary paths. The new walkways appear elevated from the ground as they gently rest on beams and girders, autonomous from the extant floor and walls.

The colonial building still operates as an exhibit in this space; the visitor is forced to experience the structural grid of the British building. The visitor is forced to walk within the interstitial space of the existing grid, yet can diverge into smaller, circumambulatory paths.

The smaller hallways hold three ‘Towers of Remembrance’. The towers hold exhibits that identify three tragic atrocities carried out by the British rule in India. The end of the hallway leads to a tower dedicated to the Indian Freedom Fighters and acts of non-violence carried out under Gandhi.

This hall is a highly arcuated space with Moorish arches detailed with Indian floral ornamentation. The architectural intent of this space is to utilize contrast, juxtaposing concrete and steel framework and a modular system of construction to structural masonry walls. The use of aluminum and black-coated steel also creates a contrast against the yellow-brown masonry blocks. Hence, there exists a tension between the two periods of construction. The tension is also seen in the types of exhibits within this space, for example artillery equipment is juxtaposed with artifacts of independence.

Viewpoint

Hall of Colonial Expansion

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A section through one of the Towers of Remembrance shows a rectilinear volume juxtaposed against the British arcuated colonial station architecture.

One half of the exterior pitched roof is a glass skylight allowing light to penetrate deeper into the exhibition spaces below.

Exhibition Hall and Towers of Remembrance The Exhibition Hall houses exhibits of British Colonization of India such as artillery equipment, cannons, and artifacts relating to railroads and the harbor, as well as the three Towers of Remembrance which exhibit India’s struggle for Independence.

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A wooden truss assembly supports the gabled roof.

Metallic braces are used at moment and shear connections.

The masonry building limits light from penetrating into the deeper parts of the building. As a result, the station feels very heavy.

External walkways provide ambient lighting at the periphery of the railway station.

Existing Architecture of the Railway Station The existing architectural space of the railway station is developed relative to its tectonic and spatial qualities. Venetian and Indo-Saracenic ornamentation was studied, along with the structural language exhibited by the arcuated space.

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Existing Architecture of the Railway Station

An Architectural Intervention into the Railway Station Contemporary methods of construction are juxtaposed to the existing building, both challenging and supporting the former ordering systems of the British Railway Station architecture.

Hall of Colonial Expansion

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A delicate metallic truss structure is installed into the railway station where the structure is directed towards the central line of symmetry of the building. This helps reinforce the axial order present in the station.

Interior glazing is installed in the atrium spaces to create a visual connection across multiple levels of the building.

Veneer brick is juxtaposed against brick masonry units to create a dichotomy between structure and architectural styles.

The interior glazing installed is supported by mullion detailing which form a cross.

Intervention Details The architectural intervention challenges the railway station’s tectonic and stylistic approaches.

The intervention addresses India’s struggle for independence, but also highlights the contextual engagement of the museum with the contemporary city of Mumbai.

Hall of Colonial Expansion

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Concrete panels are used on the exterior shell of the tower to contrast the masonry building.

The three Towers of Remembrance are placed axially to each other. While each tower is located along this central axis, walkways guide one along a circumambulatory route.

The towers girders are connected with beams and thus appear lifted off the ground and lighter.

Tower of Remembrance The tower holds an exhibit of one of the harsh atrocities carried out by the British Rule in India.

The act of public hanging without a trial is presented. The visitor circulates around a glass box in a circumambulatory, clockwise direction. The glass box acts as a central focus point and holds hanging ropes used by the Britishers in their atrocious acts of public execution.

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Hall of Colonial Expansion The central walkway aligns itself to the structural grid of the colonial building and branches out into sub-axes. The concrete tower is a node on the central walkway.

Exhibits are placed within the module of the structural grid of the museum. Since the hallways direct the movement in the space, a visitor interacts with the artifacts from a distance.

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HALL OF FREEDOM The Hall of Freedom is the last section of the museum and holds artifacts of the Indian Independence movement. The Hall is as extension of the Museum into the city of Mumbai and addresses the aftermath of the British Rule in India.

The hall contrasts the British colonial building. It opens visually to the immediate context of city of Mumbai through a floor to ceiling curtain wall as wekk as a rainscreen with Indian embroidery which filters the light into the exhibition space.

The columns follow the same grid dimensions as the arches in the CST station, but have an Indian Order based on Gnomic growth.

The open floor plan allows the visitor freedom of movement. This contrasts with the strict circulation patterns dictated within the railway station’s heavy masonry walls and arcuated spaces.

The hall uniquely juxtaposes itself with the railway station. The interior spatial qualities of the exhibition space, with free standing columns, is visually superimposed against British masonry construction, while on the exterior, the glass box with its delicate curtain wall contrasts with the heavy masonry railway station.

Hall of Freedom

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A curtain wall with Indian ornamentation helps filter the city of Mumbai into the exhibition space.

An elevated walkway on the second level of the colonial museum creates a place to view the museum extension.

The glass curtain wall sits flush against the masonry brick construction of the colonial building.

Museum Extension The museum is extended outward, into the city of Mumbai, to help the visitor gain a new perspective when viewing the city after experiencing the Colonial Museum.

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Column as Order Order and syntax are manifested in a building detail. A column derives its dimensions and detailing from Hindu temple proportions and supports the idea of a hybrid of multiple eras.

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Indian Gnomonic growth is investigated through a series of studies examined in both plan and elevation.

Fractal geometry is studied through diagrams using pure geometric shapes and mathematical formulations (algorithms).

Column Assemblage The column derives its principle structure from both Gnomonic growth and fractal growth patterns. The column tapers in dimension from its foundation to the ceiling which exposes both the column’s structural integrity and spatial characteristic.

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Column Detailing The column detailing is derived from Hindu and Buddhist temple columns. Their floral and faunal articulation, juxtaposed with sculptures of deities and idols, were used to study ornamentation. The spacing between the multiple layers of ornamentation was used to determine materiality, and different structural increments in the new Indian Order.

Grain Warehouse. Altdorf, Switzerland

Column Spacing and Sizing Study The column spacing is both syntactical and structural. The columns space out as they move away from the railway station and use a Gnomonic proportion pattern in increasing size. The larger size therefore allows the columns to be placed further apart.

Hall of Freedom

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Indian Gnomonic Growth

Museum Extension The ‘Hall of Freedom’ is extended out into the city of Mumbai and follows the same grid spacing as the CST interior walls.

The continuation of the grid addresses the effects of the Colonial aftermath after Independence

Hall of Freedom

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12'

12'

12'

12'

12'

24'

24'

36'

Hall of Freedom The ‘Hall of Freedom’ holds artifacts of the Freedom movement of India. In this space, the visitor encounters both the city of Mumbai and the colonial building simultaneously. The space also showcases the new Indian Order columns.

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Colonial Entrance

Hall of British Colonization

Tower of Remembrance

Hall of Freedom

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APPENDICES

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Text References Burke, Edmund. Burkes Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful: with an Introductory Discourse Concerning Taste. W. & J. Neal, 1833.

Eisenman, Peter, and Matt Roman. Palladio Virtuel. Yale University Press, 2016.

Eisenman, Peter, and Ariane Lourie. Ten Canonical Buildings: 1950-2000. Rizzoli, 2008.

Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: a Critical History. Thames & Hudson, 2016.

Frank, Suzanne Shulof., and Peter Eisenman. Peter Eisenmans House VI: a Clients Response.

Whitney Library of Design.

Gregotti, Vittorio. Inside Architecture. NetLibrary, Inc., 1999.

Jiwani, Subuhi, and Kishan Dev. Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus: Travelling through Time. Mapin Publishing, 2018.

Juracek, Judy A. Architectural Surfaces: Details for Architects, Designers and Artists. Thames & Hudson, 2005.

Koolhaas, Rem. Delirious New York. Monacelli Press, 1994.

Kruft, Hanno-Walter, and Ronald Taylor. A History of Architectural Theory: from Vitruvius to the Present. Princeton Architectural Press, 2014.

London, Mark. Masonry ; How to Care for Old and Historic Brick and Stone. Preservation, 1988.

Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Genius Loci: towards Phenomenology of Architecture. Academy, 1980.

Pallasmaa, Juhani, and Steven Holl. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. John WileySon Ltd, 2009.

Picon, Antoine. Architecture and the Virtual: Towards a New Materiality. Praxis.

Picture Mumbai. Getty Conservation Institute, 1997.

Placzek, Adolf K. Andrea Palladio: the Four Books of Architecture. Dover Publications, 1965.

Tschumi, Bernard. Architecture And Disjunction. The MIT Press, 2001.

Venturi, Robert. Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture: Robert Venturi. Architectural Press/ Museum of Modern Art, 1977.

World Heritage, UNESCO. “Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus: World Heritage Scanned Nomination.�

7 July 2004.

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Image References (Image listed by page number)

23) Raj Path, Delhi, India, Online 23) Typical Indian Temple Plan, Online 25) Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus Photograph, Online 29) Palladio Villa Plan Drawing, Online 29) Trenton Bath House, Louis Kahn, Online 29) 7 Houses, John Hejduk, Online 29) Palladio Villa Plan Diagram, Rudolph Wittkower 29) Art, Davide Trabucco, Online 29) House VI Oblique Projection, Peter Eisenman, Online 31) La Rotunda Plan Drawing, Andrea Palladio, Online 31) Adler House Plan Drawing, Louis Kahn, Online 33) House VI Oblique Projections, Peter Eisenman, Online 33) House VI Interior Photos, Peter Eisenman, Online 34) Transformational Diagrams, Peter Eisenman, Online 35) Villa Savoye Oblique Drawings, Le Corbusier, Online 35) Ville Savoye, Plan Diagram, Le Corbusier, Online 43) Mané Garrincha Stadium, Brazil, Online 44) Berlin Krematorium Plan, Online 45) Palazzo Chiericati Elevation and Plan Drawing, Online 46) Palazzo Chiericati Photograph, Online 46) Queen House, England, Inigo Jones, Online 47) Wexner Center Interior, Peter Eisenman, Online 59) CST Mumbai, Extension (1980) Aerial Photograph, Online 61) Map: 7 Islands of Bombay, Online 61) Map: Map of Bombay Presidency, Online 61) Map: Map of Mumbai in 1900, Online 61) Bori Bunder Railway Station, Online 61) Map: Fort Area, Bombay, Online 62) Map: India after Partition, Online 62) Map: Western region of India, Online 62) Map: Mumbai Mainland, Online 64) University of Mumbai and Clock Tower, Online 64) Mumbai High Court, Online 65) Mumbai Municipality Building, Online 65) Taj Mahal Hotel, Mumbai, Online 65) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, Mumbai, Online 69) Aerial Photograph of CST and Mumbai Port, Online 70) Google Earth Photograph of Mumbai, Online 70) Fort Area of Mumbai – Aerial: Images (04) , Online 74) CST Mumbai: Aerial, Online 74) CST Mumbai, Interior, Online

74) CST Mumbai, Train Platform, Online 74) CST Mumbai, Pedestrian View (4), Online 78) CST Mumbai, Interior Shot, Online 79) CST Mumbai, Interior Shots (9) Online 81) CST Mumbai, Architectural Drawings (8), Text 82) CST Mumbai, Architectural Drawings (8), Text 83) CST Mumbai, Architectural Detail Drawings (8), Text 88) Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Online 88) Bengal Famine, Online 98) Tied to Cannons, Online 88) Publicly Hanged without Trial, Online 88) Destroying Indian Textile Industry, Online 88) Industrialization in England, Online 88) Map: India – Pakistan Partition 88) Looting of India 89) The Great Indian peninsula Railway, Online 89) Unity between regions – Common means of Transport, Online 89) Government System, Indian Parliament 89) Trade and Harbor 89) Reparation 89) Hindu League – Muslim League 89) The English Language 102) Kailasa Temple Plan Drawing, Online 102) Lingaraja Temple Plan Drawing, Online 102) Kandariya Mahadev Temple Plan Drawing, Online 102) CST Mumbai Plan Plan Drawing, Online 102) National Holocause Museum Plan Drawing, Online 104) Ajanta Cave Temple Plan, Online 104) Krishna Temple Plan, Online 104) Buddhist Stupa, Online 104) India Gate, Online 106) German Rally Ground Museum, Online 106) Taj Mahal Hotel Interior, Online

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ORDER & ARTIFACT

Thesis Documentation Atharva Ranade May 2019 Thesis Advisor: Hilary Bryon Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University College of Architecture and Urban Studies School of Architecture + Design

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