ChartingthePotentialofLandscape UrbanisminDubai
JULIANBOLLETER
TheAustralianUrbanDesignResearchCentre,TheUniversityofWesternAustralia,Perth,Australia
ABSTRACT LandscapeUrbanismhasbeen,todate,atheoryemergingprimarilyfromthe Westernworld.ThispapercounterstheWesternfocusbyexploringthepotentialofLandscape UrbanismtheoryinDubai.Inapreviousarticlepublishedbytheauthor,landscapearchitecture inDubaihasbeenidentifiedasdivergingfromthetenetsofthevariouschartersofthe InternationalFederationofLandscapeArchitects(IFLA),havingapparentlyscantregardfor pressingecological,socialandculturaldesignissues.LandscapeUrbanisminthispaperis discussedwithrespecttoitsabilitytobolsterthepracticeoflandscapearchitectureinDubaiin relationtotheseissues.ThepaperarguesthatanumberofkeyfacetsofLandscapeUrbanism appeardifficulttoreconcilewiththeecological,socialandculturalconditionsofDubai.Further tothis,ittendstolackthetoolsbywhichlandscapeurbanistsinDubaicouldlinktheorywith practice.
KEY WORDS:LandscapeUrbanism,landscapearchitecture,Dubai
Introduction
LandscapeUrbanism,todate,hasbeenatheorythathasemergedfromtheUnitedStates andtoalesserdegree,EuropeandAustralia.Infact,mostofthekeyauthorswhohave beenassociatedwiththeconversationregardingLandscapeUrbanismhailfromthe nexusoftheUniversityofPennsylvaniaandHarvard,whichareconsideredbysomeas the “intellectualtwinpeaksoflandscapearchitecture” (Thompson, 2011,p.8).
GivenLandscapeUrbanismisenteringits “middleage” (Waldheim, 2010),itis timelytoaskhowLandscapeUrbanismtheorymaybeappliedinregionsoutsideof NorthAmerica(Thompson, 2011,p.8),whicharemarkedlydifferentinmorphological, social,culturalandecologicalterms.Indeed,thespecificconditionstowhichLandscape Urbanism firstarose,thatis,de-industrialisationandde-populationofthecitycore (Thompson, 2011,p.23),areinstarkcontrasttoDubai’slargelynon-existentindustrial baseandrapidpopulationgrowth.
TheapplicationofLandscapeUrbanismoutsideofNorthAmericahasbeen initiatedviatheresearchofKellyShannon(2008),whichfocusesattentionon urbanisationinthewaterylandscapesofVietnam,thepraxisofLandscapeUrbanism theoreticianJamesCornerviahiscommercialofficeFieldOperationsinQianhai,
CorrespondenceAddress:JulianBolleter,TheAustralianUrbanDesignResearchCentre,TheUniversityof WesternAustralia,Perth,Australia.Email: julian.bolleter@uwa.edu.au
©2015LandscapeResearchGroupLtd
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China(Bull,Weller,&Bolleter, 2013,p.62),andtoadegreeviaprojectsbeing conductedbystudentsoftheArchitecturalAssociationLandscapeUrbanism programme(2013)intheMiddleEastandAsia.Theauthorendeavourstofurther thisprocessbyexploringthepotentialofLandscapeUrbanismtobolsterthe practiceoflandscapearchitecturalpracticeinDubaiintheUnitedArabEmirates.
DubaihasbeenchosenasacasestudybecauseLandscapeUrbanismisyettobe appliedineithertheoreticalorpracticaltermsintheMiddleEast.Also,Dubaiisoften thereferencepointbywhichthedevelopmentofotherMiddleEasterncities, particularlyintheArabianGulfregion,ischarted elementsofDubai’sdevelopment eitherbeingcopiedorusedasanexampleofwhatistobeavoided(Abaza, 2011).Ata largerscale,RemKoolhaaspointstotheArabianGulfitselfasbeingthemodelfor developmentintheregion:
TheGulfisnotjustreconfiguringitself;it’sreconfiguringtheworld.TheGulf ’s entrepreneursarereachingplacesthatmodernityhasnotreachedbefore … Perhaps themostcompellingreasontotaketheGulfseriouslyisthatitsemergingmodel ofthecityisbeingmultipliedinavastzoneofreducedarchitecturalvisibilitythat rangesfromMoroccointheWest,thenviaTurkeyandAzerbaijantoChinainthe East.(Koolhaas, 2007,p.7)
Furthertothis,gargantuandevelopmentcompanies,controlledbyDubai’srulers,such asEmaarandDubaiHoldings,areexporting “Dubaimodels” ofurbandevelopmentto China,Jordan,Tunisia,Morocco,Syria,Turkey,EgyptandSaudiArabia,among others.
TheauthorhasarguedinapreviouspaperthatDubailandscapearchitecturehas divergedfromIFLA’svariouschartersconcerningbiodiversityprotection,socialequity andresponsivenesstolocalculture(Bolleter, 2009,p.28),andisarguablyinastateof crisis.ThiscrisiswhenreplicatedatthescalethatKoolhaasrefersisofseriousconcern. Inthelightofthissituation,thispaperwilltestthehypothesisthatLandscapeUrbanism theorycanaidDubailandscapearchitectureindealingwiththevariousecological,social andculturalcrisesitfaces.Thishypothesisisactivatedbyaresearchquestion:
WhatcanLandscapeUrbanismtheorycontributetothepracticeoflandscape architectureinDubaisoastobolsteritsethosofsupportingbiodiversity,social equityandintegration,andrespondingtolocalculture?
Therelatedsubresearchquestionforthepaperis:
WhatstrengthsandweaknessesinLandscapeUrbanismtheoryarerevealedwhen itisappliedtothepracticeoflandscapearchitectureinDubai?
LandscapeUrbanismproponentJamesCornerclaimsthatLandscapeUrbanismoffers someofthemostcompellingfuturedirectionsforthe “advancementofamoresocially just,politicallyemancipatingandecologicallysanemixofspatiotemporalproduction processes” inaworldgoneawry(Corner, 2003,p.62).Thispaperwilltesttheveracity ofthisclaimintheDubaicontext.
ThepotentialofLandscapeUrbanisminthisrespectwillbeexploredinrelationtoa numberofkeytenetsofparticularrelevancetopotentiallybolsteringlandscape architecture’sethosofecologicalsustainability,socialequityandculturalresponsiveness (Bolleter, 2009)inDubai.Thetenetstobeexploredinthispaperare:
(1)LandscapeUrbanismrejectsthebinaryoppositionbetweennatureandculture (Thompson, 2011,p.9)(or)LandscapeUrbanismaimstodirectlyengagethecity asahybridecology(Thompson, 2011;Weller, 2006b).Thiswillbediscussedin relationtoitsabilitytobolsterlandscapearchitecturalpracticetosupport biodiversityinDubai.
(2)LandscapeUrbanismislessconcernedwithwhatthingslooklike,andmorewith whattheydo(Thompson, 2011,p.12).Thiswillbediscussedinrelationtoits abilitytobolsterlandscapearchitecturalpracticetosupportsocialequityand integrationinDubai.
(3)LandscapeUrbanismprivilegesanobjectiveunderstandingofsiteforces,notthe designer ’ssubjectivity(Weller, 2006b,p.67).Thiswillbediscussedinrelationto itsabilitytobolsterlandscapearchitecturalpracticetobemoreresponsivetolocal culture.
WhileLandscapeUrbanismhasothertenetstheserelatelessdirectlytothe ecological,socialandculturalethosoflandscapearchitectureandhence,forthesakeof brevity,havebeenomittedfromthispaper.
Thepaperwillmakereferencetoanumberoftermsthatrequireclarification.
“Orthodoxlandscapearchitecture” willbeusedtorefertothetypicalcommercial practiceoflandscapearchitectureintheWesternworldinthelatecapitalistperiod. “Dubailandscapearchitecture” willbeusedtorefertothecommercialpracticeof landscapearchitectureinDubaibyeitherlandscapearchitecturalcompaniesbasedin Dubaiorthosefromremotelocations.AhypotheticallandscapearchitectinDubai aspiringtoapplyLandscapeUrbanismtheorytopracticewillbereferredtoasaDubai landscapeurbanist.
EcologicalCrisis
DubaiissituatedatthenortherntipoftheRubalKhaliDesert,adesertwhichcovers about600,000km2 ofSouthernArabia(Guba&Glennie, 1998,p.57).Thecityhas beenbuiltoveracoastal sabkha (saltmarsh)whichtypicallyoccursintheintertidal areasbetweentheRubalKhaliDesertandtheArabianGulftothewest(Kurschner, 1998,p.64).Conceptionsofwhatactuallyconstitutesnatureandculture,inDubai’s hyper-aridenvironment,tendtobeconfused.Indeed,thehighlyartificiallandscapethat typicallyswathesDubai’sdevelopments,andformsthebackdropoftheDubai MunicipalityParksystem,oftenisequatedwithnaturedespiteithavingalmostnoreal ecologicalvalue(Doherty, 2008)(Figure 1).DescribedelsewherebytheauthorasParaScape(2009),thereisconsiderableacademicandanecdotalevidencetosuggestthatthe continuingdeploymentofthisverdantlandscapetradesonareadingof “verdant landscape” asasymbolicrecreationoftheIslamicParadise(Bolleter, 2009;Ouis, 2002, p.339).ThepotencyoftheimageofparadiseinIslamiccultureis,inpart,duetothe
Figure1. Thelush,pastoralandhighlyartificiallandscapeofZabeelPark. PhotocourtesyofCracknellLandscapeArchitecture.
factthatthedescriptionsofthegardenofParadiseareheldupassomethingnotonlyto aspiretointheafterlife,butalsoassomethingtorecreatehereonearth(Brookes, 1987,p.21).Theresultantsituationwherebygreenverdurebecomesassociatedwith paradiseandhenceforthisnaturalisedtendstotypecastthedesertand sabkha,Dubai’s indigenousecology,asa tabularasa
Thisconceptualisationappearstohavebeeninstrumentalintherelativefailureof McHargianecologicalplanningmethodsinDubai.The StructurePlanfortheDubai UrbanArea1993–2012,wasstructuredbyan,albeitsuperficial,McHargianmapping of “importantbiologicalareas” requiringconservation(ParsonsHarlandBartholomew, 1995).Despitethis,rampanturbandevelopmentinDubaisince1993hasseenthese areaspartlydestroyed(Figure 2).Theseimportantbiologicalareasincludedterrestrial habitatintheformof “opendesertwoodland” whichextendseastofDubai’surbanised area(Figure 3).Thislandscapecontainsspeciessuchasthedeserthare,gazelles,oryx, foxesandfalcons(DavidGallacher, 2007).Otherimportantbiologicalareasidentified included sabkha areas(DubaiMunicipality, 2003).
Theauthorhasarguedelsewherethatthepartialdestructionoftheseimportant biologicalareasisbecausetheselandscapeshavenotbeenassignedanyvalueas naturalsystemsduetotheirhyper-aridandsparselyvegetatednature(Bolleter, 2009, p.37),andassuchhaveprovidedlittleresistancetodevelopment.Aesthetically,the vast,hyper-aridRubalKhaliDesertandthedesiccatedsalt-encrustedsandsofcoastal sabkha donotalignautomaticallywithatypicalMcHargianconstructionofwilderness
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LandscapeUrbanisminDubai 5
Figure2. Theimportant ‘biologicalzones’ identifiedbyParsonsHarlandBartholomewin1993 havebeensignificantlyaffectedbydevelopment.
asnature.Indeed,desertlandscapesoftheArabianPeninsulahavebeenassociated historicallywithsavagery,hardshipsanddeprivationsandtheecologicalvalueofthese landscapesisnotimmediatelyapparenttotheuntrainedeye.
ThePotentialofLandscapeUrbanismtoSupportBiodiversityinDubai
TheLandscapeUrbanismCity
Theshiftinperceptionofthecityasconstitutinglandscape(OfficeforMetropolitan Architecture,Koolhaas,&Mau, 1995,p.835),whichunderpinsLandscapeUrbanism’s claimsforanexpandedsphereofinfluence,reflectsthechangingnatureofcitiesover thecourseofthetwentiethcentury.Thecitymodel,ofwhichLandscapeUrbanism theoryisaproduct,istypicallythatofa first-world,latetwentieth,earlytwenty- first centuryglobalmetropolisinwhichthe “traditionalnotionofthecity hasbeen largelyreplacedbyamorepolycentricandweblikesprawl” (Wall, 1999,p.234).
Itisinthiscontextthat,itisargued,traditionalbinarynotionsofacityandits landscapecanbereconceptualisedandengagedasaformof “hybridisedchaotic ecology”1 (Weller, 2008,p.248).WhileLandscapeUrbanismtheoryidentifiesa blurringofthetraditionalbinarycouplingofacityanditslandscape,italsoentailsa collapseofthegrand,polarisednarrativesofnatureandcultureimpliedbyMcHarg’s environmentalplanningpractice(Thompson, 2011,p.9;Waldheim, 2002,p.12)and modernityingeneral.
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Figure3. SparselyvegetatedGhafwoodlandonDubai’sdesertfringes.
TheproblemthatLandscapeUrbanismtheoryidentifieswithabinarycouplingof natureandcultureisthatlandscapearchitecturetendsasaresulttoberelegatedto beingthepassive,subjugatedpart(Weller, 2006b,p.67).Furthertothisthenotion of fixedphysicalboundariesbetween “natural” wildernessareasand “cultural” urban areasisregardedasbeingultimatelydetrimentalinecologicalterms.Contemporary ecologicalsciencereliesonamorecomplexunderstandingofagivensiteasbeing partofanexpandedsystemthatreceivesandprovidesmatter,energyandorganisms bothtoandfromnearby,aswellasremotelocations(Pulliam&Johnson, 2002, p.54).
ThePotentialofaModeloftheCityasHybridisedEcologyinDubai LandscapeUrbanism’smodelof “hybridisedecology” (Weller, 2008,p.248)canbe consideredbothinrelationtoitspotentialtoaidintheconservationofremnant biodiversity,andforthepotentialcreationofnew “hybridised” ecologicalsystems. CertainlyinDubaiitsgreatestpotentialwouldseemtorelatetothelatter.AsWeller describes, “Inamodelwherenatureandculturearehybridised,andnatureisnotan absolutetobeprotected,landscapearchitectureispotentiallyabletodevelopamore creativerelationshipwithecology” (Weller, 2007).Thisshiftfromconservationto creativepropositionwouldappeartohavesignificanceinDubaigiventhatmanyofthe
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importantbiologicalareaswithinDubai’smetropolitanareahavebeensignificantly affectedbydevelopment(Bolleter, 2009,p.37).Assuch,theseareasarguablynow needtobereconstructed,notreserved.
However,theproblemforalandscapeurbanistinDubaikeentopursueamodelof “hybridisedecology” iswhatthisecologyactuallyis.CertainlyCorner ’sevocativebut ambiguousdescriptionsofthe “lyricalplaybetweennectarandNutrasweet,between birdsongandBeastieBoys,betweenthespringtime floodsurgeanddripoftapwater, betweenmossyheathsandhotasphalticsurfaces …” (Corner, 2006)donotprovide muchinthewayofdirectguidanceforthepractitioner.ForsomeLandscapeUrbanism projects,thehybridisingofnaturalandculturalsystemsamountstothestructuringof urbanareasinrelationtohydrologicalsystems.ThistendencycanbeseeninJames CornerFieldOperations’“QuinhaiWaterCity” project(Bulletal., 2013),Richard Weller ’s “WungongUrbanWater” project(Weller, 2008)reflectingwhatcriticsof LandscapeUrbanismrefertoasthe “hydrologicalprivilege ” (Duany&Talen, 2013, p.7).WhileDubaidoesexperience floodingthisislargelyduetodrains fillingupwith sandintheextendedperiodsbetweensignificantrainfallevents.Thisaside,given Dubai’sextremelyaridclimatehydrologycannotbethestandinfor “nature” ina modelofhybridisedecology.IncontrasttothetemperateclimesfromwhichLandscape Urbanismtheoryemerged,naturalsystemsofvegetationinDubaiarealsoverysparse andarenoteasilyinterwovenwithurbandevelopmentasahybridisedecologycity modelwouldseemtopropose.Toputthisinperspective,intheAlMahadesertreserve whichislooselycomparablewithnaturalconditions,indigenousgazellesandoryx occurattheverylowdensitieswithoneanimalper13Hectaresand11Hectares, respectively(Gallacher&Hill, 2007,p.856).Giventhisscarcityofbothfaunaand flora,itisdifficulttopicturehowDubai’sdesertlandscapecouldbehybridisedwithan urbansetting thedesertlandscaperequiringsuchbroadareastocontainasignificant diversityandrichnessofspecies.Thisquestionofcoursegoestoecologicalscience,a fieldwhichispoorlydevelopedinDubai.AsecologistDr.MikeWellsanswered regardingaqueryaboutsourcingliteratureondesigninginrelationtoDubai’sfragile ecology, “ThereisnotmuchpublishedonthisifanythingspecifictotheMiddleEast andthebookneedswriting” (Wells, 2008).
LandscapeUrbanismproponentssuchasRichardWellerconcedesthedifficultyof thisprocessofhybridisation:
Inpracticeitishardtoreconciletheland’secologicalsystemswithsuburban(or urban)systems.Thereasonforthisisfundamental;ecologicalsystemsareorganic andboundlesswhereassuburbansystemsaremechanistic;ecologicalsystemsare radicallysitespecificwhereassuburbansystemsarestandardisedandgeneric. (Weller, 2008,p.254)
Thischallenge,whichisnotinsignificantinmoretemperateclimes,becomes particularlydifficultinDubaiwherethenaturalsystemsarenotheavilyvegetatedor “wet” enoughtoprovideenoughresistancetostructureurbanform.
Ofcoursea “negotiated” landscape,whichsynthesisesthehyper-ariddesert landscapeandtheverdantartificialityofPara-Scape,couldbemorecloselyentwined withDubai’surbanformasperamodelof “hybridecology”.However,thisnegotiated
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landscapeisunlikelytosupportlocalbiodiversity,reflectingthedifficultyoforganisms tradingonehabitatforanother(Marsh, 2005,p.380).Unlikehumans,whohaveawide rangeofhabitatversatility,mostorganismsdisplacedfromonehabitatcannotsimply takeuplifeinanother(Marsh, 2005,p.380).ThisiscertainlythecaseinDubaiwhere manyofverdantgreenspaceshavelittlebiodiversityvaluebecausetheyactively conflictwithindigenousecosystems,disruptingthenativedeserthabitatswithforeign andecologicallysterilespecies(Doherty, 2008,p.106).Whiletheideaofthedesignof urbandistrictsinrelationtolowbiodiversitygreenspaceisnotinitselfproblematicit wouldappeartoruncountertoLandscapeUrbanism’spropositionthatthehorizontal flowsanddynamicprocessesofecologyshouldinform “thedesignoflarge-scaleurban settings ” (Yang, 2013,p.265).
LandscapeUrbanism’smodelof “hybridisedecology” isalsopotentiallyproblematic foraDubailandscapeurbanisttryingtoemployittostructureanargumentforthe protectionofexistingbiodiversity.Wellerquiterightlyworriesthatby “forsakingpure natureasasiteofresistance” LandscapeUrbanismisinturnproneto “complicity” in thedestructionofnaturalareas(Weller, 2006b,p.67).Indeed,LandscapeUrbanism’s “naturalisationofthecontemporarycity” isconcerningbecauseit “confersacertain inevitabilityuponitsgrowth,whichinturncanseemtojustifyitsrampantand destructivespread” (Weller, 2008,p.249).Thepropositionof “hybridisedecology” asa meansofprotectingremnantecologiesintheDubaicontext,wheremassiveamountsof liquidcapitalisturnedalmostinstantlyintohighvalueconcreteproperty(Basar, 2007b) seemsdangeroustosaytheleast.Ifhistoricallytheclearspatialdelineationof McHargianplanningwasnotabletoprotect “importantbiologicalareas” fromDubai’s deregulateddevelopmentindustry,thenitisdoubtfulwhetherblurredconceptionsof natureandculturewillpreventfurthertransgressions.WhileLandscapeUrbanism theory,byextension,mayidentifyaclearlydelineatededgebetweenDubai’s “nature” and “culture” asnotadequatelydefiningitstruecomplexity,opennessand unpredictabilityofecologicalrelationships,itatleastprovidesalandscapeurbanistin Dubaiapersuasivetooltoengagewiththedevelopmentindustryandrulers.
Whilethenotionofa “hybridisedecology” modelisproblematicinpurelylandscape terms,thepresumptioninLandscapeUrbanismtheoryisthatthehybridisedecologycity modelwouldalsoprovidedesigncluesaboutthedesignofurbanismandinfrastructure. Indeed,LandscapeUrbanismclaimsthatlandscapeistheprimaryelementofurbanorder (Waldheim, 2002,p.14)andthatLandscapeUrbanismincludeswithinthe “purviewof designallthatisinthelandscape-infrastructureandbuildings” (Weller, 2006b,p.67). ButhowdoesDubai’sindigenousdesertlandscapedirectalandscapeurbanistinterms ofthedesignofbuildingsorinfrastructure?Whilearguablytheoverallcompositionof urbandistrictsshouldberesponsivetoDubai’ssubtleshiftsintopographyandsparse existingvegetation,thisprocessismoreabouttellingthedesignerwhereyoushouldnot build,notwhatyouactuallyshouldbuild;andisinthissenseMcHargian.Thus,the aspiringlandscapeurbanistinDubaimustresorttothetraditionaldeterminantsofurban formsuchasclimate,economics,culture,etc.Thisinitselfisnotnecessarily problematic;itisjusttheusefulnessoftheindigenouslandscapeingeneratingurban formismarginalatbest.2 Thus,whileLandscapeUrbanismclaimsthecityandits landscapesas “hybridecology”,andthuspartofitsdisciplinaryterritory,Landscape Urbanismdoesnotnecessarilyprovidethedisciplinespecifictoolsbywhichanaspiring Dubailandscapeurbanistcanengagewiththedesignofurbanismorinfrastructure.
The “hybridisedecology” citymodelproposedbyLandscapeUrbanismalsoreflects opennessandunpredictabilityofecologicalsystemsintime(Weller, 2008,p.249); ecologybeingthemodelfromwhichLandscapeUrbanism’sprinciplesof “indeterminacyandopen-endedness” emerge(Corner, 2003,p.59).Again,whilethis mayreflectthetruenatureofecologicalsystems,itsitsincontrasttotheactualpractice ofdevelopmentinDubai.AsBasardescribestherulingtribalfamilybelievethe “minds ofaselectfewshouldmapnationalvisionsforthemany.Oncedecidedupon,plansfor thefuturearemobilisedalmostinstantlyintodirectaction” (Basar, 2007a,p.92).Itis withinthiscontextthatalandscapeurbanistinDubaiwouldstruggletoarticulateto clientswhyaspectsoflandscapeandurbandesignneedtobeopen-endedand indeterminate,thisbeingpreciselywhatDubaiclientstypicallydonotwant.InDubai’s realestateenvironmentdevelopersratheraspiretoa “finished” marketableimagefor theirdevelopment.
InconclusionitwouldappearthatLandscapeUrbanism’smodelofthecityas “hybridisedchaoticecology” (Weller, 2008,p.248)appearstoofferlittletothe landscapeurbanistinDubaiworkingtowardsfulfillingIFLA’sethosofsupporting environmentalprotectionandbiodiversity(InternationalFederationofLandscape Architects).Itwouldappearpoorlyadaptedtotheincrediblysparseandfragiledesert and sabkha ecologieswhicharenoteasilyentwinedwithurbandevelopment.Itisalso notwellsuitedtoDubai’stypicallyunregulateddevelopmentindustrywhichwouldbe quicktoexploitordismissthespatialandtemporalambiguitiesofLandscape Urbanism’smodelof “hybridisedecology”.Finally,itisnotclearthatthe “hybridised ecology” modelisindeedthatdifferent,orbetter,thananygoodcurrentlandscape architectural/landscapeplanningpracticethatreconcilesapproachesfromconservation biology,restorationecology(Johnson&Hill, 2002),withsustainableandaesthetically pleasinggoals.
SocialCrisis
Dubai’sSocio-PoliticalStructure
ThedominanteconomicsysteminDubaiisoneofneo-liberalism.Socialgeographer DavidHarveydescribestheaspirationoftheneo-liberalstateasbeingtomanufacturea “goodbusinessclimate ” andthusto “optimiseconditionsforcapitalaccumulationno matterwhattheconsequencesforemploymentorsocialwell-being” (Harvey, 2005, p.25).Indeed,Dubaihasachievedwhat “neoliberalreactionariesonlydreamof;a paradiseoffreeenterprisewithoutincometaxes,tradeunionsoroppositionparties” (Davis, 2007,p.67).
Dubai’sextremesocio-economicstratificationbeliesthefactthatwhileDubaiis extremelymulticultural,littleinteractionoccursbetweenthestrataofsociety.Inthis regard,Dubaihassuccessfullycreatedspacesfordivergingculturalgroupswithout requiringsignificantassimilation(Kirchner&Rab, 2007,p.18).Theseparationof ethnicgroupsalongeconomiclineswhileallowingfora “functioning” multicultural society,alsocreatesconditionsinwhichsegmentsofthesocietybecome “othered” whenviewedfromtheperspectiveofthedominantstrataofDubaisociety.The “other” inDubaitermsinvariablybecomesassociatedwiththegenerallyunskilledimmigrant Asianlabourerwhoishousedinaccommodationcampsawayfromthecityandwho
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typicallyearns1/16thofthewageofthetypicalDubairesident(Mafiwasta, 2007).The “othering” ofthelabourerisalsorelatedtothefacttheyareprimarilymale.The labourerthusbecomes,inpart,asymbolofthreattothewomenfolkandthusrequires separationfromthecity.
DetachmentandEstrangementinDubai’sScenography
Dubai’sextremesocio-economicstratificationisalsomirroredinDubai’sdesigned landscapes;forDubai’sunskilledmigrantlabourersmuchofthehighlyprivatisedcity isnotavailabletothem.Eventhe “public” parksystemestablishedbyDubai Municipalitypresentlyaccountsforonly1%ofDubai’spresenturbanareaandcanalso onlybeconsideredsemi-publicasitisgatedandanentryfeeischarged.
Additionally,muchofwhatconstitutespubliclandscape,outsideoftheparksystem,is designedasscenographyandisnotintendedtobeused.Approximately,77%of greenspaceinDubaiisSLOIP(Spaceleftoverinplanning)andonly23%ofgreenspace constitutesDubaiMunicipalityparkswhichhaveadegreeoffunctionalprogramming (DubaiMunicipality, 2004).Thus,themajorityof “public” designedlandscapesinDubai arescenicanddonotsupportanyspecificprogrammaticfunction.Thedeploymentof Para-Scape,inthisrespect,perpetuatesvariousclaimstopowerinDubai.Para-Scapeis employedtolegitimisethepoweroftherulingdynasty(Ouis, 2002).Despitesignificant effortstowardsmodernisationinotherarenas,Dubaiisstillanautocracywhereany evidenceoftruedemocracyprovesdifficultto find(Davidson, 2008,p.137).This situationhasbeenmaintainedbyDubai’srulersthroughwhatDavidsonreferstoasthe “rulingbargain” (2008,p.138).ThisrulingbargainexistsbetweenDubai’srulersand nationalpopulationandinvolvesthebuyingofthepopulace’sloyaltywithdistributedoil revenueandthe “carefulexploitationofarangeofideological,religious,andcultural resources” (Davidson, 2008,p.138).Para-Scape,withitssymbolicparadisiacal associations,becomesparticularlyeffectiveasatoolforreinforcingthis “ruling bargain”.AsJonathonSmithatteststheseductiveappealof “judiciouslystyled” visual landscape “mayforestallreflectiononthefailureofsocietytofurnishitsmemberswith themeanstoconsumelandscapesinmorepractical[andequitable]ways” (InCorner, 1999,p.157).Dubailandscapearchitecture,inrelationtothisdeception,oftenbecomes anunwittingtooloftheprevailingpoliticalandeconomicpowerbrokers(Ouis, 2002).
ThePotentialofLandscapeUrbanismtoSupportSocialEquityandIntegrationin Dubai
LandscapeUrbanismanda “UtopiaofProcess”
WhilethechartersofCongressfortheNewUrbanism(2007)wouldappeartoadvocate formasbeingamechanismthroughwhichaparticularsocietycanbeengagedfor positiveends,landscapeurbanistJamesCornerturnstogeographerDavidHarvey’s propositionthatwhatisrequiredisa “utopiaofprocess” nota “utopiaofform” (Harvey, 2005,p.25).Itisthisshiftfrom “form” to “economic,socio-political,and ecologicalprocess” (Thompson, 2011,p.6)thatpotentiallyunderpinsLandscape Urbanism’sclaimstoactivelyengagesocietalstructurestoachieveLandscape Urbanism’ssocio-ecologicallyenrichingends(Lootsma, 1999,p.273).
ThediscussionofprocessinLandscapeUrbanismliteratureoccursinrelationtotwo differentcontexts.Firstly,itisadvocatedthatLandscapeUrbanismshouldfocus attentiononprocesswithinthelargersocial,politicalandeconomiccontexts,andon theotherhandthatdesignedspacesshouldbemoreinfrastructuralandprocess orientatedandlessformdriven(Corner, 1999,p.160).Thispaperwilldiscussthe potentialofthesetwomanifestationsofLandscapeUrbanism’s “utopiaofprocess” in relationtoitspotentialtosupportDubailandscapearchitecturetopromotesocialequity andintegration.
ThePotentialofa “UtopiaofProcess” inDubai
ThroughafocusonprocessLandscapeUrbanismseekstoengagewith “uncontrolled capitalaccumulation” and “grossinqualitiesofpolitcal-economicpower” (Harveyin Corner, 2006,p.28),underlyingforcesthattoalargedegreehavegeneratedthe physicalshellofDubai.Itisthis “utopiaofprocess” , “howthingsworkinspaceand time” (Corner, 2006,p.29),thatLandscapeUrbanismusestodistinguishitselffrom competingdisciplinessuchas “newurbanism”.BothLandscapeUrbanism,anda numberofsignificanturbandesignandplanningtheorists(Fainstein, 2003;Fishman, 2003),criticisenewurbanismforits “easyelisionofphysicalformwithsocial condition”,asituationinwhichnewurbanismisseentodisplay “littletheoretical rigour” (Fainstein, 2003,p.182).
WhileNewUrbanismiscriticisedforitstendencytocreate “utopiasofspatialform” (Harvey, 2002,p.156)ratherthandelineatingthemethodofachievingthem,social geographerDavidHarvey,whoisoftenquotedinLandscapeUrbanismliterature (Corner, 2003,p.62;Waldheim&Berger, 2008),identifiesthetaskasbeingtobring togethera “spatiotemporalutopianism” whichhedescribesasa “Utopiaofprocess” (Harvey, 2002,p.196).Unfortunatelytheexactprocesseswhichalandscapeurbanistin DubaishouldengageinremainambiguousinLandscapeUrbanismliterature.Harvey’s argument,citedbyCorner,isthatderegulation,globalisation,environmentalprotection, codesandregulations,markettrendsandsoonaremuchmoresignificantforthe shapingofurbanrelationshipsthanarespatialformsperse(Corner, 2003,p.61).By extensionwhatCornerseemstobesayingisthatlandscapeurbanistsinDubaicould combatsocialinequalitymoreeffectivelyiftheydirectlyengagedthedevelopment industryorgovernment,soastohavegreaterinfluenceovertheeconomicand regulatorysettingsthatinfluencetheresultantformofacitylikeDubai.
Inessence,this figureofthelandscapeurbanistinDubaiisalobbyistforsocialequity andintegrationwithDubai’spowerbrokers.WhilelandscapearchitectsinDubaihave reliedonDubai’srulerstolegislateforpublicopenspacewithdisappointingresults,a landscapeurbanistcouldpotentiallyengagewithclientsto findmodelsforpublicspace thatarepotentiallybothprofitableandsociallyequitable.WhileLandscapeUrbanism literaturecitesnoparticularexamplesinthisrespect,perhapsOlmsted’smeticulous justificationofthecostsofManhattan’sCentralParkintermsofthecapitalisationofthe parksvaluetoproximatehomeownersprovidesonesuchexample(Crompton, 2005, p.218).ThishoweverraisesthequestionastowhetherLandscapeUrbanism’sattentionto processisnotalreadyembeddedinasociallyconsciouspracticeoflandscapearchitecture; OlmstedindeedbeingthefatherofthelandscapearchitecturalprofessionintheUSA. LandscapeUrbanisminDubai
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ThedifficultyofalandscapeurbanistinDubaiattemptingsuchanengagementwith thecity’spoliticalandeconomicpowerbrokerswouldbesignificant.TheUnitedArab Emirates’ rulingtribalfamilywhocontrolbothgovernmentregulationandthe developmentindustry “believethemindsofaselectfewshouldmapnationalvisions forthemany” (Basar, 2007a,p.92).TheabilityofaDubailandscapeurbanisttobe abletocarryswaywithinthisextremelyclosedandhierarchicalsocio-politicalstructure isdifficulttoimagine.
Beyondlobbyingforpublicspace,socialequityandintegrationfromabroader perspectivecanbeseentoencapsulatemanyissuessuchashousingsegregationand affordability,accesstopublictransport,andschools,tonameafew.Theissuefora landscapeurbanistinDubaiseekingtobroadentheirsphereofinfluencetoinclude “all thatisinthelandscape-infrastructureandbuildings” (Weller, 2006b,p.67)isthat LandscapeUrbanismtheoryhasverylittletosayaboutpragmaticsocialequityissues suchas “housingsegregation … pollution,concentratedpoverty,trafficcongestion,bad schools,affordability,safety,accessibility” the “issuesform-basedurbandesigners … havebeentoilingwith” (Talen, 2013,p.112).Certainly,criticsofLandscapeUrbanism seeitspredilectionsforindeterminacyandprocess,anditsovertecologicalfocusasa wayof “forestallingtheneedtodealwithsuchclichédsocialconcerns” (Talen, 2013, p.112).WhilealandscapeurbanistinDubaimaybeabletonavigatethiscomplex terrain,thebodyofLandscapeUrbanismliteraturecertainlydoesnotprovidemuch directpracticalortheoreticalassistance.
Programmedlandscape. LandscapeUrbanism’sfocusonprocessisalsoproposedto occurinthedesignoflandscapes.Here,theemphasisshiftsfromwhatthingslooklike tohowtheyworkandwhattheydo(Corner, 2003,p.61).AsAlexWalldescribes “the goalofdesigningtheurbansurfaceistoincreaseitscapacitytosupportanddiversify activitiesintime …” (Wall, 1999,p.233).AprecursortoLandscapeUrbanism’s conceptualshiftbetweenscenographicandprogrammaticlandscapeisOMA’ssecondplaceentryfortheParcDeLaVillettecompetitioninParis,Francein1982;ascheme whichappearsfrequentlyinlandscapeurbanistliterature(Waldheim, 2002, 2006;Wall, 1999;Weller, 2006a).Theproject’sdesignersRemKoolhaasandBruceMaudescribe theconventionalparkasa “replicaofnatureservicedbyaminimalnumberoffacilities thatensureitsenjoyment” (1995,p.921).Thealternativetothisapproach,whichis encapsulatedintheirParcdelaVillettedesign,istheorchestrationof:
themostdynamiccoexistenceofactivitiesx,y,andzandtogeneratethrough theirmutualinterferenceachainreactionofnew,unprecedentedevents;orhowto designasocialcondenser,basedonhorizontalcongestion,thesizeofapark.
(OfficeforMetropolitanArchitectureetal.,p.921)
Centraltothenotionofthe “socialcondenser” towhichKoolhaasandMaureferisthe ideathatdesignhastheabilitytoaffectsocialbehaviour,thepurposeofsocial condensersbeingtobreakdownsocialhierarchies.Thisconcept,derivedfromRussian constructivisttheory,foundexpressioninOMA’sLaVillettepropositioninthecreation ofintersectionsbetweenvariedconstituencies.Inliteralterms,thismanifestsitselfasa
seriesofphysicalstriations,eachcontainingparticularparkfunctions theideabeing thatsocialfrictionandexchangewilloccurontheedgesbetweenthesebands. Therejectionofstylisednatureinfavourofprogrammedlandscape,similarto OMA’sLaVillette,becomesacentralthemeinLandscapeUrbanismliterature(Corner, 1999;Wall, 1999).Ofcourse,whilesomeLandscapeUrbanismliteraturewouldappear tosuggestotherwise,heavilyprogrammedlandscapessuchasOMA’sproposalforLa Villettearealsostylised;theyarejustnotnaturalisticaesthetics(Thompson, 2011, p.12).
ThePotentialof Landschaft inDubai
Significantly,ifPara-Scapecanbeemployedtopromoteparticularsociopolitical agendastoapopulace(Bolleter, 2009),thenpresumablyalternativelydesignedpublic landscapescouldperhapscommunicatemoreenrichingandinclusivenarrativesto Dubai’ssociety.InthisrespectCorneridentifiesthepotentialof “Landschaft”.In Corner ’swriting, Landschaft isaGermanwordthatrefersnottoscenerybuttothe environmentofaworkingcommunity(Corner, 1999,p.154).3 Inthecontemporary context,Cornerconsiders Landschaft toconstitutealandscapethatisoccupied, programmed,andnotpreoccupiedwiththecreationofa fixedscenewitha correspondingly fixedagenda(Corner, 1999).FollowingonfromCorner ’slogic,the deploymentofhighlyprogrammed,interactiveandinclusivelandscapeinDubaicould havethepotentialtocounterthesymbolic fixityofferedbyDubai’sscenographic landscapes.AsWallexplainsabouttheworkoflandscapearchitectAdrianGeuze whichhealignswith Landschaft “itisaboutmakingthingsandplacesthatare indeterminateintheirfunctionsandtherebyallowtheiruserstoinventandclaimspace forthemselves” (Wall, 1999,p.245).
Theshiftfromstylistic,unprogrammedlandscapesto Landschaft isregardedby proponentsasonemechanismbywhichLandscapeUrbanismcantransformlandscape frombeing “aproductofculturetolandscapeasanagentproducingandenriching culture” (Corner, 1999,p.4).
Contradictionsbetween Landschaft andDubai’sExistingParks
ItisimportanttoacknowledgethatLandscapeUrbanism’spredilectionforhighly programmed,indeterminateandinclusivelandscapessitsincompleteoppositionto Dubai’sexistingparkswhicharehighlyscenographic,pastoral,largelyun-programmed andsemi-private.WhiletheexistingDubaiMunicipalityparksaredescribedasbeing for “everyone”,theyareprimarilyintendedasfamilyareasforlocalsandwealthier expatriates(Figure 4).
LandscapeUrbanism’smodelof Landschaft, anditsattendantaimtoerodesocial hierarchiesraisesparticularissueswhenappliedtotherestrictivesocialcontextof Dubai.Whereasinthewest,theprivatisationofpublicspaceisconsideredtoamountto areductionin “civillibertiesandfreedomofexpression”,privatisationinDubaioften actuallybringsforthanexpandedareaofrelativefreedomforfemaleEmiratis.Within the “confinesofspacesownedbyrespectableEmiratifamiliesandcorporationswhere gates,guardsandcamerasurveillanceareseen”,thepermissiblespacewhereawoman
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Figure4. DubaiMunicipalityparksareprincipallyfamilyareas. ImagecourtesyofEdMaglente.
canmoveunveiledisextended(Andraos, 2007,p.53).Thefactthatgreaterfreedoms areoftenenjoyedbyIslamicwomeninsemi-private,asopposedtopublicspace,isan ironythatcouldbeeasilyoverlookedbyalandscapeurbanistonaquestforpublicspace whicherodessocialhierarchies.Asimilarsituationoccursatalargerscaleinwhich culturalgroupsinDubai “maintainstrictsegregatorymeasures,byhavingtheirownset ofinstitutionswhichenablethemtomaintaintheirculturalvalues” (Elsheshtawy, 2004, p.172).ItiswithinthiscontextthatLandscapeUrbanism’smodelsof Landschaft asa socialcondenseraimingtobreakdownsocialhierarchies,whileperhapsadmirable, appearproblematic.WhileDubai’sheavilysegregatedsocietyindeedrequiresmore Landschaft spaceswhichallowfortheinteractionofvariousculturalgroups,this interactionneedstobehandledwithcaresothatcomplexculturalsensitivitiesare respected.LandscapeUrbanism’sdiscussionof Landschaft, perhapsreflectingthe author ’sorigins,provideslittleguidanceastoamorenuancedapplicationof Landschaft inthecross-culturalcontext.
Afurtherissuethatarisesinthedeploymentof Landschaft inDubaiandindeedin OMA’sunbuilt Landschaft schemeforLaVillette,whichAlexWall(1999)alignswith Landschaft,isthequestionofwhatthisprogrammed Landschaft actuallyis.While KoolhaasandMaurefertoLaVilletteasa “landscapeofsocialinstruments”,theactual programmingremainsambiguous.Intheaccompanyingtextfortheircompetitionentry KoolhaasandMauonlyspecificallyidentifyalimitednumberofwhatareactually
LandscapeUrbanisminDubai 15
traditionalparkfunctions:kiosks,playgrounds,saleskiosks,refreshmentbars,picnic areas,amphitheatres,seating,chesstables,tribunes,puppettheatres,rollerskating surfacesandgreenhouses(1995,pp.925,927).Thequestionremains,inrelationto bothOMA’sLaVilletteand Landschaft inDubai,astowhetherthislimitedamountof programmingcouldreallyconstitutethe “engineoftheproject” thatWallsaysitis (Wall, 1999,p.237).AstudyofrecreationalactivitiesinDubairevealsthatrecreation isoftendrivenindoorsbyexceedinglyhottemperaturesandpresumablyDubai’s restrictiveculture(DubaiMunicipality, 2001).Ifthisdataistakenasaguidethere remainpreciousfewoutdoorrecreationalactivitiesthatcouldbeemployedbya landscapearchitectinDubaitosuccessfullyactivate Landschaft inDubai(Figures 5).
DespiteitsattendantproblemsandchallengesLandscapeUrbanism’s “utopiaof process” whetherappliedtotheconceptualisationofalandscapeurbanist’sroleina givenproject,ortothedesignofpubliclandscapesinDubaiseemstohavesome potential.Forlandscapearchitectstobemoreinvolvedintheprocessbehindthe eventualformalresolutionofurbanareasofcourseseemstimely,alsoagreaterlevelof functionalityinDubai’sovertlystylisticlandscapeswhichinvitesusageandinteraction, withmoremalleablesymbolism,alsoseemstimely.Whetherthesecomparativelyminor movesbyDubailandscapeurbanistscouldachieveHarvey’s “advancementofamore sociallyjust,politicallyemancipatingandecologicallysanemixofspatiotemporal
Figure5. TypicalDubairecreationalactivities(DubaiMunicipal).
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productionprocesses” (Corner, 2003,p.63)ishoweverquestionable.Particularlywhen viewedwithinthecontextofasocietywhere “ Norealeffortismadetoresolvesocial problems,addressconcernsofthelowerclass,ortrytomaketheurbanenvironment moreliveable” (Elsheshtawy, 2004,p.172).
CulturalCrisis
OneresultofthemassiveamountofimmigrationthatDubaihasexperienced,sincethe discoveryofoilin1968,isthenumericdominanceofexpatriates.Comprising83%of thetotalpopulation,Dubai’sexpatriatepopulationisproportionallyoneoftheworld’s largest(MigrationInformation, 2005).Thisresultsinanunusualsituationwherethe localpopulationisnumericallydwarfedbyexpatriates.Theacceleratedrateof developmentwhichhasaccompaniedthisextremepopulationgrowthhasalsobeena responsetodiminishingoilreserves.DuetoDubai’sperceivedlackofnaturally occurringdrawcardsitisgenerallyregardedthatthetrappingofglobalinvestmentand tourismwillneedtobeartificiallystimulatedforthecitytosurviveinthelongterm. AssuchDubaiconstantlycravesbeingthecentreofattention;paranoidthatitsfading fromviewwillheralditsrapiddemise.Thezenithinthisrespectisthe “Palm” and “TheWorld” developmentswhichbrandwholeareasforthecityfromtheperspective ofGoogleEarth.
ItiswithinthiscontextthatlandscapearchitectsinDubai,withonlytheminimumof concessionstoDubai’sindigenouslandscapeandculture,havelargelybeencontentto relyonapasticheaestheticderivedfrombothglobalandregional,andhistoricaland contemporarysources.Inthisprocesstheindigenouslandscapeandcultureof “Arabia” oftenbecomesasourceofinspirationfortheproductionofcontemporarylandscape design.Thearchetypallandscapesreferencedaremostcommonlythoseofthedesert, wadi,andtheoasis.Traditionalculturallandscapesthatarefrequentlyreferencedare the souk andtheParadisegarden.Significantly,thisreferenceisgenerallyform-driven asopposedtoonethatattemptstoreplicatetheecologicalandsocialfunctioningof theseoriginallandscapes.ElieHaddad,anarchitectwiththeLebaneseAmerican UniversityinLebanon,definesthisformofsuperficialregionalismas “pseudo regionalism” inwhichthedesignerpretendsto “reconcilemodernityandtraditionby indiscriminatelyusingelementsfrombothrepertoireswithoutanygenuine understandingofeither” (Haddad, 2007,p.44).Thissuperficialsituationresultsin Dubailandscapearchitecture’sinabilitytosustainlandscapearchitecture’s “grand narrativeofreconcilingmodernitytoplace” (Weller, 2006a,p.75).
ThePotentialofLandscapeUrbanismtoIncreaseResponsivenesstoLocalCulture inDubai
WithinthecontextdescribedthequestionbecomeswhatLandscapeUrbanismcould offerlandscapearchitectureintermsofestablishingadeeperresonancewiththelocal, albeitnumericallymarginalised,Emiraticulture.Certainly,LandscapeUrbanismtheory offersnodirectguidanceastoconductingcrossculturaldesignexercises,orindeed moregenerallyreconcilingdevelopmentwith “asenseofplace” orlocalculture.This reflectsthetoneofLandscapeUrbanismliteraturewherethelandscapeisnowtypically an “accelerant,”“matrix,” and “continuoussurface,” somethingseeminglyavailablefor
LandscapeUrbanisminDubai 17
anything,anytime.Thusrelieving “landscapeofitstraditionalburdenasculture’s anchorinaworldadrift …” (WallinWeller, 2008,p.254).Wall’srationaleforthis conceptionofurbanlandscapeisindeedbasedon “newurbanconditionsof placelessnessandthemobilityofcapital,goodsandpeople,” conditionsseeminglyat oddswithlandscapearchitecture’straditionaldesirefor “groundedness,orientationand emplacement” (Weller, 2007,p.29).OtherDutchlandscapeurbanistssuchasBart Lootsmadohoweverproposethemethodofdatascapingwhichtheybelievecould begintoarticulatedifferencesbetweenregionallocations.Whilethistooldoesnot provideaguideforacrossculturaldesignexerciseorforreconcilingdevelopmentwith “place”,itistheonlyaspectofLandscapeUrbanismtheorywhichisrelevanttothe complexitiesofpracticeinregionallocations.
Datascaping
LandscapeUrbanismtheoryclaimstoprivilegeanobjectiveunderstandingofsite forces,notthedesigner ’sownsubjectiveartisticintuitions(Weller, 2006b,p.67).This isdriven,inpart,bytheanalysisanddesignmethodologyofdatascaping.Asarchitect BartLootsmaexplains:
Datascapesarevisualrepresentationsofallthemeasurableforcesthatmay influencetheworkofthearchitectorevensteerorregulateit.Theseinfluences maybeplanningandbuildingregulations,technicalandeconomicconstraints, naturalconditionssuchaswindandsun,orlegislativemeasuressuchasminimum workingconditions.(Lootsma, 1999,p.270)
Datascapingisamethodologythatfeaturesstronglyinthedesignprocessofa numberofDutchlandscapearchitectsandarchitectsincludingOMA,West8and MVRDV(Lootsma, 1999,p.265)andcanbeseenaspartofalargerlandscape urbanistfocusontheunderstandingofsiteforcesasgeneratingdesign.
Datascaping’spromiseoftheremovalofsubjectivityfromthedesignprocesshas tendedtopolarisereactionstoit.WinyMaas,principalofthedesign firmMVRDV, describeshow,throughdatascaping,artisticintuitionisreplacedby “research ” (Maas, 1998,p.49).Inthismodel,Maasarticulatesthenotionthatifenoughdatais “plugged in” andextrapolatedthenaformwill “materialise” thatis “beyondartisticintuition” (Maas, 1998,p.49).
DatascapingandSyntheticRegionalisation
OfsignificancetothispaperisthatLootsmaproposesthatdatascapingwill,intime, produceformsof “syntheticregionalisation” inresponsetodata “gravity fields” thatare specifictoparticularplaces(Lootsma, 1999,p.270).Lootsmastatesthatdatascapingis concernedwith “criticalpragmatism” not “criticalregionalism.” Assuchwherecritical regionalismaspirestothe “grandnarrativeofreconcilingmodernitytoplace” (Weller, 2007,p.40)andreliesoninterpretationsoftopography,climate,andlighttoachieve thisreconciliation,criticalpragmatismappliesamuchmoreutilitarianmethodof articulatingasite’sidentitythroughcloseattentiontoasite’sdata.
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Inthecritiqueofglobalisationasinimicaltodifferenceasfoundinthewritingsof Lootsma(1999),ZaeraPolo(1994)andMaas(1998),itisproposedthat,through attentiontotheabstractdataofglobalisation,globalisation’sapparentenhancementof diversificationwillnecessarilyfollow.Inshort,landscapeurbanistsaresuggestingthat globalisationcanalsoenhancedifference.ForMaas,placesaremanifestlydifferentand thisdifferenceisquitesimplybecauseofthebasicdatathatliesbehindtheirformal properties(Weller, 2007,p.38).
ThePotentialofDatascapinginDubaitoArticulateRegionalDifference
Thequestionremainstowhatdegreedatascapingcouldassistalandscapeurbanistin Dubaiinproducinglandscapedesignwhichexpressesregionaldifference.The techniqueofdatascapingasamethodforgeneratingprojectswhicharticulateregional differencecanbeseentohavebothpotentialpossibilitiesandproblemsinDubai.
Theproblemspotentiallyarisefromthefactthatlandscapearchitectsworkingin Dubaioftendonothavetherequiredinformationordatatomakebasicdecisions, letalonetoconstructadatascapingdesignmethodology.Dubaigenerallytendstobean unregulatedbuildingenvironmentandassuchtheplanning,building,andlegislative regulationsfoundinLootsma’sHolland(1999)oftendonotexistinDubai;indeedwhat regulatorydatathatisavailableinDubaioftenderivesfrominternationallyaccepted standardsandthuscannotbeexpectedtocontributetothedifferentiationofDubai.To compoundthisissuefurther,theamountofdataavailabletoalandscapearchitectin Dubaiisalsoconsiderablylessthanwhatwouldbeavailabletoanarchitect.
ThepossibilitiesspringfromDubai’softenextremedatawhichrelatestoclimate, technicalconstraints,economicsanddemographics,whichwouldpresumablyassistin generatinguniquelandscapeurbanistdesignoutcomesifgivendueimportanceinthe designprocess.Indeed,closeattentiontotechnicaldatasuchasirrigationrequirements couldherald,incontrasttotheexistingDubaiMunicipalityparks,avastlyreconfigured, xerophyticformofopenspace.
Aproblemremainshowever,evenifalltherequireddatawasreadilyavailable,it wouldbeunlikelytoevercompletelypreparealandscapeurbanistinDubaifor engagingwiththecomplexcultural,societal,andultimatelypragmaticissuessuchas one findsinDubai.AsWellernotes, “makingform,andcraftingitssemioticload, cannotbeindefinitelydeferredorcompletelyconferredontomechanismsbeyondthe author” (Weller, 2007,p.39).Thus,whileaprivilegingofsiteforcesthrough datascapingcanbringadesignerclosertoapprehendingtheaestheticqualitiesofplace, itcannotberegardedasameansbywhichthecreativeandnecessarilysubjective responsetoplacecanbedeferredcompletely.
Take,forexample,theaforementionedtechnicaldataregardingirrigation;evenifa landscapeurbanistinDubaiiscognizantoftheextremeirrigationrequirementsofa palmtree(128litresperdayinsummer),andturf(15litrespersquaremetrein summer)thisdata,initself,willnotobjectivelydirectthemtowardsadesign.Froma broaderperspectivethisissuethenneedstobethenconsideredwithrespecttohow muchirrigated “green” landscapeisrequiredbytheusersoflandscapeeitherforactive orpassiverecreationalpursuits,orperhapsmoreimportantlytomeetEmiratiand expatriateculturalexpectationsforgreenery(Ouis, 2002),somethingthatisvery
difficulttoreducetodataalone.AnyoftheobjectivitythatMaas(1998,p.49) describesinthedesignprocessveryquicklybecomesmiredwithaseriesofnecessarily subjectivedecisions.Asituationthatinitselfisnotproblematic,itisjustnot necessarilythatdifferentfromanorthodoxlandscapearchitecturaldesignprocess,and isunlikelytoarticulateregionaldifferencestoanygreaterdegree.Indeedlandscape architectureisalsonostrangertositedata.AsWellerdescribeslandscapearchitecture “hasmadesiteanalysisdatacentraltoitsdesignprocessandphilosophyforthelast threedecades” (Weller, 2007,p.39).
Conclusion
TheprincipalconclusionofthispaperisthatanumberofthetenetsofLandscape Urbanismwhenappliedtothevariousecological,socialandculturalcrisesexperienced bylandscapearchitectureinDubaiappearproblematic.InthisrespectLandscape Urbanismcouldnotbeconsideredasawholesalereplacementforlandscape architectureinDubai.Whileanumberofthesetenets “privilegingofsitedata” anda focuson “process”,ifemployedinareasonedmanner,makesomesenseasa counterbalancetotypicalDubailandscapearchitecturalpractice,thequestionremainsas towhatLandscapeUrbanismoffersalandscapeurbanistinDubaithatisnotalreadyon offeraspartofawell-practiced,ecological,sociallyandculturallyawareformof landscapearchitecture.Anattentiontoprocess,notmerelyform,ishardlynewto landscapearchitecture,asisattentiontositedata(Weller, 2007,p.39).Whilethese shifts,proposedinLandscapeUrbanismliterature,mayappearsignificantinrelationto thecurrentpracticeofDubailandscapearchitecture,theyarehardlymomentouswhen consideredinrespecttothestrandsofmoreenlightenedmainstreamlandscape architecturalpracticebeingconductedelsewhere.
FurthertothisalandscapeurbanistinDubaiappearstobelackingthekindoftools whichprovideabridgebetweentheoryandpractice.WhiletheoriessuchasNew Urbanismprovidevarioustools(theTransect,FormBasedCodes)bywhichthetheory ofNewurbanismcanbeputintopractice,LandscapeUrbanismoffersnosuchpropsfor thepractitionerinDubai;leavingthemtolargelyinterprethowtheoryshouldbe actioned.ThisisparticularlythecasewhereLandscapeUrbanismclaims “infrastructure andbuildings” (Weller, 2006b,p.67)asbeingwithinofitssphereofdisciplinary influence.LandscapeUrbanismliteratureoffersverylittletoalandscapeurbanistin Dubaiastohowtheywouldengagewiththeseareasinpracticalterms.Theriskofthis generalsituationbeingperpetuatedisthatLandscapeUrbanismmaybecomemoreofa “planningandliterarytropethanaguidetophysicaldesign” (Dennis&McIntosh, 2013, p.51).CornerhimselfdescribesthatthecomplexamalgamofLandscapeUrbanism “is morethanasingularimageorstyle;itisanethos,anattitude,awayofthinkingand acting ” (Corner, 2003,p.58).Whilethismaybethecaseitdiminishesthepotentialof LandscapeUrbanisminaplacesuchasDubai,wheredaytodaypracticeverymuch dominatesovertheory.IronicallyitisplacessuchasDubaiwhichareexperiencingrapid developmentthatcouldmostbenefitfromtheorytoinformingpractice.
SignificantlyforLandscapeUrbanismtogainrealtractioninDubai,landscape urbanistswouldneedtobeabletoconvincetheexistinghegemonyofclients,architects andengineersthatLandscapeUrbanismoffersavalid,reproduciblemethodfor
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reframingdevelopment.AsAndresDuanydescribesingeneralterms “theorymustbe simpleenoughtobeadministeredbyabureaucracythatisaccustomedtotherobotic protocolsofEuclideanzoning.Atheorythatisnotoperationalandcannotbewidely applieddoesnotrespondtothescaleofthecurrentcrises” (Duany, 2013,p.117).This situationbecomescompoundedintheMiddleEastgenerallywherethemunicipalities ofmostArabcities “donothavetheinstitutionalstructures,thehumanresources,and thetechnicalexperiencewhicharerequiredforthesuccessfulimplementation ” of complexmasterplans(Bianca, 2000,p.198).Whilethecommonthoughtisthat LandscapeUrbanismcanbethe “solventwhichbreaksdownthebarriers” betweenthe variousdisciplines(Thompson, 2011,p.10)involvedinurbandesign,thiswillonly happeniftheycanbeconvincedoftheveracityandapplicabilityofthetheory;andif thedisciplinarylandgrabswhichLandscapeUrbanismhasmadecanbesubstantiated inboththeoreticalandpracticalterms.IfthisdoesnotoccurthenLandscapeUrbanism willquicklyfallpreytothesimilartendencyoflandscapearchitectureto “claimthe rightstoeverythingbutactuallydoverylittle” (Weller, 2006b,p.71).
WhileDubaiisoftenviewedbytheWestasbeinga “fantasyworldinthedesert ” (Davis, 2007,p.63)manycountrieswithintheregionlooktoDubaiasacitymodel thatcanbereplicatedoratleastrespondedto.Itiswithinthiscontextthatthepractice oflandscapearchitectureinDubai,inconjunctionwithemergingtheory,requires criticalattentionfromtheacademygoaltowhichthispaperhasbeendirected.
Acknowledgements
FirstandforemostIwouldliketothankthegenerousandinsightfulreviewerwho painstakinglyreviewedanumberofthepreviousdraftsofthispaper.Thanksalsoto ProfessorRichardWellerwhosupervisedtherelatedPhDstudy,LandscapeResearch editorIanThompsonforhissupport,andRossBolleterandJillPenterforcopyediting variousdraftsofthispaper.
Notes
1.Theexactdefinitionoftheseterms “city,landscapeandecology” arenotstatedinthepapercited.Forthe purposesofthispaper, “city” willrefertoareasofurbanform, “landscape” topublicopenspace, agricultural,seminaturalornaturalareasdesignedorotherwiseand “ecology” totherelationshipof organisms,humanorotherwise,totheirenvironmentconstructedorotherwise.
2.ThismaybeinpartduetoourWesterngazetothatindigenouslandscapewhichdoesn’tallowustosee thenuances.
3.WhilethereisconjectureaboutthemeaningoftheGermanword landschaft asitappearsinCorner ’s writing,thispaperwillrefertoCorner ’sinterpretationasthispertainsdirectlytothediscussionof landschaft inthispaper.
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