Emergent Structures by AO

EMERGENT STRUCTURES ___________________________________________________________________________

How might its form and materiality inform the morphology and environmental performance of thermal labyrinths in a transitional space?

Augustine ONG WING

EMERGENT STRUCTURES ____________________________________________________________

How can its form and materiality inform the morphology and environmental performance of thermal labyrinths in a transitional space?

Augustine ONG WING Thesis Tutor: Tim Lucas

BENV GA05 Thesis Student No: 803004

Acknowledgement I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis tutor Tim Lucas for his excellent guidance, patience, and knowledge, My research would not have been possible without his sincere guidance.

Abstract _______________________________________________________

How might the form and materiality of emergent structures inform the morphology and environmental performance of thermal labyrinths in a transitional space? The purpose of the thesis is to explore emergent structures as a defining driver, furthermore design generator to create a new morphology in themal labyrinths. In nature, the structures of organisms such as termite mounds and lungs rely on its ability to use its emergent branching structures and high surface to volume ratios to mediate the flow of energy and matter between the organism and its environment. This thesis provide, firstly, an analytical understanding of the principles of emergent structure, their performative capabilities and, secondly, a technical awareness of the key parameters in the structural morphology needed to create a series of integrated thermal labyrinths that functions as an integrated â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;lungâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; system for a transitional space in Belgrade. The thesis is organised in three main sections, the first part is a technical study of animal-built structures revealing the geometrical and hierarchical organisation of the natural structures critical to their performative capacity. Emergent perfomative geometries are computationally simulated. The second section focuses on the technical study of environmental strategies to establish a comfortable environment of a building. The third section informs possible construction strategies of non-standard geometries with compacted snow and sprayed concrete in the realisation of the proposal to incorporate the properties of material research on emergent forms to the fabric and programme of the building. The research methodology develops an architectural knowledge through a gradual agglomeration of design tools and analysis outcomes. This thesis is about how emergent structures can inform building systems, but it also is about a question of broader interest in the fields of engineering, material science, and computational design. By extracting information from diverse disciplines such as Biology, Engineering, Building Services/ Mechanical Services, Environmental Design. Material Science, this thesis seeks to establish an interdisciplinary notion of emergent structures.

Fig 0.0.1 (left) Integrated Transitional Labyrinth System.

CONTENTS Abstract Contents

-8 - 10

Introduction - 14 1.0 - Form and Materiality of Emergent Structures - 16 ________________________________________________________ 1.1 - Emergent Forms in Natural and Artificial Systems - 17

2.0 - Morphology of Performative Emergent Structures - 26

________________________________________________________

2.1 - Form and Structure of Passive Building Systems 2.2 - Site Relevance and Environmental Context - 34 2.3 - Performative Emergent Geometries - 44

- 27

3.0 - Environmental Performance: Emergent Structures in Transitional Spaces - 60 _______________________________________________________ 3.1 - Zero Waste Formworks: Fabricating Emergent Structures 3.2 - Environmental Strategy: Transitional Labyrinths - 79

Conclusion - 92 Bibliography - 103

Fig 0.0.2 (left) Mapping possible spatial and programmatic links on massing study model.

- 62

Introduction

_______________________________________________________

The thesis is about Emergent Structures and how its form and materiality might inform the morphology and environmental performance of thermal labyrinths in a transitional space. The first section will first look at emergent structures in natural systems and artificial systems. Living organisms have evolved well-adapted emergent structures and materials systems over geological time through natural selection. It identifies emergence as a framework to understand naturally occurring forms and structures that functions as ‘organs of physiology’ for the organism.

Introduction

_____________________________________

The second section part of the research sets out to question the possibility of integrating emergent structures into building systems such as thermal labyrinths. Structural and geometrical parameters in are also identified and simulated such as large surface areas and thermal mass capacity. Key parameters of performance and site relevant issues are identified, including thermal and physical comfort parameters. The large diurnal temperature variation in Belgrade, Serbia becomes a test bed for the research. The transitional spaces that are proposed are characterized by the absence of a static or permanent population, and the presence of pulsating flows of people moving through a space, creating irregular points of user density in a building. The third section will inform an integrated building system, an integrated thermal labyrinth that functions as an ‘lung’ system for a multi-functional railway station in Belgrade that adapts to varying user densities in the design proposal, and also summer and winter strategies. The possibility of using local material such as wax and ice in its component fabrication to create emergent structure in the micro-scale are also investigated. By adopting a theoretical/ technical method of research, this thesis will analyse the possibility of the form and materiality of natural systems, in particular branching systems in natural structures to inform the environmental performance and structural morphology of a new integrated thermal labyrinth.

Fig 0.0.3 (left) Prototype of Massing Studies of Design Proposal.

1.0 _____________________________________

Form and Materiality of Emergent Structures

Fig 1.1.0 (left) Internal Mound Structure of a Termite species Mastotermes darwiniensis.

1.1 Emergent Forms in Natural and Artificial Systems

____________________________________________________

Emergent Structures

1. De Wolf. T. and Holvoet, T. (2005) Emergence Versus Self-Organisation: Different Concepts but Promising When Combined, Engineering Self-Organising Systems, Lecture Notes in Computer Science Volume 3464, 2005, pp 1-15.

2. Hansell, M., Weinstock, M., & Menges, A. (2010) Emergent Technologies and Design: Towards a Biological Paradigm for Architecture. London: Routledge. pp. 11

The concept of emergent structures is derived from the idea of emergence. In systems theory, emergence is a process whereby larger entities, patterns, and regularities arise through interactions among smaller or simpler entities as shown in fig 1.1.1. Its nonlinear interactivity leads to novel outcomes. De Wolf et al. proposed the following working definition of emergence; “A system exhibits emergence when there are coherent emergents (property, behaviour, structure at the macrolevel that dynamically arise from the interaction between parts at the microlevel. Such emergents are novel with regards to the individual parts of the system.” 1 Hansell, in ‘Emergent Technologies and Design: Towards a Biological Paradigm for Architecture’ argues that emergence demands new strategies for design that are derived from the evolutionary development of Iiving systems, from their material properties and metabolisms, and from their adaptive response to changes In their environment. 2

Emergent Structures

Fig 1.1.2 Revealing emergent structure through casting termite mounds.

Original Mound Structure as Mould

Plaster Cast Poured

Local Interaction

Fig 1.1.1. Diagram showing the concept of emergent structures.

Physiological Emergence in Animal Built Structures

3. Landscapes As Organs Of Extended Physiology. (online) http://pruned.blogspot.co.uk/2007/05/landscapes-as-organs-of-extended.html (accessed 11 Jan 2015).

Fig 1.1.3 The 3 key steps in casting termite mounds.

Entomologist have argued that animal built structures such as of social insects (ants, termites, some bees and wasps species) are structures that emerge from micro-level physiological needs or the organism. In 1962 Belgian entomologist Jean Ruelle3, filled a mature ‘Macrotermes michaelseni’ termite mound with cementitious slurry, waited until it hardened, and then eroded every bit of the sculpted soil, a similar process shown in Fig 1.1.2. and explained in Fig 1.1.3.

Output Negative Cast

Organs of Physiology

4. Turner, S. (2000) The Physiology of Organism, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. pp13.

The emergent structure is most easily made visible when removing the casts from soil. (shown in Figure 1.1.4) According to Turner, animal-built structures such as termite mounds are often considered organs of physiology, in principle no different from, and just as much a part of the organism. 4 As the emergent structures of organisms such as termite mounds balance the flows of matter, energy, and information through an adaptive boundary between the organism and its environment, the geometrical and hierarchical organisation of termite mounds is critical to their performative capacity.

Structural Branching and Surface Area

5. ibid. pp 14.

As shown in figure 1.1.5 there are similarities in the functional organization of other natural structure such as mammalian lungs and the structure of a termite mounds. Turner contends that the mound generates gentle pulses of air that form tidal-like motions throughout the structure.. 5 These pulses ensure that fresh air reaches the entire structure.

Fig 1.1.4. Cement casts of Acromyrmex rugosus rugosus nests in Brazil.

Areas of Forced Air Convection. (Large Tidal Flows)

Areas Where Smaller Tidal Flows Dominate Creating A Mix Of Air Diffusion-Convection.

Fig 1.1.6. Diagram showing a discrete fractal braching system(left) and the principle of braching in a human lung structure (right).

6. Anatomy of Human Lungs (online) http://www.innerbody.com/anatomy/ respiratory/lungs (accessed 11 Jan 2015).

The geometrical principle of a human lung functions as a branching system with a huge surface area. (Fig 1.1.6) The surface area of an organism is important in several considerations, such as regulation of thermal regulation and air intake. Estimates of the total surface area of lungs vary from 30-50 square metres up to 70-100 square metres (1076.39 sq ft) (8,4 x 8,4 m) in adults â&#x20AC;&#x201C; about the size of half of a tennis court. 6

03 Areas Where Air Diffusion Dominates.

Fig 1.1.5. Comparison of the functional organization of mammalian lungs and the termite mound. These structures have often excellent temperature regulation characteristics and structural performance in relation to its needs of the organism.

Morphogenesis and Emergent Structural Patterns 7. Khuong, A. (2011) A computational model of ant nest morphogenesis, Proceedings of the Eleventh European Conference on the Synthesis and Simulation of Living Systems, Advances in Artificial Life, ECAL2011; 01/2011

8. Kitaoka, H (1999) A Three-Dimensional Model Of The Human Airway Tree, Journal of Applied Physiology Published 1 December 1999 Vol. 87 no. 6, 2207-2217

In modelling the morphogenesis of social insects (Fig1.1.9b), Khoung argues that that variations in the nests of social insects may have several origins: it might be a consequence of the variation of environmental conditions (e.g. temperature and humidity levels). If these conditions change, the same species will be able to build nest structures that look very different, reulting in proportions of the emerging pattern in the structure. 7 This implies theoretically one is able to generate a complex structure from very simple rule in the input, resulting in a structure that is â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;emergentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Branching anatomical structures of human Lungs have been modelled using models of branchign systems as shown in Fig 1.1.8 shows a fully simulated lung branching system: from projected images of tree structures with different branching rules, conducted by Kitaoka.8

Fig 1.1.8. Simulated lung branching system. (Kitaoka, 1999)

Morphology Study 01: Self-Similar Branching Systems

9. Lindenmayer, A. (1968) Mathematical models for cellular interaction in development, Parts I and II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 18: pp. 280-315

L-systems (Fig 1.1.7) were introduced and developed in 1968 by Aristid Lindenmayer, a Hungarian theoretical biologist and botanist at the University of Utrecht. 9 Lindenmayer originally used L-systems to describe the braching behavior of plant development.

Fig 1.1.7. Diagram sucessive levels of branching in L System

10. Lindenmayer, A. & Prusinkiewicz P. (2004) The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 6-7.

The central concept of (Lindenmayer) L-systems is that defining complex objects by successively replacing parts of a simple initial object using a set of rewriting rules or productions in the branching system. As explained by Prusinkiewicz, artificial branching models such as L-systems have also been used to model the morphology of a variety of organisms and can be used to generate self-similar fractals such as iterated function systems. 6

Fig 1.1.9a Materiality of actual structural patterns.

Fig 1.1.9b Simulated structural patterns: influence of the evaporation rate on the orgainsm nests structure. (Khuongh, 2009)

Morphology Study 02: Non-Linear Branching Systems Following an analysis of emergent structures in nature and its lessons for architecture, an attempt was made to digitally generate an alternative emergent structure, as opposed to self similar braching system such as L-system. An attempt was made by the author to compute the direction of fluid drainage paths on a surface as means of using fluid paths as inputs for to achieve the high number of ‘folds’ in a surface that is needed to maximise the surface area within a fixed volume.

Fig 1.1.10a. Computing the direction of fluid drainage paths on a surface.

As shown in Figure 1.1.10a and 1.1.10b, The gradient descent algorithm iteratively performs small steps in the direction of the negative gradient towards a (local) minimum (like a drop of water on a surface, flowing downwards from a given point in the steepest descent direction).

a = Input Surface(Colours Indicating Curvature). b = Surface Mesh Wireframe. c = Drainage Paths Of Fluid.

Realisation of Emergent Structures in Architecture

11. Weinstock, M. (2010) The Architecture of Emergence, Chichester, UK: Wiley. pp 33.

As emergence is a process whereby larger entities, patterns, and regularities arise through interactions among bottom up simpler interactions. Weinstock states that ‘emergence that underlie the complex systems of nature is now being realised by engineers and architects for the production of complex architectural forms and effects’ 11

Fig 1.1.10b Changing the density of fluid particles in the simulation by author. Varying the fluid particle exponentially from 225 to 3600 a = 225 Fluid Particles b = 900 Fluid Particles c = 3600 Pluid articles

2.0 _____________________________________

Morphology of Emergent EmergentPerformative Perfomative Structures

Fig 2.1.0 (left) Bronze Age homes carved into valley walls by troglodytes (cave dwellers) in Cappadocia, Turkey.

2.1 Form and Structure of Passive Building Systems _____________________________________________________

Form and Fabric in Environmental Systems

12. Wilton, O (2011) Ashden Technology: Low Energy Buildings. http://www. ashden.org/files/factsheets/ashden_ low_energy_buildings. pdf [Accessed 17 January 2015]

A diagram by Wilton shown in Fig 2.1.1. is key in understanding the importance of the passive form and fabric impact the environmental performance of a building.12 According to Wilton, low energy buildings use passive techniques relating to the design of building form and fabric and energy-efficient active systems, in order to deliver a comfortable environment of a building.

Fig 2.1.3. Rock-cut churches of Göreme Open-Air Museum, Cappadocia in Turkey.

a Fig 2.1.1 Diagram Showing Relationship of Building Form and Fabric (highlighted by the author in red) to Low Energy Use by Wilton.

Fig 2.1.4. Narrow openings on the exterior with low exposed surface area (a) on the openings with plenty of internal surface area. (b).

Morphology of Cave Architecture in Cappadocia

13. ‘Underground Cities: 3500 Years of Cappadocian Cave Homes’ Available at : http://dornob.com/underground-cities-3500-years-of-cappadocian-cavehomes/ [Accessed 17 January 2015]

14. Ozata, S (2015) Ecological Approaches from Past to Present: Traditional Architecture of Cappadocia Region IACSIT International Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 7, No. 4, August 2015, p3.

In the naturally temperature-controlled nature of the cave interiors vernacular cave architecture of Capperdocia (Fig 2.1.3-4), many religious artifacts and artworks have survived for over a thousand years.13 In comparing the morphology of rock cut buildings (Fig 2.1.2a) with masonry hybrids built in the same site at different periods, (Fig 2.1.2b), Ozata observes that narrowing the external area of the openings with minimal external surface area prevents the entrance of cold air but provides sufficient ventilation and light. Meanwhile heat is absorbed in the summer by the high internal surface area of the rock cut geometry compared to pure masonry structures. 14 Cube

Total volume=x cm3

Pieces half the original size, b twice the surface area. Total volume=x cm3 Pieces half the original size, twice the surface area.

Pieces one quarter the original size, c four times the surface area. Total volume=x cm3 Pieces one quarter the original size, four times the surface area.

Fig 2.1.5.

Fig 2.1.2. Categorisation of Rock cut buildings (a) and masonry hybrids (b) and pure masonry buildings(c) in Cappadocia by Ozata.

The surface area is the sum of all the areas of all the shapes that cover the surface of the object. Changes in Surface Area of Geometry within a configurations of a cubes with the same hypothethical total volume (x cm3).

Thermal Labyrinths: Federation Square, Melbourne 15. Ralph Knowles, “Energy and Form: An Ecological Approach to Urban Growth”, p.18

16. Termite Tutors, http://www.bdonline.co.uk/termite-tutors/3042882. article [Accessed 17 January 2015]

The way in which emergent structures in nature - through its “internal differentiation… shape and structure”15 - is informing architectural strategies for environmental control is evident in Federation Square, Melbourne, by Atelier 10. ‘Thermal Labyrirths’ provide a specific built examples in taking advantage of high Surface to Volume ratios. Patrick Bellew principal of Atelier Ten argues that the benefits of thermal labyrinths. is that they “de-couple the ventilation element of the building load from the room,”16 AIR INPUT

Large Surface Area of Form and Structure of Geometry Absorbs Heat from Air Input AIR OUTPUT

Fig 2.1.10a. 1.4km thermal labyrinth that runs below Federation Square.

HOT

COOL Air Temperature

Fig 2.1.6. Diagram showing the principles of a thermal labyrinth.

Principle of Energy Transfer in Thermal Labyrinths

17. ibid.

18. ibid.

In explain the principles of thermal labnyrinths, Bellew explains that: “It acts like a battery pack sitting between the air intake and the building’s air handling plant. That battery pack can be flushed with colder night air during the summer, so it can cool incoming air during the day. We can either reduce the cooling loads or heating loads depending on the time of year.”17

Fig 2.21 Stabilizing Effect of High Thermal Mass

The other important factor is that the heat transfer effectiveness increases when the air turns the corners of the labyrinth as shown in Fig 2.1.6. Bellow asserts that it is “because of the change from laminar to turbulent flow, which increases the heat transfer.” 17 By using a concrete-filled profiled block to achieve a degree of roughness on the surface, and the geometry reduces the amount of time that the air-flow next to the walls becomes laminar.

Fig 2.1.10b. Concrete-filled profiled block in the labyrinth to increase surface area and heat transfer rate.

2.2 Site Relevance and Context

_____________________________________________________

Belgrade, Serbia

20. Average Weather In Belgrade, Serbia. http://www.weather-and-climate. com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine,Belgrade,Serbia (Accessed 20 Jan 2015)

Like Cappadocia discussed in chapter 2.1, Belgrade has a similar cold climate in winters, hot and dry in summers, hence the the lessons here might inform the design project in Belgrade. The outside o temperature in Belgrade varies from -2 C (from January to March) o to 28 C (from June to August) 20 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the proposed environmental strategies must deal firstly with high cooling demand in the summer and, secondly, ensure heating when needed in winter.

Fig 2.2.1. Location of Belgrade, Serbia in Europe

The Microclimatic Requirements The primary aim of the environmental strategy is â&#x20AC;&#x153;to reduce internal temperatures, maximise ventilation rates and provide protection from the heat in the summer, achieving gradient transition from from different zones in the building which is explained more in depth in chapter 3.2.

Comfort Zone

Fig 2.2.2. Psychometric Chart of Belgrade with Comfort Zone Indicated

Fig 2.2.0 (left) Satellite Map of Belgrade, Serbia

Climatising Flow of Inhabitancy The proposal seeks to enable high spatialisation and density via adaptive occupancy of zones within the building while at the same time providing well-tempered macro-climates, responsive to site specific environmental constraints in Belgrade. The proposal incorporates various speed of activity and flow of inhabitancy and movement in a multifunctional railway hub (Fig 2.2.4) – therefore human comfort is crucial in determining the adaptive nature of the environmental strategies. Form and orientation, and vertical and horizontal arrangement of spaces will be considered and analysed in two groups: ‘peak occupancy’ and ‘adapted occupancy.’ Zones of friction between the occupancy of a space during peak passanger traffic and its adaptive occupancy mode create important environmental edges as shown in Fig2.2.3.

Potential for Off-Peak Functions depending on passanger load.

Time of day Off Peak

Peak (am)

Off Peak

Peak (pm)

Off Peak

Persons per hour (passangers only)

Fig 2.2.4.. Massing Study Showing Zones Of Intensity On Site

Fig 2.2.5 (bottom) Site Location

a = Existing Flows Of People Derived From Mobile Gps Data, b = Possibilities Of Zones Of Intensity In The Site, c = Surface Massing To Intensify And Facilitate Flows On Site

Time of day Fig 2.2.3 Scenario of people per hour arriving/departing in a section of the proposal.

Harvesting the Weather in Belgrade

Summer Prevailing Wind direction (North-West)

The environmental strategy of the masterplan proposal harvests the weather of Belgrade, by using available energy and air movement to create an internal environment suitable for human habitation in a multifunctional proposal to improve an existing railway station site.

Fig 2.1.7a. Min/ Max Temperature in Belgrade.

Fig 2.1.7c. Precipitation / Rainy Days in Belgrade.

2.1.7b. Humidity in Belgrade.

Fig 2.1.7d. Average Daily Sunhours in Belgrade

Winter Prevailing Wind direction (South-East)

Fig 2.1.9. Plan view of global massing of the proposal - direction of wind and solar gain determine the formal language and intensity of the emergenht geometry within the proposal.

Wind movement through air channels in the Summer

Wind movement through air channels in the Winter

Fig 2.1.8. Annual Prevailing in Belgrade that informs orientation of proposal as shown in Fig 2.1.9.

Climatising Flow of Inhabitancy

21. Oughton, D. & Hodkinson S. (2008) Faber & Kellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Heating & Air-conditioning of Buildings, London: Routledge, pp 4.

The integration of various activities within the scheme suggests that there is a need for environmental control that alters depending on the type and duration of activities, location and requirements of the multiuse space within the wider perimeter of the building. Oughton et al. state 21, there are several key criterias for human comfort: 1. Temperature 2. Conduction, convection and radiation 3. Air movement 4. Activity and clothing 5. Air purity 6. Humidity A distributed cooling labyrinth system is developed in in the next chapter to exploit the diurnal temperature range of the local climate of Belgrade, which in summer indicates a difference of 15-20 degrees between night and day.

Fig 2.1.12. Preliminary Fluid Dynamics Simulation of Prevailing Wind Condition on the South East on the Building Massing and its effects on wind speed.

LOW

HiGH

FORM AND STRUCTURE HIDDEN FROM OCCUPANTS AIR INPUT COOL AIR OUTPUT (SUMMER)

Large Surface Area of Form and Structure of Geometry Absorbs Heat from Air Input

(also reseased when required for cooling and ventilation)

HEAT OUTPUT (WINTER)

(Decoupled Thermal Mass from Building Mass)

Fig 2.1.10. Possible Integration of Thermal Labyrinth System to connect the zones of occupancy. Existing New Developments BUILDING SYSTEM

Core Station Zone

OCCUPIED SPACE IN BUILDING

ARCHITECTURE

Fig 2.1.13. Diagrammatic study by author examining the systemic principles of a thermal labyrinth. Air intake points can be situated in area with higher wind speed as tested in Fig 2.1.12. Fig 2.1.11. Proposal Iteration: Site Plan

Fig 2.1.15. Building physical prototype with integration of porosity in zones of higher wind speed (shown in red) as per simulation in Fig 2.1.12. to maximise ventilation in the proposal.

Wind Simultion: Red Gradients indicate areas of higher wind speed, which corresponds to an increase in porosity in the massing. Red box indicate location of model photo above.

2.3 Performative Emergent Geometries

_____________________________________________________

Fig 2.3.1 Different possible transitional crowding scenarios.

Transitional Densities and Comfort To maintain occupantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s comfort in response to changing external temperatures and difference in user densities in building use, (Fig 2.3.1 and 3.3.2) based on the project scenario, it is imperative to develop a resilient system which could provide the varying degrees of cooling, heating and ventilation throughout the week.

Fig 2.3.2 Simulations of different use case scenarios of the building site throught the week. Thermal comfort is critical in varying zones of intensity.

Fig 2.3.0 (left) Prototype of L-System Volumetric Branching Studies.

Challenging the notion of a Thermal Labyrinth

FORM AND STRUCTURE HIDDEN FROM OCCUPANTS AIR INPUT

Large Surface Area of Form and Structure of Geometry Absorbs Heat from Air Input

A a3

CONVENTIONAL THERMAL LABYRINTH

Visual + Controlled Thermal Barrier

As shown in Fig 2.3.4, contemporary thermal labyrinth systems currently occupy a huge footprint and its form and structure is typically hidden undergound in a building. The conventional approach to a thermal labyrinth is questioned in Fig 2.3.5, with key criterias that make the system fuction. Two criterias that could drive a new kind of system is the current form and structure of the system, which does not form part of the occupied space at the moment and also the notion of the system being a massive volume.

Integration of Emergent Structure into Building Form and Fabric

Fig 2.3.4. Floor Plan of a Thermal Labyrinth System

Possibility Of Alternate Form And Structure With:

FORM AND STRUCTURE VISIBLE TO OCCUPANTS

a. Large Surface Area c. High Surface Area to Volume Ratio B. High Thermal Mass Capacity

PROPOSED ‘TRANSITIONAL’ SPACE

Feasibility of a Distributed System As thermal labyrinths occupy a huge area to accomodate for sufficient thermal mass and surface area, it is possible to imagine a system where the mass and surface area is distributed as opposed to being centralised.

NEW THERMAL LABYRINTH

ARCHITECTURE

Criteria 02

Centralised Fuctional Heat Exchange System

Distributing the Mass of the System

Distributed Fuctional Heat Exchange System

Thermal Labyrith as

Structural System

Fig 2.3.5 Questioning the notion and possibility of an integrated system by the author.h

Part of Visible Form and Fabric of Building Fig 2.3.7. Reinterpreting the thermal labyrinth.

ARCHITECTURE

Criteria 01

Fig 2.3.6. Decentralising the Thermal Labyrinth into a modular ‘lung’ system for a building.

Thermal Labyrith as

OCCUPIED SPACE IN BUILDING

b Seed A1

Intersection Intersection

Seed A1

of two Volumes

Seed A1

Intersection

of two Volumes of two Volumes

Generating optimal Surface Area to Volume Ratios

Intersection

In the case of thermal labyrinths, the surface area determines the Boolean relationship of energy transfer rate to the volume of concrete Difference needed and this process can be accelerated with respect to time by incorporating aBoolean higher Surface Area within the Volume. if it is Boolean possible to achieve the required total thermal mass capacity and also Difference Difference the surface area concentration to cool the air, it is possible to devise aBoolean more integrated solution with smaller modular footprints. Subtracted volume 22. Capitalizing on the Thermal Mass As thermal mass of capacity of concrete is dependant on volume22, Difference Properties of Concrete, Radiant Systems, the Surface Area to Volume Ratios an interesting parameter. (Fig & Passive Solar Radiation to Reduce Subtracted volume Subtracted volume 2.3.8.) Heating & Cooling Loads (online)

First Input

Branching Variables

a = Output of Curves from L-System Braching Algorithm b = Point Cloud Nodes of Intersecting Points c = Derivative 3D Cells Derived from Point Cloud d = Cells are Subtracted to According to Density of Points e = Remainder Cells

Fig 2.3.12. Diagram showing the process of deriving an emergent geometry from L-Systems conducted by the author.

Third Level Branching

First Level Branches

Fig 2.3.10. Diagram by the author showing how a recursive process can be applied to the selected outputs output from the precedent process, hence creating a new level at each step.

Derivative Length(n) = 9

Second Level Branching

Derivative Length(n) = 9

2.3.13. Variation in output geometry created within a similar set with different point densities. (The impact of the number of points on the outcome is examined more rigorously in the next section.)

Formulated from nodes of the ini3DROOT Voronoi tial L-system model.

Second Input

3D Voronoi Volumetric Derivative Output (XY)

Third Input

Derivative Length(n) = 9

23. Kitaoka, H (1999) A Three-Dimensional Model Of The Human Airway Tree, Journal of Applied Physiology Published 1 December 1999 Vol. 87 no. 6, 2207-2217

(n) th Input

The ‘L-System’ branching system, (examined in Chapter 1.1) was identified as a possible generator of a simulated ‘emergent structure’. The process of deriving an emergent geometry from L-Systems interrogated by the author in Fig. 2.3.11 - 3. In this process, the input point clouds are derived from L-System braching intersections.

positive derivative Remainder Cells forming (OUTPUT) positive derivative (OUTPUT)

Volumetric Morphology from Recursive Branching

Fig 2.3.9. Self-similar branching systems (B,C) used in geometrical simulations of lungs (A) by Kitaoka. 23

High Surface Area

04 04 Cell are substracted via controlled random reduce 04 Cell are substracted

Emergent Geometry with

Low Surface Area

L - System Branching Algorithm (ROOT)

Output Geometry with

Derivative 3D Cells Cell are substractedL - System Derivative via controlled random reduce 3D Cells

Fig 2.3.11. Close up internal views of 3D Printed Prototypes showing variation in output geometry created within a similar set but of different point densities.

Fig 2.3.8. Relationship of Surface Area to Volume Ration to the key parameters in a thermal labyrinth.

Emergent Geometry withwith Emergent Geometry

The need to optimse Volume (V) for

the Winter LowLow Surface AreaAreaThermal Mass Heat Storage inHigh Surface AreaArea Surface High Surface

01 01 - System 02 LBranching Algorithm 01 L - System L - System(ROOT)

Output Geometry withwith Output Geometry

03 03 L - System Derivative 3D Cells 03 L - System

High Surface Area

Point Cloud Nodes L - System L - System Point Cloud Nodes Derivative 3D Cells

Low Surface Area

Emergent Geometry with

02 L - System 02 Point Cloud Nodes L - System 02

Output Geometry with Optimal

Branching Algorithm Point Cloud Nodes L - System (ROOT) Branching Algorithm (ROOT)

The need to optimise Surface Area (SA) for Heat Absorbtion in the Summer

05 05 Remainder Cells forming positive derivative Remainder Cells forming 05 (OUTPUT)

https://beopt.nrel.gov/sites/beopt.nrel. gov/files/Thermal%20Mass%20of%20 ICF-Concrete%20Homes_0.pdf (accessed on 16 April 2015) Subtracted volume

via controlled random reduce Remainder Cells forming Cell are substracted positive derivative via controlled random reduce (OUTPUT)

of two Volumes

Sample for testing next iteration

First Level Braching: Morphological Correlation to Surface Area in Emergent Geometries In this test, the process of deriving an emergent cell structure from L-System intersections (Fig 2.3.12) was further interrogated. A series of geometrical simulations was conducted to explore the

Remainder Cells forming positive derivative (OUTPUT)

Cell are substracted via controlled random reduce

L - System Derivative 3D Cells

L - System Point Cloud Nodes

L-System Cell Generation

Surface Area = 612 m2 Volume = 375 m3 SA:V = 1.63

Surface Area = 708 m2 Volume = 246 m3 SA:V = 2.87

a Negative branch (SET B)

Derivative Length(n) = 9

Fig 2.3.14. Showing the principles of the first branching and Separation of Volume into Positive Sets for Surface Area Optimization in an input geometry derived from the upper to lower level transition in the design proposal.

8.00

Surface Area / Volume Ratio SA:V 6.29 5.01 8

2.87

30 Points

Surface Area = 1142 m2 Volume = 228 m3 SA:V = 5.01

4.02

Formulated from nodes of the initial L-system ROOT model.

INPUT

3D Voronoi Volumetric Derivative Output (XY) 3D Voronoi Formulated from Derivative nodes of the iniVolumetric tial L-system ROOT model. Output (XY)

Branching Variables

Positive branch for progression to second level. (SET A)

L-SYSTEMS SIMULATION VOLUMETRIC DERIVATIVES L-SYSTEMS SIMULATION VOLUMETRIC DERIVATIVES

L - System Point Cloud Nodes

Optimization.

High Surface HighArea Surface Area

EmergentEmergent GeometryGeometry with with

ea urface Area

L - System Branching Algorithm (ROOT)

Geometry with with

L - System Branching Algorithm (ROOT)

implications of morphological variations on Surface Area to Volume

3.45

Surface Area = 782 m2 Volume = 227 m3 SA:V = 3.45

60 Points

Surface Area = 1390 m2 Volume = 221 m3 SA:V = 6.29

Surface Area = 971 m2 Volume = 241 m3 SA:V = 4.02

120 Points

Surface Area = 1735 m2 Volume = 217 m3 SA:V = 8.00

OUTPUT

Branch point-cloud generated with L-systems The central concept of (Lindenmayer) is that of rewriting. In general, rewriting is algorithm. a technique for defining complex objects by successively replacing parts of a simple The central concept (Lindenmayer) L-systems initial object using of a set of rewriting rules or is that of rewriting. In general, rewriting is productions. a technique for defining complex objects by successively replacing parts of a simple initial object using a set of rewriting rules or productions.

SEED // algorithm.

ROOT

Branch point-cloud generated with L-systems

SEED // ROOT ns of of the the Formless Formless ns

Positive Positive 3D Voronoi 3D Voronoi Derivative Derivative (X) (X)

30% of total 30% derived of total volume derived via volume via random selection random selection is extracted is extracted and and smoothed. smoothed.

Negative Negative 3D Cells 3D Cells Derivative Derivative (Y) (Y)

70% of total 70%derived of totalvolume derivedvia volume via random selection. random selection.

OUTPUT

120

240

240 Points

480

960

Number of Input Points from L-System Branching Intersections (Set A)

Fig 2.3.15. Graph showing the positive correlation of number of points to SA:V in the first branching process.

480 Points

960 Points

Fig 2.3.16. Positive Sets: First Level Branching from 30 - 120 Input Points per polygon on selected branches.

- MACRO CONFIGURATION SIMULATION STOCHASTIC VARIATIONS - MACRO CONFIGURATION SIMULATION STOCHASTIC VARIATIONS

Negative of Selected Iteration

(Front)

Seed A2

From the first simulation in Fig. 2.3.16 which is a positive set, it is possible to also obtain a negative set of the geometry from the simulation (explained in Fig 2.3.17). This is crucial in order for two respects, first is for fabrication purposes as it could be used as a possible formwork to realise the geometry of the positive set.

Reference: Variation in branching in the global configuration of

Product

A=!â&#x20AC;?

Product

A=!â&#x20AC;? PRO

Se PRO

First Level Braching: Negative Sets for Possible Formwork for Fabricating Positive Sets

POSITIVE SET Emergent Geometry with

Surface Area = 405 m2 Volume = 129 m3 SA:V = 3.14

High Surface Area

Surface Area = 547 m2 Volume = 147 m3 SA:V = 3.72

Surface Area = 685 m2 Volume = 154 m3 SA:V = 4.45

NEGATIVE SET Possible Formwork?

Seed A1

(Back)

Fig 2.3.17. Showing the principles deriving a negative of the output geometry which could be used as a mould / formwork in the fabrication process,

30 Points Set B

60 a

Remainder Cells forming positive derivative (OUTPUT)

120 Points Set A

Surface Area = 770 m2 Volume = 146 m3 SA:V = 5.27

Surface Area = 975 m2 Volume = 154 m3 SA:V = 6.33

Surface Area = 1243 m2 Volume = 158 m3 SA:V = 7.87

L-System Cell Generation

(Back)

a Negative branch (SET B)

a b

Formulated from nodes of the initial L-system ROOT model.

INPUT

3D Voronoi Volumetric Derivative Output (XY) 3D Voronoi Formulated from Derivative nodes of the iniVolumetric tial L-system ROOT model. Output (XY)

Positive branch (SET A)

60 b

240 Points Set A

480 Points Set A

960 Points Set A

Fig 2.3.19. Negative Sets: First Level Branching from 240 - 960 Input Points per polygon on selected branches.

S SIMULATION IC DERIVATIVES S SIMULATION IC DERIVATIVES

Surface Area = 612 m2 Volume = 375 m3 SA:V = 1.63

Branching Variables

60 Points Set A

(Front)

Remainder Cells forming positive derivative (OUTPUT)

Cell are substracted via controlled random reduce

L - System Derivative 3D Cells

L - System Point Cloud Nodes

L - System Branching Algorithm (ROOT)

High Surface HighArea Surface Area

L - System Branching Algorithm (ROOT)

EmergentEmergent GeometryGeometry with with

Cell are substracted via controlled random reduce

Secondly, as the positive or negative set merely implies subtracting from a fixed set, it is also critical to evaluate the SA:V ratio of the the negative set. One critical understanding from this is that the surface area of the negative set is similar at points of contact with the positive set (shown in blue in set a in Fig 2.3.17). However the total surface area differs when taking into account the areas on the outer part of the geometry. (shown in white in set a in Fig 2.3.17). Hence this brings into the question of internal versus external surface area.

Length(n) = 9

ea urface Area

Branching Variables

Geometry with with

Length(n) = 9

a 1b

(Front)

Surface Area = 800 m2 Volume = 196 m3 SA:V = 4.08

Surface Area = 831 m2 Volume = 195 m3 SA:V = 4.26

(Back)

Remainder Cells forming positive derivative (OUTPUT)

Surface Area = 782 m2 Volume = 227 m3 SA:V = 3.45

Remainder Cells forming positive derivative (OUTPUT)

Cell are substracted via controlled random reduce

L - System Derivative 3D Cells

L - System Point Cloud Nodes

L - System Branching Algorithm (ROOT)

High Surface HighArea Surface Area

Cell are substracted via controlled random reduce

The second level braching (shown in Fig 2.3.22) provides an opportunity to test the creating a variant with a high external surface area that is accesible instead. This could be advantageous in terms of hear dffusion and transfer at parts of the building where excess heat needs to be removes such as train platform areas. As strictly opposed to a thermal labyrinth, this version might enable thermal coupling to the internal space. As this is recursive process where the same set of rules are applied at the periphery of the form, it results in smaller sets of polygons, (2.3.21) which is correlated to the number of recursive branches. EmergentEmergent GeometryGeometry with with

- MACRO

Seed A1

From the question of internal and external surfaces explored in the the first simulation, it could be argued that although high surface areas were obtained most of the surface area resides in the internal part of the geometry with minimal exposed area.

10 Selected Branches

15 Secondary Points / Branch

30 Seconday Points / Branch

L-System Cell Generation

Surface Area = 782 m2 Volume = 227 m3 SA:V = 3.45

HIghest SA: R Ratio

Fig 2.3.20. Showing the principles of the second branching.

a b

Derivative Length(n) = 9

SMALL Reduction in average polygon size with each branching iteration.

7 4

LARGE

60 Secondary Points / Branch

Surface Area = 922 m2 Volume = 193 m3 SA:V = 4.78

120 Secondary Points / Branch

OUTPUT

Positive Positive 3D Voronoi 3D Voronoi Derivative Derivative (X) (X)

rated with L-systems denmayer) general, rewriting is g complex objects g parts of a simple denmayer) L-systems of rewriting rules or general, rewriting is g complex objects g parts of a simple of rewriting rules or

30% of total 30% derived of total volume derived via volume via random selection random selection is extracted is extracted and and smoothed. smoothed.

rated with L-systems

Fig 2.3.21. Showing the inverse relationship of average polygon size to number of branching iterations.

Surface Area = 1010 m2 Volume = 194 m3 SA:V = 5.21

240 Secondary Points / Branch

Fig 2.3.22. Second Level Branching indicating range of braching from 0 - 240 Input Points per polygon on selected branches and corresponding Surface to Area Values.

Surface Area = 907 m2 Volume = 198 m3 SA:V = 4.58

L-SYSTEMS SIMULATION VOLUMETRIC DERIVATIVES L-SYSTEMS SIMULATION VOLUMETRIC DERIVATIVES

Formulated from nodes of the initial L-system ROOT model.

INPUT

3D Voronoi Volumetric Derivative Output (XY) 3D Voronoi Formulated from Derivative nodes of the iniVolumetric tial L-system ROOT model. Output (XY)

Branching Variables

Optimizing High Surface Area Outside

Branching Variables

Optimal Outcome for progression to third level.

Negative Negative 3D Cells 3D Cells Derivative Derivative (Y) (Y)

ea urface Area

70% of total 70%derived of totalvolume derivedvia volume via random selection. random selection.

Geometry with with

Second Level: Recursive Secondary Branching from Selected Volumes in Positive Sets to Achieve a Higher External Surface Area.

Sample for next iteration

Seed A

Diminished Returns and Smaller Cells in Subsequent Recursions

Remainder Cells forming positive derivative (OUTPUT)

(Front)

Remainder Cells forming positive derivative (OUTPUT)

Cell are substracted via controlled random reduce

L - System Derivative 3D Cells

L - System Point Cloud Nodes

High Surface HighArea Surface Area

L - System Branching Algorithm (ROOT)

EmergentEmergent GeometryGeometry with with

ea urface Area

L - System Branching Algorithm (ROOT)

Geometry with with

Cell are substracted via controlled random reduce

The third â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;branchingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; applied onto the selected output in the second branchign results in an even smaller sets of polygons, (2.3.25). As average size of cell falls below typical contruction tolerances, it could be argued that the futher branches and surface area gains are diminished.

Surface Area = 831 m2 Volume = 195 m3 SA:V = 4.26

Surface Area = 801 m2 Volume = 189 m3 SA:V = 4.29

Surface Area = 816 m2 Volume = 189 m3 SA:V = 4.32

L-System Cell Generation

Surface Area = 831 m2 Volume = 195 m3 SA:V = 4.26

Braching Possibility A

Braching Possibility B

Fig 2.3.23. Showing the principles of the second branching.

Derivative Length(n) = 9

Surface Area = 831 m2 Volume = 189 m3 SA:V = 4.40

Diminishing Returns to SA:V Ratio gains per iteration

Optimal gain in Surface Area with size of output geometries within acceptable fabrication and structural tolerances > 20mm

OUTPUT

ROOT SEED // algorithm.

Positive Positive 3D Voronoi 3D Voronoi Derivative Derivative (X) (X)

Branch point-cloud generated with L-systems

6 Tertiary Points / Branch

Surface Area = 857 m2 Volume = 189 m3 SA:V = 4.53

Surface Area = 890 m2 Volume = 189 m3 SA:V = 4.71

12 Tertiary Points / Branch

24 Tertiary Points / Branch

Fig 2.3.25. Third Level Branching from 0 - 48 Input Points per polygon on selected branches.

Output geometries out of range of acceptable tolerances < 10mm

a a

Fig 2.3.24. Showing the impact of structural morphology and to fabrication limits and acceptable structural tolerances.

ss ss

30% of total 30% derived of total volume derived via volume via random selection random selection is extracted is extracted and and smoothed. smoothed.

Negative Negative 3D Cells 3D Cells Derivative Derivative (Y) (Y)

SEED // ROOT

g g

3 Tertiary Points / Branch

70% of total 70%derived of totalvolume derivedvia volume via random selection. random selection.

Derivative Length(n) = 9

27 Selected Branches

L-SYSTEMS SIMULATION VOLUMETRIC DERIVATIVES L-SYSTEMS SIMULATION VOLUMETRIC DERIVATIVES

Formulated from nodes of the initial L-system ROOT model.

INPUT

3D Voronoi Volumetric Derivative Output (XY) 3D Voronoi Formulated from Derivative nodes of the iniVolumetric tial L-system ROOT model. Output (XY)

Recursively Optimization of High Surface Area Outside

Branching Variables

(Back)

48 Tertiary Points / Branch

Selection Outcome

Impact Of Recursive Branching On The Morphology Of The Structural Output On the first iteration, the total surface area and volume is reduced by 34% (Fig 2.2.26). However, SA;V improves by 92% for the resulting geometry. Interestingly, in the second iteration, total surface area doubles from 405 m2 to 831 m2. This is accompanied by an improvement of 161% in SA:V. in the third iteration, the increase in surface area and decease in volume continues at a diminishing rate. Successive iterations also result in smaller polygons, which has interesting morphological and fabrication implications as explained in the earlier section. (Fig 2.3.24. on p55.)

Selected Iteration from 01

Sample Iteration from 02

Third Level Input

Third Level Branching

(All)

Surface Area = 612 m2 Volume = 375 m3 SA:V = 1.63

Surface Area = 405 m2 Volume = 129 m3 SA:V = 3.14

Surface Area = 831 m2 Volume = 195 m3 SA:V = 4.26

Surface Area = 890 m2 Volume = 189 m3 SA:V = 4.71

10%

Second Level Input

increase in Surface Area to Volume Ratio (SA:V) from Second Level or 0.0046% / point Second Level Branching

(Changes)

60 Points

30 x 5 Branches = 150 Points

36%

48 x 27 Branches = 1296 New Points

increase in Surface Area to Volume Ratio (SA:V) from First Level

First Input

or 0.24% / point First Level Branches

First Level Branches

Second Level Branching

Third Level Branching

92%

increase in Surface Area to Volume Ratio (SA:V) from Original Geometry or 1.55% / point

Fig 2.3.26. Summary of iterative branching process on selected sample.

Fig 2.3.27. Summary of quantitative impact of volumetric recursive braching on SA:V.

Evaluating Structural Morphology Outcomes

Morphological Variant A

Morphological Variant B

‘Cooling from the outside in’

‘Cooling from the inside out’

The labyrinth configuration needs to balance optimum thermal storage with the air resistance of the system. Effectively, the development of the labyrinth was to use a potential structural element as an HVAC element. Creating air turbulence, by increasing the roughness and incorporating bends by the simulated free-form geometry, improves heat transfer. Ultimately the simulations in 2.3 produced a spectrum outcomes which needs to be re-examined on key performative metrics. To evaluate the morphology of the outcomes in the simulations, the following six criterias were used by the author in Fig 2.3.11. 1. Thermal Mass 2. Total Surface Area 3. Surface Area to Volume Ratio (SA:V) 4. Geometrical Porosity 5. Structural Morphology 6. External Exposed Surface Area Two key variant, A and B with different performative capacity were selected as they could work together as a cohesive system. (explained more in detail in Fig 2.3.29a and Fig 2.3.29b) Variant A

Variant B

Narrowing the external area of the openings with minimal external surface area to create minimal thermal coupling to the mass to inside.

Large externally exposed surface area.

Thermal Mass

Total Surface Area High Surface Area Outside

High Surface Area Inside

SA: V Ratio HOT AIR OUT

Geometrical Porosity Cool Air Flow Out at key inlets

Thermal Energy from surrounding

Structural Morphology

HOT AIR IN TO BE COOLED

Coolling / Heating the Building by efficiently transferring heat from surrounding.

External Exposed Surface Area

NON-OPTIMISED

OPTIMISED FOR EXCELLENT iNTERNAL HEAT ABSORBTION

OPTIMISED FOR EXCELLENT EXTERNAL HEAT DIFFUSION Fig 2.3.29a Output A, optimised for excellent external heat diffusion through large externally exposed surface area.

Key

Fig 2.3.28 Evaluating Two Morphological Variant of the Thermal Labyrinth. Positive

Negative

Ventilating the Building by cooling air inside the element and then releasing cool air when needed.

Fig 2.3.29b Output B, optimised for excellent internal heat absorbtion through very large internal surface area to volume ratio.

Unknown

3.0 _____________________________________

Environmental Performance: Emergent Structures in Transitional Spaces

3.1 Zero Waste Formworks: Fabricating Emergent Structures

____________________________________________________

Diminishing Returns to SA:V Ratio gains per iteration

g d a

Output geometries out of range of acceptable tolerances < 10mm

Fig 3.1.1. Showing the impact of structural morphology and to fabrication limits and acceptable structural tolerances.

Fabricating Emergent Structures

24. Ballast, D. (2007) Handbook of Construction Tolerances, Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley, p. 35.

From the outcome of the previous study on performative emergent structures, the question of fabrication arises as the limits of conventional fabrication methods are challenged. In the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Handbook of Construction Tolerancesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; , Ballast states that the cast in place sectional tolerances in concrete are typically in the range of 10mm for average samples 24 , interestingly making futher recursive iteration beyond the reach of concrete construction. However, by closely evaluating the fabrication process in free form concrete formworks, fine grained surface area gains with may be produced from a combination of digital fabrication strategies. Original Mound Structure as Mould

Plaster Cast Poured

Output Negative Cast

The sacrificial casting of the emergent structure of the termite mound study in section 1.1 is key to understanding of importance of the formwork(mound) as a sacrificial element in casting the form(cast). The level of materiality that material forming processes in are often able to complement the digital macro geometry simulated in the previous section.

Fig 3.2.0. (left) Surface condition of casting wax againsts ice cubes.

This section explores the feaseability of using ice and wax as a waste-free fabrication method of formwork for the free-form emergent structures in Belgrade.

Membranes Combined with Pneu’s

Vacuumatics

UHPC - Pneu

Concrete Cloth Shelters

Betonballon

Monolithic Dome

Pneumatic Based Systems

CNC Milled EPS Formwork

Fabric Flexible Formwork

Type of Formwork

Partially Prefabricated

The characteristics of concrete, to be cast into any shape, make it an ideal material for complex geometries such as the transitional labyrinths. According to Johnston, an important part in building free-form concrete architecture is the fabrication and construction of the formwork, since it accounts for 30% - 60% of the total concrete work’s cost 25. Given that the thermal labyrinth is a structure that reduced the carbon footprint of a building, it is imperative that its embodied energy in its fabrication is reduced to a minimum.

Fabricated on Site

Zero-Waste Formworks in Concrete

25. Johnston, W, (2008) Design and Construction of Concrete Formwork. In Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook. Boca Raton: CRC Press, p. 71–49

Flexible Systems

Traditional Systems

Freedom of Form

Accuracy of Cast Concrete Form

26. Verhaegh R. (2010) ‘Free Forms in Concrete: The Fabrication Of Free-Form Concrete Segments Using Fabric Formwork’ Eindhoven University of Technology p25.

To be able to improve the existing formwork systems or design a new one, it is necessary to evaluate the existing systems. As Verhaegh state in ‘Free Forms in Concrete: The Fabrication Of FreeForm Concrete Segments Using Fabric Formwork’ (2010) there are several criterias for evaluating existing formwork systems. 26 1. Freedom Of Form 2.Accuracy Of cast concrete form 2. Concrete face quality 3. Reusability formwork 4. Labour intensity 5. Labour skill 6. Cost To understand the advantages and disadvanges of existing formwork systems for free-form geometry, Verhaegh’s criteria is briefly evaluated by the author againsts a number of contemporary formwork systems in figure 2.4.5.

27. Nedcam, 2010. Spencer Dock Bridge. Available at: http://www.nedcam. com/engels/bridgedublin.php [Accessed February 20, 2015].

The state of the art for on-site formwork is CNC milling of expanded polystyrene blocks into formwork inlays for high curvature solutions (Nedcam 2010)27 When looking from the point of total embodied energy in, the process is waste intensive, since it only allows for a single use of the formwork element.

Criteria

Evaluating Existing Formwork Systems Concrete SurfaceQuality (without finishing)

Reusability Formwork

Labour Intensity (formwork)

Labour Skill

Cost (Material Formwork)

Fig 3.1.4. Evaluating Advantages And Disadvantages Of Key Formwork Systems For Free-Form Geometries.

CNC Formwork Method

Key

Positive

Negative

Unknown

a Fig 3.2.3. EPS Formwork Block and Falsework in the Casting Process

Fig 3.1.5. Components of CNC Milled EPS Formwork (a) 5-axis robot milling a formwork.

Wax as a Zero-Waste Substitute for EPS Formwork.

CNC Milled EPS Formwork is ideally suited to the requirements of the geometry. However, it contains weakness in its reusability and concrete face quality can be addresses by using zero-waste materials such as Wax that can be reused indefinitely.

Testing the Materiality of Forming Wax Formworks with Ice as a Sacrificial Material

28. Sias, F. (2006) Lost-wax Casting: Old, New, and Inexpensive Methods, pp 9-10.

Lost-wax casting is the process by which a duplicate sculpture is cast from an original sculpture, because the mould is destroyed to remove the cast item. Sias explains that â&#x20AC;&#x153;the fact that the wax has disappeared of course leads to the term lost-wax process..â&#x20AC;? 28 To freeze the emergent materiality that emerges from the process of hydrophobicity, the , a novel lost-ice casting method, (which is an adaptation of the lost-wax casting method) was devised by the author, shown in figure 31.6. The four step process begins with casting wax into the surface of ice. After the ice melts away, the wax molds are casted in solid plaster. As plaster is less translucent than wax, the impressions create has clearer shadows and is more visible.

Mould Wax Shell created over Wax Pattern

Mould Shell seperated by melting the Ice

Ice Sphere

Fig 3.1.7. Step 01-04 - Actual Process of Lost-Ice Casting as conducted by author.

Mould Shell is placed into container

01 Plaster cast is poured

Liquid Wax

Solid Wax

Layer of Water Wax Mould Shell is melted away and plaster cast is removed.

Fig 3.1.6. Principle of Lost-Ice Casting Process as devised by author.

Liquid Plaster

Ice

Emergent Structure of Wax Pattern that solidifies when in contact with surface of ice.

Fig 3.1.8. Explaining the sequencing of the process.

04 Negative Impression of Emergent Structure

Solid Plaster

95 oC

85 oC

75 oC

65 oC

Solidifying Emergent Dynamic Instabilities

29. Fisher, C. (2011) Hot Wax Pouring into Cold Water http://www.colorado. edu/engineering/MCEN/flowvis/galleries/2009/Team-1/Reports/Fisher.pdf (accessed 29 January 2015)

Wax does not mix with water, and because of this, it is considered hydrophobic. Fisher explains that ‘since two fluids of varying density are mixing together, there is instability in the laminar flow.’29 This was captured as the wax solidified in the cold water as the ripples and bulges in the ice geometry shaped the mass of semi-solid wax. The emergent structures that are solidified reveals phase changes and dynamic mixing.

Density Stratified Flows: Analysis of Pattern Formation on Formwork

30. Small Atwood number Rayleigh–Taylor Experiments http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1916/1663. full.pdf+html (accessed 29 January 2015)

Effect of Temperature of Wax on Morphology of Gaps from Low Density Formwork (Parrafin) Wax < 0.5 mm (4 x magnification)

The hydrophobic interaction between water and wax results in a ‘phase change’ so that their corresponding interfacial area will be minimal which results in a spectrum of outcomes in Fig 3.1.10. A dimensionless scale for this interaction between wax and cold water can be attributed to the Atwood number, which compares the densities of two fluids mixing together in a dimensionless number.30

At = p1 – p2/(p1 +p2) , where p1 > p2 Morphology of Gaps within the same cast from High Density Formwork (Bees Wax) > 0.5 mm (2 x magnification)

At=Atwoods Number p1=Density of corresponding fluids

Melting Point of Parrafin Wax

Fig 3.1.10. Material Test Sample Analysis

Smaller Gaps

Parrafin Wax

Solid Wax

Bees Wax

Ice

Cast Outcome

Ice

Wax at Low Density (eg. Parrafin Wax)

Fig3.1.9. Relationship of Temperature to the Density of Parrafin Wax.

Wider Gaps

Wax at High Density (eg. Bees Wax)

b Solid Wax

Density of parrafin wax at melting point (65 oC) = p2 = 0.785 g/mL Density of water (from ice) = p1 = 1.00 g/mL Assuming the density of wax is approximately 0.785 g/mL and water is 1.000 g/mL. The Atwood number for the intaction is then At = 0.012. Hence At = 1.00 – 0.785 / (1.00 + 0.785 ) = 0.01205

Fig 3.1.11 Summary of outcome for casting in beeswax and parrafin wax.

Cast Outcome

Identification of Key Criteria in MIcro-Emergent Formations on Wax Surface: Density of Wax

Analysis of Possible Variables and Outcomes Bees Wax and Paraffin Wax is used for testing as there is significant difference in densities (Fig3.1.14.). As the density of waxes decreases as the temperature increases, changing the temperature in the of the wax when pouring into the ice surface to change its density could also be a second variable that can be directly controlled. As long as a particular density could be obtained, difference outcomes in the emergent structure will result.

Liquid Wax

Solid Wax

Solid Wax Liquid Plaster

Ice

Process Adaptation

Based on the Atwoods equation, it could be argued that since the density of water is fixed at 1.00 g/mL, (the density of water is used instead ice as the wax only interacts with the layer of water on the surface of the ice), the key variable that could be changed to significantly influence the outcome in the emergent structure in the context of the lost-ice casting process was the density of the wax.

04 Negative Impression of Emergent Structure

Solid Plaster

Emergent Structure of Wax Pattern that solidifies when in contact with surface of ice.

Liquid Wax

Solid Wax

03 Wax Formwork Liquid Shotcrete

CNC Milled Snow Formwork

04 Negative Impression of CNC Milled Structure Hardened Shotcrete

Wax as ‘Interface’ to Shotcrete (top) Possible strategy of process adaptation by using CNC milled ice/ compacted snow as a first level sacrificial formwork to cast second level wax formworks for concrete.

CNC Milled EPS Formwork

31. Bemblage, O. A Study on the Blended Wax Patterns in Investment Casting Process, Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2011 Vol I WCE 2011, July 6 - 8, 2011, London, U.K.

Fig 3.1.14. Properties and of Different Types of Wax as observed by Bemblage 31

The width and distance between the ‘patterns’ are influenced by temperature difference between the wax and ice as density changes with temperature. Pouring a wax at hotter temperature would result in smaller distances and a pattern that has a finer grain. This hypothesis proves to be true as observed in Fig. 3.1.10. and is explained summarised in Fig. 3.1.11.

Scaling Up the Process From the lost-ice casting process, it can be concluded that the most significant technical variable on a material science level that influences the emergent structure of the wax casts was the density of the wax when in contact in the ice. However, the key insights on a macro level is that wax formworks, when combined with ice forming, produces a compelling and interesting formation on a micro level, which could be used to address the weakness in EPS formwork. The next section explores how the principle of the lost-ice casting process that might be scaled up and combined with other fabrication methods to construct full scale structures in the real world, by using the idea of sacrificial forming in the casting process of complex geometries.

(below) Concrete Face Quality Comparison

Freedom of Form

Accuracy of Cast Concrete Form

Concrete SurfaceQuality (without finishing)

Ice + Wax

Reusability Formwork

Fabric Formwork

Timber

Wax is reusable and can be remelted and remoulded, effectively a ‘zero waste’ formwork.

Labour Intensity (formwork)

(After striking the formwork, the wax elements can be fully re-used by re-melting and moulding them into new shapes)

Labour Skill

Cost (Material Formwork)

Fig 3.1.15. Using lessons learnt from the lost-ice casting process to address the Disadvantages Of EPS Milled Formwork.

Using Local Compacted Snow in Serbia as Sacrificial Material for Formwork Fabrication

Perimeter Indicate areas within approximately 150km from Belgrade

Strategies were devised to take advantage of the ample snow in Belgrade over the winter to use milled sintered snow as formwork for shotcerete during the winter in the construction process. Locations around Serbia receives significant snowfall in the winter, its provides a potential to use incorporate local materials in the construction process. Using ice and wax as a formwork enables a low-energy and sacrificial formwork to realise the building components.

CNC Milling Ice CNC router technology can be input with surface information to mill the required surface on the sintered snow. In addition, snow sculptures in Japan have also been fabricated using CNC technology as shown in Fig 3.15 below.

Compacted Snow Microstructure

100m3

10m3

of snow

of compacted snow

Assuming a 90 percent air content in snow

Fig 3.1.16. A snow scupture in Japan constructed with compacted snow with the use of CNC tools

Logistics of Producing Compacted Snow assuming 100cm of snow cover based on data from Fig 3.1.19.

Ideal Fabrication Locations for Making Required Wax Formwork

Liquid Silicon Compacted Snow Block

CNC Milled Snow Formwork

Fig 3.1.19. Spatial distribution of snow cover height in Serbia to identify alternate snow scourcing locations.

Fig 3.1.17. (right) A toolbit attached with a CNC toolbit is able to first carve the ice with a thick bit (left) . The intricate detail is then added with a finer tip (right).

Compacting Snow to increase Rigidity

32. Snow Sintering. http://wiki.fis-ski. com/index.php/Snow_Sintering (accessed 19 March 2015)

*As Belgrade only receives a maximum of 11cm of snow cover in February, other locations around Serbia could provide a with snow cover of 100cm and above and within a suitable distance from Belgrade could provide a more suitable fabrication site .

Compacting results in high density, which is important for the solidity of the sprayed formwork structure. As snow is made out about 90 percentage air, a compacting process is needed to be done sinter the snow where it can acheive a high degree of rigidity required for CNC milling the formwork. In a packed block of snow, crystals bind with each other forming inter-crystal bonds. 32

Fig 3.1.20. Snow Cover, Central Belgrade. Fig 3.1.18. Process of producing first level sacrificial formwork with ice or compacted snow.

Process of Making Wax Formworks: Combination with other Digital Fabrication Methods

Liquid Silicon Compacted Snow Block

CNC Milled Snow Formwork Negative Impression of Ice Sacrificial Texture

Wax Formwork Set B (Ice Casted)

Wax Reuse

Fig 3.1.21a. Comparing the geometry of the corrugated thermal labyrith in Federation Square (a) with the outcome of the lost-ice casting (b)

As shown in Fig 2.1, a key difference between the surface condition of conventional thermal labyrith is the use of a simple geometric structure as compared to the emergent structure that is generated by fluid interactions in the wax formwork casting process conducted by the author. Based on this, a production framework is devised in Fig 3.1.22b. to overcome the Limitations in fabrication tolerances by combining Digital and Analog production.

01 02

Wax Formwork Set A (3D Printed in Parts)

Combination Formwork A + B for Concrete

Wax Formwork Set B (Ice Casted)

Wax Formwork Set A

Falsework

(3D Printed in Smaller Segmemnts)

Combination Formwork A + B for Concrete

Fig 3.1.22b. Types of Wax Formworks fabricated with a variety of methods to make the final sprayed concrete mould.

Liquid Wax

Solid Wax

CNC Milled Snow Formwork

04 Negative Impression of CNC Milled Structure

Liquid Shotcrete

Hardened Shotcrete

Wax as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Interfaceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; to Shotcrete

Fig 3.1.22. Exploring a possible fabrication sequence for building component production.

Advantage of Shotcrete Shotcrete is concrete (or sometimes mortar) conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a surface, as a construction technique. It is reinforced by conventional steel rods, steel mesh, and/or fibers. Fiber reinforcement (steel or synthetic) is also used for stabilization in applications such as slopes or tunneling. (Fig 3.1.23.)

Metal HVAC Fittings Integration

a 33. Holmgren, J., Ansell, A., 2008b. Shrinkage of shotcrete – Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Sprayed Concrete – Modern Use of Wet Mix Sprayed Concrete for Underground Support, Lillehammer, p. 225–237. 34. ibid. p. 225–237.

Glass Non-concrete Parts

Wax Formwork

Mass Customised Production Method

Fig 3.1.23. Shotcrete Use in Free-Form Construction (a) and Tunnel Lining (b)

The cement content usually amounts to between 360 and 420 kg/m3. Formwork is simplified and the materials required are significantly reduced because there is no need to design for internal pressure from fluid concrete within a form.33 Using shotcrete reduces or totally eliminates time and money expended on the building of forms, whalers, bracing, forming support structures, and the application of release agents. Due to the natural consolidation of concrete when placed via shotcrete, consolidation operations are also eliminated.34

35. ibid. p. 221–231. Configuration A

Fig 3.1.24. Sectional study of fibre shotcrete used in tunelling technology.35

Configuration B

Configuration C

Fig 3.1.25 The labyrinths can be produced in a decentralised manner with each unique geometry. The integration of digital fabrication and reusable formwork allows for flexible configuration of form with a low carbon output and cost.

Shotcrete is placed and compacted at the same time, due to the force with which it leaves the nozzle. By adding shotcrete accelerator (accelerator) at the nozzle the shotcrete sets immediately following impact.

Concrete Component

HVAC

3.2

Fig 3.23 (below) Cross Section through design proposal. The ventilation strategy for the external areas relies mainly on passive air flow, benefiting from the wind-pressure effect - the train access plarforms are arranged vertically on different levels to enhance the wind throughout the year and permit separate access points for the platfoms and the station area.

Environmental Strategy: A Transitional Thermal Labyrinth

____________________________________________________

A a3

Fig 3.2.1. Thermal Labyrinth as a Distributed System

Enabling Varying Zones of Density and Occupancy The proposal seeks to enable high spatialisation and density via adaptive occupancy of zones within the core station and cultural zones in the proposal in Belgrade. (Fig 3.2.3.). The integration of various activities within the core station scheme suggests that there is a need for environmental control that alters depending on the type of activities. To this end the the modular thermal labyrinth, is used as a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;lungâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; system to provide well-tempered macro-climates, responsive to local user crowding conditions. Ideally the system would be modular on a systems level but incorporate a rich structural morphology at a local level to accomodate different performative needs at strategic points in the building.

High Speed Rail Service

Integrated HVAC and Structural System providing thermal comfort and air quaity contro by absorbing excess heat from passing trains and providing sufficient ventilation.

a1 a3

Fig 3.2.2. Sectional Perspective Inside the Proposal (Below Grade Level).

a2 a4

a2 a3

CORE STATION ZONE (Passangers)

a4 CULTURAL ZONE (Visitors)

Fig 3.24 Creating a distributed system of themal labyrinth to deal with the core station and cultural zones. Labels (a1 - a4) on diagram indicate hyphothetical variations in individual modular configurations of thermal labyrinth optimized to deal with specific parts of the building,

TRANSITIONAL SPACES Key Zones a1

Cool Air Flow Out at key inlets

HOT AIR IN TO BE COOLED

B: Regulating Network A: Sensor Input of Local User Density

Hybrid Zones (Passangers and Patrons) Ventilating the Building by cooling air inside the element and then releasing cool air when needed.

C: Coordinated Deployment and Actuation

CORE STATION ZONE

HYBRID ZONE

WINTER OPERATIVE PARAMETERS

Air supply rate (L.s-1 per person

Temp. (C0) Activity (met) Clothing (clo)

Platforms External

190C

0.9

2.5

23-250C 0.9

1.2

10[2]

Platforms Internal

22-230C

1.1

1.0

23-250C 1.1

0.65

10[2]

Facilities + Amenities

210C

1.4

1.0

230C

1.4

0.65

10[2]

22-240C

1.4

0.55

24-250C 1.4

0.35

30[2]

22-240C

1.4

1.0

24-250C 1.4

0.65

8[2]

18-190C

1.8

1.0

18-190C

1.8

0.65

10[2]

5.0-7.6

0.3

230C**

5.0-7.6

0.09-0.15

1.0-1.2

0.6-1.0

250C**

1.0-1.2

0.3

Circulation spaces internal

CULTURAL ZONE

SUMMER OPERATIVE PARAMETERS

Temp. (C0) Activity (met) Clothing (clo)

Waiting Space

Cultural Exhibitions / Temporary Galleries

Performance 150C* Space external (performer conditions) Performance Space external (spectators conditions)

150C*

Cultural Zones (Visitors and Patrons)

Fig 3.2.7. Overview of Key Occupancy Zones,

Fig 3.25 The possibility of incorporating floor-based kinetic sensors to gather live data about passanger density in parts of the building to be sent to the regulating system.

Space use

Core Station Zones (Passangers)

Fig 3.26 Formulating the key requirments of each space in the proposal. The rates of heat generation are calculated using a body surface area of 1.8m2 representing an average for an adult. Clothing â&#x20AC;&#x153;is graded according to insulation value, the unit adopted being the clo. (key values of interest are highlighted in blue)

Assuming

9000m2 solar energy

Energy Transfer and Creating a Distributed System

34. Average Weather In Belgrade, Serbia. http://www.weather-and-climate. com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine,Belgrade,Serbia (Accessed 16 April 2015)

Among the potential energy is identified for the proposal, solar power and kinetic energy from trains. This study wiil find out for what volume of concrete labyrinth is needed to accomodate the energy provided by just the active solar panel area in one section of proposal solar collectors in August, when the diurnal temperature is the highest. Belgrade has a large diurnal temperature variation in thorughout the year, particularly in the summer32. In August, the diurnal value is up to 11 OC, which provides and opportunity for the system function.

(panel area)

Solar irradiance (August) = 5.28 kWh/m2 Assuming 9000 m2 of panels, Peak day heat gain (August) = 5.28 kWh/m2 x 9000 m2 x 0.5 = 23760 kWh Q from solar collectors (August) = 23760 kWh x 3600 = 85536000 kJ

Indicative System Module Diagram (top view)

Volume of concrete = Q / (volumetric heat capacity of concrete x delta T) Q = energy in kJ Volumetric heat capacity of concrete = 2060kJ/m3 delta T = Diurnal temperature variation in August = 11 (27.3 OC - 16.3 OC = 11 OC) Hence, Volume of concrete = 85536000 kJ / (2060kJ/m3 x 11) = 85536000 kJ / 22660 kJ/m3 = 3775 m3

Cools a concrete labyrinth of 3775m3 by 11OC

2516.5 m3 volume of concrete

23760 kWh in SUMMER

x20 190 m3 Cools a concrete labyrinth of 1m3 by 11OC

6.3 kWh

in SUMMER

Volume of one module = 190 m3

1 m3 volume of concrete

= Type A Module = Type B Module

Fig 3.2.8. Volume of concrete in one local module.

This means that the energy accumulated by the solar collectors in August will be able to passively supply enough energy to cool a total volume of 3775m3 by 11OC in August or 6.3 kWh. Assuming the volume of each module is 190 m3 , this volume can be distributed to approximately 20 modules.

Type B

Type A

3775 m3

Fig 3.2.9. Distributing the total volume and energy capacity on a systems level to smaller modules.

HIgh Surface Area results in Higher Heat Diffusion Rate = Faster cooling Time per m3 of concrete.

High Surface Area Inside for internal heat transfer.

Fig 3.2.10 Energy transfer and creating a distributed modular configuration on a system level but with morphological differentiation on a local level according to surface area exposure.

High Surface Area Outside for external heat transfer.

Energy from

Energy in from

Hot Air in

solar collectors

Cooling from the inside

Reducing Building Cooling Load by Cool Air Into Transitional Space

Kinetic energy from passing trains

Thermal Energy Diffusion

Night Chilled Air In

Heating Element

Hot Air Storing Night Chilled Air Below Grade

Indicative Summer System Module Diagram (top view)

High Surface Area Inside for internal heat transfer.

Coil Induction converted to Electrical Energy

Fig 3.2.11a. Cooling Strategy in the Summer.

Fig 3.2.11b. Harvesting Kinetic Energy from trains to for heating in Winter.

Cooling from the inside and outside Transitional Labyrinths In Summer

Heating from the inside and outside Transitional Labyrinths In Winter

The labyrinth acts as a thermal battery, storing the chill of the night air at below grade, and cooling the external hot air to reduce the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cooling load in summer.

In winter, the labyrinth will store heat drawn from the high speed trains in the station (Fig 3.2.1b.) and outside air warmed by the sun.

High Surface Area Outside for external heat absorbtion.

Indicative Winter System Module Diagram (top view)

High Surface Area Inside for internal rapid heat accumulation.

Fig 3.2.12a. Area of Study

HOT AIR OUT

Heating Element

Magnet

High Surface Area Outside for external heat diffusion. HOT AIR IN

Fig 3.2.12. Area of Study

Cool Air Flow Out at key inlets HOT AIR IN TO BE COOLED

Ventilating the Building by cooling air inside the element and then releasing cool air when needed.

Thermal Energy from surrounding

Cool Air Flow Out at key inlets HOT AIR IN TO BE COOLED

Coolling the Building by efficiently transferring heat from surrounding.

Ventilating the Building by cooling air inside the element and then releasing cool air when needed.

Thermal Energy Diffusion

Heating the Building by efficiently transferring heat to the surrounding.

Conclusion

_____________________________________

Conclusion

_____________________________________________________ The essence of the thesis is the learning from the principles of bottom up systems; in particular the form and materiality of emergent structures of living systems is informing architectural strategies for environmental performance. The thesis informs animal-built structures are organs of physiology and their geometrical principle is the high surface area and these structures often exhibit excellent temperature regulation characteristics and structural performance. The concept of L-systems is used to model the morphology of a variety of emergent iterations and used to integrate self-similar fractals such as iterated function systems into the emergent structure to rigorously optimize for the key parameters of the environmental strategy. Harvesting the local weather using available energy and air movements to create an internal environment suitable for human inhabitation, the author challenged the notion of a thermal labyrinth and proposed a distributed system and a series of geometrical simulations and tests were digitally and materially conducted to further investigate the morphological and fabrication implications. There are limits to fabricating digital geometries and utilizing the emergent microstructures in formworks as shown at the lost-ice casting process, it is possible to integrate an extra of fine grain microscale finishing into the integrated component that has performative and haptical qualities. Emergent building systems and transitional realms in architecture that responsively mutate and merge into one another could become prototypical in new or existing urban situations in the future.

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Word Count = 8978 words (excluding bibliography)