journalhomepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cities
Thehighlife:Apolicyauditofapartmentdesignguidelinesandtheir potentialtopromoteresidents'healthandwellbeing
SarahFostera,b,⁎,PaulaHooperb,AlexandraKleemana,ErikaMartinoc,BillieGiles-Cortia
a CentreforUrbanResearch,SchoolofGlobalUrbanandSocialStudies,RMITUniversity,124LaTrobeStreet,Melbourne,VIC3000,Australia
b AustralianUrbanDesignResearchCentre,SchoolofDesign,TheUniversityofWesternAustralia,35StirlingHighway,Crawley,WA6009,Australia
c UniversityofMelbourne,GrattanStreet,Parkville,Victoria3010,Australia
ARTICLEINFO
Keywords:
Apartmentdesign
Healthandwellbeing
Highdensity Healthaudit
Policy Australia
ABSTRACT
Globally,therapidconstructionofapartmentshasignitedconcernsaboutthequalityandamenityofnew housing,andtheimpactofpoordesignonresidents.InAustralia,differentplanningpolicies/guidelinesfor apartmentdevelopmentapplyacrossstates,howevertherehasbeennoassessmentofhowthesepoliciesaddress health.Weauditedapartmentdesignguidancefortheirinclusionofprovisionsthatimpactonhealthand wellbeing.Policies/guidelines(n=10)werereviewed,includingbothcurrentandproposed/superseded documentsinstatesundergoingpolicychangetotrackpolicyprogression.Requirementswereextractedrelating tohealth-promotingthemesidentifiedintheliterature(e.g.,daylight,ventilation,acousticprivacy,space).Each policy/guidelinewasscoredbasedonthepercentageofhealth-promotingdesigncriteriaaddressed.Scoresfor currentpoliciesrangedfrom83%(NewSouthWales)to20%(QueenslandandSouthAustralia).Scoresinstates undergoingpolicychangeincreased,indicatingagreaterfocusonhealth(e.g.,11%to75%inWestern Australia).Whereminimumspacestandardswerestipulated,therewasalackofagreementaboutwherethe standardshouldbeset.Severalstateshadpoliciesthat,iffullyimplemented,couldpromoteresidents'health. However,post-implementationevaluationisrequiredtoassesswhetherguidelinesareappliedasintendedand provideevidencetoinformminimumstandards.
1.Introduction
By2050,66%oftheworld'spopulationwillliveincities(UN Habitat,2016).Housingthisrapidlygrowingpopulationpresentsa majorchallenge,withTheNewUrbanAgendacallingforarethinkof thewaycitiesarebuilt,managedandgovernedtoamelioratethehealth andsocialimpactsofrapidurbanisation(UnitedNations,2017).While muchofthepopulationgrowthandurbanisationwilloccurindevelopingcountries,Australia'spopulationisalsoprojectedtodoubleby 2050(ABS,2008)necessitatingashiftfromtraditionallow-density housingtomoresustainableurbandevelopment.Theconstructionof apartmentsiskeytotransformingAustralia'ssprawlingcitiesintomore compact,accessiblecommunities.Indeed,apartmentbuildingsnow accountforathirdofallresidentialbuildingapprovalsinAustralia (Shoory,2016),effectivelydoublinginthelastdecade.
Thisapartmentconstructionboomhasgivenrisetoconcernsabout thequality,amenityandfutureversatilityofthehousingstockbeing
developed(CityofMelbourne,2013; Nethercote&Horne,2016; Randolph,2006; StateGovernmentofVictoria,2015).InMelbourne, just5%ofapartmentshavethreeormorebedrooms,limitingtheir suitabilityforavarietyofpopulations.Somenewapartmentsarealso marredbypoorinternalamenity(e.g.,nowindowsinhabitablerooms, lowceilings,inflexiblelayouts),impactingtheiruse,adaptability,and accesstonaturallightandventilation(CityofMelbourne,2013).At theirlowestextreme,apartmentsinMelbournearereportedlyassmall as15m2 (Dobbin,2013),marginallylargerthantheAustraliannational standardforadoubleprisoncell(VictorianOfficeofCorrections, 1990).Theseconcernsabouttheadequacyofhousingstockarenot uniquetoAustralia.AUKstudyfoundabouthalfthehousingfailedto meetminimumspacestandards(i.e.,amodifiedversionoftheLondon HousingDesignGuide2010),with flatsandterracehousesmostlikely tobeundersized(Morgan&Cruickshank,2014).Couldthisbethefutureforotherglobalhousingmarkets,andwhatarethepotentialhealth implicationsforresidents?
⁎ Correspondingauthorat:CentreforUrbanResearch,SchoolofGlobalUrbanandSocialStudies,RMITUniversity,124LaTrobeStreet,Melbourne,VIC3000, Australia.
E-mailaddresses: sarah.foster@rmit.edu.au (S.Foster), Paula.hooper@uwa.edu.au (P.Hooper), alexandra.kleeman@rmit.edu.au (A.Kleeman), emartino@student.unimelb.edu.au (E.Martino), billie.giles-corti@rmit.edu.au (B.Giles-Corti).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.102420
Received20July2018;Receivedinrevisedform29May2019;Accepted23July2019
Availableonline05August2019
0264-2751/©2019ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.
Modernurbanplanningemergedasatoolforimprovingtheenvironmentalconditionsthatimpactonpublichealth.Bythemid-20th century,infectiousdiseasetransmissionhadbeenlargelyconquered throughacombinationofplanningpoliciesandinterventions,however the21stcenturyconsequencesofthesesameinterventionsincluded urbansprawl,cardependence,physicalinactivity,andincreasedlevels ofoverweightandobesity(Giles-Cortietal.,2016).Consequently, planninginterventionsthatincreasethe ‘liveability’ and ‘walkability’ of citieshaveenteredthepolicyagendaasameanstotacklebroader publichealthissues(Badlandetal.,2014).Increasingresidentialdensitiesiscentraltothis,embracedbybothplanningandhealthagencies tocombatthenegativeenvironmentalandhealthimpactsofsuburban sprawl(Giles-Cortietal.,2014; Udell,Daley,Johnson,&Tolley,2014). However,thefocusoncompactcitiestendstooverlookthetypeand qualityofhousingbeingdevelopedtoachievethesebroadercommunityandsustainabilityoutcomes.
1.1.Apartmentdesignandhealth
Apartmentdesigncanexpose(orbuffer)residentsfromtheenvironmentalstressorsthatinfluencehealthandwellbeing.Studiesfocusingwholly,orinpart,onresidentsinhighdensityhousingunderscoretheimportanceofarangeofdesignissuestohealthand wellbeing.Forsomedesignthemes,thereiscompellingevidenceofa relationship;severallongitudinalstudies,includingonerandomised controltrial,havefoundthatimprovementstothermalinsulation benefitmultiplehealthoutcomes,includingbloodpressure,upperrespiratorytractinfections(Lloyd,McCormack,McKeever,&Syme, 2008);hypertension,sinusitis,generalhealth(Wilsonetal.,2014);selfrelatedhealth,wheezing,absenteeismandgeneralpractitionervisits (Howden-Chapmanetal.,2007).Studiesofthermalcomforttypically examineinsulationagainstcoldweatherratherthanhot,howeverthere isevidencehighlightingassociationsbetween floorlevel,air-conditioning,insulationandbedroomlocation(i.e.,directlyundertheroof) andheatstroke-relatedmortality(Kilbourne,Choi,Jones,&Thacker, 1982)andheatwavemortality(Vandentorrenetal.,2006).
Similarly,thereisstrongevidencethatnaturalventilation,rather thanmechanicalventilation,issupportiveofhealth.Asystematicreviewofbuildingventilationconcludedtherewasastrongassociation betweennaturalventilationandhealth(i.e.,fewerSickBuilding Syndromesymptoms,inflammation,infections,asthma,allergiesand short-termsickleave)(Wargockietal.,2002),andthiswassupported byotherstudiessetincold(i.e.,Finland)(Ruotsalainen,Jaakkola, Rönnberg,Majanen,&Seppänen,1991)andhot(i.e.,Singapore)climates(Wongetal.,2002; Wong&Huang,2004).Whilenaturalventilationisgenerallypreferableforhealth,insomesituations,mechanicalventilationmayberequired.Forexample,forapartmentslocated onheavilytraffickedroads,well-designedmechanicalventilationsystemscanreduceexposuretoairpollution.However,designingbuildingstoreducetrafficexposure(e.g.,limitingbalconiesoverlooking busyroads)andmaintainingthe filtrationsystemsofmechanically ventilatedbuildingsisessentialtoreduceexposurerisk(Boehmer, Foster,Henry,Woghiren-Akinnifesi,&Yip,2013; Giles-Corti, Ryan,& Foster,2012).
Forotherdesignissues,thereareconsistentlinkswithhealth,althoughtheoutcomesofinterestvary.Studiessupportthatnotionthat housingshouldprovideadequatesunlightaccess,incombinationwith mechanismstomitigateexcessiveexposure.Perceptionsofinadequate lighthavebeenassociatedwithfallsanddepression(Brown&Jacobs, 2011)andahigherprevalenceoftuberculosis(Laietal.,2013), whereasasystematicreviewoftechnologiesthatcontrolnaturallight concludedthatnaturallightingsystemscouldimprovethermaland visualcomfort(Gago,Muneer,Knez,&Köster,2015).Evidencealso emphasisesthepotentialrisksofexcessivesunlightonolderpopulationsduringextremeweatherevents(Vandentorrenetal.,2006).
Foracousticprivacy,abodyofcross-sectionalstudiesshowsthat
exposuretotrafficandneighbournoisecanimpactonresidents'health. Trafficnoisehasbeenassociatedwithhypertension(Babisch,Wölke, Heinrich,&Straff,2014),noiseannoyance(Jakovljevic,Paunovic,& Belojevic,2009)andsleepproblems(Bluhm,Nordling,&Berglind, 2004),butdesignattributes(e.g.,roomorientation,higher floor)could mitigatesomenegativeimpacts(Babischetal.,2014; Bluhmetal., 2004; Jakovljevicetal.,2009).Notably,forapartmentresidents,noise fromneighboursisperceivedaslouderandmoreannoyingthantraffic noise(Wang,Si,Abdul-Rahman,&Wood,2015),withchronicnoise annoyanceassociatedwithhypertension,migrainesanddepressionin adults(Maschke&Niemann,2007),andneighbournoisenegatively impactingonwellbeingandvitality(Guite,Clark,&Ackrill,2006).
Incontrast,otherdesignissueshaveamorelimitedevidencebase, partlyduetotheirindirectassociationswithhealth.Forinstance,indoorspacetypicallyimpactshealthandwellbeingviathemechanismof crowding(Baum&Davis,1980; Evans,Lepore,&Schroeder,1996; Guiteetal.,2006).Feelingovercrowdedpredictspoorwellbeingand vitality(Guiteetal.,2006)andgreaterpsychologicaldistress(Baum& Davis,1980; Evansetal.,1996),althoughdwellingconfiguration(i.e., apartmentdepth,betterdelineationofspaces)canhelpalleviatethe negativeimpactsofcrowding(Baum&Davis,1980; Evansetal.,1996; Evans,Wells,&Moch,2003).Therelationshipbetweenspaceand healthcanalsobecomplicatedbylife-stage,withapartmentsizepositivelyassociatedwithlife-satisfactionforolderadults(65–80years), butdetrimentalforthoseover80(Oswald,Jopp,Rott,&Wahl,2011).
Relativelyfewstudiesexamineoutdoorand/orcommunalspaces andhealth,howeverthesespacesarevitalinhigh-riseapartmentsto facilitate socialcontactandreduceisolationandlonelinessamong women,andprovidetheplayspacesnecessarytoeasechildren'sdistress (Evansetal.,2003).Fromadesignperspective,communalspacesthat arevisible,centrallylocated,andproviderecreationalfeatureshave beenlinkedwithgreatersocialactivity(Easthope&Judd,2010).Indeed,othersmallstudieshighlightconnectionsbetweengardensand lowermentalstressandimprovedqualityoflife(Kimura,Nishiwaki,& Miyata,2008),andscenic/activityspacesandsocialinteraction (Huang,2006).Similarly,theimportanceofoutlook,andinparticular, naturalviewshavebeenassociatedwithwellbeingandsatisfaction (Kaplan,2001),capacitytodirectattention(Tennessen&Cimprich, 1995),andimprovedcognitivefunctioninginchildren(Wells,2000). Greateraccesstonaturehasalsobeenassociatedwithimprovedcognitivefunctioning(Wells,2000)andpsychologicalrestoration (Martinez-Soto,Montero,&Cordova,2014),andareviewconcluded thatexposuretonaturallandscapeswasassociatedwithasuiteofpositivepsychologicaloutcomes(Velarde,Fry,&Tveit,2007).Again, thereisevidencesuggestingdifferenteffectsfordifferentagegroups, witholderadultsvaluinggreeneryandpleasantviewsmorethan youngeradults(Martinez-Sotoetal.,2014).
Insummary,thesestudiesunderscorestrongevidencelinkingnaturalventilationandthermalcomfortwithhealth,consistentevidence linkingsunlightandacousticprivacywithhealth,butcomparatively limitedevidencethatoutlookandindoor/outdoorspaceimpacton health.However,therelativelylimitedevidencebasefortheselatter designfeaturesisafunctionoffewerstudies,andtheindirectpathways thatlinkthesefeatureswithhealth.
1.2.Policyprovisionstodeliverhealthyapartmentdesign
Australiahasalongstandingculturalpreferenceforfree-standing housing,re-enforcedbybothpolicyandmarketdrivers(e.g.,mandated buildingheightlimits)(MacMahon,2001; Randolph,2006).These hinderedhigherdensity(apartment)developmentuntilthelate20th centuryandmaketherecentproliferationofapartmentdevelopment unique.Thesurgeinapartmentdevelopmentalsohighlightedagapin somestateplanningsystems,whereplanningprovisionslargelycatered tosuburbanorlowrisedevelopment,andofferedfewstandardsto deliverqualityapartmentbuildings(UrbanDesignForum,2012;
WesternAustralianPlanningCommission,2018).Forexample,inVictoria,priortothereleaseoftheBetterApartmentsDesignStandardsin 2016,therewasnocomprehensivedesignguidanceforapartmentdevelopmentotherthantheregulationsstipulatedundertheNational ConstructionCode(NCC)(VictoriaStateGovernment,2014).Indeed, severalAustralianstateandterritorygovernmentsandafewlocal councilshaveaddressedthisvacuumbydevelopingandenactingtheir ownapartmentdesignguidelinestocontrolthespatialaspectsof buildingdesign(CityofMelbourne,2013; Mould,2011; NewSouth WalesGovernment,2017; Schlesinger,2014).
Asabuildingcode,theNCCpredominantlyaddressestechnical constructiondetailsandmateriality,ratherthanplanninganddesign perse.NCCregulationsensureminimumlevelsofsafety,health, amenityandsustainabilityinthedesignandconstructionofnew buildingsandnewbuildingworkinexistingbuildings(Australian Government,2016).Apartmentdesignguidelines,ontheotherhand, areaplanningtooltodeliverqualityapartmentdesign.Buildingdevelopmentandapprovalprocesscandifferbetweenstates,however broadlytheprocessentails:(1)apartmentdesignrequirementsand/or planningpolicyprovisionsareaddressedinadevelopmentapplication submittedtolocalgovernment(oradesignreviewpanel)forplanning approval;and(2)oncetheplanningpermitisgranted,thebuilding proceedstomoredetaileddesignphasethataddressesbuildingconstructionandmateriality,andthisisassessedforcomplianceagainstthe NCCbeforethebuildingcanproceedtoconstruction.Thus,ifobserved asintended,theapartmentdesignguidelinesshouldproducewell-designedapartments,whiletheNCCensurestheyarewellconstructed andmeetminimumhealthandsafetystandards.Forexample,NCC specificationsforacousticprivacylargelyrelatetothesoundinsulation standardsandverificationmethods(AustralianGovernment,2016), ratherthanthelayoutandorientationofdifferentroomsandspaces withintheapartmentandbuilding,asisthefocusforsomedesign guidelines(NewSouthWalesGovernment,2017; WesternAustralian PlanningCommission,2019b).
1.3.Studyrationale
Givenrapidurbanisationandaninfluxofapartmentdevelopmentin somecities,examiningthepoliciesusedtobuild,guideorregulatehigh densityhousingisapriority.Agreaterunderstandingofthepolicy environmentanditspotentialtocreatehealthy,equitableapartment housingalignswiththegoalsidentifiedintheUnitedNation's2030 AgendaforSustainableDevelopment(UnitedNations,2018)including promotinghealthandwellbeing(SDGGoal3),sustainablecitiesand communities(SDGGoal11)andreducinginequalities(SDGGoal10).
UsingacasestudyofpoliciesandguidelinesfromacrossAustralia, wereviewedapartmentdesignprovisionsfortheirinclusionofthe designrequirementsthatcouldpromotehealthandwellbeing.Australia hasseenaproliferationofnewapartmentdevelopments,typically clusteredinlargercapitalcities(ABS,2016)andincreasedgovernment interestindetaileddesignguidance.However,therehasbeennoassessmentofwhetherthedesignguidanceforapartmentsincludesprovisionsthatpromotehealth,orcomparisonoftherequirementsthat applyacrossstates.Ifstatesarelackingcomprehensive(healthy)design guidance,aretheyatriskofproducingapartmentsthatjeopardisethe healthofcurrentandfuturegenerationsofresidents?Suchconcernsare compoundedforlowincomegroups,whohavefewerchoicesaboutthe location,designandqualityoftheirdwellings(Gibsonetal.,2011; Howden-Chapmanetal.,2012).Indeed,whenprofitmarginsarelower, designqualitymaybecompromised(Mould,2011)meaningminimum designstandardsmayplayanimportantprotectiveroleforaffordable housing residents.Equally,thereareconcernsthatamarketdrivenby investors'ratherthanowner-occupierswillhaveimplicationsfor apartmentquality(Randolph,2006).
Underpinnedbyanecologicalmodel(Stokols,1992),withafocus onthepolicyenvironmentanditspotentialtoinfluenceabuilt
environmentthatsupportshealth,thisstudyexploreswhetherAustralianstatesaredeliveringhealthypublicpolicy(Milio,2001)byexaminingtheextenttowhichapartmentdesignprovisionsincluderequirementsthatpromoteresidents'healthandwellbeing.Thespecific researchobjectiveswereto:
• Documenttheextenttowhichapartmentdevelopmentguidelinesin Australiaincluderequirementsthatpromoteresidents'healthand wellbeing;
• Compareapartmentdesignguidelinesbetweenjurisdictionsontheir inclusionofhealthpromotingdesignelements;and
• Trackwhetherpolicychangessignalanincreasedawarenessofthe roleofdesigninhealthpromotion.
2.Methods
2.1.Stage1:selectingdesignguidelinesforreview
Stateandlocalgovernmentwebsitesweresearchedforplanning provisionsrelatingtoapartmentdesignanddevelopment.Theintention oftheauditwastoreviewthedesignguidelines/policiesthatshaped themajorityofapartmentdevelopmentinAustralia.Basedonthe2016 census,mostapartmentswereinNewSouthWales(NSW)(47.2%), Victoria(Vic)(22.8%)andQueensland(Qld)(17.4%),whereasWestern Australia(WA)(4.7%),SouthAustralia(SA)(3.8%),AustralianCapital Territory(ACT)(2.0%),NorthernTerritory(NT)(1.1%)andTasmania (1.0%)hadlessapartmentdevelopment(ABS,2016).Designguidelines/policieswereincludediftheyfocusedexclusivelyonapartment designorincludedsubstantialapartmentdesignguidance-however jurisdictionswithacomparativelysmallproportionofapartments(i.e., TasmaniaandNT)hadlittledirectiononapartmentdesignandwere thereforeexcluded.Wherepossible,stateorterritoryguidance(i.e., withthepotentialtoinfluenceallapartmentdevelopmentinthejurisdiction)wasincluded,ratherthanlocalgovernmentcodes.Althougha fewlocalgovernmentshavedevelopedtheirowndesignguidelines (e.g.,Perth,Moreland,Maribyrnong);mosthavebeensupersededby stategovernmentpoliciesandguidelines.
Thestudycoincidedwiththereleaseofnewapartmentdesign standardsforpubliccommentinthreestates – Vic,WAandSA.Thenew VicandWAdesignstandardshavesincebeenintroduced(effective March2017andMay2019respectively),andpubliccommentonthe draftSAguidelineshadclosed,althoughthe finalpolicyhadnotbeen releasedatthetimeofsubmission.Giventheserecentpolicychanges, boththeformerandcurrentpoliciesinVicandWAandthecurrentand proposedpoliciesinSAwereauditedtoexaminepolicyprogressionor regression.
2.2.Stage2:policyoverview
Theoverallaims,applicationandtypeofdesignguidance(i.e., performance-basedorprescriptive)wasextractedforeacheligible policy/guideline(Table1).Aprescriptivecodesetsmandatorystandardsthatmustbemetfordevelopmentapproval,whereasaperformance-basedcodeoutlinestheobjectivestobeachieved,oftenpaired withguidancetohelprealisetheobjectives,butinnovativedesignsolutionsmaybeappliedtosatisfythe ‘qualitativeintent’ oftheobjective (Karotkin,2014).
2.3.Stage3:extractionofhealthpromotingdesignrequirements
Theguidelineswerescreenedfortheirdirectiononthesevenbroad designthemesderivedfromtheliteraturethatcouldimpactonhealth andwellbeing:(1)daylightandsunlight;(2)naturalventilation;(3) thermalcomfort;(4)acousticprivacy;(5)internalspace(including ceilingheightsandcommunalcirculationspaces);(6)outdoorspace (includingprivateoutdoorspaceandcommunalspace);and(7)
Codetype
Application
Performancebased
Allresidentialbuildingsof3+storeyscontaining4+ dwellings
Performancebased
Performancebased
Non-compulsorydesignadvice
Prescriptive&performance-basedcode.Applicationsthatfail tomeetthe ‘ deemedtocomply ’ requirementscanbeassessed againstthedesignprinciples
Allapartmentdevelopments
≤ 4storeys
5+storeys
Allresidentialdevelopment:Part6includes requirementsformultipledwellingsinareascoded ≥ R40withinmixedusedevelopmentandactivity centres
Performancebasedcode
Multipledwelling(apartment)developmentandmixed- usedevelopment
Performancebased.Applicantscanproposealternative solutionsthatdonotcomplywiththeguidelinesyetmeetthe prioritydevelopmentareacriteriaandrelatedprovisions
Standardsformediumrise(3 –6storeys)andhighrise (7+storeys)
Performancebased,includesstandards/measuresbut alternativesolutionscanbeproposedtoachievetheoutcome
AlldevelopmentwithinAdelaideCity:includes medium/highscaleapartments
Non-compulsorydesignadvice.Envisagedasasupporting documenttoanewstatutoryplanningcode
Low-risein fi lldevelopmentsinsuburban/township areas,largerapartmentbuildingsincity/urbanareas
Prescriptive.Non-compliancewithamandatoryrulewill resultintherefusaloftheapplication
Appliestomulti-unithousing
Table1
HigherdensitydesignguidanceineachAustralianstate. StatePolicy/guidance
Objectives
Improvedesignquality;createsustainablehousinginsocialand environmentalterms;achievebetterbuiltformandaestheticsof buildings,streetscapesandpublicspaces;satisfydemandfor housing;meettheneedsofpeoplefromchildhoodtooldage (includingthosewithdisabilities);maximiseamenity,safetyand security;andminimisetheconsumptionofenergyfromnon- renewableresources;conservetheenvironmentandreduce greenhousegasemissions
NSWStateEnvironmentalPlanningPolicy65 (SEPP65)andApartmentDesignGuide
Providedesirableanda ff
ordablehousingchoices;safeand healthylivingenvironment;enhancedliveabilityand sustainability;andalegacyofqualityhousingstockforfuture generations
VicBetterApartmentsDesignStandards (e ff ectiveMarch2017)
Toprovideaclearandconsistentframeworkwithinwhich decisionsabouttheuseanddevelopmentoflandcanbemade. Clause55.07setsoutrequirementsforanapartment development.
VictoriaPlanningProvisionsClause 55.07ApartmentDevelopments
Topromotewell-designedhigher-densityhousinginactivity centresandotherstrategicredevelopmentsitesthatarecloseto publictransport
GuidelinesforHigherDensityResidential Development(supersededby ‘ Better Apartments ’ ).
Provideresidentialdevelopmentofanappropriatedesignforthe intendedresidentialpurpose,density,contextofplaceandscheme objectives;encouragedesignconsiderationofthesocial, environmentalandeconomicopportunitiespossiblefromnew housingandanappropriateresponsetolocalamenityandplace; encouragedesignwhichconsidersandrespectsheritageandlocal culture;andfacilitateresidentialdevelopmentwhicho ff ersfuture residentstheopportunitiesforbetterlivingchoicesand a ff ordability
WAStatePlanningPolicy3.1,Residential DesignCodes(orR-Codes)
Asabove,plusreducedoperationalcostsandsecurityof investmentinthelongterm
StatePlanningPolicy7.3Residential DesignCodesVolume2 –Apartments (releasedMay2019)
Tooutlinethestandardsforthedesignofmediumandhigh-rise buildingsinPriorityDevelopmentAreasinQueensland
QldMediumandHigh-RiseBuildings – PriorityDevelopmentAreaGuidelineNo. 08
Thedevelopmediumtohighscaleresidential(includingstudent accommodation)orservicedapartmentdevelopmentthathasa highstandardofamenityandenvironmentalperformance; comprisesfunctionalinternallayouts;isadaptabletomeeta varietyofaccommodationandlivingneeds;andincludeswell- designedandfunctionalrecreationandstorageareas.
Todeliverarangeofbene fi tsincluding:reducedlivingcosts,more activeandhealthycommunities,thecreationofvibrantand energeticurbancentres,reduceddemandsonsupporting infrastructure,greaterhousingchoiceforanageingpopulation, andsingleandtwo-personhouseholds
SAAdelaideCityDevelopmentPlan
DesignGuidelines:Designqualityand housingchoice(releasedforpublic commentJune2017)
ACTMulti-UnitHousingDevelopmentCodeToprovideadditionalplanning,designandenvironmental controls tosupporttheobjectivesoftherelevantzone
2.Naturalventilation
5a.Indoorspace
5c.Indoorspace
6a.Communalspace
6b.Communalspace
6c.Privateoutdoorspace
7.Outlook
a StateEnvironmentalPlanningPolicy65(SEPP65)andApartmentDesignGuide.
b GuidelinesforHigherDensityResidentialDevelopment.
c StatePlanningProvisionsClause55.07ApartmentDevelopment.
d BetterApartmentsDesignStandards(introducedintoplanningschemesinMarch2017).
e StatePlanningPolicy3.1,ResidentialDesignCodes(orR-Codes).
f StatePlanningPolicy7.3ResidentialDesignCodesVolume2-Apartments.
g MediumandHighRiseBuildings – PriorityDevelopmentAreaGuidelineNo.08.
h AdelaideCityDevelopmentPlan.
i DesignGuidelines:Designqualityandhousingchoice(releasedforpubliccomment).
j Multi-UnitHousingDevelopmentCode.
k BuildingCodeofAustraliaNationalConstructionCode2016.
outlook.Theywereinitiallyauditedfortheirinclusionof any direction relatingtothethemes,regardlessofwhetheritcomprisedgenericadviceandsuggestions,orspecificrequirementsandstandards.TheNCC wasalsoincludedtocomparedesignguidelinerequirementswiththe mandatoryconstructionstandards(Table2).
Next,similartootherpolicyreviews(Jepson&Haines,2014),designrequirementswereextractediftheyincludedapotentiallymeasurablecriterionorstandard,ratherthansimplyoutlininggeneral suggestionstohelpdeliveradesignoutcome(Fig.1).Forexample, guidanceadvocatingarchitectsordevelopers ‘establishsetbacksto adjacentbuildingsandusestoensureadequateamenity’ (TheStateof VictoriaDepartmentofEnvironmentLandWater&Planning,2017) wouldnotqualifyasameasurablestandard,whereasprovisionsoutliningminimumbuildingseparationdistancesbetweenbuildingsat different floors(NSWDepartmentofPlanningandEnvironment,2015) wouldqualify.Similarly,requiringthatbuildings ‘configureinternal apartmentlayoutstooptimisesolaraccessopportunities’ wouldnot qualify(TheStateofVictoriaDepartmentofEnvironmentLandWater& Planning,2017),whereasstipulatingapercentageofapartmentsthat mustreceive2hofdirectsunlightbetween9amand3pmatmidwinter(NSWDepartmentofPlanningandEnvironment,2015)would. Thisprocesshelpedtoidentifythemorerigorouspoliciesandfacilitatedthecomparisonofdesignfeaturesbetweenjurisdictions.Due tothedifferencesinthewordingofspecificrequirementsbetween policies/guidelines,provisionswerecollapsedinto ‘designfeatures’ that reflectedcomparablerequirements(e.g.,acceptableprimaryandsecondarysourcesoflight)undereachbroaddesigntheme(e.g.,daylight/ sunlight)(Fig.1).Asspacestandardsweredirectlycomparable,these metricswerealsodocumentedseparately,withanyNCCstandardsalso includedforreference(Table3).Allrequirementswereextractedand mappedbythe firstandthirdauthors(percentageagreement=94%). Discrepancieswerediscusseduntilconsensuswasreachedontheirinclusion.
Thepolicies/guidelineswereallocatedscoresbasedonhowextensivelytheyaddressedeachdesigntheme(i.e.,didthepolicy/ guidelineincluderequirementsthatrelatedtothedesignfeatures mappedin Fig.1),andassignedatotaloverallscore.Thescoringsystem weightsalldesignfeaturesequallytoprovideasimplequantification andbasicbarometerofwhether(ornot)differentpolicies/guidelines includeprovisionsthatwould,ifdeliveredon-the-groundasintended,
produceapartmentbuildingsthatsupporthealthandwellbeing.Scores computethenumberofhealth-promotingdesignfeaturesaddressedina policy/guideline(numerator),dividedbythetotalnumberofpossible health-promotingdesignfeaturesidentified(denominator).Therefore, ahighscoreindicatesapolicy/guidelinecomprehensivelyaddressesa designtheme,whereasalowscoreindicatesonlyafewdesignfeatures addressed thattheme.Requirementsthatwererelevanttomultiple designthemeswereincludedineachindividualdesignthemescore,but onlycountedonceinthetotaloverallpolicy/guidelinescore.
3.Results
3.1.Policyoverview
Table1 outlinestheplanningpoliciesanddesignguidelinesthat includeprovisionsforapartmentdesign,theiraims,applicationand type(i.e.,performance-basedorprescriptive).Theaimsvariedfrom comprehensiveandaspirational,wherepoliciesaimedtoliftthestandardofapartmentdesignandimprovearangeofoutcomesforresidents andthebroadercommunity(e.g.,security,amenity,ageinginplace, greenhousegasemissions),torudimentaryandprocessfocused(e.g.,to provideplanningcontrols).Notably,fewcodesaspiredtopromotethe healthandwellbeingofresidents.However,theVictorianstandards aimedtoprovide ‘safeandhealthylivingenvironments’ (TheStateof VictoriaDepartmentofEnvironmentLandWater&Planning,2016);the newWApolicy'soverarchingprincipleshighlightedtheroleofgood designinpromotingsocialengagement,physicalactivity,inclusive communitiesandhealthyenvironments(WesternAustralianPlanning Commission,2019a),andtherationaleforseveraldesignobjectives emphasisedlinkswithhealthandwellbeing(e.g.,solaranddaylight access,naturalventilation)(WesternAustralianPlanningCommission, 2019b);andthedraftSAguidelinesaimedtodeliver ‘moreactiveand healthycommunities’ (GovernmentofSouthAustralia,2017).Thisshift inemphasisinstatesundergoingarecentpolicytransitionhighlighted anincreasingawarenesswithingovernmentoftherolethatquality apartmentdesigncouldplayinpromotinghealth.
InAustralia'sfourmostpopulousstates,NSW,Vic,QldandWA, guidelineswerespecificallydedicatedtoapartmentdevelopment(New SouthWalesGovernment,2017; StateofQueenslandDepartmentof InfrastructureLocalGovernmentandPlanning,2015; TheStateof Table2 Keydesignthemesaddressed(inanyway)byeachstatecode.
Comparisonofmeasurablehealth-promotingrequirementsincludedinapartmentdesignguidelines.
VictoriaDepartmentofEnvironmentLandWater&Planning,2016; WesternAustralianPlanningCommission,2019b).Incontrast,other jurisdictionsincludedapartmentdesignrequirementswithinbroader planningpolicies.Forexample,inSAthecurrentpolicyappliedtoresidentialdevelopmentmorebroadlybutincludedrequirementsspecific tohigherdensitydevelopment(GovernmentofSouthAustralia,2015). Vichadplanningprovisionsthatrelatedtoapartmentdevelopmentfour storeysorless(StateGovernmentofVictoria,2018),andguidelinesfor apartmentbuildingswith fiveormorestoreys(TheStateofVictoria DepartmentofEnvironmentLandWater&Planning,2017).ThepreviousVicguideline,alsoincludedinthisreview,providedonlynoncompulsorydesignadvice(VictorianGovernmentDepartmentof SustainabilityandEnvironment,2004).Policies/guidelineswerepredominantlyperformance-based,withtheexceptionofACT(prescriptive)andformerWApolicywhereapplicationscouldbeassessed onprescriptiveorperformance-basedcriteria.
Table2 providesanoverviewofthedesignthemesaddressedwith standardsorgeneraldesignsuggestions,byeachpolicy/guideline.This rangesfromclearstandardstogenericdesignadviceintendedtohelp achievebetterapartmentdesign.Ofthecurrentcodes,NSW,WAand Vic(≥5storeys)hadthemostcomprehensiveapartmentdesignguidancewithalldesignthemesaddressed.Attheotherextreme,the formerpolicyinWA(i.e.,StatePlanningPolicy3.1)providedonly modestdirection – validatingtheneedforanewpolicy(Western AustralianPlanningCommission,2019b).Indeed,acomparisonofthe guidelinesinthethreestatesundergoing(orproposing)policychange (i.e.,Vic,WAandSA)revealedanappetiteformoredetailedapartment designguidanceasboththeproposedguidelinesinSA,andtherecently introducedguidelinesinVicandWA,arefarmoredetailedthanthe documentstheyreplace.Notably,theproposedWApolicylargely
emulatesthemorecomprehensiveSEPP65inNSW.
Fig.1 presentsonlythoserequirementsorstandardsthat couldbe objectivelyassessedormeasuredtobetterenableadirectcomparisonof thesubstanceandbreadthofthepolicies/guidelines.Ifarequirement exists,cellsareshadedinblack(forcurrent/activeguidance)orgrey (formerorproposedguidance).Thegreaterdetailprovidessomenoteworthyinsights.Forinstance,in Table2,theprovisionsinNSW,Vic (≥5storeys)andWAappearcomparable,however Fig.1 indicatesthat theNSWdesignguidelinesaremorecomprehensive,withmorespecific designrequirementsacrossmostauditthemes.
3.2.Apartmentdesignguidelinesthatsupporthealthandwellbeing
Thetotalscoresindicatethat,ofthecurrent(active)policies,NSW hasthemostcomprehensivehealth-promotingguidelines(i.e.,83%of allextractedrequirementsincluded),followedbythenewWApolicy (75%)andVic(54%);however,Vicwouldbedisplacedbytheproposed SAguidelines(63%)ifthesearereleasedasdrafted.Scoresforstatesin policytransitionshowthenewlyintroducedorproposedguidelinesare farmorecomprehensivethanthosetheyreplace(i.e.,Vic:4%to54%; WA:11%to75%;SA:20%to63%).Patternswithineachdesigntheme werelargelyconsistentwiththis,withthemorerecentpolicies(i.e., NSW,Vic(≥5storeys),WAandproposedSA)deliveringmoredesign featuresthatcouldimpacthealthandwellbeing.Therequirementsrelatingtoeachdesignthemeareaddressedbelow.
3.2.1.Daylight/sunlight
Theneedtobalanceadequatesunlightexposure,combinedwith mechanismstomitigateexcessiveexposure,wasreflectedintherange ofdesignrequirements.However,onlyNSW,WAandtheproposedSA
2.5×ceiling height(3×withfull heightglazing)
3×ceiling height
Depth6m(ifceiling ≥ 2.4m),Depth6.75m(if ceiling ≥ 2.7m)
2.5×ceilingheight, increaseto9mdepth subjecttoconditions
2.5×ceilingheight, increaseto9mdepth subjecttoconditions
Roomsizes Habitableroomdepths(max)
Singleaspecthabitableroom
Openplanlayouts
1 StateEnvironmentalPlanningPolicy65(SEPP65)andApartmentDesignGuide.
2 GuidelinesforHigherDensityResidentialDevelopment..
3 StatePlanningProvisionsClause55.07ApartmentDevelopment.
4 BetterApartmentsDesignStandards(introducedintoplanningschemesinMarch2017).
5 StatePlanningPolicy3.1,ResidentialDesignCodes(orR-Codes).
6 StatePlanningPolicy7.3ResidentialDesignCodesVolume2-Apartments.
7 MediumandHighRiseBuildings –PriorityDevelopmentAreaGuidelineNo.08.
8 AdelaideCityDevelopmentPlan.
9 DesignGuidelines:Designqualityandhousingchoice(releasedforpubliccomment).
10 Multi-UnitHousingDevelopmentCode.
11 BuildingCodeofAustraliaNationalConstructionCode2016.
a In ≥ 3storeyapartments&commercialzones.
b Measured fl oorto fl oor. c ForareaszonedR40-R60(areaszonedR80+arebasedonlocalstructure/developmentplan).
d Heightofnot<2.2mfornotlessthantwo-thirdsofthe fl oorareaoftheattic.
e BetterApartmentspolicystipulatesthatthedepthofsingleaspecthabitableroomscanbeincreasedto9mprovidedtheroom:(1)combinesliving,diningandkitchen;(2)thekitchenislocatedfurthestfromthe window;and(3)ceilingheightsareatleast2.7m.
guidelinesprovidedcomprehensivedirectiononbothexposureto sunlight and controlofsunlight(allscoring80%).Attheotherextreme, theformerVictorianandWAguidelinesprovidedtheleastdirectionto facilitateandmanagesunlightaccess(bothincludedjustoneofthe auditedrequirements)againvalidatingtheintroductionofnewcomprehensivedesignpoliciesinthesestates.
3.2.2.Naturalventilation
Despitestrongevidenceontheimportanceofnaturalventilationfor health,onlyhalfoftherevieweddocumentsscoredover50%.NSW providedmostdesignguidancetomaximisenaturalventilation,scoring 100%,andthiswascloselyfollowedbythenewWAstandardswith 86%.ThecurrentSA,QldandACTcodesprovidedminimaldirection (i.e.,scoresrangedfrom0%to29%).OnlyNSW,VicandWA,andthe proposedSAcodes,requiredthataproportionofapartmentshave cross-ventilation,althoughthestipulatedproportionsdiffered(i.e., NSWandWArequired60%ofapartmentsinthe firstninestoreysbe cross-ventilated,whereasVicrequiredthat40%ofapartmentsachieved effectivecross-ventilation),andjustfourjurisdictions(i.e.,NSW,Vic, WA,ACT)stipulatedthatallhabitableroomshaveanexternalwindow (thisisalsoincludedintheproposedSAguidelines).
3.2.3.Acousticprivacy
Thereisconsistentevidencethatexposuretonoisefromtrafficand neighbourscanimpactonhealthandwellbeingoutcomes,yetfew currentguidelinesincorporatedmeasuresthatcomprehensivelyaddressedacousticprivacy.AcousticprivacywasbestaddressedbyNSW, WAandVic(scoring75%,63%and50%respectively)andtheproposed SAguidelines(75%).Incontrast,neithertheQldpolicy,formerVic guidelines,norformerWApolicyincludedanydesignrequirements thatweremappedunderthistheme(i.e.,scoring0%).
3.2.4.Thermalcomfort
Thereisstrongevidencethattheprovisionofthermalcomfortenhancesresidents'health,howeverthedesignguidelinesprovided minimaldirectiononthermalcomfort,withtheexceptionofNSW,Vic andWA(scoring86%,100%and71%respectively)whichincorporated arangeofmeasuresincludingapartmentaspect,useofsmartglass technologies,maximisingthermalmassinnorthfacingwalls,insulation measuresandsunshadingdevises.Thisthemewouldhavebeenonly sparselyaddressed,ifnotfortherecentpolicychangesinVic(2017) andWA(2019)(i.e.,scoresincreasedfrom0%).Otherstateshadrelativelyfewdesignrequirementsrelatingtothermalcomfort,exceptfor theproposedSAguideline(71%)whichincludedsimilarmeasuresto thoseadoptedinNSW,VicandWA.
3.2.5.Indoorspace
Whiledirectevidenceontheassociationbetweenindoorapartment spaceandhealthwasmorelimitedcomparedtootherthemes,many statesincludedrequirementstoensurespacewassufficientand/or functional.Forbothceilingheightsandapartmentsize,NSWincluded themostcomprehensivesuiteofrequirements(scoring83%and100% respectively),whereasVicincludedthemostmeasuresrelatingtoroom size(scoring78%).Attheotherextreme,theQld,currentSAandACT policiesincludednoprovisionsforroomsize(allscoring0%)andrelativelyfewforceilingheightsandapartmentsizes.Whilefewstates comprehensivelyaddressedceilingheights(excludingNSWandtoa lesserextent,WA)therearedefaultceilingheightprovisionsinthe NCC;howevertheseminimumheightsareslightlylowerthanthose stipulatedinthedesignpolicies(e.g.,2.4mforahabitableroominthe NCCversus2.7minNSW,WAandtheproposedSApolicy)(Table3).
Severalstateshadstandardsforminimumapartmentsizes(i.e., NSW,WA,SAandACT),howevertherewasvariabilityinthemetric applied.Forinstance,spacestandardsforapartmentsizesdifferedby 5m2 forstudios,andupto15m2 forthree-bedroomapartments.The previousWApolicyappliedasingleminimumsizeof40m2 forall
dwellings,howeverthenewWAcodeappliesdifferentmetricsfordifferentapartmenttypes.DespitedrawingheavilyonNSW,theminimum apartmentsizesinWAarelargerthanNSWforstudios(i.e.,35m2 vs. 37m2),butsmallerforone(i.e.,47m2 vs.50m2)andtwo-bedroom apartments(67m2 vs.70m2).Incontrast,neithertheVicnorQldpoliciessetminimumapartmentsizes.
3.2.6.Outdoorspace
Nostudiesintheformativeliteraturereviewexaminedprivateopen spaceandhealth,yetthiswasaddressedbyallstates.Balconiescould beconceptualisedasanextensionofprivate(internal)space,potentiallyaccountingfortheirbetteruptakeinthedesignguidelines. However,asshownin Table3,therewasvariationinthestandard applied,withadifferenceofupto5m2 forstudiosandone-bedroom apartments(basedoncurrentpolicies),andupto10m2 fortwoand three-bedroomapartments.Minimumstandardsforbalconysizestypicallyincreasedwithapartmentsize,withtheexceptionofACT,which hadasinglemetricregardlessofapartmenttype.
Severalstudiessuggestedtheprovisionofcommunalspaces,and morespecificallytheactivitiestheysupport,couldimpactonwellbeing. Provisionsdirectingthelocation,sizeanddesignofcommunaloutdoor spacewasinconsistentacrossstates,rangingfromverycomprehensive (i.e.,NSW,VicandWAallscored86%)tominimal(i.e.,SA,ACTand formerWAallscored14%).Themostcomprehensivepoliciesstipulated theproportionofthesiteallocatedtoopenspace,itsminimumdimensions,directsunlighttothespace,provisionofdifferentfacilities, anddeepsoilzonesand/orprovisionsfortrees.Incomparison,there wassparseguidanceonthedesignofcirculationspaces,withtheexceptionofNSW,thenewWApolicy(scoring86%and100%respectively),thedraftSAguidelines(57%)andACT(43%).
3.2.7.Outlook
Despiterelativelylimitedevidenceontheimportanceofoutlookin higherdensitysettings,theprovisionsacrossallstatesincludedrequirementsfororientatingbuildingsorlivingareastooverlookthe streetsorcommunalopenspaces,andall(exceptVicandSA)provided specificrequirementsforsetbacks(thesemeasuresarealsoaimedat improvingcommunityamenity,increasingnaturalsurveillanceand improvingsafetyfromcrime).WhilesideandrearsetbacksareaddressedinthenewVicpolicy,thelanguageisweakerthanotherstate guidelineswhichspecifysetbackdistances.TheViccoderecommends ‘abuildingshouldbesetbacka reasonable distancefromsideandrear boundaries’,andasnomeasurablestandardwasdefined,itdidnot meettheinclusioncriteriafor Fig.1 (TheStateofVictoriaDepartment ofEnvironmentLandWater&Planning,2016).
4.Discussion
Givenrapidurbanpopulationgrowthglobally,understandingthe governanceassociatedwithunprecedentedapartmentconstructionisa priority(UnitedNations,2017).WeauditedapartmentdesignprovisionsinAustraliatoassesstheextenttowhichthedirectionprovided couldsupporthealthandwellbeing.ThisistimelybecausetheprovisionanddesignofapartmentsissubjecttointensedebatewithinAustralia,underpinnedbyconcernsaboutthenegativeimpactsofpoor designonbuildingresidents(CityofMelbourne,2013; Nethercote& Horne,2016; Randolph,2006; StateGovernmentofVictoria,2015). Ourpolicyauditfoundthatonlytwocurrentapartmentdesignpolicies (i.e.,SEPP65inNSWandtherecentlyintroducedWApolicy)comprehensivelyaddressedalldesignthemeswithmeasurabledesignstandardsorcriteria,suggestingincreasedpolicycompliancecouldpositivelyimpactonresidents'healthandwellbeing.
Acrossthejurisdictions,therewasconsiderablediversityinthe provisionofdesignrequirementsthatwouldpromotehealth.Theinclusionofboththerecentlysupersededandproposedguidelinesrevealedacleartrendtowardstheintroductionofmorecomprehensive
health-enhancingdesignpolicies.However,therewasalackofagreementaboutsomerequirements,forexample,evenwherearequirement wasconsideredsufficientlyimportanttowarrantathresholdor minimumstandard(e.g.,apartmentsize),thereweredifferingperspectivesonwherethestandardshouldbeset.Thisunderscoresthe needforanevidencebasetoinformpolicydecisionsaboutapartment standardsthatwouldbehealth-promoting,ratherthanrelyingonopinionorindustrybestpractice.
Thepolicyreviewandhealthauditalsohighlightedamismatch betweenthehealthevidenceandpolicyprovisions.Theauditthemes wereinformedbyaliteraturereviewthatidentifiedastrongevidence baseassociatingsomedesignthemeswithhealth,whereastheevidence wasbestclassifiedas ‘emerging’ forothers.However,therewasinconsistentalignmentbetweenthestrengthoftheevidenceandthelevel ofdesignguidanceprovided.Forexample,therewasstrongand/or consistentevidenceunderscoringtheimportanceofthermalcomfort andacousticprivacytoresidents'health,howeveronlythreestateshad policies/guidelineswithquantifiabledesignrequirementsthataddressedthesethemes.Conversely,therewasrelativelysparsehealth evidenceonroleofcommunalandprivateoutdoorspace,yetallstates hadcurrentpolicies/guidelineswithdesignrequirementsaddressing thesethemes.
Unsurprisingly,therewascleareralignmentbetweenthedesign themescoveredbytheNCC,whichhasanexplicitagendatoset minimumrequirementsforhealthandsafety,andthehealthevidence. TheNCCaddressednaturalventilation,thermalcomfort,sunlightexposure,andacousticprivacy(wheretheevidencewasstrongorconsistent);butoverlookedindoor,communalandprivateoutdoorspace, andoutlook(whichhadacomparativelylimitedevidencebase).Ceiling height(includedintheNCC)wasnotdirectlyassociatedwithhealthin ourreview,butimpactsonsunlightexposureandnaturalventilation, thusadheringtothepatternabove.Basedontheaudit,thedesign guidelinessupplementandextendtheNCCbyprovidingdesigndirectiononthespaceandoutlookthemesthatfalloutsidethescopeofthe NCC,andbysettingmoreaspirationalbenchmarksforsomedesign themes(e.g.,higherceilingheightprovisions,restrictingtheuseof borrowedlight).WhiledesignguidelinesoftenstipulatehigherstandardsthantheNCCtohelpachieveaplanningpolicy'sdesignprinciples,therecommended ‘standards’ maynotbeenforcedifthebuilding designmeetsthepolicyobjectiveviaanalternative,innovativedesign solution(WesternAustralianPlanningCommission,2019b).
4.1.Applyingdifferentminimumstandards
ThedifferencesindesignguidanceprovidedacrossAustralian states,andarbitrarynatureofsomerequirements,isperhapsbestarticulatedusingtheexampleofminimumspacestandards.Four Australianstates/territorieswithauditedpoliciesincludedminimum internalspacestandardsandallsixstates/territorieshadprivateoutdoorspacestandards;however,thespecifiedminimumsdiffered.While somedifferenceswererelativelysmall,whenframedin ‘lifestyleterms’ , theycouldnonethelessimpacttheversatility,useofspaceandfuture adaptabilityoftheseapartments.Toillustrate,theRoyalInstituteof BritishArchitects(RIBA)suggests3m2 equatestoathree-seatsofa,a deskandchair,4m2 equatestoasinglebed,abedsidetableanda dressingtablewithastool;and8m2 toasinglebedroom(RobertsHughes,2011).Thus,evenseeminglysmallpolicydiscrepanciesbetweenspacestandardswouldhaverealimplicationsforhowresidents areabletouse(andfurnish)theirhomes,particularlyatthesmallerend ofthemarket.Thesedifferencesinspacestandards,withinthesame country,highlighttheapparentarbitrarinessofsomestandards.
Comparisonwithinternationalapartmentstandardsfurtherhighlightsthelackofconsensusaboutif,andwhere,tosetminimum standards.ComparedtotheAustralianrange,Irishinternalspacerequirementsallowsmallerone-bedroom(i.e.,45m2),butlargertwobedroomapartments(73m2)(DepartmentoftheEnvironment,2015).
Otherinternationalexamplesarelessdirectlycomparableasminimums increasewiththeintendedoccupancy,forinstance,thecurrentLondon Planhasminimumsthatrangefrom37m2 foraone-bedroomwitha singleoccupantupto50m2 foraone-bedroomhousingtwopeople (MayorofLondon,2016),andGermanstandardsarecomparatively generous(i.e.,48m2 foraone-bedroomsingleoccupancyand60m2 for adualoccupancy)(Roberts-Hughes,2011).Whilethestatedoccupancy maybeideal,thereisevidencetosuggestthatproposedoccupancy ratesareunlikelytobeobserved:aUKstudyintospaceshortagesfound that42%ofhomeswereunder-occupied,withlevelsofunder-occupationthoughttorelatetoalackofspace(e.g.,usingasparebedroomasa studyorforstorage)(Morgan&Cruickshank,2014).However,todate, thereappearstobelittleclarityonwhetherthespacestandardsstipulated,withinAustraliaorinternationally,aresufficienttosupport healthandwellbeing.
Whiletheevidenceontheamountofinternal/outdoorspacerequiredtopromotehealthissomewhatlimited,spacealsoinfluences apartmentfunctionanduse(Gallent,Madeddu,&Mace,2010).The provisionofadequatestorageandspaceforprivacy,theversatilityof livingareasandbedrooms,andcapacitytoentertainvisitorsoraccommodatechangestothehouseholdimpactontheusefulnessofspace andhousingsatisfaction(Morgan&Cruickshank,2014).Inturn,this hasimplicationsforfamily(orhousehold)relationships,andstressand anxiety(Evans,2003).However,itisworthnotingthedistinctionbetweentheprovisionofspaceandthelayoutofthatspace.Thereisan argumentthatawell-designedsmallapartmentcouldprovidegreater amenitythanalarger,poorlydesignedapartment(Schlesinger,2014). Whilethereareundoubtedlyexamplesofqualitydesignthatmake smallerspacesfunctional,questionsremainastowhetherhighquality designwillperforatethesmallapartmentmarket,assomedevelopers maynotstrivetodevelopqualityfunctionalspaces.Previousanalyses oftheUKhousingmarketby Gallentetal.(2010) suggestthatprivately developedhousingfulfilsitspurposewhentheproductsells,asdevelopers ‘havenoneedtoconsiderthe ‘whole-life-costs’ withintheir businessmodels-thefutureutilityofhomesissimplyoutsidetheir rangeofconcern’ (Gallentetal.,2010).Thissuggeststhatminimum designstandardsmaybeanimportanttooltodeliveralevelofdesign qualityinaffordablehousing,bothwithinAustraliaandinternationally.
4.2.Doestheexistenceofdesignprovisionsmeantheywillbeimplemented?
Asshowninthepolicyaudit,thereweremarkeddifferencesinthe guidanceprovided.However,therewasalsoevidenceofpolicydiffusionbetweenstates – thenewWApolicyanddesignguidelinesdraw heavilyonSEPP65(NSW),andlargelyadoptthesamethemes,structure,requirementsandlanguage.DespiteusingtheNSWtemplate,the WAversionislesscomprehensive,withsomerequirementshavingbeen removedorweakenedafterthepublicconsultationandreviewprocess. ThispolicyattenuationreplicateswhatoccurredinVic,whereacomparisonofthedraftand finalVictorianstandardsrevealedthatseveral standardswererelaxedorremovedafterpubliccomment.Nonetheless, therecentintroductionofmoredetaileddesignpoliciessuggeststhat stategovernmentsareincreasinglyacknowledgingtheneedfordesign guidanceandstandardstodeliverbetterquality,andpotentiallyhealthier,apartments.
Butdoestheexistenceofcomprehensivedesignguidancenecessarilymeantheseprovisionswillbeadoptedbyarchitectsandbuilding designers,orenforcedbydevelopmentreviewprocesses?Thereare severalfactorsthatinfluencewhetherthedesignguidanceisimplemented ‘on-the-ground’ asintendedordiluted.First,policyattenuationmaystemfromthelanguageofthedesignguidance-whether itcomprisesgeneralsuggestionsorisaction-based(e.g.,mustversus could/should),andspecifies minimumdesignstandards.Second,the regulationsregardingthequalificationsandcompetenciesofthe buildingdesignercouldimpactondesignquality.Specificationsforthe buildingdesignercouldrangefrom:(1)noregulation,wherebyanyone
candesignabuildinganditisassessedonitsmeritsagainstthedesign guide;(2)competencystandards,wherebyonlyanarchitectoraccreditedbuildingdesignercandesignthedevelopment;or(3)threshold basedstandards,wherebyonlyaregisteredarchitectcandesign buildingsoveraspecifiedsizeorscale(DepartmentofPlanningetal., 2016).Notably,SEPP65inNSWstipulatesthataqualifieddesigner (i.e.,aregisteredarchitect)mustdesignapartmentbuildingsofthreeor morestoreys(NewSouthWalesGovernment,2017).Third,thebuilding approvalprocessmayimpactwhetherdesignstandardsareenforcedas theremaybedifferencesin:(1)theinterpretationofdesigncodes, particularlyintheapplicationofperformance-basedcodes;(2)the processforthereview(i.e.,designreviewpanelsarenotmandatory acrossalljurisdictions);(3)theexpertiseofthosereviewingthedevelopment;and(4)thedevelopmentapprovalmayenabletheperformancestandardstobevaried.Todate,thereappearstobenocomprehensiveevaluation,eitherwithinAustraliaorinternationally, assessingwhetherapartmentdesignpoliciesareimplemented ‘on-theground’ asintended.
5.Futureresearch
Thereisgrowingawarenessofthepooralignmentbetweenthetype ofevidencerequiredbypractitionersandpolicymakerstoinformtheir practicesandpolicies,andthetypeofevidencetypicallyprovidedby healthresearchers.Evidence-basedpublichealthrecommendationsto plannersandpolicymakersareoftenprovidedwithoutanyobvious linkstoexistingpractices,policiesorlegislation(Allender,Cavill, Parker,&Foster,2009).Indeed,onecriticismofthestudiesaddressing designissuesandhealthisthattheygenerallylackthespecificity neededtoinformdesignpolicy.Forexample,fewstudiesdocumented theinternalsizeofthedwellingsintheirsample,makingitdifficultto drawconclusionsabouthowmuchspacemightpositivelyimpactresidents'healthandwellbeing,andnonetestedwhethertherewasa thresholdamountofspaceperpersonthatimpactedonhealth.
Further,noneofthehealthstudiesreviewedappearedtobasetheir measurementandanalysisofthedesignandfeaturesofhigherdensity dwellingsontheplanningpolicies(and,whereapplicable,standards) thatunderpinnedtheprovisionofthebuildings(i.e.,thereappearstobe noevaluationofthe ‘on-the-ground’ impactofdesignrequirementsor standards).Tohelpprogressthetranslationofhealthresearchintothe planninganddesignof ‘healthy’ apartments,researchisrequiredthat assessestheimpactofplanningregulationsandpoliciesonhealthand wellbeing,throughtheevaluationofthepoliciesthatdictatethecurrentpracticesandon-grounddeliverables(Brownson&Jones,2009; Durand,Andalib,Dunton,Wolch,&Pentz,2011; Sallisetal.,2009).To date,thereremainsashortageofresearchassessingtheapplicationand provisionofdesignpolicies,howtheirstandards,guidelinesorrecommendationsaredeliveredon-the-ground,andwhethertheyimpact thehealthandwellbeingofresidents – usingpolicyspecificmeasures.
Otherquestionsemergedfromthisauditthatcouldhelpshapefutureresearch.Fromapolicyperspective,thereisalackofstudiesassessingwhethertheapplicationofmorecomprehensivedesignguidelinesimprovesbuildingdesignquality,andinturn,enhancesresidents' healthandwellbeing.Furthermore,thereislittleclarityonwhich specificpolicyrequirementsshouldbeprioritisedfromahealthperceptive,orwhetherthecurrentstandardsortargetsstipulatedare sufficienttosupporthealthandwellbeingoutcomes.Finally,thisaudit focusedonspecificdesignthemesknowntoimpacthealth,however otherdesignfeaturesalsocontributetotheexperienceofapartment living(e.g.,storage,car/bikeparking,lighting,universaldesign).While thesefeaturesmightnotdirectlyimpactonhealthandwellbeing,they nonetheless contributetotheeaseoflong-termapartmentliving,and manypoliciesincludestandardsforsuchfeatures.Giventheevidence thatapartmentandneighbourhoodsatisfactioncanreduceresidential mobilityandenhancementalhealth(Giles-Cortietal.,2012),these indirectfactorsmaybeworthyofinvestigationinfuturestudies.
6.Limitations
Thisstudyhasseverallimitations.First,ourauditwasstructured aroundsevenbroaddesignthemesidentifiedasimpactingonarangeof healthandwellbeingoutcomes.Asnoted,somepolicies/guidelines includedotherrequirementsthatmayindirectlyimpacthealthand wellbeinghowever,thesewereexcludedfromtheaudit.Furthermore, measuresintendedtopromoteenergyefficiencywerelargelyaddressed viarequirementsthatpromotenaturalventilation,sunlightaccessand thermalcomfort,andsummarisedunderthesethemesgiventheir strongassociationswithhealthandwellbeing.
Second,ourscoringsystemweightedeachrequirementequally, howeverweacknowledgeitisunlikelythatallpolicyrequirementswill beofequalimportancetohealthandwellbeing.Assuch,werecommendthatfuturestudiesunpackthepoliciesfurthertoassessthe relativeinfluenceoftheindividualrequirements,orcombinationsof requirements,thataccountforthegreatestvarianceinhealth.This couldhelpestablishahierarchyofthedesignrequirements(i.e.,essential,important,andsupportive)thatcouldbemandatedinfuture designpoliciestopromoteresident'shealthandwellbeing.Third,our auditfocusedonapartmentdesignguidelines,withtheNCCrequirementsincludedforcomparison.TheNCCunderpinsallbuildingconstructioninAustraliaandalsoincludessomedesign-relatedminimum requirements.Anequallyimportantissue,notaddressedinthisstudy,is whetherthesebaselevelconstructionstandardsarebeingimplemented asintendedandaresufficienttopromotehealthandwellbeing.
Finally,thisauditfocusedonapartmentdesign,howeverother factorsarerelevanttothehealthandwellbeingofurbandwellingsthat requireinvestigation.Forexample,policiesarerequiredthatprotect thetenureoftenantsashousinginstabilityisamajorfactorinfluencing mentalhealthoutcomes.Similarly,buildinggovernanceiscriticalbecauseinpoorlygovernedbuildingsthatfallintodisrepair,thosewho canwillmove,leavingonlythemostdisadvantagedtoexperiencea cycleofdisrepairanddecline(Giles-Cortietal.,2012).Theseissuesare beyondthescopeofthisstudybutarehighlyrelevanttootherpolicies relatedtoapartmentlivinginrapidlyurbanisingcities.Furthermore, thereisaconsiderablebodyofevidencehighlightingtheimportanceof thebuildinglocationtohealthandwellbeing.Thewiderneighbourhoodsettingcansupporthealthierbehavioursandinteractions,but equallycertainneighbourhoodcharacteristicsmaynegativelyimpact residents'health(Fosteretal.,2017; Foster,Hooper,Knuiman,Bull,& Giles-Corti,2016; Leyden,2003; Pereira,Wood,Foster,&Haggar, 2013; Popova,Giesbrecht,Bekmuradov,&Patra,2009; Rogers, Halstead,Gardner,&Carlson,2011; Woodetal.,2008).Importantly, thewiderneighbourhoodinfluencesonhealthandwellbeingmaybe intensifiedindisadvantagedareas,whicharecharacterisedbymore physicaldisorder,crime,trafficexposureandpooreraccesstolocal amenity(Braubach&Fairburn,2010; Foster,Hooper,Knuiman,Trapp, &Wood,2017; Marmot&Wilkinson,2006).Thus,lowerincomeresidentsmayexperienceadoubledisadvantageiftheirbuildingispoorly designedandtheirneighbourhoodsettingunsupportive.
7.Conclusion
Againstaglobalbackgroundofrapidurbanisation,population growthandcallsformorecompactcities(Giles-Cortietal.,2016), apartmentdevelopmenthasproliferatedinmajorAustraliancities (Shoory, 2016).WeidentifiedconsiderablediversityinapartmentdesignguidanceacrossAustralia,withsomejurisdictionsvastlymore comprehensivethanothers,suggestingthatifimplementedasintended, theycouldpromotehealthandwellbeingforapartmentresidents. Conversely,jurisdictionswithminimalapartmentdesignguidance couldproduceapartmentbuildingsthatpotentiallycompromisehealth.
Notably,wherestateshaddevelopeddesignguidelinesspecifically forapartmentdevelopment,theyincludedconsiderablymoredesign provisionsthatcouldpositivelyimpactresidents'health.Therewas
clearpolicydiffusionbetweenstates,andanapparentawarenessamong stategovernmentsthatbyintroducingcomprehensivedesignpolicies, theycouldimprovedesignquality.However,despitethisdiffusion, therewasstillalackofconsensusaboutwhereminimumspacestandards,inparticular,shouldbeset.Futureresearchisrequiredtoassess whethertheguidelinesareimplementedasintended,andwhethermore comprehensivedesignguidelinespromotehealthandwellbeing.
Acknowledgements
SFissupportedbyanAustralianResearchCouncilDiscoveryEarly CareerResearcherAward(DECRA)(DE160100140)andRMITViceChancellor’sResearchFellowship,PHbyaHealthwayResearch Fellowship(#32992)andtheAustralianUrbanDesignResearch Centre,andBGCbyaNationalHealthandMedicalResearchCouncil SeniorPrincipalResearchFellowship(#1107672).
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