Nayar and the Naga Tradition

\mbÀ ]mc¼cyw – \mbcpw \mKcpw þ Hct\zjWw sI.N{µxlcnx Iemw hn`ÀXnw £WZmIcky bx {]IminXmimw inckm K`kvXn`nx \tamkvXp Xkvssa kpchµnXmw{Ltb kakvXhnZym {]`hmb iw`th1 \mb·msc¸än kq£vahpw kw£n]vXhpamb Hcp hnhcWw km[yaÃ. A`yql§fpsS Hcp ]c¼cbmWv \mb·msc¸än C¶v \ne\n¡p¶ k¦Â]§Ä. XangI¯nsâ `mKambncp¶p \mbÀ ]mc¼cyw F¶ [mcWtbmsSbmWv Fgp¯mcw`n¨Xv. ]s£, ]T\hpw Fgp¯pw ]ptcm Kan¨t¸mÄ \mb·mÀ Xangv `mj¡mcÃ, {]IrX`mjnIfmbncp¶psh¶ kqN\ icnbmsW¶v tXm¶n. a[y]uckvXytZi¯p \n¶pw ImemIme§fn D−mb {ZmhnUcpsS hyXyØamb ssIhgnIÄ IS amÀ¤hpw IcamÀ¤hpw F¯n CSIeÀ¶n«p−mImw F¶ \nKa\¯nte¡m Wv hnhn[ A`yql§Ä hgn Im«nbXv. A`yql§Ä¡v D]cnbmb \mbcpsS kzXzw kÀ¸hpw `{ZImfnbpw kn²]mc¼cyhpw Xm{´nIamb A\pjvTm\§fpamsW¶v \mK]mc¼cyhpambpÅ XmcXay¯neqsS BÀ¡pw hyàamIp¶XmWv. cmPØm\s¯bpw KpPdm¯nsebpw aäpw imI ]mc¼cyhpambn \mK]mc¼cyw Cg]nWªp InS¡p¶Xp sIm−v hyàamb AYhm kq£vaamb Hcp hÀ¤hyànXzw Xn«s¸Sp¯pI e`yamb sXfnhpIÄ sIm−v km[yaÃ. ssih þimtàb ]mc¼cyw a[y]uckvXy\mb ]mckv cma\n \n¶pw ssP\þ_u² ]mXIfneqsS sXt¡m«v HgpInsb¯nbXpw {Ioän \n¶pw IS hgn F¯nbXpw tIcf¯n kwKan¨ncn ¡mw. \mbcpsS Adnbs¸Sp¶ Ncn{X¯nse khntijXIÄ \mK]mc¼cyw XoÀ¯pw kqNn ¸n¡p¶hbmsW¶v Xmsg NÀ¨ sN¿s¸Sp¶ hkvXpXIÄ \nÊwibw sXfnbn¡p¶p. \mbcpsS BNmcm\pjvTm\§sfm¶pw Xs¶ {]mIrXaÃ. kn²m\p`h¯nsâ ASnØm\¯n X{´imkv{X¯nsâ {]XoImßIXbpw t{ibkvIcamb A\pjvTm\]²Xnbpw AS§p¶XmWv \mbcpsS IpemNmc§Ä. [mcmfw ZoÀLamb D²cWnIfps−¶v ]eÀ¡pw tXm¶mw. kzXzw tXSp¶ \mb·mÀ¡p at\m[À½¯n\v A\pkcn¨v kzXzkm£mXvImcw t\Sm³ DXIWw F¶ XmÂ]cyamWv D²cWnIÄ¡v ]n¶nÂ. Hcp hyànbpsS It]meIÂ]nXsa¶Xnep]cnbmbn \mK]mc¼cy¯nsâ imkv{XobX kmÀÆP\o\amb AwKoImcw kn²n¨ hkvXpXbmsW¶v t_m²ys¸«v BßKuch¯n\v D]Icn¡pw F¶v {]Xymin¡p¶p. A]qÀ®amb sXfnhpIsf bpànamÀ¤¯neqsS A]{KYn¨p apt¶dpt¼mÄ FÃmw icn F¶v bpàn¡v tXm¶psa¦nepw B icn hkvXpXIÄ¡v hncp²amImw. DZmlcW¯n\v, at²y]uckvXytZihpambn _Ôs¸« Dulmt]ml§Ä Xs¶sbSp¡mw. \mKcpsS ]pcmX\ XdhmSv bYmÀ°¯n {Ioäv Zzo]w Bbncp¶pthm AtXm C¶s¯ Imws_ DÄ¡Sen Is−¯nbncn¡p¶ ]pcmX\amb ZzmcIbmbncp¶pthm? kptadnb³ kwkvImchpw sskÔhþkckzXokwkvImchpw ISnen XmW ZzmcIbpsS AhinjvS§tfm DbnÀs¯gpt¶Â]pItfm BtWm? {In.ap. 3100 F¶ ]pcmW{]kn²amb IenbpKmZn hsc ISÂ\nc¸v \qdntesd aoäÀ Xmsgbmbncp¶Xmbpw Imws_¡Sense AXn{]mNo\ kwkvImc¯nsâ ]n¡me ]Xn¸pIfmWv C¶dnhmb \mKcnIXIsf¶pw A`yqlap−v. Hcp ]s£, AXn]pcmX\amb {In.ap. 3100 tem atäm Pe\nc ¸pbÀ¶p−mb {]fb¯m ap§nt¸mb aqe\mKkwkvIrXnbpsS ]cnWXnIfmImw {]fbm\ ´c `mcX¯n ImWp¶Xv. IenbpKmZnbpw tPymXnximkv{Xhpw {]IrX`mjbpw \mKtbm\n 1

\mep]mSpw {]Imiw sNmcnbp¶ Xn¦Ä¡e NqSnb, kakvXhnZyIfpsSbpw DdhnSamb iw`phnsâ, tZh·mcm kZm ]cnNcn¡s¸Sp¶ ]mZ§fn Fsâ \akvImcw.

1

enwKmZnIfpsaÃmw kw`mh\bmImw.

1.

\ap¡v

Adnhmbn«nÃm¯

GtXm

]mXmf\KcnbpsS,

Akpc·mcpsS,

BcmWv \mbÀ?

BcmWv \mbÀ F¶ tNmZy¯n\v C¶v e`yamIp¶ D¯cw, tIcfw AYhm ae_mÀ F¶ ]pWy]pcmX\`qanbn C¶v ZriyamIp¶ lnµpþP\PmXnIfnsemcp hn`mKamWv \mbÀ F¶XmWv. aäp hm¡pIfn kw£n]vXambn ]dªm aebmfnIfnse Hcp hn`mKw Ahsc \mbsc¶p hntijn¸n¡p¶p. Chcn DÂ]XnjvWp¡fÃm¯ Hcp \yq\]£w C¶pw \mbÀ F¶ hmev t]cnt\msSm¸w [cn¡p¶hcmWv. \mb·mcpsS btim[mhfyw {_n«ojv C´ybn kÀZmÀ sI.Fw.]Wn¡sct¸msebpÅ _p²nPohnIfmepw kzX{´`mcX¯n hn.]n.tat\ms\ t¸msebpÅ {]Xn`mimenIfmepw hn]peam¡s¸«t¸mÄ \mbcpsS kwLS\m]mSh¯n\v DuSpw ]mhpw \ÂInbXv bixicoc\mb {io.a¶¯p ]ß\m`\mWv. {io. a¶¯p ]ß\m`\pw {io.tIf¸\psams¡ \mbsc¶ hmep apdn¨v ]ptcmKa\¯nsâ ]mXbneqsS \mbÀ kaqls¯ \bn¡phm³ {ian¨hcmWv. \mbcpsS kwLS\m iànbpsS {]XoIambn C¶v \mbÀ kÀÆokv skmsskän N§\mtÈcnbn XebpbÀ¯n \n¡p¶p. IÀ½tbmKnIfmbncp¶ {io.InS§qÀ tKm]meIrjvW]nÅbpw {io.\mcmbW¸Wn¡cpw Ignª aq¶p ZiI§fn t\XrXzw \ÂIn ]Sp¯pbÀ¯nb Cu alm{]Øm\¯nsâ C¶s¯ kmcYn {io.kpIpamc³ \mbcmWv. kmaqlntIm¶a\¯n\v ap³Xq¡w \ÂIn A`nhr²nbpsS ]pXnb N{Ihmf§Ä tXSp¶ \mbÀ kÀÆokv skmsskän C¶v \mbÀ¡v A`nam\¯n\p hI \ÂIp¶ GI kmaqlnI Im shbv]mbn Ahtijn¡p¶p. {io.N«¼n kzman, {io. \mcmbWKpcp apXemb kmaqlnI ]cnjvIÀ¯m¡fpw almßmKmÔn PhlÀem s\lvdp apXemb tZiob t\Xm¡fpw kao]Ime¯v \mb·mcpsS kmaqlnINn´mKXnsb cq]s¸Sp¯p¶Xn Imcyamb kzm[o\w sNep¯nbn«ps−¶v AÂ]w Nn´n¨m \ap¡v t_m²ys¸Smw. kzX{´ykacw AYhm tZiob {]Øm\hpambn _Ôs¸« kÀ.kn.i¦c³ \mbsct¸msebpÅ F®aä {]Xn`mimenIsf `mcX¯n\p kw`mh\ sN¿phm³ Ignªpsh¶Xn \mbÀ kaql¯n\v \ymbambpw A`nam\n¡phm³ hIbp−v. amdn hcp¶ kmaqlnI, km¼¯nI, cmjv{Sob kmlNcy§Ä¡ \pkrXambn NSpeXtbmsS NphSp sh¡p¶ Hcp \mbÀ kaqlw C¶v tIcf¯nepw adp\mSpIfnepw kPohamsW¶Xv FÃm \mb·mÀ¡pw A`nam\¯n\p hI \ÂIp¶p. cmjv{Sobamb sI«p]mSpIfm hnLSn¡s¸«v X§fpsS iàamb {]XnIcWtijn \mb·mÀ \jvSs¸Sp¯ntbm F¶ kwibw NneÀ D¶bn¡p¶psh¦nepw ImemIme§fn kwib \nhr¯n \ÂIpw h®w {]XnIcn¡phm³ \mb·mÀ¡p Ignªn«ps−¶ Imcy¯n kwibanÃ. kmaqlnI cwK¯v kzXkn²amb IgnhpIfm ]nSn¨p \n¡p¶ \mb·mÀ, B²ymßnI cwK¯v {io. N«¼n kzmanbpsS Imetijw A\p`hn¡p¶ iq\yXsb XcWw sN¿m\mImsX IpgbpIbmsW¶v kapZmbmNmcy³ {io.a¶¯p ]ß\m`\p tijapÅ ImeL«w kqNn¸n¡p ¶p. kmaqlncwK¯v _²{i²\mbncp¶psh¦nepw \mb·mcpsS B²ymßntIm¶a\w e£yam ¡n kapZmbmNmcy³ \ÂInb amÀ¤\nÀt±i§sf A\phÀ¯n¡p¶Xn \mb·mÀ hnPbn¨pthm F¶ Nn´ C¯cpW¯n hfsc {]kàamWv. DZmlcW¯n\v, t£{X§fnse X{´nØm\w PmXnþ{_mÒW\p am{Xw AhImis¸«XmsW¶ Aimkv{Xob hmZs¯ \mbÀ kÀÆokv skmsskänbpsS Nne t\Xm¡·mÀ CS¡me¯v ]n´m§nbncp¶Xmbn ]{XhmÀ¯ IÄ kqNn¸n¡pI D−mbn. F¶mÂ, \mbÀ kÀÆokv skmsskänbpsS Øm]I\pw kapZmbmNmcy\pamb {io. a¶¯p ]ß\m`³ Xsâ PohnXkvacWIfn A[xIrtXm²mcWw skmsskänbpsS ISaIfnsem¶msW¶pw AXn\pth−n kapZmbw {]bXv\n¡Wsa¶pw hyàam¡p¶p−v. t£{X{]thi\¯n\pw Abnt¯m¨mS\¯n\pambpÅ kac§fpsS IY At±lw ]dªhkm\n¸n¡p¶Xv Xmsg \ÂIp¶ hcnItfmsSbmWv.

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“...AhnSps¯ (t£{X§fnse) AkaXz§fpw lnµp¡fnse hn`mKobXbpw ]gb t]mse \ne\nÀ¯m³ {_mÒWcpsS kzmÀ°hpw A{_mÒWcpsS auVyhpw C¶pw klmbn¨p sIm−ncn¡p¶p.”

{io. a¶¯p ]ß\m`sâ Cu hm¡pIÄ Ac\qäm−n\v tijw C¶pw A£cw {]Xn icnbmWv. t£{XmNmckw_Ôambn tIcf¯n \ne\n¡p¶ AgnaXnIÄ¡v c−v ImcW§Ä am{XamWpÅXv. Gähpw {][m\ambn A{_mÒWcpsS auVyw ]ns¶ {_mÒWsâ kzmÀ°X. sXmgnembn A[x]Xn¸nt¡−n h¶mepw X{´w ssIhnSnsö at\m`mhw ASp¯ Ime¯p−mb NÀ¨Ifn {]Xn^en¨ncp¶Xv \mw {i²nt¡−XmWv. t£{Xmcm[\sb hn{Klmcm[\sb¶v hnfn¨v AÔhnizmk§fpsS ]«nIbnepÄs¸Sp¯n XnckvIcn¡pI \mb·msc kw_Ôn¨nSt¯mfw F{Xam{Xw A`nImayamWv? sslµhsa¶ N«¡qSn IS¶p Ibdn AhnsS \ne\n¡p¶ PmXn{_mÒWsâ ta[mhnXz¯n\p kz´w B²ymßnIXsb ASnbd sh¡p¶Xv \mb·mcpsS ]mc¼cy¯n\p tNcp¶ {]hÀ¯nbmtWm? \mb·mÀ¡v kzXkn²amb Hcp B²ymßnI ]mc¼cyapt−m? {_mtÒWXcamb \mb·mcpsS B²ymßnI ]mc¼cy¯nsâ ImXse´mWv?

2.

\mb·mcpsS khntijXIÄ

(a) \mb·mcpsS Ncn{X]camb thcpIÄ \mb·mcpsS ]mc¼cy¯nsâ thcpIÄ tXSpt¼mÄ C¶v \mw F¯nt¨cp¶Xv ]ckv]c hncp²§fmb Dulmt]ml§fnemWv. B[nImcnIamb ]T\§sfm¶pw Xs¶ \mb·mcpsS Ncn{Xs¯¸än e`yaÃ. ]mÝmXyscgpXn¡q«nb A_²k¦Â]§fpw AhÀ¡v \mS³ kmbn¸p amÀ \ÂInb A\p_Ô§fpw BWv CâÀs\äneqsS {]Ncn¡p¶Xv. \mbÀ Ncn{Xw kw_Ôn¨ Xangv tcJIÄ ]T\hnt[bam¡m¯Xn\m {_mÒWm[n]Xyw h¶ H¼Xvþ]¯v \qäm−pIÄ apXepÅ tIcfNcn{Xw am{Xw C¶v B[nImcnIambn e`yambn«pÅp. hccpNnbpw Bcy`S\pw lcnZ¯\pw tKmhnµkzmanbpw Hs¡ Pohn¨ncp¶ ImeL«s¯ Ccp− \qäm−pIfmbn hntijn¸n¡s¸Sp¶Xv, XangI¯nsâ `mKambncp¶ A¡mes¯ tIcfs¯ aXnbmb ]T\§Ä¡v hnt[bam¡m¯Xp sIm−mWv. ¹n\nbpsS ae_mÀ Xocs¯¸änbpÅ ]cmaÀiw {InkvXphn\p ap¼v Xs¶ ae_mÀ \mb·mcpsS tZiambn Adnbs¸«ncp¶p F¶ kqN\ \ÂIp¶p. ¹n\nbpsS ]cmaÀis¯ aäp hn[¯nepw hymJym\n¡s¸Sp¶Xn\m \mbsc¶ ]Z¯nsâ Ime\nÀ®bw GXm−v AhyàamsW¶v ]dbmw. \mbsc¶ PmXn\ma¯nsâ DÛhImew GXp Xs¶bmbmepw, H¶mw tNckm{amPyImew AYhm AXn\pw ap¼v kwLImew apX Xs¶ cmPym´cJymXn t\Snbncp¶ Hcp P\XXn tIcf¯n \nehnencp¶psh¶v ]mÝmXybm{XnIcpsS tcJIfn \n¶pw \nÊwibw a\Ênem¡mw. {_mÒWm[n]Xy¯n\p ap¼v Xs¶ ssP\þ_p²aX§fpw ]ÅnIfpw ImhpIfpw IfcnIfpw Ipf§fpw \ndª Hcp {ZmhnUtemIw tIcfs¯ k¼¶am¡nbncp¶psh¶p IcpXp¶Xn\pw [mcmfw sXfnhpIfp−v. A§s\bpÅ Hcp P\XXn Ccp−\qäm−pIfpsS krjvSnbmIpI km[yaÃtÃm? Cu ]Ým¯e¯nemWv \mb·mcpsS kzXzw tXSnbpÅ Cu At\zjWw Bcw`n¡p¶Xv. \mbcpsS kzXzw GsXms¡ LSI§fm \nÀ®bn¡s¸Sp¶p? Cu LSI§Ä {]Xn^en¡p¶ {]mNo\ kwkvImc§sf¸än C¶v e`yambncn¡p¶ hkvXpXIsf´mWv? 1. t]mcmfn ]mc¼cyw 3

\mb·mcpsS Ncn{X¯nse Gähpw {]kn²amb khntijX AhÀ Irjnbpw bp²hpw sXmgnem¡nbncp¶p F¶XmWv. tbm²m¡mÄ `qanbpsS DSaIfmbXn AÛpX¯n\ hImianÃ. D²X\mb \mbÀ tbm²mhnsâ tcJmNn{Xw Itamsb³knsâ t]mÀ¨pKokv Imhy¯n e`yamIp¶Xv {it²bamWv.2 By the proud Nayres the noble rank is claim'd The toils of culture and of art they scorn The warrior's plumes their haughty brows adorn The shining falchion brandish'd in the right Their left arm wields the target in the fight Of danger scornful, ever arm'd they stand Around the king, a stern barbarian band

]Xns\m¶mw \qäm−nse tNcþtNmf bp²§fn \mb·mcpsS NmthÀ ]SIÄ hln¨ \nkvXpeamb ]¦v Ncn{XImc·mÀ tcJs¸Sp¯nbn«p−v. ae_mdnse Ahkm\ ]pcpj{]Pbpw acn¨Xn ]n¶oSmWv X\n¡v AhnsS Imep Ip¯m³ IgnªsX¶v Iptem¯pwKtNmf³ tcJs¸Sp¯nb Hcp enJnXw ae_mdnsehnsStbm DÅXmbn hmbn¨tXmÀ¡p¶p.

2. \mK]qP ]SbmfnIfmb \mb·mcpsS BNmc]chpw Bßob]chpamb Gähpw {][m\ khntijX Ifnsem¶v \mKmcm[\bmWv. \mKmcm[\sb Cgªp \S¡p¶ kÀ¸]qPbmbn eLqIcn¡p¶ hymJym\w ]e ]WvUnX·mcpw \S¯n¡mWp¶p. Adnbm¯ hnjb§sf¸än A`n{]mbw ]dbpt¼mÄ h¶pXocp¶ A_²amWv A§s\bpÅ hymJym\§Ä. \mbcpsS kzXz¯nsâ ASnthcv kÀ¸¡mhpIfnemsW¶Xn\m Cu hnjbs¯¸än ]n¶oSv hniZambn NÀ¨ sN¿msa¶v IcpXp¶p.

3. acpa¡¯mbw ]n. _meIrjvWtat\msâ amXrZmb{Iahpw KmÀlnILS\bpw: ae_mdnse \mbÀ XdhmSpIsf¸änbpÅ Hcp ]T\w3 F¶ BwKteb {]_Ô¯n \mbÀ kapZmb¯nsâ B[nImcnIamb Hcp kmaqlnI Nn{Xw hniZambn NÀ¨ sN¿s¸Sp¶p−v. kw{Kl¯nsâ BZy JWvUnI \mb·mcpsS ]e khntijXIfnte¡pw shfn¨w hoip¶XmWv. “... The system of matrilineal consanguinity and descent practiced by the Nairs was remarkable for its complex kinship organization and joint family set up, and the unique status – social and economic – it afforded to the women of the community. Among the critical features of this system were: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

2 3

The mode of tracing descent and kin-ties along the line of ancestress The holistic and ritually-significant quasi-corporate body, called taravad The relative latitude extended to women in both marriage and termination of marriage The “duolocal residence” and the “visiting husband” system The complex system of rights of ownership, division and transmission of family landed property conferred upon descendants and The existence of a number of descent groups, called tavazhis, headed by female descendants and forming sub-clans – sometimes as large as one hundred members – all living together in a taravad house

P.91, The Lusiad, by Luís de Camões, The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Lusiad Matrilini and Domestic Morphology: A Study of the Nair Taravads of Malabar, Balakrishnamenon, P., School of Architecture, McGill University, Montreal, Aug 1998

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acpa¡¯mbw, A\´nch\neqsSbpÅ ]n³XpSÀ¨mhImiw IqSmsX apds¸®v, apds¨dp¡³ F¶n§s\bpÅ sshhmlnIcoXnIfpw DÄs¡m−ncp¶p. \mb·mcpsS CSbn am{XaÃ, aäp ]e t]mcmfnhÀ¤§fnepw CtX coXnbnepÅ amXrZmbþacpa¡¯mb ]n³XpSÀ¨ \nehnencp ¶Xmbn Ncn{XtcJIfn \n¶pw a\Ênem¡mw. DZmlcW¯n\v, KuXa_p²\pw ]nXmhmb ipt²mZ\\pw X§fpsS Aѳs]§fpsS aIsf (apds¸®v) bmWv hnhmlw Ign¨sX¶ hkvXpX _u²tcJIfn sXfnbp¶p−v.

4. Ifcnbpw Imhpw Ipfhpw Imhv, Ifcn, Ipfw Ch \mbcpsS PohnX¯n\v Hgn¨p IqSm\mhm¯ kt¦X§fmbncp¶p. Imhv kÀ¸s¯bpw `KhXnsbbpw IpSnsIm−p. IfcnIÄ c−mbncp¶p þ sabv Ifcn ka{Kamb tbmKþhymbma]²XnIfpw Bßc£¡pÅ ]Xns\«ShpIfpw ]Tn¸n¨t¸mÄ \mbcpsS Fgp ¯pIfcn Adnhnsâ Btbm[\¯n\v thZnbmbn. ISp¯pcp¯n {io. hmkptZhKpcp¡fpsS {KÙ¯n Ifcn¸bänsâ khntijX hyàam¡phm³ tUm.tlmhmÀUv doUns\ (_n._n.kn) D²cn¨ncn¡p¶Xv {it²bamWv. “\n§fpsS Ifcn¸bäv \nkvXpeamWv. GjybpsS CXc`mK§fnse Btbm[\IeIsfm¶pw C{Xam{Xw ka{KaÃ. PqtUm coXnbn {]XntbmKnsb \net¯¡v hens¨dnªmWv XIÀ¡pI, Icms«bn Xo ]mdp¶ XmU\§fmepw. \n§Ä¡nXv c−pap−v. Bbp[ {]tbmK§Ä thsdbpw. C\n Bbp[§Ä CÃmsX h¶m A´naamb shdpw ssI {]tbmKhpw ]cp¡p]änbm imkv{Xobamb NnInÕmcoXnbpw Ifcn¸bänep−v”.4 Ipehpw IpetZhnbpw amXrZmb¯nsâ aqem[mcambn \nesIm−p. Xm{´nImcm[\ \mb·mcpsS B²ymßnIk]cybpsS Ahn`mPy LSIambncp¶p. `{ZImfnbpw ]nXr¡fpw kÀ¸§fpw \mb·mcpsS ImhpIfn A\p{KlminÊpItfmsS ]peÀ¶ncp¶ Hcp ]gb Imew \mb·mÀ¡p−mbncp¶Xmbn \ymbambpw A\pam\n¡mw. alnjmkpcaÀ±n\nbmb `{ZImfn \mbcpsS kzXz¯nsâ Gähpw DÖzeamb {]XoIamWv. \mbcpsS _u²nIhpw B²ymßnI hpamb ]m¸c¯¯nsâ Gähpw \mWw sI« DZmlcWamWv X§fpsS IpetZhnamsc \¼qXncnamÀ¡v hn«psImSp¯ Zb\ob AhØ. XanÄ \m«nse sN«n¸nÅamÀ C¶pw X§fpsS tImhnepIfn `{ZImfn¡v kzbw ]qP sN¿pt¼mÄ \mWw sI« \mb·mscbmWv `{ZImfn C¶v tIcf¯n ImWp¶Xv. IpetZhnsb {_mÒWsâ I]SþX{´¯n\p hn«p sImSp¡m¯ CughÀ¡pw `{ZImfnbpsS ap¼n A`nam\t¯mSv \Sphp\nhÀ¯n \n¡m³ hIbp−v. X{´w Adnbm¯ X{´namcpsS ap¼n ssI¡p¼nfpambn \n¶v {]kmZw hm§p¶ \mbÀ ]ip`mhamÀ¶ \]pwkIamWv. 5. shfn¨¸mSv shfn¨¸mSns\ Xm{´nImcm[\bpsS aqÀ¯n`mhsa¶v hntijn¸n¡mw. hnfn¨m hnfn tIÄ¡psa¶v \mbÀ hnizkn¨ `{ZImfnbpsS hm¡v shfn]mSpw A§s\bpÅ shfn]mSnsâ DSa shfn¨¸msS¶pw Adnbs¸«p. shfn, sh«w apXembh `KhXnbpsS {]ImiX¯zmßIamb AhØbpsS {]Xn^e\sat¶mWw kaql¯n {]NenXamb hm¡pIfmWv. ssZhoI iànsb¶ AÀ°amWv. sh«¯p\mSv XncpamÔmwIp¶nse `KhXnbpsS \mSmWv. sh«w F¶Xpw AXpt]mse `KhXnbpsS ØeamWv. Imhnsâbpw IfcnbpsSbpw Ahn`mPy LSIambncp¶ shfn¨¸mSv `KhXnamsc {_mÒW³ ssIt¿äXp apX \mtim·pJambn.

4

ISp¯pcp¯n {io. hmkptZhKpcp¡Ä, Ifcn¸bäv, Un.kn._p¡vkv, (2000) ]pdw 14 .

5

Imhpw Ifcnbpw hmfpw ssItamiw h¶tXmsS shfn]mSpw shfn¨¸mSpw `qapJ¯p \n¶pXs¶ A{]Xy£ambn. tZhlnXw Adnbm³ tZh{]iv\w F¶ I]Skmt¦XnItPymXnjw {_mÒW X{´namÀ ]Icw \S¸m¡n.

6. IYIfnbpsS BhnÀ`mhw IYIfn, Imhpw Ifcnbpw tNÀ¶v P·w \ÂInb \mb·mcpsS X\Xp IebmWv. \mbÀ \Sphp\nhÀ¶p \n¶ncp¶ ]gbIme¯nsâ kw`mh\bmWv {]mNo\IeIfpsS Bßm¡sf sbms¡ kÀ¤mßIambn Bhmln¡p¶ NSpeXbmÀ¶ Cu kwKoXm`n\bþ\r¯ Ie. IfcnbpsS NSpeXbpw kwKoX¯nsâ XmfaÀ½c§fpw \mb·mcpsS B²ymßnI]mc¼cyhpw kt½fn¡p ¶ IYIfn inhXmWvUh¯nsâ Kmw`ocyamÀ¶ IebmWv. cma\m«w, IrjvW\m«w, IqSnbm«w, AjvS]Zn, apSntbäv (ZmcpIh[w), Xobm«v, sX¿w, ]SbWn ChbpsSsbms¡ kwKoXþ\r¯þA`n\b Iemwi§sf IfcnbpsS NphSpshbv]pIfpambn CgtNÀ¯v ]Xns\«mw \qäm−nt\mSSp¯v cq]w sIm−v cmPm¡m·mcm t]mjn¸n¡s¸«v {]Nmc¯n h¶ IebmWv IYIfn. {Xn]©mtc ]otT ihþinhlrZnkvtachZ\mw F¶ hÀ®n¡s¸Sp¶ alnjaÀ±n\nbmb `{ZImfnbpsS kuµcyhpw kuc`yhpamÀ¶ Ie. 7. NmthÀ ]mc¼cyw \mb·mcpsS ]ucpj¯nsâ, t]mcm«§fpsS, IpetZhnbmb `{ZImfnbpsS... \mb·mcpsS CXnlmk¯nse Gähpw tim`mbam\Zriyw X§fpsS `qan¡pw kzXz¯n\pw th−n, I®n sN´obmÀ¶ IpetZhXbmb `{ZImfnsb X¶nte¡v Bhmln¨v ]S¡pt]mb NmthdpIfmWv. I®ocWnbmsX s\bvt¨mdq«n Nn´qcw NmÀ¯n A½amÀ bm{Xbm¡nb Hcn¡epw Xncn¨p h¶n«nÃm¯ \mb·mcpsS Bß_enbmWv X{´w aq¡pIp¯nb C¡me¯pw sISmhnf¡mbn \n¡p¶ `KhXnbpsS ssNX\y¯nsâ ASn¯d. cmPcmPtNmfsâ {]]u{X³ Iptem¯pwK tNmfsâ hmgvNbpsS ]Xn¶memw hÀj¯nse Xangv enJnX¯nsâ BwKe]cn`mj ae_mdnse \mb·mÀ5 F¶ {KÙ¯nsâ Ahkm\w tNÀ¯ncn¡p¶Xv {i²n¡pI. It is interesting evidence of the old martial spirit of the Nayars:According to an inscription of the 14th year of his reign (= A.D. 1083-1084) the Chola King Kulottunga-I. ‘conquered Kudamalai-nādu i.e. western hill country (Malabar) whose warriors, the ancestors of the Nayars of the present day, perished to the last man in defending their independence’ – South Indian Inscriptions, Vol.III, p.130.

(Translation of the 27th line of the inscription at Tirukkazhukundram) “While all the heroes (chavers) in the Western hill-country (Kudamalai-nādu) ascended voluntarily to heaven ... etc”

`mkvIcþchnhÀ½³ aq¶ma³ Xsâ NmthÀ ssk\yt¯msSm¸w {InkvXp hÀjw 1082  t]mcmSn acn¨XmWv apIfnse D²cWn¡v B[mcamb kw`hw.

A½sb¶ A`n[m\w C¶v t]cns\m¸w kmÀh{XnIambn D]tbmK¯nemWv. aqecq]¯n `KhXnbpsS Cu A`n[m\w ]Sþ\mbÀ kv{XoIfpsS, Bß_en¡p k¶²cmb a¡sf {]khn¨ A½amcpsS Øm\t¸cmbncp¶p. Ime¯nsâ Ips¯mgp¡n \mbcpsS ]ucpjw t]mse A½þ]ZhnbpsS Kuchpw \jvSambncn¡p¶Xv {]IrXnbpsS, almambbpsS eoe Xs¶.

8. ]nXr_en 5

F.Fawcett, Nayars of Malabar, page 322 6

\mbÀ Ipe¯nsâ X\Xmb BNmc§fn kÀ¸mcm[\ t]mse {][m\amWv ]nXr¡fpsS Bcm[\. IpetZhnamcpw tbmKoizc·mcpw ]nXr¡fnse apJycmb A½amcpw A½mh·mcpw Xs¶. \mb·mcpsS BNmcm\pjvTm\§Ä t\m¡nbm Ah¡pÅn ImXembn \n¡p¶Xv Pohsâ A\izcXbnepÅ ASnbpd¨ hnizmkamWv. acWw F¶ kwKXn X§fpsS AkvXnXz s¯ _m[n¡p¶ Hcp kw`hambn \mb·mÀ I−ncp¶nÃ. P\\w apX acWw hscbpw acWw apX P\\w hscbpw PohnXs¯ `qanbnepw N{µ\nepw c−p L«§fmbn ho£n¨, Poh\v \nXyX IÂ]n¨ ]mc¼cyamWv \mb·mcptSXv. \mbÀ \izcamb \mat[b¯n hnizkn¨ncp ¶nà F¶Xn\memWv \mb·mcpsS Ncn{XtcJIfpw ]pcmX\ \mamhenIfpw aäpw e`yaÃm¯Xv. IÀ¡SIamk¯n\pw IÀ¡SIamk¯nse Idp¯hmhn\pw tIcf¯nepÅ {]m[m\yw \mK ]mc¼cy¯nsâbpw Xm{´nImcm[\bpsSbpw kqN\bmWv. Iiy]sâ `qansb¶v IcpXs¸Sp¶ Imivaocnse {]kn²amb ImÀt¡mSIþ\mKhwi¯nsâ t]cnsâ DÛhw IÀ¡SIw cminbnse kÀ¸\£{X¯n (Bbneyw) \n¶mIp¶p. IÀ¡SIw amk¯nse \mK]©anbpw Bbney ¯nse Idp¯hmhpw \mKÀ¡v Gähpw {][m\s¸« hntijZnhk§fmIp¶p. hrÝnI amk¯nse NXpÀ±inbpw (\cIþNXpÀ±inbpw) Idp¯hmhpw (aqeþZo]mhen) Xpey{]m[m\yw sIm−v {it²bamWv.

3.

\mbcpw \mKcpw

\mbcpw \mKcpw X½nepÅ _Ôw C¶v Dulmt]ml§fnsemXp§n \n¡pIbmWv. HutZymKnhpw B[nImcnIhpamb Hcp AhtemI\w hmbn¡phm³ C¶phsc Cu teJI\p Ignªn«nÃ. N«¼nkzmanIÄ {]mNo\aebmfsa¶ Xsâ {KÙ¯n {_mÒWþta[mhnXzhpw AhcpsS AhImi§fpw Øm]n¡p¶Xn\pth−n sI«n¨a¨ I]SþamlmßyþDXv]¯n IYIsfbmsI \JinJm´w D·qe\w sN¿p¶Xv Bcnepw tcmalÀjw Dfhm¡p¶XmWv. ]cipcmas\ Icphm¡n sI«n¨a¨ IYmIY\§Ä thtZm]\nj¯p¡fpsSbpw BZÀi§fpsS bpw tjmUikwkvImc§fpsSbpw ho¼p ]dbp¶ PmXnþ{_mÒW\pw tkhIcpw ]peÀ¯nbn cp¶ kzmÀ°X, A\oXn \oNXzw F¶nh¡v hyàamb sXfnhv \ÂIp¶p. Cc«¯m¸pIfpsS aqÀ¯naZv `mhamb PmXn{_mÒW³ tIcfNcn{Xs¯bmsI¯s¶ þ tIcf¯nse P\]Z§ fpsS k¼¶amb _u²þssP\]mc¼cy§sf þ hnjen]vXamb sFXnly§fn ap¡ns¡mÃp IbmWp−mbXv. N«¼nkzmanIfpsS Ak¶nKv²amb \ncmIcW¯n\p tijhpw tIcf¯n tIctfmÂ]¯nbpw tIcfamlmßyhpw D²cn¡p¶ hnZzm·mÀ Ds−¶XmWv B[p\nI aebmf¯nsâ ssZ\yX. ]cipcmas\ D²cn¨v C¶pw PmXnþ{_mÒW³ t£{X§sfbpw X{´hnZysbbpw aeoakam¡p¶ timN\obX¡p ap¼n N«¼nkzmanIfpsS _u²nIþ B²ymßnI k¯¡p AhImiw `mhn¡p¶ \mbÀ kaqlw t\m¡pIp¯nIfmbn \ne sImÅp¶p. Cu teJ\s¯msSm¸w A\p_Ôambn {io.N«¼nkzmanIfpsS {]mNo\aebmfw F¶ {KÙ¯nsâ arZpkwkvIcWw6 tNÀ¯ncn¡p¶Xv FÃm \mb·mcpw hmbnt¡−XmWv. {io.N«¼nkzmanIÄ A¡me¯v e`yambncp¶ ]pcmWkw_Ôamb hkvXpXIsf PmXnþ {_mÒW³ hnägn¨ aqVXz¯nsâ ad\o¡n AhXcn¸n¡pIbpw \mbÀ F¶ hÀ¤\maw \mIÀ F¶ ]Z¯nsâ cq]m´cWamsW¶v hmZn¡pIbpw D−mbn. \mbcpw \mKcpw X½nepÅ sFXnlmknI _Ôw kw_Ôn¨ B[p\nIamb ]T\þKthjW§fpsS Is−¯epIÄ AYhm sXfnhpIÄ At±l¯n\v e`yambncp¶nÃ. {_mÒWta[mhnXz¯nsâ _u²nIamb hngp¸v Npa¡p¶ \mbÀ kaqlw Ignª Hcp \qäm−ntesd¡meambn ]pd¯p h¶p sIm−ncn¡p¶ sXfnhpIÄ¡v t\sc ]pdw Xncnªp \n¡pIbpamWv. 6

http://hinduebooks.blogspot.com, F¶ ssh_vsskän kuP\yambn e`yam¡nb {KÙw {]mNo\aebmfw 7

\mbÀ þ \mKcpsS kzXzw \jvSs¸Sm¯ ]n³Kman hfsc hnjaw ]nSn¨ Hcp BapJamWv ChnsS Ahiyambncn¡p¶Xv. `mcXob Ncn{X¯nsâ AhtemI\¯neqsS \mKhwi¯nsâ aebmf tZi¯nse BhnÀ`mh¯nsâ kw£n]vXamb Hcp tcJmNn{Xw B[nImcnIambn \ÂIphm³ {ian¡pIbmWv. Dulmt]ml]Sp¡fmb \m«nse Ncn{XImc·msc bmsXmcp ImcWhimepw A\pIcn¡cpsX¶ _u²nIhpw B²ymßnI hpamb A`nemjw BZyw Xs¶ hyàam¡s«.

1.

{ZmhnUamIp¶ `mcXw þ A[n\nthi¯nsâ kXyw

hkpss[hIpSpw_Iw F¶v B]vXhmIyw D²cn¡p¶hsâ Cc«¯m¸Ifnsem¶mWv CSp§nb, PqKp]vkmhlamb kztZim`nam\w. BZansâbpw luÆbpsSbpw lnµpXzhpw GZ³ tXm«¯nsâ C´y³ taÂhnemkhpw KthjWw sN¿p¶ Hcp A`ykvXþsslµhkaqlw Bcym[n\nthiw \ntj[n¡phm³ _²s¸Sp¶Xv CâÀs\änsâ ]e Xe§fnepw ImWmhp¶ tImamfn¯§fnsem¶mWv. BZnam\hs\ lnµpXz¯nsâ tae¦n AWnbn¡m\pw Ahsâ Bcyhwiþ]ndhn C´ybnemsW¶v Øm]n¡m\papÅ KthjWXzc- þ ]cipcma IYIfp−m ¡nb ]mc¼cy¯nsâ C¶s¯ AhØ AXmWv. B{^n¡bnse GtXm Hc½bpsS a¡Ä temIamsI ]c¶XmWv C¶s¯ am\hkaqlw F¶v B[p\nIþP\nXIimkv{Xw ]dbp t¼mÄ, A[n\nthis¯tbmÀ¯v F´n\v ssh¢ºys¸SWw?

a[yþ]uckvXytZiw : BZn{ZmhnU`qan a[y[cWymgnbpsS Ing¡³ IcIfnepw satkms¸m«manbbnepamWv \mK]mc¼cyw {In.ap.

A¿mbncmam−n\Sp¯v \m¼n«sX¶v B[p\nI KthjW§fneqsS Is−¯nbn«p−v. kptadn b³ \mKcnIX F¶v {]kn²amb Cu P\]Zhpw {Ioäv, CuPn]väv apXemb tZi§fnse P\ ]Z§fpw aqeþ{ZmhnU ]mc¼cy¯nsâ DdhnS§fmbncp¶psh¶p IcpXm³ \ymbap−v. `mcX¯nsâ ]Ýntam¯c`mK¯p \n¶pw ]Snªmtdm«v AXn]pcmX\Ime¯v ]emb\w sNbvXhcpw (Alpine) A¡mZnb\pIfpw (Long headed Mediterranean or Dravidian) bq{^«okvþssS{Knkv \ZnIfpsS IcIfn Hcpan¨v hÀ¤kv]À² CÃmsX cq]w \ÂIs¸«XmWv kptadnb³ ]mc¼cyw. A¡mZnb\pIfpsS Hcp `mKw sskÔh\mKcnIXbpsS kphÀ® Ime¯v `mcX¯nse¯pIbpw kqcys\ ]qPn¡p¶ C£zmIphwiambn Adnbs¸SpIbpw sNbvXp. aqe]Zamb Hyksos sâ AÀ°w ae\ncIfpsS Xeh·mÀ (\Km[n]³ \mK³) F¶mbncp¶ncn¡Ww F¶v Duln¡s¸Sp¶p. `mcX¯nse enOhnIÄ, imIyÀ apXemb ]e \mKP\]Z§fpw Chcm Øm]n¡s¸«hbmsW¶v IcpXs¸Sp¶p. A¡mZnb\pIfpsS asämcp hn`mKw CuPn]vän {]thin¨Xmbpw IcpXs¸Sp¶p. amXrZmb{Iaw a[y[cWymgn {]tZiamsI ]pcmX\Ime¯v \ne\n¶ncp¶psh¶Xn\v [mcmfw sXfnhpIÄ e`yamWv. DZmlcW¯n\v C{ktb kmdmbpsS aI³ BsW¶ hkvXpX \h hntbmKn \mK·msc¸änbpÅ {KÙ¯n kqNn¸n¡p¶p. CuPn]vänse acpa¡¯mb¯nsâ \ne\nÂ]ns\¸änbpÅ ]WvUn XmhtemI\w {i²n¡pI. Professor Mitteis confirms that Egypt was immemmorialy a land of matrilineal descent, a usage which continued in Christian times until the seventh century. There the maternal uncle is often named as important. The father of the mother was more important than the man’s own father. In consequenec there were no illegitimate children in Egypt, a child born out of wedlock enjoying the same rights as one born in marriage. All children belonged to the mother. The Nomes or

8

primitive totem clans of which the nation was formed were maternal clans or motherhoods and their leadership was transmitted through mother.7 acpa¡¯mbhpw amXrZmbhpambn _Ôs¸« [mcmfw sXfnhpIÄ {Ioänepw e`yambn«p−v. Dr. N. Viyogi quotes Briffoult Robert: “The marvellous remains of Crete provide eloquent testimony to the matriarchal character of Cretan society. The enormance predominance of female over males figures is without parallel. Cretan divinities are almost exclusively feminine..”

A½mh·mcmWv {Ioän Ip«nIsf hfÀ¯nbncp¶sX¶ Imcyw hfsc {it²bamWv. cmambWw aqecq]¯n tImke]q{Xnbmb Iukeysb ktlmZc³ AYhm apds¨dp¡\mb ZicY³ hnhmlw Ign¡p¶Xv kqNn¸n¡p¶Xmbn tcJs¸Sp¯n¡mWp¶p. tImke¯nse dmWn¡v Asæn Iukeysb¶v t]sc§s\ hcmw? ZicY³ hnhml¯neqsS cmPmhmb apds¨dp ¡\mWv. {io]ÀÆX¯nse Z£nWmXycmb C£zmIphwihpw amXrZmb{Iaw A\phÀ¯n¨ncp ¶Xmbn tcJIÄ kqNn¸n¡p¶p.

“The family was of a good Kshatriya stock from the North. They married cousins like the ancient Ikshvakus. They very likely had migrated to the South in the imperial days of Satavahanas when the latter reached the United Province and Bihar” (Dr KP Jayaswal) Ipew, KWw, kwLw C§s\ D¯tcm¯cw hepXmb Iq«mbvabpsS ASnØm\¯n Dfhmb dn¸_vfn¡³ kaql§fmWv ]pcmX\`mcX¯n kmaqlyhpw cmjv{Sobhpamb kaqlLS\¡v ImXembncp¶sX¶v ]T\§Ä kqNn¸n¡p¶p. \mKhwiPÀ Htc kabw tbm²m¡fpw IÀjIcpw (AYhm aäp sXmgn sNbvXncp¶ kaql§Ä) kn²]mc¼cyw ]peÀ¯nbncp¶ hcpw Bbncp¶p.

“Vajji Gana was constituted of tribe of herds-men. Similarly the Sakya Gana of Kapila-Vastu which gave birth to the great Buddha, the founder of Buddhist religion, was a Sangha of cultivators. Suddhodana, the father of Buddha, king of Sakya clan himself used to plough his own fields. Similarly Koliya Gana of Rama Gama belonging to the maternal grandfather of Buddha was a Gana of weavers...” aucyIme¯p \ne\n¶ kwL§sf¸än IuSney\pw {Ko¡v Ncn{XImc·mcpw tcJs¸Sp¯nbn «p−v. hmÀ¯ikvt{Xm]PohnIÄ F¶dnbs¸« tbm²m¡fpsS kaqlw X§fnse cmPmhns\ P\m[n]XycoXnbnÂ, ]pcmX\ tIcf¯nse s]cpamfhtcm[w t]mse sXcsªSp¯ncp¶p. cmPi_vtZm]PohnIfnse Ipe§sfÃmw Xs¶ cmP]Zhn AhImis¸Sp¶ amS¼n kaqlambn cp¶psh¶v ]dbmw. enOhn, hÖn, aÃ, a{Z, IpIpc, Ipcp, ]m©me Chsbms¡ cmPkwL§ fmbncp¶Xmbn _n.kn.tem NmWIys\ D²cn¨p Øm]n¡p¶p. Ipe§fmbncp¶p cmjv{Sobm[n Imc¯nsâ kz`mhw \nÝbn¨ncp¶Xv. T.W.Rhys Davids observes based on his study of the Jatakas8: “They (Sakya mass) held it degradation, to which only dire misfortune would drive them, to work for hire. They were proud of their standing, their family and their village. And they were governed by headman of their own class and village very probably selected by themselves in accordance with their customs and ideals” sXmgnepIÄ amdn amdn kzoIcn¨ncp¶ tbm²m¡fpsS CSbn Abn¯w A\yambncp¶p. _p²sâ BKa\t¯msS ]ptcmlnXkrjvSamb NmXpÀhÀWyw XnckvIcn¡s¸«p. KwK, bap\, apXemb \ZnIÄ ISen ebn¨v H¶mIp¶Xp t]mse {_mÒW\pw £{Xnb\pw sshiy\pw iq{Z\pw _u²kwL¯n H¶mIp¶Xmbn _p²³ tLmjn¨p. sskÔh\mKcnIX J\\ ¯neqsS shfns¸Sp¶Xn\p ap¼v Xs¶ _u²tcJIsf Bkv]Zam¡n ]T\w \S¯nb Kthj 7 8

Naval Viyogi, p.98. Nagas: Their Origin and History, DK Publishers 2002 Dr. Naval Viyogi, p.136 9

IÀ `mcX¯n sshZntIXcamb D¶XkwkvIrXn \nen\n¶ncp¶Xmbn \nKa\w sNbvXncp¶p.

F¶m {_mÒWcN\Isf Bkv]Zambn am{Xw ]T\w \S¯nbhÀ¡v sshZntIXcamb H¶pw `mcX¯n ImWphm³ IgnªnÃ. sskÔh\mKcnIXbpw XpSÀ¶v shfns¸« \nch[n J\\ KthjW]camb hkvXpXIfpw BtcyXcamb Hcp ]pcmX\kwkvIrXn \nehnencp¶psh¶ hkvXpXsb A\ntj[yam¡n. Cu \mKþkwkvIrXn¡v Bcyk¼À¡¯m h¶ A]Nbw ImcWamWv C¶v \mb·msct¸msebpÅ \nch[n KW§Ä¡v kzXzw \jvSambncn¡p¶Xv. imIyhwiPcpsS _u²tcJIfn ZriyamIp¶ Nn{Xhpambn XmcXays¸Sp¯pt¼mÄ tIcf ¯n \ne\n¶ kaqlLS\bpambn k¼qÀ® kmZriyw A\p`hs¸Sp¶p. kÀ¸mcm[\bpsS Imcy¯n tIcf¯nse \mb·mcpsS Xo{hX asämcnS¯pw Xs¶ Ncn{X¯n ZriyaÃ.

CXn\p ImcWw tIcf¯nse \mKkwLw AXn]pcmX\Ime¯p Xs¶ t\¸mÄ Xmgzcbn \nt¶m (t\hmÀ ]mc¼cyw) at[yjybn \n¶v IS amÀ¤tam tIcf¯nse¯nt¨À¶p F¶XmWv. {Ioäv Zzo]nse \mKcnIX¡v \miw Ipdn¨ `qNe\hpw kp\manbpw D−mbXv {In.ap.

1500þam−nemsW¶v Ncn{XImc·mÀ Duln¡p¶p. \mbcpsS tIcf¯nse BKa\w kw_Ôn¨v kwibmXoXamb Hcp \nKa\w km[yaÃ. IS hgn {Ioän \n¶pw h¶hcp−mImw. KpPdm¯n \n¶pw sIm¦WXocw hgn h¶ `mÀ¤hcp −mImw. \mw Adnbm¯ clky§Ä ]eXpw tIcfXoc¯v ISseSp¯v t]mbn«p−mImw. {ioaqehmkw ]pcmX\tcJIfneqsS am{Xw \mw Adnbp¶ ØeamsWtÃm? C¶s¯ Ip«\mSv, ]gbImes¯ ]¼m\ZnbpsS ]X\Øew apkncnkv t]mse hensbmcp XpdapJambncp¶p sh¶v Ncn{XImc·mÀ IcpXp¶p. ]pcmX\ tcJIfnse s\¡n−, ]¼bpw aWnaebpw H¶p tNcp¶ \m¡nSbmsW¶v Ncn{XImc·mÀ kn²m´n¡p¶p. \mb·mtcm {_mÒWtcm Bcy·mtcm H¶pw Xs¶ `mcX¯nse BZnhmknIfsö \nKa\ ¯nemWv B[p\nI ]T\§Ä F¯n \n¡p¶Xv. at[yjybpsS hnhn[þ`mK§fnepw {Ioäv Zzo]nepw Imkv]nb³ ISensâ IcIfnepw Cdm\nepambn {ZmhnUP\]Z§Ä \nehnencp¶p sh¶v ]T\§Ä sXfnbn¡p¶p. Cu {ZmhnU P\]Z§fnÂs]« GtXm Hcp imJbmWv lc¸mþtamlRvsPZmtcm AYhm knÔpþkckzXn kwkvImc¯n\v ({In.ap 2500 - 3500) P·w \ÂInbXv. I]ne\pw Imiy]\pw Ej`tZh\psams¡ knÔpþkckzXnbpsS IcIfnse P\]Zs¯ \bn¨ cmPÀjnamtcm kn²·mtcm BsW¶v IcpXphm³ \ymbap−v. {]mIrXnI amb ImcW§fmtem (`qNe\w, kckzXnbpsS hcĨ) Bcym[n\nthi¯mtem þ Hcp ]s£ {]mIrXnIamb ImcW§fm ]X\w t\cnSp¶ kmlNcy¯n D−mb BcymKa\¯n Cu kwkvImcw \in¡pIbpw Bcym[n]Xyw kwPmXamIpIbpw sNbvXncn¡mw. {io_p²\p ap¼pÅ Ncn{XamsI Dulmt]mlPSneamIbmÂ, Xd¸n¨p ]dbp¶Xn AÀ°anÃ. C¶v e`yamb sXfnhpIfpsS ASnØm\¯n ap³hn[n IqSmsX Hcp hyàn¡v F¯m³ Ignbp¶ \nKa\sas´¶v kqNn¸n¡pI am{XamWv Fsâ e£yw. `mcXNcn{X¯nse tkmackw IqSn¨v a{´w P]n¨v tlmaw sN¿p¶ Aántlm{Xnsb¶ shfp¯ {_mÒW³ djybnsehnsStbm \n¶pw ]maoÀ]oT`qan IS¶ph¶hcmsW¶v Duln¡s¸Sp¶p. tkmackw \ÂInbncp¶ sNSn C¶v ]maoÀtZi¯v Is−¯s¸«n«p−v. IpXncIfpw a{´w ]nSn¡p¶ tkmackhpambn BgnIq«n `mcX¯n ckn¨p Ignbsh Bcy·mÀ t\cn« Gähpw henb Zpc´¯nsâ t]cmWv ]cipcmas\¶v ]n¡me¯v Adnbs¸«Xv.

]mckv cma\pw ]cipcma\pw þbYmÀ° cmasâ IY ImÀ¯hocys\t¸msebpÅ Bcy{]`p¡·mÀ ]nSn¨p ]dnbpw AcmPIXzhpw Agn¨phn« BcymhÀ¯¯nte¡v c−masXmcp {ZmhnUm[n\nthiw D−mbn. Cdm\n \n¶pw h¶ Cu {ZmhnUþ\mKtk\bpsS A[n]\mb ]mckv cmas\bmWv ]n¡me {_mÒWNcn{Xw ]cip 10

cma\mbn, Bcy{_mÒW\mbn amtamZokm ap¡nbXv. AXà hkvXpX F¦nÂ, Bcy {_mÒW\pw Bcy£{Xnb\pw i{XpX D−mIp¶ kmlNcyw krjvSn¡m³ IYmIY\s¯ B{ibnt¡−n hcpw. Bcy£{Xnbsc Ccp]s¯m¶p {]mhiyw sIm¶papSn¨v Aántlm{Xw Nhp«nsaXn¨v `mcX¯n \mK·mcpsS B[n]Xyw ]p\xØm]n¨ kÀ¸IpePmX\mWv cma³.

X£ine apX Xmtgm«v kucmjv{SXocw hscbpw XpSÀ¶v `rKpIÑw apX klym{ZnbpsS ]mÀiz¯nse A]cm´Ihpw sIm¦Whpw ae_mdpw hsc Cu \mKþcmas\¸änbpÅ sFXnly §fm \ndªp\n¡p¶p. \À½ZbpsS Icbn `rKpIÑw BØm\ambn hmW alm_en bpsS \mKþAkpcIpes¯ Bcy·mÀ NXnbneqsS Iogvs¸Sp¯nbXn\p tijambncn¡Ww `mÀ¤hIpe¯nsâ Hcp \Sp\mbI³ ]mckv tZi¯v \n¶pw `mcX¯nte¡v h¶Xv.

aebmfhpw alm_enbpw alm_enbpsS Imew kw_Ôn¨ sFXnlyw Imªnc¸Ånbntem amthen¡cbntem atäm cmPmhmbncp¶ amthenbpsS Imes¯¸änbmsW¶v ]ecpw hymJym\n¨p ImWpIbp−mbn.

Cu hymJym\w icnbsöv tPymXnximkv{X]camb bpànbm \ap¡v a\Ênem¡mw. Nn§ amk¯nse XncpthmWw hma\Pb´nbmbn BtLmjn¡p¶ tIcf]mc¼cy¯n\v kwLIme t¯mfsa¦nepw ]g¡ap−v. kqcy³ Xe¡p apIfnse¯p¶ c−p Znhk§fmWv DÖbn\n¡v sX¡v Htc imkv{Xbpànbm BtLmj¯n\p sXcsªSp¡s¸«Xv. Ch c−pw Xs¶ \mK]mc¼cyhpambn _Ôs¸«hbmWv. Nn§amk¯nse \ngenÃm¯ Znhkw HmWhpw CShamk¯nse \ngenÃm¯ Znhkw ]cipcmaPb´nbmbpw tIcf¯n BtLmjn¡s¸ Sp¶p. Cu BtLmj§fpsS DÛhw DÖbn\n¡v sX¡msW¶Xn kwib¯n\v AhImianÃ. ImcWw kqcy³ \ngenÃm¯ Znhk§Ä \ÂIpI A£mwiw Ab\tcJ¡v (kqcy]ca{Im´n 240) sX¡v AYhm ]ca{Im´ntb¡mÄ A£mwiw Ipdªncn¡pt¼mÄ am{XamWv. `mÀ¤hIpew \n¶ `rKpIѯpw (A£mwiw 2141hS¡v, tcJmwiw 7301, DÖbn\n¡v GXm−v Hcp \mgnI ]Snªmdvv) \À½ZbpsS Icbnse ]pWyXoÀ°§fnepamWv Cuhn[ BNmcmtLmj§fpsS ]ndhnsb¶v IcpXnbm {In.ap Bbncmam−nse BtLmj§ fpsS KWnXw Xmsg \ÂIpw {]ImcamWv. Øew: `rKpIÑw 21N41, 73E01 (\À½Z) •

{In.ap. Bbncmam−v (BC 1000), CE (–) 999 Pq¬ 8 ]cipcmaPb´n, \ncb\þchn anYp\w 830.

Cu XobXn Hcp ImcWhimepw sshimJamk¯nse ]cipcmaPb´n BIbnÃ. `rKpIѯv \ngenÃm¯ Cu Znhkw BjmVamk¯nemWv. CXn\p ImcWw ]cipcmaPb´n sX¡³ tZi¯v Imem´c¯n DÛhn¨psh¶XmImw.

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Nn§amk¯nse XncpthmWw Pqsse 28, \ncb\þchn 131 `m{Z]Zip¢ZzmZin BImw. {In.ap. Bbncmam−n\p tijw \S¸n h¶XmIWsa¶p chnbpsS ØnXn sIm−v Duln¡mw.

Øew: N{ah«w 10N51, 75E45 (`cX¸pg) •

{In.ap. Bbncmam−v (BC 1000), CE (–) 999 G{]n 29 ]cipcmaPb´n, \ncb\þchn anYp\w 440. Cu XobXn¡v sshimJamk¯nse ]cipcmaPb´ntb¡mÄ km[yX tPyjvTamk ¯nemWv. ]cipcmaPb´n sX¡³ tZi¯v {In.ap. Bbncmam−n \ngenÃm¯ Zn\w F¶ bpàntbmsS km[yambncp¶nÃ.

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Nn§amk¯nse XncpthmWw sk]väw_À 05, \ncb\þchn 169 `m{Z]Zip¢ZzmZin BImw F¶m Nn§amk¯nse XncpthmWhpw IqSn BIm³ km[yXbnÃ. {In.ap. Bbncmam−n  hma\Pb´n tPymXnximkv{X]camb bpàn A\pkcn¨v tIcf¯n km[yambncp¶nÃ.

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Cu c−p ØeþImesshcp²y§Ä¡v e`yamIp¶ hymJym\w, hma\Pb´n BtLmjw `rKpIѯv Bcw`n¨Xpw ]cipcmaPb´n tIcf¯nemcw`n¨XmsW¶Xpw BIp¶p. Cu kmlNcy¯n alm_ensb kw_Ôn¨ sFXnly§Ä \À½ZbpsS {]m´§fn ]ndhnsb Sp¯XmsW¶v A\pam\n¡mw.

\mKhwihpw Akpc·mcpw am\hNcn{X¯nse Hcp]s£ Gähpw henb _u²nIamb Ir{Xnaw `mcXNcn{X¯nsegpXn t¨À¡s¸« BcyhwiKmYbmWv. sXmen Idp¯ \mKs\ {_mÒW\m¡nbpw £{Xnb\m¡nbpw \S¯nb cmjv{Sob D]Pm]§fpw hnNn{XhXvIcn¡s¸« hwimhenIfpw ISsaSp¯v IÅw tNÀ¯ ImeKW\bpw sIm−p \ndªXmWv ]pcmW§Ä. kXys¯ F¡mehpw Hfn¨p sh¡m\mIm¯Xp sIm−v ASp¯ Ime¯p−mb ]T\§fneqsS ]e hkvXpXIfpw ]pd¯p h¶n«p−v. `mcXNcn{Xw BsI¯s¶ \mKhwiNcn{XamsW¶v Xmsg \ÂInbncn¡p¶ Ncn{XhkvXpXIÄ kqNn¸n¡p¶p.

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IrjvWssZz]mb\hymk hncNnXamb alm`mcX¯nsâ BZy A¼Xp A²ymb§Ä \mK hwiIY ]dbp¶hbmWv.

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{ioIrjvW\pw {iocam\pw {io_p²\pw almhoc\pw \mKhwiPcmbncp¶p. {ioIrjvWsâ aI³ apds¸®ns\ hnhmlw Ign¨Xmbn `mKhXw tcJs¸Sp¯p¶p. {io_p²sâbpw (imIyIpew) almhocsâbpw (enOhn) P\\w \mKIpe§fnembncp¶psh¶ Imcyw _u²þssP\ tcJIfn kphnZnXamWv.

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_p²sâ PohnXIme¯v aK[ `cn¨ncp¶Xv inip\mKhwiw Bbncp¶p. APmXi{Xp, _nµpkmc³ apXemb N{IhÀ¯namÀ \mK·mcmbncp¶p.

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\h hntbmKnbpsS \mKNcn{Xw hnhn[ kwØm\§fnse ]pcmX\amb \mKkwkvIrXn bpsS AhinjvS§sf¸än hniZamb NÀ¨ \ÂIp¶p−v. C¶s¯ ]mInØm\nse aqeØm\hpw (apÄ«m³) X£inebpw Imivaoc¯nse A\´\mKv apXemb \mK\mat[b ¯nepÅ Bbnc¡W¡n\p Øe§fpw \mKhwi¯nsâ Ncn{Xw `qanimkv{Xw XpS§nb hkvXpXIfnte¡v shfn¨w hoip¶hbmWv.

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lnamNe¯nse Ipfp Xmgzcbn ]Xns\«p kÀ¸§Ä Bcm[n¡s¸Sp¶p. Xt±iob `mjbn InÀ F¶Xv kÀ¸s¯ kqNn¸n¡p¶Xmbpw IncmXs\¶m \mKs\bmWv kqNn¸n¡p¶sX¶pw hntbmKn tcJs¸Sp¯p¶p. InÀ, IncmX³ F¶o \mKkqNIamb ]Z§fn \n¶mImw Hcp ]s£ tIcfw F¶ t]cnsâ DÛhsa¶ A\pam\¯n\pw km[yXbp−v.

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taLmeb¯nse JmknþIp¶pIfnse P\]Zw tIcf¯nse \mb·mcpsS kÀ¸þImfo]qP Ifpw amXrZmb{Iahpw (acpa¡¯mbw) A\phÀ¯n¡p¶hcmWv. cmPÀjn ]mc¼cyhpw t]mcmfnkz`mhhpw (Priest-King and nation in arms tradition) kaql¯n \ne\n¶ncp¶p. tNc]pRvPn AYhm sNdm]pRvPnbpw Jmknae\ncIfpsS `mKamWv.

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cmPØm\pw KpPdm¯pw almcmjv{Sbpw t\¸mÄ Xmgzcbpw F¶p th− hS¡p]Snªmdp \n¶pw Ingt¡m«p sNdm]p©n hscbpw sXt¡m«p sIm¦W¯nsebpw ae_mdnsebpw tNc\KcnIÄ hscbpw \mKhwi¯nsâ IY ]dbp¶ AhinjvS§Ä hym]n¨p InS¡p¶p.

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t\¸mÄ Xmgzcbnse t\hmdpIfpsSbpw enOhnIfpsSbpw BNmcm\pjvTm\§Ä¡v hfsc kam\XIfpÅXmbn ]e ]T\§fpw kqNn¸n¡p¶p. almhocsâ \mKþ\Kcamb sshimen bpsS IpessZhw kÀ¸ambncp¶psh¶v hntbmKn tcJs¸Sp¯p¶p.

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hnZnj, a[pc, ]ßhXn, Im´n]pcn, hmImSIcmPyw, Kp]vXþt`mPcmPhwi§Ä Chsbms¡ Xs¶ icnbmb hkvXpXIfpsS ASnØm\¯n ]cntim[n¨m \mKhwiPcmbncp¶p sh¶v t_m[ys¸Smw.

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\Kcw F¶ ]Zw Xs¶ \mKcm cq]s¸«XmWv. \Kc¯n \n¶mWv \mKcnbpsS DÛhw. ]n.kn.Iiy]nsâ9 hcnIÄ {i²n¡pI. “Epigraphic, numismatic and literary records and traditions have established the existence of Nagas in different parts of the country in ancient and medieval times and of their descendenats in present time. It is the Naga base that has given to Indian society its essential unity. There are numerous localities all over the country which are still named after the Nagas, for example, Nagpura, Uragapura, Nagarakhanda, Nagarcoil, Nagapatnam, Nagaur.

There is hardly a village in rural India which doesnot have a link with the Nagas. Many of them have Naga temples.. having a Sivalinga or hooded primitive sculpture as the deity...”

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\mKmcm[\sb¸än temI¯p−mbn«pÅ bm{XnIcpsS ]cmaÀi§fnepw, ]T\§fnepsaÃmw Xs¶ ae_mnse \mKmcm[\bpw kÀ¸¡mhpIfpw kÀ¸t£{X§fpw {]tXyIw ]cmaÀin ¡s¸Sp¶p. aehmcw DWÀ¯p¶ Cu AXnib¯n\p ImcWw \mK]mc¼cyw `mcX¯nsâ sX¡p]Snªmdv aqebn ASp¯Imew hscbpw henb \miw IqSmsX \ne\n¶ncp¶p F¶XmWv.

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kmRvOnbnse kvXq]§fnse \mKhwi[z\nIsf¸änbpÅ B[nImcnIamb ]T\¯nÂ10 hfsc {it²bamb Nne \nKa\§Ä ImWp¶Xv Xmsg D²cn¡p¶p:

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Naga dynasty, which from at least the second century CE appears to have been one of the most prolific coin-issuers at Vidisha; large hoards of tiny copper Naga coins have been retrieved from the ancient city mounds. Analyses of these coins, and other numismatic, epigraphical, and textual evidence, have led to the suggestion that the dynasty orig-inated during the second half of the second century CE in Vidisha, from where it moved north to Mathura, Pawaya, and Kantipurya, the three major Niaga centers mentioned in the Visnu Purana.That it may have been connected with the Vidisha area during earlier periods is suggested by the high number of Naga-related names in the first-century-BCE donative inscriptions at Sanchi. I also suggest that the naga sculptures in the area doubled as symbols of the Naga clan and, in particular, their patronage of major irrigation projects in the area.

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Although the Nagas' later history is relatively well attested from indirect references in Gupta and Vakataka inscriptions, how they related chronologically or politically to earlier panIndian dynasties such as the Ksatrapas is less clear. Preliminary insights have been provided by an inscription from Eran, which mentions the Saka chief Mahadandanayaka Sridharavarman, also the subject of the Kana-kherha well inscription at Sanchi. The object of the Eran inscription is to record the erection of a memorial pillar (yasti) by ridharavarman's military commander (senapati), a Naga chief from Maha-rashtra called Satyanaga. This reference supports the image of the Nagas as a powerful oligarchy, with family ties extending

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Kashyap, PC., Surviving Harappan Civilization, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi-16, 1984 Julia Shaw, Nāga Sculptures in Sanchi's Archaeological Landscape: Buddhism, Vaiṣṇavism, and LocalAgricultural Cults in Central India, First Century BCE to Fifth Century CE: Artibus Asiae, Vol. 64, No. 1 (2004), pp. 5-59.

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far beyond the Vidisha-Eran orbit and close allegiances to the Ksatrapa authority. Later inscriptions provide clear evidence that the Nagas' political clout came to be seen as a threat to Gupta authority. It is ironic, for example, that although the inscriptions of Samudragupta (3 50-376 CE) and Skandagupta at Allahabad and Junagadh respectively are primarily concerned with record-ing their victory over the Ksatrapas, the most dramatic language of subjugation is reserved for the Nagas. Samudragupta's inscription refers to the "uprooting singly and in a moment" and the “forcible extermination" of sections of the Naga dynasty. It has been suggested that the three Naga kings men-tioned by name, Achyuta, Nagasena, and Ganapati, had been part of a coalition aimed at removing Samudragupta from power.

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tIcf¯nsebpw CXc kwØm\§fnsebpw kvIqfpIfn ]Tn¸n¡p¶ HutZymKnI Ncn{X §fn \mKhwis¯¸än ]cmaÀi§tfbnÃ. \mK]mc¼cys¯ CÃmXm¡Ww F¶ IpÕnX_p²n tIctfmÂ]¯n t]msebpÅ Ncn{Xw FgpXnb hnZzm·mcpsS ]n·pd¡mÀ¡v D−mbm AÛpX¯n\v AhImianÃ.

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In Bhandarkar's words: “that the formation of this confederacy was a great menace to the Gupta power and that its destruc-tion was consequently regarded as the greatest ofSamudragupta's military feats is inferred from the fact that this achievement alone has been described in the verse portion with which the Alla-habad pillar inscription begins”.

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There are also epigraphical allusions to the defeat of the Nagas' allies, the Vakatakas, leading to their forcible relocation from their original territory in Bundelkhand to Nandivardhana in the Deccan.45 However, that the continued enmity of these two subjugated dynasties was considered too dangerous a threat to political stability is suggested by the Guptas' concerted efforts to maintain peaceful links between the three houses. This three-way confederacy was consolidated by the marriage between Samudragupta's son, Chandragupta II, and the Naga Princess Kuberanaga, who had been raised in Samudragupta's court. Their daughter, Prabhavati, later became a powerful independent ruler following the premature death of her husband, the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II.47 Although the Guptasc learlyk ept the upperh and in this alliance,P rabhavati's mixed political and familiala lle-giances were instrumental in ensuring the political standing of her Naga relatives back in the Vidisha area. For instance, the marriageb etween her daughter and her half-brother,G hatotkaca, the viceroy in Vidisha,d uring the reign of her otherb rother,K umaragupta(4 I5-454 CE), ensuredt hat by the time the latter's illegitimate son, Skandagupta (455-467 CE), came to the throne, the three-way ties of the Gupta-Naga-Vakataka alliance remained intricately intermeshed. This alliance may have influenced the battle for the throne between Skandagupta and his uncle Ghatotkaca, and the result-ing split between the western and easternh alves of the Gupta empire. Bakkerw rites that during this conflict, "the Guptas [at Vidisha] may have been supported by Naga feudatories who hadn't yet for-gotten their defeat by Samudragupta and were biding their time." This would have led to the re-enforcement of the "old Vakataka-Vidisa-Naga axis," the Nagas here being Ghatotkaca's allies rather than his adversaries,a s assumed by earlier writers. According to Bakker, there are strong allusions to these developments in the Junagadh inscription, which describes Skandagupta as he "who forged an order with an effigy, namely Garuda, which rendered devoid of poison the serpent rulers [i.e. the Nagas] who uplifted their hoods in pride and arrogance." On a religious level, the reference to Garuda, the traditional slayer of serpents, is a clear pun on the Gupta's strong Vaisnava allegiances and the long-standing relationship of ambivalence between Visnu and nagas. On 14

a political level, though, it seems that the Nagas, once again, had become a force to be reckoned with. •

Nagas and Buddhism Much of what we know about ndga worship comes from early Buddhist texts, in which serpent deities are often described as dangerous local spirits that eventually become subdued and "converted" by the power of the Buddha? They then take on their new "Buddhist" role as protectors of the Buddha, the dharma or the Buddhist relic. Depictions of nagasa re thus common at Buddhist sites across India, often with reference to the well-known story of Buddha's protection from a storm by Naga Muchalinda during his quest for enlightenment.

Nagas are presented as dangerous and requiring external control because of their venomous bite, but also because of their ability to bring about environmental havoc by either withholding the monsoon rains or causing excessive deluges. There is another related reason for their assimilation into Buddhism: because of their perceived status as guardians of particular places, their appropriationi s essential to the sangha'se stablishment, or localization, in new areas. By assert-ing his superiority over the local nagaraja, the Buddha takes on the attributes of the divine ruler of the place, and thus gains ritual legitimization for the presenc eof thensan gha. Further because of the close link betweenn dgasa ndk ingship,t he Buddhab ecomesl inkedi n the mindso f the localp opulacew ith the otheothe r major symbol of local authority, the king: there are numerous tales relating how the king's rule is dependent upon the "authorization of the naga who is the primary guardian and master of the territory,"and who will withdraw his support if the king fails to behave properly. Not only does the sangha adopt a similar legitimizing role in its relationship to the Cakravartin kings, it also appropri-ates the nagas' ritual function by claiming to possess ultimate control over the natural elements. This is attested by the elaborate rainmaking rituals described in Mahayana texts such as the Mahdmegha-sutra; although nagas continue to feature as the facilitators (and also withholders) of rain, it is the Buddha who ultimately grants them this power.The image that this text presents, of the sangha having established a monopoly over the " religious business " of weather control through an alliance with pow-erful, albeit subordinated, ndga deities, is supported by the writings of the fifth-century-CE Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien, who describes monks worshipping at naga shrines inside monastic compounds in ordert o ensurea dequater ainfalla nd to protect against "plaguesa nd calamities. According to Cohen, the wellknown ndga shrine in cave 16, Ajanta, would have been worshipped in a similar way.

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Naga Sculptures at Sanchi Althougha llusions to nagas can be found in the stupa railing carvings and inscriptions at Sanchi, there is no evidence for free-standing sculptural representations prior to the first century BCE. The earliest known group, published by Williams, consists of a naga-nagin couple from Gulgaon (fig. 2), a village about two kilometers to the west of Sanchi, and another similar couple from Nagauri hill (fig. 3), immediately to the south of Sanchi. Slightly later in date are a group offouryaksa and yaksi sculptures from Vidisha, including the wellknown Kubera yaksa, now stored in the Vidisha Archaeological Museum (fig. 4). The generally accepteddte dda te range for these sculptures, in the above order, is from the middle to the end of the first century BCE. Williams' study also includes a later group of naga sculptures, datable to the Gupta period (ca. fifth century CE). This consists of two nagas and a nagini at Sanchi, and a naga-nagin couple and naga pillar capital at Ferozpur, a village to the west of Sanchi.107 The group of nagas introduced in this paper may also be divided into 15

an early (ca. first century BCE to first century CE) and a late phase (ca. fifth century CE), in keeping with Williams' framework; an additional, intermediary phase is datable to the second or third century CE . Taken together, these three phases will henceforth be numbered I, II, and III. The phase II sculptures are closely related to Kusana images of the Mathura region, in distinct contrast, therefore, to the lack of locally produced images of this period at Sanchi itself. However, given the lack of evidence for Kusana dynastic control of the area, it is inappropriateto refer to theses culptures as "Kusana." There are also differences in geographical distribution: Williams' group is concentrated in and around Sanchi, extending into the hilly area immediately to the west. By contrast, most of the sculptures introduced in this paper are situated on the flat agricultural plain to the east of Sanchi, with an additional two sculptures at Amacchar, on the western bank of the river Betwa immediately to the north of Vidisha (fig. I). Another difference is that when both groups of nagas are viewed together, an element of cultic diversity becomes evident that was not immediately apparent on the basis of Williams' group alone. Not only can we identify "independent" naga cult spots; it is also possible to identify Brahmanical (particularly Vaisnava) and Buddhist serpent deities.

•

Cu \o− D²cWnIÄ NneÀs¡¦nepw A\mhiyambn tXm¶mw. tIcf¯nse \mb·mcpsS C¶s¯ _u²nI kmlNcy¯n \mK]mc¼cy¯nsâ Bg§sf¸änbpw AXn\v aqecq] ¯n ssihþimtàb ]mc¼cyhambpw ]n¡me¯v ssP\þ_u²þsshjvWh ]mc¼ cyhpambpw D−mb _mÔhs¯¸än B[nImcnIamb Adnhv \ÂIphm³ aäp amÀ¤anÃ. hfsc Ffp¸w ]dªp XoÀ¡m\mIm¯hn[w k¦oÀ®amWv C¶v \mKNcn{Xw. \mK]mc¼cy¯nsâ hnkvXrXamb AhtemI\w \h hntbmKnbpsSbpw aäpw ]T\§fn e`yambXn\m IqSX NÀ¨ ChnsS Hgnhm¡pIbmWv. tIcf¯nse Nne {_mÒWþNcn{X Imc·mÀ \mb·mcpsS amXrZmbs¯bpw acpa¡¯mbs¯bpw kao]Ime kw`h§fmbn Nn{XoIcn¨v \mb·mcpsS \mKkzXzs¯ CÃmbva sN¿m³ ASp¯Ime¯pw {iaw \S¯nbn«p −v. ]nXrZmbw A\phÀ¯n¡p¶ \¼qXncnamcpw CXc {_mÒWcpambn \mb·mÀ¡v XoÀ¯m Xocm¯ kmaqlnIþkwkvImcnI sshPmXy§fp−v. acpa¡¯mbw Hgn¨m Chbn Gähpw {][m\w tIcf¯n \mKþ_u²þssih]mc¼cy¯n Øm]nXamb t£{X§fmWv. t£{Xm cm[\¡v sshZnI]mc¼cy¯n bmsXmcp Øm\hpanÃ. sshZntIXcamb kmwkvImcnI ]mc¼cy¯nemWv \ho\inembpK¯nsâ (saKmen¯nIv) XpSÀ¨bmbn `mcX¯n h³\Kc §fpw _u²Ime¯n\p tijw kvXq]§fpw XpSÀ¶v t£{X§fpw \nehn h¶Xv. ]mckv cmas\m¸w Cdm\neqsS at[yjybn \n¶pw h¶ \mKþ{ZmhnUtcm sskÔh\mKcnIX¡v P·w \ÂInb {ZmhnUtcm BIWw _u²bpK¯n kvXq]§fpw t£{X§fpw ]n¡me¯v tIm«Ifpw \nÀ½n¡phm³ XpS§nbXv. Bcy·mcptSXmb Aánaotf ]ptcmlnXw...F¶ enJnX apÅ Hcp C{µt£{Xtam tIm«tbm C¶p hsc e`yambn«nsöXv \mw HmÀ¡Ww.

4.

\mb·mcpsS B²ymßnI]mc¼cyw

\mb·mcpsS BNmcm\pjvTm\§sf¸än apIfn ]cmaÀin¡s¸SpIbp−mbn. `mcX¯nsâ B²ymßnINcn{Xw I]ne\nemcw`n¡p¶ \mKkkn²]mc¼cyw apX¡p am{Xta IrXnIfn eqsS Adnbs¸Sp¶pÅp. I]nesâ kmwJyZÀi\w kl{km_vZ§Ä \ofp¶ kn²]mc¼cy¯n sâ krjvSnbmsW¶ hkvXpX¡v sXfnhp \ÂIp¶XmWv lc¸bnse ]ip]Xn ap{Z. IpetZhn amcpw tbmKoizc·mcpw Xm{´nI]mc¼cyhpw \ndªp \n¶ ]qÀÆþa[yþGjymh³Ic BsI ¯s¶ \mKssNX\yw \ndªp\n¶ ]qWy`qanbmbncp¶psh¶v kqNn¸n¡p¶ sXfnhp IÄ J\\KthjW§fneqsS IqSpX IqSpX e`yambn hcnIbmWv. ssihþtbmK]mc¼cy¯n 16

sâ Ncn{Xhpw `qanimkv{Xhpw ImXepw F{X ]pcmX\hpw A]mchpamsW¶ hkvXpX kqNn¸n¡p¶XmWv Xmsg \ÂIp¶ D²cWn. “Shaivism seems to have been the main source of religious thought in the Indo-Mediterranean world before the Aryan invasions. The methods of spiritual realization which it has handed down to us in the form of Yoga techniques appear as a unique contribution in the history of religions and are still the conscious or unconscious basis of any true inner search.

The teachings of Yoga and the Shaivite conception of the world have survived barbarian invasions and dogamtic religions in more or less dissimulated forms, only to reappear whenever mankind once more takes up true spiritual research. After the disaster caused by the northern invasion to the Indus civilization as to the civilizations of Sumer and Minoan world, Shaivism reappeared in India, just as it did later in the Dionysiac cults of Greece and the Mediterranean. It would be immpossible to underestimate the role it has played in the conception of rite and customs of all later religions.

Even when motivated by partial information, the interest aroused by Yoga and Indian thought may be an indication of a return to Shaivite-Dionysiac concepts in the unquiet world of today”.11 Pohsâ \nXyXbpsS DÄ¡m¼ns\ A\p`hn¨dnbp¶ [\yXbmWv \mK]mc¼cyw. A§s\bp Å \mK]mc¼cy¯nemWv ssihmKa§Ä¡v ]ndhn D−mbXv. DÄ¡mgvNbneqsS _mly{]] ©¯nsâ A\´hnkvXrXnsb, AWvUISmls¯bmsI, kzmßmhn k¶nthin¸n¨v AssZz XmßkpJ¯n\v `mjyw cNn¨ kn²·mcpsS \mKtemIambncp¶p BZn\mb·mcpsS tNcfw. `mcXamsI¯s¶ Hcp Ime¯v Cu \mK]mc¼cyw \ne\n¶ncp¶psh¶Xn\v imw`hþimtàb ]mc¼cy§fn hyàamb sXfnhpIÄ e`yamWv. Pohsâ A\izcXbnepÅ \mb·mcpsS ASnbpd¨ hnizmkw D]cn¹hambncp¶nÃ. Bß_en¡p a\pjys\ k¶²\m¡p¶ kn²m\p `h¯neq¶nb Iq«mbvabmWv \mb·mcpsS NmthÀ ]ndhnsb¶v ]dbmw. `{ZImfn \mbcpsS Pohsâ ImemXoXamb `{ZXbpsS ]Shmfmbn Ime¯nsâ BkpcXmWvUhs¯ l\n¨p \n¡p¶ Nn{XamWv alnjmkpcaÀ±n\nbmbn \mK]mc¼cy¯n Xnf§p¶Xv. AkpcN{IhÀ ¯nbmb alm_enbpsS ktlmZcnbmWv sFXnly§f\pkcn¨v `{ZImfn. hntcmN\]p{Xn bmb, Bkpcnbmb `{ZImfn bp²k¶²\mb \mbÀ ]SbmfnbpsS Bßkzcq]¯nsâ kn² hÀ®\bmWv. hfsc {]kn²amb alnjmkpcaÀ±n\nbpsS inhs\ Nhp«n \n¡p¶ Nn{Xw NmthdpIfpsS, kZminhsâ Bßkzcq]amWv þ {Xn]©mtc ]otT ihinhlrZnkvtachZ\mw almImtet\mss¨ÀaZ\ckemhWy\ncXmw kamktàm \àw kzba]n cXm\µ\nctXm Pt\mtbm[ymtbXv Xzmw ... kZminhsâ ]Xn\©pXnYnIfpsS lrZb]oT¯n \n¶pw heXpIm \o«n sh¨v CSXpIm ]mXn DbÀ¯n \nÀ¤a\w sN¿p¶ `{ZImfnbpsS aZ\emhWyw [\yX ]IÀ¶ncp¶Xmbncp¶p Hcp Ime¯v \mbÀ kaqlw. FÃm bp²§fnepw hnPbnbmb \mbÀ, `{ZImfnbpsS BinÊp Ifm ImeamIp¶ t]m¯ns\, Xsâ `uanIamb \izcXsb AXnPohn¡p¶ Pohkzcq]amWv. arXyphns\ ]pÂIn ImfnbpsS I\nthdn arXyphns\ AXnPohn¡p¶ \mbcpsS kt¦Xam bncp¶p NmthÀ]S.

11

Danielou Alain, Yoga: Mastering the Secrets of Matter and the Universe, Inner Traditions International, Rochester, Vermont, 1991 17

kmaqlnIamb Npäp]mSpIÄ krjvSn¡p¶ A\nhmcyXbmbncp¶nà \mKhwi¯nsâ hotcXn lmk§fpsS ]n¶m¼pdw. adn¨v, kn²m\p`h¯ne[njvTamb Hcp B²ymßnI Iq«mbva bmbncp¶p `mcX¯nse t]mÀIpe§sf \bn¨ ssNX\yw. cP]p{XcmIs«, imIycmIs«, enOhnIfmIs«, \mK]c¼cbnse kZminhcpw kXnIfpw Bß_enbn hnPbw am{Xw ZÀin¨hcmWv. \mKcpsS Cu \nXm´ ssP{Xbm{XbmWv AhcpsS `KhXn¡v A]cmPnX F¶ A]c\maw \ÂInbXv.

A¡§fpsSbpw A£c§fpsSbpw Ipew A¡§fpw A£c§fpw ]nd¶Xv amXwKnsb¶ NWvUmenbpsS ]m¼n³/NnXÂ]pän \n¶m sW¶Xnsâ {]XoImßI hÀ®\bmWv Im«mf\mb cXv\mIc³ hmßoInbmb IY. \mK ]mc¼cy¯nsâ A£ckn²nbpsS A\p`qXnP\yamb {]XoIamWv BZnIhnbmbn amdnb IncmX³ AYhm Im«mf³. amXwKnsb¶ NWvUmensb D]mkn¨p kn²n ssIh¶ IncmX\mWv NWvUme³. Bbnc¡W¡n\v hÀj§Ä¡p tijhpw Cu hkvXpXIÄ¡v sXfnhmbn a−¡m«½ I\ymIpamcn¡v kao]w hncmPn¡p¶p. Cu amXwKn Xs¶bmWv ]cipcmasâ amXmhmb tcWpIsb¶Xv bmZrÑnIXbÃ. NnXÂ]päv ]m¼n³]pämIp¶Xv \mKcpsS `qanbn AXmbXv aqem[mc¯n am{XamWv. \mK¯nsâ ]päv aqem[mc¯nse `qanbmWv, IpWvUamWv, IpamcnbpsS IpeamWv. kp{_ÒWys\ AYhm Ipamcs\ \mKambn Bcm[n¡s¸Sp¶ Ips¡bnepw ]pämWv aqe_nw_w F¶Xv \mK]mc¼cy¯nsâ bmKmcqVXbpsS kqN\bmWv. \mKincÊnse amWnIyw kw_Ôamb \mtSmSn k¦Â]¯n \n¶pw ]ndhn sIm−XmIWw \mK¯nsâ ip{`aWnb³ F¶ t]cv. \mKaWn F¶Xv \mKcmPs\¶ ]Z¯nsâ {ZmhnU XÛhamsW¶v \h hntbmKnbpsS \mKNcn{X¯n kqNn¸n¡s¸Sp¶p. `qan tbm\nbpsS {]XoIhpw DbÀ¶p \n¡p¶ ]päv enwK¯nsâ {]XoIhpamsW¶v hntbmKn ]dbp¶p. \mKw `qþ]XnbmIp¶Xn\p ImcWhpw tbmKimkv{X]camWv. `mcX¯nsâ AXnhnZqcImeZpcqlXIfn thcn«p \n¡p¶ \mK]mc¼cyw {]mIrXatÃ?

NmthdpIfnepw AhcpsS kXnIfnepw ZnhyXzw Btcm]n¡p¶, {]iwkmßIamb Cu teJ\w {]mIrXamb A\mNmc§sf ]pIgv¯m³ sh¼p¶ GtXm tcmKmhØbpsS {]Xn^e\atÃ?

C§s\bpÅ \nch[n tNmZy§Ä Cu teJ\w B[p\nIa\ÊpIfn DbÀ¯m\nSbp−v.

A§s\bpÅ kwib§Ä¡v D¯cw Ifcnbn ]nd¶ `{ZImfn am{XamWv.

hntcmN\]p{Xnbmb `{ZImfn ]mepw ]ghpw \nthZn¨v kXzKpWnbmbn Nabp¶ I]Sþ\mKþ{_mÒW³ `KhXn¡v X{´w \S¯p¶ C¡me¯v hntcmN\]p{Xnbpw Bkpcnbpamb `{ZImfnbpsS ØnXn F´mWv? AkpchntcmN\sâ aIÄ `mÀ¤hIpe¯n\pw CXc NmthÀIpe§Ä¡pw IpetZhnbmbsX §s\? `{ZImfnbpsS P·thZnbpw Ifn¡fhpw Ifcn¯d BbsX§s\? \mKþkZminhsâ kp]p{Xnbmbn `{Zsb BKa§Ä F´psIm−v hntijn¸n¡p¶p? A£c§fpw A¡§fpw Ifcnbn ]nd¶sX§s\?

a\pjy³ ]ipthm ]ip]Xntbm?

BÄ¡pc§pIfmWv a\pjysâ ]qÀÆnIsct¶m atäm ]cnWmakn²m´w ]dbp¶p. F¶m BÄ¡pc§pIfn \n¶pw a\pjy\nte¡pÅ PohiànbpsS {]bmWw, ]cnWma{]{InbbpsS B´cnIþLS\bpw NmeIXbpw Xn«s¸Sp¯m\pÅ _²¸mSnemWv C¶v B[p\nIþPoh imkv{Xw. F¶m ssihmKa§Ä¡v C¡mcy¯n bmsXmcp kwibhpanÃ. CcpImenbmbn ambm`KhXn hmÀs¯Sp¯ Ipc§\nse Xet¨mdn\p−mb A[nIþXzcnXhnImkamWv ]ip hns\ ]ip]Xnbm¡nb ]cnWma¯nsâ ImXse¶ \nKa\¯nte¡mWv ssihmKa§Ä hnc 18

Nq−p¶Xv. KpcpXzmIÀjWw \s«ÃneqsS t\tc Xmtg¡v hogpIbpw \nhÀ¶p \n¶ a\pjys\ ¶ CcpImenþicoc¯nsâ KpcpXztI{µw \m`nbn tI{µoIrXamIpIbpw sNbvXp. C§s\ \nhÀ¶p \n¶p ssI\o«n ap{ZIm«n XpS§nb a\pjy\n cq]w sIm− kzÀ¤þ`qanþ]mXmf §fnemWv tZhmkpc·mcpw a\pjycpw X§fpsS ]Stbm«w XpS§nbXv. a\pjy\nse tZhmkpc `mh§f§s\ Ifcn sI«n \S¯nb Btbm[\IebneqsSbmWv Xet¨mdnsâ AXnbmb hnImkw D−mbXv. A§s\ A[nIhnImkw {]m]n¨ CcpImenbpsS {]XoIamWv AkpcþhntcmN\³. ]Sbmfnbmb Cu hntcmN\\mWv Xsâ Xet¨mdn AYhm kl{k Zf]߯n P·w sIm− amXwKnsbbpw `{ZImfnsbbpw BZyambn Xncn¨dnbp¶Xv. ]SbmfnbpsSbpw `{ZbpsSbpw Bß_Ôw Bcw`n¡p¶Xv ChnsSbmWv. P\\þacWmZnIfpsS hocN{Iw krjvSn¨ XzcnXþ]cnWma¯nsâ {]XoIamWv knwlhmln\nbmb `{ZImfn. knwl ]cm{Ianbmb kZminh\neqsS kwPmXbmbn Ifcn¸d¼pIfnepw ]S¡f§fnepw càw IpSn¨p aZn¡p¶ NWvUmenbmWv \mKcpsS `{ZImfn. a\pjycminbpsS ]cnWmaþ{]{InbbpsS BZnIme\nÀ®mbI L«§fn bpt²mÕpIXbpw Ifcn \ÂInb Btbm[\ apdIfpw _p²nhnImks¯ XzcnXs¸Sp¯p¶Xn Hcp {][m\ ]¦phln¨n«p−v. t]mcmfnbneqsS a\pjy\v ssIh¶ Cu _p²nhnImkamWv AXo{µnb kn²nIÄ¡v hgn sXfn¨Xv. Bbp[]qP kckzXo]qPbmIp¶ ]mc¼cyw \mKkn²amWv. `{ZImfnbpw {Xn]pckpµcnbpw X½nse´mWp hyXymkw? Ft¶mcp tNmZyw kqcPv tNmZn¡pIbp−mbn. ]S¡f¯nse `{ZImfn DÅn {iohnZybmbn hnf§p¶XmWv {Xn]pc kpµcn F¶XmWv imkv{Xobamb D¯cw.

5. inh\pw kÀ¸hpw GsXmcp BNmcamsW¦nepw AXnsâ imkv{XobX t_m²ys¸Sp¶Xn\v, hkvXpXm]camb AhtemI\¯n\v ]mÝmXysc B{ibnt¡−nbncn¡p¶p. CSp§nb at\mKXn sIm−p kXys¯ A\yam¡p¶ Hcp ]WvUnX ]mc¼cyamWv C¶s¯ aebmf¯nsâ apJap{Z. Ncn{X kw_Ôhpw A²ymßhnZym]chpamb aebmfnbpsS ]T\§sfÃmw aXnbmb ]T\hpw DÄ¡mgvNbpw CÃm¯hbmWv. inhþ\mK]qPbpsS aebmfhymJym\§Ä {i²n¨m Cu hkvXpX t_m²ys¸Smw. 1877  e−\n {]kn²oIcn¨ ¢mÀ¡v & th¡vsâ ]pkvXI¯nse \nco£W§Ä B[p\nI aebmfnbpsS _u²nI]m¸c¯w shfnhm¡p¶hbmWv.12

• inh]qP {]mIrX BNmcaà The researchers are exploration of travellers, scientists and learned investigators are every day adding to our knowledge of the Serpent Cultus. It is rising above the old conception of an obscure and ill-defiend superstition to the dimensions of a religion, distinctly outlined in its characteritsic features and by no means without a recondite metaphysical basis.

• inhsâ kmÀÆeuInIX Mr Clarke, for many years and explorer of human origins, conducts us to the field of Philology, and shows us Siva who had been often imagined to be a subordinate divinity, and who was not known in the Vedic pantheon of the more ancient times, to be indeed a Mahadeva – not only the greatest God of ante-Brahman India, but also the first God of Africa, Western Asia and Central America; the God who has par excellence, the serpent for his symbol. He is Sibu, Shivatt, Kebe, 12

Clark, H and Wake, CS., Serpent and Siva Worship, New York 1877 19

Sabazious, and his seat is in the sky, at the very zenith, at the omphalos of the day. He is one and The One. The Spirit which animates all nature and of which every man is a manifestation. Before the Veda he was Buddha, the source of the Veda rather than its revealer.

• \mKhpw \mKcmPmhpw The Serpent worship is full of significance. This was a great feature of the religion of the Cushites; but the serpent will convey a poor notion of its meaning to those who do not understand what it was. The serpent was regarde as a symbol of intelligence, of immortality, of protection against the power of evil spirits and of a renewal of life or of the healing powers of nature. inh³ \mKcmPmhmWv. IcnaqÀJ³ IrXlkvX\mb tbmKn¡v ASnabmWv. bYmÀ° tbmKnbp sS apJap{ZbmWv Igp¯nsebpw PSbnsebpw kÀ¸§Ä. `mcX¯nse \mK]qPbpsS NÀ¨bn hneyw temKs\ D²cn¨v Pbnwkv tlÌnwKvkv tIcf¯nse kÀ¸¡mhpIsf¸än ]dbp¶Xv {i²n¡pI. The cult of the serpent in India is of special importance; in no other part of the world is it more widely distributed or developed in more varied and interesting forms.... In no part of India is the cult more general than in S. India. Here we find the Teavu, or snake-grove, which resembles the nagavana of N. India.A clump of wild jungle trees luxuriantly festooned with graceful creepers is usually to be found in the.S.W. corner of the gardens of all respectable Malayali Hindus. The spot is left free to Nature to deal with as she likes. Every tree and bush, every branch and twig is sacred. This is the vishattum Kavu (poison shrine) or nagakotta (snake shrine). Usually there is a granite stone (chitra-kootakkallu) carved after the fashion of a cobra's head set up and consecrated in this waste spot. Leprosy, itch, barrenness in women, deaths of children, the frequent appearance of snakes in the garden, and other diseases and calamities brought about by poison, are all set down to the anger of the serpents. If there be a snake shrine in the garden, sacrifices and ceremonies are resorted to. If there be none, then the place is diligently dug up, and search is made for a snake stone, and if one is found it is concluded that the calamities have occurred because of there having been a snake shrine at the spot, and because the shrine had been neglected. A shrine is then at once formed, and costly sacrifices and ceremonies serve to allay the serpents' anger.13

• \mKw ssP\]mc¼cy¯n In Jainism the symbol of the Tirthakara Parsvanatha is a serpent (sarpa).The colossal statue of Gomatesvara at Sravana Belgola is surrounded with white ant-hills from which snakes emerge.

The Nagamalai, or snake-hill, is said to be ths remains of a great serpent formed by the magic art of the Jains, and prevented by the power of Siva from devouring the Saiva city of Madura, and at the Ramatirtha stands a Jain image covered by a cobra with expanded hood.

• \mKþ_u²]mc¼cyw The records of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims supply numerous examples of the serpent-cult in Buddhism, particularly as guardians of trees and springs. Two dragon-kings washed the infant Buddha; the dragon grants a site for monasteries in his lake; the Naga Raja, Muchilinda, protects 13

Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Edited by James Hastings, p. 413 of Vol.XI 20

Buddha with his folds. On the Bodh Gaya rails the naga spreads his hood, and at Bharhut a king with a five-headed snake-hood kneels before an altar behind which is a tree. At the Sarpa (or serpent) cave, excavated about the time of Asoka, a three-headed, serpent of a very archaic type appears. In W. India the Saiva Buddhist converts preserved their original snake-worship. In the records of the Chinese pilgrims we find Buddhist sramanas worshipping the naga and conducting rites at naga shrines. A favourite gift at modern Buddhist pagodaa in Burma is a representation in gold of the Lord Buddha, with a hooded snake raising itself over him.

6. kqcyhwihpw tNchwihpw `mcXNcn{X¯nse Gähpw {]kn²nbmÀÖn¨ c−p hwimhenIfmWv kqcyhwihpw N{µhwi hpw. BImi¯nse t]mse `qanbnepw AYhm As above; so below F¶Xp t]mse Gähpw imkv{Xobambn \S¯nbn«pÅ Hcp hwihn`P\amWv CXv. \mKhwi¯nsâ c−v ssIhcn IfmWv kqcyþN{µhwi§sf¶v A\pam\n¡phm³ ]e ImcW§fp−v. Cu ImcW§fn Gähpw {][m\s¸«Xv tPymXnximkv{X¯nsâ DÛhw \mK]mc¼cy¯nemsW¶XmWv. IqSmsX \mKhwi]camb {]XoI§fpw BNmcm\pjvTm\§fpsaÃmw Xs¶ tPymXnximkv{X]c amsW¶v \ap¡v hfsc Ffp¸¯n a\Ênem¡p¶Xn\pw km[yamWv. (1) `mcXob]mc¼cy¯n tPymXnÝ{Iw cmlpþinJn (cmþin) N{Iw AYhm ImekÀ¸w

F¶dnbs¸Sp¶p.

(2) kqcyþN{µ]Y§fpsS kwKa_nµp¡sf CXc JtKmf§sft¸mse {Kl§fmbn I¸n¡p

Ibpw A§s\ e`yamb \h{Kl§sf \mK§fmbn Bcm[n¡pIbpw sN¿p¶p.

(3) \hþ{Kl§sf \mK§fmbpw inhs\ \mKcmPmhmbpw Bcm[n¡p¶p. Imew ImekÀ¸w

Imess`ch³ aqXemb k¦Â]§fpw ImeiànbpsSbpw tbmKiànbpsSbpw kzcq]hpambn _Ôs¸«hbmWv.

\mK

(4) \mK]mc¼cyw tbmK]mc¼cyamWv. kqcy\pw N{µ\pw \mK]mc¼cy¯n {]mWsâ kqcyþ

N{µ \mUnIfmWv. ]nWvUmWvU¯neqsS {_ÒmWvUs¯ Adnbp¶ DÄ¡mgvNbmWv tbmKiànbpsS ImXÂ. Xmsg \ÂIp¶ D²cWn {i²n¡pI. “We inevitably perceive the outer world through the intermediary of the senses which are narrow portholes allowing us a fragmentary and deformed glimpse of the reality outside.

Even if the great cosmos is reluctant to reveal its secrets, however, there is another cosmos within us, from which we are not separated by the same barriers... It is by studying the microcosm that we can understand the macrocosm; it is through our own impermanent thing that we can reach the Universal Being. It is in the cavern of our heart that we can realize the immensity of spaces and by controlling our own vital rhythms we can escape the power of time. By reaching the source of life we can escape the power of death. By exploting the unknown spheres within ourselves, we can visit the celestial and infernal worlds”14 (5) kqcyhwi¯nsâbpw N{µhwi¯nsâbpw DÛhw {]mWmkv]Zamb tbmK\mUnIÄ ASnØm\ambpÅXmsW¶pw lc¸bnse ]ip]Xn km£ys¸Sp¯p¶ Xm{´nI kn²]mc ¼cyt¯mfw ]g¡w tbmKmKanIhnÚm\IÂ]\IÄ¡p−mImsa¶pw CXn\m \ap¡v Duln¡mw.

14

P.2 Danieolu, A, Introduction to Yoga 21

(6) X{´hnZym]camb

IpWvUen\okm[\ `n¶ t]cpIfnemsW¦n Xs¶bpw ]pcmX\ \mKcnIXIfnsems¡ {]kn²ambncp¶psh¶v B[p\nI ]T\§Ä sXfnbn¡p¶p.

DZmlcW¯n\v t¹tämbpsS hm¡pIÄ {i²n¡pI.

In the Timaeus, Plato describes what he calls lower soul, the appetitive part of a personality obsessed with bodily pleasures, and higher soul, the spiritual part whose reach transcends the bodily realm. Somewhat surprisingly, he does not consider sexual desire among the appetites of the lower soul, but as a degenerate form of higher soul activity. The higher soul, he says, desires only to be reunited with the World Soul, or One; this, Plato says, is the true and pure form of eros. When, however, the soul is embodied and becomes subject to external influences through the senses, a degenerate form of desire for the One, and for immortality in the One, arises. This is exemplified in the desire of the individual to merge with the species, which the soul mistakenly sees as the One, and to attain immortality through offspring. Other factors enter also, such as seeing, in a sex object, the shadow of the Idea of Beauty, and mistakenly seeking the Idea in the shadow that stimulated memory of it. Thus, the true eros, which is desire for supreme knowledge, freedom, and eternality, is replaced temporarily by a false eros, which is sexual desire15. lc¸mbnse DuÀ²ztcXÊmb almtbmKnbpsS {]mWmbma¯nsâ imkv{XamWv XpSÀ¶v t¹täm hyàam¡p¶Xv. Plato proceeds to describe the physiology of sex (Timaeus 73b ff., 91a ff.). Soul power, he says, resides in a moist substance whose true home is in the brain, the seat of the higher soul. The brain is connected, however, with the penis by a channel that passes through the center of the spine and connects with the urethra. Under the stimulus of false eros, the soul fluid in the brain is drawn down the spinal passage and ejaculated from the penis in the form of sperm, which is able to produce new living creatures precisely because it is soul-stuff. Although Plato does not speak directly to this point, it may be inferred that the practice of philosophy (which, for Plato, requires celibacy except for begetting children) involves keeping the soul-stuff located in the brain, that is, preventing it from flowing downward through the spinal channel. This inference is implicit in the Platonic doctrine, which holds that the philosopher must get beyond false eros to attain the true celestial eros. Because the false eros draws the seminal fluid down the spinal channel, the avoidance of false eros must end this downward flowing. ...this description of eros, in the Timaeus, obviously applies just as well to the Hindu doctrine of the kundalini. Similarly in the Hindu version, the natural or proper place of the kundalini, or soul-power, is at the top of the brain; when it is in this position, the yogin is in a state of union with the divine (quite as Plato said of his philosopher). In an unpurified person, however, the kundalini descends through the spinal channel and expresses itself not as divine union but as the drive to sexual union, and is expended through the penis in ejaculation. The practice of yoga causes the descended kundalini power to be drawn back upward through a channel in the center of the spine. The kundalini may occupy seven seats, or chakras: that at the base of the spine, that at the top of the brain, and five in between (Plato, however, mentions only two, the throat and the heart). As in Plato's description, the kundalini power is especially embodied in semen, and descends in the form of semen from the brain to the penis through the spinal channel. Various practices are recommended for preventing the semen from descending through the spinal channel 15

Thomas McEvilley, The Spinal Serpent, Anthropology and Aesthetics, No. 24 (Autumn, 1993), pp. 67-77 s

22

or, if some has already descended, for forcing it upward through that channel until it resides in the brain again;1 there its life-giving force can express itself in the form of spiritual rather than physical life.

a\pjy\nse \mKs¯¸än þ This correspondence is remarkable enough to invite interpretation, but there is more. The Indian texts distinguish many subtle channels in the body. The foremost is the channel through which the kundalini passes up and down the spine (sushumna-nadi); nearly as important are two channels that pass along the spine but outside it (ida and p?ngala). These two surrounding channels resemble the ?con of the entwined serpents. Between their origin in the upper brain and their termination at the base of the spine, they cross one another five times; their points of intersection are the five intermediary chakras (fig. 1). Plato also knows of these two veins unknown to anatomists (Timaeus 77c. ff.); for him, they run along the sides of the spinal column and cross one another an unknown number of times (Plato mentions only the juncture at the throat). In Plato, as in the Indian texts, these subsidiary veins are secondary carriers of the soulpower. Finally, the correspondence between Plato's Timaeus and the kundalini extends to the imagery of the serpent. Spinal marrow was associated with the serpent by Aelian (De Natura Animalium 1.51) and by the kundalini tradition. The kundalini power is described as a serpent that, having been awakened, slithers up the spine. According to Aelian, the spinal marrow of a man leaves his body as a serpent when he dies. It is also sometimes conceived as involved in the healing process, as shown in a fourth-century relief (fig. 2).

\mK¯nsâ {]mNo\X Homer already had the idea that the cerebrospinal fluid (which he called engkephalos) was the container of life power. Whether he equated it directly with sperm is unknown, but is implied by the fundamental idea that the engkephalos was life-power. The connection of the spinal fluid with sperm seems present in Hesiod too, well before any known easy opportunity for Indian influence on Greek thought. At least as early as Democritus (perhaps born circa 460 b.c.), the engkephalos was believed to issue forth in sexual intercourse (DK 68B32), and the term may have been partly interchangable with aion, which Homer describes (Odyssey 5.160) as "the sweet aion flowing down." The total novelty of this doctrine in the Greek tradition in the sixth century b.c., then, is unlikely, although it may have been refined and reinforced by elements imported at that time.

The presence of the doctrine of the engkephalos in the Homeric texts seems well established, as it is taken for granted, or treated as a given; therefore, its origin may extend far back in the Homeric tradition, which is known to contain elements that go back at least as far as the fifteenth century b.c. In fact, there is some evidence that the serpent-marrow-seed-soul identity was already in place in the Minoan-Mycenaean period16. One may want to look, then, for a source earlier than Democedes's stay in Persia, a source that could have influenced both Homer and the early Upanishads.

A½bpsS \s«ÃneqsS kzÀ¤¯nte¡v

16

Nilsson opines that in Minoan-Mycenaean religion "the snake represents the soul of the deceased" Martin P. Nilsson, A History of Greek Religion, New York: Norton, 1964, p. 13 23

There is an Egyptian antecedent for the idea of attaining salvation or enlightenment through ascending the spine. In the myth in which Osiris climbs to heaven on the spinal column of his mother, the goddess Nut, the vertebrae are used as the rungs of a ladder...

It also has been argued that there are hints of the doctrine in Sumerian iconography, specifically in the image of the entwined serpents, famously found on the "Gudea Vase," circa 2300 B.c. (fig.

3), and the upright figure surrounded or flanked by intertwined serpents, much as in the tantric iconography of the "serpent power" (figs. 4, 5).18 There is also a strong argument for the likelihood of this doctrine occurring in the early Indus Valley culture.19 Generally, then, the fundamental physiological model behind the kundalini doctrine -the spinal linkage between the brain and the urethra, and the identity of the brain fluid, the spinal marrow, and the semen seems to have been extremely widespread in the ancient world, although only the tantric and Platonic texts, as already mentioned, speak of the two subsidiary channels surrounding the spine.

kptadnb³ þC³Ukv \mK_nw_§Ä Several instances of this imagery in the Indus Valley cannot be explained at present except through the hypothesis of Sumer-lndus influence, in whichever direction and however mediated by other cultures. An Indus seal portraying a ritual of a tree goddess, for example, shows clearly in the lower left corner of the motif, common in Sumerian cylinder seals, a mountain or hillock flanked by two goats with their front feet on it and a tree or pole of some kind rising from its top (figs. 6, 7). One face of a triangular seal from Mohenjo-daro shows this motif again, identical in form to many Sumerian icons. Numerous other Indus examples of this image have survived.

Several Indus seals show another of the most characteristic of Sumerian iconographs, often called the dompteur or Gilgamesh: a male hero standing between two lions who symmetrically flank him and whom he is holding in a gesture of mastery (figs. 8, 9). A burial urn from cemetery H at Harappa shows two dompteurs, each mastering two bulls. They have long hair and seem to be naked, like their Sumerian counterparts.Other heraldic flanking motifs abound in Indian iconography.Additionally, the lion bull combat, in which the lion attacks the bull from above and behind it, a commonplace of Sumerian iconography, occurs in the Indus Valley (figs. 10, 11), as does the goddess in the tree, a centrally important icon in both Egypt and Sumer (figs. 12, 13).28 These icons?the eagle and serpents, the mountain flanked by goats, the hero mastering lions, the lion-bull combat, the goddess in the tree - are central to Sumerian religion. Their presence in the Indus Valley city of Mohenjodaro (in the strata that indicate Sumerian trade was active) suggests that significant cultural exchanges took place during the Bronze Age between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. According to presently accepted chronologies, which tend to put the flowering of Sumerian civilization somewhat earlier than that in the Indus Valley, it would seem that both iconographical and conceptual elements of Sumerian religion were assimilated by Bronze Age India.

KthjIsâ hnNn{Xamb \nKa\w XpSÀ¶pÅ NÀ¨bn Cu KthjI³ ]dbp¶Xv Cg]ncnbp¶ kÀ¸§fpsS Nn{Xw sskÔh Xoc¯p ImWm¯Xn\m AhnsS IpWvUen\otbmKw ]n¡me¯mbncn¡mw kw`hn¨sX¶m Wv. ]ip]Xn ap{ZbpsS ASnØm\w t_m²yanÃm¯XmWv Cu sXämb \nKa\¯n\p ImcWw. Perhaps the key icon involved is the entwined serpents, which are central to the tantric iconography of the spinal column with its subsidiary veins, and which have something to do with the designation of the kundalini as "serpent power." This is first encountered in Sumerian 24

iconography, for example in the famous Gudea Vase, where it seems to be the symbol of Gudea's personal deity, Ningizzida. It is not found in the Indus Valley iconography as presently known and, in fact, is not documented in India at all until after the fall of Persepolis.

(7) Xmbve−nse

C¶s¯ hnizmk§fpsS k¦oÀ®Xbnepw kÀ¸w t_mt[mZb¯nsâ {]XoIambn IcpXs¸Sp¶p.17

In accordance with Thai Buddhist conception, Buddhist temples symbolize the holy mount, Phra Sumer or Mount Meru in Tantrik cosmology, which represents Tavatimsa Heaven where Queen Siri Mahamaya (Buddha’s mother) and Hindu divinities reside. Nagas decorated along the tiers of temple roofs represent the cosmic river of life source which springs from Mount Phra Sumer streaming down to the human world.

In Theravada Buddhist architecture, the Naga shape carved stairs always hold a very important position in the temples, symbolizing the three ladders mythically linking earth to heaven. The pious believers’ souls are said to be lead up to Nirvana (heaven in Buddhism) on the magic ladder by the Naga. The gods use them to descend on earth. Theravada Buddhist mythology also says that the Buddha yearly uses the Naga ladder to descend to earth on a sacred day, middle of November after having preached to his mother and the divinities in Tavatimsa Heaven. Besides the signification of Buddhist mythology, a Thai folk legend also tells of Nagas bring earth from the bottom of rivers to built base of temples. Thus, the Naga shape carved stairs are present everywhere in Buddhist temples in Thailand.

(8) Z£nW`mcX¯n {In.ap. aq¶mw \qäm−p apX GXm−v \m\qdp hÀjw B[n]Xyw

Øm]n¨ kmXhml\·mÀ kqcyhwinIfmbncp¶psh¶v kmXhml\sc¶ t]cpw \mWb §fnse kqcy\pw hyàam¡p¶p. Ggp IpXncIfpÅ kqcysâ t]cmWv kmXhml\³. kmXhml\cpw Bcym[n\nthi¯n\p tijw D−mb \mKþbmZhm[n\nthi¯nsâ `mKambncp¶ncn¡m³ km[yXbp−v.

(9)

\mKhpw kqcy\pw18

\mKmcm[\bpsS imkv{Xobhi§sf¸än ]T\w \S¯nbn«pÅhscms¡¯s¶ ]mÝmXycmWv. Ccp]Xmw\qäm−nse tIcf¯nse KthjW\nehmcw IcnaqÀJ³ a\pjy\nepfhm¡nb `oXn \nan¯amWv kÀ¸mcm[\ \nehn h¶sX¶mWv. B[p\nIsâ `oXnsb ]gbImet¯¡v ]dn¨p \«v {]mNo\amb BNmcm\pjvTm\§sf hnNn{XhXvIcn¨v hymJym\n¡pIbmWv \½psS \m«n \S¡p¶ KthjWw. \mKmcm[\bpsS hnhn[ hi§Ä tdmb GjymänIv skmsskän bnse AwKambncp¶ kn.F^v. Hm[mw imkv{Xobambn NÀ¨ sN¿p¶Xnsâ Nne `mK§Ä Xmsg D²cn¡p¶p.

•

kÀ¸mcm[\bpsS kmÀÆP\o\kz`mhw

Over a great part of India the rudely carved representation of a serpent, or a round stone in place of it, is to be found under nearly every large tree. To these Nags, as they are called, offerings are made, not of such things as "are usually eaten by snakes, but of things suitable for the food of man. Flowers, too, are frequently offered, and lights are burned before the shrines.

17

Phan Anh Tu, The Signification of Naga in Thai Architectural and Sculptural Ornaments

18

The Sun and the Serpent, C.F.Oldham, 1905.

25

It must not be supposed that all snakes are worshipped. The Nag alone is sacred.

The veneration for this serpent was not borrowed, as some have supposed, from the aboriginal tribes. It is intimately connected with the worship of the Sun, and is thus closely related to the orthodox Hindu religion. The hooded serpent was, as we shall see later, a totem of the people who claimed descent from the Sun. And the Naga demigods, who are described in Brahmanical writings as "The Celestial Serpents belonging to Surya, were deified chiefs of the solar race.

These demigods belong to a class of deities, no longer orthodox but very popular, which has still its temples, its priests, and its worshippers, both in northern and in southern India.

It is to these ancient deities, rather than to the great gods of the Brahmans, that the Hindu people first turn in times of trouble. To the Naga they pray for rain for their crops, and to the Naga, or the Deva, they pay their vows in time of pestilence or famine. To these, also, they offer the first milk of their cows, and the first-fruits of .their harvest.

• \mK·mÀ kqcysâ XeapdIÄ The Kalakeyas, who were also called Kaleyas or Kalakhanjas, sprang from Vishnu, or the Sun; and they lived in the territory of Patala, that is, in the Indus valley and neighbouring country.

Naga rajas appear to have succeeded Vritra, the great Ahi, in this portion of his dominions. We have it, on the authority of the Mahabharata, that the great Asura Arbuda was a Naga raja. And, from the genealogy of the - Solar race, we learn that the name of one of the royal family of Ajudhia was Ahi Naga. We find too that Ahi Deva was a demigod worshipped in Kashmir. The chief deity of the Asuras, as we have seen, in the case of the Kaleyas, was the Sun, or rather perhaps the Sun-god, from whom they believed themselves to be descended. They also venerated the Naga, or hooded-serpent, as the protector or totem of their race. \mK§Ä Im¡p¶ `qanbmWv aehmcw AYhm ae_mÀ þ ae kqcy³ {]Z£nWw sh¡p¶ tacphpw aehmcw \mK§Ä IpSn]mÀ¡p¶ `qanbpamIp¶p. \mKsâ hm¡pIfnepw hcIfnepw \S¯¯nepw \mSy¯nepw bp²¯nepsaÃmw imkv{Xw CgsIm−ncp¶p.

The hood of one or more of these serpents, expanded over his head, was the distinctive mark of a Naga demigod, or deified Solar chief.

Surya, the Hindu Sun-god, is represented with a canopy over his head, formed of the hoods of a seven-headed Naga; so also is the Asura Rahu, and so too are the Naga demigods Vasuki or Baska Naga, Inclru Naga, and other serpent deities. This is strong evidence of the identity of the Asuras, or Nagas, with the Indian branch of the solar race, but further proof will not be wanting.

The term Naga does not appear to have been a tribal name, but merely an appellation used, by Brahmanical writers, to distinguish those who venerated the Naga, or hooded-serpent. There can be no doubt that this serpent was held sacred by all the Asuras, as it was by other people who claimed solar descent. So generally, throughout the world, was the Naga held sacred, that it would seem to have been the earliest totem of the wide-spread Solar race.

• tIcf¯nse Ipf§fpw Ipe§fpw tIcfamsI Hcp Ime¯v ImhpIÄs¡m¸w Ipf§fpw D−mbncp¶p. Cu Ipf§Ä¡p kÀ¸hpw kqcy\pambpÅ _Ôsa´mbncp¶p?

This supposed ability of the Naga rajas to control the elements, and especially the waters, arising no doubt from their connexion with the Sun, led apparently to their association with springs, 26

streams, and lakes. In these the serpent deities were supposed to dwell, although the Cobra is not a water-snake, and cannot live under water. Every lake and every spring in Kashmir, and in many other parts of India, was sacred to one or other of the Naga demigods, or to the sun. Near most temples of the sun is to be seen a pool, or tank, of clear water. This is called "Suraj Kund," or pool of the sun, and is sacred to the Sun-god.

•

]mXmfw Bbncp¶p \mKtemI¯nsâ XeØm\w. I]nehmkptZh\pw CXc \mK§fpw (C£zmIp apXembhÀ) ChnsSbmWv Pohn¨ncp¶Xv. ap«m³ AYhm aqeØm\w Iiy] \Kcnsb¶v (lncWy]pcw) {]kn²ambncp¶p. Iiy]sâ {]XoIambncp¶p Ba. D¯c`mc X¯nse {][m\ P\]Z§sfÃmw \mK·mcm krjvSn¡s¸«hbmbncp¶psh¶v Hm[w kqNn¸n¡p¶p. IpihXn, Atbm²y, hmcWmkn, I]ne, lkvXn\mK]pcw, GIN{I, anYne, cmPKrlw, Xm{aen]vXn C§s\ ]s¯m¼Xp \Kc§Ä. Akpc\Kcnbmbncp¶ {]mKv tPymXnjhpw Cu enÌn s]Sp¯mw. Atbm²ybnse `cXsâ aI\mb X£\mWv \mK \Kcnbmb X£ine Øm]n¨Xv. Ip´nbpw IrjvW\pw \mKcmPmhmbncp¶ BcyIsâ ]c¼cbn P\n¨hcmWv. sFXtcb {_mÒWw I{Zp]p{X\mb AÀ_pZ\mKs¯ a{´ ZrjvSmhmb Ejnsb¶v hntijn¸n¡p¶p. AYÀÆthZ¯n X£Isshimey³, Ccmh³, [rXcmjv{S³, hncq]m£³ apXemb \mK§Ä {]IoÀ¯n¡s¸Sp¶p.

•

_u²bpK¯nsâ Ahkm\t¯msSbmWv \mKhwiw `mcXNcn{X¯n \n¶pw A{]Xy £amIp¶Xv. CXn\p {][m\ ImcWw kwkvIrX`mjbpw AXneqsS {]Ncn¨ CXnlmk, ]pcmW§fpamWv. The Naga people disappear from history about the time of the downfall of the Buddhist religion. Probably the Brahmanic revival was fatal to both, and the Nagas, like the Buddhists, were induced, or compelled, to adopt orthodox Hinduism.

• Z£nW`mcX¯nse \mKaWvUew þ tNcaWvUew There is further evidence, however, that the serpent-worshippers of the south of India were very closely related to those of the north. The Dravidian people have been divided, from ancient times, into Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. Chera, or Sera (in old Tamil Sarai) is the Dravidian equivalent for Naga ; Chera-mandala, therefore, has the same meaning as Naga-mandala, Nagadwipa, or the Naga country. This seems to point distinctly to the Asura origin of the Dravidians of the south. But in addition to this there still exists, widely spread over the Ganges valley, a people who call themselves Cherus or Seoris, and who claim descent from the serpent-gods. The Cherus are of very ancient race; they are believed to have once held a great portion of the valley of the Ganges, which, as we have already seen, was occupied in very early times by Naga tribes.

The Cherus appear to have been gradually ousted from their lands, during the troublous times of the Mohammedan invasions, and they are now poor and almost landless. There can be little doubt that these people are the kinsmen of the Dravidian Cheras. The Cherus have several peculiar customs, and amongst them one which seems to connect them with the Lichavis, as well as with the Newars of Nepal. This is the election of a raja for every five or six houses, and his investiture, in due form, with the tilak or royal frontal mark. Both Lichavis and Newars had many customs in common with the Dravidians of the south. Each venerated the serpent, Karkotaka Naga being to Nepal what Nila Naga was to Kashmir. A Naga, too, was the tutelary deity of Vaisali, the Lichavi capital. The marital relations of Newars and Lichavis closely resembled those of the Tamil people, and go far to show a common origin.

27

Property amongst the Newars descended in the female line, as it once did amongst the Arattas, Bahikas or Takhas of the Panjab, whose sisters' sons, and not their own, were their heirs. This is still a Dravidian custom. In short, a recent Dravidian writer, Mr. Balkrishna Nair, says that his people " appear to be, in nearly every particular, the kinsfolk of the Newars”. Besides all this, however, there are other links connecting the Naga people of the south with those of the north of India. In an inscription, discovered by Colonel Tod at Kanswah near the river Chambal, a raja, called Salindra, " of the race of Sārya, a tribe-renowned amongst the tribes of the mighty”' is said to be ruler of Takhya.

This was evidently the Takhya or Takha kingdom of the Panjab, which was visited by Hiouen Tsiang, and which has been already referred to. It seems, therefore, that the Naga people of Takhya were known also by the name of Sarya. Again, in the outer Himalaya, between the Sutlej and Beas valleys, is a tract of country called Saraj, or Seoraj. In this district the Naga demi-gods are the chief deities worshipped. There is another Seoraj in the upper Chinab valley, and this too is occupied by a Naga-worshipping people. The name Saraj, or Seoraj, appears to be the same as the Sarya of Colonel Tod's inscription, and as Seori, which is the alternative name of the Cherus of the Ganges valley. It also seems to be identical with Sarai, which, as we have already seen, is the old Tamil name for the Chera or Naga. Apparently, therefore, the Saryas of Takhya, the Saraj people of the Sutlej valley, the Seoris or Cherus of the valley of the Ganges, and the Cheras, Seras, or Keralas of southern India, are but different branches of the same Naga-worshipping people. \qdphÀjw ap¼v FgpXs¸« {KÙ¯nse hnhc§fmWnh. C¶v tIcf¯nsegpXs¸«p ImWp¶ Ncn{XKÙ§fnse ipjvIamb AhtemI\§Ä hmbn¨m tIcf¯nsâ _u²nIamb A[x]X\w t_m²ys¸Smw.

• KcpV\pw kqcyhwihpw Who then was Garuda? We find, from the Mahabharata, that the Garudas inhabited one of the provinces of Patala. They are said to have been much favoured by Vishnu, or the Sun, whom they worshipped. A list of forty-eight Garuda chiefs is given, and it is said that only those are mentioned who have won distinction, by might, fame, and achievements.Garuda, or the eagle, therefore, was the totem of one of the Solar tribes of Patala. These people were fierce and warlike, and they were engaged in frequent hostilities with their neighbours. Garuda is described as tearing the bodies of the Yakshas, and devouring the Nishadas; also as destroying the elephant and the tortoise, which represent Solar tribes. Garuda is said to have attacked Indra, and to have carried off the Amrita.

•

kqcyhwihpw _u²þssP\]mc¼cyhpw

“...both the Buddhist and the Jaina religious systems were closely connected with the worship of the Sun and the serpent. The cause of this appears to have been that each of these forms of religion arose, or at all events found their chief supporters, amongst the Solar tribes who had not come completely under grahmanical influence. According to Brahmanic authorities, both Buddhism and Jainism had their origin amongst the Asuras” (10) \mKcpsS kucbqYw aqem[mc¯nse `qan apXÂ ZzmZim´w hsc \ofp¶ tacpZWvUamb

\s«Ãn\p NpäpamWv A\p`hamIp¶Xv. kqcysâ {]kn²amb [ym\w þ Imteiw {Klhw N amÀ¤\nebw {]mNoapJw hÀ¯pfw 28

càw cXv\hn`qjW[zPcYO{X{inbm tim`nXw k]vXmizw IaeZzbm\znXIcw ]ßmk\w Imiy]w tatcmÀZnhyKntcx {]Z£nWIcw tkhmatl `mkvIcw Cuhn[w hÀ®n¡s¸Sp¶ kqcy³ Ime¯n\v Cui\mWv, ImekÀ¸¯nsâ {]XoIamWv, Ime¯nsâ Gähpw tim`bmÀ¶ apJamWv. kÀ¸cq]amÀ¶ ImeþtbmKiànkzcq]§fp sS {]XoIsa¶ \nebn kÀ¸amWv. C¡mcW¯memWv kqcymcm[\ kÀ¸mc[\bpsS `mKambn¯oÀ¶Xv. {Kl\mK§fpsS cmPmhmb kqcysâ \mKcmPmhmb inhsâ {]XoIhp amIp¶p. kqcyN{µ·mcpsS inhiàymßI {]Xn\n[nXzw X{´¯nsâ ASnØm\ X¯z§fnsem¶mWv. (11) PohmßiànbpsS tbmKmßI{]kv^pcWamb IpWvUen\nsb kp`tKmZb¯n hÀ®n

¨ncn¡p¶Xv {i²n¨m IpetZhnbpw kÀ¸]qPbpambpÅ _Ôhpw hyàamIpw. Ipam-cobw a{µw [z\Xn N XsXm tbmjn-X-]cm Ipew Xyàzm cuXn kv^pSXn N alm-\o-e-`p-PwKo XXx ]mXn-{hXyw `PXn Zl-cm-Im-im-I-ate kpJm-ko\m tbmjm `hkn `h ko¡m-c-c-knIm {]Whm¦pcamÀ¶ almiànhnkvt^mS\¯nemcw`n¨ krjvSn {]{Inb `KhXnbpsS almhnt\mZ ¯nse¯n Iemin¨Xv ]ip]Xnbmb a\pjy\nemWv. hnkvabmhlamb _rlXviàn]cnWb §fpsS Ahkm\¯n ]©X·m{XIfpw ]©`qX§fpw DÄs¸sS X¯z{Kmaw Dfhmbn. {_ÒmWvUm´ÀKXamb ]qÀ®þØqeþiànkzcq]¯n\v X¯peyambn `KhXn ]qÀ®amb kq£vaiànkzcq]w ssIs¡m−v `Khmsâ tIfocwKamb ]nWvUmWvU¯n Øqe`qXamb `qan Xpc¶v amfap−m¡n kÀ¸cq]amÀ¶v kp£p]vXnbm−p. almambmkzcq]nWnbpsS Cu IÅbpd¡ amWv PohcminbpsS D¯pwKirwKamb a\pjysâ Jn¶XbpsS ImcWw. D]mk\bneqsS I]me[mcnbmb ]m¼m«nbpsS kn²nbmÀ¶ \mK\p am{Xta hmßoI¯nsemfn¨ncn ¡p¶ Cu \mKn\nsb ]pd¯p sIm−ph¶v ambsb t`Zn¨v B´cnIamb XnYn]oT¯nt·Â `{ZbpsS {]XnjvT \S¯m\mIq. (12) \mKþ\mbÀ ]mc¼cy§fpsS imkv{XobX hnIÂ]_²amb _p²n sIm−v t_m²ys¸Sm

hp¶XÃ. \nÀÆnIÂ]amb tbmKmßI{]Úbn am{Xta \mKcpsS hnÚm\¯nsâ km[pX t_m²ys¸Sm\mIq.

7. \mb·mcpsS ssP\þ_u² ]mc¼cyw `mc-X-¯nse P\-XXn GXv PmXn-bn s]«-h-cm-bmepw _lp-`q-cn-]-£hpw ssP\-_u-²-\m-K-]m-c¼-cy-¯nsâ Ah-Im-in-I-fm-Wv. Ncn-{X-¯nsâ GtXm Ccp-fm− Imes¯ Bcy-kw-kÀ¤w ]utcm-ln-Xy¯n\v A{]-am-ZnXzw \ÂInb Hcp kmaqly hyhØsbbpw ]nWn-bm-f-·m-scbpw krjvSn-s¨-Sp-¡p-Ibpw ]ucm-Wn-I-ambn \ne-\n¶ kwkvImc¯n\p ta AXnsâ kzXzw Xncn¨dnbm-\m-Im¯ hn[w kwkvIr-X-¯nsâ Hcp aqSp-]Sw AWn-bn-¡p-Ibpw sNbvXp. \½psS imkv{Xo-bhpw B²ym-ßn-I-hp-amb ]mc-¼-cys¯ tNmZyw sN¿p¶ B aqSp-]-Ss¯ \mw No´nsb-dn-tb− Imew AXn-{I-an¨p Ign-ªp. ssP\-]m-c-¼-cy-¯n \njn-²-ambn H¶p-an-Ã. Hcp ]s£ hfsc ap¼v £tbm-·p-J-am-bn-¯oÀ¶-Xp-sIm−v C¶v \mw ImWp¶ Aim-kv{Xo-b-X-bp-sS t]¡q¯v ssP\-]m-c-¼-cys¯ sslµ-h-sa¶ ]mc-¼-cy-t¯mfw _m[n-¨n-«n-Ã. hkvXp-\n-jvT-ambn \mw a\-Ên-em-¡n-bm lc-¸m, taml-RvsP-Zm-tcmIfpsS Imew apX-epÅ tbmKm-ß-I, imkv{XmßI kwkvIr-Xn-bpsS `mc-X-¯nse bYmÀ° ]n´p-SÀ¨-¡mÀ ssP\cpw _u²-cp-am-Wv. Xrs¡mSn¯m\w t£{Xw hIbmb ssh_vsskän hfsc {it²bamb ]cmaÀi§Ä e`yamWv. 29

The earliest people to make Kerala their home were the Dravidians. Cultural affinities (inheritance through women, snake cults) and anthropological evidence point to the Mediterranean origins (Nubia, Upper Egypt) of her Dravidian people.

As the early settlers cleared thickly forested lands for farms and settlements, they set aside small areas of the original forest completely untouched. These became the earliest known sites of worship - the Kaavus - Dravidian Sacred Groves. In these groves, no flower was ever plucked, no tree felled and, most importantly, no snakes disturbed or harmed. This tradition continues today in most Nair households with the Kaavu being considered home to all Naagas (snakegods) and holy spirits.

The first organised religions to reach Kerala came with the Jains and the evangelizing Buddhist missions of Emperor Ashoka in 300 - 200 BC. As in other parts of the country, these missionaries employed the then local language to spread their religion.

JAIN TEMPLES (circa 300 BC to 500 AD) Jainism was introduced to the South in 300 BC by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 BC) and a Jain saint - Bhadrabahu. Evidence of the presence of Jains in Kerala comes from the indisputable fact that many Hindu temples in Kerala were originally Jain Shrines.

For example, the presiding deity of Kudalmanikkam Temple near Irinjalakuda (Thrissur) is Rama`s younger brother Bharata. Originally it was Bharateshwara, a Digambara Jain saint. At Kallil, near Perumbavur, we can still see the images of Paraswanta, Mahavira and Padmavati; even though it is considered a Bhagavati temple today. Similarly, several places in Wayanad have Jain temples indicating that North Malabar was once a flourishing center of Jainism.

According to the historian, William Logan, architecture of later Hindu temples in Kerala was influenced by the architecture of Jain temples.

BUDDHIST TEMPLES (c.200 BC to 800 AD) Buddhism was introduced in Kerala by the missions sent out by Emperor Ashoka from Besnagar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh). During this period, the Emperor`s son Mahindra headed a Buddhist mission to Sri Lanka. For more than 700 years, Buddhism flourished in Kerala. The Paliyam Copper plate of the Ay King, Varaguna (885-925AD) shows that at least in South Kerala, Buddhists continued to enjoy royal patronage even until 1000 AD. Many Hindu temples were once Buddhist shrines, including Vadakkunathan temple of Thrissur, Kurumba Bhagawathi temple of Kannur and the Durga temple at Paruvaserri near Thrissur. A large number of Buddhist images have been discovered in the coastal districts of Allapuzha and Kollam; the most important of these is the famous Karumadi Kuttan near Ambalapuzha.

Revival of Hinduism by Brahmin scholars in 800-1000 AD gradually wiped out Buddhism from Kerala. Royal patronage by the Vaisnavite Kulashekara dynasty hastened this process. Many Keralites, like the Ezhavas (from Ezham, Tamil term for Sri Lanka), who were most likely Buddhists once, got absorbed in the mainstream Hindu fold.

However the legacy of nearly a 1000 years was not so easily forsaken. Pallikudam or Ezhuthupally - the schools opened by Buddhists near their monasteries - continued to impart education (Pally is the Buddhist term for school). Buddha continued to be worshipped as Sastha or Ayyappa. Popular invocation of these deities, even today, harks back to Buddhist times Buddham Sharanam became Swami Sharanam!

30

While replacing old Buddhist shrines with new Hindu temples, the Brahmins, respecting sentiments of the neo-converts, relocated the older gods nearby, but away from the sanctum and outside the Pradikshina-patham or circumambulatory pathway. tIcf¯nse XoctZiPnÃIfmb Be¸pg, sImÃw {]tZi§fnse amthen¡c, Icp\mK¸Ån, `cWn¡mhv C§s\ ]e Øe§fn \n¶pw _p²aXmhew_nIfptSXmb AhinjvS§Ä e`yambn«p−v. ]Ån tNcp¶ Øe§sfÃmw Xs¶ _p²aX¯nsâ kzm[o\w kqNn¸n¡p¶h bmWv. aøÅn, apøÅn, Imªnc¸Ån, CS¸Ån, hmg¸Ån, ]gw]Ån, ap−nb¸Ån, ]Ån¡Â, ]Ån¸pdw, ]Ån¸pd¯pImhv, apXembhbpw ]p¯³ tNcp¶ Øe§Ä ]p¯³Ipfw, ]p¯³ Imhv apXembhbpw _u²]mc¼cyw kqNn¸n¡p¶hbmsW¶v kZminh³ kaÀ°n¡p¶p. e¦ AYhm kntemWn \n¶v IS hgnbmWv _p²aXw tIcf¯n {]Ncn¨sX¶v kZminh³ ]dbp¶p. {InkvXphÀjw c−mw \qäm−n Pohn¨ncp¶ {]kn² _u²Nn´I\mb \mKmÀÖp\³ ]me¡mSv kztZinbpw [À½]me³ sX¡³ XncphnXmwIqdpImc\pw, _p² tLmj³19 a[yXncphnXmwIqdpImc\pambncp¶psh¶v kZminh³ tcJs¸Sp¯n¡mWp¶p.

Bcy tZh³, hkp_Ôp, ZnámK³, _p[Z¯³ (IehqÀ), hmKv`S³ (AjvSmwKlrZbw, XIgn) F¶n§s\ {]kn²cmb ]e _u²cpw tIcfobcmsW¶ kXyw {_mÒWy¯n\v A[o\s¸« tIcfw ad¶p t]mbncn¡p¶p. BbpÀ thZ¯n\v tIcf¯nep−mb hnImkamWv _u²cpsS asämcp kw`mh\. `Z´þ\mKmÀÖp\ s\¶ _p²`njKzc³ acpXzmaebn ]Xns\«phÀj¡m ew Xmakn¨ncp¶Xmbpw (cmksshti jnIkq{X¯nsâ IÀ¯mhv) ]n¶oSv tNÀ¯e¡Sp¯ Xncphngmbn At±lw tkh\w sNbvXXmbpw Adnbphm³ Ignªn«p−v. tNÀ¯e¡Sp¯ IS¡c¸Ån _p²`njKzc·mcpsS tI{µambncp¶p. AactImi¯nsâ IÀ¯mhmb Aac knwl³ XIgnbnse _u²hnlmc¯n hfsc¡mew ]mÀ¯ncp¶Xmbpw kntem¬ hmkw AYhm _Ôw ImcWambmWv knwl³ F¶ hmep tNÀ¡m\nSbmbsX¶pw kZminh³ ]dbp¶p. ssP\]mc¼cyw kqNn¸n¡p¶ AhinjvS§Ä D¯ctIcf¯nemWv IqSpXse¦nepw, Z£nW tIcf¯nse, IhnbqÀ, \mKÀtImhnÂ, sN§¶qÀ, i_cnae apXemb Øe§Ä ssP\ ]mc¼cyhpambn _ÔapÅhbmsW¶v IcpXs¸Sp¶p. kÀ¸t£{X§Ä s]mXpsh ssP\ ]mc¼cyw kqNn¸n¡p¶ AhinjvS§fmWv. _u²þssP\Nn´IÄ¡v tIcf¯nepw sIm¦W¯nepw e`yamb {]Nmc¯n\p ImcWw ChnSps¯ P\]Z§fpsS \mKhwi_ÔamWv. _p²\pw almhoc\pw P·w sIm− \mKhwi ¯nsâ sXt¡m«pÅ {]bmW¯n\v km£yw hln¡p¶ Bbnc¡W¡n\v \mK]pc§fpw A\´]pc§fpw t\¸mÄ Xmgzc apX sXs¡m«v hym]n¨p InS¡p¶p. ssihþimtàb ]mc¼cy¯n Xs¶ \mKhwiPcmb _p²sâbpw almhocsâbpw Nn´Isf Bthin¨ \mK·mcmWv `mcX¯nsâ ]e `mK¯pw Imem´c¯n ssP\cmbpw _u²cmbpw Adnbs¸«Xv. Xm{´nIaXw asäÃm B²ymßnI Nn´m[mcIÄ¡pw aqe DdhnSambn D¯c `mcXw apX at[yjy hsc \ne\n¶ncp¶psh¶Xn\v ]pcmX\ \mKcnIXIfpsS AhinjvS §Ä kqNn¸n¡p¶p. kwkvIr-X-¯nse ]mWvUnXyw sIm−pw XÀ¡-hn-XÀ¡-§-fpsS C{µ-Pmew sIm−pw B[p-\nI a\-Ên\v XS-bn-Sm-\m-In-Ã. hkvXp-X-IÄ¡pw C{µn-bhpw AXo-{µn-b-hp-amb A\p-`-h-§Ä¡pw hmKvt²m-cWn sIm−v A{]-am-ZnXzw kn²-am-bn-cp¶ Imew Ign-ªp. tbmK-Ýn-¯-hr¯n 19

{InkvXphÀjw A©mw \qäm−v. _p²tLmj³ kntemWn {]hÀ¯n¨ncp¶Xmbn ]cmaÀin¨p ImWp¶p. Buddhism: A Modern Perspective By Charles S. Prebish 31

\ntcm[w F¶v \mKþ-]-X-RvPen ]d-ª-Xn\v t\Àhn-]-co-X-ambn hnIÂ]m-ßI t]¡q-¯p-IÄ sIm−v ]mhw a\p-jys\ ab-¡n-s¡-Sp-¯p¶ C¶s¯ B²ym-ßnI ]mc-¼-cy-aà \½psS bYmÀ° ]mc-¼-cyw. hkp-tZ-h-Ir-jvW-\n-eq-sSbpw _p²-\n-eq-sSbpw ssP\-\n-eq-sSbpw \Ip-eo-i\n-eq-sSbpw I]n-e-\n-eq-sSbpw lc¸m Imew hsc, {InkvXp-hn\v ap¼v aqhm-bn-c-am−v hsc ]n¶nte¡ InS-¡p¶ ]mc-¼-cy-¯n\v Ah-Im-in-I-fmWv \mw. sslµ-h-sa¶ t]cn-s\´p {]kàn? t]cp-I-fp-sSbpw AXn-cp-I-fp-sSbpw A¸p-d-amWv lc-¸mbnse almtbmKn. t]cpw AXn-cp-Ifpw \½psS hnIÂ] krjvSn-bm-Wv. FÃm t]cp-I-fnepw t]cn-Ãm-Xn-cn-¡p¶ GI k¯sb km£vXvIcn-¡p-I-bm-sWtÃm `mc-X-¯nsâ B²ym-ßnI ktµiw. cmjv{So-b-¯nsâ t]cp-hn-fn-IÄ¡pw t]mÀhn-fn-IÄ¡pw AXo-X-am-bn, a\-Êp-Isf CSp-§nb Nn´m-K-Xn-I-fn Xf-¨n-Sp¶ hnIÂ]-hr¯n-IÄ¡-Xo-X-ambn kXys¯ Adn-bp-hm³ B{K-ln-¡p-t¼mÄ Pn\-s\-t¶m, _p²-s\-t¶m, inhs\t¶m Hs¡-bpÅ t]cp-IÄ X\nsb amªp t]mIp-¶p. \mam-Xo-X-amb k¯sb¶ e£y-¯nte¡v hnc Nq−p¶ Kpcp-¡-·m-cm-Wn-h-sc-Ãmw. \½psS ssP\-_u-²-]m-c-¼-cy-§-sf-¸än IqSp-X-e-dn-bp-¶-Xn-eqsS am{Xta D]-\n-j-¯p-¡-fnse ZÀi-\-§-fp-sSbpw tbmK-im-kv{X-¯n-sâbpw Ncn-{X-]-Ým-¯ew hkvXp\njvT-ambn \ap¡v a\-Ênem-¡m-\m-Iq. FÃmw sshZn-I-am-Wv, A²ym-ß-hn-Zy-bpsS sImSp-apSn i¦-cm-ssZz-X-amWv Fs¶ms¡ Nn¯-hr¯n sNbvX-hÀ A²ym-ßn-I-X-bpsS Hcp aqV-kzÀ¤w ]Wn-XoÀ¯n-«p-−v. kwL-Im-e-s¯-¸än \ap¡v H¶p-a-dn-bn-Ã, ssP\-þ-_u-²þssih-kn-²-sc-¸än \ap¡v H¶p-a-dn-bn-Ã, \Ip-eo-i\pw hncÂan-−\pw hnÚm-\-`n-£phpw \ap¡v A\-`n-a-X-cm-Wv, i¦-cm-Nm-cyÀ am{X-amsW-Ãmw. ]utcm-ln-Xy-¯nsâ PoÀ®X k½m-\n¨ Cu sIm¡q-Wn \n¶pw \mw ]pd¯p hcWw. \mK]mc¼cyw \ap¡v \ÂIp¶ktµ-i-an-Xm-Wv. tIc-f-¯n-sâbpw `mc-X-¯n-sâbpw bYm-X-Y-amb imkv{X]mc-¼-cyhpw B²ym-ßnI ]mc-¼-cyhpw a\-Ên-em¡n \Ã-Xns\ kzoI-cn¨v ]Xncns\ XÅn [\yX tXSp-I-bmWv \mw sNt¿-−-Xv. PmXnbnepw t]cnepw tZl-¯nepw A`n-am-\n-¡p-Ibpw ss\\w Onµ´n ikv{XmWn F¶v -`K-hZvKoX Dcphn-Sp-Ibpw ac-Ws¯ t]Sn-¡p-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p þ F{X henb sshcp-²y-am-Wn-Xv. imkv{Xt¯m-Spw kXy-t¯mSpw AYhm hkvXp-X-I-tfm-SpapÅ kao-]-\¯n t]mepw hnIr-X-Nn-¯-hr¯n¡v hnt[-b-cm-sW-¶-Xn\v CXnÂ]cw Hcp sXfn-sh-´mWv th−Xv? tbmK-im-kv{X-amWv `mc-Xob imkv{X-§-fpsS sImSp-ap-Sn. FÃm `mc-Xob ZÀi-\-§-fp-sSbpw ASnØm\w tbmK-hr-¯n-bm-Wv. C¶s¯ `mcXhpw temIhpw I−m ssP\-þ-_p-²þ]X-RvP-enamtc-¡mÄ henb Ah-Xm-c-§-tfm F¶v \ap¡v tXm¶n-t¸m-Ipw.

8. \mKsc iq{Zcm¡p¶ kvarXnIÄ PmXnþ{_mÒW\pw Ahcm £{Xnbcmbn thjw sI«n\nÀ¯nb tIcf¯nse cmPm¡·mcpw, iÀ½bpw hÀ½bpw \mbsc iq{Zs\¶p hntijn¸n¡p¶p. kn.]n.cmakzman A¿cpsS {]kvXmhw {]kn²nbmÀ¶XmWv. {_mÒWsâ Cu PÂ]\w aqVXz¯nsâ ]catImSnbmWv. PmXnbpsS t]cp \ÂIn a\pjys\ a\pjy³ \nµn¡p¶, a\pjy\nse CuizcXzs¯ \ntj[n¡p¶ alm]m]w hyhØm]nXam¡nb {_mÒWsâ ]pWy{KÙamb a\pkvarXn ]pjyan{XkpwKsâ hmgvN¡me¯v {InkvXphn\v ap¼v c−mw \qäm−n Na¡s¸«XmWv. NmWIys\¶p {]kn²\mb [À½imkv{X\njvWmX\mb {_mÒW³ a\pkvarXn ]Tn¨ncp¶psh¦n iq{Z\mb N{µKp]vXaucys\ aK[bpsS N{IhÀ¯nbmbn Ahtcm[n¡pIbnÃtÃm? \mKhwiPcmb N{µKp]vXaucy\pw ]u{X\mb AtimIhÀ²\\pw Xn·\ndª {_mÒW aXs¯ AIän \nÀ¯p¶Xn\mWv ssP\aXs¯bpw _p²aXs¯bpw X§fpsS Ime§fn AIagnªp t{]mÕmln¸n¨Xv. `mcX¯net§mfant§mfw ImWs¸Sp¶ t£{X§fpw hnlmc §fpsaÃmw Xs¶ \mKkwkvIrXnbpsS kw`mh\bmWv. I]ne\pw, Imiy]\pw, ]cipcma\pw, 32

]XRvPenbpw ]nwKf\pw, ]mWn\nbpw \mK·mcmbncp¶psh¶ kXyw ad¡m³ ]mSnÃm¯ XmWv.

]cipcma\pw iq{Z³ Xs¶ tIcf¯nse {_mÒWsâ Gähpw al¯mb ]qPmhn{Klw tIctfmÂ]¯n, tIcfamlmßyw apXemb IrXnIf\pkcn¨v ]cipcma\msWtÃm? ap¼p kqNn¸n¨Xp t]mse ]mckv cma³ AYhm t]ÀjybneqsS h¶ Cu {ZmhnUþcmat\m At±l¯nsâ ]n´pSÀ¨¡mtcm BWv sXmen Idp¯ {ZmhnUþ{_mÒWsc krjvSn¨v A]cm´I¯nepw sIm¦W¯nepw tIcf¯n epw A[nhkn¸n¨Xv. PmXn tIcf¯n sImSnIp¯n hmgm³ ImcWw {_mÒWXz¯nsâ tae¦nbWnª \mK¸cnjIÄ Aántlm{XnIfn \n¶pw ISwhm§nb aqVXbm \jvS s¸Sp¯nb \mK]mc¼cyamWv. `mcX¯nsâ hnhn[ `mK§fnembn Bbnc¡W¡n\v sFXn ly§fpsS \mbI\mb ]cipcmasâ Gähpw {it²bamb khntijX At±lw ssih\pw Bcyþ£{Xnb hntZzjnbpw Bbncp¶psh¶XmWv. Bcyþ£{Xnb hntZzjnbmb ssih³ F§s\ Bcy-{_mÒW\mIpw? lnamNe{]tZinse \nÀaWvUv ]cipcmaþ{Kmaw F¶p {]kn²amWv. ]n.kn.Iiy]v AhnsS \in¨p ImWs¸« hnjvWpt£{Xs¯¸änbpÅ NÀ¨bn C{]Imcw ]dbp¶p.

“That such a fate should befall Vishnu in a Parasurama village is rather intriguing. The explanation perhaps lies in Parasurama being a worshipper of Siva. He not only learnt from Siva the use of all the weapons of war but also got from him the Parasu (battle axe) – his special weapon – on account of which he came to be called Parasurama as distinct from Rama Dasarathi.

The tilak on the forehead of his mask is three horizontal lines with a dot in the middle, a pure Saivite symbol.

The Satluj-Ghaggar basin was a major theatre of Parasurama’s exploits. He is said to have filled a number of lakes at Kurukshetra with the blood of Kshatriyas. Farther north was the Jamadagni Ashram and Renuka Lake and to it west he led the convoy of Brahmans along the Satluj for resettlement” Cu sFXnly§Ä tIctfmÂ]¯n t]msebpÅ kao]Ime cN\IfÃ. ImfnZmk³ taLZqX ¯n ]dbp¶Xv Iiy]v D²cn¨ncn¡p¶p.

“The cloud will now (after Prayaga) fly over the Himalayas. It will glimpse many sacred spots.

Then it will go to the Krauncha Pass. Parasurama opened it up in the mountains with his arrows when he went on a visit to Kailasa. Since then the wild geese have passed through it on their annual flights to Manasa Lake” KpPdm¯nse `rKpIÑw BØm\ambncp¶ `mÀ¤h·mÀ ImÀ¯hocy\m ieyw sN¿s¸« Xns\ XpSÀ¶v hSt¡m«v ]emb\w sNbXpsh¶pw ]n¶oSv £{Xnb\n{Klw sNbvX cma³ A]cm´Iw krjvSn¨v sXt¡m«v {_mÒWsc \bn¨psh¶pw Hs¡bmWv IYIÄ. IYbpsS hniZmwi§Ä F´pXs¶bmIs« inh³ A\p{Kln¨p \ÂInb agp sIm−v Bcy£{Xnb Ipe[zwkI\mbn `mcXamsI sImSp¦mäpt]mse hoinbSn¨ `mÀ¤hcmas\§s\ Bcy{_m ÒW\mIpw? \mK]mc¼cyw ]pjyan{XkpwK\p tijw ({In.ap. 180) cq]s¸SpIbpw {]Nmc¯n hcnIbpw sNbvX kwkvIrXkmlnXy¯n F{Xt¯mfw hnIrXam¡s¸«p F¶Xn\v C¶v \mw Adnbp¶ `mÀ¤hNcn{X¯nse bpàn`wK§Ä aXnbmb DZmlcW§fmWv. AXpt]mse sshZnI{_mÒWs\ A\pIcn¡pI hgn kzXzw \jvSs¸« \mKhwiP\]Z§Ä¡v Gähpw \à DZmlcWamWv tIcf¯nsebpw XangI¯nsebpw aäpw sXmen Idp¯ {_mÒWÀ. ]pjyan{X 33

kpwK\pw {_mÒWhXvIcn¡s¸« ]mckv \mK\mbncp¶psh¶v an{X \mat[bw ASnØm\ am¡n Duln¡mw.

9. AlnO{Xw þ tIctfmÂ]¯nbnse \mK¯d tIctfmÂ]¯nbn ImWp¶ sFXnly§f\pkcn¨v ]cipcma³ (t]Àjymþcma³) AlnO{X ¯n \n¶pw Iq«ns¡m−p h¶hcmWv tIcf¯nse Idp¯ {_mÒWÀ. Adp]¯n \mep {Kma §fembn ]mckv cma³ IpSnbncp¯nb Cu Idp¯ ssIIfmemWv tIcf¯nse t£{X§Ä \nÀ½n¡s¸«Xv. ]mÀiz\mYsâ Ime¯n\p ap¼v Xs¶ Bcyta[mhnXzw at[yjybn \n¶pw h¶ \mKþbmZhcm \mtim·pJam¡s¸«ncp¶Xmbpw Ccp¼pambn h¶ Cu bmZhcpw Bcy·mcpap−mb kulrZ¯nsâ IYbmWv IrjvW\pw Ipcpþ]mWvUh·mcpambpÅ kw_ Ô§fn ImWp¶sX¶pw Nn´n¡m³ hIbp−v. ssP\þ_u² bpK¯n\v ap¼v Xs¶ kwJymhXn F¶ ]m©me¯nsâ XeØm\w {]kn²ambncp¶p. kwJymhXn AlnO{Xw F¶v {]kn²amIp¶Xv ]mÀiz\mYsâ Ime¯mWv. [cWo{µs\¶ kÀ¸cmPmhv Xsâ ^Ww IpSbm¡n ]mÀizkzmans\ h³agbn \n¶pw \n¶pw c£n¨tXmsSbmWv Øe¯n\v AlnO{Xw F¶v t]cp e`n¨sX¶v sFXnly§Ä kqNn¸n¡p¶p. _p²sâ P\\¯n\p 264 hÀj§Ä ap¼mWv ({In.ap. 831) ]mÀiz\mYsâ P\\w. ]mckv \mY\pw ]mckv cma\pw Hs¡ Htc Øehpambn _Ôs¸«p hcp¶Xn\m Ccp¼pambn h¶ \mK]cipcmasâ Xmhfw Hcp ]s£ AlnO{Xambncp¶psh¶v Duln¡mw. sXt¡m«pÅ Cu \mK]cipcmasâ ]c¼cIfp sS {]bmW¯nemImw kmRvOnbnsebpw AacmhXnbnsebpw aäpw \nÀ½nXnIÄ ]n¡me¯p −mbXv. AlnO{Xw cma{Kmaw F¶pw Adnbs¸«ncp¶p. Iiy]tKm{Xw \mKþtKm{Xsa¶v {]kn²amWv. ]mÀiz\mYsâ Ime¯v aK[ apX ]Ýntam¯c`mK¯v KmÔmcw hsc \mK ·mÀ B[n]Xyw ]peÀ¯nbncp¶p. Imin D{Khwi\mKcmP[m\n Bbncp¶p. t\hmcnIfpw enOhnIfpw X½nepÅ _Ôhpw enOhnIfpw ssP\]mc¼cyhpambpÅ _Ôhpw tIcf¯nse ]tKmU amXrIbnepÅ t£{X§fpw IqSpX ]T\KthjW§Ä Bhiys¸Sp¶p. {InkvXphn\p tijw 465þmwam−p hsc t\¸mfw enOhnIfpsS A[o\Xbnem bncp¶p.

10.

imà-þimw`hþ-]m-c-¼cyw

a\pjycminbpsS A²ymßnI ]mc¼cy¯nsâ thcpIÄ tXSp¶ B[p\nI {]Úsb Gähpw A[nIw AXnibn¸n¡pIbpw ssh¢ºys¸Sp¯pIbpw sN¿p¶ A\pjvTm\amWv kÀ¸mcm[\. kÀ¸hpw tbmKhpambpÅ _Ôw, kÀ¸hpw kn²NnInÕbpambpÅ _Ôw (FkvIpte¸n bkv) kÀ¸w AYhm \mK¯nsâ IpWvUen\nbpambpÅ _Ôw, \mKhwi¯nsâ DÛhw ChsbÃmw Xs¶ sskÔhþkckzXo \mKcnIXbnepw Xm{´nI ]mc¼cy¯nepw thcq¶n \n¡p¶p. DuÀ²ztcXÊmb lc¸mbnse almtbmKnbn A²ymßnI ]mc¼cyhpw `mcXob amb imkv{X]mc¼cy¯n\v ASnthcmb \nÀhnIÂ]{]Úbpw DÅS§nbncn¡p¶p. ]cip cma\pw ]mÀiz\mY\pw almhoc\pw, _p²\pw, ]mWn\nbpw, ]XRvPenbpw, ]nwKf\pw, \mKmÀÖp\\pw... C§s\ X{´w apX _u²cpsS iq\yhmZw hscbpÅ kn²]mc¼cy¯nep fhmb Nn´m[mcIfpsS aqet{kmXÊv, BZnKpcphmbn, almKpcphmbn, almtZh\mbn a\pjy\n  {]Xy£s¸« {]]©¯nsâ A´À[mcbmb, \nbmaI ssNX\yhntijamb inhþiàn ZzµzmßIamb AÀ²\mcoizc\mWv. \mcnbmb {]IrXnbn ]pcpj\mbn Bthin¨ AWvUI Sml¯nsâ AlwImcw {]IrXnbpsS ambmhnemks¯ AXnPohn¨v kz´w kzXzw t_m²ys¸ «v _p²\mIp¶ {]{InbbmWv kn²]mc¼cy¯nsâ ImXÂ. ambsb, {]IrXnsb, A½bmbn, Kpcphmbn t_m²ys¸«v tbmtKizcnbmbn km£mXvIcn¨v AWvUISml¯n\v A´xk¯bmb kn²kzcq]ambn kzbw Xncn¨dnbp¶ krjvSnbpsS ]caImjvTbnse Cu alm{]bmWw cmkþ 34

KpWmZnbmb sshhn²y§Ä ]Icp¶ sshPmXy§fmepw tZiIme§Ä¡\pkrXambpw AÂ]mÂ]w t`Zs¸«v ImWp¶p. Cu hyXymk§Ä D]cn¹hhpw at\m\n_Ôamb AhXcW ¯n DfhmIp¶XpamWv.

\mKhwi¯nsâ DÛhw ]iphmb a\pjy\n A´À`hn¡p¶ \mKw Bßkzcq]amWv. ]ip]Xnsb Bß_en¡v k¶²am¡p¶ A´xtNX\bpw t{]cWbpamWv \mKw. ]ip]XnbpsS asämcp t]cp am{XamWv \mK³. \mKw \K¯nÂ, ]ÀÆX¯n hkn¡p¶h³. ChnsS ]ÀÆXw tacp AYhm kptacp hmWv. \mK³ kptacnb\pamWv. tbmKhnZy FhnsSsbms¡ {]Ncn¨pthm AhnsS \mKw ]iphn {]ISambn D¯tcm¯cw _u²nIamb IgnhpIÄ \ÂIn A\p{Kln¨p. Cu \mK¯nsâ A´xkzcq]amWv AÀ²\mcoizc³. \mK{]XnjvTIÄ bYmÀ°¯n \mKthjv SnXamb enwKhpw tbm\nbpamWv. X{´sa¶ ]Zw Xs¶ kn²]mc¼cy¯n DfhmbXn\p ImcWw Bßkm£mXvImchpw Bß_en¡pÅ k¶²XbpamWv. Im]menIs\¶ ]Z¯nsâ hywKyw Pohn¡p¶ Bßmsh¶mIp¶p. Im]me[mcn Bßmhnsâ AYhm BßÚm\nbpsS {]XoIamWv. Im]menIcpsS ]cnWXnbmbmWv NmthÀ]Sbpw aäpw kmaqlnIamb AkvXnXzw Is−¯nbXv. \m\mPmXnhÀ¤]cambn Dcp¯ncnª ssPhiànbpsS kvss{XWX¡v ]qcIXzw \ÂIp¶ ]ucpjamWv AÀ²\mcoizc\mb a\pjy\nse iw`phmb ]pcpj³. tamlhpw apànbpw sshcp²yw \nd¡p¶ a\Êns\bpw ambsbbpw AXnPohn¡p¶ iw`phns\ kn²]mc¼cyw ]m¼m«nsb¶p hntijn¸n¡p¶p. AtX bpàn Xs¶bmImw \mKs\¶ t]cn\p ]n¶nepÅXv.

BNmcm\pjvTm\§Ä {]mIrXaà {]mIrXsa¶v hntijn¸n¡s¸Sp¶ \mbcpsS enwKþtbm\nþkÀ¸mcm[\Ifpw acpa¡¯mbw XpS§nb kmaqlyhyhØbpw imà, Xm{´nI ]mc¼cy¯nsâ ]cnWXnIfmWv. kn² I]nesâ kmwJyZÀi\w \mKcpsS D]mk\¡pw km£mXvImc¯n\pw e`yamb X¯zmhnjv ImcamWv. ]pcmX\ambXp sIm−v {]mIrXsa¶v [cn¡pI ]cam_²amWv. A²ymßkn²nIÄ Hcp Ime¯pw {]Úsb _mtlym·pJam¡p¶ b{´mcqVØnXnIsf B{ibn¨ncp¶nÃ. \mKþtbm\nþenwKmcm[\sb¸änbpÅ B[p\nI ho£Whpw PpKp]vkm]camb kao]\hpw hnNn{Xamb {]XoImßI hyJym\§fpsaÃmw ]ipP\yamb AYhm ]mi_²amb at\m\ne bpsS {]kv^pcWamWv. A²ymßhnZym]camb DÄ¡mgvNIÄ¡v AjvS]mi§fn \n¶pw a\Êns\ tamNn¸nt¡−Xp−v. . LrWm eÖm `bw i¦m PpKp]vkm tNXn ]©an Ipew ioew XYm PmXncjvSu ]mim Cta kvarXmx ]mi_²x ]ipx t{]màx ]miapàx kzbw inhx Cu AjvS]mi§Ä at\m\nesb hnNn{Xam¡p¶ hnIÂ]kt¦X§fmWv. \qäncp]Xv tImSn P\kwJybpÅ \½psS almcmPy¯v P\kwJy atäsXmcp cmPys¯bpw tXmÂ]n¡pw hn[w kvt^mS\mßIambn A\p\nanjw hÀ²n¡pIbmWv. ]t£, P\XbpsS _lp`qcn]£w ]I shfn¨¯n JPqcmtlmhnse inÂ]§sf `ÀÕn¡p¶ I]SkZmNmc¯nsâ {Ibhn{Ibw \S¯p¶hcmWv. Ccpfnsâ adhn arKcXnbpw ]I shfn¨¯n XXv^eamb PqKp]vkX bpw sIm−v tbm\nþenwKmcm[\sb ho£n¡pIbpw sN¿p¶ Cc«¯m¸mWv ]mc¼cys¯ {]mIrXsa¶v hntijn¸n¨v {]XoImßIX Btcm]n¡phm³ {ian¡p¶Xv. kn²]mc¼cys¯¸ änbpÅ tUhnUv.Pn.sshänsâ ]pkvXI¯n X{´¯n\v {In.]n. ]Xns\m¶mw \qäm−n\p tijw D−mb ]cnjvIcWs¯¸än ]dbp¶Xv {it²bamWv.

35

In certain cases, all such transactions involving sexual fluids became wholly internalized and incorporated into the so-called subtle body (sukshma sarira). Here, all humans were viewed as essentially androgynous with sexual intercourse an affair between a female serpentine nexus of energy, generally called the kundalini and a male principle identified with Siva both of which were located within the subtle body. An intricate Physics of the subtle body – its relationship to the brute matter of the gross body as well as to the universal divine life force within, the bipolar dynamics of its male and female constituents etc – was developed in every tantrik school20.

Pohsâ ka{Kamb, `uXnIþA²ymßnI Xe§sf tbmPn¸n¡p¶ tbmKmßI imkv{Xk¯ bpsS {]kv^pcWamWv tbm\nþenwKþ\mK_nw_§fpsS Bcm[\. A\p`hhpw, KWnXhpw, Pohsâ A´xk¯sb¸änbpÅ `uXnIamb KthjWhpw X{´¯n A´Àeo\amWv. lc¸m bnse DuÀ²ztcXÊmb ]ip]Xn \mKhwi¯nsâ AXn{]mNo\amb DÛh¯n\v sXfnhmWv. tbm\nenwK{]XnjvTIÄ DuÀ²ztcXÊmb almtbmKnbpsS \nXm´cXnbpsS kqN\bmWv. inhm`nÀtLmcm`nx ih\nhlapWvUmØn\nIsscx ]cw k¦oÀ®mbmw {]ISnXNnXmbmw lch[qw {]hnjvSmw k´pjvSmap]cnkpctX\mXnbphXow kZm Xzmw [ymb´n IzNnZ]n N \ tXjmw ]cn`hx Ipdp\cnIÄ `oXnbpWÀ¯p¶ I]meI¦me§sfs¡m−p \ndªp ImWp¶ NpSpIm«nÂ, FcnªS§p¶ NnXIÄ¡p apIfn kZminhs\m¸w hn]coXcXnbm B\µw sImÅp¶ aZmekbmb \ns¶ [ym\n¡p¶h³ FÃmhcpsSbpw BZchn\v ]m{Xambn `hn¡p¶p.

KXmkq\mw _mlp{]IcIrXIm©o]cnekþ ¶nXw_mw ZnKzkv{Xmw {Xn`ph\hn[m{Xow {XnWb\mw ivaim\tØ Xevt] ihlrZn almImekpcXþ {]bpàmw Xzmw [ymb³ P\\n PUtNXm A]n Ihn amXmth, {Xn`ph\ P\bn{Xnbmb \nsâ aq¶p I®pItfmSp IqSnb ZnKw_cnbmb cq]w, Adps¯Sp¯ Ic§fm AcªmWaWnª Acs¡t«msS NpSe¸d¼n ihinhlrZb¯n  almIme\pambn hn]coXcXnbnteÀs¸Sp¶Xp AI¡®nednbp¶ km[I³ G{X _p²n sI«hs\¦nepw Ihnbmbn Xocp¶XmWv. almtbmKnbpsS \nXm´cXnbmWv krjvSn¡m[mcw. {]]©¯nsâ \nbmaIiànbmb A]cmPnX XqWnepw Xpcp¼nepw kwthZ\£aXtbmsS \ndªp \n¡p¶p. A§s\bpÅ kwthZ\¯nsâ clkyw hln¡p¶ \nKqVhnZybmWv X{´w. `{ZImfnbpw X{´hpw \mbcpsS P\\þacW N{I¯nsâ \nKqVen]nbnepÅ hniIe\hpw hnhcWhpamWv. A]cmPnXbmb `KhXnbmWv PohmßssNX\yw. Cu PohmßssNX\yw almIme\pw almtbmKnbpamb ss`ch\nemWv hnebw {]m]n¡p¶Xv. CXc ]iptbm\nIfnte¡v kw{Ian¡msX IpetZhnbm bn A]cmPnXbmbn I¯nsbcnbp¶ NnX¡p apIfn hnebw {]m]n¡p¶p.

KXmkq\mw _mlp{]IcIrXIm©o]cnekþ ¶nXw_mw ZnKzkv{Xmw {Xn`ph\hn[m{Xow {XnWb\mw ivaim\tØ Xevt] ihlrZn almImekpcXþ {]bpàmw Xzmw [ymb³ P\\n PUtNXm A]n Ihn amXmth, {Xn`ph\ P\bn{Xnbmb \nsâ aq¶p I®pItfmSp IqSnb ZnKw_cnbmb cq]w, Adps¯Sp¯ Ic§fm AcªmWaWnª Acs¡t«msS NpSe¸d ¼nÂ

20

David Gordon White, The Alchemical Body, Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, The University of Chicago Press, 1996

36

ihinhlrZb¯n almIme\pambn hn]coXcXnbnteÀs¸Sp¶Xp km[I³ G{X _p²nsI«hs\¦nepw Ihnbmbn Xocp¶XmWv.

AI

¡®nednbp¶

inhm`nÀtLmcm`nx ih\nhlapWvUmØn\nIsscx ]cw k¦oÀ®mbmw {]ISnXNnXmbmw lch[qw {]hnjvSmw k´pjvSmap]cnkpctX\mXnbphXow kZm Xzmw [ymb´n IzNnZ]n N \ tXjmw ]cn`hx Ipdp\cnIÄ `oXnbpWÀ¯p¶ I]meI¦me§sfs¡m−p \ndªp ImWp¶ NpSpIm«nÂ, FcnªS§p¶ NnXIÄ¡p apIfn kZminhs\m¸w hn]coX cXnbm B\µw sImÅp¶ aZmekbmb \ns¶ [ym\n¡p¶h³ FÃmhcpsSbpw BZchn\v ]m{Xambn `hn¡p¶p.

CuhI kvXpXnKoX§sfm¶pw kmlnXyk]cybpsS `mKambn hnIrX`mh\bn P·w sIm− XÃ. temI¯v \m\mhn[amb tImSntImSn PohPme§Ä acn¨p a®Snbpt¼mÄ Xobnsecnbp ¶ icoc§sf´psIm−v `mcX¯n am{Xsa¶v \mw Nn´n¡Ww? AeIvkm−À X£inebn \n¶pw Iq«ns¡m−pt]mb IeymW ss`ch³ {In.ap. 323þmw B−n s]gvknt]mfnkv \Kc¯n sh¨v kzbw BßmlpXn \S¯pIbp−mbn. temIw I− almÛpX§fnsem¶mWnXv. alm\mb amkntUmWnb³ N{IhÀ¯nbpw {Koknsebpw t]Àjy bnsebpw A¡mes¯ alm]WvUnX·mcpw tbm²m¡fpw km£n \n¡shbmWv Iet\mkv F¶v {Ko¡v Ncn{XImc·mÀ hnfn¨ X£inebnse \mKtbmKn, AeIvkm−dpsS tk\m \mbI\mb tSmfanbpsS taÂt\m«¯n X¿mdm¡nb NnXbn Bk\Ø\mbXv. Xobmfn¡ ¯nbt¸mÄ almtbmKnbpsS I¬]oenIÄ t]mepw Nen¨nÃs{X. {In.ap. \memw \qäm−n X£inebnse Cu tbmKn¡v P·w \ÂInb kmt¦XnIhnZy FhnsS \n¶pw e`yambn? lc¸mbnse DuÀ²ztcXÊmb ]ip]XnbpsS ]n´pSÀ¨btà AeIvkm−À¡v aq¶p hÀjw Kpcphmbncp¶ kzbw BßmlpXn \S¯nb Cu AtLmcnbn \mw ImWp¶Xv? `mcXNcn{X ¯nse sshZnI]mc¼cy¯nt\m, _u²þssP\]mc¼cy§Ät¡m, asäsX¦nepw hnNmc[mc t¡m, A\pjvTm\]²Xnt¡m kXnsb A\pkvacn¸n¡p¶ Hcp almkwkvImc¯n\v Iet\mkn s\ tbmKy\m¡pI km[yambncpt¶m?

Iet\mkns\ ]pÑn¡p¶ B[p\nIXbmbncn¡mw C¶v \mbcpsS apJap{Z. ]s£, Xncp\mhm bpw ImbwIpfhpw am\´hmSnbpsaÃmw \mbcpsS BßmlpXnIfpsS hocIYIÄ \ndªp \n¡p¶ Øe§fmWv. \mbcpsS ]mc¼cys¯¸än Hcp hntZinsbgpXnb Ipdn¸v CâÀs\än ImWp¶Xv hfsc {it²bambXn\m ChnsS D²cn¡pIbmWv. I have been on the subject of the Nairs of Kerala for the last one decade and hence am some sort of authority on the same. At least better read than most Indians on the subject and at least most Nairs.

The origins of the Nairs are shrouded in mystery, but from most ancient accounts, cultures and customs, it can be safely inferred that the Nairs are Scythian of descent. The fact that recent tests indicate presence of the warrior gene 'dopamine' in them as in case of other Scythians attests to this fact. As a race they are distinct from the prevailing Aryan or Dravidian races of India. The classic chaturvarna as it exists in North India never applied in the South and hence any later caste classification is a work of fiction or more truly non-sense.

Warfare was the chief occupation of the Nairs since the last two millenia plus. Most ancient works give a very credible account of the Nairs as the martial nobility of the land. Even the French Captain Mahe De La Bourdeannis, an accomplished warrior himself speaks very highly 37

of the fighting spirit of the Nairs. The above is inspite of the fact that the French fleet was defeated by local Nairs and hence had to take refuge in modern day Tamil nadu.

The most important fact attesting to their noble military virtues is the fact that for over two thousand years they were able to maintain the integrity and security of their land and culture unlike the rest of India. The only race to have decisively defeated the Nairs is the British.

The British hence colluded with the neo-converts to suppress these inherently rebellious traditional warlords and succeeded. Most Indian history is communism inspired or secualrism inspired or worst of all; a thoughtless copy of English history. The British Army (not native infantry) performed poorly against the Nair warlords and the Nairs considered it below their dignity to serve under the British and hence most Nair history in Kerala and India is blanched out.

Otherwise what explains grand celebrations of the 1857 revolt wherein a single intoxicated Mangal Pandey took no significant British casualty & yet is considered a national hero?

The subsequent attack on the English residency was a military fiasco. Later reinforcements of the British and Sikh troops destroyed every ounce of Indian military muscle. The humiliation and crushing were complete. The Indian lossess was large and shameful. Victory, if any clearly was with the British. The Indians were impaled or hung and the females raped by rapacious native troops.Not much to celebrate about. Maybe, it would make more sense to look for celebrations down south where the Fussiladers and the other English highlanders fared poorly against Nair chieftans as also Moslem Moplahs. The toll the Nairs took on the British is much higher than any recorded in Hindoostan of those times. Indian culture is much more than hip gyrating dances and semi-nudes. Look around. You see it & yet miss it. Pity... Absolute Pity....21 in]mbn elfsb tIcf¯n D−mbn«pÅ {_n«ojv hncp² bp²§fpambn XmcXays¸Sp¯p ¶ hcnIÄ Gsd {it²bamWv. \mWwsI« C¶s¯ \mb·mÀ¡v B hgn¡v Nn´n¡m³ t]mepamIp¶nÃ. \mbÀ¡v C¶v kzXzamb B²ymßnIXbnÃ. ISwsIm− {_mÒWKoX bpambn \mKIrjvWsâ ]n³KmanIÄ \mWwsI«p Pohn¡p¶p.

A]cmPnXbmb A½ {_ÒmWvU¯nepw ]nWvUmWvU¯nepw hnizh]pÊmbn \ndªp \n ¡p¶p. AhÄ Xs¶bmWv \mKcq]nWnsb¶v BKa§Ä hyàam¡p¶p. ]nWvUmWvU¯n\p ]n¡me¯p kwkvIrX¯n e`yamb hnhcWw ]pcmX\amb imkv{X¯nsâ ]IÀ¸p am{XamWv. {XntImtW aZ\mKmtc enwKcq]o atlizcx ambmiànÀ atlim\n `pPKmImccq]nWo Xssbh thjvSnXw enwKw kmÀ²{XnhebmIrXnx enwKÑn{Zw XZzt{àW kamÑmZy ØnXm kZm aqem[mcØnXamb NXpÀ±f]߯nse Ima{XntImW¯n enwKcq]nbmb atlizcs\ aq¶c Npämbn hfbw sImv enwK¯nsâ Zzmcw aqSn kÀ¸cq]nWnbmbn ambm`KhXn \nesImÅp¶p.

Cu kÀ¸cq]nWnbmb almambsb A½sb¶v shdpsX Hcp t]cn«p hnfn¨Xà þ hnfn¨m hnfn tIÄ¡p¶ A½bmb Cu almKpcphmWv a¡Ä¡v km£mXvImc¯n\p hgnsbmcp¡p¶ Xv. {_ÒmWvUþ]nWvUmWvU§Ä¡v A´ÀKXambncn¡p¶ A]cmPnXbpsS km£mXvImc amWv imàsâ apàn. A§s\ km£mXvImcw kn²n¨hcpsS BßobtXPÊmWv kn²]oT §fnse sISmhnf¡pIÄ. km£mXvImc¯nsâ amÀ¤¯nse iànt{kmXÊpIfmWv a{´§Ä.

\mbcpsS IpessZhw þ `{ZImfn 21

http://indiaculture.net/talk/messages/128/12469.html?1274086408 38

`{ZImfn¡v kvXpXn ]dªp sIm−v X¡mew Cu teJ\w D]kwlcn¡pIbmWv. kÀÆ-tZhmw-i-kw-`q-X-bmb a{´-cq-]n-Wn-bmb `hm\nbmWv aln-jm-kp-c-aÀ±n\n. \hm-£-co-kn-²n{]-Z-amb kn²-Ip-RvPn-Im-kvtXm{X¯n `K-h-Xnsb hnti-jn-¸n-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¡p-I: Hmw \akvtX cp{Z-cq-]nssWy \akvtX a[p-aÀ±n\n \ax ssIS-`-lm-cnssWy \akvtX aln-jmÀ±n\n \akvtX ipw`-lss{´y N \nipw-`m-kp-c-Lm-Xn\n Pm{KXw ln alm-tZhn P]w kn²w Ipcpjz ta sFwImco krjvSn-cq-]mssb {lowImco {]Xn-]m-enIm ¢oImco Ima-cq-]nssWy _oP-cqt] \tamkvXp tX NmapWvUm NWvU-LmXo N ssbImco hc-Zm-bn\o hns¨ N A`-bZmw \nXyw \a-kvtX a{´-cq-]nWn \mb·mscbpw `{ZImfnsbbpw ]än D]\ykn¡pt¼mÄ a[yXncphnXmwIqdnse `{ZImfn¡mhpI sf¸änbpw Ahbnse DÕhmtLmj§sf¸änbpw ]SbWnsb¸änbpsams¡ HmÀ½n¡msX ]änÃtÃm? C¶v Cu hcnIsfgpXpt¼mÄ [\pamk¯nse AamhmknbmWv. Pohsâ tjmUi Ie, A]cmPnXbmb `KhXn, bpt²mÕpIXbpsS cminbmb, ]SbWnbpsS cminbmb [\p hn ]ÅnsImÅp¶ Zn\w. ]¼, aWnae, A¨³tImhn C§s\ aq¶v \ZoXS§fnembn Ing¡v ]«mgn apX ]Snªmdv ]\b¶mÀImhv hscbpw hS¡v tIm«bw apX Ing¡v i_cn aehscbpw ]SbWnbpsS Xmfw Gäphm§p¶ PeþPohcminIÄ AXn]pcmX\Imew apX \ne\n¶ncp¶p.

IenbpKmZnbpw `{ZImfnbpw ]SbWnbpw Iensb Imfnbm¡p¶ hymIcW hymJym\§fp−v. eftbmct`Zhpw Hcp ZoÀLhpw aXnbtÃm? hymIcW¯n\pw `mjm]camb ]cnWXnIÄ¡pw AXoXambn `{ZImfnsb IenbpKmZnbpambn _Ôs¸Sp¯p¶ sXfnhmWv ]SbWn. {]tXyIn¨pw ssk²m´ntIXcamb \nco£W]camb tPymXnximkv{Xs¯fnhmWv ChnsS NÀ¨ sN¿s¸Sp¶Xv. ]SbWnbpw `{ZImfn¡mhpIfnse CXc DÕh§fpw {][m\ambn Ipw`amk¯nemWv \S¡p¶Xv. kqcy³ `qansb ]cnWbn¡p¶ amkamWv Ipw`w. `qantZhn Ipw`amk¯n KÀ`w [cn¨v hrÝnIm´y¯nse NXpÀ±in AYhm kucKW\bn hrÝnIw ap¸Xmw XobXn ]pcmW§fneqsS {]kn²\mb, \cImkpcs\ {]khn¡p¶p. Cu \cI³ Xs¶bmIWw ]S bWnbnsebpw apSntbänsebpsams¡ \mbI\mb ZmcpIsâ IYm]m{XcN\bnse ASnØm\ bpàn. Bkpcnbpw A]cmPnXbpamb `{ZImfntbmtSäpap«n BÀ¡mWp Pbn¡m³ km[n¡pI? BßmlpXnsb¶ kn²m\p`h¯nsâ IYmcq]amWv `{ZImfnbpsSbpw ZmcpIsâbpw IY. Ipw`amk¯nsebpw ao\amk¯nsebpw `cWnbpsS hntijX¡p ImcWw `cWn \£{Xw BImi¯nse {XntImWw AYhm tbm\ncq]amsW¶XmWv. Ipw`amk¯nse Aamhmkn ]cnKWn¨m NXbw, ]qcp«mXn, D¯r«mXn, tchXn, AizXn, `cWn C§s\ Ggmw ZnhkamWv `cWn \£{Xw hcnI. Cu GgpZnhk§fnembmWv ]ebnS¯pw ]SbWnbpsS BtLmjw.

Ipw`þ`cWnbpsS {]tXyI {]m[m\yw ]SbWnbpsS Zn\§Ä hyàam¡p¶p. hnZymkmKdnsâ ]T\¯n \ÂInbncn¡p¶ XobXnIÄ kw_Ôn¨ hnhcWw {i²n¡pI. •

IS½\n«¡mhnepw FgpaäqÀ ]\aä¯p Imhnepw as¦m¼p `{ZImfot£{X¯nepw FÃm hÀjhpw \nÝnXZn\¯nemWv ]SbWn \S¯p¶Xv. IS½\n«bn taSw H¶n\mcw`n¡p¶ NS§pIÄ ]¯p Znhkw \o−p \n¡p¶p. FgpaäqÀ t£{X¯n taSw H¶n\v NS§pIÄ 39

Ahkm\n¡¯¡hn[w Ggp Znhkw aps¼ NS§pIÄ Bcw`n¡pw. as¦m¼v tZhot£{X ¯nemIs« ao\w Ccp]¯nb©n\mcw`n¡p¶ NS§pIÄ taSw aq¶n\mWv Ahkm\n¡p¶ Xv. taSw H¶mw XobXnbpsS {]m[m\yw IenhÀjmcw`amWv. ao\wþtaSw cmin kÔn Bkv]Zambm Wv apIfn ]dª aq¶v Øe¯pw XobXn \nÝbn¡s¸Sp¶Xv. •

sXt§en hÅnbn Imhv `KhXot£{X¯n ao\`cWn¡v c−p Znhkw ap¼v Bcw`n¨v ao\`cWn \mfn NS§pIÄ kam]n¡p¶p.

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]pÃmSv tZhot£{X¯n Ipw``cWn \mfpw

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\mc§m\¯v Ipw``cWn¡v ]¯pZnhkw aps¼ Bcw`n¨v Ipw``cWn \mfn NS§pIÄ kam]n¡p¶p.

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hStÈcn ap−y¦mhn Ipw``cWn apX ao\w AizXn hsc

`cWn¡v ]SbWnbpambpÅ _Ôw tIcf¯n apf¨XsöXn\v sXfnhmWv Xmsg \ÂIp¶ D²cWn. `KhXnbpw `cWnbpw tbm\nbpambn _Ôs¸« t]cpIfmWv. `Kw = tbm\n, BImi ¯nse `cWn \£{X¯nsâ BImchpw tbm\nbmbn {]kn²amWv. The general scholarly consensus has been that the Yogini cults so foundational to early Tantra emerged out of an autochthonous non-Vedic Indian source. This analysis is of a piece with a more general view of Tantra; that it rose up out of the soil of India to graft itself onto more elite orders of precept and practice. This argument takes two forms. The first maintains that goddess traditions and Tantra are forms of indigenous or tribal religion that welled up to the surface of the religious practices of urban and rural elites in the late Gupta and early medieval periods. The second finds strong iconographic evidence for cults of multiple goddesses, Siva Pasupati, and a number of other fixtures of later Hinduism in the clay seals of the Indus Valley civilizations (ca. 2500-1750 B.C.E.). Here, the argument is that these cults persisted in spite of the Indo-Aryan incursions but were occulted from the scriptural and sculptural records for over two thousand years by triumphant Aryanism.

As for the origins of multiple goddesses or of a single great Goddess, many scholars have seen evidence for their cults in Indus Valley seals that portray a female figure with a lotus stem emerging from her vulva; the sexual union of a buffalo and a woman (prefiguring the south Indian cults of the great Goddess as spouse of the Buffalo Demon); and of a grouping of seven female figures, on the so-called Mohenjo-daro "fig deity seal," whose connection with the Krttikas of later Indian mythology has been demon strated by Parpola. Beyond this, as Parpola has also

shown, the Sumerian word for "constellation" is expressed through a pictogram comprising three stars. In the post-Vedic tradition, Apabharani, the last of the twenty-eight asterisms or lunar mansions (naksatras) - a configuration also borrowed from Harappan civilization - is called a yoni. Much earlier the Rg Veda (RV) calls a fire altar composed of three stones the "belly of Agni." Svetambara Jain traditions consider the Apabharani asterism to have the form of a vulva (bhaga), while Digambara Jain traditions describe the same asterism as having the form of "a fireplace consisting of three stones." In Tantric imagery, triangles composed of three points generally represent the yoni; and in goddess traditions of northwest India, Vaisno Devi, one of the Seven Sisters who is considered to be an aspect of the great Goddess, is worshiped in the form of three stone outcroppings called "lumps" (pindis) that represent the three members of the Sakta trinity: Mahalaksmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali.22 •

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kptadnbcpsSbpw lc¸mbpsSbpw Imet¯mfw Bgv¶p \n¡p¶ bpànbn A[njvT amWv ]¼bpsS Icbnse ]SbWn F¶Xv hnkvabw P\n¸n¡p¶ hkvXpX AtÃ?

David G White, Kiss of the Yogini 40

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ImÀjnIhpw Btbm[\hpamb ]mc¼cyhr¯nIfpsS kwKaw ]SbWnbn ZriyamWv. katcmÕpIcmb Hcp P\XbpsS apJamWv ]SbWn shfnhm¡p¶Xv F¶v hnZymkmKÀ ]dbp¶p. IfcnbneqsS BÀÖn¡p¶ A`ymkapdIfpw hmfpw ]cnNbpap]tbmKn¨pÅ ]bäShpIfpw ]SbWnbn Hgn¨pIqSm\mhm¯hbmWv.23

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Adp]¯n\mep IeIfpsS ka\zbw ]SbWnbneps−¶pw hnizkn¡s¸Sp¶p. Adp]¯n \mep hnZyIfpw X{´§fpw Xm{´nIhmÜb¯nsâ `mKamb Nn´m[mcbmWv. Ducmfn XpÅepw _Ôs¸« \r¯þ\mSy§fpsaÃmw Xs¶ ssih]mc¼cyw kqNn¸n¡p¶p. s]mXpsh, ]SbWnbpambn _Ôs¸« BNmcm\pjvTm\§sf hnZymkmKÀ {]mIrXsa¶m Wv hntijn¸n¡p¶Xv. tIcf¯nse KthjW]T\§fpsS DÄ¡m¼nÃmbvabpw CSp§nb N{IhmfhpamWv A¯cw AhmkvXhnIamb \nKa\§Ä¡p ImcWw. ]pcmX\ambsXÃmw {]mIrXamIWsa¶nÃ. KWnXhpw tPymXnximkv{Xhpw B[p\nIKWnX¯n\v ASn¯d bmb ZimwiþjjvSywikwJymt{iWnbpw ]pcmX\Imes¯ tbmKmKam[njvTnX kwkvIr Xnbn cq]w sIm−hbmWv.

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hnZymkmKÀ \ÂIp¶ Ncn{X]Ým¯ew {it²bamWv. _n.kn.1500 \pw 1000 \panS¡pÅ Ime¯v saUnätd\nb³ {]tZi¯p \n¶v klym{Znbnte ¡pw Xmgzcbnte¡pw P\{]hmlap−mIp¶p−v. ChÀ AXnthKw {ZmhnUcn Aenªp tNcpIbmWp−mbXv. Cu {]hml¯nsâ A´yL«¯nse¯nbhcmWv tIcf¯n Ccp¼nsâ D]tbmKw sIm−ph¶sX¶v IcpXs¸Sp¶p.

“ImSpsh«ns¯fn¨v Irjnbmcw`n¨Xv {ZmhnUhÀ¤¡mcpw Ccp¼pamsb¯nb saUnätd\nb ³ hÀ¤hpw kwtbmPn¨sXmsSbmbncn¡Ww. Xobn«v ImSp sXfn¨v Ccp¼mbp[§Ä D]tbm Kn¨v Irjn sNbvX ChcpsS Imet¯msS A½ ssZhmcm[\ AXniàamIp¶p. {]mNo\ tKm{XP\XbpsS ta Ccp¼nsâ D]tbmKadnª Cu P\X {]mamWyw t\Sn. _n.kn. \memw \qäm−mIpt¼mtg¡pw ChcpsS A½ ssZhw Imfn F¶ t]cp kzoIcn¡p¶p−v. hmfpambn \nesImÅp¶ Imfn AtbmbpKs¯bmWv {]Xn\n[m\w sN¿p¶Xv....” kmaqlnIamb amä§fpsS ASnØm\¯n am{Xw A\pjvTm\§sf hymJym\n¡p¶ coXnbmWv C¯cw \nco£W§fpsS ]n¶nÂ. Ccp¼nsâ `uXnIamb Is−¯eneqsS Imfnsb hniIe\w sN¿p¶ CSp§nb Nn´m[mcIÄ a\pjysâ B²ymßnI hym]mc§ Ä¡p t\sc I®S¡p¶p. B[p\nIt¯¡mÄ t{]mÖzeamb Hcp A[ymßnIk¯, Hcp B´cnIþ{]]©w ]qÀÆnIÀ¡v D−mbncp¶Xv Is−¯phm³ B[p\nI KthjI\v Ignbp¶nÃ.

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\mKcpsS B´cnI{]]©w

ap¼p kqNn¸n¨Xp t]mse \mKcpsS B´cnI{]]©¯nsâ, kn²]mc¼cy¯nsâ {]kv^pc WamWv ]e tZhXmk¦Â]§fpsSbpw ]n¶nepÅXv. {In.ap. \memw \qäm−nemWv ImfnbpsS P\\sa¶v Ncn{Xw Ipdn¡p¶ KthjI\v `mcXobZÀi\§fpsS BhnÀ`mhImes¯¸än bmsXmcp Xn«hpanÃ. I]nesâ kmwJyw _u²Nn´¡p ap¼v Xs¶ {]mhnÀ`hn¨ncp¶psh¶ tXm kn²]mc¼cyw kw_Ôn¨ ]mÝmXycpsS Is−¯epItfm “ssZh¯nsâ kz´w \m«n” {i²n¡s¸Sp¶nÃ. tZhXamcpsS hnNn{Xhpw hyXykvXhpamb cq]§fpsS GIoIcW 23

]pdw 45, hnZymkmKdpsS A\pjvTm\w ]pcmhr¯w s]mcpÄ, F¶ ]T\w ]SbWnsb¸än B[nImcnIamb hnhc§Ä \ÂIp¶p. (tPymXnkZ\w ]¿¶qÀ 1998) 41

hpw bpày\p`hmkv]Zamb AhtemI\hpw km[yamIp¶Xv kn²`qanbn am{XamWv. `{ZImfn sb AtbmbpK¯nsâ {]Xn\n[nbm¡p¶ _mly{]]©¯nsâ ØqekwthZ\w a\pjysâ ss{XtemIymhØ¡v aXnbmb hniZoIcWw \ÂIm³ ]cym]vXaÃ. Pohsâ IWIW§fn DbncmbpWÀÆmbv apfbmbv ]cnekn¡p¶ A]cmPnXbpsS km£mXvImcw tXSnb kn²cpsS ]p{XnbmWv Imfn. AXpt]mse, A]cmPnXbmb `KhXnbpsS ]nWvUmWvU¯n AhXcn¨v P·kn²cpsS ]ip]Xn]mc¼cy¯n \r¯þ\mSy§fpw ZÀi\§fpw Btbm[\]mc¼cyhpw krjvSn¨v a\pjyakvXnjvI¯n\v ambmXobamb thKXtbmsS ]cnWmaw \ÂIn ambm`KhXn sb ]caKpcphmbn km£mXvIcn¨v kzmßcq]w km£mXvIcn¨ A´À¿manbmWv enwKcq] ¯n Bcm[n¡s¸Sp¶ Im]menI³. BßmlpXn \S¯nb kXnbpsS icochpambn XmWvU h\r¯amSp¶ \ScmP³ \mK]mc¼cy¯n Bß_enbneqsS ssIhcn¨ akvXnjvI¯n sâbpw `mjm]mcamb kn²nIfpsSbpw (a{´amXrIm) XzcnXKXnbnepÅ hnImk¯nsâ kqN\bmWv. ]SbWnbpsS XpS¡hpw A§s\bpÅ Hcp kn²]mc¼cy¯n \n¶mWv. ]qPmcnbnÃm¯, PmXn {_mÒWsâ I]SX{´anÃm¯, A]cmPnXbmb A½bpw katcmÕp Icmb a¡fpw Bßm\p`qXntbmsS kt½fn¨ncp¶ BtLmjamWv ]SbWn. I]SX{´ §fneqsS ImhpIsf ssIt¿dn \in¸n¨v PmXn{_mÒWsâ _u²nIamb ZmkyamWv C¶s¯ \mbcpsS Gähpw henb ZmkyXv. ^WapbÀ¯n \n¶ \mK¯nsâ Øm\¯v hmem«n \n¡p¶ \mbsb HmÀ½n¸n¡p¶ \mbcpsS Zmkyw .... cImcanÃms¯mcp \mbctÃm hfª hmem«n hcp¶p t\sc Ipc¨nSms¯´nXp ]mÀ«n hnt«m?

XncsªSp¸ns¶mcp Im³UntUtäm?

(Ipªp®n¡hnX)

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