2017_Fringe benefits A review of outer suburban development on Perth’s fringes

Australian Planner

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Fringe benefits? A review of outer suburban development on Perth’s fringes in relation to state government goals concerning the natural environment and efficient transport connectivity

Julian Alexander Bolleter

To cite this article: Julian Alexander Bolleter (2017): Fringe benefits? A review of outer suburban development on Perth’s fringes in relation to state government goals concerning the natural environment and efficient transport connectivity, Australian Planner, DOI: 10.1080/07293682.2017.1319395

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07293682.2017.1319395

Published online: 10 May 2017.

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17 May 2017,

Fringebenefits?AreviewofoutersuburbandevelopmentonPerth’sfringesin relationtostategovernmentgoalsconcerningthenaturalenvironmentand efficienttransportconnectivity

JulianAlexanderBolleter

AustralianUrbanDesignResearchCentre,UniversityofWesternAustralia,Perth,Australia

ABSTRACT

ThispaperassessessuburbandevelopmentonPerth’sfringesdeliveredsince2004;theyear Perth’sfirstseriousplanforurbanconsolidationwasreleased.Thisassessmentisconducted withreferencetostategovernmentgoalsconcerningfacilitatingaccesstothenatural environmentanddeliveringefficienttransportconnectivity.Thepaperconcludesthat greenfielddevelopmentisproducingmixedresultsintheseareas.Inthisrespectinfilltargets andpoliciesenablingsuchoutersuburbandevelopmentwarrantscrutiny.

Introduction

Intheearlytwentiethcentury,thewell-respected AmericanplannerFrederickHowepraisedthequalities ofAustralia’stypicallysuburbancities.Ashe proclaimed:

ThegreatcitiesofAustraliaarespreadoutintothe suburbsinasplendidway.Formilesaboutare broadroadswithsmallhouses,gardens,andanopportunityfortouchwiththefreer,sweeterlifewhichthe countryoffers.(Gleeson 2006,30)

ToHowe’sunderstandingthesuburbsofPerth,the capitalcityofWesternAustralia,haveserveduswonderfully.Substantialoutdoorspacehasallowedsuburbanresidentstoliveoutdoors,inprivate,andto indulgeinanassortmentofhobbies,tohavepets,to parkmultiplevehiclesandstorerecreationalequipment(Troy 2004,120;Wheeler 2010,47).Theyhave historicallyallowedhouseholdstodevelop ‘independenceandsecurity’,particularlyinrelationtotheproductionoffruitandvegetablesandecosystemservices moregenerally.Perhapsduetothesequalitiesasuburbanidealstilllingersinthehousingpreferencesof Perth’scitizens.Indeedina2013Perthhousingsurvey, whennotlimitedbyincome,79%ofthosesurveyed preferredastand-alonesuburbandwelling(Curtin UniversityandHamesSharley 2013,16).

Despitethisprevailingpreferenceforasuburban lifestyle,thesuburbanmodel,asfindsexpressionin allofAustralia’scapitalcities,isarguably ‘running outofsteam’ onanumberoffronts(Gleeson 2006, 20).Inparticularoutersuburbangrowth1 isseenas threateningproductiverurallandandbiodiversity oncityfringes(Adams 2016,220),andincreasing

ARTICLEHISTORY

Received22September2016 Accepted5April2017

KEYWORDS Greenfielddevelopment; sprawl;nature;publicopen space;publictransport

infrastructurecosts,commutingtimes,andtheconcentrationofeconomicandsocialvulnerabilitiesinfarflungsuburbs(DodsonandSipe 2008,37;Martinus 2014).

Thedebateabouttheproblemsofoutersuburban growthcanbeemotiveandisoftennotbasedon data.IndeedfewhavebeenmoreemotivethanLewis Mumford – in1961hedeclaredtheeffectof ‘sprawl’ isan ‘encapsulatedlife,spentmoreandmoreeither inamotorcarorwithinthecabinofdarknessbefore atelevisionset’.Theentire ‘wicked,sprawling,megalopolitanmess’,hecheerilyforecast,would ‘completely demoralizemankindandleadtonuclearholocaust’ (InKunstler 1993,10).

Giventhedissonancebetweenacademicdisdainfor thesuburbsandoutersuburbandevelopment(see Bruegmann 2005),andtheenduringpreferencefor suburbanlivingexpressedbyPerth’sresidents(Curtin UniversityandHamesSharley 2013,16)thispapersets outtoassess,inarigorousandfocussedmanner, Perth’snewestfringesuburbsfromaperspectiveof accesstothenaturalenvironmentandtransportconnectivity – facetsofurbanlivingwhichcontributeto urbanliveability(Badlandetal. 2014,65;Ruthand Franklin 2014,264;Thomas,Walton,andLamb 2011).2 Theaimofthisprocessistoinformthecurrent debatearoundoutersuburbangrowthinPerth,and elsewhere,sothatthisdebatecanbefocussedondata ratherthanemotionandpresumption.

Method

Perth’soverarchingplanningdocument ‘Perthand Peel@3.5million’ (draft)aimstoachieveacity

whichisliveable,prosperous,connected,sustainable, andcollaborative(DepartmentofPlanningandWesternAustralianPlanningCommission 2015,4).

GiventhatthegoalthatfuturePerthis ‘liveable’ is arguablytoobroadforadequatediscussioninasingle journalpaper,and ‘prosperity’ and ‘collaborative’ are notfirstandforemostspatialplanningissues,this paperfocussesonwhetherthepredominateformof urbandevelopmentinPerth,greenfielddevelopment, isdeliveringthegoalsthattheStateGovernmentis aspiringtoinrelationtobeing ‘sustainable’ and ‘ connected’ (DepartmentofPlanningandWesternAustralianPlanningCommission 2015,4).

Inmoredetailthegoalofconnectivityentails ‘awell serviced,accessibleandconnectedcitywithstrong regional,national,andinternationallinks.Peoplewill beabletomovefreelyaroundthecityviaachoiceofefficienttransportmodes’ (DepartmentofPlanningand WesternAustralianPlanningCommission 2015,4).

GiventhenecessarybrevityofthispaperIwillfocus principallyonthedeliveryofpublicandactivetransport connectivityonPerth’sfringes.Thegoalofsustainability entails ‘Perthwillresponsiblymanageitsecologicalfootprintandlivewithinitsenvironmentalconstraints, whileimprovingourconnectionwithandenjoyment ofthenaturalenvironment’ (DepartmentofPlanning andWesternAustralianPlanningCommission 2015, 4).InthisrespectIwillfocusprincipallyonconnection withthenaturalenvironmentonPerth’sfringesthrough thedeliveryofregionalopenspace(ROS),publicopen space(POS),andprivateopenspace.

Theoverarchingresearchquestionstructuringthis evaluationis:

Towhatdegreehasgreenfielddevelopment,inPerth since2004,deliveredtheaccessto,natureandthe transportconnectivitythattheWesternAustralian StateGovernmentisaspiringtothroughitsplanning forPerth’sgrowth?

Theresearchmethodsemployedtoanswerthisquestionaretwofold.Firstly,anextensivegeospatialmappingexercise,focussedonthePerthmetropolitan region,isconductedusingdatasetsforgreenfielddevelopment,remnantbushland,regional,andPOStypes, bushfireproneareas,publictransportroutes,carownershipandusage – amongstothers.Subsequentlya ‘modellingandcorrelationalstrategy’– whichinvolves identifyingrelationshipsbetweenobservedvariables (SwaffieldandDeming 2011,37) – isusedtoconsider correlations,orotherwise,betweenthedatasetsand areasofrecentgreenfielddevelopment(e.g.,whether trainstationsarewithinwalkingdistanceofwhere themajorityofnewfringehousing).Thisallowsan evaluationandwrittenassessmentastowhetherthe goalsof ‘PerthandPeel@3.5million’ (Departmentof PlanningandWesternAustralianPlanningCommission 2015)areactuallybeingachieved.

GreenfielddevelopmentinPerth

SincePerth’s2004 ‘NetworkCity’ plan,Perthhashad metropolitanscaleplanningwhichaimedtoconsolidatedevelopmentwithinexistingurbanareas(DepartmentofPlanningandWesternAustralianPlanning Commission 2015,12).ThisnarrativeofurbandensificationwasretainedinPerth’scurrentplan ‘Perth andPeel@3.5million’ (DepartmentofPlanningand WesternAustralianPlanningCommission 2015), despiteadropintheinfilldevelopmenttargetfrom 60%to47%(HollingandHaslamMcKenzie 2010, 280).Despitemuchbeingmadeoftheneedforurban infillinthesedocuments,alargeamountofoutersuburbandevelopmentcontinues.Indeed,historicallythe netinfillrateforthePerthmetropolitanandPeel regionshashoveredaround32%,3 meaningthatasubstantial68%tendstobeoutersuburbangrowth (DepartmentofPlanningandWesternAustralian PlanningCommission 2014,107).

Whyisoutersuburbandevelopmentdominant?

Firstly,thereasonthatahighpercentageofoutersuburbandevelopment,hasandisoccurring,reflectsthe difficultiesofachievinginfilldevelopmentinPerth, inparticularintheformofActivityCentresand ActivityCorridors,theflagshipsofstategovernment urbaninfillpolicy.Thisisinturnreflectiveofthe uncertaintiesgeneratedbyalackofcommunitysupportforurbaninfillandthedifficultiesofcoordinating infrastructureprovision,amongstotherfactors(RowleyandPhibbs 2012).

Ontheothersideoftheledger,thelanddevelopmentandprojecthomeindustriesinPerthoperateas awell-oiledmachinefordeliveringnewsuburbs – in partbecausetheyformapowerfullobbygroupwhich hashistorically(acrossallAustraliancities)beenwell connectedtogovernment(DoveyandWoodcock 2014,8).Bywayofexample,inPerthlanddevelopers’ ‘commonlyemployprivatesectorplanningconsultants tolodgerezoningapplicationsandappealrezoning refusals,soastoenablefurtherurbanfrontierexpansion’ (Adams 2010,45).Evidenceofthisisthat56% ofallurbanrezoningtotheMetropolitanRegion Scheme(MRS)between1970and1990occurredin siteswhichwerenotinthedesignatedgrowthcorridors (Adams 2010,39).Furthermore,between1990and 2005furtherexamplesofurbanbreak-outoccurred throughoutthemetropolitanarea(Adams 2010,39). InthiscontextthestateDepartmentofPlanningishinderedbythefactthattheyown ‘littleoftheprincipal commodityitisattemptingtoregulate – urbanland’ andassuchoncertainoccasionshasatsomepoints been ‘heavilyinfluencedbyactorsoutsideofthecentralisedplanningstructure’ (Adams 2010,47).Dueinpart tothissituation,thereisadivergencebetweenthe

planningandrhetoricofPerthasacompactcityand theexpansivesuburbandevelopmentwhichisoccurringontheground.

Existingliteratureongreenfielddevelopmentin Perth

ThispapercomplementsandextendsresearchconcerningPerth’soutersuburbs.Suchliteratureincludes ‘Unsettlingsuburbia:thenewLandscapeofoiland mortgagevulnerabilityinAustraliancities’ (Dodson andSipe 2008)whichfocussedonmortgagestress andpotentialpetrolpriceincreasesassociatedwitha peakoilscenarioacrossallAustraliancities.Local advocacygroup, ‘TheCommitteeforPerth’ havealso producedreportsconcerningthegrowingdivide betweenrichandpoorsuburbs(anumberofwhich areonthefringe)inPerth(Martinus 2014,1).This researchextendsandtoadegreeupdatesbothof theseresearchprojects.Adams(2010)andAlexander andGreive(2010)havewrittenaboutthestategovernment’sspatialplansfor ‘taming’ outersuburban growthhowevertheconnectivityandsustainabilityof theresultantoutersuburbswasnotdiscussedindetail. FinallyAnthonyDuckworth-Smithhaswrittenin detailaboutthequalityofsuburbanandurbanliving inPerth – andusedacombinationofbothtopropose newmodelsforresidentialinfill(Duckworth-Smith 2016).Theresearchshowcasedinthispaperdiffersin thatitisspecificallyfocussedononlytwoofthecriteria whichformpartofabroaderquestionofliveability, whereasDuckworth-Smith’sresearchconsidersafar greaterbreadthofcriteria,butinlessdetail.

Greenfielddevelopmentandthenatural environment

Thefollowingsectionsofthispaperevaluategreenfield developmentinPerthinrelationtotheWestern AustralianStateGovernment’sowngoaltoprovide accesstothenaturalenvironment(Departmentof PlanningandWesternAustralianPlanningCommission 2015,4).

Accesstonature

‘Contactwithnature’ isregardedasanall-encompassingrequirementof ‘urbanlandscapes’ aroundthe world(ArvolaandPennanen 2014,8),asentiment alsostronglysubscribedtobyPerth’sresidents(Curtin UniversityandHamesSharley 2013,68).Ofcourse ‘nature’ isahighlysubjectivetermthatneedsfurther definition.LandscapehistorianJohnDixonHunthas splitnatureintothreedefinitions,respectivelyfirst nature,secondnature,andthirdnature.Inhisdefinitionfirstnatureistheuntouchednatureofwilderness,secondnaturereferstoculturallandscapes whichcanbetakentoincludeallagricultural

landscapesandthemiscellaneouslandscapesofour cities(e.g.,freewayreservesornationalparks),and ‘thirdnature’ acategorywhichincludesallmanicured parksandgardens(HuntinThompson 2011,19).This sectionwilldiscussaccesstobushlandandROSwhich canbeconsideredwithinHunt’ s ‘secondnature’ category,andaccesstoPOSandprivateopenspace whichcanbeconsidered ‘thirdnature’

Accesstonature – bushlandandROS

PerthsitswithinthethreatenedSouthwestAustralia biodiversityhotspot,anexceptionallybiodiverse regionalcontext4 (ConservationInternational 2014). DespitethehighlevelsofbiodiversitytheSouthwest biodiversityhotspotsustains,itismuchdiminished incomparisontoitspre-Europeanannexationcondition – indeedithasalreadylostthemajorityofits originalendemicvegetation(SouthWestAustralia EcoregionInitiative 2006,17),asituationwhichis reflectedinthefactthattheregionhasagreaternumberofspeciesofthreatenedplants(2500)thanmost countriesoftheworld(HopperandGioa 2004,604).

InthePerthmetropolitanregion,asopposedtothe broaderhotspot,thisclearinghasprimarilybeendueto outersuburbandevelopment(Ramalhoetal. 2014, 143)(Figure1).Indeednearly900hectaresofnative vegetationwasclearedfromthePerthmetropolitan area,peryear,between1998and2004,and15,000hectareswasapprovedforclearingin2005–2006alone (Weller 2009,125).

Thereleaseofthestategovernment’slong-awaited ‘PerthandPeelGreenGrowthPlanfor3.5million’ (draft)mayhoweverheraldatransformationinthe relationshipbetweenthecityandthebiodiversityhotspot(GovernmentofWesternAustralia 2015).The GreenGrowthPlanisawholeofgovernmentinitiative todelivera ‘comprehensive’ environmentalprogram fortheprotectionofbothCommonwealthmattersof nationalenvironmentalsignificanceandStateenvironmentalvalues(GovernmentofWesternAustralia 2015).Theplanembodiestwomainaims:toprotect remnantbushland,andwetlandsin170,000hectares ofnewandexpandedreserveswithinandadjacentto thePerthandPeelregions,andtoreducebureaucratic hurdlesforlanddevelopersbyachievingupfront Commonwealthenvironmentalapprovalsforurban developmentwithindesignatedareasacrossthePerth andPeelregions.(GovernmentofWesternAustralia 2015,3).Whileundoubtedlypositiveachievements –whichshouldberecognised – aquestionremainsas totheimplicationsofclearingafurther9700hectares (3%oftheSwanCoastalPlaininthePerthandPeel region)ofremnantbushlandwhichisnotprotected bytheconservationreserves.Furthermore,onlytime willtellhowaplanthatenforcesrestrictionsonthe powerfullanddevelopmentlobbywillendure(See Adams 2010,39).

Figure1. InthePerthmetropolitanregionthisclearinghasprimarilybeenduetooutersuburbandevelopment.Thismapjuxtaposessuburbandevelopsince2004(Landgate)with ‘environmentallysensitiveareas’ (DepartmentofEnvironmentRegulation)and remnantvegetation(WesternAustralianLocalGovernmentAssociation).

Regardless,throughtheexistingROSreservesand thoseproposedaspartoftheGreenGrowthPlan, outersuburbanresidentsarereasonablywellserviced withareasofnaturalenvironment(Figure2).While POSatthelocal,neighbourhoodanddistrictscales has ‘accessibilitycatchments’ of300,800,and2000 metresdelineatedaspartoftheLiveableNeighbourhoodscode(WestAustralianPlanningCommission andDepartmentofPlanning 2015,20)ROSsuchas conservationreservesistypicallyconsideredtobean attractionthatuserswilldriveorusepublictransport toreach(DepartmentofSportandRecreation 2012,

14).Certainlymappingshowsthatformanyresidents itisoutsideofan800metres,10-minutewalkable catchment,butthatistobeexpected.

Outsideofthe ‘naturalenvironment’ whichisinside designatedconservationzones,9700hectaresofremnantvegetation,23,000hectaresofpineplantations, andsubstantialareasofagriculturallandremainsslated forfutureoutersuburbandevelopment.Astheprogressivesuburbandevelopmentoftheseareasunfolds, newresidentswill,foratime,haveaccesstosuchlandscapeswhicharetypicallyperceivedastosomedegree ‘natural’ (orsecondnaturebyHunt’sdefinition)

Figure2. ThroughtheexistingROSreservesandthoseproposedaspartoftheGreenGrowthPlan(GovernmentofWesternAustralia 2015)outersuburbanresidentsarereasonablywellservicedwithareasofnaturalenvironment.

howeverasdevelopmentoccurstheirproximitywill inevitablybediminished.Ashasbeenthepracticeto date,theseclearedlandscapesareoftenreconstituted intheprocessofsuburbandevelopment.Richard Wellerdescribestheironyinthat ‘indeferencetoa “senseofplace”,thelandscapethatthenewsuburb almostinevitablyerasesisreturnedtothenewdevelopmentasthematicveneer,asymbolicpasticheorhapless remnantofitsformerself’ (Weller 2008,247).

Bushfires

Whileaccesstonatureintheformofremnantbushlandconservationreservesarguablymeetsstate

governmentgoalsinthisrespect,onPerth’sfringe, thesesamesuburbanareasarethreatenedbybushfires. Partofthereasonforfireriskonthefringeisthecomplexityoftheedgebetweensuburbandevelopmentand remnantbushlandwhichincreasesthelengthofthe interfaceandassuchthevulnerabilityofhouses (DepartmentofPlanningandWesternAustralian PlanningCommission 2015,56).Itispredictedthat PerthwillexperiencemorefrequentbushfiresasclimatechangecausesTerraAustralistobecome ‘Terror Australis,ablastfurnaceofdrought,heatandcapricioustempests’ (Gleeson 2006,15)andindeedthetragicCanberrafiresof2003andtheBlackFridayfiresof

2009(whichcamedangerouslyclosetoMelbourne’ s suburbanedge)serveasawarninginthisrespect(Gleeson 2010,21).Recentmappingof ‘fireproneareas’ for thePerthregionbytheDepartmentofFireandEmergencyServices(FESA)showoutersuburbanareastobe particularlyvulnerable(2016)(Figure3).Suchincreasinginsecuritycanonlybearguedasdiminishingthe benefitsofaccesstonaturalareasinPerth’soutersuburbs.Moreover,theclearingofvegetationnecessitated bymitigatingbushfireriskwillalsolikelydiminishthe perceivedconnectionofresidentstonature.

Accesstonature – POS

TheprovisionofPOSisregardedasavitalcomponent ofurbanliveability(McCreaandWalters 2012,193). Ananalysisofparksinoutersuburbansettingson Perth’sfringe – whichconformtoHunt’ s ‘thirdnature’ (HuntinThompson 2011,19) – revealsthathouses generallyarewithinthe300-metrewalkofapark (Figure4).ThisisnotsurprisinggiventhatNewUrbanistdevelopmentsonthefringeoftenuseparksasa majorsellingpoint – andthe ‘LiveableNeighbourhoods’ designcodegoverningoutersuburbandevelopmentcallsforthecreationofsmaller,yetmore accessibleparks(WestAustralianPlanningCommissionandDepartmentofPlanning 2007).

Thetrade-offofparksizeagainstaccessibilityhas, accordingtosomeobservers,howeveroccurredatthe costofparkuser’sabilityto ‘losethemselves’ inthe parkexperience(Syme, 2016)aswellasparticipatein activerecreationinPerth’soutersuburbs.Researchers GarryMiddleandMarianTyeconcludedthatmanyof theNewUrbanistoutersuburbsresultingfromthe ‘LiveableNeighbourhoods’ code(suchasEllenbrook) havealowerpercentageofthesuburbavailablefor activerecreation(MiddleandTye 2011,4).Indeed totheircalculationPerth’smiddleringsuburbsprovide1.38%oftheirareaforactiverecreationwhile NewUrbanistoutersuburbsprovide0.79%(Middle andTye 2011,4).Onepresumedeffectofthishas beenhighphysicalinactivitylevelsinPerth’soutersuburbs(PHIDUTorrensUniversityAustralia 2016) (Figure5).Thismapping5 fromtheSocialHealth Atlas(PHIDUTorrensUniversityAustralia)reveals thatinoutersuburbanareas,above30%ofpeople werelargelyphysicallyinactivesomethingwhich couldbetiedbacktoashortageofactiverecreation space,amongstothertransport-relatedfactorsdiscussedlater.

Whiletheactiveversuspassivebalanceachievedin outersuburbanparksishotlycontestedtheyarealso increasinglyatthreatfromirrigationwatershortages. Withmoreandmoregroundwaterresourcesbecoming fullyallocatedorover-allocated,6 especiallyinthe northernandeasternurbangrowthareas,groundwater fromthesuperficialaquiferforirrigationofPOS(and otherlandscapes)isnolongeravailableinsomeareas

(Figure6).Shortofusingrecycledwastewateror resortingtopotablewatersupplies(sourcedlargely fromenergyintensiveseawaterdesalination)forirrigation,theseparkswillneedtobereconfiguredatleastin partasxerophyticlandscapes.TheneedforthisadaptionisborneoutbydatafromtheCentreofBuilt EnvironmentandHealthconcerningPOSinoutersuburbswhichmeasuredthat98%oftheparksinEllenbrook(atypicalLiveableNeighbourhoodsdesigned outersuburb)constitutedirrigatedturf(Centrefor theBuiltEnvironmentandHealthandGaiaResources 2013).

Whilethetransformationofsuchparksintoaxerophyticformmaymeanthattheirdesignresonatesmore withremnantbushland(andHunt’sfirst/second naturecategories),asthesesuburbsbecomehotter anddrierwiththepredictedeffectsofclimatechange inPerth(DepartmentofWater 2016,2),7 theneedto beabletomaintainirrigatedgreenspaceasabalancing mechanismwillbecomeincreasinglyimportantfor ensuringthattheparksare ‘attractive’.Thisimportance isduetothefactthatirrigated ‘naturalistic’ green spacestendtoprovidemoreshade,mitigationof urbanheatislandandminimisationoftemperature extremes(McDonald 2015,12).Thisissueofwater forirrigationremainsunresolvedaspartofamuchbiggerpictureofwatershortagestobeexperiencedin Perthinthiscentury(DepartmentofWater 2016,5).

Accesstonature – privateopenspace

ThelifestyleAustraliaoffersiswellknownforthe opportunityitaffordsto ‘liveoutdoors,inprivate’– a situationenabledbyfreestandinghouseswithfront andbackgardens,setoutatatypicallylowdensity (Wheeler 2010,47).AnAustralianpredilectionforprivateopenspaceisforgoodreason,homegardens(part ofHunt’sthirdnature)havebeenshowntobeamajor contributortothequalityoflife(Syme,Fenton,and Coakes 2001,161).Amongotherfunctions,theresidentialgardensprovidesforasenseofconnectionto nature,activeandpassiverecreationaswellasthe spacetocultivatefruitandvegetables.Furthermore, ongoingpsychologicalbenefitsofprivategardens havealsobeenwellrecorded(KaplaninSyme,Fenton, andCoakes 2001,161).

Countertosuchevidence,outersuburbandevelopmentonPerth’sfringes – inaccordancewithNew urbanistpreferenceforurbancompactness – tendsto providemuchlessgardenareaperperson,thanan un-subdivided ‘classic’ quarteracreblockthattended toprovide1000metressquaredperhousehold(Seddon 1994,27).Inacomparativelytypicaloutersuburban developmentsuchasEllenbrook,alargenumberof lotsarelessthan300metressquaredandindeed somemicro-lotswillbeassmallas80metressquared (Figure7).Thisincombinationwithapredilection for,sometimes,largehousesmeansthatprivateopen

Figure3. Recentmappingof ‘fireproneareas’ forthePerthregionbytheDepartmentofFireandEmergencyServices(FESA)show outersuburbanareastobeparticularlyvulnerable(2016).SuchincreasinginsecuritycanonlybearguedasdiminishingtheliveabilityofPerth’soutersuburbs.Moreover,theclearingofvegetationnecessitatedbymitigatingbushfireriskwillalsodepressliveabilityinotherrespectsbyinpartdiminishingtheperceivedconnectionofresidentstonature.

spaceprovidedissignificantlyreduced.Compounding thissituationmuchoftheprivateopenspacethatis providedinsuchsmalllotsituationsisresidualspace, generatedbytheStateGovernmentcontrolledResidentialDesignCodes(R-codes)whichdictateaminimumsetbackofonepointfivemetresbetweenlot linesandbuiltform(StateofWesternAustralia 2010)whichtendstoresultinconfinedstripsofprivate openspace.

Theresultofsuchsmalllotsandhighdegreeofsite coverbyhousesisthatanurbanforestisunlikelyto formasthemanyofPerth’soutersuburban

developmentsmature.Thisisbecausegenerallymore than60%ofthetreeswhichcompriseanurbanforest arelocatedonsuchprivateland(FisherinBrunner andCozens 2013,234),acommoditymuchreduced inPerth’soutersuburbsbuiltsince2004.Theeffects ofthislackofurbanforestarepotentiallyseriousas urbanforestshelptomaintainaday-to-dayconnection tonatureforresidents,aswellasenhancebiodiversity, realiseenergysavingsthroughmitigatingtemperature extremes,andpurifyairandstormwater(Brunner andCozens 2013,234).Furthermoreaslotsizeshave becomenarrower,largedrivewaycrossovershave

Figure4. AnanalysisofparksinoutersuburbansettingsonPerth’sfringerevealsthatmost,butnotall,housesarewithinthe300 metrewalkofapark.ThisisnotsurprisinggiventhatNewUrbanistdevelopmentsonthefringeoftenuseparksasamajorselling point – andthe ‘LiveableNeighbourhoods ’ designcodegoverningoutersuburbandevelopmentcallsforthecreationofsmaller,yet moreaccessibleparks(ParkpolygonscourtesyofDepartmentofPlanning).

tendedtoreduceopportunitiesforstreettreeplantings – plantingsthatmayhavehelpedtobolsterthelackof treesinbackyards.

Bywayofconclusiontothisfirstsection,whileouter suburbandevelopmentdeliveredinPerthsince2004can beseentoprovidingaconnectiontonatureatabroader regionalscale,atthelotscalethisaccesstonaturehas beendiminished.Ofcoursethesetwoscalesareconnected – withoutgreaterdensityatthelotscalealmost inevitablygreaterdestructionofremnantvegetation wouldbeoccurringattheregionalscale.Thisrepresents awickedprobleminwhichvariousoutcomesatdifferent

scalestendtocontradicteachotheranddefyeasyresolution.Thissaidtheprovisionofasignificantlyreduced privatedomain,onthefringeofacitywhereaccessto spaceisgenerallyregardedasanecessarytrade-off couldhaveworryingeffectsonaccesstonaturalareas particularlyoverthelongerterm.

Transportconnectivity

Thefollowingsectionexploresthestategovernment’ s goalofconnectivity(DepartmentofPlanningand WesternAustralianPlanningCommission 2015,4)in

Figure5. ResearchersGarryMiddleandMarianTyeconcludedthatmanyoftheNewUrbanistoutersuburbsresultingfromthe ‘LiveableNeighbourhoods’ codehavealowerpercentageofthesuburbavailableforactiverecreation.Indeedtotheircalculation Perth’smiddleringsuburbsprovide1.38%oftheirareaforactiverecreationwhileNewUrbanistoutersuburbsprovide0.79%.One presumedeffectofthishasbeenhighphysicalinactivitylevelsinPerth’soutersuburbs(PHIDUTorrensUniversityAustralia).

relationtoprincipallypublicandactivetransportconnectivityatthemetropolitanscale.

Longcommutesbyprivatecarhasbeenlinkedto reducedavailabletimeforforgingandmaintaining socialconnections,andare ‘linkedtoloweroverallwellbeingandlifesatisfaction’ (Kellyetal. 2012,16).Presumablyasaresultofthissituation,thehousing preferencesexpressedbyPerth’sresidentsincomparativelyrecentsurveys,show71%ofrespondentssurveyed inthe ‘TheHousingWe’dChoose’ studyregardeda dwellingbeingnearpublictransportasimportant(CurtinUniversityandHamesSharley 2013,19).

Inapparentcontradictiontothisfinding,Perth remainsastubbornlycar-dominatedcity,indeed overthelastfourdecades,anditnowhas ‘ more carspercapitathananyotherAustraliancapital citywithsome83vehiclesper100people’ (DepartmentofPlanningandWesternAustralianPlanning Commission 2015,46).Thedominanceofcarsisparticularlypronouncedintheoutersuburbs.Evidence forthisisreflectedinthepercentageofpeoplewho drovetowork,afigurewhichisoftenwellover 70%intheoutersuburbs(Figure8),andincarownership,withmostoutersuburbanLocalGovernment

Figure6. Withmoreandmoregroundwaterresourcesbecomingfullyallocatedorover-allocated,especiallyinthenorthernand easternurbangrowthareas,groundwaterfromthesuperficialaquiferforirrigationofPOS(andotherlandscapes)isnolongeravailableinsomeareas(EssentialEnvironmental).

Areas(LGAs)averagingtwoormorecarsperdwelling(Figure9),ahighfigurecomparedtoinnerand middleringsuburbs.

Accesstothetrainnetwork

VehiculardominanceinPerth’soutersuburbscanbe inturnexplainedbythelimitedreachofpublictransport.Perth’srailsystem,amajorstructuringelementof Perth’spublictransportsystem,consistsoffiverail linesprojectingfromthecity’scentre.Muchofthe outersuburbandevelopmentthatisbeingdeliveredis locatedinthesubstantialwedgesbetweentheradiating

raillines.WhilethecurrentLiberalstategovernment promisedaheavyrailconnectiontotheoutersuburban ‘break-out’ suburbofEllenbrook(AlexanderandGreive 2010,59),whichwouldhavelentanintermediate axistothisradiatingstructure,thispromisehasbeen brokenduetospirallingstatedebt.Thissituationis symptomaticofpartofabroaderemergingrealityof infrastructuredeficitsonthefringesofAustraliancities (Adams 2016,217).

Inpartasaresult,mappingofPerth’strainstations incombinationwithrecentoutersuburbandevelopmentwhichhasoccurredsince2004,revealsthatlittle

Figure7. OutersuburbandevelopmentonPerth’sfringes – inaccordancewithNewUrbanistpreferenceforurbancompactness –tendstoprovidemuchlessgardenareaperperson,thananun-subdivided ‘classic’ quarteracreblockthattendedtoprovide1000 metressquaredperhousehold.InacomparativelytypicaloutersuburbandevelopmentsuchasEllenbrook,alargenumberoflots arelessthan300metressquaredandindeedsomemicro-lotswillbeassmallas80metressquared.

ofthisurbandevelopmentiswithinacomfortablewalk oftrainstations– inthismapshownasan800-metreor 10-minutewalk(Figure10).Certainlyoutersuburban residentsarenotbeingrewardedforacceptinghigher densitylivingwithrailconnectivitywithinacomfortablewalk.

Accesstothebusnetwork

Whilesignificantlymoreoftheareaofrecentouter suburbandevelopmentisservicedbybusroutesthan trains,thebussystemgenerallyprioritisescoverage (meaningshortwalkingdistancesandthe

minimisationofbustransfers)overthe ‘frequency andlegibilityoftheservice’ (MeesandDodson 2011, 18) – perhapsexplainingthedominantuseofvehicles forcommutingtoworkfromtheoutersuburbs.While accesstobusservicesinsuchoutersuburbsislessthan idealonweekdays(Figure11),onweekends,itbecomes untenableformostjourneys.Forinstancerelyingon thebussystemtogetfromEllenbrooktoPerthona Sundayafternoon(inclusiveofatypical5-minute walktoabusstop)willtakeseventyminutes(Transperth 2016) – welloutsidethegeneralsocietalpreferencetolivewithinahalfhourtripofacitycentre,a

Figure8. Thedominanceofcarsisparticularlypronouncedintheoutersuburbs.Evidenceforthisisreflectedinthepercentageof peoplewhodrovetowork,afigurewhichisoftenwellover70%intheoutersuburbs(AustralianBureauofStatistics 2013).

preferencecommonlyknownasMarchetti’sconstant (Grace,Kinghorn,andThakur 2016,2).

Accesstobicyclenetworks

FinallyvehiculardominanceinPerth’soutersuburban developmentsiscompoundedalsobyanoftendisconnectedandthinlyspreadbikenetwork,andthesignificantdistancebicycleridersneedtocovertoevengetto majorpublictransportnodes(Figure12).Residentslivingclosertothecityhaveacomparativelyconnected andaccessiblebicyclenetwork;howeverthisprivilege isnotextendedtotheoutersuburbs.Whilelesseffort hasbeenexpendedtounderstandthenumbersof

peoplecommutingusingbicyclesintheoutersuburbs, thedataavailableshowsthatbicyclecommutingis muchlesscommonintheoutersuburbsthaninthe innerandmiddlesuburbs.

Inresponsetotheseissuesconfrontingrail,bus,and cyclinginfrastructureprovisiontheStateGovernment hasrecentlyreleased ‘Transport@3.5million’ (DepartmentofTransport,PublicTransportAuthority,and MainRoadsWA 2016)whichprovidesalongterm planfortransportinfrastructureasPerth’spopulation approaches3.5millionaroundmid-century.This planembodiesadmirableintentionstoexpandPerth’ s 180-kilometrerailnetworktonearly300kilometres,

Figure9. MostoutersuburbanLGAsaveragetwoormorecarsperdwelling,ahighfigurecomparedtoinnerandmiddlering suburbs(AustralianBureauofStatistics 2013).

andthecyclepathsfromtoday’s172kilometresofoffroadcommutercyclewaystoaround850kilometres (DepartmentofTransport,PublicTransportAuthority,andMainRoadsWA 2016) – inparttobetter servicecurrentoutersuburbs.Theissuewiththisuncostedplanisnotwithitsworthyintentionsbutrather howitwillbedeliveredinrelationtoaperilousstate debtsituation(O’Connor 2015).

Accesstotransportfutures

Giventheapparentrelativeinabilityofstateandlocal governmentstoeffectivelyserviceoutersuburban areaswithpublictransportandbicyclenetworks,

somecommentatorsrefertothepotentialofFully AutomatedVehicles(FAV)toplayarole.Indeed TonyDavisexplainsinarecentpublication: ‘self-drivingcarswillbeonsaleinjustfouryears,andthereis broadconsensustheywillsaveenergyandlives,liberatetimeforleisureandwork,andtransformtheeconomy ’ (2016,179).Nonethelessthisperiodof transformationtoubiquitousFAVsispredictedto lastuntilatleast2040–2050(SomersandWeeratunga 2015,iii).

TheliteraturesuggeststhatAVsarelikelytoprovide thegreatestbenefitstooutersuburbancommuters usingfreeways,wherethe ‘ridewillbesmoothand

Figure10. MappingofPerth’strainstationsincombinationwithrecentoutersuburbandevelopmentwhichhasoccurredsince 2004,revealsthatlittleofthisurbandevelopmentiswithinacomfortablewalkoftrainstations– inthismapshownasan800metreor10-minutewalk.

comfortable,andlargecapacitygainsmaybeavailable withvehicle-to-vehicleandvehicle-to-infrastructure communicationstechnology’ (Grace,Kinghorn,and Thakur 2016,10).IndeedacentKPMGstudyestimates thatthesetechnologiescouldincreaseroadway capacitybyupto60%onfreeways,butonlyby15% onarterialroads(Grace,Kinghorn,andThakur 2016, 10).CertainlyPerth’soutersuburbsaregenerallywell servicedbyfreewaysandarterialroadssuitedto FAVs.Thereisaconcernhoweverthatduetothe increasedcomfortandconvenienceofFAVs,commutersmaybewillingtoacceptlongertraveltimes(Grace,

Kinghorn,andThakur 2016,3)andassuchmayirrigatefurtheroutersuburbanexpansion(Grace,Kinghorn,andThakur 2016,9) – compoundingtheissues ofsprawlonotherfrontssuchasbiodiversityloss, bushfireriskandwatershortages,discussedpreviously. Thisaside,theliteratureconcerningFAVsproposes thattheywillhavedemocratisingeffect(Davis 2016; SomersandWeeratunga 2015)inthat ‘itdoesn’tmatter ifyouhaveahandicap,youaretoooldorfragile,ortoo young,ornotresponsibleenough,you’llstillhavethe samemobilityoptions’ (Davis 2016,182).However,it willcontinuetomatterifyoucanaffordtopurchase

Figure11. Whilesignificantlymoreoftheareaofrecentoutersuburbandevelopmentisservicedbybusroutesthantrains,thebus systemgenerallyprioritisescoverage(meaningshortwalkingdistancesandtheminimisationofbustransfers)overthe ‘frequency andlegibilityoftheservice’ (MeesandDodson 2011,18) – perhapsexplainingthedominantuseofvehiclesforcommutingtowork fromtheothersuburbs(BusstopdatacourtesyofGovernmentofWesternAustralia).

one – andthereisalegitimatequestionastowhether outersuburbanresidentswillbeabletoeco-modernise theirfleetoftwopluscars(DodsonandSipe 2008) –giventhesometimeslowerincomeearningcapacity ofPerth’soutersuburbs(Figure13)andoftencomparativelyhighmortgages.

Muchthesamecanbesaidofelectriccars.Currently lowoilpriceshave,tosomedegree,easedconcerns raisedbyDodsonandSipe(2008)regardingtheaffordabilityofrunningmultiple(conventional)carsper outersuburbanhousehold.Howeverwhenoilprices

inevitablyriseitisunlikelythatelectricvehicleswill beaffordableformostoutersuburbanhouseholds. IndeedthethreemajormanufacturerscurrentlyproducingelectricvehiclesontheAustralianmarketinclude Nissan(for$55,000),BMW($70,000)andTesla ($130,000)(Cormack 2016).Inpartasaresultarecent reportfortheEnergySupplyAssociationofAustralia foundthat,withoutgovernmentassistance,cumulative electricvehiclesaleswillonlyreach3.4millionvehicles – or18%ofAustralia’svehiclefleet – by2035(Cormack 2016).Atthesetakeuprateselectriccarsare

Figure12. VehiculardominanceinPerth’soutersuburbandevelopmentsiscompoundedalsobyanoftendisconnectedandthinly spreadbikenetwork,andthesignificantdistancebicycleridersneedtocovertoevengettomajorpublictransportnodes(Bicycle countsandnetworkdatacourtesyofGovernmentofWesternAustralia).

unlikelytobethepanaceaforoutersuburbanconnectivityissuesinthenearfuture.

Implications

Theaboveanalysisleadstotheconclusionthatthestate government’sgoals – fromtheperspectiveofaccessto nature(atafinerlotandstreetscale)andtransport connectivity(publicandactive)arenotnecessarily beingreached.Whileaccesstonatureintheformof conservationreservesandPOSisgenerallypositive, thereareemergingissuesintheformofbushfires. Moreoverdiminishedaccesstonatureatthelotand

streetscaleandalackofpublicandactivetransport optionsarealsoworrying – particularlywithrespect toademographicwhichisunlikelytobeabletoeco-modernisetheirmultiplecarstothosewhichareselfdrivingandpossiblyelectric.Sowhatarethepossible implicationsofperpetuatingsuchasituationinPerth’ s outersuburbs?

Oneiscertainlythateconomicdeprivationwillbe increasinglyconcentratedinfringeareas.Common indicatorsofdeprivationincludeincomelevel(both ofhouseholdsandindividuals),levelsofunemploymentandlabourforceparticipation,allofwhichare consideredtobedirectmeasuresofrelativedeprivation

Figure13. Thereisalegitimatequestionastowhetheroutersuburbanresidentswillbeabletoeco-modernisetheirfleetoftwo pluscars(DodsonandSipe 2008) – giventhesometimeslowerincomeearningcapacityofPerth’soutersuburbs(IncomedatacourtesyofAustralianBureauofStatistics 2013).

(Baum 2008,4).IndeedanumberofPerth’smost economicallydeprivedareasareoutersuburbslike Kwinana,ArmadaleandTwoRocks(Baum 2008,20) (Figure14).Thisconcentrationofeconomicdeprivationinpartreflectstheavailabilityofaffordable housingonPerth’sfringes – putsimplypeoplewith oftenlessearningcapacitylivetherebecausethatis alltheycanafford.Theconsequencesofthisconcentrationofdeprivationintheoutersuburbswillinthe long-termeffectthecityasawhole.Indeedthere tendstobeacorrelationbetweenrisinginequalities, socialtensionsanddistrustandthedialecticsoforder

anddisorder(Body-Gendrot 2011,363).AsBrendan Gleesonremindsus:

Ifnotstopped,thelongslidetoamoredividedsociety willsurelyendintears.Wecannotallowfurthersocial polarisationwithoutexpectingsomeseriouscommunaltrouble.(Gleeson 2006,32)

Furthermore,thecombinationofdiminishing accesstonature(atafinerscale),andtheoftenabsence ofviableactivetransportalternativestodriving,isproducingsomeworryinghealthdatainPerth’soutersuburbs(PHIDUTorrensUniversityAustralia),and

Figure14. Commonindicatorsofdeprivationincludeincomelevel(bothofhouseholdsandindividuals),levelsofunemployment andlabourforceparticipation,allofwhichareconsideredtobedirectmeasuresofrelativedeprivation(Baum 2008,4).Indeeda numberofPerth’smosteconomicallydeprivedareasareoutersuburbslikeKwinana,ArmadaleandTwoRocks(Deprivationdata courtesyofBaum 2008,20).

Australiancitiesmoregenerally(Adams 2016,220).In Perth,theseincludehighratesofcirculatorydisease anddiabetes(PHIDUTorrensUniversityAustralia). Compoundingthesephysicalhealthissuesisalso highlevelsofpsychologicaldistressinoutersuburban areas.Mappingrevealsmentalhealthissuesinouter suburbandevelopmentsarepossiblywidespreadand oftenuptotenpeopleoutof100areconsideredto beinastateofpsychologicaldistress8 (PHIDUTorrens UniversityAustralia)(Figure15).Whiletowhatdegree thisrelatestoalackofconnectiontonatureatalotor

streetscale,orisolationduetoalackofconnectivity,is unknown – certainlythesefactorsatleastcompound thissituation.TheWorldHealthOrganisationhaspredictedthatdepressionwillbethesecondmostdevastatingdiseaseintheworldby2020(InGleeson 2016, 12),dethroningthe ‘emperorofallmaladies’ ,cancer (Gleeson 2016,12) – Perth’soutersuburbswould appeartobeapremonitionofthisgrowingcondition. Giventhevariedissuesfacingoutersuburbandevelopment – relatingtoaccesstonatureatafinerscale, bushfires,andpublictransportinfrastructuredeficits

Figure15. Mappingrevealsmentalhealthissuesinoutersuburbandevelopmentsarewidespreadandgenerallymorethan10 peopleoutof100areconsideredtobeinastateofpsychologicaldistress(HealthdatacourtesyofPHIDUTorrensUniversity Australia).

– IwouldarguethatPerth’smodesttargetfor47%infill developmentshouldberevisited.Indeedthistargetis thelowestofanyAustraliancapitalcity – Sydney’stargetis50%,Brisbanecityupto90%,Melbourne53%, Adelaide70%,Canberra50%,andHobart50%(BolleterandWeller 2013) – anoverallaverageof60%. ThisisparticularlythecasegiventhatPerthistheAustraliancitypredictedtobemostaffectedbyclimate change(FlanneryinHedgecock 2010,102) – which inturnislikelytoprecipitatewatershortagesand increasedintensitybushfireswhichwillnegatively affecttheabilitytoattainthestatedstategovernment goalsdiscussed.

Conclusion

EminentscientistJamesLovelockhasdeclaredthatin relationtoclimatechange ourleadersshouldimmediatelyconcentratetheir mindsonsustainingtheirownnationsasaviable habitat;theycouldbeinspiredtodothisnotjustout ofselfishnationalinterestbutalsoascaptainsofthe lifeboatsthattheirnationsmightbecome.(Lovelock 2009,25)

Basedontheanalysissetoutabove,ourassessmentis thatPerth’soutersuburbsarenot – fromcertainperspectives – welladaptedtobealifeboatforthecity’ s

citizens.IndeedasPerthbracesfortheimpactof climatechangethedominanturbanformthatisbeing producedisonewhichisvulnerabletotheemerging issuesdiscussed.

Fromacertainperspective,theproblemisthatthe bulkofoutersuburbanfabricwhichisbeingbuilt today,couldbewithusformanyyears,andintime ‘mayhaveevenmorenegativeimpactsontheurban communitiestheyaredesignedtoservethantheones builtbythewell-intentionedsocialreformersofthelast centuries’ (BurdettandRode 2011,10).GivenPerth’ s populationispredictedtoincreasedramaticallyover thenext50years – from1.9topotentially6.6million (AustralianBureauofStatistics 2013) – itisvitalthat thedominanturbanpatternswhichcouldintime housemuchofthisfuturepopulationaresubjecttoscrutiny.Thispaperhasbeendirectedtowardsthisend.

Notes

1.Otherwiseknownas ‘greenfielddevelopment’ or pejorativelyas ‘sprawl’

2.Urbanliveabilityisdeterminedbyawidevarietyof factors(McCreaandWalters 2012;Rezvani,Mansourian,andHossainSattari 2013;Thomas,Walton,and Lamb 2011;Okulicz-Kozaryn 2013;Teo 2014),howeverbecauseofthenecessarybrevityofthispaper onlytwohavebeenexploredherein.

3.Thisincreasedslightlyin2015to34%infill(DepartmentofPlanningandWesternAustralianPlanning Commission 2016).

4.ThishotspotextendsfromGeraldtoninthenorth,to SouthernCrossintheeast,andEsperanceinthe south.

5.This2011–2012PHIDUmappingisbasedon ‘modelledestimates’.Thedataareself-reporteddata, reportedtointerviewers.Physicalinactivityisdefined asthoseaged15yearsandoverwhodidnotexercisein thetwoweekspriortointerviewforthethroughsport, recreationorfitness(includingwalking).UnfortunatelythereisnomorerecentdatasetsforPerthavailableinrelationtophysicalinactivity.

6.TheDepartmentofWatergrantslocalgovernments anannualwaterallocation.

7.TimFlannery,hasgoneasfarastopredictthat,dueto thedecliningavailabilityofwater, ‘Perthwillbethe 21stcentury’sfirstghostmetropolis’ (Flanneryin Hedgecock 2010,102).

8.ThisPHIDUmappingisbasedona ‘modelledestimate’ givenasanage-standardisedrateper100from 2011–2012.Unfortunatelythereisnomorerecent mappingforPerthavailableinrelationtopsychologicaldistress.

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Disclosurestatement

Nopotentialconflictofinterestwasreportedbytheauthor.

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