ברייניאק - מכינה אנגלית

‫אנגלית‬ ‫הכנה לקורס‬

2

‫הקדמה‬ ‫מטרת הקורס‬ ‫לחוברת זו שתי מטרות‪ :‬המטרה הראשונה היא ללמד אתכם כיצד להעשיר את אוצר המילים‬ ‫שלכם באופן יעיל וממוקד‪ .‬החוברת כוללת כ‪ 600-‬מילים אשר ניסיון העבר מלמד שהן‬ ‫חשובות לשם הצלחה בפרקי האנגלית בבחינה הפסיכומטרית‪ .‬מילים אלה נוטות להופיע‬ ‫בתדירות גבוהה בבחינה‪ ,‬ולכן חשוב להכיר אותן קודם כל‪ ,‬ורק לאחר מכן להמשיך להעשיר‬ ‫את אוצר המילים שלכם במילים נוספות‪.‬‬ ‫מטרתה השנייה של החוברת היא להגביר את מהירות ושטף הקריאה שלכם באנגלית‪ .‬זאת‪,‬‬ ‫על ידי קטעי קריאה נבחרים‪ .‬בקטעים אלה‪ ,‬הדגש הוא על הבנת הרעיון הכללי וההקשר ולא‬ ‫על הבנת כל מילה ומילה בקטע‪.‬‬

‫הנחיות ללימוד בבית‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫כבר מהיום ועד לבחינה עצמה‪ ,‬יש להקדיש חצי שעה ביום לשינון אוצר מילים –‬ ‫לפחות עשר מילים בכל יום‪.‬‬

‫‪‬‬

‫את המילים החדשות שלומדים מומלץ לרכז בקובץ או מחברת בשם "המילים‬ ‫שלי"‪.‬‬

‫‪‬‬

‫איזה מילים להכניס לקובץ‪/‬מחברת?‬ ‫מילים לא מוכרות שנתקלים בהן בחוברת זו ובספר הקורס‬ ‫מילים לא מוכרות שנתקלים בהן במהלך הכנת שיעורי הבית‬ ‫מילים לא מוכרות מהאתרים ללימוד אוצר מילים המופיעים בעמוד הבא‬

‫‪‬‬

‫יש להקדיש חצי שעה נוספת לקריאה באנגלית שמטרתה הגברת מהירות ושטף‬ ‫הקריאה‪.‬‬

‫‪‬‬

‫סה"כ בכל יום מומלץ להקדיש שעה לשיפור רמת האנגלית‪ .‬זאת‪ ,‬בנוסף להכנת‬ ‫שיעורי הבית‪.‬‬

‫‪3‬‬

‫אתרים מומלצים‬ ‫אתר המרכז הארצי לבחינות והערכה‬ ‫הבחינה הפסיכומטרית‪:‬‬ ‫‪https://www.nite.org.il/index.php/he/tests/psychometric.html‬‬

‫אתרים ללימוד אוצר מילים‬ ‫‪ 3,000 .1‬המילים השכיחות ביותר באנגלית באתר מילון מֶ רי ָם‪-‬וובסטר‪:‬‬ ‫‪/http://www.learnersdictionary.com/browse/words3k‬‬ ‫‪ .2‬תרגמני‪http://www.targemni.com/maya/learn/welcome?param=123766 :‬‬ ‫‪http://www.superl.co.il/index.php?id=8888 :Super learning .3‬‬

‫אתרים לקריאה‬ ‫‪ .1‬אתר ובו חומר קריאה בסיסי למתחילים וגם ‪ 365‬סיפורים קצרים ברמות שונות‪:‬‬ ‫‪/http://www.eslfast.com‬‬ ‫‪ .2‬אתר ג'רוזלם פוסט‪ ,‬ובו מהדורות לדוגמה של עיתונים ללימוד אנגלית בכל הרמות‪:‬‬ ‫‪/http://www.jpostlite.co.il‬‬

‫‪4‬‬

‫כיצד ללמוד אוצר מילים באופן יעיל‬ ‫אחד המשתנים החשובים ביותר בהצלחה בפרקי האנגלית בבחינה הפסיכומטרית הוא אוצר‬ ‫מילים רחב‪ .‬רובנו לא דוברים אנגלית כשפת אם ונתקלים במילים לא מוכרות רבות בפרקי‬ ‫האנגלית‪ ,‬אשר מקשות עלינו להתמודד עם הבחינה בהצלחה‪.‬‬ ‫חשוב להקדיש זמן ומאמץ ללמידת מילים חדשות‪ ,‬וחשוב לא פחות לעשות זאת באופן יעיל‪.‬‬ ‫להלן מספר טיפים והמלצות‪.‬‬

‫כמה זמן מומלץ להקדיש ללימוד אוצר מילים?‬ ‫מאחר שרובנו לומדים או עובדים‪ ,‬לא עומד לרשותנו זמן בלתי מוגבל‪ .‬מומלץ להקדיש חצי‬ ‫שעה מדי יום ללמידת מילים חדשות ולחזרה על מילים שנלמדו עד כה‪ .‬כדי להצליח להתמיד‬ ‫במשימה לאורך זמן‪ ,‬תנו לעצמכם יומיים חופשיים בשבוע‪.‬‬

‫כמה מילים ריאלי להצליח ללמוד ביום?‬ ‫אם מקדישים חצי שעה ביום ללימוד אוצר מילים‪ ,‬ועושים זאת כהלכה‪ ,‬ניתן ללמוד ‪ 10‬מילים‬ ‫חדשות ביום‪ ,‬שהן ‪ 50‬מילים בשבוע )כאשר זוכרים שיומיים בשבוע נחים ולא לומדים מילים‬ ‫חדשות(‪.‬‬

‫איזה מילים כדאי ללמוד?‬ ‫ישנן שתי אסכולות‪ .‬הראשונה גורסת שהמילים שהכי חשוב להכיר הן המילים הנפוצות‬ ‫והשגורות ביותר בשפה האנגלית‪ .‬הרציונל העומד בבסיס אסכולה זו הוא שהסיכוי להיתקל‬ ‫במילים אלה הוא הגבוה ביותר ויניב את התשואה הגבוהה ביותר מלימוד מילים חדשות‪.‬‬ ‫באתר של מילון מֶ רי ָם וובסטר‪ ,‬אשר קישור אליו מופיע בעמוד הקודם‪ ,‬ניתן למצוא את‬ ‫רשימת ‪ 3,000‬המילים הנפוצות ביותר בשפה האנגלית‪ .‬כאשר אתם עוברים על הרשימה‪,‬‬ ‫התעלמו ממילים שאתם מכירים והתמקדו רק במילים שאינכם מכירים‪.‬‬ ‫האסכולה השנייה גורסת שכל מילה שנתקלים בה במהלך הלימוד או ההכנה לבחינה היא‬ ‫מילה שכדאי ללמוד‪ .‬אם למשל‪ ,‬במהלך הכנת שיעורי הבית נתקלתם במילה לא מוכרת‬ ‫בספר הלימוד או בבחינת תרגול‪ ,‬הוסיפו מילה זו לרשימת עשר המילים היומיות החדשות‬ ‫שלכם‪ .‬הרציונל העומד בבסיס אסכולה זו הוא שבחינות מסוימות נוטות להשתמש באוצר‬

‫‪5‬‬

‫מילים מסוים שוב ושוב‪ ,‬ושלכן הדרך הטובה ביותר ללמוד את המילים שרלוונטיות לבחינות‬ ‫אלה היא למצוא אותן בחומר ההכנה והתרגול של אותן בחינות‪.‬‬ ‫רשימת ‪ 3,000‬המילים השכיחות ביותר באנגלית באתר מילון מֶ רי ָם‪-‬וובסטר‪:‬‬ ‫‪/http://www.learnersdictionary.com/browse/words3k‬‬

‫היכן לרכז את המילים שמצאתי?‬ ‫את המילים הלא מוכרות שמצאנו ושברצוננו לשנן מומלץ לרכז בקובץ או במחברת‪ ,‬בסדר‬ ‫אקראי‪ ,‬נושאי או אלפביתי‪ .‬ליד כל מילה נרשום את פירושה בעברית‪ .‬פירוש זה ניתן למצוא‬ ‫במילון‪ ,‬במילונית או במילון רשת דוגמת מורפיקס )ראו קישור למטה(‪.‬‬ ‫שימו לב שישנן מילים רבות באנגלית שיש להן יותר מאשר פירוש אחד בעברית‪ .‬למשל‪,‬‬ ‫המילה ‪ bear‬היא שם עצם שפירושו "דוב" אך גם פועל שפירושו הוא "לשאת" או "לסבול"‪.‬‬ ‫הקפידו לרשום את כל הפירושים של המילה ולא רק את הראשון שאתם מוצאים או את‬ ‫הפירוש הרלוונטי למשפט שבו מצאתם את המילה‪.‬‬ ‫מילון מורפיקס‪ ,‬מילון רשת חינמי‪/http://morfix.mako.co.il :‬‬

‫כיצד מומלץ לשנן את המילים ברשימה?‬ ‫טעות נפוצה היא פשוט לשנן את המילים ואת פירושיהן בעברית‪ .‬זוהי הדרך הכי פחות יעילה‬ ‫ללמוד מילים חדשות‪ ,‬כי היא משתמשת בזיכרון לטווח קצר‪ .‬זיכרון זה מוגבל מבחינת מספר‬ ‫הפריטים שהוא יכול לאחסן‪ .‬לכן‪ ,‬ברגע שזיכרון זה יתמלא‪ ,‬סביר להניח שלמידת מילה‬ ‫חדשה תגרום לשכיחת מילה ששיננתם יום או יומיים לפני כן‪.‬‬ ‫הפתרון הוא להפעיל את הזיכרון לטווח ארוך ואת הזיכרון הפעיל )אשר נקרא גם זכרון‬ ‫העבודה( בתהליך למידת והטמעת מילים חדשות‪.‬הקיבולת של סוגי זכרון אלה גדולה עשרות‬ ‫מונים מאשר זו של הזיכרון לטווח קצר‪ .‬על מנת לערב את הזיכרון לטווח ארוך ואת הזיכרון‬ ‫הפעיל‪ ,‬עלינו לקשר את המילה החדשה למשהו מוכר‪ ,‬ולעבד אותה במספר אופנים כך שהיא‬ ‫תותיר בנו רושם חזק יותר שלא יימחה תוך מספר שניות‪ .‬הנה מספר דרכים לעשות זאת‪:‬‬

‫‪6‬‬

‫‪ .1‬כתיבת משפטים בעברית ושיבוץ המילה החדשה בהם‬ ‫מומלץ לכתוב משפט בעברית שמסביר את משמעותה של המילה החדשה‪ ,‬או שניתן להבין‬ ‫מההקשר שלו את פירושה‪ ,‬ואת המילה עצמה לשבץ במשפט באנגלית‪ .‬ניקח למשל את‬ ‫המילה ‪ ,capture‬שפירושה הוא "ללכוד" או "לתפוס"‪ .‬משפט מתאים יהיה‪:‬‬ ‫"לאחר מרדף ממושך‪ ,‬השוטרים הצליחו ‪ to capture‬את שודדי הבנק"‪.‬‬ ‫מקריאת המשפט ניתן להבין את פירוש המילה ‪ ,capture‬והמילה מעוגנת בהקשר רחב יותר‬ ‫מאשר רק המילה עצמה והתרגום שלה לעברית‪ ,‬מה שמקל עלינו לזכור אותה בטווח הקצר‬ ‫והרחוק‪.‬‬ ‫שימו לב! משפט לא טוב הוא משפט שלא ניתן להבין ממנו מה פירוש המילה‪ .‬למשל‪,‬‬ ‫"הצלחתי ‪ to capture‬אותך"‪.‬‬ ‫מי שאינו זוכר מה פירוש המילה ‪ capture‬ויעבור על המשפט‪ ,‬לא יבין ממנו שפירוש המילה‬ ‫‪ capture‬הוא "לתפוס" או "ללכוד"‪ .‬המשפט לא מספק לנו מספיק מידע שיכוון אותנו לפירוש‬ ‫המילה‪ ,‬ומילים רבות אחרות מתאימות להקשר המשפט באותה מידה )למשל‪" ,‬הצלחתי‬ ‫לנצח אותך"‪" ,‬הצלחתי להפתיע אותך" וכולי(‪.‬‬ ‫במקרה של מילה עם מספר פירושים‪ ,‬מומלץ לכתוב משפט נפרד לכל פירוש‪ .‬אם נחזור‬ ‫למילה ‪ ,bear‬למשל‪ ,‬נכתוב משפט אחד שבו המילה ‪ bear‬מפורשת כ"דוב" ומשפט נוסף‬ ‫שבו היא מפורשת כ"לסבול" או "לשאת"‪:‬‬ ‫‪ .1‬פו ה‪ bear-‬אוהב דבש ואת החברים שלו טִ יגֶר ואִ יה‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .2‬המצב כל כך קשה שאני לא יכולה ‪ to bear‬אותו יותר‪ .‬אני על סף קריסה‪.‬‬

‫‪ .2‬כתיבת משפטים פשוטים באנגלית ושיבוץ המילה החדשה בהם‬ ‫את אותו הדבר ניתן לעשות עם משפטים באנגלית‪ ,‬רצוי משפטים קצרים ופשוטים המורכבים‬ ‫ממילים מוכרות‪ ,‬כאשר רק המילה שרוצים ללמוד דרך המשפט היא קשה‪/‬לא מוכרת‪ .‬ניקח‬ ‫למשל את המילה ‪ ,medicine‬שפירושה הוא רפואה‪ .‬משפט מתאים יהיה‪:‬‬ ‫‪If you want to become a doctor, you have to study medicine.‬‬ ‫מקריאת המשפט ניתן להבין את פירוש המילה ‪ ,medicine‬והמילה מעוגנת בהקשר רחב‬ ‫יותר מאשר רק המילה עצמה והתרגום שלה לעברית‪ ,‬מה שמקל עלינו לזכור אותה בטווח‬ ‫הקצר והרחוק‪.‬‬

‫‪7‬‬

‫שימו לב שגם פה‪ ,‬משפט לא טוב הוא משפט שלא ניתן להבין ממנו מה פירוש המילה‪.‬‬ ‫למשל‪,‬‬ ‫‪Dan wants to study medicine.‬‬ ‫מי שאינו זוכר מה פירוש המילה ‪ medicine‬ויעבור על המשפט‪ ,‬לא בהכרח יבין ממנו‬ ‫שפירוש המילה ‪ medicine‬הוא "רפואה"‪ .‬המשפט לא מספק לנו מספיק מידע שיכוון אותנו‬ ‫לפירוש המילה‪ ,‬ומילים רבות אחרות מתאימות להקשר המשפט באותה מידה )למשל‪" ,‬דן‬ ‫רוצה ללמוד הנדסה‪/‬משפטים‪/‬פסיכולוגיה‪/‬מדעי המחשב"(‪.‬‬

‫‪ .3‬שימוש באסוציאציות‬ ‫הדרך השלישית והיעילה ביותר לקדם את זכירת אוצר המילים היא שימוש באסוציאציות‪ .‬נסו‬ ‫לחשוב על מילה או אסוציאציה שהמילה החדשה מעלה בכם‪ ,‬ובנו סיפור קצר או משפט‬ ‫שיקשר אסוציאציה זו עם פירוש המילה‪.‬‬ ‫ניקח לדוגמה את המילה ‪ to inform‬שפירושה הוא "ליידע"‪ .‬מילה זו דומה למילה המוכרת‬ ‫‪") information‬מידע"(‪ .‬ניתן להיעזר בהיכרות עם המילה "מידע" כדי להבין שהפועל ‪to‬‬ ‫‪ inform‬הוא מילה מאותה משפחה‪ ,‬כלומר מאותו שורש‪ ,‬ולכן פירושה הוא "ליידע"‪.‬‬ ‫זוהי דוגמה לחיבור מילה חדשה לידע קיים‪ ,‬ידע שכבר הופנם על ידנו ומאוחסן בזיכרון לטווח‬ ‫ארוך‪ ,‬כך שאין חשש שנשכח אותו‪ .‬קישור מילה חדשה לידע קיים מגדילה את הסיכוי שלא‬ ‫נשכח אותה‪ ,‬כי היא כבר אינה מילה מבודדת ותלושה שאנחנו משננים כמו מספר טלפון‪,‬‬ ‫אלא מצטרפת למאגר יציב ומוצק יותר של מילים מוכרות‪.‬‬ ‫כמו כן‪ ,‬המילה ‪ information‬עצמה היא מילה שקל ללמוד ולזכור מפני שהיא דומה למילה‬ ‫"אינפורמציה"‪ .‬למילים רבות באנגלית יש גרסה מעוברתת שנשמעת דומה להן‪radio, :‬‬ ‫‪ television, video, communication‬וכולי‪.‬‬ ‫ומה קורה כשהמילה החדשה לא קשורה למילה שכבר מכירים ולא נשמעת כמו מילה עם‬ ‫פירוש דומה בעברית? צריך להשתמש בדמיון ולמצוא אסוציאציה צלילית‪ .‬ניקח למשל את‬ ‫המילה ‪ ,applause‬שפירושה הוא "מחיאות כפיים"‪ .‬כיצד נזכור זאת? איש איש ודמיונו הוא‪.‬‬ ‫יש אנשים שהמילה תזכיר להם את דגם המכונית דייהטסו אפלאוז‪ ,‬ואז כל מה שנותר הוא‬ ‫ליצור קישור בין הרכב לבין משמעות המילה ‪ ,applause‬למשל כך‪:‬‬ ‫"הדיהטסו אפלאוז החדשה שלי כל כך מרשימה ויפה עד שהיא זוכה ל‪ applause-‬סוערות‬ ‫מכל מי שרואה אותה"‪.‬‬

‫‪8‬‬

‫לאנשים אחרים‪ ,‬המילה ‪ applause‬תזכיר דווקא את המילה ‪ .apple‬מה הקשר בין תפוח‬ ‫למחיאות כפיים? עם קצת מחשבה‪ ,‬דמיון ויצירתיות‪ ,‬אפשר למצוא קשר כזה‪:‬‬ ‫"כששמעתי את מדונה שרה את השיר האהוב עליי בהופעה שלה בארץ אכלתי תפוח‪ .‬בסוף‬ ‫השיר החזקתי את התפוח בפה כדי ששתי הידיים שלי יהיו פנויות ל‪ applause-‬סוערות"‪.‬‬ ‫בהצלחה!‬

‫‪9‬‬

‫עבודה נכונה עם מילון‪/‬ית‬ ‫‪ (1‬שימוש במילון או במילון אינטרנטי דוגמת ‪ Morfix‬עדיף על שימוש במילונית‪ .‬מבין‬ ‫המילונים הקיימים בשוק‪ ,‬מילון אוקספורד אנגלי‪-‬אנגלי‪-‬עברי הוא הטוב ביותר‪.‬‬ ‫בעמוד הראשון שלו‪ ,‬בכריכה הפנימית‪ ,‬מופיעה המילה הראשונה בכל עמוד זוגי‪ .‬זה‬ ‫מקל על החיפוש‪.‬‬ ‫‪ (2‬כאשר מחפשים פירוש של מילים‪ ,‬יש להקליד את המילה בצורתה הבסיסית ביותר‪,‬‬ ‫בלי הסיומות‪.-s, -ed ,-ing :‬‬ ‫‪ (3‬בעיה אשר קיימת בחלק מהמילוניות‪ :‬תוצאת חיפוש לא מדויקת‪ .‬חיפוש של מילה‬ ‫שלא מופיעה במילונית יציג כתוצאה את הערך הבא שקיים בה‪ .‬למשל‪ ,‬אם נחפש‬ ‫במילונית את המילה ‪) periods‬שפירושה "תקופות" או "מחזורים"(‪ ,‬נקבל פירוש של‬ ‫מילה שונה ‪ - periodically -‬שפירושה הוא "במחזוריות"‪ .‬רק אם נחפש את המילה‬ ‫‪ period‬בלי ה‪ ,s-‬נקבל את הפירוש הנכון‪.‬‬ ‫‪ (4‬יש להיות ערים לכך שלמילים רבות באנגלית יש מספר משמעויות‪ ,‬ועלינו להסתכל‬ ‫על כולן ולא רק על הראשונה‪ .‬כך למשל‪ ,‬המילה ‪ common‬מפורשת במילון‬ ‫ובמילונית קודם כל כ"משותף"‪ ,‬ואחר כך מופיעים פירושים אחרים שלה‪ ,‬אבל‬ ‫במקרים רבים בבחינה הפירוש הנכון שלה הוא דווקא "נפוץ" או "שכיח"‪.‬‬ ‫‪ (5‬כאשר מחפשים מילה במילון‪/‬מילונית‪ ,‬יש לוודא שמוצאים את הפירוש הנכון שלה‪,‬‬ ‫לפי היגיון המשפט ולפי חלק הדיבר שלה‪ .‬למשל‪ ,‬תרגום המילה "‪ "type‬כפועל הוא‬ ‫"להדפיס"‪ ,‬בעוד שתרגום המילה "‪ "type‬כשם עצם הוא "סוג"‪ .‬לכן‪ ,‬כשמחפשים את‬ ‫פירוש המילה ‪ ,type‬יש לאבחן האם היא ממלאת במשפט תפקיד של פועל )למשל‪,‬‬ ‫אם היא מופיעה אחרי המילה ‪ ,(to‬או של שם עצם )למשל‪ ,‬אם היא מופיעה אחרי‬ ‫המילה ‪.(the‬‬ ‫‪ (6‬כאשר מחפשים צירוף של יותר ממילה אחת‪ ,‬כמו למשל ‪ due to‬או ‪ ,look for‬הוא‬ ‫יופיע לאחר פירושה של המילה הראשונה בצירוף‪ .‬לעיתים יש מספר רב של צירופים‬ ‫אשר מתחילים באותה מילה‪ ,‬ואז עלינו לחפש את הצירוף שבפירושו אנו מעוניינים‬ ‫בין כל הצירופים‪ .‬מה שעוזר הוא שהם מסודרים לפי סדר אלפביתי‪ .‬כך‪look for ,‬‬ ‫יופיע אחרי ‪ look after‬אך לפני ‪.look out‬‬ ‫תרגול בכיתה‪ :‬מצאו את פירוש)י( המילים הבאות‪:‬‬ ‫‪1. sense‬‬ ‫‪2. account for‬‬ ‫‪kind‬‬

‫‪10‬‬

‫‪3.‬‬

:‫מצאו את כל הפירושים של המילים הבאות וכתבו אותם בצירוף חלק הדיבר שלהם‬ 1. alarm

2. break even

3. causal

4. condition

5. fair

6. realize

7. latter

8. major

9. play

10. uniform

11

‫‪ 180‬מילים חיוניות לפרקי האנגלית בבחינה‬ ‫הפסיכומטרית‬ ‫‪A‬‬ ‫לפי ‪according to -‬‬ ‫להוות ‪to account for -‬‬ ‫להסביר ‪-‬‬ ‫להיות אחראי ל‪- -‬‬ ‫להסתגל ל‪to adapt to - -‬‬ ‫מתבגר ‪adolescent -‬‬ ‫מבוגר ‪adult -‬‬ ‫יתרון ‪advantage -‬‬ ‫חסיד‪ ,‬תומך של ‪advocate -‬‬ ‫סנגור‪ ,‬פרקליט‪ ,‬עורך דין ‪-‬‬ ‫לתמוך ב‪ ,-‬לדגול ב‪to advocate - -‬‬ ‫עתיק ‪ancient -‬‬ ‫שנתי ‪annual -‬‬ ‫מדי שנה ‪annually -‬‬ ‫תשובה ‪answer -‬‬ ‫לענות ‪to answer -‬‬ ‫להופיע ‪to appear -‬‬ ‫הופעה‪ ,‬מראה ‪appearance -‬‬ ‫לטעון ‪to argue -‬‬ ‫להתווכח ‪-‬‬ ‫טיעון ‪argument -‬‬ ‫ויכוח ‪-‬‬ ‫כותב‪ ,‬סופר ‪author -‬‬ ‫ממוצע ‪average -‬‬

‫‪1.‬‬ ‫‪2.‬‬ ‫‪3.‬‬ ‫‪4.‬‬ ‫‪5.‬‬ ‫‪6.‬‬ ‫‪7.‬‬ ‫‪8.‬‬ ‫‪9.‬‬ ‫‪10.‬‬ ‫‪11.‬‬ ‫‪12.‬‬ ‫‪13.‬‬ ‫‪14.‬‬ ‫‪15.‬‬ ‫‪16.‬‬ ‫‪17.‬‬ ‫‪18.‬‬ ‫‪19.‬‬

‫‪B‬‬ ‫יתרון‪ ,‬תועלת‪ ,‬רווח ‪benefit -‬‬ ‫להפיק תועלת מ‪ ,-‬להרוויח ‪to benefit -‬‬ ‫גורם‪ ,‬סיבה ‪cause -‬‬ ‫לגרום ‪to cause -‬‬ ‫מאה )שנים( ‪century -‬‬ ‫אתגר ‪challenge -‬‬ ‫לאתגר ‪to challenge -‬‬ ‫דמות ‪character -‬‬ ‫אופי ‪-‬‬ ‫אופייני ‪characteristic -‬‬ ‫מאפיין ‪-‬‬ ‫לאפיין ‪to characterize -‬‬ ‫טענה ‪claim -‬‬ ‫לטעון ‪to claim -‬‬

‫‪12‬‬

‫‪20.‬‬ ‫‪21.‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬ ‫‪22.‬‬ ‫‪23.‬‬ ‫‪24.‬‬ ‫‪25.‬‬ ‫‪26.‬‬ ‫‪27.‬‬ ‫‪28.‬‬ ‫‪29.‬‬ ‫‪30.‬‬ ‫‪31.‬‬

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

common - ‫ שכיח‬,‫נפוץ‬ - ‫משותף‬ - ‫)מעמד( פשוט‬ community - ‫קהילה‬ to compare - ‫להשוות‬ comparison - ‫השוואה‬ component - ‫רכיב‬ to conduct - (‫לבצע )ניסוי‬ to consist of - -‫להיות מורכב מ‬ to contain - ‫להכיל‬ continent - ‫יבשת‬ country - ‫ מדינה‬,‫ארץ‬ - ‫איזור הכפר‬ to create - ‫ליצור‬ creature - ‫יצור‬ critic - ‫מבקר‬ critical - ‫ביקורתי‬ to criticize - ‫לבקר‬ culture - ‫תרבות‬ cultural - ‫תרבותי‬ current - ‫ עכשווי‬,‫נוכחי‬ - ‫זרם‬

D 50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

damage - ‫נזק‬ to damage - ‫ לגרום נזק‬,‫להזיק‬ decade - ‫עשור‬ decrease - ‫ירידה מספרית‬ to decrease - ‫ לפחות‬,‫לרדת‬ to define - ‫להגדיר‬ definition - ‫הגדרה‬ to demonstrate - ‫להפגין‬ - ‫להדגים‬ to depict - ‫לתאר‬ to describe - ‫לתאר‬ description - ‫תיאור‬ to determine - ‫ להחליט‬,‫לקבוע‬ to develop - ‫לפתח‬ - ‫להתפתח‬ development - ‫התפתחות‬ device - ‫ מכשיר‬,‫מתקן‬ disadvantage - ‫חיסרון‬ to discover - ‫לגלות‬ discovery - ‫תגלית‬ to discuss - ‫לדון‬ to display - ‫להראות‬ - ‫להציג‬ - ‫להפגין‬ due to - ‫עקב‬ during - ‫במהלך‬ 13

E 72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

to elect - ‫ להצביע‬,‫לבחור‬ elections - ‫בחירות‬ emergency - ‫)מקרה( חירום‬ to employ - ‫להעסיק‬ employee - ‫עובד‬ employer - ‫ מעביד‬,‫מעסיק‬ evidence - ‫ ראיות‬,‫הוכחות‬ to explain - ‫להסביר‬ explanation - ‫הסבר‬ to express - ‫להביע‬ - ‫לבטא‬ expression - ‫הבעה‬ - ‫ביטוי‬

F 83.

84.

85.

86.

to face - ‫לעמוד בפני‬ famous - ‫מפורסם‬ findings - ‫ממצאים‬ following - (‫הבא)ים‬ - ‫בעקבות‬

H 87.

88.

huge - ‫ענק‬ human - ‫בן אדם‬ - ‫אנושי‬

I 89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.

105.

106.

idea - ‫רעיון‬ to illustrate - ‫לאייר‬ - ‫להדגים‬ in order to - ‫ כדי‬,‫על מנת‬ increase - ‫עלייה מספרית‬ to increase - ‫לעלות מספרית‬ infant - ‫תינוק‬ to infer - ‫להסיק‬ influence - ‫השפעה‬ to influence - ‫להשפיע‬ ingredient - ‫מרכיב‬ to inhabit - ‫ לאכלס‬,‫ליישב‬ inhabitant - ‫תושב‬ instead (of) - ‫במקום‬ interview - ‫ראיון‬ to interview - ‫לראיין‬ to invent - ‫להמציא‬ invention - ‫המצאה‬ inventor - ‫ממציא‬

14

‫‪L‬‬ ‫מחסור‪ ,‬העדר ‪lack -‬‬ ‫למנות ‪to list -‬‬

‫‪107.‬‬ ‫‪108.‬‬

‫‪M‬‬ ‫עיקרי‪ ,‬ראשי ‪main -‬‬ ‫בעיקר ‪mainly -‬‬ ‫עיקרי‪ ,‬ראשי‪ ,‬מרכזי ‪major -‬‬ ‫רב סרן ‪-‬‬ ‫חוג )לימודים( ראשי ‪-‬‬ ‫רוב ‪majority -‬‬ ‫רפואה ‪medicine -‬‬ ‫תרופה ‪-‬‬ ‫מיעוט ‪minority -‬‬ ‫רוב ‪most -‬‬ ‫לרוב‪ ,‬בעיקר ‪mostly -‬‬ ‫חייב ‪must -‬‬

‫‪109.‬‬ ‫‪110.‬‬ ‫‪111.‬‬ ‫‪112.‬‬ ‫‪113.‬‬ ‫‪114.‬‬ ‫‪115.‬‬ ‫‪116.‬‬ ‫‪117.‬‬

‫‪N‬‬ ‫רומאן )ספר( ‪novel -‬‬ ‫חדש ‪-‬‬

‫‪118.‬‬

‫‪O‬‬ ‫רק‪ ,‬בלבד ‪only -‬‬ ‫)ה(יחיד‪ ,‬בודד ‪-‬‬ ‫ארגון ‪organization -‬‬ ‫לארגן ‪to organize -‬‬ ‫מקור ‪origin -‬‬ ‫שמקורו ב‪to originate in/from - -‬‬ ‫למעלה מ‪over - -‬‬ ‫מעל ‪-‬‬ ‫במשך ‪-‬‬ ‫בגלל ‪owing to -‬‬

‫‪119.‬‬ ‫‪120.‬‬ ‫‪121.‬‬ ‫‪122.‬‬ ‫‪123.‬‬ ‫‪124.‬‬ ‫‪125.‬‬

‫‪P‬‬ ‫פסקה ‪paragraph -‬‬ ‫יחיד‪ :‬עם‪ .‬רבים‪ :‬אנשים ‪people -‬‬ ‫עמים ‪peoples -‬‬ ‫אחוז ‪percent -‬‬ ‫אחוז ‪percentage -‬‬ ‫רופא ‪physician -‬‬ ‫צמח ‪plant -‬‬ ‫מחזה ‪play -‬‬ ‫עני ‪poor -‬‬ ‫מסכן ‪-‬‬ ‫ירוד‪ ,‬גרוע ‪-‬‬ ‫אוכלוסיה ‪population -‬‬ ‫מנהג ‪practice -‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬

‫‪126.‬‬ ‫‪127.‬‬ ‫‪128.‬‬ ‫‪129.‬‬ ‫‪130.‬‬ ‫‪131.‬‬ ‫‪132.‬‬ ‫‪133.‬‬ ‫‪134.‬‬ ‫‪135.‬‬ ‫‪136.‬‬

‫להתאמן ‪to practice -‬‬ ‫לעסוק ב‪- -‬‬ ‫מתנה ‪present -‬‬ ‫הווה ‪-‬‬ ‫נוכח ‪-‬‬ ‫נוכחי ‪-‬‬ ‫להציג ‪to present -‬‬ ‫תהליך ‪process -‬‬ ‫לעבד ‪to process -‬‬ ‫להפיק ‪to produce -‬‬ ‫לייצר ‪-‬‬ ‫מטרה ‪purpose -‬‬

‫‪137.‬‬ ‫‪138.‬‬

‫‪139.‬‬ ‫‪140.‬‬ ‫‪141.‬‬ ‫‪142.‬‬ ‫‪143.‬‬

‫‪Q‬‬ ‫להטיל ספק‪ ,‬להעמיד בסימן שאלה‪ ,‬לפקפק ‪to question -‬‬ ‫לתשאל ‪-‬‬

‫‪144.‬‬

‫‪R‬‬ ‫שארע לאחרונה ‪recent -‬‬ ‫לאחרונה‪ ,‬בזמן האחרון ‪recently -‬‬ ‫להתייחס ל‪to refer to - -‬‬ ‫אזור ‪region -‬‬ ‫דת ‪religion -‬‬ ‫דתי ‪religious -‬‬ ‫להחליף ‪to replace -‬‬ ‫מחקר ‪research -‬‬ ‫חוקר ‪researcher -‬‬ ‫תוצאה ‪result -‬‬

‫‪145.‬‬ ‫‪146.‬‬ ‫‪147.‬‬ ‫‪148.‬‬ ‫‪149.‬‬ ‫‪150.‬‬ ‫‪151.‬‬ ‫‪152.‬‬ ‫‪153.‬‬ ‫‪154.‬‬

‫‪S‬‬ ‫חוקר‪ ,‬מלומד ‪scholar -‬‬ ‫מדע ‪science -‬‬ ‫מדעי ‪scientific -‬‬ ‫מדען ‪scientist -‬‬ ‫סדרתי ‪serial -‬‬ ‫סדרה‪ ,‬סדרות ‪series -‬‬ ‫אחדים ‪several -‬‬ ‫דומה ‪similar -‬‬ ‫דמיון )בין דבר אחד למשנהו( ‪similarity -‬‬ ‫חברה‪ ,‬ארגון ‪society -‬‬ ‫יחיד‪ ,‬יחידי‪ ,‬בודד ‪sole -‬‬ ‫סוליה ‪-‬‬ ‫רק‪ ,‬אך ורק‪ ,‬בלבד ‪solely -‬‬ ‫זן‪ ,‬מין ‪species -‬‬ ‫מחקר ‪study -‬‬ ‫ללמוד ‪to study -‬‬ ‫לחקור ‪-‬‬ ‫נושא ‪subject -‬‬ ‫משתתף במחקר ‪-‬‬ ‫נתין ‪-‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬

‫‪155.‬‬ ‫‪156.‬‬ ‫‪157.‬‬ ‫‪158.‬‬ ‫‪159.‬‬ ‫‪160.‬‬ ‫‪161.‬‬ ‫‪162.‬‬ ‫‪163.‬‬ ‫‪164.‬‬ ‫‪165.‬‬ ‫‪166.‬‬ ‫‪167.‬‬ ‫‪168.‬‬ ‫‪169.‬‬ ‫‪170.‬‬

171.

172.

173.

such as - ‫כגון‬ to suggest - ‫להציע‬ - ‫לרמז על‬ survey - ‫סקר‬

T 174.

175.

176.

177.

the most - ‫הכי‬ title - ‫כותרת‬ - ‫תואר‬ tourism - ‫תיירות‬ tourist - ‫תייר‬

U 178.

until - (-‫עד )ש‬

V 179.

180.

various - ‫רבים ושונים‬ to vote - (‫להצביע )בבחירות‬

17

‫מילות קישור‬ ‫ ניגוד‬but - ‫ אך‬,‫אבל‬ yet - ‫אולם‬ however - ‫עם זאת‬ though, although, even though - -‫למרות ש‬ despite, in spite of - -‫למרות ה‬ while, whereas - -‫בעוד ש‬ nevertheless, nonetheless - ‫ בכל זאת‬,‫אף על פי כן‬ on the one hand, on the other hand - ‫ מצד שני‬,‫מצד אחד‬ ‫ הוספה‬and - -‫ו‬ Both A and B - '‫גם א' וגם ב‬ also - ‫ גם‬,‫כמו כן‬ not only A but also B - '‫לא רק א' אלא גם ב‬ in addition, additionally - -‫בנוסף ל‬ as well - ‫ גם כן‬,‫גם‬ as well as - ‫ וגם‬,‫כמו גם‬ moreover, furthermore - ‫ זאת ועוד‬,‫יתר על כן‬ ‫ סיבה‬because - -‫ מפני ש‬,‫כי‬ because of - -‫בגלל ה‬ since - -‫מאחר ש‬ owing to - ‫בגלל‬ due to - ‫עקב‬ thanks to - -‫ תודות ל‬,-‫הודות ל‬ as - -‫ היות ש‬,-‫מכיוון ש‬ as a result of - -‫כתוצאה מ‬ ‫תוצאה‬/‫ מסקנה‬therefore - ‫לכן‬ thus - ‫ וכך‬,‫לפיכך‬ so - ‫ אז‬,‫לכן‬ consequently - ‫ בעקבות זאת‬,‫כתוצאה מכך‬ as a result - ‫כתוצאה מכך‬ ‫ זמן‬before - ‫לפני‬ after - ‫אחרי‬ when - ‫כאשר‬ while - -‫בזמן ש‬ since - -‫מאז ש‬ yet - ‫ כבר‬,‫ עדיין לא‬,‫עדיין‬ until, till, by the time - -‫עד ש‬ as - -‫ככל ש‬ the moment - -‫ברגע ש‬ as soon as - -‫ברגע ש‬ as long as - ‫כל עוד‬ ‫ תנאי‬if - ‫אם‬ unless - ‫ אלא אם כן‬,‫ אלמלא‬,‫אם לא‬ '‫ א' או ב‬or - ‫או‬ whether A or B - '‫בין אם א' או ב‬ either A or B - '‫או א' או ב‬ neither A nor B - '‫לא א' ולא ב‬

18

WH Questions - ‫מילות שאלה‬ 1.What - ‫מה‬ What is the time?

What do you do?

2. Where - ‫איפה‬ Where were you born?

Where are my keys?

3. When - ‫מתי‬ When did the lesson start?

When are you taking the test?

4. Why - ‫למה‬ Why did you choose to study here?

Why are WH questions important?

5. Which - ‫איזה‬ Which TV show is Tom watching?

Which sport do you like the most?

6. Who - ‫מי‬ Who wants to read this sentence?

Who is it?

7. How - ‫איך‬ How do we approach an academic text?

How was your vacation?

How many - (‫כמה )לפני רבים‬ How many pets do you have?

How many lessons are there in this course?

How much - (‫כמה )לפני יחיד‬ How much money do you have in your pocket?

How much information do you need from me?

How long - ‫כמה זמן‬ How long does it take to get here from your house?

How long is a piano lesson?

19

Fill in the missing wh-question word.

1. ________ was Tom late? He missed the bus.

2. ________ is Lior? He is at home.

3. ________ did you go on your last vacation?

4. ________ did you get here? By car.

5. ________ did it take you to get here? 15 minutes.

6. ________is the time, please? It is 16:30.

7. ________ are you doing? I’m surfing the net.

8. ________ doctor did you see? I saw a cardiologist.

9. ________ is the president of Israel? Shimon Peres.

10. ________ times did I tell the children not to shout? At least a 1,000!

20

‫כינויי גוף ‪Pronouns -‬‬ ‫‪Possessive‬‬ ‫‪without‬‬ ‫**‪noun‬‬ ‫שייכות ללא שם‬ ‫עצם‬ ‫שלי ‪Mine -‬‬

‫‪Possessive‬‬ ‫*‪+ noun‬‬ ‫שייכות ‪+‬שם‬ ‫עצם‬

‫‪Object‬‬ ‫מושא‬

‫‪Subject‬‬ ‫נושא‬

‫‪Person‬‬ ‫גוף‬

‫שלי ‪My -‬‬

‫שלו ‪His -‬‬

‫שלו ‪His -‬‬

‫הוא ‪He -‬‬

‫שלישי ‪Third‬‬

‫שלה ‪Hers -‬‬

‫שלה ‪Her -‬‬

‫היא ‪She -‬‬

‫שלישי ‪Third‬‬

‫של זה‪Its - ,‬‬ ‫שלו‪ ,‬שלה‬

‫של זה‪Its - ,‬‬ ‫שלו‪ ,‬שלה‬

‫לי‪Me - ,‬‬ ‫אותי‬ ‫לו‪Him - ,‬‬ ‫אותו‬ ‫לה‪Her - ,‬‬ ‫אותה‬ ‫לזה‪It - ,‬‬ ‫את זה‬

‫אני ‪I -‬‬

‫ראשון ‪First‬‬

‫שלנו ‪Ours -‬‬

‫שלנו ‪Our -‬‬

‫שלך‪Yours - ,‬‬ ‫שלכם‪ ,‬שלכן‬

‫שלך‪Your - ,‬‬ ‫שלכם‪ ,‬שלכן‬

‫שלישי ‪Third‬‬ ‫זה ‪It -‬‬ ‫)הוא‪/‬היא( )מתייחס לשם‬ ‫עצם לא‬ ‫אנושי(‬ ‫ראשון ‪First‬‬ ‫ ‪We‬‬‫לנו‪Us - ,‬‬ ‫אנחנו‬ ‫אותנו‬ ‫לך‪ You - ,‬את‪ You - ,‬שני ‪Second‬‬ ‫אתה‪,‬‬ ‫לכם‪ ,‬לכן‬ ‫אתם‪ ,‬אתן‬

‫שלהם‪ Theirs - ,‬שלהם‪Them - Their - ,‬‬ ‫שלהן להם‪/‬ן‪,‬‬ ‫שלהן‬ ‫אותם‪/‬ן‬

‫הם ‪They -‬‬ ‫הן‬

‫‪Singular‬‬ ‫יחיד‬

‫‪Plural‬‬ ‫רבים‬

‫שלישי ‪Third‬‬

‫‪* This is my house.‬‬ ‫‪** This house is mine.‬‬

‫‪21‬‬

Fill in the missing pronoun.

1. ______ name is Dan and ______ am 19 years old.

2. Dan really loves ______ dog.

3. The dog’s name is Rex. ______ is black. ______ tail is short.

4. “Hey, Dan, do ______ see the red sports car? ______ is ______. I bought ______ yesterday!”

5. Maya is very pretty. ______ wants to become a model. ______ hair is long and brown, and ______ is thin.

6. Lior and Maya are going out. ______ like each other.

7. Dan and Galit are brother and sister. ______ family name is Cohen.

8. Galia and I are close friends. ______ see each other almost every day.

I really like ______ and she likes ______.

9. “Can I borrow this book from you?” “Sure. I don’t like ______ at all. You know what? Take it and don’t give it back to ______. It’s ______”.

10. ______ math teacher is really good. ______ all like her very much. ______ never shouts, and she gives ______ little homework.

22

‫להלן רשימה נוספת של כינויי גוף שאינם צריכים התייחסות לשם עצם‪ ,‬אלא עומדים בפני‬ ‫עצמם במשפט‪:‬‬ ‫רבים‬

‫יחיד‬

‫‪both‬‬ ‫‪some‬‬ ‫‪*these‬‬ ‫‪*those‬‬

‫‪*this‬‬ ‫‪*that‬‬ ‫‪one‬‬ ‫‪everyone‬‬ ‫‪everybody‬‬ ‫‪someone‬‬ ‫‪something‬‬ ‫‪somebody‬‬ ‫‪any‬‬ ‫‪anyone‬‬ ‫‪anything‬‬ ‫‪anybody‬‬ ‫‪no one‬‬ ‫‪nothing‬‬ ‫‪nobody‬‬

‫יש לשים לב להבדל בין כינויי גוף הבאים‪:‬‬ ‫רבים‬

‫יחיד‬ ‫קרוב‬

‫‪this‬‬

‫זה‬

‫רחוק‬

‫‪that‬‬

‫ההוא‬

‫‪23‬‬

‫‪ these‬אלו‪ ,‬אלה‬ ‫‪those‬‬

‫ההם‬

‫תחיליות וסופיות ‪Prefixes and Suffixes -‬‬ ‫תחיליות ‪Prefixes -‬‬ ‫שלילה‪ ,‬היפוך משמעות‬ ‫לא אמיתי ‪ unreal -‬לא‪ ,‬בלתי‪ ,‬ההיפך‬ ‫לא שווה ‪unequal -‬‬ ‫ללא הפסקה ‪ nonstop -‬לא‪ ,‬בלתי‪ ,‬ההיפך‬ ‫אדם שאינו מעשן ‪nonsmoker -‬‬ ‫אנומליה‪ ,‬חריגה‪ ,‬סטייה ‪ anomaly -‬לא‪ ,‬בלתי‪ ,‬ההיפך‬ ‫אסימטריה‪ ,‬חוסר סימטריה ‪asymmetry -‬‬ ‫נגד חיידקים ‪ Antibacterial -‬נגד‪ ,‬לא‬ ‫סֹותְ ָרן‪ַ ,‬אנְטִ ידֹוט‪ ,‬תרופה נוגדת רעל ‪antidote -‬‬ ‫לייבש‪ ,‬להתייבש ‪ dehydrate -‬לא‪ ,‬ההיפך‬ ‫לנטרל‪ ,‬לנתק‪ ,‬להשבית ‪deactivate -‬‬ ‫לא דומה ‪ dissimilar -‬לא‪ ,‬בלתי‪ ,‬ההיפך‬ ‫אי נוחות ‪discomfort -‬‬ ‫לא שפוי ‪ insane -‬לא‪ ,‬בלתי‪ ,‬ההיפך‬ ‫מגונה ‪indecent -‬‬ ‫לא יודע קרוא וכתוב ‪ illiterate -‬לא‪ ,‬בלתי‪ ,‬ההיפך‬ ‫)ילד( בלתי חוקי ‪) illegitimate -‬במילים המתחילות‬ ‫באות ‪(l‬‬ ‫בלתי אפשרי ‪ impossible -‬לא‪ ,‬בלתי‪ ,‬ההיפך‬ ‫לא בוגר ‪) immature -‬במילים המתחילות‬ ‫באותיות‪(m, p‬‬ ‫לא אחראי ‪ irresponsible -‬לא‪ ,‬בלתי‪ ,‬ההיפך‬ ‫לא רציונאלי ‪) irrational -‬במילים המתחילות‬ ‫באות ‪(r‬‬

‫‪un‬‬‫‪non‬‬‫‪a‬‬‫‪anti‬‬‫‪de‬‬‫‪dis‬‬‫‪in‬‬‫‪il‬‬‫‪im‬‬‫‪ir-‬‬

‫תחיליות זמן‬ ‫לפני הצהריים‪ antemeridian - AM ,‬לפני‬ ‫לפני הלידה‪ ,‬קדם לידתי‪ ,‬עוברי ‪antenatal -‬‬ ‫רקע קדמי‪ ,‬חזית ‪ foreground -‬לפני‪ ,‬בקדמת‬ ‫מצח )קדמת הראש( ‪forehead -‬‬ ‫לאחר המוות ‪ posthumous -‬בתר‪ ,‬שלאחר‬ ‫שלאחר הלידה‪ּ ,‬בָתַ ר לידתי ‪postnatal -‬‬ ‫נשיא לשעבר ‪ ex-president -‬לשעבר‬ ‫בעל לשעבר ‪ex-husband -‬‬ ‫טרום לידתי‪ ,‬קדם לידתי‪ ,‬עוברי ‪ prenatal -‬קדם‪ ,‬שלפני‪ ,‬מראש‬ ‫תצוגה מקדימה ‪preview -‬‬ ‫תחילית ‪prefix -‬‬

‫‪24‬‬

‫‪ante‬‬‫‪fore‬‬‫‪post‬‬‫‪ex‬‬‫‪pre-‬‬

‫גודל‬ ‫כוכב על ‪ megastar -‬גדול‬ ‫מגפון‪ ,‬מגביר קול ‪megaphone -‬‬ ‫יצור זעיר‪ ,‬יצור מיקרוסקופי ‪ microorganism -‬זעיר‬ ‫סגנון ניהולי המתאפיין בניהול ‪micromanagement -‬‬ ‫צמוד של העובדים ומעקב אחר כל פרט זעיר בעבודתם‬

‫‪mega‬‬‫‪micro-‬‬

‫מספרים‬ ‫חד קרן ‪ unicorn -‬חד‪ ,‬אחד‬ ‫חד לשוני ‪unilingual -‬‬ ‫חד אופן ‪unicycle -‬‬ ‫חד צבעי‪ ,‬עיוור צבעים מוחלט ‪ monochromatic -‬חד‪ ,‬אחד‬ ‫מֹונֹוקְ ל‪ ,‬משקפיים בעלי עדשה אחת ‪monocle -‬‬ ‫אמונה באל אחד ‪monotheism -‬‬ ‫דו מיני ‪ bisexual -‬דו‪ ,‬שניים‬ ‫דו לשוני ‪bilingual -‬‬ ‫דו אופן‪ ,‬אופניים ‪bicycle -‬‬ ‫טריאתלון )תחרות בשלושה ענפי ספורט( ‪ triathlon -‬תלת‬ ‫תלת אופן ‪tricycle -‬‬ ‫משותק בארבע הגפיים ‪ quadriplegic -‬ארבע‬ ‫)להכפיל( פי ארבע ‪quadruple -‬‬ ‫קרב עשר )תחרות בעשרה ענפי ספורט( ‪ decathlon -‬עשר‬ ‫עשרוני ‪decimal -‬‬ ‫עשור‪ ,‬עשר שנים ‪decade -‬‬ ‫מולטי ויטמין )מכיל הרבה ויטמינים( ‪ multivitamin -‬הרבה‪ ,‬רב‬ ‫רב לשוני ‪multilingual -‬‬ ‫אמונה באלים רבים ‪ polytheism -‬הרבה‪ ,‬רב‬ ‫מצולע רב צלעות ‪polygon -‬‬ ‫חצי גמר ‪ semifinals -‬חצי‪ ,‬למחצה‪ ,‬חלקי‬ ‫בהכרה חלקית ‪semiconscious -‬‬

‫‪25‬‬

‫‪uni‬‬‫‪mono‬‬‫‪bi‬‬‫‪tri‬‬‫‪quadr‬‬‫‪deca‬‬‫‪deci‬‬‫‪multi‬‬‫‪poly‬‬‫‪semi-‬‬

‫תחיליות של מרחב‪ ,‬מיקום וכיוון‬ ‫פנימי ‪ internal -‬פנימה‪ ,‬פנימי‬ ‫לנשוף ‪inhale -‬‬ ‫ּבִפְ נִים )מילולית‪ :‬בצד הפנימי( ‪inside -‬‬ ‫חולה פנים )המאושפז בביה"ח שבו הוא ‪inpatient -‬‬ ‫מטופל(‬ ‫חיצוני ‪ external -‬מחוץ ל‪ ,-‬חיצוני‬ ‫לנשוף ‪exhale -‬‬ ‫בחוץ )מילולית‪ :‬בצד החיצוני( ‪ outside -‬מחוץ ל‪ ,-‬חיצוני‬ ‫חולה במרפאת חוץ ‪outpatient -‬‬ ‫מבנה חיצוני‪ ,‬שירותים חיצוניים ‪outhouse -‬‬ ‫מעבר לגדול ‪ extra large -‬חוץ‪ ,‬מעבר ל‪-‬‬ ‫יוצא מגדר הרגיל ‪extraordinary -‬‬ ‫חיזר‪ ,‬חוצן )מילולית‪ :‬מחוץ לכדור ‪extraterrestrial -‬‬ ‫הארץ(‬ ‫כוח על‪ ,‬מעצמת על ‪ superpower -‬על‪ ,‬עליון‬ ‫אדם עליון ‪superman -‬‬ ‫מודרני ביותר ‪ ultramodern -‬על‪ ,‬ביותר‪ ,‬אולטרה‬ ‫אולטרסאונד‪ ,‬על שמע‪ ,‬גלים על קוליים ‪ultrasound -‬‬ ‫אויב מושבע )ראשי( ‪ archenemy -‬עליון‪ ,‬על‪ ,‬אב‪,‬‬ ‫אבטיפוס ‪ archetype -‬ראש‪ ,‬ראשי‬ ‫נשימת יתר ‪ hyperventilation -‬במידה מופרזת‪,‬‬ ‫היפראקטיבי‪ ,‬פעיל יתר על המידה ‪ hyperactive -‬יתר‬ ‫חום גוף נמוך במידה מסוכנת ‪ hypothermia -‬תת‬ ‫סובל ממתח שרירים נמוך‪ ,‬תת מתח שרירי ‪hypotonic -‬‬ ‫קו תחתי‪ ,‬למתוח קו מתחת ‪ underline -‬מתחת‪ ,‬תת‪ ,‬פחות‬ ‫לחתור תחת מישהו‪ ,‬לערער ‪ undermine -‬מדי‬ ‫אינפרא‪-‬סוני‪ ,‬בעל תדר נמוך מתחום הנשמע ‪ infrasonic -‬מתחת‪ ,‬תת‬ ‫תשתית )מה שמתחת למבנה( ‪infrastructure -‬‬ ‫צוללת )מילולית‪ :‬מתחת למים( ‪ submarine -‬מתחת‪ ,‬תת‬ ‫תת הכרתי ‪subliminal -‬‬ ‫פרבר )מילולית‪ :‬תת עיר( ‪suburb -‬‬ ‫בין יבשתי ‪ intercontinental -‬בין‬ ‫אינטרנט‪ ,‬מרשתת‪ ,‬רשת שמקשרת בין ‪internet -‬‬ ‫אנשים‪/‬ארגונים‬ ‫תוך )פנים( מדיני ‪ intrastate -‬פנים‪ ,‬תוך‬ ‫רשת תוך )פנים( ארגונית ‪intranet -‬‬ ‫עֵ בֶר יבשתי‪ ,‬חוצה יבשות ‪ transcontinental -‬מעבר ל‪-‬‬ ‫אדם שעבר ניתוח לשינוי מין ‪transsexual -‬‬

‫‪26‬‬

‫‪in-‬‬

‫‪ex‬‬‫‪out‬‬‫‪extra-‬‬

‫‪super‬‬‫‪ultra‬‬‫‪arch‬‬‫‪hyper‬‬‫‪hypo‬‬‫‪under‬‬‫‪infra‬‬‫‪sub‬‬‫‪inter‬‬‫‪intra‬‬‫‪trans-‬‬

‫שונות‬ ‫‪auto-‬‬

‫ריבוני‪ ,‬אוטונומי ‪ autonomous -‬עצמי‬ ‫חתימה )מילולית‪ :‬כתב עצמי( ‪autograph -‬‬ ‫‪co‬‬‫לשתף פעולה ‪ cooperate -‬יחד‪ ,‬בשיתוף עם‪,‬‬ ‫צירוף מקרים ‪ coincidence -‬בצירוף‪ ,‬מִ שְ נֶה‬ ‫שחקן משנה ‪costar -‬‬ ‫טייס משנה ‪copilot -‬‬ ‫‪contra‬‬‫סתירה ‪ contradiction -‬נגד‬ ‫אמצעי מניעה )נגד הריון( ‪contraceptive -‬‬ ‫‪counter‬‬‫האשמה נגדית ‪ counteraccusation -‬נגד‪ ,‬מנוגד‪ ,‬נגדי‬ ‫טענת נגד ‪counterclaim -‬‬ ‫‪en‬‬‫‪ danger-endanger‬הופכת שם עצם או‬ ‫סכנה‪-‬לסכן שם תואר לפועל‬ ‫‪rich-enrich‬‬ ‫עשיר‪-‬להעשיר‬ ‫‪equi‬‬‫שיווי משקל‪ ,‬איזון ‪ equilibrium -‬שווה‬ ‫שווה ערך ‪equivalent -‬‬ ‫‪homo‬‬‫נמשך לבני אותו מין ‪ homosexual -‬דומה‪ ,‬זהה‬ ‫אחיד ‪homogeneous -‬‬ ‫‪hetero‬‬‫נמשך לבני המין השני ‪ heterosexual -‬שונה‪ ,‬אחר‬ ‫הטרוגני‪ ,‬לא אחיד ‪heterogeneous -‬‬ ‫‪mal‬‬‫שלא הסתגל‪ ,‬שהסתגלותו גרועה ‪ maladjusted -‬רע‪ ,‬לקוי‬ ‫רשלנות מקצועית )בעיקר רפואית( ‪malpractice -‬‬ ‫‪mis‬‬‫חוסר התאמה‪ ,‬שידוך לא מוצלח ‪ mismatch -‬חוסר‪ ,‬מוטעה‪ ,‬שלא‬ ‫לאיית שלא כהלכה‪ ,‬לשגות באיות ‪ misspell -‬כהלכה‬ ‫‪neo‬‬‫קלאסי חדש ‪ neoclassical -‬חדש‬ ‫ניאו קולוניאלי ‪neocolonial -‬‬ ‫‪omni‬‬‫נמצא בכל מקום ‪ omnipresent -‬כל‬ ‫אוכל כל )לעומת ‪ - carnivore‬אוכל בשר ‪omnivore -‬‬ ‫ צמחוני(‪herbivore.‬ו‪-‬‬‫‪out‬‬‫להציע מחיר גבוה יותר ממישהו אחר ‪ outbid -‬יותר מ‪ ,-‬עולה על‬ ‫להאריך ימים יותר ממישהו אחר‪ ,‬להחזיק מעמד ‪outlast -‬‬ ‫יותר זמן ממישהו אחר‬ ‫‪over‬‬‫להפריז‪ ,‬להגזים‪ ,‬להגדיש ‪ overdo -‬יתר‬ ‫לאכול יתר על המידה ‪overeat -‬‬ ‫‪phil‬‬‫אוהב אדם‪ ,‬נדבן ‪ philanthropist -‬אוהב‬ ‫חובב מוזיקה ‪philharmonic -‬‬ ‫‪pro‬‬‫שנוקט יוזמה ופועל מראש למניעת‪/‬פתרון ‪ proactive -‬בעד‬ ‫בעיות‬ ‫בעד ישראל ‪pro-Israeli -‬‬ ‫שם עט ‪ pseudonym -‬לא אמיתי‪ ,‬כביכול‪pseudo- ,‬‬ ‫תיאוריה המוצגת כמדע אך נעדרת ‪ pseudoscience -‬שמתיימר להיות‬ ‫בסיס מדעי ממשי אך אינו באמת‬ ‫‪re‬‬‫לשלוח שוב ‪ resend -‬שוב‪ ,‬מחדש‬ ‫לארגן מחדש ‪reorganize -‬‬

‫‪27‬‬

.‫פרקו את המילים הבאות לתחיליות ומילות גרעין ותרגמו אותן לעברית‬ 1. antisocial 2. archangel 3. atypical 4. autobiography 5. bilateral 6. counterexample 7. disconnect 8. immoral 9. insane 10. international 11. malnutrition 12. misunderstand 13. nonexistent 14. outlive 15. unexpected

28

‫סופיות‬ ‫סיומות של שמות עצם‬ ‫שיעמום ‪boredom -‬‬ ‫ּכֹוכָבּות ‪stardom -‬‬ ‫מתמטיקה ‪mathematics -‬‬ ‫כלכלה ‪economics -‬‬ ‫תקשורת ‪communication -‬‬ ‫החלטה ‪decision -‬‬ ‫‪dog-dogs‬‬ ‫כלב‪-‬כלבים‬ ‫‪man-manhood‬‬ ‫גבר‪-‬גבריּות‬ ‫‪waiter-waitress‬‬ ‫מלצר‪-‬מלצרית‬ ‫‪cigar-cigarette‬‬ ‫סיגר‪-‬סיגריה‬ ‫‪music-musician‬‬ ‫מוזיקה‪-‬מוזיקאי‬ ‫‪Egypt-Egyptian‬‬ ‫מצרים‪-‬מצרי‬ ‫‪violin-violinist‬‬ ‫כינור‪-‬כנר‬ ‫‪Buddha-Buddhism‬‬ ‫בודהה‪-‬בודהיזם‬ ‫חובב קולנוע ‪cinephile -‬‬ ‫חובב ‪technophile -‬‬ ‫טכנולוגיה‬ ‫הומופוב ‪homophobe -‬‬ ‫טכנופוב‪technophobe - ,‬‬ ‫אדם הפוחד מטכנולוגיה‬ ‫‪perform-performance‬‬ ‫להופיע‪ ,‬לבצע‪-‬הופעה‪ ,‬ביצוע‬ ‫‪exist-existence‬‬ ‫להתקיים‪-‬קיום‬ ‫‪inform-informant‬‬ ‫ליידע‪-‬מודיע‪ ,‬מלשין‬ ‫‪move-movement‬‬ ‫לנוע‪ ,‬לזוז‪-‬תנועה‪ ,‬תזוזה‬ ‫‪edit-editor‬‬ ‫לערוך‪-‬עורך‬ ‫‪lead-leader‬‬ ‫להנהיג‪ ,‬להוביל‪-‬מנהיג‬ ‫‪popular-popularity‬‬ ‫פופולארי‪-‬פופולאריּות‬ ‫‪sad-sadness‬‬ ‫עצוב‪-‬עצב‬ ‫‪leader-leadership‬‬ ‫מנהיג‪-‬מנהיגות‬

‫‪29‬‬

‫מציינת שהמילה היא שם עצם‬

‫‪-dom‬‬

‫מציינת שהמילה היא שם עצם‬

‫‪-ics‬‬

‫מציינת שהמילה היא שם עצם‬

‫‪-ion‬‬

‫מציינת שהמילה היא שם עצם ברבים‬ ‫הופכת שם עצם מוחשי למופשט‬

‫‪-s‬‬ ‫‪-hood‬‬

‫מציינת שם עצם ממין נקבה‬

‫‪-ess‬‬

‫מציינת שם עצם קטן‬

‫‪-ette‬‬

‫הופכת שם עצם דומם לאדם העוסק‪ ,‬תומך או‬ ‫משתייך לגרעין המילה‬

‫‪-ian‬‬

‫הופכת שם עצם לאדם העוסק בגרעין המילה‬

‫‪-ist‬‬

‫מציינת שם עצם שהוא אידיאולוגיה או השקפה‬ ‫מציינת אדם אשר אוהב את גרעין המילה‬ ‫מציינת אדם אשר פוחד מ‪ -‬או שונא את גרעין‬ ‫המילה‬

‫‪-ism‬‬ ‫‪-phile‬‬ ‫‪-phobe‬‬

‫הופכת פועל לשם עצם‬

‫‪-ance‬‬

‫הופכת פועל לשם עצם‬

‫‪-ence‬‬

‫הופכת פועל לשם עצם‬

‫‪-ant‬‬

‫הופכת פועל לשם עצם‬

‫‪-ment‬‬

‫הופכת פועל לשם עצם אשר מבצע את הפעולה‬

‫‪-or‬‬

‫הופכת פועל לשם עצם אשר מבצע את הפעולה‬

‫‪-er‬‬

‫הופכת שם תואר לשם עצם‬

‫‪-ity‬‬

‫הופכת שם תואר לשם עצם‬

‫‪-ness‬‬

‫הופכת שם תואר או שם עצם מוחשי לשם עצם‬ ‫מופשט‬

‫‪-ship‬‬

‫סיומות של שמות תואר‬ ‫משמעותי ‪significant -‬‬ ‫מבריק‪ ,‬זוהר ‪brilliant -‬‬ ‫בטוח )בעצמו(‪ ,‬בעל בטחון ‪confident -‬‬ ‫עצמי‬ ‫כשיר‪ ,‬מתאים‪ ,‬מסוגל ‪competent -‬‬ ‫‪child-childish‬‬ ‫ילד‪-‬ילדותי‬ ‫‪green-greenish‬‬ ‫ירוק‪-‬ירקרק‬ ‫‪new-newer‬‬ ‫חדש‪-‬יותר חדש‬ ‫‪new-newest‬‬ ‫חדש‪-‬הכי חדש‬ ‫‪destruct-destructive‬‬ ‫להרוס‪-‬הרסני‬ ‫‪do-doable‬‬ ‫לעשות‪-‬שניתן לעשותו‪ ,‬בר ביצוע‬ ‫‪reverse-reversible‬‬ ‫להפוך‪-‬הפיך‬ ‫‪nation-national‬‬ ‫לאום‪-‬לאומי‬ ‫‪acid-acidic‬‬ ‫חומצה‪-‬חומצתי‪ ,‬חומצי‬ ‫‪method-methodical‬‬ ‫שיטה‪-‬שיטתי‬ ‫‪adventure-adventurous‬‬ ‫הרפתקה‪-‬הרפתקני‬ ‫‪use-useful‬‬ ‫שימוש‪ ,‬תועלת‪-‬שימושי‪ ,‬יעיל‪ ,‬מועיל‬ ‫‪use-useless‬‬ ‫שימוש‪ ,‬תועלת‪-‬חסר שימוש‪ ,‬חסר תועלת‬

‫מציינת שם תואר‬

‫‪-ant‬‬

‫מציינת שם תואר‬

‫‪-ent‬‬

‫מציינת שם תואר אשר ניחן )לפחות‬ ‫במידה מסוימת( בתכונה שמהווה את‬ ‫גרעין המילה‬

‫‪-ish‬‬

‫הופכת שם תואר לשם תואר ‪ +‬יותר‬

‫‪-er‬‬

‫הופכת שם תואר לשם תואר שהוא‬ ‫הכי‬ ‫הופכת פועל לשם תואר‬

‫‪-est‬‬ ‫‪-ive‬‬ ‫‪-able‬‬

‫הופכת פועל לשם תואר אשר מציין‬ ‫שמילת הגרעין אפשרית‬ ‫הופכת פועל לשם תואר אשר מציין‬ ‫שמילת הגרעין אפשרית‬ ‫הופכת שם עצם לשם תואר‬

‫‪-al‬‬

‫הופכת שם עצם לשם תואר‬

‫‪-ic‬‬

‫הופכת שם עצם לשם תואר‬

‫‪-ical‬‬

‫הופכת שם עצם לשם תואר‬

‫‪-ous‬‬

‫הופכת שם עצם לשם תואר שניחן‬ ‫במילת הגרעין‬ ‫הופכת שם עצם לשם תואר שחסר‬ ‫את מילת הגרעין‬

‫‪-ful‬‬

‫‪-ible‬‬

‫‪-less‬‬

‫סיומות של פעלים‬ ‫‪talk-talks‬‬ ‫לדבר‪-‬מדבר‪/‬ת‬ ‫‪soft-soften‬‬ ‫רך‪-‬לרכך‬ ‫‪false-falsify‬‬ ‫מזויף‪ ,‬כוזב‪ ,‬שקרי‪-‬לזייף‪ ,‬להפריך‬ ‫‪character-characterize‬‬ ‫מאפיין‪ -‬לאפיין‬

‫‪-s‬‬

‫מציינת שהמילה היא פועל בהווה‬ ‫בגוף שלישי יחיד‬ ‫הופכת שם תואר לפועל‬

‫‪-en‬‬

‫הופכת שם תואר לפועל‬

‫‪-ify‬‬

‫הופכת שם תואר או שם עצם לפועל‬

‫‪-ize‬‬

‫סיומת תואר הפועל‬ ‫‪polite-politely‬‬ ‫מנומס‪-‬בנימוס‬

‫‪30‬‬

‫הופכת שם תואר לתואר הפועל‬

‫‪-ly‬‬

.‫פרקו את המילים הבאות למילות גרעין וסופיות ותרגמו אותן לעברית‬ 1. believable 2. difference 3. directly 4. fantasize 5. harden 6. hopeless 7. kingdom 8. kitchenette 9. lioness 10. motherhood 11. narrowest 12. pinkish 13. purify 14. theatrical 15. wonderful .‫ מילות גרעין וסופיות ותרגמו אותן לעברית‬,‫פרקו את המילים הבאות לתחיליות‬ 1. carelessness 2. coincidental 3. disqualify 4. illegally 5. immobilizer 6. immortality 7. independence 8. indescribable 9. insignificant 10. intravenous 11. irresponsibility 12. irreversible 13. multilateral 14. prejudgment 15. unreliable

31

‫ניבים וביטויים ‪Idioms -‬‬ ‫ביטויים‪ ,‬כמו פעלים מורכבים‪ ,‬הינם צירוף של מספר מילים אשר משמעותם שונה מסכום‬ ‫המשמעויות של המילים אשר מרכיבות את הביטוי‪.‬‬ ‫רצף המילים ‪ In addition to‬אינו מהווה ביטוי כי משמעותו של רצף מילים זה זהה לסכום‬ ‫המשמעויות של שלוש המילים אשר מרכיבות אותו‪" :‬בנוסף ל‪."-‬‬ ‫לעומתו‪ ,‬רצף המילים ‪ let alone‬הוא ביטוי כי פירושו אינו "להרשות לבד" אלא "על אחת‬ ‫כמה וכמה"‪.‬‬ ‫ברוב המקרים‪ ,‬משמעות הביטוי היא שרירותית‪ .‬לכן‪ ,‬גם אם אנו מכירים כל מילה בביטוי‪ ,‬לאו‬ ‫דווקא נבין את משמעות הביטוי‪ .‬בדוגמה שראינו‪ ,‬הכרת המילים ‪ let‬ו‪ alone-‬אינה מספיקה‬ ‫כדי להבין את הביטוי ‪ .let alone‬כלומר‪ ,‬ביטויים צריך להכיר‪ .‬לכן‪ ,‬מומלץ לשנן היטב את‬ ‫הביטויים הנפוצים הבאים‪:‬‬ ‫הרבה‪ ,‬המון‬

‫‪a great deal‬‬

‫‪1.‬‬

‫לפי‬

‫‪according to‬‬

‫‪2.‬‬

‫‪as a matter of fact‬‬

‫‪3.‬‬

‫‪as far as‬‬

‫‪4.‬‬

‫‪as much as‬‬

‫‪5.‬‬

‫‪as opposed to‬‬

‫‪6.‬‬

‫לפחות‪ ,‬לכל הפחות‬

‫‪at least‬‬

‫‪7.‬‬

‫לכל היותר‬

‫‪at most‬‬

‫‪8.‬‬

‫בהחלט‪ ,‬בוודאי‬

‫‪by all means‬‬

‫‪9.‬‬

‫בהחלט לא‪ ,‬בשום פנים ואופן‬

‫‪by no means‬‬

‫‪10.‬‬

‫להתקשות ב‪-‬‬

‫‪to find (something) difficult‬‬

‫‪11.‬‬

‫ממקור ראשון‬

‫‪firsthand‬‬

‫‪12.‬‬

‫‪for a living‬‬

‫‪13.‬‬

‫‪for instance‬‬

‫‪14.‬‬

‫‪for that matter‬‬

‫‪15.‬‬

‫למעשה‬ ‫ככל ש‪ ,-‬עד‪ ,‬עד כמה ש‪-‬‬ ‫עד כמה ש‪-‬‬ ‫בניגוד ל‪ ,-‬לעומת‬

‫למחייתו‪/‬ה‬ ‫לדוגמה‪ ,‬למשל‬ ‫באשר לכך‪ ,‬לצורך העניין‪,‬‬ ‫אם כבר מדברים‬ ‫להתקשות ב‪-‬‬ ‫בהתאם ל‪ ,-‬לפי‬ ‫בקיצור‪ ,‬בתמציתיות‪ ,‬על קצה‬ ‫המזלג‬

‫‪32‬‬

‫‪to have trouble‬‬

‫‪16.‬‬

‫‪in accordance with‬‬

‫‪17.‬‬

‫‪in a nutshell‬‬

‫‪18.‬‬

19.

in detail

,‫ בפרטי פרטים‬,‫בפירוט‬ ‫בפרוטרוט‬

20.

in essence

‫ בעיקרו‬,‫ביסודו של דבר‬

21.

in great detail

22.

in fact

23.

in (someone's) opinion

24.

in order to

‫ כדי‬,‫על מנת‬

25.

in terms of

‫מבחינת‬

26.

let alone

‫ באריכות‬,‫בפירוט רב‬ ‫ לאמיתו של דבר‬,‫למעשה‬ ‫י‬/‫לְדַ עַ ת מישהו‬

‫ לא כל‬,‫על אחת כמה וכמה‬ ‫ קל וחומר‬,‫שכן‬

27.

to make a living

28.

no matter

29.

not to mention

30.

old fashioned

31.

on occasion

32.

on the one hand

33.

on the other hand

34.

X rather than Y

‫להתפרנס‬ ‫ לא משנה‬,‫לא חשוב‬ ‫ שלא להזכיר‬,‫שלא לדבר על‬ ‫מיושן‬ ‫לעיתים‬ ‫מצד אחד‬ ‫מצד שני‬ X ,Y ‫ במקום‬X ,Y ‫ ולא‬X Y ‫יותר מאשר‬

35.

so far

36.

such as

37.

to take into account

‫לקחת בחשבון‬

38.

to take into consideration

‫לקחת בחשבון‬

39.

to date

40.

under no circumstances

41.

up to date

‫ מעודכן‬,‫עדכני‬

42.

vice versa

‫להיפך‬

43.

(someone) would rather X than Y

‫ לפי שעה‬,‫ עד כה‬,‫עד עתה‬ ‫כגון‬

‫נכון להיום‬ ‫בשום פנים ואופן‬

‫ על‬X ‫)מישהו( היה מעדיף‬ Y ‫פני‬

33

‫מילות זמן‬ Before

‫לפני‬

First of all

‫ראשית‬

Now

‫כעת‬

Earlier

‫קודם לכן‬

Initially

‫בתחילה‬

So far

‫עד כה‬

Previously

‫לפני כן‬

Primarily

‫בראש ובראשונה‬

Until

(-‫עד )ש‬

Formerly

‫לשעבר‬

At last

‫סוף כל סוף‬

Till

(-‫עד )ש‬

While

-‫בזמן ש‬

Eventually

‫בסופו של דבר‬

Yesterday

‫אתמול‬

During

‫במהלך‬

Finally

‫לבסוף‬

Last night

‫אמש‬

As

-‫תוך כדי ש‬

Next

‫הבא‬

Today

‫ כיום‬,‫היום‬

When

‫כאשר‬

tomorrow

‫מחר‬

Tomorrow

‫מחר‬

Meanwhile

‫בינתיים‬

Dawn

‫ התחלה‬,‫שחר‬

Yesteryear

‫אשתקד‬

In the Meantime

‫בינתיים‬

Dusk

‫ סוף‬,‫ערביים‬

At length

‫באריכות‬

Simultaneously

‫בו זמנית‬

At the moment

‫כרגע‬

Then

‫אז‬

Currently

‫כרגע‬

This instant

‫ברגע זה‬

On the spot

(‫מיידית )במקום‬

Immediately

‫מיד‬

Never

‫לעולם לא‬

Instantly

‫בשנייה זו‬

Soon

‫בקרוב‬

Forever

‫לנצח‬

Promptly

‫מידית‬

As soon as

-‫ברגע ש‬

Always

‫תמיד‬

Urgently

‫ללא דיחוי‬

As long as

‫כל עוד‬

Endlessly

‫בלא סוף‬

Immediately

‫תכף ומיד‬

After

‫אחרי‬

Nonstop

‫ לנצח‬,‫סטופ‬-‫נון‬

Imminent

‫הממשמש ובא‬

Afterwards

‫לאחר זאת‬

Daily

‫על בסיס יומי‬

Past

‫ לשעבר‬,‫עבר‬

Later

‫מאוחר יותר‬

Weekly

‫על בסיס שבועי‬

Future

‫ מתעתד‬,‫עתיד‬

Sooner

‫במוקדם‬

Monthly

‫על בסיס חודשי‬

Present

‫ חל כעת‬,‫הווה‬

Late

‫מאוחר‬

Yearly

Subsequently

‫בעקבות זאת‬

Annually

‫על בסיס שנתי‬

Temporary

‫זמני‬

At first

‫בהתחלה‬

Following

‫מיד לאחר מכן‬

Whenever

-‫כל אימת ש‬

‫ על בסיס שנתי‬Contemporary ‫ עכשווי‬,‫זמננו‬-‫בן‬

34

‫מילות מקום‬

About

‫בסביבה‬

By

‫על יד‬

On top of

‫מעל‬

Above

‫מעל‬

Close

‫קרוב‬

Onward

‫קדימה‬

Across

‫ מעבר‬,‫לרוחב‬

Descending

‫בירידה‬

Over

‫מעל‬

Adjacent

‫בסמיכות‬

Distant

‫מרוחק‬

Past

-‫מעבר ל‬

Ahead

‫ מקדימה‬,‫לפנים‬

Downward

‫למטה‬

Rear

‫אחורי‬

Ahead of

‫לפני‬

Facing

‫מול‬

Remote

‫רחוק‬

Along

‫לאורך‬

Forth

‫הלאה‬

Rightward

‫ימינה‬

Among

‫ בין‬,‫בקרב‬

forward

‫קדימה‬

Somewhere

‫איפשהו‬

Around

‫מסביב‬

Fro

‫חזור‬

Straight

‫הישר‬

Ascending

‫בעליה‬

Further

‫ בהמשך‬,‫הלאה‬

Surrounding

‫סובב‬

At

-‫ב‬

Here

‫כאן‬

There

‫שם‬

Back of

‫מאחורי‬

In

-‫ב‬

Through

‫דרך‬

Backward

‫אחורנית‬

In front of

‫מלפני‬

To

‫ הלוך‬,‫אל‬

Before

‫לפני‬

Inside

‫בתוך‬

Toward

‫לכיוון‬

Behind

‫מאחור‬

Into

‫לתוך‬

Under

‫תחת‬

Below

‫מתחת‬

Leftward

‫שמאלה‬

Underneath

‫מתחת‬

Beneath

‫מתחת‬

Near

-‫קרוב ל‬

Upon

‫על‬

Beside

‫לצד‬

Nearby

‫בקרבת מקום‬

Upward

‫מעלה‬

Between

‫בין‬

Next to

-‫בצמוד ל‬

Where

-‫היכן ש‬

Beyond

-‫מעבר ל‬

On

‫על‬

Wherever

‫איפה שהוא‬

35

‫מילים דומות בכתיב‪ /‬צליל‬ ‫פירוש‬

‫מילה‬

‫פירוש‬

‫מילה‬

‫כחול‬

‫‪Blue‬‬

‫להסתגל‬

‫‪Adapt‬‬

‫פוצץ‪ ,‬נשב‪ ,‬ניפח‬

‫‪Blew‬‬

‫לאמץ‬

‫‪Adopt‬‬

‫אדם משעמם‬

‫‪Bore‬‬

‫אני )אעשה‪,‬‬

‫חזיר בר‬

‫‪Boar‬‬

‫אהיה(‬

‫משועמם‬ ‫לוח‪ ,‬לעלות על‬

‫‪Board‬‬

‫מעבר‬

‫‪Isle‬‬ ‫‪Aisle‬‬

‫לשנות‬

‫‪Alter‬‬

‫לשבור‬

‫‪Break‬‬

‫מזבח‬

‫‪Altar‬‬

‫לבלום‬

‫‪Brake‬‬

‫דודה‬

‫‪Aunt‬‬

‫התרבה‬

‫‪Bred‬‬

‫נמלה‬

‫‪Ant‬‬

‫לחם‬

‫‪Bread‬‬

‫שמונה‬

‫‪Eight‬‬

‫של כלה‬

‫‪Bridal‬‬

‫אכל )בעבר(‬

‫‪Ate‬‬

‫רסן‬

‫‪Bridle‬‬

‫אחר‬

‫‪Other‬‬

‫ענף‪ ,‬סניף‬

‫‪Branch‬‬

‫סופר‪ ,‬מחבר‬

‫‪Author‬‬

‫בראנץ'‬

‫‪Brunch‬‬

‫קליפת גזע עץ‬

‫‪Bark‬‬

‫בדל‪ ,‬ישבן‬

‫‪Butt‬‬

‫נובח‪ ,‬נביחה‬

‫‪Bark‬‬

‫אבל‬

‫‪But‬‬

‫דבורה‬

‫‪Bee‬‬

‫להיות‬

‫‪Be‬‬

‫מטוס‪/‬אניה‬

‫שלום‬ ‫)להתראות(‬ ‫לקנות‬ ‫ליד‪ ,‬על ידי‬ ‫קר‬ ‫קרוי‪ ,‬קרא‬ ‫למישהו‬

‫‪36‬‬

‫‪Bored‬‬

‫אי‬

‫‪I'll‬‬

‫‪Bye‬‬ ‫‪Buy‬‬ ‫‪By‬‬ ‫‪Cold‬‬ ‫‪Called‬‬

‫להציע מחיר‪,‬‬ ‫לברך‬ ‫חרוז‬ ‫נשך‬ ‫סלק )ירק(‬ ‫להכות‪ ,‬לנצח‪,‬‬

‫‪Bid‬‬ ‫‪Bead‬‬ ‫‪Bit‬‬ ‫‪Beet‬‬ ‫‪Beat‬‬

‫למכור‬

‫‪Sell‬‬

‫מקצב‬

‫תא‬

‫‪Cell‬‬

‫פח )אשפה‪,‬‬

‫סדרתי‬

‫‪Serial‬‬

‫למשל(‬

‫דגני בוקר‬

‫‪Cereal‬‬

‫שעועית‬

‫מיתר‪ ,‬חבל‬

‫‪Cord‬‬

‫היה‬

‫אקורד‬

‫‪Chord‬‬

‫חוף ים‬

‫‪Beach‬‬

‫כלבה‬

‫‪Bitch‬‬

‫‪Bin‬‬ ‫‪Bean‬‬ ‫‪Been‬‬

‫פירוש‬ ‫התעופף‬ ‫מחלת השפעת‬ ‫)סלנג(‬

‫‪37‬‬

‫מילה‬ ‫‪Flew‬‬ ‫‪Flu‬‬

‫פירוש‬ ‫סעיף‬ ‫טפרים‪,‬‬ ‫ציפורניים‬

‫מילה‬ ‫‪Clause‬‬ ‫‪Claws‬‬

‫ארבע‬

‫‪Four‬‬

‫צבע‬

‫‪Color‬‬

‫עבור‬

‫‪For‬‬

‫קולר‬

‫‪Collar‬‬

‫טיפש‬

‫‪Fool‬‬

‫ציון לשבח‬

‫‪Commend‬‬

‫מלא‬

‫‪Full‬‬

‫פקודה‬

‫‪Command‬‬

‫חיוך‪ ,‬גיחוך‬

‫‪Grin‬‬

‫ייעוץ‬

‫‪Counsel‬‬

‫ירוק‬

‫‪Green‬‬

‫מועצה‬

‫‪Council‬‬

‫גדל‬

‫‪Grown‬‬

‫שייט‬

‫‪Cruise‬‬

‫אנחה‬

‫‪Groan‬‬

‫צוותים‬

‫‪Crews‬‬

‫הלך‪ ,‬אזל‬

‫‪Gone‬‬

‫שוטר‬

‫‪Cop‬‬

‫רובה‬

‫‪Gun‬‬

‫גביע‪ ,‬ספל‬

‫‪Cup‬‬

‫חור‬

‫‪Hole‬‬

‫אייל‬

‫‪Deer‬‬

‫כל‪ ,‬שלם‬

‫‪Whole‬‬

‫יקר‬

‫‪Dear‬‬

‫עקב‬

‫‪Heel‬‬

‫הגון‬

‫‪Decent‬‬

‫גבעה‬

‫‪Hill‬‬

‫ירידה‬

‫‪Descend‬‬

‫לרפא‬

‫‪Heal‬‬

‫לצבוע‬

‫‪Dye‬‬

‫שמע )עבר(‬

‫‪Heard‬‬

‫למות‬

‫‪Die‬‬

‫עדר )בע"ח(‬

‫‪Herd‬‬

‫זה‬

‫‪It‬‬

‫לשמוע‬

‫‪Hear‬‬

‫לאכול‬

‫‪Eat‬‬

‫פה‬

‫‪Here‬‬

‫לרגש‬

‫‪Excite‬‬

‫גבוה‬

‫‪High‬‬

‫להתקיים‬

‫‪Exist‬‬

‫ברכת שלום‬

‫‪Hi‬‬

‫מעבורת‬

‫‪Ferry‬‬

‫חום‬

‫‪Heat‬‬

‫פיה‬

‫‪Fairy‬‬

‫מכה‪ ,‬להכות‬

‫‪Hit‬‬

‫אגרוף‬

‫‪Fist‬‬

‫שלנו‬

‫‪Our‬‬

‫סעודת‪ ,‬משתה‬

‫‪Feast‬‬

‫שעה‬

‫‪Hour‬‬

‫למלא‬

‫‪Fill‬‬

‫אליל‬

‫‪Idol‬‬

‫לחוש‬

‫‪Feel‬‬

‫בטלה‪ ,‬לריק‬

‫‪Idle‬‬

‫מעשה גבורה‬

‫‪Feat‬‬

‫גנים‬

‫‪Genes‬‬

‫התאמה‪ ,‬כושר‬

‫‪Fit‬‬

‫ג'ינס )מכנסיים(‬

‫‪Jeans‬‬

‫כפות רגליים‬

‫‪Feet‬‬

‫בקר‬

‫‪Cattle‬‬

‫לנוס‬

‫‪Flee‬‬

‫קומקום‬

‫‪Kettle‬‬

‫פרעוש‬

‫‪Flea‬‬

‫פירוש‬

‫מילה‬

‫פירוש‬

‫לילה‬

‫‪Night‬‬

‫אביר‬

‫‪Knight‬‬

‫נקי‪ ,‬מסודר‬

‫‪Neat‬‬

‫מאום‬

‫‪None‬‬

‫לסרוג‬

‫‪Knit‬‬

‫נזירה‬

‫‪Nun‬‬

‫בודד‬

‫‪Lone‬‬

‫חיוור‬

‫‪Pale‬‬

‫הלוואה‬

‫‪Loan‬‬

‫דלי‬

‫‪Pail‬‬

‫מדשאה‬

‫‪Lawn‬‬

‫חי‬

‫‪Lives‬‬

‫עוזב‪ ,‬עלים‬

‫‪Leaves‬‬

‫דליפה‪ ,‬לדלוף‬

‫‪Leak‬‬

‫ללקק‬

‫‪Lick‬‬

‫כרשה‬

‫‪Leek‬‬

‫לעזוב‬

‫‪Leave‬‬

‫לחיות‬

‫‪Live‬‬

‫חוק‬

‫‪Law‬‬

‫נמוך‬

‫‪Low‬‬

‫מניע‪ ,‬סיבה‬ ‫מוטיב‪ ,‬רעיון‬ ‫עיקרי‬

‫לדגמן‪ ,‬פוזה‬ ‫כפות רגלים )של‬ ‫בע"ח(‬ ‫עצירה‬ ‫חתיכה‪ ,‬חלק‪,‬‬ ‫יצירה‬ ‫שלום‬ ‫תדר )צליל(‪,‬‬ ‫להטיל‬ ‫אפרסק‬

‫‪Motive‬‬ ‫‪Motif‬‬

‫‪Pose‬‬ ‫‪Paws‬‬ ‫‪Pause‬‬ ‫‪Piece‬‬ ‫‪Peace‬‬ ‫‪Pitch‬‬ ‫‪Peach‬‬

‫חדרנית‪,‬‬

‫‪Maid‬‬

‫זוג‬

‫‪Pair‬‬

‫משרתת‪ ,‬עלמה‬

‫אגס‬

‫‪Pear‬‬

‫עשה‪ ,‬עשוי‬

‫רוכלות‬

‫‪Peddle‬‬

‫זכר‬

‫‪Male‬‬

‫דוושה‬

‫‪Pedal‬‬

‫דואר‬

‫‪Mail‬‬

‫לבחור‪ ,‬מכוש‬

‫‪Pick‬‬

‫צבאי‪ ,‬קרבי‬

‫להציץ‬

‫‪Peek‬‬

‫מצביא )דרגת‬

‫פסגה‪ ,‬שיא‬

‫‪Peak‬‬

‫קצונה(‬

‫גרגור )חתול(‬

‫‪Purr‬‬

‫תירס‬

‫‪Maize‬‬

‫פר )מידה(‬

‫‪Per‬‬

‫מבוך‬

‫‪Maze‬‬

‫להיפגש‬

‫‪Meet‬‬

‫בשר‬

‫‪Meat‬‬

‫מדליה‬

‫‪Meddle‬‬

‫להתערב‬

‫‪Medal‬‬

‫פאון )יצור‬ ‫מיתולוגי(‬ ‫עופר )צבי צעיר(‬ ‫טלפון‬

‫‪38‬‬

‫מילה‬

‫‪Faun‬‬ ‫‪Fawn‬‬ ‫‪Phone‬‬

‫לקלף‪ ,‬קליפה‬

‫‪Peel‬‬

‫משני‪ ,‬קטין‪,‬‬

‫כדור )תרופה(‬

‫‪Pill‬‬

‫מינורי‬

‫מטוס‪ ,‬מישור‬

‫‪Plane‬‬

‫כורה‬

‫פשוט‪ ,‬מישור‬

‫‪Plain‬‬

‫‪Made‬‬

‫‪Martial‬‬ ‫‪Marshal‬‬

‫‪Minor‬‬ ‫‪Miner‬‬

‫פירוש‬ ‫כונכיה‬ ‫פועל עזר לציון‬ ‫עתיד‬

‫‪Shell‬‬ ‫‪Shall‬‬

‫לשחר לטרף‪,‬‬ ‫להציק‬ ‫להתפלל‬

‫‪Prey‬‬ ‫‪Pray‬‬

‫ספינה‬

‫‪Ship‬‬

‫מנהל בי"ס‪,‬‬

‫כבשה‬

‫‪Sheep‬‬

‫עיקרי‬

‫חטאים‬

‫‪Sins‬‬

‫עיקרון‪ ,‬פרינציפ‬

‫מאז‪ ,‬מאחר ו‪...‬‬

‫‪Since‬‬

‫רווח‬

‫‪Profit‬‬

‫להחליק‪ ,‬חמק‬

‫‪Slip‬‬

‫נביא‬

‫‪Prophet‬‬

‫לישון‬

‫‪Sleep‬‬

‫בריכה‬

‫‪Pool‬‬

‫למשוך‬

‫‪Pull‬‬

‫שלטון )מלוכה(‬

‫‪Reign‬‬

‫גשם‬

‫‪Rain‬‬

‫מסור‪ ,‬ניסר‪,‬‬ ‫ראה‬ ‫אז‪ ,‬ובכן‪ ,‬לכן‬

‫‪Saw‬‬ ‫‪So‬‬

‫‪Principal‬‬ ‫‪Principle‬‬

‫כואב‬

‫‪Sore‬‬

‫לעלות‪ ,‬לזרוח‬

‫לנסוק‬

‫‪Soar‬‬

‫לגדל‪ ,‬להגביה‪,‬‬

‫נשמה‬

‫‪Soul‬‬

‫העלאה )בשכר(‬

‫סוליה‬

‫‪Sole‬‬

‫קרא )עבר(‬

‫‪Read‬‬

‫סכום‬

‫‪Sum‬‬

‫אדום‬

‫‪Red‬‬

‫מספר‪ ,‬כמה‬

‫‪Some‬‬

‫למלוק‬

‫‪Wring‬‬

‫מיוחד‬

‫‪Special‬‬

‫טבעת‪ ,‬לצלצל‬

‫‪Ring‬‬

‫מרחבי‬

‫‪Spatial‬‬

‫רכב )עבר(‬

‫‪Rode‬‬

‫מדרגה‬

‫‪Stair‬‬

‫דרך‪ ,‬כביש‬

‫‪Road‬‬

‫לבהות‬

‫‪Stare‬‬

‫מחק‪ ,‬גומי‬

‫‪Rubber‬‬

‫שודד‬

‫‪Robber‬‬

‫נייח‪ ,‬קבוע‬ ‫ניר מכתבים‪ ,‬כלי‬ ‫כתיבה‬

‫‪39‬‬

‫מילה‬

‫פירוש‬

‫מילה‬

‫‪Stationary‬‬ ‫‪Stationery‬‬

‫להתגלגל‪,‬‬ ‫לחמניה‬

‫‪Rise‬‬ ‫‪Raise‬‬

‫‪Roll‬‬ ‫‪Role‬‬

‫יתד‪ ,‬לשפד‬

‫‪Stake‬‬

‫תפקיד‬

‫אומצה‬

‫‪Steak‬‬

‫לשדוד‬

‫לגנוב‬

‫‪Steal‬‬

‫לשפשף‪ ,‬לחכך‪,‬‬

‫פלדה‬

‫‪Steel‬‬

‫למחוק‬

‫בן‬

‫‪Son‬‬

‫ים‬

‫‪Sea‬‬

‫שמש‬

‫‪Sun‬‬

‫לראות‬

‫‪See‬‬

‫זנב‬

‫‪Tail‬‬

‫ריח‬

‫‪Scent‬‬

‫מעשיה‬

‫‪Tale‬‬

‫סנט )אגורה(‬

‫‪Cent‬‬

‫נשלח‬

‫‪Sent‬‬

‫‪Rob‬‬ ‫‪Rub‬‬

‫פירוש‬

‫מילה‬

‫פירוש‬

‫מילה‬

‫האם‪ ,‬שמא‬

‫‪Whether‬‬

‫השליך‬

‫‪Threw‬‬

‫מזג אוויר‬

‫‪Weather‬‬

‫דרך‪ ,‬מבעד‬

‫‪Through‬‬

‫חלוש‬

‫‪Weak‬‬

‫קשר )עבר(‬

‫‪Tied‬‬

‫שבוע‬

‫‪Week‬‬

‫גאות‬

‫‪Tide‬‬

‫לייבב‪ ,‬לקונן‬

‫‪Wail‬‬

‫וריד‬

‫לוויתן‬

‫‪Whale‬‬

‫שבשבת‪ ,‬להב‬

‫‪Vein‬‬

‫חור‬

‫‪Hole‬‬

‫המדחף‬

‫‪Vane‬‬

‫שלם‬

‫‪Whole‬‬

‫גאותן‪ ,‬שחצן‪,‬‬

‫‪Vain‬‬

‫מי הוא‪ ,‬שהוא‬

‫‪Who's‬‬

‫שוא‬

‫של מי )שייכות(‬

‫‪Whose‬‬

‫וולט )בחשמל(‬

‫חיטה‬

‫‪Wheat‬‬

‫קפיצה במוט‪,‬‬

‫פקחות‪ ,‬תבונה‬

‫‪Wit‬‬

‫כספת‬

‫איזה‪ ,‬אשר‬

‫‪Which‬‬

‫משקל‬

‫‪Weight‬‬

‫מכשפה‬

‫‪Witch‬‬

‫להמתין‬

‫‪Wait‬‬

‫חום‬

‫‪Warm‬‬

‫לבש )עבר(‬

‫‪Wore‬‬

‫תולעת‬

‫‪Worm‬‬

‫מלחמה‬

‫‪War‬‬

‫מתניים‬

‫‪Waist‬‬

‫בזבוז‬

‫‪Waste‬‬

‫יער‪ ,‬עץ‬ ‫צורת העבר של‬ ‫‪will‬‬

‫‪Wood‬‬ ‫‪Would‬‬

‫אנחנו )עשינו‪,‬‬ ‫היינו(‬ ‫לשזור‪ ,‬לארוג‬

‫‪40‬‬

‫‪Volt‬‬ ‫‪Vault‬‬

‫‪Weave‬‬ ‫‪We've‬‬

‫מילים נרדפות‬ ‫עברית‬

‫מלים נרדפות‬

‫ קל תנועה‬,‫זריז‬

Agile

Limber

Nimble

‫ לא ידידותי‬,‫ מסוגר‬,‫מרוחק‬

Aloof

Distant

Reserved

‫להתחיל‬

Begin

Start

Initiate

‫אמונה‬

Belief

Faith

Conviction

(‫סופה )שלג‬

Blizzard

Storm

-

‫להתפאר‬

Boast

Brag

Swagger

‫ להציק‬,‫להטריד‬

Bother

Disturb

Annoy

‫ לנתץ‬,‫לשבור‬

Break

Crack

Fracture

‫ לשאוף‬,‫לנשום‬

Breathe

Inhale

Respire

‫עלון‬

Brochure

Flyer

Pamphlet

‫כרכרה‬

Carriage

Wagon

Stagecoach

‫ רגיל‬,‫פשוט‬

Common

Simple

Ordinary

‫ שכיח‬,‫נפוץ‬

Common

Widespread

Abundant

‫להסתיר‬

Conceal

Hide

Mask

‫להרהר‬

Contemplate

Reflect

Ponder

‫ חמור‬,‫קריטי‬

Critical

Severe

Grave

‫ שביר‬,‫עדין‬

Delicate

Fragile

-

‫ להרוס‬,‫למוטט‬

Demolish

Destroy

Wreck

‫ דו‬,‫כפול‬

Double

Dual

Pair

(‫ זבל אורגני )פרות‬,‫גללים‬

Dung

Manure

Compost

‫ להשתכן‬,‫להתגורר‬

Dwell

Reside

Inhabit

‫אלגנטי‬

Elegant

Classy

Stylish

‫לסיים‬

End

Finish

Terminate

‫מספיק‬

Enough

Adequate

Sufficient

‫ לחשוף‬,‫להציג‬

Exhibit

Demonstrate

Show

‫ לגלות‬,‫לחשוף‬

Expose

Uncover

Reveal

‫ בדיון‬,‫פיקציה‬

Fiction

Fantasy

Imagination

‫ לתת חסות‬,‫לממן‬

Finance

Sponsor

Endorse

‫ הולם‬,‫מתאים‬

Fit

Match

Suit

'‫ פרינג‬,‫שוליים‬

Fringe

Periphery

Margin

‫ הדר‬,‫תפארת‬

Glory

Splendor

Grandeur

41

‫עברית‬

‫מלים נרדפות‬

‫לעצור‬

Halt

Stop

Pause

‫ מאושר‬,‫שמח‬

Happy

Joyous

Cheerful

‫ נדיב‬,‫ אדיב‬,‫טוב לב‬

Kind

‫ מקווה מים‬,‫אגם‬

Lake

Pond

Lagoon

‫אדמה‬

Land

Ground

Soil

‫נישואין‬

Marriage

Wedding

Matrimony

‫ נקי‬,‫מסודר‬

Neat

Tidy

Clean

‫מצעד‬

Parade

March

Strut

‫ לחורר‬,‫ לדקור‬,‫לנקב‬

Pierce

Stab

Prick

‫ מטה‬,‫מוט‬

Pole

Rod

Staff

‫ לעצור‬,‫למנוע‬

Prevent

Obstruct

Inhibit

‫ מבולבל‬,‫תמה‬

Puzzled

Baffled

Confused

‫לשדוד‬

Rob

Burgle

Loot

‫סלע‬

Rock

Stone

Boulder

‫לסובב‬

Rotate

Spin

Whirl

‫ קלושות‬,‫מעט‬

Slightly

Faintly

Vaguely

‫להתגנב‬

Sneak

Creep

-

‫ לנעוץ מבט‬,‫לבהות‬

Stare

Gaze

Glare

‫להסריח‬

Stink

Reek

Malodor

‫ עמיד‬,‫חזק‬

Strong

Durable

Forceful

‫חרב‬

Sword

Blade

Saber

‫יקום‬

Universe

World

Cosmos

‫ נבון‬,‫חכם‬

Wise

Clever

Shrewd

‫לכתוב‬

Write

Inscribe

Engrave

Compassionate Benevolent

42

English Reader

43

Mass Production Long ago, goods were manufactured by craftsmen, who were skilled workmen. A craftsman was proud of each article he made. He spent a long time in making it and took great care over its manufacturing, and people paid a high price for it when it was finished. All the luxurious Persian carpets, the beautiful Chinese pottery and the hand-made lace of certain European countries were made in this way. However, these articles were bought only by the very rich.

Poorer people had to be satisfied with goods that were roughly and cheaply made.

When the population of Europe increased, there was a demand for goods of better quality. These goods had to be produced in factories and workshops in which hundreds of workers were employed. The invention of the steam engine helped manufacturers by providing cheaper power to work the machines.

Machines took the place of men. Production was increased. People were able to buy articles of good quality at low prices. The age of mass production had arrived.

A 'mass' is a large number or quantity. Mass production means the manufacture of a large number of identical articles by the use of machinery. Cars, radios and cameras are examples of the many types of article that are mass produced today. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ goods - ‫ מוצרים‬,‫ טובין‬,‫סחורה‬ to manufacture - ‫לייצר‬ craftsman - ‫ בעל מלאכה‬,‫אֻ מן‬ skilled - ‫מיומן‬ article - ‫ כתבה‬,‫ מאמר‬,‫ פריט‬,‫חפץ‬ lace - ‫תחרה‬ roughly - ‫ בערך‬,‫באופן גס‬ steam - ‫קיטור‬ to provide - ‫לספק‬ quantity - ‫כמות‬ identical - ‫זהה‬

44

A conveyor belt plays a large part in mass production. By means of the conveyor belt, which moves continuously, articles are conveyed from point to point during the various stages in their manufacture. A lot of time is saved in this way.

A visit to a factory is an interesting experience. Take, for example, a biscuit factory. The whole process of biscuit making is done by machinery. First of all, the ingredients such as flour, sugar, fat and water, are put into a mixing machine. The mixture comes out of the mixing machine in the form of dough and is passed on to a machine that presses the dough into moulds. In these moulds, the dough is given the shape of biscuits. Then the biscuits are taken on a conveyor belt to the oven. As they move through the oven, they are slowly cooked. When they are cool, they are taken off the moving belt by workers and packed into boxes. The boxes are weighed, made air-tight and wrapped. Then they are ready to leave the factory.

:‫מילים נבחרות‬ conveyor belt - ‫פס ייצור‬ by means of - ‫באמצעות‬ ingredients - ‫מרכיבים‬ form - ‫ טופס‬,‫צורה‬ dough - ‫בצק‬ mould - ‫ עובש‬,‫ מסגרת‬,‫ דגם‬,‫תבנית‬ air-tight - ‫ בלתי חדיר‬,‫אטום‬ to wrap - ‫ לכרוך‬,‫לעטוף‬

45

The French Revolution On January 21 1793, a square in Paris known as the "Place de la Revolution" was crowded with men, women and children. In the middle of the square stood the guillotine, which was used by the French to put to death criminals and traitors. Suddenly, a cry rose from the people waiting there. The man whom they had come to see executed came into sight in an open cart. The cart stopped at the foot of the ladder which led up to the platform where the guillotine stood. The man got down from the cart. He climbed the ladder and fell on his knees under the sharp blade, which dropped and cut off his head. The head of the lifeless man fell into a basket.

The head that fell was the head of Louis XVI, who had been crowned King of France in 1774. Then the crowd had cried 'Long live the King!' Now they cried 'Long live the nation!' What had caused this change in the French people? There were many reasons, but one of the most important was the injustice of the French system of taxation.

Almost all the taxes were paid by the peasants. The wealthy, the powerful and the nobility escaped taxation almost entirely. The peasants alone paid a property tax and a salt tax. They were taxed on the wine that they made when :‫מילים נבחרות‬ square - ‫ מרובע‬,‫ ריבועי‬,‫ ריבוע‬,‫כיכר‬ crowded - ‫ דחוק‬,‫צפוף‬ traitor - ‫בוגד‬ a cry - ‫ קריאה‬,‫ צעקה‬,‫זעקה‬ to execute - ‫ לבצע‬,‫להוציא להורג‬ cart - ‫עגלה‬ blade - ‫להב‬ crowned - ‫מוכתר‬ injustice - ‫חוסר צדק‬ taxation - ‫מיסוי‬ peasants - ‫ עם הארץ‬,‫איכרים‬ wealthy - ‫עשיר‬ nobility - ‫אצולה‬ property - ‫רכוש‬

46

they pressed their grapes, and on the corn that they ground. There were many parts of France where the peasants lived like animals. Arthur Young, an Englishman who traveled through France at that time, tells how he met a peasant woman whom he mistook for an old woman of seventy. Her age was twentyeight! Even the peasants who were more prosperous were afraid to live in a comfortable manner. They knew what happened to people who did so. Their taxes were increased.

The merchants and professional men, who lived in the towns, were also dissatisfied. They suffered from the great variety of restrictions which were placed on trade and on the conduct of business. Both they and the peasants wanted freedom in the management of their own affairs, which the government prevented them from achieving.

These demands, which were made with more and more force as the dissatisfaction grew, finally compelled the government to call a meeting of the States-General. This was the only institution which represented the nation. It consisted of representatives of the three 'estates' or sections of the community: the nobility, the clerks and the common people. It had not been consulted by the kings of France for 17 years, which meant that the kings and their advisers had grown more and more out of touch with the feelings and the wishes of the people that they governed. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ to press - ‫ ללחוץ‬,(‫לדרוך )ענבים‬ grapes - ‫ענבים‬ to grind - ‫( לטחון‬ground - ‫)טחון‬ prosperous - ‫ מצליח‬,‫משגשג‬ manner - ‫אופן‬ merchant - ‫סוחר‬ dissatisfied - ‫לא מרוצה‬ variety - ‫מגוון‬ restriction - ‫ הגבלה‬,‫מגבלה‬ trade - ‫מסחר‬ conduct - ‫ התנהגות‬,‫ניהול‬ management - ‫ניהול‬ affairs - (‫ פרשת אהבים )רומן‬,‫ פרשה‬,‫ עסק‬,‫עניין‬ to prevent - ‫למנוע‬ to compel - ‫ לאלץ‬,‫לחייב‬

47

The States-General met in May 1789. Immediately, a quarrel broke out between the representatives of the people, who were known as the Third Estate, and those of the other two estates. The Third Estate representatives declared they were the only group which could speak for the French people. They called themselves the National Assembly and took an oath not to disperse until their demands were met. The people of Paris supported them with violent demonstrations, which forced the King and his ministers to give in to them. The series of events which led to the execution of Louis XVI and the declaration of a republic followed from this point. The French Revolution had broken out.

The Abbe' Sie'ye's, who took part in these events and wrote about them, asked, 'What is the Third Estate?' He gave the answer himself. 'Everything.' 'What has it been until now?' 'Nothing.' 'What does it desire to be?' 'Something.' It was the Third Estate which had suffered most under the monarchy. The Third Estate was, therefore, determined to destroy that monarchy and the nobility and clergy that had supported it. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ institution - ‫ ארגון‬,‫ מכון‬,‫מוסד‬ to consist of - -‫להיות מורכב מ‬ representative - ‫נציג‬ clerks - ‫ זבנים‬,‫ פקידים‬,‫כמרים‬ common - ‫ משותף‬,‫ נפוץ‬,‫פשוט‬ to consult - ‫ להיוועץ‬,‫להתייעץ‬ wish - ‫ רצון‬,‫משאלה‬ quarrel - ‫ ריב‬,‫מריבה‬ to break out - ‫ להתפרץ‬,‫לפרוץ‬ assembly - ‫ בית המחוקקים‬,‫ כינוס‬,‫ עצרת‬,‫אסיפה‬ oath - ‫שבועה‬ to disperse - ‫ להתפזר‬,‫לפזר‬ demonstration - ‫הפגנה‬ series - ‫סדרה‬ declaration - ‫ הכרזה‬,‫הצהרה‬ desire - ‫ רצון עז‬,‫תשוקה‬ monarchy - ‫ משטר מלוכני‬,‫מונרכיה‬ determined - ‫נחוש בדעתו‬ clergy - ‫כמורה‬

48

The Lizard Kings About halfway between Fresno and San Jose, in California's Merced County, a tiny creature is stuck in an endless cycle, in which winning guarantees imminent defeat, and losing only foreshadows a brighter future. The creature is the sideblotched lizard, Uta Stansburiana, for which evolution has designed a unique chore: three distinct male types are caught in a living version of the rock-paperscissors game. In a recent issue of Nature, Barry Sinervo and Curtis M. Lively of Indiana University describe this first example of a species in which the population frequency of males is determined by a cycle involving three different forms of male. In the rock-paper-scissors game, paper always covers rock, scissors always cut paper, and rock always breaks scissors, only to be covered by paper again, and so on. In the lizard version, mating is the objective: orangethroated males beat out blue throats, blue-throats overpower yellow-striped throats and yellow-striped throats checkmate orange-throats. These relations have generated a six-year cycle in which the three distinct species take turns being predominant. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ lizard - ‫לטאה‬ county - ‫מחוז‬ to guarantee - ‫ לערוב‬,‫להבטיח‬ imminent - ‫ שעומד להתרחש בקרוב‬,‫ממשמש ובא‬ defeat - ‫תבוסה‬ to foreshadow - ‫ להתריע‬,‫לבשר‬ chore - ‫ משימה‬,‫מטלה‬ distinct - ‫ ברור‬,‫מובחן‬ species - ‫ זן‬,‫מין‬ frequency - ‫תדירות‬ mating - ‫הזדווגות‬ objective - ‫ תכלית‬,‫ יעד‬,‫מטרה‬ throat - ‫ צוואר‬,‫גרון‬ to beat - ‫ להכות‬,‫להביס‬ striped - ‫מפוספס‬ predominant - ‫ מכריע‬,‫שולט‬

49

When the temperate blue-throats, which keep harems of three females and defend small territories, are the most common males, even small numbers of aggressive oranges can take over. These lizards are "ultra-dominant," brimming with testosterone, keeping harems of up to seven females, and defending large territories. Just one generation later, oranges dominate.

But then a few yellow-stripes can easily infiltrate the orange camps, passing themselves off as females and secretly copulating. (A related strategy was featured in the movie Shampoo, in which Warren Beaty tricked husbands by pretending to be a gay hairdresser and thereby gaining easy access to theirwives.)

Another generation later, the yellow-stripes have become the most populous morph. This change at the top, however, reopens the door for the now sparse blues, who recognize the yellow-throats for what they are, and are aggressive enough to do something about it. "One reason that the blue males can see through the yellows' deception is that they know all their neighbors very well, because they have a small territory," Sinervo explains. "Whereas an orange may have just a whole slew of males that it's up against. And a whole slew of females to keep track of. It's got way more information to process." Not to mention the fact that the blues, with their lower testosterone levels, can probably think more clearly. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ temperate - ‫ מאופק‬,‫ מרוסן‬,‫מתון‬ harem - ‫הרמון‬ to take over - ‫להשתלט‬ brimming with - ‫מלא עד קצהו‬ generation - ‫דור‬ to infiltrate - ‫ לחדור‬,‫להסתנן‬ to copulate - ‫להזדווג‬ thereby - ‫בשל כך‬ populous - ‫ מיושב בצפיפות‬,‫מאוכלס‬ morph - ‫וריאנט של אורגניזם שיש לו מספר צורות בשל הבדלים גנטיים‬ sparse - ‫ דליל‬,‫מפוזר‬ deception - ‫ רמייה‬,‫הונאה‬ to keep track of - ‫לעקוב אחר‬ to mention - ‫ להזכיר‬,‫לציין‬

50

Of course, other cyclical relations exist that define population frequencies. The lynx-hare association is an example of predator-prey linkage in which both players shape the other's numbers. But, Sinervo points out, the lizards "could be the first example of a species almost like a perpetual-motion machine, without any other real external inputs." The possibility of a monospecific population cycling through a rock-paper-scissors scenario was predicted by John Maynard Smith in 1982. Eight years later, Sinervo began collecting data on the lizards for general ecological studies, simply because they are widespread and abundant.

Using number of females per male as a measure of evolutionary fitness, Sinervo worked up his data in 1995. This exercise proved irritating at first. "Then I looked at the data in the right way, by year," Sinervo recalls. "We were in my office, and Curt and I just looked at each other and we said, 'Dude! This is the rock-paperscissors game!' We both knew it at the same instant." Whether lizards enjoy such moments of simultaneous enthusiasm remains a mystery.

:‫מילים נבחרות‬ predator - ‫טורף‬ prey - ‫טרף‬ linkage - ‫ חיבור‬,‫קישור‬ perpetual - ‫ תמידי‬,‫נצחי‬ to predict - ‫ לחזות‬,‫לנבא‬ widespread - ‫ רווח‬,‫ שכיח‬,‫נפוץ‬ abundant - ‫ גדוש‬,‫ מלא‬,‫ שופע‬,‫מצוי בשפע‬ measure - ‫ מד‬,‫ אמת מידה‬,‫ צעד‬,‫אמצעי‬ fitness - ‫כושר‬ irritating - ‫ מרגיז‬,‫מעצבן‬ to recall - ‫להיזכר‬ instant - ‫רגע‬ enthusiasm - ‫התלהבות‬ to remain - ‫ להיוותר‬,‫להישאר‬

51

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud, born on May 6, 1856, died September 23, 1939, is the creator of psychoanalysis. Freud was the first person to scientifically explore the human unconscious mind. His ideas profoundly influenced the shape of modern culture by altering man's view of himself.

Freud was born in Freiberg, Moravia (now Pribor, Czechoslovakia), the oldest child of his father's second wife. Before Freud was 4 years of age, the family had moved, first to Leipzig, Germany, and then to Vienna, Austria, where Freud remained for most of his life. Freud's father, Jakob, a struggling Jewish merchant, encouraged his intellectually precocious son and passed on to him a tradition of skeptical and independent thinking. Jakob's passive acceptance of anti-Semitic insults, however, troubled young Freud: his feelings toward his father were ambivalent. Freud shared his mother's attention with seven younger brothers and sisters, but nevertheless maintained a close attachment to her. Amalie Freud had high hopes for her oldest son, and they were eventually realized.

At 8 years of age Freud was reading Shakespeare and, despite the recognizable influence of an education in Greek, Latin, French, and German classics, he later spoke of "the works of the men who were my real teachers all of them English or Scottish." Freud's literary gifts and insights into human motives and emotions were first apparent in letters he wrote during adolescence. He considered studying law, but decided instead on a career in

Scientifically - ‫באופן מדעי‬ To explore - ‫לחקור‬ Unconscious - ‫מודע‬-‫לא‬ Profoundly - ‫באופן מעמיק‬ Struggling - ‫ מתקשה‬,‫נאבק‬ Merchant - ‫סוחר‬ Precocious - ‫מפותח מכפי גילו‬ Insult - ‫עלבון‬ Ambivalent - ‫ אמביוולנטי‬,‫ערכי‬-‫דו‬ To maintain - ‫ לטעון‬,‫ לתחזק‬,‫לשמור‬

:‫מילים נבחרות‬ Attachment - ‫ חיבור‬,‫התקשרות‬ Eventually - ‫בסופו של דבר‬ To realize - ‫ לקלוט‬,‫ להבין‬,‫להגשים‬ Literary - ‫ספרותי‬ Gift - ‫ מתנה‬,‫כשרון‬ Insight - ‫תובנה‬ Apparent - ‫ נראה‬,‫גלוי לעין‬ Adolescence - ‫גיל ההתבגרות‬ Essay - ‫ מאמר‬,‫ חיבור‬,‫מסה‬ To attribute - ‫לייחס‬

52

medical research in response to an essay on nature attributed to Goethe.

Guided by contemporaries such as Ernst von Brucke and Theodor Meynert, Freud began on a promising research career. His later monographs on aphasia and on infantile cerebral paralysis were both the culmination of his neurological research and a harbinger of his burgeoning psychological insight.

In 1886 Freud married Martha Bemays. In order to support a wife, he turned from research to the clinical practice of neurology. By that time, Freud's interest in hysteria had been stimulated by Josef Breuer's successful use of therapeutic hypnosis and by Freud's studying with the famous neurologist Jean Martin Charcot in Paris. Freud took up Breuer's "cathartic method," and they published their findings in Studies in Hysteria (1895), which outlined their "talking cure" and which is generally regarded as the beginning of psychoanalysis. Breuer lost interest when sexuality emerged as central to Freud's view of neurosis.

Freud, devoting himself to the new science, discarded authoritarian and cumbersome hypnosis by enlisting his patients' cooperation in "free :‫מילים נבחרות‬ Contemporaries - ‫בני זמנו‬ Monograph - ‫מאמר מדעי‬/‫מחקר‬ Aphasia - ‫ פגיעה ביכולת לשונית כתוצאה מפגיעה מוחית‬,‫אפזיה‬ Infantile - ‫ לא בוגר‬,‫ אינפנטילי‬,‫ ילדותי‬,‫של גיל הינקות‬ Cerebral paralysis - ‫שיתוק מוחין‬ Culmination - ‫ פסגה‬,‫שיא‬ Harbinger - ‫ כרוז‬,‫מבשר‬ Burgeoning - ‫ צומח‬,‫מתפתח‬ To stimulate - ‫ להמריץ‬,‫ לעורר‬,‫לגרות‬ To outline - ‫ לשרטט‬,‫להתוות‬ Cure - ‫ מרפא‬,‫תרופה‬ To regard - ‫ להתייחס‬,‫להחשיב‬ To emerge - ‫ לצוף‬,‫ לצוץ‬,‫ להתגלות‬,‫להופיע‬ To devote - ‫ להקדיש‬,‫להתמסר‬ To discard - -‫ להיפטר מ‬,‫להשליך‬ Authoritarian - ‫רודני‬ Cumbersome - ‫ מעיק‬,‫ מכביד‬,‫ מסורבל‬,‫מגושם‬ To enlist - ‫לגייס‬

53

association." This enabled him to notice the unconsciously motivated resistance of a patient to revealing repressed thoughts and memories, especially sexual ideas. The central discovery of this approach was transference, or the unconscious shift of feelings associated with persons in the patient's past to the therapist. Breuer's defection and the death of Freud's father in 1896 precipitated a crisis for Freud to which he reacted by entering a period of self-analysis. Leaning for emotional support on his friend Wilhelm Fliess, Freud explored his dreams and fantasies for clues to his childhood sexual passions: his Oedipus complex.

A comprehensive exposition of the new science of psychoanalysis, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), was regarded by Freud as his greatest book. At first, the book was all but ignored; gradually, however, a number of interested persons gathered around Freud to study and apply his revolutionary discoveries. Of his early followers, Alfred Adler and C. G. Jung defected to form their own schools of psychology, largely because they could not accept infantile sexuality as pivotal. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ Resistance - ‫התנגדות‬ To reveal - ‫ להראות‬,‫ לגלות‬,‫לחשוף‬ To repress - ‫להדחיק‬ Approach - ‫גישה‬ Transference - ‫העברה‬ Shift - ‫ משמרת‬,‫מעבר‬ Defection - ‫עריקה‬ To precipitate - ‫ להאיץ‬,‫לזרז‬ Crisis - ‫משבר‬ To lean - ‫להישען‬ Complex - ‫תסביך‬ Comprehensive - ‫מקיף‬ Exposition - ‫ תיאור מפורט‬,‫אקספוזיציה‬ Interpretation - ‫ תרגום‬,‫ הסבר‬,‫פירוש‬ To gather - ‫ לאסוף‬,‫להתאסף‬ To apply - ‫ליישם‬ Pivotal - ‫ רב חשיבות‬,‫מכריע‬

54

Freud's creativity continued undiminished for almost four more decades, during which he developed the technique for psychoanalytic treatment of neuroses and established the guiding principles of psychoanalysis. Indeed, Freud created a wholly new field of scientific inquiry which investigates a human's internal world through controlled methods of introspection and empathy. Freud's ideas aroused considerable hostility during his time, particularly among his medical colleagues. A regular weekly meeting of friends at Freud's home for the purpose of discussing his discoveries grew into the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society and eventually into the International Psycho-Analytical Association. In 1909, Freud was invited by dark University in Worcester, Massachusetts to deliver a series of lectures; this was his only visit to the United States.

Shortly after World War I, Freud learned that he had cancer of the jaw, to which he would succumb after nearly 17 years of chronic pain and disability and 33 surgical operations. Throughout this period, however, he remained productive. Although recognition from the scientific community had not yet come, he was honored in 1930 with the Goethe Prize for Literature, and in 1936 he was elected to the Royal Society. When the Nazi occupation of Austria threatened his life and work, he moved to England. He died there on September 23, 1939. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ Undiminished - ‫ ללא מעצור‬,‫ללא הפסקה‬ To establish - ‫ לכונן‬,‫ לבסס‬,‫לייסד‬ Inquiry - ‫חקירה‬ Introspection - ‫התבוננות פנימית‬ To arouse - ‫ לגרות‬,‫לעורר‬ Hostility - ‫עוינות‬ To deliver - ‫ ליילד‬,‫ למסור‬,‫להעביר‬ Lecture - ‫הרצאה‬ Jaw - ‫לסת‬ To succumb to - -‫להיכנע ל‬ Occupation - ‫ תעסוקה‬,‫כיבוש‬

55

With psychoanalysis, Freud added psychological treatment methods to the biological basis of Psychiatry. Beyond that, Freudian concepts - such as the powerful influence of the unconscious mind on conscious thought and behavior and the equally powerful influence of the apparently forgotten past on the present - have become part of our culture, used unwittingly by even the most vehement anti-Freudians. Freud's lasting impact on the modern world, like that of Marx, Einstein, and Picasso, cannot be denied.

:‫מילים נבחרות‬ Treatment - ‫ יחס‬,‫טיפול‬ Unwittingly - ‫ בהיסח הדעת‬,‫ שלא ביודעין‬,‫מבלי משים‬ Vehement - ‫ זועם‬,‫ פסקני‬,‫ נחוש‬,‫ החלטי‬,‫תקיף‬ To deny - (‫ למנוע )זכות‬,‫להכחיש‬

56

Women, Men and Money Aha. Money. It's probably the only thing that complicates life between the sexes as much as sex. And when a woman makes more of it than her man, life really gets complicated. Even the most liberated man can feel threatened by a woman who earns more than he does. And even the most well-adjusted couples say they have to work extra hard to keep their relationships happy if the woman has the higher salary. A surprisingly large percentage of women bring home their family's big paycheck. They're not just single moms.

Elizabeth Dole, Katie Couric and Queen Elizabeth outearn their spouses.

Statistics compiled by the Department of Labor show that, in all, 29% of working wives—10.2 million women—make more than their husbands, a figure that has grown by nearly 35% since 1988. Among upper-income women, the numbers are much higher. A recent Catalyst survey of 460 female executives at Fortune 1,000 companies found that three-quarters of the married women outearned their spouses. Why is this happening when women, on average, pull down only 66% of their male counterparts' wages? There are several reasons.

To begin with, women are better educated than they used to be. Secondly, more of them are working full-time. Finally, equal-opportunity laws have broken down many workplace barriers that held women back. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ To complicate - ‫לסבך‬ Liberated - ‫ חופשי‬,‫משוחרר‬ Threatened - ‫מאוים‬ To adjust - ‫להסתגל‬ To outearn - -‫להרוויח יותר מ‬ Spouse - ‫אישה‬/‫ בעל‬,‫בת זוג‬/‫בן‬ To compile - ‫ ללקט‬,‫לקבץ‬ Figure - ‫ דמות‬,‫ מספר‬,‫סכום‬ Executive - ‫ בכיר‬,‫מנהל‬ To pull down - ‫ להשתכר‬,‫להרוויח‬ Counterpart - ‫ עמית‬,‫בן זוג‬ Wage - ‫שכר‬ Equal opportunity - ‫שוויון הזדמנויות‬ Barrier - ‫מחסום‬

57

Despite the growing numbers, couples attempting to adjust to a shift in economic power often find it too touchy to talk about honestly. Jo-Ann Ghio is director of information services for Arbor Software in Sunnyvale, California. As she rose in her company, her husband seemed proud and supportive, especially in public. "But inside it bothered him," she says now. The couple grew apart, but never discussed the root of their problems. "I was afraid to talk about it," says Ghio. "I didn't want to say things that were embarrassing to him." Now divorced, Ghio is finally able to talk about her story. That's how she discovered she is surrounded by women secretly straining to achieve the balance she lost. "We are a silent sisterhood," she says. Men don't talk about it when their wives earn more because they're afraid other men will sneer at them, and women don't talk about it because they don't want to embarrass their men or themselves. "If we're successful, society thinks we ought to be connected with somebody just as successful," says Ghio. "If we're not, something's not quite right."

A psychiatric administrator from Philadelphia says that when she brought home her first big paycheck, her salesman husband took it to ensure that he maintained control of the family finances. As her career flourished, he began insulting her. "He had to play down my job," she says. "He would tell me I was stupid or lazy." Then he started hitting her - something he had done early in their relationship but that she thought had been solved with counseling.

"He wanted to keep me in my place," she says. The woman moved out and filed for divorce. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ To attempt - ‫לנסות‬ Touchy - ‫ פגיע‬,‫ עדין‬,‫רגיש‬ Supportive - ‫תומך‬ To grow apart - ‫להתרחק זה מזה‬ To surround - ‫להקיף‬ Straining - ‫להתאמץ‬ To sneer - ‫ ללגלג‬,‫ללעוג‬ Ought to - ‫ חייב‬,‫צריך‬ Administrator - ‫מנהלן‬ To ensure - ‫ להבטיח‬,‫לוודא‬ To flourish - ‫ ללבלב‬,‫לשגשג‬ To play down - ‫ לזלזל‬,‫להמעיט בערך‬ Counseling - ‫ ייעוץ‬,‫טיפול‬ 58

Violence is comparatively rare in affluent households, but studies show that whenever men earn significantly less than their wives, they are more likely to react violently. Ron Levant, a Boston psychologist and co-author of Masculinity Reconstructed, says he's counseling a growing number of men in all socioeconomic classes who are having trouble coping with their wives' success. "There is a lot of emotional and physical abuse," he says. Others retaliate in subtler ways — drinking more or having an affair. Even Levant, who says he wouldn't mind if his wife outearned him, admits he'd have trouble making a sacrifice, such as moving, to farther her career. "It would be hard," he says. "I'd have to get into therapy."

Financially successful single women lament that it can be a romantic disaster to reveal their salaries to prospective mates. But men can't always be blamed for the problems in these relationships. Anne Gingras, co-owner of a $32 million computer consulting business in Orinda, California, knows she scared men away by saying she expected them to be comfortable with her success. "I dress in designer clothes," she says. "I drive a Jaguar, and I would compare his car with mine. I couldn't date a man who drove a Geo." It took a while, but she thinks her selection technique is effective: She's happy with her :‫מילים נבחרות‬ Comparatively - ‫ באופן יחסי‬,‫יחסית‬ Rare - ‫נדיר‬ Households - ‫משקי בית‬ Significantly - ‫באופן משמעותי‬ Masculinity - ‫גבריות‬ To reconstruct - ‫ לבנות מחדש‬,‫לשקם‬ To cope with - ‫להתמודד עם‬ Abuse - ‫ פגיעה‬,‫התעללות‬ To retaliate - ‫ להתנקם‬,‫לנקום‬ Subtle - ‫ מרומז‬,‫מעודן‬ To admit - ‫להודות‬ Sacrifice - ‫קורבן‬ To farther - ‫לקדם‬ To lament - ‫לקונן‬ Disaster - ‫אסון‬ Prospective - ‫עתידי‬ Mate - ‫ חבר‬,‫בן זוג‬ To blame - ‫להאשים‬

59

boyfriend of eight years, who earns less than a quarter of her income. "He's got other qualities," she says. Plus he drives an Acura.

Judith Wallerstein, a psychologist and co-author of The Good Marriage, says her research shows that relationships in which one partner derives most of his or her self-esteem from a career or income are likely to have trouble adapting to a shift in economic power. Aside from choosing the right mate in the first place, Wallerstein offers women more practical help for making the role reversal work. It sounds a lot like the advice a therapist would give a man in a traditional relationship, the difference being that women have to practice it over and over—far more than most men would do.

First, says Wallerstein, a high-earning woman must be supersensitive to a man's feelings. If her career requires a sacrifice from him, "she's got to say, 'I adore you; how can we make up for it?'" Second, she needs to acknowledge his support in private and in public, reassuring him that she couldn't have succeeded without him. Finally, she should never throw her money around during an argument; disputes must be resolved based on what's fair and realistic.

Women who carefully follow this advice—and fall in love with a secure man— won't necessarily find bliss, but at least they have a chance. When Jim Campbell and Elizabeth Mackey married in 1978, says Campbell, "We figured we'd get our MBAs and do yuppie-type things." Their plans changed after their son Alex was born in 1981. Mackey was rising rapidly on Wall Street and loved her work. Campbell, less enamored of his, quit and took a sales job he :‫מילים נבחרות‬ Income - ‫הכנסה‬ Quality - ‫ איכות‬,‫תכונה‬ To derive from - ‫ להקיש‬,‫ לגזור‬,‫ לשאוב‬,‫להפיק‬ Likely - ‫סביר‬ Role reversal - ‫היפוך תפקידים‬ To acknowledge - ‫ לאשר‬,‫ להודות‬,-‫להכיר ב‬ To reassure - ‫להרגיע‬ Dispute - ‫ וויכוח‬,‫ ריב‬,‫עימות‬ Bliss - ‫אושר עילאי‬ Rapidly - ‫במהירות‬ 60

could do from home while caring for Alex. Mackey has since moved to another position as head of CD-ROM acquisitions for Simon & Schuster. Campbell and a friend opened a trophy shop in Briarcliff Manor, New York. His wife's earnings have allowed them to buy a nice house and send Alex to a private school. Campbell, proud of his relationship with his son, says life has turned out better than he expected: "I'm happy."

Mackey, who travels frequently, is both grateful for-and a little jealous of—her husband's close ties to Alex. She says the biggest problem caused by their disparity in income is disputes over household chores. While the couple long ago hired out tasks like cleaning and laundry, they are now debating whether they can afford to hire someone to do the bigger jobs, like painting the house.

"My weekends are my downtime," says Mackey. "And I loathe having to ask Jim, after he's already worked half of Saturday, to come home and do more work." Nancy and Frank Dickey resolved that debate years ago. Lower your standards, hire somebody, and be done with it. Nancy, an associate professor of medicine at Texas A&M and chair of the board of the American Medical Association, earns more money than Frank, but he may have more prestige: He's a high school football coach in the country's most football-crazed state. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ Enamored - ‫ מוקסם‬,‫מאוהב‬ Acquisition - ‫ קניין‬,‫רכישה‬ Trophy - ‫גביע‬ To turn out - ‫ לצאת‬,‫ להסתבר‬,‫להתברר‬ Disparity - ‫ נבדלות‬,‫ שוני‬,‫שונות‬ Laundry - ‫כביסה‬ Debate - ‫ וויכוח‬,‫עימות‬ Downtime - ‫ הדממה‬,‫זמן חופשי‬ To loathe - ‫לתעב‬ To resolve - ‫לפתור‬ Chair - ‫ת ראש‬/‫יושב‬ Board - ‫וועדה‬ Prestige - ‫יוקרה‬

61

Nancy says she sometimes feels guilty that because of her job and their family (they have three children), Frank didn't pursue openings that would have required a move. Says Frank: "That's a bunch of bahooey."Any regrets over jobs he's passed up are more than balanced by the advantages he says he's gotten from Nancy's career. He has a terrific team physician, for example, and her prosperity has given him a freedom most coaches envy — to bench the unathletic sons of school board members. Frank acknowledges that he sometimes feels isolated in the world of Texas macho. Men ask him: "How can you let her gallivant all over?" But he says Nancy has mastered the art of making the Dickeys seem like a traditional couple.

For now it may be easier for everyone to keep up appearances. But all signs indicate that this trend has legs, that the changing economy will bring more and better-educated - women into the work force. Inevitably, more of them will outearn their husbands. Eventually, both sexes may be able to take comfort in the numbers. :‫מילים נבחרות‬ To pursue - ‫לנסות להשיג‬ Openings - ‫משרות פנויות‬ A bunch of bahooey - ‫שטויות במיץ עגבניות‬ Regret - ‫חרטה‬ To pass up - ‫לוותר‬ Physician - ‫רופא‬ Prosperity - ‫ הצלחה כלכלית‬,‫שגשוג‬ To bench - (‫ להושיב על הספסל )במשחק ספורט‬,‫להוריד מהמגרש‬ To gallivant - ‫להסתובב‬ To keep up appearances - ‫ להתנהג כאילו הכל בסדר‬,‫לשמור על פאסון‬ Inevitably - ‫באופן בלתי נמנע‬

62

Charles de Gaulle Charles de Gaulle rose to world fame as the symbol of French resistance during World War II, served as president of the provisional government (194446), and was the founding president of the Fifth Republic from 1958 to 1969.

Early Life Charles Andre Marie Joseph de Gaulle was born on Nov. 22, 1890, in Lille to bourgeois, patriotic, and devoutly Catholic parents. He received a solid classical education before entering the renowned military school at St. Cyr in 1910. A lieutenant in World War I, he was wounded several times and captured at Verdun by the Germans. After the war, de Gaulle served in Poland, in the occupation of Germany, and in the Middle East, as well as studying and lecturing at the Ecole Superieure de Guerre (War College). The eminent Marshal Henri PETAIN was impressed with de Gaulle and appointed him to the secretariat of the Supreme War Council and later the National Defense Council.

In the 1930s, however, a rift developed between de Gaulle and the military establishment when de Gaulle advanced innovative strategic concepts. In his book The Army of the Future, he criticized over-reliance on the MAGINOT LINE and advocated formation of an elite corps of armored divisions similar to the German panzer divisions. These ideas were not accepted either in military circles or in parliament, where the French politician Paul Reynaud spoke out for them in 1935.

World War II Fame came to de Gaulle with World War II. Amid the myriad setbacks suffered by French military forces during the May 1940 German invasion, de Gaulle conducted one of the few successful tank operations against the enemy. Reynaud, then premier, appointed the newly promoted General de Gaulle undersecretary of war on June 5. Reynaud's resignation and the

63

apparent intention of his successor, Petain, to surrender, led de Gaulle to flee to London and issue a radio appeal on June 18 for the French nation to resist and continue the struggle.

De Gaulle's defiance earned him a death sentence in absentia from a military court of the new VICHY GOVERNMENT, but he persisted in building up Free French and resistance forces. Ultimately he secured support from Allied leaders Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin, and attended the summit conferences dealing with world issues. In 1943 he formed a provisional government prepared to reenter France after the Allied Normandy y invasion of June 1944. De Gaulle convinced a hostile Roosevelt and the ambitious French Communists to accept his provisional government's assumption of control in liberated France As president of the provisional government from 1944 to 1946, de Gaulle worked with the Allies to complete the Nazi defeat and with the Constituent Assembly to govern France and draw up a constitution for the Fourth Republic. However, he opposed the constitutional draft, because of its failure to give significant power to the executive branch. For this and other reasons he resigned in January 1946. From then until 1958, de Gaulle was in retirement. It was a period during which he wrote memoirs and also campaigned for a few years for a political grouping labeled the Rassemblement du Peuple francais (RPF).

Presidency In 1958, when the ALGERIAN WAR threatened dire results in Algeria and civil war in France, de Gaulle was asked to form a government. Assuming the premiership on June 1, he demanded and was given temporary emergency powers and the right to draft a new constitution to be submitted to referendum.

The constitution, which vested the president with strong executive powers, was approved by the electorate in September 1958, and de Gaulle was elected president of the Fifth Republic by an overwhelming majority in December.

64

As president, his first task was to settle the Algerian question. His decision to negotiate with the Algerian nationalists provoked revolts by the French colonists in Algeria and conspiracies against him by a dissident army group.

However, he used his emergency powers to surmount the crisis, and an independent Algerian state was finally established in 1962. Having restored confidence in the government and relieved the drain of the colonial war in Algeria, de Gaulle and his government built upon the foundations laid by the Fourth Republic to modernize and expand the economy and to achieve currency stabilization, favorable trade balances, full employment, and general prosperity. De Gaulle's foreign policy was designed to secure a more independent and powerful position for France. Thus, he asserted French influence in the European Common Market and vetoed British entry in 1967; loosened ties with the United States and NATO; established French nuclear power in the civilian and military realms; opened relations with Communist China; and built new ties for France with the Third World, especially in former French colonial areas of black and Arab Africa.

De Gaulle's repudiation by the electorate and resignation in 1969 stemmed from the student-worker revolt of May-June 1968. A complex of grievances caused a series of disorders first among the students, then the workers. De Gaulle's disdain for such a display led him and his government to a vigorous and shrewd policy of detaching worker support from the student movement and isolating the latter. His success was short-lived, however, and his prestige diminished. In an April 1969 referendum on relatively minor issues, the voters cast a strong majority of "no" ballots, which de Gaulle read as lack of confidence in him. He resigned on April 28, leaving his republic to his intimate follower, Georges POMPIDOU. De Gaulle lived in retirement in Colombey-lesDeux-Eglises, writing his postwar memoirs until his death on Nov. 9.1970.

65

The Hebrew language Hebrew is the official language of Israel as well as the common religious and cultural language of Jewish people throughout the world. The Old Testament of the BIBLE, the MISHNAH, and parts of the vast TALMUD and MIDRASH were written in Hebrew. These, along with various more recent religious, philosophical, literary, and scientific works, provide a continuous 3,000-year record of the language.

Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite branch of the Northwest Semitic, or AFROASIATIC, family of languages. Phonologically, it is rather close to its Canaanite sisters, Phoenician, Moabite, and Amorite. Hebrew also shares much of its vocabulary with Ugaritic and Aramaic. The recently discovered cuneiform Ebia tablets contain additional related linguistic material of the 3d millennium BC. Over the ages, Aramaic dialects have probably had the greatest impact on Hebrew. They were used extensively in the Targum (translations of the Bible), in both the Babylonian and Jerusalem editions of the Talmud, in the midrash, in the Zohar (a commentary on the Pentateuch), and even in two books of the Bible itself.

Ancient Hebrew The earliest Hebrew inscription is the Gezer calendar from the 10th century BC, the epoch of Kings David and Solomon. It is written in the ancient Hebrew alphabet, which evolved from the Phoenician-Hebrew script, which in turn may be an offshoot of the Proto-Canaanite script and its hieroglyphic ancestors. The Hebrew alphabet developed many of its distinctive features during the Babylonian Exile (587-517 BC). Under the influence of the related Aramaic alphabet, it evolved during the period of the Second Temple (destroyed AD 70) into the familiar Square Script that is used today. The epigraphic material, relatively meager during the period of the First Temple (destroyed 587 BC), gradually increased from the time of the Second Temple. Richest of all are the

66

DEAD SEA SCROLLS and the other documents found in the Kumran Caves, dating from the 2d or 3d century BC to the 2d century AD.

Biblical Hebrew The most significant product of the Hebrew genius, and the most important source for the study of the language, is, of course, the Hebrew Bible. Although the oldest surviving manuscripts of the Bible do not go back beyond the 3d century BC (the Hasmonean period), the Biblical extracts that accompany the MASORAH reflect very well the several earlier stages of Hebrew. The biblical text does not, however, include any of the distinct dialectical features of the tribe of Judea, Samaria, Galilee, and other regions. This fact has led scholars to assume that the classical Hebrew developed during the time of David and Solomon was carried into the era of the Second Temple as a literary language.

Mishnaic Hebrew After the three-generation gap occasioned by the Babylonian exile, a new variety of spoken Hebrew was forged by the returning exiles and their children. Under the influence of Aramaic, a literary counterpart was also developed, which in due course evolved into Mishnaic Hebrew, or the "Language of the Sages." It continued to be written even after the destruction of the Second Temple, and through the Bar Kochba wars (AD 132-34), until the codification of the Mishnah around AD 200. By that time, spoken Hebrew had virtually disappeared from everyday use, and was superseded by Aramaic and Hellenistic Greek.

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Marilyn Monroe Marilyn Monroe's career as an actress spanned 16 years. She made 29 films, 24 in the first 8 years of her career.

Born as Norma Jeane Mortenson on June 1, 1926 in Los Angeles General Hospital, her mother, Gladys, listed the father's address as unknown. Marilyn would never know the true identity of her father. Due to her mother's mental instability and the fact that she was unmarried at the time, Norma Jeane was placed in the foster home of Albert and Ida Bolender. It was here she lived the first 7 years of her life. "They were terribly strict, they didn't mean any harm... it was their religion. They brought me up harshly."

In 1933, Norma Jeane lived briefly with her mother. Gladys began to show a sign of mental depression and in 1934 was admitted to a rest home in Santa Monica. Grace McKee, a close friend other mother took over the care of Norma Jeane. "Grace loved and adored her", recalled one other co-worker.

Grace once said to her: "Don't worry, Norma Jeane. You're going to be a beautiful girl when you get big... an important woman, a movie star." Grace was captivated by Jean Harlow, a superstar of the twenties, and Marilyn would later say; "and so Jean Harlow was my idol."

Grace was to marry in 1935 and due to financial difficulties, Norma Jeane was placed in an orphanage from September 1935 to June 1937. Grace frequently visited her, taking her to the movies, buying clothes and teaching her how to apply makeup at her young age. Norma Jeane was to later live with several of Grace's relatives. "The world around me then was kind of grim.

I had to learn to pretend in order to... I don't know...block the grimness. The whole world seemed sort of closed to me. I felt on the outside of everything, and all I could do was to dream up any kind of pretend-game."

In September 1941 Norma Jeane was again living with Grace when she met Jim Dougherty, 5 years her senior. Grace encouraged the relationship and on learning that she and her husband would be moving to the East Coast,

68

set in motion plans for Norma Jeane to marry Dougherty on June 19, 1942.

"Grace McKee arranged the marriage for me, I never had a choice. There's not much to say about it. They couldn't support me, and they had to work out something. And so I got married."

Dougherty joined the Merchant Marines in 1943 and in 1944 was sent overseas. Norma Jeane, while working in a factory inspecting parachutes in 1944, was photographed by the Army as a promotion to show women on the assembly line contributing to the war effort. One of the photographers, David Conover, asked to take further pictures of her. By spring of 1945, she was quickly becoming known as a "photographers dream" and had appeared on 33 covers of national magazines.

In the fall of 1946 she was granted a divorce, later saying, "My marriage didn't make me sad, but it didn't make me happy either. My husband and I hardly spoke to each other. This wasn't because we were angry. We had nothing to say. I was dying of boredom".

On July 23, 1946 she signed a contract with Twentieth Century-Fox Studios. She selected her mother's family name of Monroe. From this point on she would be known as Marilyn Monroe to all her fans. She had a minor part in the movie "Scudda-Hoo! Scudda-Hay" and was dismissed as a contract player in August. Rehired in 1948, Marilyn sang her first song in the movie "Ladies of the Chorus". Johnny Hyde, of the William Morris Agency, became her mentor and lover in 1949. Also, in 1949, Marilyn agreed to pose nude for a calendar, a fact that was to stir controversy later in her career as a superstar.

"Hollywood is a place where they'll pay you a thousand dollars for a kiss and fifty cents for your soul".

Her fast serious acting job came in 1950 when she had a small but crucial role in "The Asphalt Jungle" and received favorable reviews. "Clash By Night" in 1952 earned her several favorable notices.. Alton Cook of the New York World-Telegram and Sun wrote: "a forceful actress, a gifted new star, worthy of all that fantastic press agentry. Her role here is not very big, but she makes it dominant."

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Marilyn met Joe DiMaggio in early 1952, she was 25 and he was 37.

DiMaggio, recently retired from baseball, had expressed a desire to meet this famous star. By February the romance was in full bloom. "I was surprised to be so crazy about Joe. I expected a flashy New York sports type, and instead I met this reserved guy who didn't make a pass at me right away. He treated me like something special. Joe is a very decent man, and he makes other people feel decent, too."

In 1952 Marilyn began filming "Niagara" with Joseph Gotten, a film that was to establish her stardom. After her next big film, "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes", she and Jane Russell signed their names and placed their hands and feet in the wet cement in front of the Chinese Theater on Hollywood Boulevard, the same place she had visited with Gladys and Grace years earlier as a child. "I want to be a big star more than anything. It's something precious".

Fox suspended Marilyn in 1954 for failure to appear on the set of "Pink Tights". The studio had refused to let her look at the script prior to accepting the part. She felt that due to her star status, she should have the right to script approval.

On January 14 Joe and Marilyn were married. The wedding captured the headlines worldwide. Joe was an extremely jealous type of guy and resented her popularity among other men. He desired a housewife, not a star of such magnitude. The marriage was in trouble from the beginning. "I didn't want to give up my career, and that's what Joe wanted me to do most of all.

She was asked to go on a USO tour of Korea in February to entertain the troops, beginning on the 16fh for four days. She entertained over 60,000 soldiers, many who had never seen a Monroe film, having been in the service during her rise to stardom, most had seen still photos of her in many magazines and newspapers. She was a huge success. Joe did not accompany her on this trip, explaining: "Joe hates crowds and glamour."

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"standing in the snowfall facing these yelling soldiers, I felt for the first time in my life no fear of anything, I felt only happy."

On May 29, Marilyn began filming "There's No Business Like Show Business".

Throughout the summer she was ill with bronchitis and anemia. For the first time, Marilyn began showing serious side-effects of the many sleeping pills she had been taking for the last few years... often groggy, lethargic and crying on the set.

The famous "skirt blowing" scene from the "Seven Year Itch", filmed in 1954 was to be a hit with both amateur and professional photographers.

Several hundred, along with 2000 spectators gathered outside the Trans-Lux Theater in New York City in the early morning hours of September 15th to see and record her as she posed for over two hours for her adoring fans.

In the fall of 1954 Marilyn and Joe separated...later to divorce. On October 6, Jerry Giesler made a press announcement and stated "...as her attorney, I am speaking for her and can only say that the conflict of careers has brought about this regrettable necessity." With the press hounding her, Marilyn answered in a choked voice, "I can't say anything today. I'm sorry. I'm sorry," "When I married him (Joe), I wasn't sure of why I married him, I have too many fantasies to be a housewife."

In early 1955 Marilyn again returned to New York and joined the Actors Studio, in pursuit of becoming a serious actress. There she met Lee Strasberg, head of the Studio and drama coach. Mr. Strasberg and his family would play an important role in her life.

She was to renew her acquaintance with Arthur Miller and have an affair with him before their marriage over a year later. To Marilyn, Miller represented the serious theater and an intellect that she found attractive. To Miller, years later... "It was wonderful to be around her, she was simply overwhelming. She had so much promise. It seemed to me that she could really be a great kind of

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phenomenon, a terrific artist. She was endlessly fascinating; full of original observations...there wasn't a conventional bone in her body."

Marilyn returned to Hollywood in February 1956, after over a year of absence, to film "Bus Stop". After completing the film she returned to New York in June.

Miller also returned to New York after obtaining a divorce in Reno, Nevada.

They were married in June 29 in White Plains, NY. The Millers departed for London soon after their marriage so that Marilyn could start production on "The Prince and the Showgirl" with Lawrence Olivier.

As early as July, Arthur began to have doubts about the marriage. Sidney Skolsky remarked that... "Miller looked on Marilyn strictly as an ideal and was shocked to discover that she is a human being, a person, even as you and I and maybe Miller."

"Bus Stop" opened in London in October 1956. A Times review said: "Miss Monroe is a talented comedienne, and her sense of timing never forsakes her. She gives a complete portrait, sensitively and sometimes even brilliantly conceived. There is about her a certain quality, an underlying note of pathos which can be strangely moving."

"It's not that I object to doing musicals and comedies, in fact, I rather enjoy them‌ but I'd like to do dramatic parts too."

Marilyn Monroe did not return to Hollywood until 1958 to make "Some Like It Hot" with Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis. Her health continued to deteriorate due to increased dependency on drugs and involvement in an unhappy marriage. She often came to the set late and was unable to remember her lines. Director Billy Wilder later said: "Anyone can remember lines, but it takes a real artist to come on the set and not know her lines and yet give the performance she did." Her next film "Let's Make Love" proved to be an unremarkable film with much publicity over her brief affair with co-star Yves Montand. "I am invariably late for appointments... sometimes, as much as two

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hours. I've tried to change my ways but the things that make me late are too strong and too pleasing".

Early in 1960, Marilyn was consulting with Dr. Ralph Greenson, a prominent psychoanalyst to Hollywood stars. As common during this period, he relied heavily on drug therapy... routinely prescribing barbiturates and tranquilizers in addition to his psychotherapy.

July 1960 marked the start of filming "The Misfits"...a short story by Arthur Miller adapted for film. While on location the Millers lived in separate quarters and were barely speaking. Meanwhile, pills for Marilyn were regularly flown in from her Los Angeles doctors, including Dr. Greenson. Allan Snyder recalled... "It took so long to get her going in the morning that usually I had to make her up while she lay in her bed." But once again, she managed to give an exceptional performance.

"Everybody is always tugging at you. They'd all like a sort of chunk out of you.

I don't think they realize it, but it's like "gn-rr do this, grrrr do that..." But you do want to stay intact... intact and on two feet."

On November 5th, the day after "The Misfits" was completed, co-star dark Gable suffered a serious heart attack and died on November 16, 1960.

Marilyn felt a great deal of guilt, commenting... "I kept him waiting... kept him waiting for hours and hours on that picture."

Evelyn Moriarty remembered... "Marilyn was being blamed for everything. All of her problems were exaggerated to cover up for Director Huston's gambling and the terrible waste of money on that production. It was easy for her to be made the scapegoat."

Marilyn divorced Arthur Miller in January of 1961, the same month that "The Misfits" was released. Another unhappy marriage was terminated.

"Mr. Miller is a wonderful man and a great writer, but it didn't work out that we should be husband and wife."

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In 1961 Marilyn purchased a house in the Brentwood section of Los Angeles.

At the urging of her psychoanalyst, Dr Greenson, she hired Eunice Murray as housekeeper. Murray, calling herself a nurse, had neither the training nor credentials. It is suspected that she was a "spy" for Dr. Greenson who continued to have more and more control over Marilyn's life, A reported affair with John F. Kennedy began in late 1961. At the President's gala birthday celebration in Madison Square Garden on May 19, 1962, Marilyn sang her now famous "Happy Birthday" tribute to JFK. The Attorney General,Bobby Kennedy, was also reported to have had an affair with Marilyn shortly before her death.

Marilyn began production on "Something's Got to Give" in April 1962. Much has been said about her inability to show up on the set and her trip to New York for the Presidents birthday celebration. but her illnesses had been well documented by physicians and she had obtained permission from the Studio well in advance of the trip to New York.

"I feel stronger if the people around me on the set love me, care for me, and hold good thoughts for me. It creates an aura of love, and I believe I can give a better performance."

The Studio was deeply in debt over their production of "Cleopatra" starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton. The filming was way behind schedule and costing millions over budget. It is theorized, if Fox scrapped the Marilyn Monroe film with far fewer expensive sets and actors, they possibly could be reimburse by the insurance company for losses due to a star's illness, and recoup Moines spent. Fox fired Marilyn and filed suit against Marilyn Monroe Productions on June 7, but the suit was later dropped.

Marilyn had been seeing Joe DiMaggio frequently during this time and had finally agreed to remarry him. The wedding date was set for August 8, 1962.

Fox rehired her on August 1 to complete "Something's Got to Give" with a salary of $250,000, which was two and a half times the original amount. Of course these events would never come to pass due to her untimely death on August 5, 1962.

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Much has been speculated about the events surrounding her death and others involvement in it. But whatever the cause, it is highly unlikely that it was suicide. Possibly the result of a tragic accidental drug overdose... and possibly administered by someone other than Marilyn herself.

A saddened Joe DiMaggio made arrangements for the funeral, inviting no one from the Hollywood scene or press... but only close friends and relatives, As he said... "They had only hurt Marilyn." For over 20 years flowers were delivered weekly to her crypt from Joe, just as he had promised Marilyn when she told him of William Powell's pledge to the dying Jean Harlow.

"I knew I belonged to the public and to the world, not because I was talented or even beautiful, but because I had never belonged to anything or anyone else."

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Acid Rain Introduction Since the beginning of time, humans have learned to make use of many things in nature such as fire and electricity. From the early times through the Industrial Revolution to the Space Age, humans have produced inventions that use many of the earth s varied energy resources to make living easier. In many cases the energy comes from burning fossil fuels —coal, oil and natural gas.

Some of the inventions that make our lives easier are also causing pollution.

Pollution is the release of harmful substances into the environment. One form of pollution is acid rain. Acid rain can damage plants, animals, soil, water, building materials, and people. Scientists have discovered that burning fossil fuels creates acid rain through air pollution. People bum fossil fuels such as coal and oil to make electricity. Electricity heats and lights buildings and runs appliances such as televisions and video recorders. Fossil fuels power our cars, buses, and airplanes. The air pollution created when these fuels burn does not stay in the air forever. It can return to the earth as acid rain. And when it does, it may weaken the plant and animal life it contacts. Acid rain is only one form of pollution that results from burning fossil fuels. It is one of particular interest, however, because it can be transported over long distances. Scientists, engineers, and researchers are learning how to measure the amount and effects of pollution in the air, forests, water, and soil.

They are inventing ways to reduce the amount of pollution that enters the environment and prevent new damage in the future.

What is Acidity?

Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe chemicals, just like hot and cold are two extremes that describe temperature. Mixing acids and bases can cancel out their extreme effects; much like mixing hot and cold water can even out the water temperature. A substance that is neither acidic nor basic is neutral. The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH

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scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic. Each whole pH value below 7 is ten times more acidic than the next higher value. For example, pH 4 is ten times more acidic than pH 5 and 100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than pH 6. The same holds true for pH values above 7, each of which is ten times more alkaline (another way to say basic) than the next lower whole value. For example, pH 10 is ten times more alkaline than pH 9 and 100 times (10 times 10) more alkaline than pH 8.

Pure water is neutral. But when chemicals are mixed with water, the mixture can become either acidic or basic. Examples of acidic substances are vinegar and lemon juice. Laundry detergents and ammonia are examples of basic substances. Chemicals that are very basic or very acidic are reactive. These chemicals can cause severe bums. Automobile battery acid is an acidic chemical that is reactive. Automobile batteries contain a stronger form of some of the same acid that is in acid rain. Household drain cleaners often contain lye, a very alkaline chemical that is reactive.

What is Acid Rain?

Acid rain is rain that is more acidic than normal. Acid rain is a complicated problem caused by air pollution, acid rain's spread and damage involves weather, chemistry, soil, and the life cycles of plants and animals on the land and from acid rain in the water

Air Pollution Creates Acid Rain Scientists have discovered that air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels is the major cause of acid rain. Power plants and factories burn coal and oil.

Power plants use that coal and oil to produce the electricity we need to heat and light our homes and to run our electric appliances. We also bum natural gas, coal, and oil to heat our homes. Cars, trucks, and airplanes use gasoline, another fossil fuel.

The smoke and fumes from burning fossil fuels rise into the atmosphere and combine with the moisture in the air to form acid rain. The main chemicals in air pollution that create acid rain are (S sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

Acid rain usually forms high in the clouds where sulfur dioxide and nitrogen 77

oxides react with water, oxygen, and oxidants. This forms a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Sunlight increases the rate of most of these reactions. Rainwater, snow, fog, and other forms of precipitation containing those mild solutions of sulfuric and nitric acids fall to the earth as acid rain.

Acid Precipitation Water moves through every living plant and animal, streams, lakes, and oceans in the hydrologic cycle. In that cycle, water evaporates from the land and sea into the atmosphere. Water in the atmosphere then condenses to form clouds. Clouds release the water back to the earth as rain, snow, or fog.

When water droplets form and fall to the earth they pick up.

Effects of Acid Rain on Forests Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have watched some forests grow more slowly without knowing why. The trees in these forests do not grow as quickly as usual. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be green and healthy.

Researchers suspect that acid rain may cause the slower growth of these forests. But acid rain is not the only cause of such conditions. Other air pollutants, insects, diseases and drought are some other causes that harm plants. Also, some areas that receive acid rain show a lot of damage, while other areas that receive about the same amount of acid rain do not appear to be harmed at all. However, after many years of collecting information on the chemistry and biology of forests, researchers are beginning to understand how acid rain works on the forest soil, trees, and other plants.

Acid Rain on the Forest Floor A spring shower in the forest washes leaves and falls through the trees to the forest floor below. Some of the water soaks into the soil. Some trickles over the ground and runs into a stream, river or lake. That soil may neutralize some or all of the acidity of the acid rainwater. This ability of the soil to resist some pH change is called buffering capacity. A buffer resists changes in pH. Without buffering capacity, soil pH would change rapidly. Midwestern states 78

like Nebraska and Indiana have soils that are well buffered. Places in the mountainous northeast, like New York's Adirondack Mountains, have soils that are less able to buffer acids. Since there are many natural sources of acid in forest soils, soils in these areas are more susceptible to effects from acid rain.

How Acid Rain Harms Trees Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to weaken the trees by damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, or poisoning them with toxic substances slowly released from the soil.

Scientists believe that acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals in the soil and then washes them away before the trees and other plants can use them to grow. At the same time, the acid rain causes the release of toxic substances such as aluminum into the soil. These are very harmful to trees and plants, even if contact is limited. Toxic substances also wash away in the runoff that carries the substances into streams, rivers, and lakes. Less of these toxic substances are released when the rainfall is cleaner.

Even if the soil is well buffered, there can be damage from acid rain. Forests in high mountain regions receive additional acid from the acidic clouds and fog that often surround them. These clouds and fog are often more acidic than rainfall. When leaves are frequently bathed in this acid fog, their protective waxy coating can wear away. The loss of the coating damages the leaves and creates brown spots. Leaves turn the energy in sunlight into food for the tree.

This process is called photosynthesis. When leaves are damaged, they cannot produce enough food energy for the tree to remain healthy.

Once trees are weak, they can be more easily attacked by diseases or insects that ultimately kill them. Weakened trees may also become injured more easily by cold weather.

Acid rain can harm other plants in the same way it harms trees. Food crops are not usually seriously affected, however, because farmers frequently add fertilizers to the soil to replace nutrients washed away. They may also add

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crushed limestone to the soil. Limestone is a basic material and increases the ability of the soil to act as a buffer against acidity.

Effects of Acid Rain on Water The effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in the aquatic, or water, environments, such as streams, lakes, and marshes. Acid rain flows to streams, lakes, and marshes affair falling on forests, fields, buildings, and roads. Acid rain also falls directly on aquatic habitats.

Most lakes and streams have a PH level between 6 and 8. However, some lakes are naturally acidic even without the effects of acid rain. Lakes and streams become acidic (PH value goes down) when the water itself and its surrounding soil cannot buffer the acid rain enough to neutralize it In areas like the Northeastern United States where soil buffering is poor, some lakes now have a PH value of less than 5. One of the most acidic lakes reported is Little Echo Pond in Franklin, New York. Little Echo Pond has a pH of 4.2.

Lakes and streams in the western United States are usually not acidic.

Because of differences in emissions and wind patterns, levels of acid deposition are generally lower in the western United States than in the eastern United States.

Generally, the young of most species are more sensitive than adults. Frogs may tolerate relatively high levels of acidity, but if they eat insects like the mayfly, they may be affected because part of their food supply may disappear.

As lakes and streams become more acidic, the numbers and types of fish and other aquatic plants and animals that live in these waters decrease. Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters. Others, however, are acid-sensitive and will be lost as the pH declines. Some acid lakes have no fish. At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die. Toxic substances like aluminum that wash into the water from the soil may also kill fish.

Together, biological organisms and the environment in which they live are called an Ecosystem. The plants and animals living within an ecosystem are highly interdependent. For example, fish eat other fish and also other plants and animals that live in the lake or stream. If acid rain causes the loss of acid

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sensitive plants and animals, then fish that rely on these organisms for food may also be affected.

What Can Be Done?

To solve the acid rain problem, people need to understand how acid rain causes damage to the environment and what can be done to help stop acid rain. More information on the problem will help leaders make better decisions about how to control air pollution - the cause of acid rain.

Experts from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have taken samples of pollution and acidity from thousands of streams and lakes in the United States. From these samples, they determine the number of streams and lakes which are now acidic and which are in danger of becoming acidic. EPA and other scientists are also studying the effects of acid rain on fish, plants, humans, and materials such as marble, brick, cement, and metal.

Until we reduce air pollution, acid rain will continue to be a problem. Activities to resolve this problem include cleaning up the smokestacks and exhaust pipes that pour pollutants into the air, finding alternative sources of energy, repairing the damage already done by acid rain, and consoling our resources.

Cleaning up Smokestacks and Exhaust Pipes Right now burning fossil fuels is one of the most inexpensive ways to produce electricity for the daily activities of modern life and to power cars, buses, and airplanes. In the United States, sulfur in coal makes up the greatest part of the sulfur dioxide that becomes acid rain. When coal is burned to make electricity or heat, the sulfur goes up the smokestacks and into the atmosphere to become air pollution.

There are several ways to reduce the amount of sulfur entering the air. One way is to wash the sulfur out of the coal before it is burned. Another is to wash the sulfur out of the smoke before it goes up to the smokestacks. Scrubbers remove sulfur from the smoke by spraying a mixture of water and powdered limestone into the smokestack. The mixture traps the sulfur before it can escape into the air above.

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Scientists and engineers are also discovering new ways to bum fossil fuels that produce much lower amounts of pollution.

Nitrogen oxides from burning coal and from vehicles also contribute to acid rain. Vehicles give off nitrogen oxides and other pollutants in their exhaust fumes. Devices such as catalytic converters reduce the pollution from those exhaust fumes. All new cars sold in the United States are required to have catalytic converters.

There are other sources of energy besides fossil fuels. These include hydroelectric power and nuclear power. Dams use the power of water to turn turbines and make electricity. People have been using this form of energy for most of this century. Nuclear power plants make electricity from the energy released by splitting atoms. A small amount of nuclear fuel can make a very large amount of electricity.

There are problems with using hydroelectric and nuclear power. Hydroelectric plants require a constant source of water. Because rainfall is not always predictable, hydroelectric plants are not as reliable as those using coal or oil.

Hydroelectric plants can also harm the environment. Thousands of acres of land often have to be flooded to create a reservoir, a holding place for the great amounts of water needed to power these plants. Sometimes the land that would be flooded is home to rare types of plants or animals. Nuclear power plants produce electricity cheaply. But the nuclear waste they leave remains dangerous for thousands of years.

Scientists are looking at other energy sources, such as windmills and solar energy, using the power of the sun itself. In several states, there are modem windmills like airplane propellers that make energy from the wind. In other places, wind power pumps water from the ground. In Arizona and New Mexico, solar energy is at work making electric power. Each of these sources has drawbacks as well. Windmills and solar panels are reliable only where it is windy or sunny most of the time.

All sources of energy have benefits and limitations, including the cost of producing the energy. All of these factors must be weighed when deciding which energy source to use.

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Restoring a Damaged Environment It can take years for an acidic lake or stream to recover naturally, even if the acid rain stops. People have brought some lakes and streams back to neutral or basic conditions more quickly than nature could alone. They have added powdered limestone (a natural base) to the water in a process called "liming".

The people of Norway and Sweden have successfully restored hundreds of lakes and streams with liming. Few lakes and streams have been limed in the United States. Liming is expensive and the effects are only temporary. As long as acid rain continues to fall, limestone must be reapplied or the water will become acidic again. Liming may be the only way to make sure that life in acid lakes or streams survives until the amount of acid rain falling on the surrounding land can be reduced.

Conserving Resources It may seem like there is not much that individuals can do to stop acid rain.

However, environmental problems - including acid rain -- are caused by the combined actions of individual people. Individuals can take part in solving these problems as well. One of the first steps is to assume responsibility for the problem by finding out what can be done.

Each person who turns off the lights when no one is using them and uses energy-saving appliances reduces the amount of electricity a power plant has to produce. When less power needs to be produced, pollution from power plants decreases. Car-pooling, using public transportation, and walking reduce the pollutants that come from vehicles. The sum total of all these individual actions can be very great indeed.

The more informed people are about acid rain and other environmental problems, the more they I can do to make the earth a cleaner, healthier place.

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Psychotherapy Psychotherapy is a form of treatment for psychological disorders. In psychotherapy a patient or client talks with a therapist to obtain help in changing emotions, thinking, or behavior patterns that are distressing. Many types of human problems are treated in psychotherapy: disorders such as PHOBIAS, generalized ANXIETY, obsessions, compulsions, DEPRESSION, and psychosomatic and psychosexual disorders (see PSYCHOPATHOLOGY). Psychotherapy may also help patients and their families cope with severe disorders such as SCHIZOPHRENIA. Psychotherapy also addresses interpersonal difficulties, such as unassertiveness, lack of interpersonal skills, and marital and family difficulties, as well as HABIT problems, such as drug abuse, excessive alcohol consumption, tobacco smoking, and obesity. Psychotherapy may be used as an alternative to or in conjunction with medications and other somatic (physical) treatments on an inpatient or outpatient basis.

THERAPISTS Psychotherapy is usually offered by psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, and psychiatric social workers. Psychiatric social workers are trained in treatment methods and often work as part of a treatment team in hospitals or clinics.

Today psychotherapy is being practiced more and more by paraprofessionals, who have less training but may be supervised by a professional or may be trained to work with specific problems using specific methods. In self-help groups therapists share the characteristics of their patients. Ex-alcoholics, for example, serve as therapists for alcoholics.

FORMATS OF THERAPY Psychotherapy is conducted in several formats. Individual therapy refers to a therapist's work with one person on his or her unique problem; the relationship between client and therapist may be particularly important in producing

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change. In GROUP THERAPY, therapists meet with a group of patients, and the interactions between patients become an important part of the therapy process. Marital therapy focuses on the relationship between a husband and wife; often both a male and a female therapist are involved so as to provide both male and female perspectives. Family therapy brings all the members of one family into a therapy group, on the assumption that families operate as an interacting system and that one member's problems are only symptomatic of problems in the system.

Many different theories or schools of psychotherapy exist. They fall into the four broad classes covered in the remainder of this article: psychodynamic therapy, phenomenological therapy, cognitive therapy, and behavioral therapy.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY Psychodynamic therapy makes the fundamental assumption that emotional disorders are merely symptoms of internal, unobservable, and unconscious conflicts between personality components. These conflicts result from unresolved family conflicts, experienced in early stages of childhood that become reactivated in problem situations in adulthood. The aim of psychodynamic therapies is to revive the early conflict and to transfer it to the relationship with the therapist. The symptoms are removed when the therapist helps the patient to resolve the conflict in the transference relationship. The therapist interprets the transference to the patient and helps him or her overcome resistances to accepting the interpretation. Additional methods, such as dream interpretation or word association techniques, are used to aid in uncovering unconscious material. Sigmund Freud's PSYCHOANALYSIS is the primary example of a psychodynamic therapy. Other variations include analytic psychology (Carl JUNG); will therapy (Otto RANK); holistic therapy (Karen HORNEY); individual psychology (Alfred ADLER); interpersonal psychiatry (Harry Stack SULLIVAN); and TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS (Eric Berne). '

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PHENOMENOLOGICAL THERAPY Phenomenological approaches view people as naturally evolving in the direction of psychological growth and maturity. Society may hinder this process by imposing false values and causing the individual to distort his or her awareness of experience. Emotional disorder results from this distortion.

The goal of therapy is to restore the patient's natural self-direction by helping him or her to become aware of distorted or denied feelings and emotions. The therapist attempts, as far as possible, to understand the subjective experience of the patient and to communicate back, and thus clarify this experience. The therapist is an active, empathetic listener who provides an accepting atmosphere and helps the patient to regain awareness and thus control of his or her emotions and behavior. Emphasis is on present experience as opposed to recollections of early development. In some forms of phenomenological therapy the therapist may use various exercises to elicit emotional responses within the therapy session. The CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY of Carl ROGERS is a well-developed example of this type of approach. Fritz Peri's Gestalt therapy is a related technique that uses therapy exercises (see GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY). The existential approaches of Abraham MASLOW and Rollo May can also be grouped here.

COGNITIVE THERAPY Cognitive approaches to therapy assume that emotional disorders are the result of irrational beliefs or perceptions. Cognition is assumed to precede and determine emotion and behavior. Each person develops a complex set of categories (variously referred to as constructs, schemas, or plans) that is used to construe events. The way in which an event is construed makes it frightening or calming, happy or sad. The emotionally disordered person distorts categorization (for instance, he or she sees all adverse events as personal failures) and has unrealistic beliefs about the world (for instance, he or she decides, "If I am not loved by everyone, I am worthless"),

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Cognitive psychotherapies attempt to make the patient aware of the occurrence and irrationality of these distortions and to substitute more rational and realistic evaluation. The therapist's role is to educate and to persuade logically. Examples of cognitive psychotherapies are personal construct theory (George Kelly); rational-emotive therapy (Albert Ellis); and cognitive therapy (Aaron T. Beck).

BEHAVIORAL THERAPY Behavioral approaches assume that all behavior is learned. Emotional disorders are considered to be conditioned responses or habits that can be modified by the same principles of learning that govern all behavior. From this perspective psychotherapy means providing corrective learning or conditioning experiences. Different therapy techniques are employed for remedying specific disordered behaviors (see BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION).

Phobias, for instance, are treated by desensitization, in which the client is taught to relax while approaching the feared object in a gradual progression.

In social-skill training, patients practice handling difficult interpersonal" situations via role playing. Joseph Wolpe is an originator and popularizer of behavioral therapy.

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Classical Music In common usage the term classical music denotes "art music," as opposed to popular or folk music. Music historians, however, use the term to mean a specific style and period in music history, roughly 1750 to 1825, that followed the baroque era and preceded the romantic. Its latest masters were Christoph Willibald GLUCK, Franz Josef HAYDN, Wolfgang Amadeus MOZART, and Ludwig van BEETHOVEN. The latter three composers are often referred to as he "Viennese classical school."

The classical period saw the emergence and rapid flowering of the SONATA form and the first maturity of the SYMPHONY, the solo CONCERTO, the solo piano sonata, the STRING QUARTET, and other forms of CHAMBER MUSIC. During this time the ORCHESTRA was expanded, in both the number and the variety of instruments, and the PIANO supplanted the HARPSICHORD as the most popular solo keyboard instrument.

One source for the origins of the classical style may be traced to about 1720, when in France under Louis XV a new style of architectural ornamentation became popular that was characterized by elegant detail and artificial or elaborately sculptured stone. This style gave rise to the term rococo (from the French rocaille, meaning "rock-work"). The style was soon imitated in Italy and Germany. The rococo left its mark on music in the form of light and delicate textures, profusely ornamented melodies, and an elegant sentimentality; it is often referred to as the style galant. Another source of the classical style is the Empfindsamer Stil ("sensitive" or "sentimental style") that appeared in Germany about 1740 and is exemplified in he keyboard works of Carl Philipp Emanuel BACH. This style was emotional, passionate, even boisterous.

Instrumental Music Composers of the classical period developed a new type of melody made up of contrasting melodic fragments, or motives. These melodic fragments could be combined and manipulated in various ways, which gave rise to the technique of development, a crucial element of the emerging classical style.

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baroque era was abandoned; inner voices were made melodically important, and a four-voice texture that was completely written out became the rule.

The sonata form, the most important musical structure of the classical period, was used in symphonies, sonatas, concertos, and chamber works (almost invariably in the first movement, though sometimes in other movements). This form has three main sections: exposition, development, and recapitulation. In the first (exposition), the thematic material is stated in contrasting harmonies and textures; in the second (development), material (or a part of it, sometimes with new themes) is modified in various ways, expanded, combined, fragmented, or dramatically intensified through modulation to other keys; the third section (recapitulation) is basically a repetition of the first, but now with major harmonic changes.

The early symphonies and quartets of Haydn were among the first works of lasting value to be composed in the classical style. Haydn was influenced by the works of Giovanni Battista SAMMARTINI, Carl Phillipp Emanuel Bach, and Johann STAMITZ, the founder of the MANNHEIM SCHOOL of composers. In Haydn's last and most mature works, however, the influence of Mozart is apparent.

An essential characteristic of classical music is a balance between the content of the music and the form in which it is expressed. In this respect, Mozart went further than Haydn in combining depth of expression with formal perfection in his works. Moreover, Mozart refined and merged the styles of Italian and German composers, creating an individual style in which virtually all the major developments of the period were summarized.

Beethoven, working primarily in instrumental forms, began composing in the classical style. In his late works he explored other means of expression. To many, Beethoven's last five string quartets resist classification as either classic or romantic. In them, depth of sentiment, an intensified technique of motivic development, and expressive counterpoint were combined to produce some of the world's greatest music.

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Opera By the middle of the 18th century, many composers felt a need to reform opera and bring it into line with changing attitudes toward music and drama.

Such composers as Niccolo JOMMELLI and Tommaso Traetta (1727-79) worked toward that goal, but it was Gluck who succeeded when he achieved an international style that remained influential throughout the classical period.

The goals of operatic reform were to restore the poetry to its central place, to remove superfluous vocal acrobatics, and to emphasize the drama. These goals required, in Gluck's words, a "beautiful simplicity" in the music, which became characteristic of classical opera, notably in his works but also in those of Luigi CHERUBIMI and Gasparo SPONTINI. Several forms of lighter opera also reached a peak of development during the period. Among them was the Italian opera buffa, which numbered Giovanni PAISEELLO and Niccolo PICCINNI among its prominent composers. Other forms were the French opera comique, whose leading composers were Francois Andre Danican-PHILIDOR and Andre Ernest Modeste GRETRY; the German Singspiel; and the English ballad opera, of which Thomas ARNE was the principal composer. It remained for Mozart, however, to bring classical opera, in most of its forms, to perfection. His melodic gift—a keen dramatic sense, skillfully wrought ensembles, and impeccable, formal constructioncontributed to the creation of music that has never been surpassed.

The classical period in music coincided with two important developments-the emergence and spread of public concerts and the emancipation of the musician as an artist. From Beethoven on, they appeared before the public as independent creators and performers, no longer dependent for recognition on the favor of rulers or officials.

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History of Education Over the course of human history education has appeared in many forms, both formalized and informal. Major thinkers have always recognized the educational value of intellectual exploration and of concrete experimentation.

Most societies have attempted to standardize the behavior of their members.

One form of education that they have used is the rituals by which young are initiated into adulthood. Most societies have also had apprenticeship systems by which the young have learned to imitate the beliefs and behaviors of a given group. Teachers have worked within schools of thought, cults, monasteries, and other types of organizations to shape desired convictions, knowledge, and behavior. Such philosophical and religious leaders as the Buddha, Confucius, Pythagoras, Jesus Christ, Saint Augustine, Moses, Muhammad, and Karl Marx instructed their disciples through informal organizations.

Ancient Education THE NEAR EAST: The nature of education in Egypt and Sumer as early as the early 3d millennium BC is known from archaeological evidence. Various young people were selected to serve as priests, clerics, builders, and political rulers. They were taught writing, mathematics, astronomy, architecture, and government in temple schools by priests, who also controlled education.

Hebrew education centered on the study of the TORAH and the adherence to its teachings and principles. The Bible and other documents such as the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided much information about education in ancient Palestine. One Jewish caste, the Levites, at an early time became temple servants and teachers of the laws. Scholars known as scribes and later as rabbis taught the Jews in the synagogues, although a major responsibility for the education of children fell on parents.

CHINA AND INDIA: In ancient China cultural leadership centered on the courts of the various kingdoms. Chinese historians have traditionally reported

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about the Hundred Schools of thought that emerged from these courts about 1000 BC. Up to about 600 BC, formal education was available only to rulers and nobles; after that time, it became more widespread among officials and members of the wealthier classes. By 400 BC education, largely conducted in private homes, had been shaped for the most part by four schools of thought: Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism, and Legalism.

Accompanying the ascendancy of CONFUCIANISM during the Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220) was a strong surge of interest in education and intellectual pursuits. In AD 124 a Grand college was set up to train candidates for civil service; they were selected by a rigorous animation system that prevailed in China into the 20th century. BUDDHISM and TAOISM have also been important educational forces throughout Chinese history.

The older societies of India were largely conquered by Aryan groups between 2000 and 1500 BC. The Aryans developed the VEDAS, a body of scripture that divided society into castes. Under the caste system, which became a vital part of HINDUISM, social function was inherited; one was obliged not only to learn certain things, by formal instruction and apprenticeship, but, by the moral code, not to learn others. One member of the warrior caste, Prince Siddhartha Gautama (c.560-480 BC), sought a spiritual life and developed the precepts that became known as Buddhism. By the 3d century BC his disciples, living as monks, exerted great influence across all of India. Between the 1st and 7th centuries AD Buddhism became a major religious and educational force in Tibet, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia.

GREECE AND ROME: In ancient Greece societal values were transmitted in various ways. The epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey described the idealized behavior of people who were destined to conquer and to rule.

Schools of thought were established by such teachers as THALES OF MILETUS, who is known as the first Western philosopher; PYTHAGORAS OF SAMOS, who established a religiously oriented cult; and the statesman SOLON, who emphasized political science and economics.

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In the Greek city-state of SPARTA state institutions trained boys almost exclusively in the military arts. Any academic learning was provided by private tutors. In other Greek city-states boys received a general education before beginning military training. The Athenians in particular strove to educate the complete individual. Parents employed teachers in a variety of subjects including reading, writing, poetry, gymnastics, mathematics, philosophy, and science.

In 5th-century Athens the Sophists, teachers who took fees for their lessons, filled an educational gap. PROTAGORAS, who taught mathematics, politics, ethics, and metaphysics, was a philosopher and a rhetorician. He and other Sophists taught rhetoric, an important subject for aspiring statesmen. The great Athenian philosopher SOCRATES went one step beyond the Sophists: he engaged his students in dialogues during the course of teaching them ethics and politics, and he asked no fees.

The Academy, established by Socrates' disciple PLATO about 387 BC, might be considered among the first universities, if one defines a UNIVERSITY as a place where scholars conduct rigorous research with their students. Another university of this type was the Lyceum, founded by ARISTOTLE in 335 BC. The philosophies of Plato and Aristotle dominated educational thought for many centuries and continue to exert an influence on education today.

Many Roman leaders sought education in Greece or, after the middle of the 3d century BC, in Roman schools that were modeled after Greek schools.

Rome also produced teachers of engineering, architecture, and law. In ancient Rome boys were given a general education that included the study of literature, linguistics, astronomy, geometry, music, logic, history, and philosophy; girls received only an elementary education.

The impact of Greek and Roman education was strong and long lasting in Western culture. In medicine, a research-oriented school was led by HIPPOCRATES at Cos. He was followed much later by the Roman physician GALEN. For many centuries the medical science of Hippocrates and Galen was the most advanced in the West. The rhetorical school of ISOCRATES 93

became a model for such Romans as QUINTILIAN and has long influenced the study of humanities.

Education among the early Christians was both religious and secular.

Christians received the same classical secular instruction as did the Greeks and Romans among whom they lived. Early Christianity developed theologies closely related to classical philosophies and pagan religions.

Education in the 20th Century In the 20th century major advances in education occurred throughout the world. School and college curricula have kept students abreast of developments in science and technology. Modifications of the ideas of Plato, Aristotle, Confucius, Rousseau, and others, plus new philosophies (including the tenets of Marx, Mao Tse-tung, and Gandhi) and new systems of psychology as put forth by Ivan PAVLOV, G. Stanley HALL. Sigmund FREUD, Carl JUNG, THORNDIKE, B. F. SKINNER, and Jean PIAGET, influenced new educational 3. New systems-such as those of John DEWEY and William JAMES-that were to influence whole nations were developed. The idea of education for all became a rallying point for many social and political leadersespecially those of emerging nations, where widespread illiteracy often prevailed. During the second half of the 20th century, the majority of the world's nations had committed themselves to providing education for all children.

THE UNITED STATES: During the early 20th century, American education greatly benefited from the reforms of the 19th century. Kindergartens were first set up in the second half of the 19th century, and school curricula were changed to enable children to be educated as individuals. Vocational schools taught skills that would enable graduates to compete effectively for jobs. In recent years the number of junior and community colleges has grown. They have educated students who would be unable to attend more traditional 4year colleges and have enabled adults to pursue studies, interests, or careers with no view towards higher academic degrees.

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PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION The philosophy of education is a Held of applied inquiry in which the method is philosophies and the subjects of inquiry are educational. Inherent in the philosophical method is an attempt to think, speak, and write precisely and thoroughly. The philosophy of education seeks to make people more conscious of important issues in education and to help them evaluate arguments..

Some philosophers of education believe that their field should have no application or subject matter beyond that described above. Analytical philosophers, for example, maintain that the task of the philosophy of education is solely to try to study and explain approaches to education and educational issues. The field does, however, include broader areas of study such as historical writings on education by important philosophers. No clear separation can be made between the philosophy of education and the history of education.

Many philosophers of education argue that educational philosophy must lead to the improvement of educational decisions, policies, values, and methods if it is not to be merely an intellectual exercise. The philosophy of education is particularly concerned with the relationship between educational theory and practice-how theory is applied and tested in practice and how practice improves theory. Many philosophers of education are interested in ways in which philosophy and other fields of study can be combined to more clearly elucidate educational problems.

The term education has had a variety of definitions. The traditional view of education is expressed in the formal instructional activities conducted in schools and universities. A better definition is that education is a lifelong process that includes both formal instruction and the broad range of other experiences, including television viewing, peer relationships, and family living, that usually occupy more time and often exert more powerful influences than does formal schooling.

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Education can be viewed as a product, a process, or both. Philosophers of education who focus on education as a product-the result of teaching and learning activities-look particularly at such factors as goals, aims, competence, effective teaching, and standards. Those who view education as a process are concerned primarily with the quality of the learner's experience, the nature of methodologies, and the relationships between teachers and students and among students. To some extent, conservative philosophers of education see education mainly as a product; progressive philosophers of education tend to see it mainly as a process. Others argue that product and process are inseparable.

Philosophers of education have offered diverse theories of human nature that carry implications for educational purpose, policy, and practice. Four widely influential theories are outlined below.

Platonic Idealism Plato considered reality to lie in ideal Forms that constitute the essential nature of the transient, physical objects that most people identify as reality.

The purpose of education, he asserted, should be to attempt to perceive and understand these ideal Forms, even though only a few people might be able to achieve such understanding. According to Plato, people can be divided into categories according to their ability to pursue education successfully. In the Republic and the Laws Plato outlined his hierarchical model, a system in which those who were the most able would receive the most education and become the rulers or guardians of society. Those with less talent for intellectual training would become warriors. Those with the least capacity would receive the least schooling and would become the workers.

Since Plato's time most educational systems in the West have emulated his model. Schooling has been predominantly abstract and intellectual. Many students find difficulty in relating such subject matter to their notion of the real world. Those least adept at this process leave the educational system. The dropouts often go on to occupy the lowest positions in the economic

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hierarchy. Hierarchical, selective, and segregated educational systems reflect and serve to perpetuate the societies of which they are an essential part.

Marxism Karl Marx saw human nature as being ideally suited for unalienated living and collaborative work, but he saw people as exploited, oppressed, and dehumanized by capitalism. He envisioned a genuine community and unalienating work and education, to be made manifest by a proletarian revolution leading to communism. Under communism the conflict between individual freedom and social authority would disappear, for the interests of the individual would become identical to those of the group. Marx's ideal was the accountable communal person, one who attains freedom through social relationships rather than by escaping from them.

Behaviorism By scientifically studying human behavior, social scientists have made some inferences about human nature that have had important consequences for educational practice. Psychologists have been able to exercise significant control over some human behavior in experimental situations and to predict accurately what people will do in response to certain stimuli. B. F. Skinner, the principal proponent of BEHAVIORISM, rejects the view that human beings are free agents. He argues that all people are controlled, and it is merely a question of who is to do the controlling. The scientist, Skinner notes, may be better qualified to exercise this control than are the agents of business, politics, and religion. From the behaviorist viewpoint, it is irresponsible not to try to control human behavior through science and education.

Existentialist Humanism In the 20th century a reaction arose against the scientific view of human nature and the scientific view of human beings as objects to be observed, classified, predicted, and controlled. Notable contributors to this reaction have been existential humanists. Martin BUBER, Martin HEIDEGGER, Gabriel

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MARCEL, Jean Paul SARTRE and others have fostered the notion of an autonomous self and brought such concepts as freedom, responsibility, authenticity and choice into the center of the educational dialogue. Buber emphasized the uniqueness of each person and the idea that most education takes place through dialogue.

Education and the Nature of Knowledge Philosophers of education often differ in their views on the nature of knowledge. Everyone agrees that assimilating knowledge is one of the main functions of education; there is, however, no agreement on what constitutes "knowledge." Some philosophers of education distinguish between "knowing that" and "knowing how." "Knowing that" stresses the product—acquired information the learner is expected to reproduce when the educational program terminates. "Knowing how" stresses the process—acquired techniques the learner can apply to future learning situations.

Conservative educators regard knowledge as fixed and immutable. The teacher is regarded as the one who knows and the student as the one who needs to know but does not. The teacher needs to acquire techniques for motivating students to learn material in which they have little or no interest.

Progressive educators regard knowledge as something that is mutable and can be created. In the United States, progressive education has been based primarily on the philosophy of pragmatism, originated by Charles Sanders PEIRCE and elaborated by William James and John Dewey. Dewey developed a view of knowledge that became central to the progressiveeducation movement. He regarded the student's interests as the beginning point of the educational process. Subject matter should not be drawn by the teacher from traditional academic disciplines but should consist of activities that enable students to reflect on their own experiences.

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The humanistic educator views the individual as the most important source of knowledge. Each person is his or her own best authority, especially about his or her perceptions, reactions, emotions, and experiences. This personal knowledge, however, must be checked and verified against other criteria, including the perceptions of others and the legacy of the past. A characteristic method of building, creating, and communicating knowledge is through dialogue, which suggests equality among the participants rather than conventional teacher-student, superior-inferior roles.

Education and the Nature of Society The philosophy of education is concerned with ideas about the nature of society and the impact of these ideas on education. The conservative view sees society as a structure that sustains individual life, represents traditional knowledge and values, and passes these things on to the young. The primary purpose of education from this point of view is to serve the needs of society.

In agricultural and craft societies the emphasis is on imitation and apprenticeship. Children and young people learn by watching and imitating their elders, usually in informal or work settings. They often learn by the trialand-error method—a fairly effective way to pass on the accumulated skills and knowledge of a society. In industrialized countries, education is more formal and is carried on in schools. The function of the school, from a conservative viewpoint, is to produce literate, obedient, efficient, and contented workers. Such educational ideals are not generally effective in developing creativity or leading to social innovation.

The progressive view sees society as a structure whose meaning and purpose are found in the quality of the lives of the individuals who constitute it. The primary purpose of education, from this perspective, is to serve the needs of the individual. The spectrum of this viewpoint ranges from the neoromanticism of extreme individualists, such as John Holt and Edgar Friedenberg, and "deschoolers," such as Ivan BLLICH, to the more moderate individualism of progressive schools.

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Humanistic educators see society as changing according to the contributions made by its members. Humanistic educational programs emphasize the development of creativity, divergent thinking, critical evaluation, and the skills needed to initiate change. Because humanistic educators view the student primarily as an individual rather than as a member of a national group, they tend to identify society as the world and take a humanistic-ecological approach to caring for and nurturing the world's resources.

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