Thesis Design Portfolio

a q ua tic plutocra sea stead ing a s a c a t al ys t for coral reef res alex w arren

cies tora

tio n

thesis s ummary This thesis project investigates the potential of seasteading as a catalyst for coral reef restoration. By creating a new micro-sovereign nation at sea, a tax haven can be created without an existing host nation, meaning the substantial revenue from tax evasion can be used for restoring coral reefs, which in turn support food chains, scientific research, coastal erosion and tsunami protection, tourism, nutrient cycling and ocean fish stocks.

No seastead currently exists but all proposals previously have suffered from the same design flaw: fabrication at sea. This proposal, therefore, is a rigidised foam inflated pneumatic structure that allows for complete prefabrication. The site is totally submerged on a dying reef in The Caribbean Sea chosen for its favourable currents, service connections and a political grey area allowing for the formation of a new de jure sovereign nation.

The design utilises mineral accretion technology, a process that attracts layers of corallite skeletal build up; combining the natural geometric strength of inflated forms with the material strength of limestone. This technology has two major benefits: coral reefs can withstand higher sea temperatures and ocean acidification. This thesis project therefore is a global warming resistant coral reef funded by tax avoidance.

co ntents Chapters I to IV represent a summary of my research book (Aquatic Plutocracies: Seasteading as a Catalyst for Coral Reef Restoration); Chapters V to VIII cover the design development and Chapters IX to XII show the final thesis design.

chapter i: coral reefs & ar tificial reefs

chapter v : site an al ysis

chapter ix: plans, sectio ns, d et ai ls

chapter ii: t ax ha vens & sea stead ing

initial d

chapter vi: esign experiments

chapter x: co ns tr uctio n s tra tegy

chapter iii: d iving & s ubmerged habit

d esign d

a ts

chapter vii: evel o pment , par t i

chapter xi: physic al mod

els

chapter iv : pneuma tic s tr uct ures

d esign d

chapter viii: evel o pment , par t ii

chapter xii: fin al vis uals

chapter i: coral reefs & ar tificial reefs

chapter s

ummary

Coral reefs are vital to the entire marine ecosystem, supporting food chains, scientific research, erosion and tsunami protection, tourism, nutrient cycling and ocean fish stocks. They are however dying as a result of global warming, so artificial reefs are being utilised worldwide to help remediate this death sentence, with mineral accretion technology (calcified reefs) being the ultimate global warming resistant solutions, but this technology is rare and expensive.

how oceans benefit humans Statistics obtained from the World Wildlife Fund, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), The Cousteau Society and the United Nations, correct as of 2013.

blue plane

t

We live on a blue planet with a total surface area of 510m sq.km.

Land covers just 30% whereas water covers 70%.

the ev olutio

n of life

ox ygen pr

Life evolved in the oceans and scientists predict they contain 80% of all living organisms.

oductio

n

Ocean plants such as microalgae produce 71% of earth’s oxygen (far more than all the world’s rainforests combined).

c02 absorptio

n

human liveliho

Ocean plants absorb 48% of the earth’s carbon dioxide due to their combined biomass.

ods

Oceans provide food, medicine and livelihoods for over 3 billion people worldwide, who are drawn to their resources.

ocean resour

ces

The market value of ocean resources is estimated at $3 trillion per year (5 per cent of global GDP)

how coral reefs benefit humans Coral reefs, through storm protection, fish stocks and tourism income are thought to be worth $375bn per year globally (source: BBC News, August 2013)

Coral Reef Absorbs Waves

Mainland

Ocean Waves

Tidal Mangrove Forests

Coral Reef Absorbs Waves

Clean Water

Ocean Waves

Seawater

suppor ting fish s

tocKs (+ jobs)

Reefs are nurseries and spawning grounds for fish that will ultimately feed over 1 billion people in Asia alone, supporting millions of jobs. With earth’s population expected to grow form 7 billion to 9 billion by 2040, this reliance will increase.

storm & ts

un ami pr o tectio

n

Coral reefs protect coastlines from pounding waves by absorbing most of the wave energy. This protects nearby coastal property. Healthy coral reefs constantly grow, providing continuous protection for adjacent coastline.

med icin al ad

vances

Chemicals are extracted from reef sponges to treat leukemia and antibiotics are developed from reef species found nowhere else. Scientists estimate a further 8000 species have not yet been discovered, further sources for new antibiotics.

er osio n pr o tectio

n

Coral reefs also protect seagrass meadows and mangroves, which provide water purification & food. Breakwaters offer protection against erosion but they are expensive to construct and maintain, whereas a healthy reef repairs itself for free.

why s pecies d iver sity is impor

tourism income Tourists visiting the Florida Keys generate at least $3 billion dollars annually, and Australia’s Great Barrier Reef generates over $1 billion per year. Sustainably managed coral reef tourism also provides income to poorer coastal communities.

Filtration

Reef Sponges

nutrient cycling The ocean absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and the zooxanthellae algae photosynthesize, reducing it further.

Reef-growing sponges filter 10,000x their own volume in seawater every day, trapping 90% of all bacteria they filter.

t ant

As read in Michael Weinstock’s The Architecture of Emergence, coral reef species diversity is directly comparable to the diversity found in human cities. In short, diversity = productivity.

d iver sity = pr oductivity More species diversity on reefs means more species evolving and producing together, creating competitive services that benefit the entire reef community. Many evolutionary systems have been harvested by humans for scientific breakthroughs.

d ensity = efficiency Reef systems occupy just 1/100th of the oceans yet contain 1/4 of all marine species. This is comparable to human cities, where 1/4 of the world’s humans live in urban areas with a population of over 500,000.

centrality = co

nnectivity

Coral reefs do not exist merely as closed loop systems - they benefit the entire ocean by photosynthesizing and nutrient filtration; similar to the way human cities generate services and an economy that benefits their country as a whole.

lear ning & socialiZing Reefs are hubs for breeding, nesting and socializing for animals that live around the reef; in the same way human cities offer comparable services to their populations.

feed ing & cleaning The abundance of life makes them rich feeding grounds, and places animals arrive at after migrations so that cleaner fish (above) can remove irritating bacteria built up from their long ocean voyages.

n avig a tio n & res pite Reef systems are transport hubs - they are signposts that marine animals and seabirds use to navigate their annual migrations. They are also comparable to service stations where ocean life can take a break before long voyages.

co nd itio ns for reef gr

owth

Each species of hard coral differs in their tolerance of these factors, but typically each grows best within quite a narrowly defined set of conditions, made up of the following:

tr o pic al w a ter s Corals survive in water temperatures between 17 and 34 degrees Celsius but thrive between 22 and 28 degrees. This means they are limited to waters found between the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer, 23.5 degrees either side of the equator.

phyto planKto

n bl o oms

Coral growth also cannot occur without the presence of photosynthetic zooxanthellae - biological partners that dwell within the coral tissues. These algal blooms are controlled by weather patterns, and most bloom within in the tropics.

seco ndary bl

o oms

Waters outside the three major regions still accommodate enough phytoplankton to support a wide variety of marine life. Although with less biodiversity, reefs can still flourish here, namely The Maldives in the Indian Ocean and Fiji in the South-West Pacific Ocean.

clear, shall

ow w a ter s with l

ow salinity

Hard corals that build the foundations for tropical reefs require sunlight to allow the microscopic zooxanthellae algae that live symbiotically inside the coral to photosynthesize. They also do not tolerate high sea water salinity (salt content) found in the open ocean

min or bl o oms These areas of the oceans contain phytoplankton but the temperatures are usually too low in these regions to support coral growth on a large scale. The Atlantic contains only small pockets of reef life, near Brazil and the African West Coast.

primary bl

o oms

Waters most rich with phytoplankton are those which coral reefs most thrive. Earth’s three most diverse areas of phytoplankton species are found in (from left to right) the Red Sea & East Africa, the Indo-Pacific region and the Caribbean.

coral reef l

oc a tio ns

As a result of the conditions for reef growth from the previous page, over millions of years coral reefs have emerged in clusters around the world, and can be categorised into a several geographical areas.

ind ian ocean reefs Areas include The Maldives, The Seychelles and Mauritius, Burma and Sri Lanka. These islands are under threat from sea level rising, which reduces sunlight levels underwater.

red sea reefs Famously explored by Jacques Yves-Cousteau in his Conshelf saturated diving experiments in the 1960s, the reefs bring tourism income to Egypt, Israel and Saudi Arabia.

ind io-pa cific reefs The diverse reefs around the Indio-Pacific region are perhaps the least polluted, as local islanders have learnt over centuries to care for their environment.

c aribbean reefs Perhaps the most visited by tourists, reef networks surround nearly all Caribbean islands in the Caribbean Sea, as well as the Florida Keys and small clusters in the Gulf of Mexico.

coral sea reefs The Coral Sea is an area between the Great Barrier Reef and a number of islands including Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati, Nauru and the Solomon Islands, South of Indonesia.

south p a cific reefs Remote islands in the South Pacific have evolved far away from the continents so contain species found nowhere else.

Examples include French Polynesia and the Cook Islands.

ea st afric

a reefs

Areas include fringe reefs around Madagascar, and clusters stretching into the Indian Ocean. The reefs are under threat, with a third dying out since the industrial revolution.

grea t barrier reef Probably the most famous reef and certainly the world’s largest, stretching over 1600 miles along the east coast of Australia; comprising of over 2900 individual reef systems.

how reefs ev

ol ve

Shallow Lagoon

Island

Shallow Lagoon

Sea Level

Atoll Reef

Barrier Reef

Fringe Reef

st a ge i - fringe reef First theorized Sea Floor by Charles Darwin, Stage I of III sees reefs forming around an existing tropical island, growing outwards over generations of coral skeletons towards the nutrient-rich open ocean.

st a ge ii - barrier reef

st a ge iii - a toll reef

Tectonic plate movement or volcanic activity causes the central island to subside, pushing the reefs outwards and upwards, breaking the surface and creating a ‘barrier’ against ocean waves between the central lagoon and the open ocean.

coral reef ecosys

The final stage of reef evolution sees the central island or volcano sink completely beneath sea level, forming a typically circular central lagoon that the surrounding reef expands into.

tems humans 40% of the world’s oceans are fished unsustainably. If current trends remain, the apex predators are being caught at too young an age to keep the food chain below them in check, leading to toxic algal blooms that suffocate coral polyps.

apex preda

tor s

Apex predators have no natural predators other than humans.

They prey on most animals beneath them in the food chain, and often hunt in the open ocean as well as the reef..

ter tiary co

ns umer s

These animals are all carnivores that either live in the reef or use it as a ‘pit stop’ between long ocean voyages. Tertiary consumers usually have a specific skill set or food source so are most affected by changes in the the ecosystem.

seco ndary co

ns umer s

Reef dwelling animals never leave the coral reef to venture into the open ocean. They often form symbiotic relationships with primary consumers for mutual protection.

primary co

ns umer s

These are reef attached animals that include sponges, anenomes and the reef building hard corals that use their corallite skeletons to grow entire reefs over thousands of years.

micr o-org

anisms

The entire food chain is supported by nutrient-rich waters full of phytoplankton and other micro-organisms. Once sea waters rise too high, these organisms die out, along with everything above it.

the impor

t ance of corals

Hard Corals are the building blocks of coral reefs that are described as the ‘beating hearts’ of the oceans. The polyps in hard corals make protective shells out of calcium carbonate extracted from seawater, called corallite. Similar to plants growing towards the sun, coral grows towards the source of nutrients - outwards into the ocean. Corals build reefs and sponges keep them healthy.

the impor

t ance of reef s

po nges

Reef sponges use chemicals to prevent other sponges from growing near them. These chemicals are extracted to prevent cancer cells from spreading in humans. Antibiotics have been extracted from rare reef sponge species, and scientists estimate 8000 species have yet to be discovered - the potential for more medicinal breakthroughs, which is why they cannot be allowed to become extinct. They keep coral reefs healthy by filtering 1,000,000 times their volume in water each day.

Some sponges host photosynthesizing micro-organisms like coral polyps do, creating a symbiotic relationship that produces more food and oxygen than they consume, allowing their skeletons to grow. Sponge skeletons adapt to their environment - filling all nooks and crannies in the reef.

Sponges dislodged because of storms can be reattached to reefs using simple weights and non-corrosive steel bars to hold them down until they rebuild their anchors. Sponges have internal skeletons of spongin and/or calcium carbonate or silica that anchors to the reef in the same way corals do.

The shapes of their bodies are adapted for maximal efficiency of water flow through the central cavity, where it deposits nutrients, and leaves through a hole at the top known as the osculum. These images show filtration being tested with fluorescent dye.

min or threa

ts to reefs (l

oc alised)

These threats are localised to specific areas of reef, rather than ocean wide. Minor threats such as explosive or cyanide fishing, bottom - trawling, tourism waste and invasive species are easier to reduce, meaning reefs recover much quicker.

major threa

ts to reefs (w

orldwid

e)

There are natural threats to reef systems which reefs have evolved to deal with over millions of years of coexistence; however most modern threats to reefs are caused by humans.

hurric

anes & ts

un amis

Naturally occurring environmental weather patterns such as hurricanes (Caribbean) or typhoons (Pacific) as well as tsunamis (caused by volcanic eruptions) damage coral reefs.

However reefs have evolved with these threats, and this damage allows new opportunities for future coral growth.

pollutio

n - a gricul

t ural

Reefs rely on low-saline water found near coastal regions, areas in which waste chemicals and fertilizers are washed into the ocean. In built up (tourism) areas, air pollution reduces the amount of sunlight that reaches the reef, therefore reducing the amount of photosynthesis of the zooxanthellae.

pollutio

If agricultural runoff via rivers & streams could be described as ‘accidental’, waste-disposal is the opposite: deliberate.

Toxic chemicals are dumped into the sea so companies avoid paying for proper disposal, and all marine organisms that come into contact with them are killed off.

threa

over-fishing

n - w a ste d isposal

rising sea tempera

Over-fishing is destroying the ecosystem of oceans worldwide, let alone coral reefs. Fishing removes the top band of predators from the ecosystem, meaning there are few fish left to eat seaweeds and algae that grow on and suffocate the coral polyps; destroying reefs.

ts in the news: tempera

t ures and a

t ures

Coral polyps can tolerate slightly warmer sea temperatures but their symbiotic zooxanthellae microalgae cannot. The algae will leave the reef, causing coral bleaching (above) in search of cooler waters. Prolonged loss of zooxanthellae will cause the reef to die.

ocean a

cid ific a tio n

The photograph above demonstrates just how fragile corallite skeletons can be. As seawater acidifies (due to increased c02 in the ocean as a result of industrial pollution) the corallite skeleton becomes increasingly weaker; until it may no longer be able to construct at all.

cid ity

These are a small sample of news reports from the last few years. Studies into these threats are so common and solutions are at first glance so bleak that most mainstream media only publish these stories on ‘slow news days’, despite the health of the oceans have a direct impact on the livelihoods of nearly half the world’s population.

sea tempera ‘An international team of scientists found that 231 of the 704 reef-building corals the study was able to assess were in such a poor state that they had fallen into the three mostthreatened categories of species. Many will have disappeared by the end of the century unless global warming, pollution and over-fishing are curbed’ - The Independent

t ures rising

‘During the 2030s, roughly half of reefs globally will experience stress sufficient to induce severe bleaching in most years. During the 2050s, this percentage is expected to grow to more than 95%. The threat is the highest in Southeast Asia where nearly 95% of the region’s reefs are threatened’ - CNN

ocean a ‘Conditions are ripe for the sort of mass extinction event that has afflicted the oceans in the past. We have been taking the ocean for granted. It has been shielding us from the worst effects of accelerating climate change by absorbing excess c02 from the atmosphere. We really do have to get a grip on what’s going on in the oceans’ - BBC

"The health of the ocean is spiralling downwards far more rapidly than we had thought. We are seeing greater change faster, and the effects are more imminent than previously anticipated. The situation should be of the gravest concern to everyone since everyone will be affected by changes in the ability of the ocean to support life on Earth" - The Guardian

cid ific a tio n

‘Coral and shellfish will find it increasingly difficult to survive as acidification shrinks the minerals needed to form their skeletons. We are seeing an overall negative impact from ocean acidification directly on organisms and on some key ecosystems that help provide food for billions. We need to start thinking about the risk to food security’ - CNN

The world’s oceans are becoming acidic at an “unprecedented rate” and may be souring more rapidly than at any time in the past 300 million years. Scientists say acidification could increase by 170% by 2100 and that some 30% of ocean species are unlikely to survive in these conditions. - BBC

ar tificial reefs - how they benefit oceans Artificial reefs create new habitats for the lower end of the food chain, which in turn support a large number of animals above, including increased fish stocks for human consumption. These reefs can be supported by coral nurseries, areas where corals are grown in protected conditions so they can be placed on the new reef to boost its growth. Geometries are becoming more organic to better reflect the natural conditions that polyps and other reef dwelling animals have evolved with.

?

?

?

?

? !

?

! !

There are no hiding places in the open ocean...

... so top predators keep the bottom end of the food chain under control

This new niche offers protection, a sanctuary for small animals to spawn and feed, from the bottom up

However, an artificial reef creates a hiding place, a niche environment in an otherwise ‘empty’ ocean

ar tificial reef d

Divers visiting sunken ships had begin to notice the amount of marine life that congregated around these new niche areas in an otherwise empty ocean.

a ccid ent al reefs

purpose s

To help promote purpose-sunken reefs, ships are removed of all dangerous chemicals (oils, hydraulic fluids etc) and passages created for future reef divers to explore the ships.

engineered s

unKen reefs

After the discovery of the accidental marine ecosystems created by shipwrecks, more decommissioned ships and structures (oil rigs) were sunk to generate new reefs.

unKen reefs

tificial reefs

wa ste ma terials Hollow concrete blocks and other materials of opportunity can be placed in the ocean to create small niche environments for marine animals to flourish around.

This niche attracts animals from afar, boosting diversity and productivity; whilst still remaining a sanctuary

evel o pment

Tyre reefs were popular in the 70s and 80s but the steel cables holding them together corroded and hurricane swells crashed them into neighbouring reefs, destroying them.

fai led ar

Over time the artificial reef is taken over by algae, corals, sponges, and becomes a thriving habitat

purpose bui

Rather than cheap/waste materials, a number of more coralfriendly materials were tested, such as rough textured alkaline based concrete that accommodated coral root growth.

engineered ma

l t reefs

Heavy duty structures with passages and voids inside create better habitats for wildlife than the typical concrete blocks; well-meaning but with not much scientific input.

3d printed concrete reefs allow more complexity than a typical (mould & pour) concrete reef, but do not offer the environmental protection that a mineral accretion reef does.

terials

envir o nment al mod

3d printed reefs

elling

The voids and passageways inside the purpose built reefs, instead of being random, were designed to create currents better suited to coral growth conditions.

mineral a

ccre tio n

A DC current is sent through a metal frame, attracting the minerals naturally occurring in seawater to slowly calcify - the same process a coral uses to grow its skeleton.

ar tificial reef typol

ogies

Small artificial reefs have been designed for a variety of scenarios: to snag fishing nets, to resist hurricane conditions, to be multi-storey in deeper waters, to offer more surface area and to mimic the conditions found amongst certain species of corals.

Small (600mm tall) reef balls for shallow waters can be placed by divers & buoys

Larger (2m tall) reef balls for deeper water require barge cranes for placement

Sloped-bottom reef balls can be designed for various angles of incline

Bottom-heavy reef balls with flat tops allow stacking in different water depths

Larger reef balls can be fitted with a base to keep them still in stormy waters

This variant is bottom heavy with twin layers to increase internal habitat area

The most secure unit is designed to be spear fishing proof (small holes)

Linear geometry is easier to pour (concrete) but habitats are not as diverse

Hybrid habitats have more diverse spaces, attracting more marine diversity

Layered reef balls offer more surface area to smaller fish & invertebrates

These layered modules can be bottom heavy for rough seas or angled for inclines

These ‘table-top’ reef balls are based on plate corals, increasing biodiversity

biofouling Biofouling is the build up of life, from algae & micro-organisms to plants and invertebrates. Fish are drawn to the new niches in the ocean within a few hours and after days the artificial reefs are covered in a thin layer of algae. Within weeks and months these reefs are colonised by invertebrates and after decades corallite skeletons grow over and envelop these reefs.

hour s

da ys

weeKs

mo nths

year s

d ec ad es

pneuma tic reefs Reef Balls have been designed to create a vortex inside, pulling water (and nutrients) through, benefitting creatures inside; and this streamlining helps resist hurricane waves. The inflatable internal formwork and the fibreglass external formwork create a standardised system that can be used anywhere in the world. The advantages are they are hollow - providing marine sanctuaries, have a rough concrete surface - allowing for coral polyps to attach easily; and use a simple material palette.

Construction process: inflatable internal formwork is suspended through an oculus at the top, with a steel bar to keep is from falling inside.

The pneumatic bladder is inflated, with smaller bladders around the sides creating the eventual openings in the structure.

Concrete is poured between the inner and outer moulds, with a rough surface to enable future coral polyp feet to easily grip to.

Once the concrete has set the inflated bladder is deflated (a release agent prevents concrete from sticking to the inflated rubber membrane)

The inflated bladder is removed through the opening at the top and the fibreglass moulds gently pulled away from the concrete.

Quickly the reef ball is colonized by algae, small animals and corals. This process may be aided by transplanting corals from coral gardens.

c alcified ar

tificial reefs

Discovered in 1979 by German architect Prof. Wolf Hilbertz, the calcification process involves passing a DC current through submerged electrodes to attract the naturally occurring calcium carbonate (limestone) particles found in seawater. The current is only temporary - as the limestone structure ‘grows’ around the frame it solidifies; attracting corals that reinforce it further.

The process creates a more solid base for Corallite anchors, and is also known as ‘Mineral Accretion’.

Electrode placed in water

Naturally occurring calcium carbonate particles in the world’s oceans

The DC current is turned on, attracting calcium carbonate particles

As more particles attach onto the electrode, more particles follow

Within days a white ‘crust’ of limestone appears on the electrode

Within weeks the electrode disappears and the frame rapidly increases strength

The rough surface attracts algae, which begins to colonize the frame

Within days the limestone is covered in algae

Coral polyps begin to colonize the structure

As they anchor in place, they reinforce the frame with their own skeletons

Corallite skeletons grow 3-5cm per year when the current is passing through

With a corallite skeleton in place, the current is turned off and the reef left alone

benefits

The two major benefits are simple: these reefs can tolerate the two major threats to coral reefs: ocean warming and ocean acidification. The electrolysis reduces the immediate water acidity, combatting ocean acidification and the symbiotic algae can tolerate higher water temperatures.

The early rate of corallite growth is 3-4 times faster than a typical reef and polyps recolonize twice as quickly after bleaching. The process utilises naturally occurring minerals, so is non-polluting.

The reefs are created using low-cost materials and skills found around the world, reducing the need for specialist contractors.

Their mechanical strength comparable to mid-strength concrete and there is no theoretical limit on structure size.

the fut

ure of c

They are self-repairing after storm damage, lightweight for easy transportation and their low-voltage DC current is suited to renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectric (ocean currents), wave or tidal energy.

alcified reefs

The current system of using steel rods creates an open surface that corallite skeletons can only close up over (an estimated) hundred years. By using a metallic surface rather than an open mesh, the structures could become stronger quicker, generating the early stages of coral reef growth faster, allowing for a global warming resistant reef before ocean conditions worsen.

Use diagrams: the frame is constructed (welded steel or iron rods) and placed on the sea floor by a team of divers. Buoys can be used to lower the reefs down slowly as they are with the pneumatic reefs on the previous page.

Floating solar panels (potentially wave energy) power the electrolysis, enabling the limestone to build up around the frame. Once organisms begin to attach, the current is disconnected and used in other reef-building projects.

chapter ii: t ax ha vens & sea stead ing

chapter s

ummary

A link was found between the increase in Caribbean tax havens and the decrease in healthy Caribbean coral reefs. Although not of course directly linked, the idea is to form an allegiance between the two, using the vast sums of money invested in tax havens to restore dying coral reefs. To enable this new tax haven, a micro-sovereign host state must be created at sea, not reliant on any existing nation - a political concept known as seasteading, of which none yet exist due to construction expense.

t ax ha vens: their rela

tio nship with coral reefs

Tax havens share the same habitats with coral reefs: tropical waters around small islands. Reefs are declining yet tax havens are increasing worldwide, so my proposition is to use the vast amount of wealth generated from local tax havens to help regenerate and produce global warming resistant coral reefs using the calcification process on the previous page; essentially using one evil (tax avoidance) to fix another (coral reef decline).

New tax havens cannot be created simply. They must occupy a sovereign state (a country), so first a new nation must be conceived - most new nations are formed after war or revolution but an alternative exists in the notion of Seasteading, described in the next section. Before I explore Seasteading, these pages describe how tax havens work. The diagrams below highlight The Caribbean as it is the best example of the geographical relationship between tax havens and coral reefs.

bermuda c ayman islands

s

t urKs & c aicos british virgin islands angui

beliZe pan ama

lla, antigu

st . vincent gren ada

number

bahama

t ax

a

, st . Kitts

heal

ens ha v

thy

s

reef

st . lucia, barbados time

t ax ha ven l oc a tio ns

coral reef l

oc a tio ns

pr o posed co

ncept

how t ax ha vens w orK Corporations create disguised subsidiary companies abroad where they pass a large percentage of their mainland profits to, so they can be taxed at lower rates abroad, unbeknownst to HMRC. Double taxation laws prevent the same profits being taxed in two countries. In this example a British business makes £100m profit, declaring £10m of it to HMRC; but disguising the majority in an offshore tax haven, where corporation tax is only 1%. This means its profits are up from £80m to £89.9m, disguised as £8m, equating to £9.9m of tax avoidance.

£2m tow ards uK public services

if this comp

any were to n

o t ev ad e t ax:

Profits before tax would be £100m Profits after tax would be £80m, £17.1m less than the business would make by using a tax haven

uK public services

uK business

£10m pr ofit

uK t ax (hmr c) 20% t ax ra te

£8m pr ofit

to t al = £

97.1m pr ofit

£20m would be taxed by HMRC, benefitting public services (and UK taxpayers) by an extra £18m each year

£17.1m t ax a voidance per year

criticisms & e

UK public services such as education, healthcare and infrastructure help build UK businesses, but if these businesses declare and tax the majority of their profits abroad, the UK citizen loses out due to the loss of income to public services.

wha t uK t ax a uthorities see wha t uK t ax a uthorities do n

thics

o t see

d isguised offshore subsid iary business

d isguised £90m pr ofit

offshore 1% t ax ra te

£89.1m pr ofit

My proposal is to create a new tax haven that uses the tax income to restore the health of coral reefs, creating healthier oceans, supporting the livelihoods of 3 billion people.

t ax ev a sio n: 6 s teps Data collected from online whistle blowers (former private bankers and personal assistants), acquired with the aim of producing a building programme and schedule of areas from this information.

1 - compliance mee

ting

2 - crea te a d isguised business

Does the prospective client have a substantial amount of money? Most private banks expect a minimum investment of $1million for corporations or $250,000 for wealthy individuals.

3 - o pen a banK a

A disguised corporation to hide the identity of the business. Pre-set up, off-the-shelf companies can also be bought by businesses. People at the tax haven are paid to act as the disguised company’s directors.

ccount

4 - move mo ney into a

Open a private bank account with the name of the disguised corporation. This isn’t actually illegal, but transferring more than $10,000 into it is suspicious and would be investigated for tax evasion.

ccount

This is easier said than done - to avoid tax investigation, sums of more than $10,000 have to be secretly (or cleverly through a loophole) put into the bank account to avoid offshore investigators.

t ax ev a sio n l o o pholes (for n

5 - Keep mo ney in the a

ccount

Tax avoidance is a long-term investment - money exists in tax havens for a long time, perhaps indefinitely.

Businesses make their money and may rely on the interest they accumulate from reducing their taxes.

6 - bring mo

ney ba cK home

If individuals or businesses choose not to live in the offshore haven where their disguised businesses are registered, taking the money back home will be investigated for tax evasion... but there are loopholes.

o . 4 & n o . 6 above)

How to put large sums of money into an account and how to take large sums out unnoticed are the two areas that tax evaders are most likely to be caught; but a number of loopholes (as above, gathered from whistle blowers) exist:

4 - c a sh in s uitc a ses

4 - c a sh in the pos

It sounds risky but this practice is surprisingly common, say whistle blowers (former private bankers and personal assistants). Tax evaders are disguised as holiday makers.

4 - gems, gold e

t

As long as the parcels contain less than $10,000, this practice is legal and untraceable. Tax havens therefore need a post office to receive incoming parcels.

tc

6 - regis ter cred

Transferring money into small, easily smuggled commodities is an alternative to cash in a suitcase.

Therefore tax havens must include a ‘Cash for Gold’.

jour ney thr

for t un a te

inves tig a tio n

unfor

Client Entrance & Security Checkpoint

st aff & client s

oad

Disguised credit cards are registered and posted to individuals who own their offshore businesses, who pay for any purchases abroad.

6 - gifts Gifts from trust accounts are tax free, and if a UK resident is a beneficiary, the trust money coming from offshore is not taxed.

6 - g ambling Casino winnings declared offshore are not taxed in many countries (notably the United States), so most tax haven gambling is fixed (known outcomes).

oug h a t ax ha ven

Key physic al s pa ce

it c ard abr

pa ce

Set up disguised business & directors (more flexibility)

Transfer funds into new bank account

Yes

Cash

t un a te

No

No

Are weapons or hidden cameras detected?

Suspected Tax Inspector?

Waiting Area

Yes

Yes

Bribe?

No

Confiscate weapons & camera equipment

Holding Area

Escorted from Premises

Escorted from Premises

Yes

Wealth Assessment (tax haven compliance) Meeting Room

Does the client have more than $1m to invest at time of the meeting?

Business Creation Room

No

Does the client have Cash or Other means of payment?

Bar & Leisure

Is the client from the U.S?

No

Other

Liaise with like-minded individuals

Yes

Buy off-the-shelf dummy business account (less flexibility)

Cash for Gold (convert gems into currency)

Will the client pay more than (nominal) $10,000?

Bank

Casino (fixed)

Client Exit

sea stead ing ‘Who among us has not looked at the current dysfunctional state of political systems and wished, “If only there were a deserted island where we could start over again.” The bad news is there are no deserted islands that are unclaimed by jurisdiction, so the only way to have one is to build your own. That’s what the seasteading community is hoping to facilitate’.

- George Petrie, Naval Architect, Seasteading Institute Libertarians want to escape the regulations of existing governments and start their own idealised states at sea, without foreign reliance or intervention. No built examples yet exist due to poor business models and excessive construction costs.

X liber t arians’ view of the sea

liber t arians’ view of the land The state/governments and their associated tax authorities have complete power over the wealth of individuals and businesses.

liber t arians’ corpora

Seastead communities are protected sovereign nations with their own legal system and thus cannot be dictated to or controlled by foreign tax authorities.

who are the liber

te view

Rather than a monopolized Government with a lack of alternatives to its citizens, seasteads act like corporations that compete for customers.

t arians

laisseZ faire s

t a tes

These economic environments are free from government restrictions, with only basic regulations to protect property rights. None exist, yet is what all seasteads aspire to be.

?

Libertarians are very anti-state control, but unlike left-wing socialists, are inclined towards businesses and wealthy individuals who are fed up with excessive corporate tax. The basic left/right wing political map (below) doesn’t take into account this corporate direction, so a political ‘compass’ (below, right) is the best way of visualising where the movement is. Libertarianism occupies a rare peace-time area at the base of the political compass, sharing the counterculture ideas more commonly associated with civil war anarchist movements and Milton Freedman, a free-market (Libertarian) economist.

te co ntr ol ind ividu al co

corpora

tyranny

community co

sea stead ing liber t arians

fa scism

n aZism

mo n ar chism

co nserv a tism

liberalism

His son was a Libertarian theorist and so too is grandson Patri Friedman, founder of the Seasteading Institute; an organisation aiming to establish a permanent, autonomous ocean community with Libertarian social, political, and legal systems.

socialism

Milton Friedman taught at the University of Chicago and was the winner of the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1976, the most influential economist of the 20th Century, and has been called the father of Libertarianism.

communism

a tri friedman

an ar chism

mil to n friedman & p

al p ar ties

mob r ule

major uK politic

ntr ol

st a te co ntr ol

ntr ol

co nd itio ns for sovereignty Seasteading Libertarian communities need to be free from external governance to be truly recognised sovereign nations. To be considered an independent country they must act like one, so according to the United Nations must have the following:

pula tio n

a gover

nment

T T T T T

T T T T T T T T T T

a permanent po

T T T T T

a d efined territory

the c apa city to enter into d ipl oma tic rela tio ns

pr o tect the lives and interes ts of its citiZens

to be recogniZed by o ther sovereign s t a tes

the ev olutio

n of sea

stead pr

o posals

Seasteading was dreamed up by economists and early visions are comparable to visions of an ocean bound Singapore or Dubai.

Once architects took hold of the idea visions became more organic, ecological and buildable. However all proposals suffer from the same flaw: fabrication at sea. A future proposal, therefore, should maximise prefabrication to minimise the risks of offshore construction, and make seasteads more affordable and indeed believable.

eco n omis ts’ visio ns ‘The Principality of New Utopia’ was one of the earliest proposals, showing an arched fountain and into a Sim City or Las Vegas-esque commercial island Mecca. Visuals feature a sheltered lagoon - protection from the open ocean as well as from offshore tax authorities.

ar chitects’ visio

ns

German architect Wolf Hilbertz, inventor of the mineral accretion process demonstrated the potential of the technology to build a self-assembling city from the sea on an extraordinary scale over many decades. A huge limestone dam surrounds the city to protect it from tsunamis.

Pneumatic structures have strong links with utopias due to their being literal escape bubbles, sanctuaries from society.

The lightweight, modular concept allows reconfiguration so is suited to individualist Libertarian ideas about how a community might have to adapt in its initial experiments.

politic

olig ar chies An Oligarchy is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people based on personal or corporate wealth, family ties or education - making this form of governance especially suited to micro-sovereign states with small populations such as seasteads.

plutocra

cies

A form of Oligarchy where the wealthiest are always in charge, regardless. The terms are often used as a critique, warning against an undesired lack of social responsibility. However, an example exists in the City of London, where more votes are allocated to businesses with more employees inside the financial district, encouraging growth and competition.

modular segments

pneuma tic

The ‘Atlantis Project’ was an early seastead concept proposed by naval architects who focused on creating a series of modular segments that could be fabricated offshore and towed into location. The project did not advance because of a lack of legal and political input, something which the Seasteading Institute (right) has concentrated its efforts on.

al s tr uct ures: minimal gover

aris tocra

cies

A state is ruled by a small group of individuals based on education, wealth or experience. Such governments existed in ancient Greece and Rome before democracies. Aristocracies may seem more fair than a constitutional monarchy but they require more people to make decisions, so may be unsuited to a seastead proposal.

the sea

absolute mo

stead ing ins tit ute

The Seasteading Institute want to build their first prototype for a few million dollars by scaling down and modifying existing off-shore oil rig designs such as a spar platforms.

These proposals make use of derelict shipping containers as a way of reducing costs further, keeping ideas like modularity that make the ideas more rational.

ecol ogic al ‘The Lilypad’ is a concept for a completely self-sufficient floating city intended to provide shelter for future refugees as a result of sea levels rising. Although not proposed as a seastead, the concept has not gone unnoticed by the seasteading community, as it produces its own energy through solar, wind and tidal technologies without relying on other nations.

n ance

co ns tit utio ns

n ar chies

This power structure is run by an individual monarch who is not legally bound by a constitution. With no rules in place, this is likely to end in bribery and oppressive rule (tyranny), such as various kings and queens of England and other European countries throughout history.

co ns tit utio n al mo n ar chies

Modern governments rely on a Constitution - a fundamental set of rules a nation adheres to, controlling the behaviour of government, preventing the disorder of anarchism and protect the fundamental human rights and liberties of citizens.

A monarch can only act within the rules of the constitution.

This form of Governance requires only one ‘ruler’ (Head of State (Prime Minister / President etc) but prevents tyranny, and so is suited to future seastead proposals.

eco n omic s tr uct ures: minimal banKing rela tio nship d ia grams

public priv a te c a shier d esK

ba cK office

waiting area

Typical, everyday customers use high street banks for loans, savings & credit cards. They are not suited for very wealthy customers as they only offer generic services for (comparably) low sums of money.

priv a te banKing The wealthy individuals and corporations that use tax havens require a private banking service to help maintain and disguise their assets, under the disguise of ‘wealth management’.

exclusivity If wealthy individuals, families or corporations are not prepared to deposit $1m they are not invited in to private banking and will turned away.

mee ting ro o m

typic al banK la

safe

yout

A typical bank has clear customer & staff areas, with the cashier screen the main point of security. Safes & data backup are further separated for extra security.

d a ta ba cKup ba cK office

entrance

entrance

re t ai l banKing

c a shier d esK

d a ta ba cKup

waiting area

banK of da

c a shier & office

d a ta ba cKup

waiting area

safe

entrance

safe

ve

The micro-bank in Burnley has no space for a meeting room. Either the customer talks to staff via the cashier desk or (for loans) Dave visits the customer directly.

raiffeisen g

ammesfeld banK

The German bank manages to combine the meeting room with the back office and cashier desk into one room, with data & the safe in locked cupboards.

chapter iii: d iving & s ubmerged habit

chapter s

a ts

ummary

To enable the mineral accretion process, the tax haven and its seastead host must be completely submerged. This chapter describes the various supporting technologies that make these spaces habitable and identifies that all future submerged structures are designed to be pressurised to one atmosphere (surface pressure) to eliminate the dangers and inconveniences of saturated (ocean pressure) air habitats, which are better utilised for scientific research because they allow moon pools: floor openings directly into the ocean.

d iving c

a tegories

A submerged habitat is required to create the framework for the artificial reef. This habitat is also the seastead, containing the tax haven that supports the future-proof ecology of the marine ecosystem around it. Before exploring these underwater habitats, a knowledge of diving technologies is required.

Surface Support

No Direct Surface Connection

Umbilical Line Umbilical Line Hookah Diver

Air Chamber

Diving Bell No Surface Connection

Post - Dive Decompression Chamber

Water Access

Large Enough for Working/Sleeping

SCUBA Diver

SCUBA Diver Deep Sea Diver

Water Access

Hookah Diver

bounce d

iving

a tmos phere d iving

Bounce diving describes diving experiences where divers start and end their dives at the surface. Examples include SCUBA diving, umblical or Hookah Diving; and Diving Bells - which accommodate both. Divers can only stay below 21ft (6.4m) for <1 hour or they risk decompression sickness (the bends), described below.

sa t ura tio n d iving

The human does not come into direct contact with the water, and so the physiological effects of saturation diving (below) does not affect them. Examples include submarines, rescue pods, closed diving bells and personal atmosphere suits. The physiological advantages are outweighed by restrictive movement, and are only really appropriate in very deep water.

Explained in more detail below; this allows divers to be fully saturated with pressurised gases, allowing them more time deep underwater (in theory, indefinitely). All divers must sit in a decompression chamber before they surface - this can be integrated into the saturation habitat or be a stand alone system.

sa t ura tio n d iving

bounce d

sa t ura tio n d ive example:

ive example:

200m d ive d epth

200m d ive d epth

15 mins d ive time

2 da ys d ive time 7 da ys d ecompressio (o nl y 1 req uired)

1 da y d ecompressio n (between ea ch d ive)

neg a tive press (thin air)

sea level n positive press (thicK air)

bounce d iving = shor t d ives, mul tiple d ecompressio sa t ura tio n d iving = l o ng d ives, o ne d ecompressio

ure

ns n

Typical divers risk decompression sickness the longer they spend under 21ft (6.4m), of which the human body can tolerate less the deeper it dives. As such, dive times are very limited, making jobs inefficient. Saturation diving fully saturates the diver with a breathable gas mix under pressure, allowing longer dive times but requiring longer decompression. Divers cannot travel freely to the surface once saturated.

ure

air press

sa t ura tio n

ure

A simple analogy to saturation diving is a simple bath sponge. As once is submersed in water it becomes saturated with water molecules.

At sea level, air pressure is described as ‘one atmosphere’, and is at its most breathable. As altitude increases or depth increases, air becomes thinner and harder to breathe. Every 10m below sea level, atmosphere increases by 1 (eg: -30m = 3 atmospheres).

physiol ogic al danger

sa t ura ted g

a ses

Saturation diving is similar but with bubbles of nitrogen gas dissolving rather than water forming in the human body, building up the longer spent submerged. Once saturated, the human body is acclimatised to the pressure of the depth of the surrounding water, and divers must remain at this depth until decompression.

s of sa t ura tio n d iving

(and how to eliminate them)

d ecompressio

n sicKness - ‘

the bends’

Regular air mix changes under pressure underwater. Although breathable, after about an hour nitrogen gas dissolves in the bloodstream and comes out of solution forming bubbles inside the body on depressurisation (swimming towards the surface). These rapidly forming bubbles can cause symptoms from joint pains to paralysis, even death. The prevention is simple: ascend slowly referring to dive tables (above) or depressurise in an air lock; or stay above 21ft when diving.

nitr ogen n

ar cosis

This phenomenon results from breathing compressed gas mixtures deeper than 30m, resulting in a physiological state similar to drunkenness that affects every diver differently. It is solved simply enough by adding helium to the air mix the deeper the habitat, the more helium required. ‘Helium de-scramblers’ are used to lower the pitch of helium voices to make communication to the surface more understandable.

hig h press ure nerv

ous syndr

ome (hpns)

“If Nitrogen Narcosis was martini party drunkenness, HPNS would be an LSD-laced triple espresso” - Ben Hellwarth, author of Sealab. It affects divers deeper than 300m, causing hallucinations, convulsions and a psychological phenomena where divers believe they have deceased. It is barely studied and has no known cure, so is the current limit for saturation dives - leading to the evolution in atmosphere diving.

sa t ura tio n d iving s uit d evel o pment Diving suits have evolved with increasing knowledge of air supply and gas mixes. Siebe’s Helmet was filled used helium to reduce pressure sickness; and has remained nearly unchanged since. Jacques Yves-Cousteau’s SCUBA gear allowed free exploration of the oceans without reliance on a direct surface connection.

Siebe’s or Mark V Helmet

Air Tube

Siebe’s Helmet

Face Sack Hot Water In

Air Chamber

Cold Water Out

Larger air pockets around vital organs Brick Ballast

brea thing t

Klinger

ube & fa ce sa cK, 1 511

d iving dress, d

t d iving s uit , 1797

e bea uve, 171 5

siebe’s hel met, 1837

infla t able d iving s uits

c abir ol ’s d iving s uit , 1855

siebe’s d iving dress, 1837

Surface Umbilical

Fresh Air In

Siebe’s Helmet

Stale Air Out

ho t w a ter d iving s uits

marK v d iving dress, 1

916

scuba / a No Surface Umbilical

Mark V Helmet

Safety Line Bellows Handle

q ualung, 1

942

Air Tank

Telephone

Bellows Wheel Compressed Air Weighted Shoes

Weighted Shoes

a tmos phere d iving s uit d evel o pment Rather than simple helmets with soft suits attached, these suits are robust enough to keep pressure inside the suit at one atmosphere, and so eliminate the physiological dangers of deep sea diving. The suits have evolved with fluid bearing joints to allow better movement, and the more recent suits have replaced the need for saturation diving altogether.

Larger Viewing ‘Window’

Safety Line Tool Umbilical

Large Viewing ‘Window’

Air Supply

Leather Sack

Arms Pointed Forward for Vision

Impaired Movement

Access

Flotation Belt

Rubber Seal around Openings

le thbridge d

iving ma

chine, 1700

c arma gn olle s

Air Supply

Numerous Movement Joints

d e pluvy s uit , 1906

uit , 1878

neufeldt & KuhnKe mod

neufeldt & KuhnKe mod

el 1 , 1917

el 2, 1 923

neufeldt & KuhnKe mod

peress s uit , 1924

Multiple Viewing ‘Windows’

el 3, 1 930

trito

draeger newts

nia s uit , 1935

Large Air Chamber Large Movement Joints

Arms Pointed Forward for Vision

Movement Joints

Internally Operated Hand Tools

Air Supply

ads 2000 , u.s. n avy, 2000 Large Viewing ‘Window’

Twin Eye Openings

uit , 1984

d iving bells Diving Bells are not submarines as they allow instant water access via a ‘moon pool’ and have no means of propulsion. They were used for salvage, treasure recovery and general construction work for 400 years; and have been used to access underwater habitats, lowered up and down from a support vessel at the surface.

up/down chain

umbi lic al air s uppl y

o ne-way air relea se

r obus t bell sea t mo o n po ol a ccess s pa ce

anchor

how they w

s

compo nents

orK

Diving Bells are simply a scaled up version of holding a cup upside-down underwater, allowing divers ocean access.

As the bell is lowered into water, the pressure of the air inside the chamber keeps the water from entering the opening.

Divers can move freely between this air chamber and the ‘moon pool’ - the water below. One assistant stays in the bell.

psychol

ogic al danger

varia tio ns

Diving bells must include these basic components in order to sink to the bottom and keep occupants alive.

s of sa t ura ted habit

As the bell is lowered the water pressure compresses the air, and more water rises into the chamber the deeper it goes.

An air ‘barrel’ is lowered down below the main bell, and the pressure causes air to travel into the bell, pushing water out.

a ts

The mental impacts and behavioural changes of people who are in underwater habitats for extended periods of time, based on accounts from cognitive psychological experiments conducted in the 1960s and 1970s from Conshelf III and Sealab, testing a range of mental processes, including: Memory, Problem Solving, Attention Span and Language (forgetting words or meanings).

? cla us tr o phobia An individual fear of being trapped in a small space indefinitely with no clear escape route. 10% of people are affected, and symptoms vary from anxiety and ‘butterflies’ to heart pains and panic attacks.

stress & c

c abin fever Similar to claustrophobia but experienced in groups rather than individuals. The symptoms of people around you affect and increase your own symptoms.

a t a str o phic thinKing

Stress is caused by (psychological) pressure, and can cause catastrophic thinking - fear, perhaps, of the habitat leaking or imploding. This is a common reason for fear of flying (fear that the plane will crash), and this continued thinking can lead to panic attacks.

panic a tt a cKs Panic attacks occur after a rush of intense psychological and physiological symptoms, namely: high c02 levels, catastrophic thinking and high stress levels; causing nausea, sweating, trembling, irregular heart beat.

how to reduce these danger

clear esc

ape r oute

Claustrophobia is greatly reduced close to the surface and if there is an obvious escape route such as a moon pool, escape pod or transfer capsule to the surface.

co nt a ct with n

a t ure

Basic contact with nature has been proven to relax the mind, above and below sea level. Shallow habitats with large or numerouswindows help achieve this.

large / numer

ous windows

The sense of containment is greatly reduced if habitats include large / numerous windows, possible at shallow depths. This also encourages contact with nature.

res tlessness & forge

tfulness

Spending long periods of time in an enclosed space can cause two extremes: lack of sleep and too much sleep, both caused from breathing irregular gas mixes. Basic memory tests tend to be less successful underwater than on land, also linked to restlessness.

? d istr us t & irrit

abi lity

Between others in the group, particularly after problems occur. Distrust leads to ideas of there being a traitor or saboteur amongst the group. It is caused by a range of symptoms including fatigue, anxiety & stress; often affecting everyone in a group simultaneously.

s

Keep social The importance of a good team was integral to early diving expeditions, as divers spent so much time together. Common goals bring teams closer, as does humour and good food.

q uie tness & comfor

t

Aquanauts become used to the gentle ‘hum’ of dehumidifiers and air conditioning systems; which have been described as ‘soothing’ to help sleep, and improve the comfort of those inside.

Keep busy The U.S. Navy found that psychological dangers (listed above) increased the more time divers spent doing nothing, so research activities were typically relentless.

submerged habit

a t cla

ssific a tio ns

6.4m

hybrid habit

at

pla tform mounted

A permanent or static (i.e. not a boat, barge or submarine) habitat with living space above and below surface level, usually floating. Pressurized to one atmosphere - living space underneath the waves are ventilated using air from the surface, the same as spaces above.

A parasitical like habitat that is fully submerged and anchored to an existing man-made structure, such as an oil rig leg or bridge, for ballast. The advantages are the rigidity against ocean currents is already engineered, and the depth can be adjusted. The disadvantage is the location is already chosen by the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;hostâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; structure.

o ne a tmos phere habit

High budget resort habitats that are fully submerged but are accessed via stairs or lifts and are pressurized to one atmosphere. This allows visitors to walk freely inside without passing through open water or air locks, eliminating the need for decompression.

3 means of a

d iving bells & mo

o n po ols

Moon Pools rely on hydrostatic equilibrium (air pressure) to prevent water from entering from below. They are cheap & low-tech but the main disadvantage is that aquanauts/divers have to enter water when travelling to the habitat.

air-l ocKs Air-locks are built into a saturated habitat, and are sealed so that the air can slowly be adjusted / pressurised to a desired atmospheric depth. Once pressurised, the air-locks unlock so aquanauts can pass freely through into a submarine or PTC:

at

per so n al transfer c

hub / living area

sleeping

air t anK s tore

Saturation habitats are completely isolated from the surface.

Ambient blue water habitats are pressurized the same as surrounding water depth. The moon pool hatch allows easy access into the water. This air pressure keeps the water in the moon pool from entering the structure - the same concept as holding a cup upside down in a sink full of water.

ccess & 3 Key habit

aps ules

PTCs can be simple, vertically moving capsules from a surface support vessel or more sophisticated submarines. They are often designed to decompress aquanauts to a desired atmospheric depth, eliminating the need for an air-lock.

submerged habit

we t area

sa t ura tio n habit a t - ambient

a t area

we t area

sa t ura tio n habit a t - press uriZed Similar to ambient habitats, but these structures can be pressurised to any depth. Although this allows divers to the surface without decompression, divers must travel through an air lock (shown in grey) to enter the water, which is more expensive and less convenient than the moon pools used in ambient pressure habitats.

shall

ow /d eep wa ter

The human body cannot tolerate breathing air at depths of more than 21 feet (6.4m) for longer than 1 hour without decompression. Divers visiting blue water habitats placed lower than this must breath an engineered air mix and decompress before returning to the surface.

s

s

Wet areas house moon pools and washing facilities so quickly become humid; and should be sealed from the main living or working areas. They are used for changing in and out of diving gear, showering & usually contain the WC.

living & w

orKing area

s

These areas are the most used parts of any underwater habitat, saturated or ambient pressurised. They can include communication rooms, laboratories or (in a tourist resort) social or relaxation spaces, often with a viewing window.

sleeping & s

tora

ge area

s

The least used areas of any habitat; sleeping areas and galleys are best located on the periphery (see next spread) or in the case of storage & air supply areas, sometimes completely outside the habitat altogether.

a t la youts

air-l ocK / ptc (thicKer hull)

Key habit a t area

s

Wet areas in saturation habitats are humid so must be isolated. Living areas in both types of habitat should be central, and sleeping & storage areas peripheral as they are used infrequently. Air-locks can shared with other areas.

bes t la yout - o

ne a tmos phere

Habitats at one atmosphere cannot contain a moon pool due to absence of hydrostatic pressure. The layout is much simpler than a saturated habitat, with hub areas in the centre with lesser used areas surrounding it.

bes t la yout - sa

t ura ted

The decompression chamber usually houses a lab, with direct access to storage and the moon pool, which are isolated from the main living areas. Sleeping quarters are not a thoroughfare, and are adjacent to the central hub area.

d ecompressio

n v aria tio ns

Often small habitats will build spaces into internal decompression chambers. Moon pools cannot be decompression rooms as they need to be at hydrostatic equilibrium to prevent water entering.

mixed use v aria tio ns Beds can fold away into living areas, air tanks can be stored anywhere, but typically the wet areas are used as storage to enable divers to easily drop off supplies from the surface.

exter n al air s

uppl y varia tio n

Air supply either by surface umbilical or external underwater storage provides: Pros: safety, can be re-supplied by surface teams Cons: access - divers must exit habitat

life s uppor t sys tems

umbi lic al air s

uppl y

Most early habitats have some form of umbilical line to the Surface Support System, be it a boat or floating buoy. Fresh air is pumped down and waste air is expelled out into the atmosphere.

submerged air s

uppl y

Rather than an umbilical line to the surface, most modern habitats house air supply tanks underwater internally (explosive hazard) or externally (less dangerous) to the main living spaces.

c02 & tra

ce g a s remov al

The carbon dioxide expelled by aquanauts builds up and can be life threatening if too high. c02 â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Scrubbersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; expel this build up via one-way valves (diagram above), and must be maintained regularly. Trace gas from man-made products buil up in enclosed habitats so must also be filtered out.

risKs to s

fire The single biggest threat to any underwater habitat, of which every aquanaut is worried about. Fires produce smoke that fills small spaces, starves the life support system and eventually causes structural failure.

leaKs Although the obvious threat to submerged habitats, leaks are the most well documented and so are the most well understood. Marine architects/engineers have had years of experience in reducing this threat.

collisio

milit ary Saturation habitats were popular during the 60s & 70s for astronaut training and cold war telecommunications espionage but their funding was cut due to advances in space exploration. Early habitats such as Sealab (above) were very utilitarian as they were hidden in very deep water.

scientific Marine biologists from the same era chose to publicise their research by designing memorable habitats such as Jacques Yves-Cousteauâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Conshelf (above). Yellow is the mist visible colour underwater so it allowed divers to easily see it after coming back from a long saturation dive.

t ure & humid

hurric

With ships and submarines. Usually habitats are placed shallow enough that research submarines can see them (yellow habitats help), but deeper habitats must use sonar to warn approaching submarines.

Inflated habitats, like pneumatic buildings on land, were quick to fabricate and transport. These habitats worked at a small scale but experiments into larger habitats failed because membrane technology (then) was not advanced enough

resour

ce recovery

Rebreathers recycle oxygen to an extent but the Biosub habitat proved the potential of algae coils to photosynthesise breathable air. Human waste can be recycled and fed into these coils.

electricity & w

a ter

All habitat systems are electric because gas leaks are too dangerous. Early habitats brought drinking water down from the surface but newer larger habitats should be designed to recycle & filter waste water and desalinate seawater. Toilets are flushed with seawater.

a ts

anes / ts

un amis

These waves are only a threat to habitats located close to the surface (down to about 5-10m in storms and 1020m in hurricanes). Most habitats therefore are placed below 20m depth to avoid being moved around.

n of s ubmerged habit

infla ted

ity

In warm, tropical waters, and with life support & electronic systems producing a lot of heat, underwater habitats quickly become hot; so must be cooled. Most use air conditioning, which also help control humidity as a result of unventilated shower & wet areas.

ubmerged habit

ns

evolutio

tempera

sabo t a ge Life support systems typically have 3 levels of failure, as space architecture does. Early aquanaut teams wanted to eliminate surface connections so any saboteur would be inside the habitat they were sabotaging.

wi ldlife Moon pools can be protected with shark cages, but algae covers windows and large amounts of small animals such as plankton can clog up any openings easily solved with a solution similar to insect mesh.

a ts

hybrid Hybrid habitats utilised inflated air bags, allowing mooring at a range of any depths. This meant they could be lowered in the event of a storm (so waves pass overhead), have a limited impact on the marine ecosystem and are easy to position (by simple inflation/deflation of the airbags.

self s ufficient The Biosub habitat (above) was the first undersea habitat to test a life-supporting algae system photosynthesizing c02 the aquanaut exhaled into breathable oxygen. The algae was fed with human waste and electricity generated from an exercise bike.

Air moisture was purified into drinking water and the algal biomass was edible.

o ne a tmos phere Future submerged habitats are being designed with tourists in mind. The most important aspect therefore is accessibility: one atmosphere habitats allow people to freely travel in and out without changing atmospheric pressure, eliminating the physiological dangers of saturation habitats.

why cl osed l o o p?

Seasteads should minimise their reliance on the resources and infrastructure of other countries if they are to be recognised by the UN as independent sovereign states. A closed loop system is not just for the care of the marine environment, but also for economic and social/political relations. Most submerged habitats have been partly funded and inhabited by NASA scientists who have tested ideas about human space travel in the (relatively) less hostile conditions underwater.

envir o nment al cl

£

osed l o o p

The founding principle of the seastead is to promote responsible marine conservation so a closed-loop system could become an exemplar for future colonies.

£

eco n omic cl

osed l o o p

social/politic

Producing resources on site reduces the reliance on expensive imports and may change the way the tax evaders perceive resources (as economic burdens).

al cl

osed l o o p

Being self-sufficient means no reliance on other nations, so products cannot be tariffed and resources never held at ransom from the seastead.

habit a t s uppor t sys tems A submerged seastead habitat should provide the following to minimise reliance on existing nations. Diplomacy is the most straightforward: a meeting room. Communications relies on the habitat being located near an existing telecommunications cable. The most potential for energy is from hydroelectric power, oxygen and fuel from microalgae; and food from sustainable aquaculture; all described in the following pages.

energy No submerged habitat uses gas due to its explosive fire risk. Electricity should power everything, and on-site renewables eliminate the need for importing power.

communic

a tio ns

Sea floor optical cables can provide telephone and Internet connections to a seastead, so close access to an existing cable will make this cheaper to implement.

d ipl oma cy Seasteads cannot rely on external governance or diplomacy. A seastead must have the facilities for international relations (debate spaces).

trans

por t & fuel

Reliance on oil is dangerous as it can easily be tariffed by producing nations. Biofuel from algae can be part of a closed loop system, eliminating external risk.

fo od & w a ter A seastead should not rely heavily on food imports - it should produce its own food where possible through aquaculture and marine agriculture (see next spread).

wa st e ‘Resource Recovery’ is the term NASA use for waste recycling. Waste from humans could feed algae that produce biomass that can be converted into biofuel.

pos t - t ax ev a sio n a ctivities Secret filming and online whistle-blowers have helped gather the extraordinary leisure activities that entertain the super-rich after tax evasion consultations. The usual golf/opera/hunting is to be replaced with personal submarines to explore the reef.

Gambling and drinking with like-minded individuals stabilises the social structure of the tax haven.

pr o pulsio n d evices

drinKing No submerged habitat uses gas due to its explosive fire risk. Electricity should power everything, and on-site renewables eliminate the need for importing power.

seafo od Sea floor optical cables can provide telephone and Internet connections to a seastead, so close access to an existing cable will make this cheaper to implement.

g ambling Seasteads cannot rely on external governance or diplomacy. A seastead must have the facilities for international relations (debate spaces).

leis ure & trans

sub - sco o ter s

per so n al s ubmarines

por t

Personal submerged transport systems may be powered by the biofuel created as a by-product from the oxygen production of microalgae. When not used for leisure

by tax evaders, scientists will use the submarines for research, discovering new species that may lead to medicinal breakthroughs or a better understanding of

marine ecosystems. Existing transport includes freeroaming hand-held propulsion devices, sub-scooters and mini-submarines; all found in luxury yachts worldwide.

micr oalg

wha t is micr

oalg

ae

ae

ox ygen pr

?

Microalgae are the fastest growing biomass on Earth, found in freshwater and seawater. They are single celled organisms which exist individually (above), in chains

(top right) or in groups. Their sizes can range from a few µm (1,000th of a mm) to a few hundreds of micrometers (comparison with a human hair above). Microalgae are

trial micr

n

Microalgae produce 71% of Earth’s oxygen. Despite common assumptions about oxygen production, the Amazon rainforest produces only about 20%.

photosynthetic, so are important for life on earth, and have been experimented with below sea level with the aim of providing oxygen for future submerged habitats.

terres

oductio

oalg

ae harves

co2 absorber

s

n o fo od/fuel compe

Microalgae are the most abundant ocean plant and absorb approximately 48% of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. A further 2% is absorbed by other marine plants such as sea grass.

titio

n

The main importance of harvesting microalgae is that they can grow on non-arable lands. This means they don’t compete for the freshwater and land required for food supplies, so are a more ethical fuel choice.

ting Sunlight

typic al alg

Photosynthesis

ae t anK

Carbon Dioxide

Man-made algaculture tanks have artificial waves or currents to stress the algae into releasing oils.

Algae Stressed to Release Oils Microalgae Sunlight or Surface Artificial Layer Light

?

Sunlight

Glycerin

Vehicles

Harvest (by hand or automated)

Algae Bioreactors

Biomass

Water 15-25cm Deep

c02

Micro-Power Station

Heating & Hot Water

Electricity

Community Heating

Burn Microalgae

alg ae biofuel pr

Expeller (Extracts Oils)

Solvents Added (removes fat)

Washing (warm water)

energy pr

ocess

The algae grow with light, c02 and water. After being harvested, the algae is put through an expeller which extracts the natural oil. This produces a by product which can be burnt as biomass for other energy. Solvents

Biofuel

Biodiesel

are added to the oil as catalysts for the transesterification process. This removes fat molecules from the oil, improving the viscosity and creating biodiesel. This can then be washed of natural soaps and reclaimable solvents

within the mixture by adding warm water. This process also creates a by product called glycerin which is used for medicine. After transesterification and washing the biodiesel is ready to use in a variety of transport.

a q ua tic micr

oalg

oductio

Fuel Cell

n sys tem

Arup’s BIQ House is the world’s first building that provides its own electricity and hot water using a ‘bioreactor’ façade (algae tanks) to create biomass and heat for renewable energy. The algae-filled glass panels

ae harves

are at the centre of the system. The sun provides energy for the algae to photosynthesise, creating biomass that is harvested for biofuel (and also food). Biofuel is burned in a fuel cell to generate power in the algae houses’s own

micro-power station. c02 from the fuel cell is fed back into the bioreactor on the facade, to help the algae grow.

The power station produces heating for the Bio-house, with surplus heat for the wider community.

ting

Terrestrially, algae bioreactors produce biofuel with oxygen as a by-product. However, in a submerged habitat oxygen is a precious gas, so biofuel becomes the by-product. Oxygen is precious extra-terrestrially too, so NASA have been experimenting with the technology to test ideas about closed-loop space travel.

Wave Energy

c02

Oxygen

Waste

Sunlight helps the algae photosynthesise and grow, whilst wave energy stresses them into releasing oils for biofuel.

The OMEGA system can either be harvested from the surface or reeled in and harvested from a submerged habitat.

n a sa’s omeg a pr oject

bios ub experiment The algae in this (shoestring budget) underwater habitat was designed to convert all the exhaled c02 into oxygen, but was abandoned after 1 week because the algae was too inefficient (or too small a quantity of it).

Clean Water

Sunlight

To keep c02 levels at a healthy percentage (around 0.04%) the algae should have converted all the c02 the aquanaut was breathing into oxygen, but the c02 to oxygen ratio increased and the experiment was abandoned. Future

experiments would have to either try different types of microalgae (scientists predict there are between 30,000 and 1 million species) or to use much larger algae tanks per person that create more oxygen.

NASA’s Omega (Offshore Membrane Enclosures for Growing Algae) Project was developed with the aim of providing a cost-effective alternative to fossil fuels that didn’t compete with land that could be used for

agriculture. The OMEGA system consists of algae grown in flexible plastic bags floating offshore. Oil-producing algae would naturally clean wastewater by feeding on nutrients in the sewage. The cleansed water could

then release into the ocean through forward-osmosis membranes in the sides of the plastic bags. The project was a success at a small scale but has never been realised at the scale NASA’s visuals demonstrate.

fo od A submerged habitat has 3 options of food supply: either it relies on imports (agriculture), grows food in underwater greenhouses (underwater agriculture) or grows food directly in the ocean (aquaculture).

a gricul

t ure

und erw a ter a gricul

Basic agriculture involves the growing, cultivation and harvesting of crops for human consumption. For an underwater colony however, this method of food production would rely on imports so is not so suitable.

t ure

a q ua cul t ure

Underwater agriculture is essentially the same as land based agriculture, but with all crops and possibly even livestock living cultivated in man made structures beneath the surface to support an undersea colony.

Aquaculture is not contained within a closed submerged habitat, and involves harvesting crops such as seaweeds and seagrasses. However these crops must be protected from marine life.

fish farming Fish farming offers the most potential for a self sufficient submerged habitat in terms of quality and volume of food. Rather than relying on imports, the seastead should promote sustainable marine management by farming its fish stocks locally.

8m - 28m Diameter Durable Galvanised Steel Geodesic Shell is resistant to waves & hurricane forces Bronze Mesh prevents biofouling, eliminating cleaning and reduces weight

why farm ra

ther than hunt

Humanity’s transition from hunter-gatherers to farmers was one of the most important steps to civilisation. Current fishing practices are hunting, not farming, so the oceans are unmanaged. 70% are overexploited, and in the Caribbean only 5% is farmed.

?

pr oblems with coa

st al farms

Most fish farming is done in near the coast. Although cheaper & easier than ocean farms, pollutants such as fish antibiotics and waste quickly concentrate in still, calm water. Disease can run rampant, spread by large numbers of fish penned in close quarters.

why ocean farms are be

tter

Although harder to access, these fish are in their natural environment so grow quicker and are less prone to diseases. Ocean currents are much stronger so dilute waste from the fish, preventing illness.

which s pecies should we farm

?

Cobia (above) and Tilapia are said to be the future of world fish farming because of its quick growth rate (farmed annually) and a good feeding to growth ratio.

They grow up to 2m while eating very little meat - they can feed entirely on ocean plants such as algae.

t ax ha vens and seafo

mit’s ‘ a q uapods’ MIT’s ‘Open Blue Sea Farms’ project has raised cobia in six enormous, geodesic underwater pens, or “aquapods,” off the Panama coast and Hawaii. They can either be tethered to the sea floor or can float around in eddies that occur behind islands or reefs.

fut ure fish farms Rather than expensive meat; vegetation and algae should be used to feed the fish, allowing them to quickly grow large in healthy conditions. Fish farmers based at the seastead tend to their fish in the same way a farmer looks after their livestock.

od

Menus in the tax evasion islands such as The Caribbean are mainly seafood - this is a high-end but local resource that tax evaders eat in meetings (undercover photo below).

add itio n al a q ua cul t ure Prawns are always seen in undercover tax invading dinner videos and have a ‘high-end’ association.

Crabs, lobsters and sea cucumbers are food source also common in tax haven islands such as The Caribbean

und erw a ter a gricul

t ure

Drinking water can be purified through a process known as desalination, common aboard ships. Fruits and vegetables could easily grow in underwater farms, but can be imported as a last resort.

impor ted a q ua cul t ure Aquaculture such as eels and caviar are popular but are freshwater, so cannot be farmed near the seastead, so would need to be imported.

impor ted fo

od

Milk, cheese, eggs, breads etc could, in theory, be produced underwater but imports are much easier and reduce the space required in the habitat. Specific foods such as chocolates would need to be imported.

impor ted drinK Champagne is the world’s most popular celebratory drink so is integral to post-tax evasion celebrations.

Wine is often drank with seafood, and also other drinks such as coca cola would all have to be imported.

t ax ha ven menu ima

ges

Undercover photographs taken from former private bankers and personal assistants demonstrate the pure seafood meals accompanied by wines and cocktails that tax evaders are used to.

power sour

ce

A renewable energy source is a priority to eliminate energy dependence on another nation. In order to minimise the surface connection, typical renewable systems such as solar panels or wind turbines should instead be replaced with wave energy and hydroelectric power converters.

wave energy co

nver ter s

The energy in the surface of waves and from pressure changes just below the surface can be harnessed to generate electricity.

Only the Pelamis system (below) is currently being used commercially. This device is an attenuator - a long multi-segment structure with movable joints connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters which harvest wave power.

Wave Direction

united states of america

Section

the bahamas

hydr oelectric energy Ocean currents contain an enormous amount of energy that is mostly untapped. While they move slowly relative to wind speeds, they carry a great deal of energy because of the (800x more) density of water. For the same surface area, water moving 12 mph exerts the same amount of force as a constant 110 mph wind - energy that can be converted to usable power.

cuba haiti

cayman islands

dominican republic

puerta rico

jamaica mexico

offshore wind farm

beliZe

guatemala

el salvador

hydr oelectric wind farm

honduras

the gulf s

nicaragua

tream

The Gulf Stream is the strongest ocean current and the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biggest untapped energy resource. The current transports nearly four billion cubic feet of water per second, greater than all of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rivers combined. Scientists estimate that harnessing just 3/1000th of the available energy from the Gulf Stream would supply Florida with its entire electrical needs.

Hydroelectric turbines placed where the current is strongest (blue arrows, left) could generate enough power to supply a seastead. The current also brings in nutrients to coral reefs in the Caribbean Sea, so my seastead, therefore, should be placed within these waters to maximise energy needs, reef nutrients and be amongst the numerous tax havens in the area.

panama costa rica

veneZuela

guyana

suriname colombia

braZil

co ncept d

ia gram

The tax haven model is split in half so that what goes on â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;beneath the surfaceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is literally placed below sea level in an actualised metaphor that generates a calcified, global-warming resistant coral reef that rebuilds the food chain from the bottom up.

Architecturally it will be developed on my research into artificial reefs, diving technologies and submerged habitats that support scientific research into the ecosystem; all funded by the tax evaders on the surface.

chapter iv : pneuma tic s tr uct ures

chapter s

ummary

Inflating a structure with (buoyant) air may seem counter-intuitive for a submerged habitat, but inflation with water or rigidised foam means that these structures can be easily prefabricated offshore and then transported to site, with minimal fixings taking place in-situ.

Pneumatic petrification is a process where an inflated structure is encased in a hard setting material such as reinforced concrete (or in this case, coral reef); utilised as it combines the material strength of limestone with the geometric strength of inflated membranes.

why is a pneuma

tic s tr uct ure appr

o pria te for a s

ubmerged sea

stead

?

Seasteads have been evolving into more modular proposals using existing technologies to make construction easier. However, the main expense is that construction at sea is extremely labour-intensive and isolated in difficult conditions.

A pneumatic structure would allow for complete pre-fabrication, reducing this construction hassle to indoor factories and allowing testing (strength, leaks etc). It could then be deflated and easily transported to the ocean site to be inflated permanently, efficiently and with minimal risk.

n a t ural geome

co ns tr uctio

try

The natural curvilinear forms that inflated membranes take makes them tsunami resistant (the habitat above withstood the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami); and currents flow more naturally across its surface.

n benefits

extreme envir

Prefabrication, transportation and in-situ inflation creates construction and cost benefits. Additional savings come from reduced labour costs at sea, reducing risks and insurance costs.

exis ting s

o nments

Pneumatic structures are better suited to extreme environments to terrestrial ones. NASA have used inflated structures since the 1960s.

ubmerged habit

sea stead pr

a ts

The only existing submerged scientific habitat in existence is the Lombardi habitat (next page) because of its portability and straightforward fabrication.

o posals

cul t ural a

A pneumatic seastead has been proposed before by Spanish architect Prada Poole in the 1980s because it allows prefabrication and easy

ssocia tio ns

The left wing Libertarian seasteaders should be drawn towards the far left wing architectural ideas of inflatable utopias, first proposed in the 1960s

pneuma tic s tr uct ure movements

Inhabitable balloons were invented by the Montgolfier brothers in France in the late 18th Century. Airships & dirigibles followed in the following century.

The invention of plastics enabled them to be used as inflated membranes - bouncy castles were accidently invented when children enjoyed jumping on tennis court covers.

ball o o ns & air ships, fr om 17 82

n ovel ty , fr om 1 959

milit ary , fr om 1 948 Militaries experimented with inflatable rubber membranes, discovering that lightweight pneumatic structures were the best way of covering radomes without radar interference.

a c ad emic resear

Groups including Utopie, Ant Farm & Archigram found pneumatic structures to be the anarchist poster child of the anti-modernism / brutalism movement of the 1960s.

anti-mod

er nis t movement

ch, fr om 1 960

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller pioneered the architectural and engineering research of the technology once plastics membrane materials became common in this era.

, 1960

Ed Link’s Submersed Portable Inflatable Dwelling was one of a few submerged pneumatic pressurised chambers that allowed divers to remain underwater for over 24 hours.

submerged experiments, 1

a str o n a utic al, fr om 1 961 NASA have been experimenting with inflatable structures in the 1960s because they can expand once in space and their light weight required less expensive fuel.

Alongside the inflatable furniture fad, an art movement of producing oversized everyday objects and alien inhabitable spaces, such as Dreamspace (above) emerged.

960s

osaKa expo

ar t movement

, 1970

The Expo is thought of as the pinnacle of pneumatic structure exploration - many countries chose to inflate their pavilions as they were the most futuristic techniques of the time.

, fr om 1 990

envir o nment alism, fr

om 2000

The push towards a more ‘green’ architecture in the 21st Century led to pneumatic structures being re-explored for their environmental properties - lightweight and adaptable.

l ow press ure s tr uct ures

Roof supported by columns or walls Low External Air Pressure

Compressive Force

Compressive Force

Typical Air-Lock

High Internal Air Pressure

48°c and 20% Humidity

Compressive Force

Membrane acts as walls and roof

-5°c and 0% Humidity 24°c and 45% Humidity

24°c and 45% Humidity

Load-bearing walls or columns

air s uppor ted Air Supported structures rely on a constant low pressure air supply creating slight pressure differentials between the internal and external environments. People enter the air chamber through an air-lock.

typic al s tr uct ure Most architectural structural systems rely on a series of walls and columns supporting a roof. A compressive load applied to the roof will be absorbed along the roof (or floor slab) and down the vertical elements to the foundations.

air used s

tr uct urall

y

Conversely, a low pressure pneumatic structure uses air as the main structural system. The entire air chamber is essentially acting as a column, absorbing forces that come into contact with the outer membrane, which acts as walls and the roof.

a ccess Low pressure structures need a positive air pressure (higher than the surrounding ambient pressure) to maintain their form. This means no openings, so access must be via an air-lock. The diagrams above show the areas of high air pressure in grey.

clima tic benefits

sc ale

Low pressure membranes offer a cheap way of containing a large area of land at a specific climate, regardless of external environmental conditions.

In theory there is no maximum size for a low pressure pneumatic structure. Fuller and Otto’s experiments showed that the membrane would work structurally even if it were to be stretched around the entire planet - as long as the air inside was of a slightly higher pressure than the air outside the membrane.

hig h press ure s tr uct ures

High Pressure Typical Plan

Compressive Force

Tensile membrane (held in tension)

Section Cut through typical Air Beam Structure

Open Entrance

Anchoring System

air infla

ted

Air Inflated structures rely on a high pressure air supply creating twin (or sometimes more) membrane air chambers enclosing a space, commonly known as ‘air beams’. People do not inhabit the air chambers.

str uct ural principles High pressure air beams act as walls and a roof, much like any domed or arched construction. Forces are transferred to the ground through the air beams, and the inhabitable space below is not structural.

benefits: s

trength

If a low-pressure membrane were to be damaged the entire structure would have to be evacuated, unlike high pressure structures, which remain intact if only one compartment were to suffer damage.

a ccess Access is not via an air-lock therefore people can travel freely in and out of the structure, which is more comforting for people entering such an alien environment.

air beam s

(Usually) Identical Air Cushions Anchoring System (see next section)

Air Beam

tr uct ures

These are the most common form of high pressure pneumatic structure. They usually consist of a series of beams spanning over a space with fabric membranes held in tension between.

air cushio

n s tr uct ures

Air cushion structures are a series of high pressure chambers that join together to form a fully enclosed surface perhaps suitable for a marine environment. A one chamber puncture won’t affect structural stability.

membrane ma

terials

Plastic membranes do not have the strength of foils, which lack the elasticity of rubber. Aramid fibre membranes offer the most strength but are difficult to construct and repair. Rubber, therefore, seems the most sensible membrane choice for a submerged habitat because it is strong, flexible and commonly used at sea, above and below sea level.

pla stics

r ubber s

+ Cheap, light, can be dyed any colour - Delicate, easily torn & vandalised - Poor insulators, tacky appearance - Colour fades under sunlight

met allic foi

+ Elasticity - various inflation pressures + Easy to work with & cheap + More durable than plastic membranes - Colour fades under sunlight

ls

+ High tensile strength & durability + Good fire/heat resistance - Difficult & expensive to manufacture - No elasticity / tolerance

etfe + Insulating, resistant to sunlight + 1% the weight of glass (it’s competitor) - Unknown life span - Expensive to produce

fabrics

aramid fibres

+ Cheap, easy to manufacture + Can reflect heat - Bright inside & can cause glare outside - Anisotropic (strength in one direction)

+ Extremely strong tensile strength + Can be maintained/patched up - Expensive and difficult to manufacture - Aramid process releases lots of c02

aniso tr o pic ma terials

iso tr o pic ma terials

Varying degrees of strength in different directions (not uniform strength). Materials must therefore chosen before cut patterns begin to ensure the orientation is correct for future tensile forces acting on the membrane.

Non-woven materials have uniform tensile strength in all directions. This allows for simpler workmanship (such as for repairs, cutting patterns, seams etc) than anisotropic membrane materials.

infla tio n c avity As well as basic air inflation, different gas mixes may be used that could benefit the structural or environmental properties of the structure. Water ‘inflation’ is free underwater in the same way air filled chambers are free on land. Expandable foam inflation is untested architecturally, but has been used in car tyres and inflated rubber boats and fenders (see next sections).

Low Pressure Air Inflation

Oxygen Nitrogen

Hot Air

Trace Gases

Carbon Dioxide

Hot Air

Drop-Stitch Fibres Fabric Layer

High Pressure Air Inflation

Heliox Helium Hydrox

typic al air infla

tio n

Air is the most common way of filling an inflated structure because it is essentially free. The only material expense are the membranes and the inflation fans that force the air between them.

ho t air infla

tio n

ParaSITES were homeless shelters in NYC that inflated and heated up using waste air from HVAC ducts, an otherwise wasted heat source. This could mean that an insulative layer on the outside could contain warm air to heat up the microclimate inside a submerged structure.

o ther g

Binder Layer (glue/resin) Trimex

Hyperoxic Trimex

a s mixes

Airships have used (explosive) hydrogen and (safe but expensive) helium for their low weight advantage but this is not a requirement underwater. Compressed air is the most suitable option as it will allow the structure to resist the high pressures below sea level.

Surface Coating (air tight)

dr o p - stitching Drop-Stitch construction joins together the two outer membranes with thousands of threads, creating an air chamber that can be inflated to a much higher pressure than a typical inflatable. This allows for an inflated membrane to become a flat surface rather than a stereotypical curvy/blob shape. Current technology allows for thicknesses of between 50mm to 500mm.

fluid infla

tio n

Two membranes filled with liquids have extremely strong compression strength. Water ‘inflation’ is free underwater in the same way air inflation is effectively free on land.

foam infla

tio n

Expandable foam inflation is untested architecturally, but has been used in car tyres, fenders (see next section) and inflated rubber boats. It is hard to control but allows petrification between two membranes.

anchoring In 2006 the giant PVC inflatable art installation ‘Dreamspace’ (below) came loose from its moorings, killing 2 people and injuring a further 20. The anchoring system (guy ropes) failed because it was the cheapest, most unreliable solution.

anchoring sys

tems

There are six main types of anchoring system used for pneumatic structures. Guy ropes are the most fragile, weighted edges are used for indoor structures (where foundations cannot be dug) and buried edges are the most durable.

tie downs - guy r

o pes

Uneven force distribution - prone to tearing, unreliable.

‘Dreamspace’ used this method of anchoring.

tie downs - site mo

orings

Stronger than guy ropes there is still uneven force distribution, which will cause tearing.

weig hted edge - exter

n al

weig hted edge - integra

Anything heavy, including vehicles. The even distribution of weight suitable for temporary structures.

balla

ted

Commonly water bags, but sandbags are sometimes used.

Even distribution of weight & neater visually.

framed edge - gr

ound level

Used for semi-permanent structures such as exhibition spaces. Sturdy and reliable; but more expensive.

framed edge - buried Detail used to enclose open air swimming pools so they can be also used in winter. The most sturdy anchoring.

st ma terials

Most heavy materials can be used for ballast, but sandbags and water barrels are the most widely used because they are easy to get hold of. Foundation systems are required for structures in place for more than a few weeks.

Pnuematic Membrane Steel Ground Section loosely pegged into topsoil

Seam (see next section) Steel Tube Section

typic al sectio

n d et ai l

Low and high pressure structures typically include a steel tube section near ground level for ballast, held down by another steel section pegged into the ground.

sandba

gs

Sandbags are the most regularly used means of ballast as they are easy to come by and are heavy for their low cost.

wa ter/gra

vel barrels

In dry areas water may not be easy to come by so barrels can be filled with gravel, mud or sand for ballast.

prec a st co ncre te Precast concrete and other ‘as found’ heavy materials increase construction speed and adjustability.

balla

st founda

tio n

Ballast foundations, like gravel barrels are not purpose built but can be adapted to different structural wind forces.

prec a st founda

tio n

Purpose made foundations are more effective than simple ballast, but are not as adaptive.

framed edge anchoring - typic

al d et ai ls

Sketches obtained from various construction textbooks, interpretation and labels are my own.

FRONT VIEW

SECTION VIEW

FRONT VIEW

SECTION VIEW

FRONT VIEW

SECTION VIEW Single Seam

Membrane double seam (stitched)

Membrane Notches in the hem for access to anchoring

Cabled Hem (weight reduces wrinkles)

Membrane Galvanised Steel Frame

Galvanised steel ring beam

Pipe bolted twice to stop twisting Twin bolts half the chance of failure Vertical Galvanised Steel Pipe Anchor

Substrate (variable)

point anchora

VERTICAL O SECTION

Cable runs length of the Hem

Single Key Bolt

Substrate (variable)

Simple Ground Peg

simple boundary c

FRONT VIEW

Membrane strapped to cable Cable hung rather than fixed into hem

Notches in the hem for access to anchoring

ge sys tems

External Membrane Overlap

abled sys

Twin bolts stop twisting

Simple n-Profile Moisture Resistant Ground Peg Substrate (variable)

tems

more complex boundary c

SECTION VIEW

FRONT VIEW

Rubber washers (pads) prevent tight bolts from damaging membrane

abled sys

tems

SECTION VIEW

FRONT VIEW

Single Seam External Membrane Overlap Membrane Cable either sewn to itself or continued around structure

HORIZONTAL O SECTION Waterproof/ Tamper-proof Bolt-head

Air Cushion (ETFE/PVC etc)

Internal Structure Single Bolt Connects Membrane Chord to Bracket

Membrane Chord

Membrane Hem Cable

Membrane fed around steel tube section and bolted in place

Steel Fixing Bracket

L Bracket Bolt connects L Bracket to Slab (or similar)

air cushio

n fixings

Four bolts connect bracket to concrete slab/ foundation

SECTION VIEW

fixings to co

Chord woven around support pipe through reinforced openings in membrane material

Supporting Pipe (typically galvanised steel)

fabric ‘ sKir ts’

Internal Structure

Hooped section connects two pipes

Second ‘Pipe’ fitted in-situ before inflation above

Simple ground peg hooks around second pipe

twin pipe sys

tems

SECTION VIEW

PLAN VIEW

Secondary membrane ‘skirt’ allows replacement without disturbing the primary membrane

Membrane double seam (stitched)

First ‘Pipe’ is weighted to correct inflation distortion

ncre te s tr uct ures

Membrane Boundary cable provides resistence from tensile forces

Primary Pneumatic Membrane

Reinforcement Tape (reinforcement cable can also be used)

Notches in the hem for access to anchoring

Ground peg provides a hoop for tensile cable to thread through and knot around

Single Seam Galv. Steel Tube

Membrane hem reinforced with additional cable as this is the weakest point SECTION VIEW

Ground peg connects into a concrete ring beam, slab or other ground condition

tensi le c able sys tems

Anchor heads sit on rubber washers

Steel Anchor Plate

Screw anchors vary in design depending on ground compaction / friction (conditions)

screw anchor

s

infla tio n sys tems Devices for inflation can be broken down into 3 main systems: fans, blowers and compressors. Fans are the most reliable but produce the least pressure; blowers offer higher pressure but are noisy; and compressors supply the highest pressure of the three and have been used to inflate air beams and ETFE pillows, so seem the logical choice.

fans

compressor

bl ower s

The three common fans are radial, axial and tangential (depending on where the direction of air comes from). Fans are cheap, easy to use and are often numerous fans are used to inflate a single structure. However they achieve only a very low pressure output, only really enough for a small structure or one where leakage isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t an issue.

Blowers are noisier and achieve higher pressures than fans and have the advantage that they can run in reverse (like a vacuum cleaner). A Circulation Displacement Blower is the best form of blower as it increases its speed to meet the opposite pressure level required to fill an air volume - that is their pressure capacity adapts with different structures.

seam jointing techniq

s

Compressors may be much more suited to inflating in the extreme pressures found in the ocean (even just below surface level). As their name suggests they the compress air coming in so can therefore produce the high pressures needed to inflate car tyres, ETFE pillows, air beams and large pneumatic structures.

ues

A good seam joint should be as strong and durable as possible, and of course resist air and water leakage. Hot air welding is most suitable for common pneumatic structures but cementing or vulcanising are effective at producing durable water tight seals on rubber membranes such as butyl or neoprene; so are best suited for a submerged inflated structure.

sewing Sewn joints are the simplest but are most prone to air leakage, typically used in the cheapest structures. This can be resolved with increased folding at the seams but this adds weight and labour time.

clamping This process involves shooting wire staples or clamps into a seam from an air pistol at regular intervals. Like sewing, the seam can be made more airtight with a greater number of folds.

cementing (adhesive)

vulc anising

Adhesives vary in success, with cementing being the most effective method for high strength rubbers such as butyl or Hypalon in complicated geometries where heat sealing may not be possible.

Vulcanising is only suitable for joining two sheets of rubber together. The irreversible process uses sulphur to chemically bond the two membranes together; forming a seam as strong as the material itself.

ho t air weld

ing

hig h freq uency weld

I observed this process in person in Lindstrandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fabrication workshop. This process is common in pneumatic structure construction because seams can be pulled along and joined quickly.

Deflated Segments

Double Cross Section

Linear Segments

Overlapping Seam High Pressure Air Cushion

Single Overlapping Seam

High frequency electromagnet waves heat and weld together plastics including polyvinyl chlorides and polyamides at a molecular level, joining them together as if they were one material.

Inflated Segments

Tapering seam widths, quick construction Double Overlapping Seam

ing

Angled Segments

Single Cross Section Even seam widths, lengthy construction Lap Joint

Sewn Lap Joint

sewn & clamped seams

Radial Segments

Welded lap joint

weld ed & glued seams

air cushio

n co nnectio

ns

cutting p

a tter

ns: hemis pheres

cutting p

a tter

ns: ball

o o ns

cutting p

a tter

ns: halls

submerged pneuma

tic habit

a ts

Designing a buoyant structure underwater may sound counter-intuitive, but these habitats have all been designed to contain a breathable, habitable pocket of air for divers working at depth. These habitats are all low-pressure pneumatic structures, large enough for a couple of divers and their diving supplies.

One Way Air Release Water Level

Seats (2 divers)

Air Supply Tanks

Clip-on Supplies

Anchoring System

pneuma tic cofferdam Cofferdams are temporary air-locks for underwater structure maintenance, pumping out water and replacing it with air; creating an air tight seal around an oil rig ‘leg’, inflated from the surface.

s.p.i.d The Submersed Portable Inflatable Dwelling had a flat floor with moon pool, containing an iron framed decompression chamber that resisted ocean pressures to a depth of 132m, where two divers lived for 49 hours.

waKulla c

ave habit a t

Entrance to this flooded cave was only possible from the air, so the entire structure was designed to be airdropped in by helicopter. The small inflated habitat served as a base camp for cave exploration divers.

submerged pneuma

l ombard

i habit a t (d efla ted)

Invented by Michael Lombardi in 2012, this habitat was designed to house a small pocket of air and 2 seats providing a respite for divers who require a lengthy decompression after ascending from a deep dive.

l ombard

i habit a t (infla

ted)

The buoyant habitat is painted yellow for maximum visibility (as well as National Geographic brand colours), fits inside hand luggage and can be used to store diving supplies.

tic s tr uct ures

Salvage bags (below, left) are rubber membranes containing large volumes of air that are used as ‘lifting bags’, inflated to lift shipwrecks and even large aircraft up to the surface. Energy storage bags (below, right) utilise the extreme pressures of the deep ocean to compress air, surplus energy from offshore wind turbines.

a q ua tic pneuma

tic s tr uct ures

Inflatable devices are commonly used to save lives because of their buoyancy, relative cheapness and ease of transportation (once deflated). Their scale ranges from small armbands to life rafts housing 150+ people.

per so n al life rafts High frequency welded polyurethane nylon rafts have been incorporated into aircraft in the event a pilot ejects and lands on water. Life rafts inflate quickly and are bottom heavy to reduce the risk of capsizing.

Orange is the most visible colour on the surface.

eva cu a tio n sys tems Evacuation chutes and life rafts are made from the same material palette as personal life rafts. Most are fully inflated and operational within 90 seconds of deployment, can be disconnected from the ships for maintenance and enclosed to be weather resistant.

typic al compo

nents

The design constraints for low cost, portability, adjustability (depth) and quick assembly have resulted in pneumatic structures being proposed as rational design solutions.

hig h press ure pneuma

tics: ship ber

thing fend

er s

Fenders are attached to a bulkhead dock wall and absorb and dampen shock-waves from berthing ships. A chain and tyre net usually covers a floating pneumatic fender to protect the body from damage by sharp objects or from the absorption of sheer loads during berthing. Some fenders are filled with foam but high air pressure is more easily replaced once damaged.

Synthetic fabric chord layer for reinforcement, maintaining internal air pressure Waterproof outer butyl rubber layer to protect inner layers from abrasion

End fitting for mooring and transportation

Low Tide

Impermeable inner rubber layer that seals the pressurized air inside

simple fend

er s

Basic fenders are used for smaller, non industrial ships such as canal boats. They can be as simple as a single neoprene membrane that keeps water out and keeps air in. They require re-inflation after each berth.

hig h performance fend

er s

These are given extra protection from berthing ships by means of a chain grid and tyres. Heavy duty fenders can be filled with foam which, although expensive and hard to repair, offers more absorption.

High Tide

High Internal Air Pressure

co ns tr uctio

n bui ld up

strength + buo

Fenders are typically composed of 3 layers: an outer waterproof vulcanised rubber layer, a reinforcing fabric layer; and an air-tight inner rubber layer.

ship la unching airba

yancy

Despite their compressive strength, fenders are buoyant (diagrammed above). Vulcanising the rubber layers makes them entirely water and air tight - the strength is determined by the inner fabric layer.

pneuma tic benefits Short fabrication, easy and fast to install, durable in rough sea conditions, good buoyancy, simple handling and transportation, excellent compressibility and elasticity, inexpensive material palette.

gs

These cylindrical air-bags are up to 24m long with a 2.5m diameter; which absorb the weight of ships, finding their optimum form under pressure. They save labour & time, are flexible & easily transportable. They are constructed from 4-10 layers of high strength silicone rubber, and are inflated to extremely high pressures to support ships weighing up to 55,000 tons (below).

COMPRESSIVE LOAD

n o n pneuma

tic = n o n adaptive

A non-inflated membrane taking the entire compressive force of a ship (or similar) will result in a single point load being applied to the surface, resulting (probably) in structural failure.

COMPRESSIVE LOAD

pneuma tic = adaptive A pneumatic structure on the other hand will adapt its geometry to the forces acting on it, resulting in a large surface contact area between the load and the airbag which has much less chance of failure.

co ns tr uctio

n bui ld up

The same build up as the fenders above, but tyres or chains (that would otherwise create uneven force distribution) are replaced with additional rubber membrane layers to improve strength.

25m d epth limit Ship launching air bags can also be used as flotation devices to float sunken ships back to the surface.

Current technology limits them to a depth of 25m.

13.6 to ns per me tre Air bags can support loads of 272 tons each and when used side by side (in either arrangement above) can support ships up to about 55,000 tons.

pneuma tic pe trific

a tio n

The natural geometric strength of an inflated surface meets the material strength of marine calcified limestone.

typic al pneuma

tic

petrified pneuma (the common misconception about pneumatic structures)

A typical pneumatic structure, although far from as flimsy as a balloon, is susceptible to move around in high winds, sag during heavy rain or snow, and can be easily sabotaged..

d esign typol

outsid

e in

A hardening mix is usually sprayed on with a hose on the outside of the membrane from a scaffold platform.

insid e out The mix is sprayed from the inside, eliminating the threat of bad weather conditions, and speeding up drying time.

hybrid A combination of the outside-in and inside-out method means the inflated membrane cannot be reused.

Key preced

tic

A petrified pneumatic structure is one that encases the inflated membrane in a high strength material. The advantage is the geometric strength of the pneumatic membrane is added to the strength of the added material.

ogies

air infla

ted

air infla

The mix is pumped directly into a structural air beam, creating more of a skeletal structure than a solid shell.

ent : lun ar ba se by fos ter and p

ar tner

ted hybrid

buried

Combining these methods adds strength. Once the air beam mix has set a second mix is added on top.

Burying the structure in earth can aid thermal properties, protection and can hide the structure from view.

Regolith (loose lunar rock) is mixed with magnesium oxide (the binding agent) and is 3d printed in-situ on the surface of the pneumatic membrane.

Layers build up and form a hardened shell that protects astronauts from meteors, radiation and extreme temperature fluctuations.

s

Loose lunar rock is used as a concrete aggregate for future lunar expeditions; meaning construction materials would not have to be transported from earth. Similarly, my submerged seastead will only transport minimal material (the pneumatic membrane) which could be inflated on the seabed and calcified, attracting limestone, corallite and organic growth across its surface.

Additionally, this creates a habitat with enough strength to keep occupants inside at a normal one-atmosphere pressure.

A tubular lunar astronaut module is transported to the moon via rocket, opening up to allow the membrane to be positioned.

The pneumatic membrane is unfolded either mechanically or manually; and is attached to the opening of the lunar module.

The pneumatic membrane is inflated that will provide the support structure for construction. The membrane is fragile - a meteor impact would destroy the habitat.

Air beams are inflated along the main pneumatic membrane to add more rigidity to the structure before 3d printing begins.

chapter v : site an al ysis

chapter s

ummary

Misteriosa Bank is a dead coral reef in The Caribbean Sea, chosen because it lies outside territorial waters so therefore cannot be owned unless a permanent settlement is constructed. This political freedom means it has been previously identified by The Seasteading Institute as a potential site location for a new micro-sovereign state. The reef also benefits from being in close to the surface in crystal clear waters, unexplored by science, and on The Gulf Stream - the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s greatest yet untapped hydroelectric energy supply.

site l oc a tio n: mis teriosa banK I have chosen the Misteriosa Bank reef in The Caribbean Sea as the site for my seastead because it is a dying coral reef unexplored by science in International Waters (and so cannot be owned by any nation who do not live there). The vast reef structure has a flat top the size of Manhattan Island (approximately 24 miles long) 14-18m below sea level where I will anchor my structure.

Seasteads have been proposed on this site before, with further site advantages described on the following pages.

Seabed

Platform Reef

reef sectio Atlantic Ocean

banK / pla

tform / p a tch reefs

n

The reef depth is 20 metres on the average (maximum 22 metres in its centre), with depths of 14–18 metres along the rim. Over thousands of years the reef has grown south towards the source of nutrients (The Gulf Stream), meaning the southern side is much steeper than the northern. The seabed is approximately 800m deep around the reef.

Gulf of Mexico

Bank / Platform/Patch reefs do not evolve in the same way as fringe, barrier or atoll reefs. Instead they are usually scattered in calm, shallow waters between the mainland, islands (as with the Misteriosa Bank) or barrier reefs. Reefs grow fastest towards the direction of the current (source of nutrients). In calm waters these reefs will grow upwards and break the sea surface.

idge

man R

y The Ca

"Besides the coast-banks, there are many of various dimensions which stand quite isolated; these closely resemble each other, they lie from two or three to twenty or thirty fathoms [4 to 55 m] under water, and are composed of sand, sometimes firmly agglutinated, with little or no coral; their surfaces are smooth and nearly level, shelving only to the amount of a few fathoms, very gradually all round towards their edges, where they plunge abruptly into the unfathomable sea.

Corals on the south-eastern edge compete to grow outwards towards the nutrient source

Caribbean Sea

Pacific Ocean

Corallite growing upwards towards the surface is slowed down by the wave forces at the surface

Nutrients (The Gulf Stream)

This steep inclination of their sides, which is likewise characteristic of the coastbanks, is very remarkable: I may give as an instance, the Misteriosa Bank, on the edges of which the soundings change in 250 fathoms (460m) horizontal distance, from 11 to 210 fathoms(20 to 380 m) depth" - Charles Darwin, 1842

Corals on the north-western side of the reef grow slower as the waters are less nutrient-rich.

Bulge in continental plate caused by tectonic plate activity along the Cayman Ridge.

corallite sKele

t al s tr uct ure

Misteriosa Bank

14-18m Rosario Bank

clear w

surfa ce pr oximity The reef is between 14 and 18m below sea level around the edges where I intend to anchor my structure - this is shallow enough to allow natural light inside.

coral reef sc

a ter s

Coupled with surface proximity, the crystal clear waters of this part of The Caribbean allow plenty of light down to the reef (which is how & why the reef has grown)

ale

The reef footprint is 39 km (24 miles) long and 3 to 11 km (1.9 to 6.8 miles) wide with an area of 322 sq. km (124 sq. miles). The size is put into context when overlaid with New York City (chosen because it is easily recognisable in a satellite view). The relatively flat top of the platform coral reef is a similar size to Manhattan Island.

unexpl ored by science

nutrient rich w

Because of its isolation the reef has barely been explored by scientists. My structure will encourage exploration, leading perhaps to new spaces with scientific uses.

reef co

a ter s

Phytoplankton circulate the Caribbean via The Gulf Stream, which flows directly over and around the site. The reef has grown outwards towards this source of nutrients.

nd itio n (dying)

The reef is flat on top - no large coral structures exist and the remaining small coral structures suffer from annual bleaching due to sea temperatures rising (leading to the endosymbiotic zooxanthellae algae leaving the corallite skeleton in search of cooler waters and being replaced with a suffocating layer of algae). My structure would be anchored through this thin layer of dead coral to the hard limestone base below.

r osario banK Rosario is similar to the Misteriosa Bank reef but it falls under the international water territory of Honduras, who claim the reef under their jurisdiction.

the c ayman ridge The Cayman Ridge is a fault zone between the North American and Caribbean plates, responsbile for the formation of both reefs and The Cayman Islands.

princip ality of new uto

pia

Due to its political and geographical advantages (described on the next few pages), seasteads have been proposed on the reef before. The Principality of New Utopia intended to build a concrete structure on columns from the top of the reef, creating a flat structure to built on top of. The ‘Principality’ has no legal claim to the site because it never began construction. The site has also been identified by the Seasteading Institute as a future potential site.

fluid dyn

amics

Understanding how water moves around an aboject is key to the placement of my site on the reef. The fast flowing Gulf Stream creates vortices at the rear (north side) of the reef so are low in nutrients and marine life - unsuitable for scientific research. The reef has grown south towards the source of nutrients, and so it is here that seemes best to locate the seastead.

uninterr

upted fl

ow

Water travels in straight lines (streamline) when undisturbed by objects in the water or any tributary current flows of water.

l ow fl ow s peed At low speeds, streamlined objects placed in the direction of flow do not create much disturbance to the water - fluid particles flow around it smoothly.

fa ster s peeds = v or tices At faster speeds, vortices or eddies form directly behind the obstacle. These trap water particles for long periods of time before they are dislodged by other currents.

vor tices = l

ow nutrients

Water particles circulate in these vortices for a long period of time so nutrients are quickly harvested by marine organisms and then become void of life.

-800m -750m -700m

n or ther n edge The northern edge of the reef receives the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;left oversâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of the nutrients passing over the top of the reef, hence it is shallower and contains less life than the southern edge and the flats (when the flats used to be a thriving habitat).

-650m

resear

-600m

ch area

s

The most diverse marine life occurs on the south and eastern sides of the reef, so research should be located facing this source of nutrients.

-550m -500m -450m -400m -350m -300m -250m -200m -150m -100m -14m

-20m

client area

s

Clients should explore the new artificially calcified reef in SCUBA gear and various personal submarine devices.

The reef flats provide the ideal habitat for this: away from the dangers of the reef walls.

reef fla

ts

Once a thriving habitat, Misteriosaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s flats have been destroyed by global warming, leading to coral bleaching.

The wave forces prevent fragile new corallite forming - a problem that calcified artificial reefs overcome.

pr o posed l oc a tio n n misteriosa banK reef @ 1:125000

I have chosen this area of the reef as it offers the most diversity in habitat (benefitting scientific research), and its proximity to the fast moving current (that can be utilised for hydroelectric power).

souther

n reef w all

The reef wall is the steeper side that has grown out towards the source of nutrients (The Gulf Stream). This is one of the few places on the reef where life still exists so is the best place for scientific research (marine biology).

hydr oelectric power Hydroelectric turbines should be placed on the eastern edge of the reef, where the flow of water is at its strongest.

If built into the structure they should be located on the southern edge to make the most of the Gulf Stream.

misteriosa banK: politic

site l oc a tio n

inter

al co

ntext

n a tio n al w a ter s

t ax ha vens

Atlantic Ocean Gulf of Mexico

Caribbean Sea

Pacific Ocean

The Misteriosa Bank (the red dot in all of these maps) is a submerged bank reef located in the north Caribbean Sea, approximately equidistant from Mexico (210 nautical miles), Honduras (186 nmi) and Cuba (170 nmi).

shipping lanes & major por

ts

The red lines above indicate the ocean territories of nations around the Caribbean (typically 200 nautical miles).

Beyond these lie international waters that no nation can claim to own unless a new island emerges. A few pockets of international waters sit in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, one of which is home to Misteriosa Bank.

submarine communic

The nearest tax haven is the island of Grand Cayman (of the Cayman Islands), 156 miles to the east. The Caribbean Sea is well populated with tax havens, which are described in more detail on the next page.

a tio ns c ables

marine sanct

uaries

hampton hampto n roads charleston houston

miami miami

‘bermuda triangle’

Florida Keys Marine Reserve

florida

Los Petenes Sanctuary Terminos Sanctuary

mexico

acapulco puerto barrios

Kingston Kings to n

puer to puerto caucedo c a ucedo

san san juan

honduras

Saint-Vallier Sanctuary

Miskitos Sanctuary

panama canal

Orinoco Delta Sanctuary

columbia panama

Coiba Sanctuary Galapagos Marine Reserve

I have identified major ports which see more than 2.5 million ships per year. Shipping lanes pass close to the site but ships stay clear of the reef for obvious reasons. The ‘Bermuda Triangle’ isn’t formally recognised but is generally avoided by ships for geographical reasons. Access to the site would be by ship from this major shipping lane.

Jamaican Marine Reserve Seaflower Sanctuary

caracas car a ca s costa rica

Dominican Republic National Sanctuary

Sian Ka’an Sanctuary

These cables allow telecommunications (and Internet access) between countries. The highlighted cable that runs past Misteriosa Bank is known as MAYA-1 and connected Florida to Mexico, The Cayman Islands, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama and Columbia. My structure will therefore link to this nearby cable for its communications data.

Malpelo Sanctuary

Only 1% of the ocean is officially protected (compared with 10% of the land). Fishing or removal of any resources (such as oil) in these sanctuaries or marine protected areas is prohibited. Misteriosa Bank does not sit within any of thes boundaries so I am not building inside a conservation area.

c aribbean t

ax ha vens

Data collected from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) united states of america

the bahama

ANGUILLA

ANTIGUA & BARBUDA

BAHAMAS

BARBADOS

No data but engages in ‘Harmful Tax Practice’ according to the OECD

No data but engages in ‘Harmful Tax Practice’ according to the OECD

No tax on capital gains, sales, corporate or personal earnings or inheritance.

Corporate tax rate at 2% (data from OECD, 2004)

BELIZE

BRITISH VIRGIN ISL.

CAYMAN ISLANDS

COSTA RICA

Corporate tax rate at 6% (data from OECD, 2004)

At a 20% corporate tax rate it is higher than other islands but is more secure.

No income or inheritance tax, 0% corporate tax; but notoriously un-diverse.

No international income tax, and no rules about planning permission attracts people.

DOMINICA

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

GRENADA

PANAMA

No capital gains tax, ‘Harmful Tax Practice’ according to the OECD

No international income tax (like Costa Rica), only local income is taxed.

No data but engages in ‘Harmful Tax Practice’ according to the OECD

No data but engages in ‘Harmful Tax Practice’ according to the OECD

SRI LANKA

ST. KITTS & NEVIS

ST. VINCENT + GR.

TURKS & CAICOS

No data but engages in ‘Harmful Tax Practice’ according to the OECD

No data but engages in ‘Harmful Tax Practice’ according to the OECD

No data but engages in ‘Harmful Tax Practice’ according to the OECD

No data but engages in ‘Harmful Tax Practice’ according to the OECD

s

mexico

t urKs and c aicos

cuba

dominic an republic c ayman islands

misteriosa banK

haiti

puerta rico

british virgin islands angui

st . Kitts and nevis

jamaica

lla

antigu a and barbuda guadeloupe

beliZe

dominic

a

martinique guatemala st . lucia

honduras

barbados

st . vincent and the gren ad ines

el salvador

gren ada

nicaragua

trinidad and tobago

cos t a ric a

wha t a ttra

pan ama

cts t ax ev ad er s (besid es t ax ra tes) ?

veneZuela

guyana

WEATHER

BEACHES

MARINAS

WILDLIFE

suriname

colombia

braZil

FISHING

LOW WAGES

ANONYMITY

LIKE-MINDED INDIVIDUALS

socio politic

pr oximity to weal

thy clients (the 1% / s

uper rich)

shel ter fr

al co

om major foreign (u

ntext

.s.) mi lit aries

pira tes of the c

aribbean

Antigua and Barbuda, no.56 St. Kitts & Nevis, no.60 Dominica, no.70 Grenada, no.71 St. Lucia, no.74 St. V & Grenadines, no. 80

USA, no.5 The Bahamas, no.27

Gulf of Mexico Dominican Republic, no.91

Mexico, no.67

Jamaica, no.94 Venezuela, no.73

Barbados, no.40

Caribbean Sea

Trinidad & Tobago, no.50

Panama, no.65 Costa Rica, no.77

Countries in red are in the top 100 richest nations, known for their wealthy residents. The smaller countries in the Caribbean generate so wealth from financial services (tax havens) as opposed to, for instance, Venezuela, whose economy is created from its oil reserves. The U.S. has the most rich potential clients, my â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;target customersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

oi l expor

ting n

Areas in blue indicate major U.S. Navy ports. The Seasteading community has been worried about its proximity to major military powers as a seastead would be especially vulnerable to military vessels, especially a tax haven that is likely to anger foreign powers by taking away wealth from that nation. My site however is not on a U.S. patrol route.

trad

a tio ns

e pr oximity

There are modern pirates in the Caribbean (key areas above), but although not as infamous as Somalian pirates they have attacked luxury yachts moored in tax haven harbours, stealing property and taking hostages at ransom. My site is underwater and well isolated from the threat of piracy, but wealthy clients inside would still want security.

cheap labour (minimum w

a ges in $ per hour)

$7.25

$4.00 Mexico

Cuba

Belize $1.65 Honduras $1.20 $1.07 $0.52 $1.07

Barbados Guatemala Nicaragua

Cuba $0.05

Mexico $0.61

Venezuela

Trinidad & Tobago

$0.41

$5.08

$5.00 $1.58

$0.60

$n/a $n/a $2.96 $2.78 $1.48 $n/a $0.64 $3.13 $1.16 $n/a $1.94

$1.79

$3.30 $1.22

$1.65

$0.99 $n/a

My design must produce its own biofuel using microalgae to eliminate the need for expensive oil imports from neighbouring Caribbean nations. It will also reduce the need for oil conflicts or tariffs imposed on the new micronation by other sovereign states. Red areas indicate countries that produce oil and could possibly hold resources at ransom.

Any surplus biofuel generated as a by-product from algae grown to supply oxygen could be sold to neighbouring nations or traded for food & drink supplies that cannot be grown in the structure; such as champagne, wine, chocolates, dairy or some fruits, meats & vegetables. This would mean the trading nation would not require to import as much expensive oil.

Support services such as housekeeping, baggage handling, cleaning and kitchen staff will require contract workers to be brought in from neighbouring countries. Workers from Belize ($1.65), Honduras ($1.07), Mexico ($0.61) or Cuba ($0.05) may be more attracted by the prospect of work than those from the Cayman Islands ($5.00 per hour).

geographic

coral reefs

Coral reefs are common in the region, located mainly around the periphery but also around small islands in The Caribbean Sea. The majority of reefs are fringe reefs around the small Caribbean islands, although some barrier and atoll reefs exist near The Bahamas. Misteriosa Bank is a bank/platform reef disconnected from any land mass.

hurric

ane risKs

The site sits in the centre of the Caribbean’s hurricane zone so should expect hurricane conditions any time from early June until late November. However, the site sits 14-20m below sea level so waves will not affect it, only access to it.

These wave conditions are the reason why the reef has not yet grown to the surface.

gulf s

al co

ntext

tream

sea wa ter salinity

The Gulf Stream is the world’s largest untapped energy resource, carrying more hydroelectric energy potential than all of the world’s rivers combined. Misteriosa Bank sits on this resource so is in an ideal place to harness this energy by placing underwater turbines near the site.

sea s urfa ce tempera

t ures

Dark areas indicate warmer waters and lighter areas show cooler waters. Sea temperatures vary with proximity to the mainland and less saline waters, but not with depth (except after about -200m where sunlight cannot reach). My site averages 27°c (summer = 31°c and winter = 23°c) so keeping aquanauts cool is a priority.

Darker areas indicate more salt content (>37 psu = Practical Salinity Units) and lighter areas indicate less salt content (<34 psu). The site is in waters of 36psu where coral reefs can grow. Just as importantly, water desalination through reverse osmosis (to provide drinking water) is cheaper and more efficient in less saline waters found around my site.

wave heig hts

Darker areas experience weaker wave heights as they are shaded by land masses, and lighter areas indicate stronger waves found in unsheltered, open oceans where the wind is stronger. The site experiences average annual wave heights of 1.5m, rough conditions which are the reason why the reef has not yet grown to the surface.

chapter vi: initial d esign experiments

chapter s

ummary

Initial design experiments were as a result of studying large scale, single membrane pneumatic structures (non-modular structures).

By identifying that a series of columns would be required to support the weight of seawater and eventual reef growth above, these experiments studied a range of typologies based on the simple cut patterns found in large pneumatic structures. These experiments ultimately found that a modular system was not appropriate because of lack of internal space and natural light potential.

offshore co

ns tr uctio

n = prefabric

a tio n

Aquatic structures such as ships, submarines, offshore turbines, oil rigs and submerged habitats are all constructed out of water, commonly from a number of giant segments each prefabricated and then transported to the main fabrication space.

Artificial islands are unusual in that they are built in-situ, using materials already existing in seawater (sand, mud etc).

My structure is a hybridisation of these techniques, using a prefabricated pneumatic structure (ideally one membrane) that is transported to site, anchored in place, and a DC current added across its membrane to encourage corallite skeletal growth; using similar principles to Dubai’s islands but letting nature (the reef) grow itself.

ships (general) Ships are never constructed at sea, they are built in shipyard dry docks and then dock walls open to launch the ship. New large scale ships are commonly built using a number of prefabricated segments (above)

submarines

wind t

Submarines, like ships are never constructed in or under water - they are built in safe, comfortable conditions on land; and are sometimes built in a number of segments like ships.

oi l rigs

urbines

Despite the vast scale of offshore wind turbines, they are assembled from a series of prefabricated components that are shipped to site and assembled in a few giant building blocks.

Despite the scale of oil rigs, they are constructed in the same way as ships and submarines. They have no means of propulsion so are transported to site on the back of transporter ships.

semi - s ubmer sible trans

submerged habit

a ts

All submerged habitats in the past have been small enough to be craned into site, so prefabrication is the only logical construction choice.

ar tificial islands Artificial islands such as those being built in Dubai are the only structure at sea to be built in-situ, using land reclamation techniques that create islands from naturally occurring materials.

por ter ships

Transporter ships vary in their design but all intake water to sink and expel water (intake air) to float, much like a submarine does to adjust its depth. This raising and lowering can be utilised to transport my seastead to its site on Misteriosa Bank; where it can be lowered into place by offshore cranes. Dimensions based on maximum ship size operating in The Caribbean.

230m

48m

ship t akes in w a ter to sink so tha

t d eck level is bel

ow c argo

ship expels w a ter to fl

oa t, lifting c

d elhi aer

argo above the s

urfa ce

key d imensio ns (d esign co

ns traints) = 2

30m (l) x 48m (w)

os t a t

I visited Lindstrand Technologies last year, a famous hot air balloon now pneumatic structure manufacturers. For the 2010 Delhi Commonwealth Games opening ceremony the company was commisioned to design a helium-filled blimp to act as an inflated ‘lid’ for the stadium. During fabrication, the entire structure was tested in a remote Shropshire field.

fabric

a tio n

The aerostat was fully prefabricated using high-tech construction (high-frequency electromagnetic pulse welding) in the comfort of Lindstrand’s indoor factory, which is too small for full scale inflation.

tes ting & correctio

n

The important aspect to the Delhi blimp was that it was fully inflated and tested before it was shipped to site, as there would be no ‘second chance’ if it failed. A nearby field was used for this purpose.

trans

por t a tio n

The helium filled membrane of the aerostat was transported to Delhi inside one shipping container and the membrane that holds it down in another container.

Helium was sourced from India rather than imported.

event The inflatable was then filled with helium (much like an unmanned airship) and forms a lid to the stadium.

After the event the helium was recovered and the membrane used to create tents for refugees.

large sc

ale pneuma

tic s tr uct ures

I have chosen precedents that are all composed of one membrane that is folded into one transportation package, meaning these large structures are usually installed (inflated, anchored, tested) within 2 hours. This means I can use similar principles (if considerably more heavy duty) for my installation process at sea.

ark n ov a, anish kapo

or

The structure acted as a mobile concert hall that toured areas of Japan affected by the tsunami in 2011. To transport it to a new venue, the structure is completely deflated and loaded onto the back of a lorry alongside the disassembled equipment. These principles are similar to how I envision a structure being transported and quickly fabricated (inflated) at sea.

15 MINS

30 MINS

45 MINS

community centre, c

arl os arr

60 MINS

o yo ar chitects

A pneumatic membrane composed of numerous interlocking elements is inflated (above) using a series of fans. The entire structure is one air supported chamber and sits under an existing roof. 7mm GRG (glass reinforced gypsum) is sprayed on to the inside layer of the PVC membrane, weighing only 7kg per m2 once dry. Clashes with the factory are cut out afterwards.

90 MINS

120 MINS

soap bubble geome

tries

Pneumatic Structure designers, engineers and manufacturers have studied how soap bubbles meet because of the unique way soap bubbles naturally find their optimum form, based on a minimum surface area containing a maximum volume. The two most well known examples are Cornwallâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Eden Project and the Beijing Aquatics Centre:

bubble formulae These connection geometries between soap bubbles have been studied in detail by engineers, and formulae written that describe them. I have interpreted these formulae so I can visualise this type of construction:

formula n

o. 1

This controls the distance (D) between the two bubbles, based on the two known radii of the bubbles.

D = ( (R12 + R22) - (R1 x R2) ) 1/2 , where:

C2

D = Distance R1 = Radius of Bubble 1 R2 = Radius of Bubble 2

C1

formula n

o. 2

This formula controls the intersection geometry between the two bubbles when they are placed on a flat surface. This geometry is based on the radius of a third circle (Ci).

D(C1,Ci) = {R1 2 + [(R1 x R2)- (R1 - R2)] 2 + R1 2 x R2/(R1 R2)}1/2, where:

C2 C1

C1 = Circle 1 (Bubble 1) C2 = Circle 2 (Bubble 2) Ci = Intersection Circle Ci

cir cle 1 & cir

cle 2

geome try lines

Controlled by the initial parameters, this section draws the two circles and splits them against each other so overlapping sections can be culled later on and replaced with circle three.

c 1 & c 2 rad

ii

These are the two parameters for the script, which affect all of the geometry that is constructed afterwards.

col our co

This section visualises the triangles (black, above) that are determined by the mathematical formulae earlier on.

formulae In this section I have written the formulae above, which control the separation distance between the two circles.

ord in a ting

These help me colour coordinate to visualise the three circles and how their relationships to each other.

c 1 & c 2 rad

ii

These are the two parameters for the script, which affect all of the geometry that is constructed afterwards.

d evel o ping formulae These formulae can be developed using variations on the script on the following page, allowing more spheres (representing individual bubbles) to be added - in a similar way to how the facade of the Beijing Aquatic Centre has been designed. Altering the parameters of the circle radii on my script (previous page) alters the radius of the intersecting circle, allowing visualisation of circles of any size and configuration:

fl o or pla

te siZe

bound ing box geome

This section of the script creates a rectangular floor plane that represents the footprint size of the existing factory building in Carlos Arroyoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s community centre.

try

This section uses a parameter to extend the floor plate up by a determined height, representing the existing factory building in Carlos Arroyoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s community centre.

bubble siZes The parameters create a random set of numbers based on high and low numerical values that determine the radius sizes for the inflated bubble formwork.

bubble po pula ting Using the parameters of the floor plane, a random set of points are created that then use the radii from the previous parameters to generate a series of random bubble sizes.

fa c ad e o penings This section removes the roof of the building and creates intersection points so that the walls resemble the openings found in the community centre.

trimming formw

ork

The bubble-like pneumatic formwork is then trimmed against the facade, creating the geometry associated with Carlos Arroyo Architects.

inter

n al s pa ces

The script on the previous page defines the series of spaces below. By grouping together a collection of spheres (bubbles) using the soap bubble formula and intersecting them with a box, the resulting geometry is similar to the community centre by Carlos Arroyo Architects; where an inflated membrane was constrained by the factory building it was inflated in.

bubble genera

tio n

inter

initial geome

try

sectio

n

co ns training geome

trimmed geome

c arved inter

try

n al s pa ces

The internal spaces generated by my script replicate the internal cavernous spaces of those by Carlos Arroyo architects. The spaces however are only suited to terrestrial air supported spaces where they do not need to support any loads on top. If this system were to be adopted in a subaquatic environment the roof would simply collapse under the water compressive load.

try

trimmed geome

geome try in co

ntext

try

lumin aria (v arious), ar

chitects of air

These are art installations so no technical information exists (in contrast to architectural precedents) and many were constructed by eye using volunteers with only basic tools (sewing machines, glue and scissors) without any construction drawings; so I have had to interpret these structures using my knowledge on the subject gathered from various textbooks.

Luminaria are immersive art installations that have been touring the world since 1992. The majority are constructed from PVC, used because it is cheap, easy to work with, easy to repair, waterproof and has good reflectivity of internal lighting. Despite their complex shapes, all cut patterns are based on the simple geometry of cones, spheres and cylinders.

co ns tr uctio

n

lig hting s

Luminariums are constructed using 6 low-skilled workers without computer software, so the end result often takes them by surprise. The PVC plastic is cut using hardboard templates and the pieces are then glued together, a very low-tech process that reduces the overall costs for the structure, which is taken to indoor sports halls for testing.

Durable ‘Roof’ Membrane

Durable Floor Surface Membrane

Possible Translucent Membrane for Lighting

Because these structures are assembled by volunteers (sometimes children) at very little cost, identical modules are required to make construction easier.

sub - a q ua tic po tential

These structures are immersive art experiences relying on material texture, colour and varying lighting moods to create the experiences for visitors. Transparency and translucency are used to vary the amount of natural lighting, and artificial lighting is concealed between the two infated membranes to create uncluttered internal spaces.

Tranparent Membrane

Opaque Membrane

Translucent Membrane

Transparent Membrane along Seams

Opaque Membrane

Concealed Lighting

Friction Resistant Membrane

modular segments

tra tegies

Rather than a large, open plan structure that would be under considerable pressure from the seawater above, these modular columns may also be utilised to support the seawater, dispersing the compressive loads throughout each module.

tio n

These modular segments can then be joined (usually stitched) together to create a variety of layouts, depending on the site location.

n a t ural lig

hting

The top half of each column is constructed from a translucent membrane that glows under direct sunlight, while more durable, opaque membranes are installed below as walkable surfaces.

Sea Surface

Compressive Water Load

Compressive Water Load

Pneumatic Structure

Limestone Reef

Power Supply

tessella

Sea Surface

ar tificial lig

hting

Artificial lights are built in between the membranes, either shining through the seams (rather than trying to disguise the seams); or at ‘ceiling’ level to imply routes through the internal spaces.

large s

pan s tr uct ures

A large span submerged pneumatic structure would be subject to huge compressive forces of water loads from above. This would ultimately lead to buckling and collapse, so large spans are unsuitable.

Limestone Reef

modular s

tr uct ures

I can utilise this system of columns to absorb the water loads of The Caribbean Sea, which is between 14 and 20m deep on my site. The more tightly spaced the columns the more loads they can absorb.

modular pneuma

tic segments

Modular segments allow simple fabrication and speed up construction. The pneumatic columns would be drop-stitched to support either high pressure air, water or foam to support the weight of water above. A drop-stitched outer membrane would be added above and below these columns to enclose a cavity between.

sq uare segments Square or rectangular geometry forms the basic grid layout for most architecture so seems the best place to start for a tessellating modular system. Cut patterns are simple: as four identical segments are joined to form each column.

Base Geometry

Twin Membrane Module

Tessellated Floor Plan

Cylindrical Section Geometry

Section View

Cut Pattern

Membrane part of a Cylinder (for ease of construction)

3D View

initial p

arame tric script

cylindric

parame ter s I have modelled each segment parametrically so that it can quickly be changed. The key parameters are:

al inter

sectio

n

arra yed modules

A cylindrical membrane section around the initial base square creates a smooth transition between the walls, columns and floor. This is intersected with the previous cutting objects.

Footprint Size (m); No. of Columns: creates an array of each module; Floor to Ceiling Height (m), in this case 2.1m; and Membrane Separation (m) - controlling the space between the inner and outer membranes of the inflatable structure.

cutting obJects I have used the initial square segment to create a 3d cutting object that will intersect the cylindrical section that forms the singularly curved geometry of hte module.

This section groups together all of the previous geometry and arrays it in the X and Y direction a number of times, controlled by my second parameter input slider.

twin membranes This section of my script joins together all the previous geometry and offsets the membrane to create another membrane with an air void in between the two.

tessella

ted geome

try v aria tio ns

My script on the previous page can be adjusted so that instead of square modular column segments, other simple geometric shapes can be tessellated, varying the spaces inside whilst still retaining the simple cut patterns based on segments of cylinders that creates a smooth transition between the columns and the floor/ceiling.

triangular segments Triangular segments are much wider than the square modules, creating more space at mid-level between floor and ceiling, but this space cannot really be utilised as well as gaining additional space at floor or ceiling level.

Base Geometry

Twin Membrane Module

Tessellated Floor Plan

Cylindrical Section Geometry

Section View

Cut Pattern

Membrane part of a Cylinder (for ease of construction)

3D View

hexa go n al segments Hexagonal segments joined together are much thinner so more sections can occupy the same area - meaning that there is more support for the force of water above. It also eliminates the wasted space at mid-level created by triangular segments.

Base Geometry

Twin Membrane Module

Section View

Tessellated Floor Plan

Cylindrical Section Geometry

Cut Pattern

3D View

Membrane part of a Cylinder (for ease of construction)

co ncept ima

ge: modular segments

I produced this image as a way of visualising what the internal spaces may feel like using one of my modular systems (in this case, hexagonal footprint). Despite my psychedelic colour scheme (imitating the experience of my precedent art installations), and the ocean views around the perimeter; the space feels dark - wasting the sunlight that will shine through the clear waters above. Pope Benedict XVI symbolises religions who evade tax.

CONCEPT IMAGE PRECEDENTS: VARIOUS LUMINARIA

module d

The different module geometries create varying degrees of usable space and can tessellate differently to absorb more compressive force of the water load above; but they all offer very little floor space between the seams of each column. This development of the basic module adds an additional triangular segment that, when arrayed, creates much more space for movement.

Additional membrane geometry creates more floor space between columns

Base Geometry

evel o pment

Twin Membrane Module

Tessellated Floor Plan

Cylindrical Section Geometry

Section View

Cut Pattern

Membrane part of a Cylinder (for ease of construction)

3D View

script d

parame ter s

evel o pment

triangular segments

I have modelled this segment parametrically so that each section can quickly be changed. The key parameters are:

arra yed modules

Rotating the base column 45 degrees inside a large square creates four triangular segments that, once arrayed, space out the columns to create more usable floor area.

Footprint Size (m); No. of Columns: creates an array of each module; Floor to Ceiling Height (m), in this case 2.1m; and Membrane Separation (m) - controlling the space between the inner and outer membranes of the inflatable structure.

module geome

try

This section creates the basic geometry of each single module from a square footprint and a cylindrical section to ensure a smooth transition between floors, columns and ceilings.

This section groups together all of the previous geometry and arrays it in the X and Y direction a number of times, controlled by my second parameter input slider.

twin membranes This section of my script joins the basic module geometry and the triangular segments together, and offsets the first membrane to create another with an air void in between.

edge (cl

osing) membrane

This last section closes the membrane of the pneumatic structure around the sides of the arrayed modules so that the air insde the membranes cannot escape.

str uct ural p arame ter s

fo o tprint siZe This affects the size of each module, controlling in effect the grid size for the entire structure. The column width is also affected by the floor to ceiling height parameter.

fl o or to cei

ling heig

ht

This is self explanatory, but the column width (controlled by the footprint size) is also affected by this parameter, so the two should ideally be controlled together.

n o . of colum

Internal Air Pressure = 0 atmopsheres (sea level pressure)

membrane sep

This controls the overall size of the structure in the X and Y direction. The earlier parameters will update themselves within this parametric system.

cl osed membrane sys High Pressure Inflated Membrane (unoccupied)

ns

ara tio n

The distance between the two membranes can affect inflation pressure and varies with materials: dropstitched membranes are limited to 500mm separation

tem

I have created a semi-cylindrical closed membrane around the perimeter of these columns to enclose the air between the inner and outer membranes, to visualise the structure, which works in a similar way to a pin cushion or a drop-stitching method, where floor & ceiling membranes are held together by the tensile strength of columns or tensile fibres.

SECTION

PLAN 2

6

4 Cut Pattern 1 3

ar tificiall

y lit sys

tem

initial o

This system is composed of two opaque membranes that include a series of columns to allow for more linear floors / ceiings and to support water pressure from above. However, opaque materials create dark internal spaces, even if the outer membrane around the sides of the structure allows light inside.

pa q ue membranes

trans

parent sectio

ns add

These two renderings are taken from identical positions with identical lighting, but the one on the right includes transparent sections generated from welding / stitching the four additional triangular sections together.

cut p a tter

n a t urall

ed

y lit sys

5

tem

However, the additional triangular segments could be utilised to allow natural sunlight into the structure by means of an ETFE/Technora membrane. The roof of the structure would be only approximately 10m below sea level in crystal clear Caribbean waters, so light does find its way to the reef (which is why the zooxanthellae algae photosynthesise).

ns

As with earlier modular column development, this entire structure can be broken down into simple cut patterns. Patterns 1 and 2 derive from the column sections and their square outer membrane sections that rest on top of a layer of air (or other). Patterns 3 to 6 are make up the semi-cylindrical sections and the corner joints of the outer membrane.

1 - colum

n

2 - colum

n c ap (above)

3 - inner mid sectio

n

4 - inner cor

ner

5 - outer mid sectio

n

6 - outer cor

ner

segment comp

ba se geome try

single module

cut p a tter

n

inter

n al s pa ce

ariso ns: s ummary

r o of plan

PROS: Square segments are the simplest to understand, fabricate and create gridded floor plans from CONS: a square grid floor plan may be too rigid for an organic submerged underwater structure

PROS: Triangular columns created from only 3 segments (faster construction) CONS: triangular planning difficulties, and the geometry creates a lot of unusable space at mid-level

PROS: Hexagonal segments allow the closest packing, supporting greater water load CONS: hexagonal planning difficulties, and the density of columns means there is little usable floor space

PROS: additional triangular segments allow for natural lighting, create more space at ground & ceiling level and form a square footprint (simplifying modular construction).

CONS: a square grid floor plan may be too rigid for an organic submerged underwater structure

sectio

n

chapter vii: d esign d evel o pment , par t i

chapter s

ummary

The development breakthrough came from re-designing the supporting columns with voids inside. These enabled the reef to grow up and through the seastead, meaning the reef is essentially supporting its own weight through the structure. By turning these columns into a series of non-modular courtyard-like voids, a design typology was developed that was immediately more liberating than the previous modular experiments. The study of how curvilinear floor plans worked brought a sense of rationality to the sketch designs.

str uct ural d

evel o pment

Sea Surface Compressive Water Loads

Compressive Limestone Loads

Pneumatic Structure Limestone Reef

Limestone Reef

initial pr

Limestone Reef

Limestone Reef

d evel o pment - extra s

oblems

Currently the columns are filled only with air - when constructed from durable materials (butyl rubbers, aramid fibres etc) this is strong enough to support itself under the water load; but only encourages reef growth around the perimeter. The additional weight of the limestone reef growing on its roof may cause structural failure.

uppor t

However, if these columns were to contain a void in between the two outer membranes, then a direction connection to the reef would present itself - allowing corallite skeleton to grow up through the structure towards sunlight and nutrient rich waters. These limestone columns would rigidify and support the weight of limestone growing on the roof.

Void for Limestone Growth High Pressure Inflation

High Pressure Inflation

Normal Internal Air Pressure (one atmosphere)

Normal Internal Air Pressure (one atmosphere)

Limestone Reef Bed

Limestone Reef Bed

initial s

tr uct ure

d evel o ped s tr uct ure

corallite colum

before corallite gr

owth

Most parameters are the same as my previous scripts, but with the addition of a column spacing parameter, that controls how far apart each column is from the next.

owth

n script

fl o or & cei ling membranes

parame ter s

after corallite gr

membrane sectio

Using the same mathematical components as the previous part of the script I can produce flat sections for the floor, ceiling and the outer roof / reef membranes.

n cuts

This geometry is best understood in cross section, so I created a cut plane to intersect with the various membrane components to see the internal structure.

Column Spacing (m); Footprint Size (m); Floor to Ceiling Height (m), in this case 2.1m; and Membrane Separation (m) controlling the space between the inner and outer membranes of the inflatable structure.

colum

n membranes

Much the same as the previous scripts, I have used the basic circle shape to intersect and create a semi-cylindrical surface for the inner and outer membranes of the column.

corallite colum

n

I wrote this section to create a solid limestone structure in the void created between the inner and outer column, floor, ceiling and roof membranes.

corallite sectio

n cuts

As with the membrane section cuts, the limestone column can be better understood in cross section, so I created a cut plane to intersect with limestone to see its internal structure.

str uct ural d

modular limes

to ne colum

evel o pment

n sys tem

n o n-modular sys

The limestone column works as a basic module that supports the weight of limestone that will eventually grow on the roof of the structure. However, having a modular system is a design constraint because it does not lend itself to creating a more organically shaped geometry that would be better suited to a living structure.

tem

The script on the previous page can be altered to allow for any shape to be used as a replacement for the basic circle shape I had been using as the basis for the limestone column. I drew this freehand â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;blobâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; shape purely as an example of how this growth system can be applied to a non-modular geometry (i.e. a wall rather than a column).

n o n-modular sectio

n cuts

As with the previous modular system, I have written a section cut script so that the growth of the corallite skeleton is more understandable. As with the column system, the structure is placed on the reef and mineral accretion attracts calcium carbonate which attracts coral polyps, and their skeletal growth eventually fills the voids.

infla tio n & anchoring

year s

d ec ad es

n o n-modular d

cent uries

evel o pment

Rather than the system being entirely solid; by just encouraging corallite growth around the edges of these curved walls, the corallite would grow faster and create more habitat for reef animals without sacrifycing the supportive compressive strength of the limestone, providing it grows thick enough.

infla tio n & anchoring

mo nths

year s

d ec ad es

co ncept ima

ge: n o n-modular

I have chosen reflective polyvinyl chloride as the inner membrane material to bounce natural light and the blue water tones around the inflated structure. The white is much calmer than my earlier concept image and its subtlety draws more attention to the reef. White however does make the seams more visible so I must either use a darker material to hide them or exaggerate them with (concealed) artificial lighting. De-modularising the structure creates much more internal space.

CONCEPT IMAGE PRECEDENTS: VARIOUS LUMINARIA

gr owth s

tr uct ures: mo n oammo nium phos

pha te

I have been growing Monoammonium Phosphate crystals to understand how the growth of natural structures is affected when man-made structures are placed as obstacles. These typically take a month to grow, and due to the chemicals (NH4H2PO4) that aid growth, crystals can only be seen at the end of their cycles when they are removed from their growth container.

n a t ural gr

owth

For this first experiment I used the standard crystal growing kit, using a clean base representing an idealised natural coral reef without man-made additions or the problems of rising sea temperatures or ocean acidification.

ar tificial s

tr uct ure intr

oduced

Representing a man-made reef intervention, I used this polystyrene ball to attract crystal growth in the same way a submerged structure accumulates biofoul over time. The experiment was not too successful because of the smoothness of the intervention.

text ure v aria tio ns Using a marble and polystyrene balls that I sanded to create a more bumpy surface, the crystals in this third experiment were much more successful; representing the success of a submerged structure that contains a variety of habitats for marine life.

phos pha te crys

t als a s corallite an

al ogy

I modelled and 3D printed two versions of the column from the previous structural developments. The first represents a partial growth system - one where the corallite limestone structure slowly grows through the centre of the column via the mineral accretion process. The second represents completed growth, where the limestone has fully calcified on top.

1:200 limes to ne colum

n s tr uct ure

Model people demonstrate the scale of the structures possible by using a hollow column system that allows limestone growth inside and through the structure. As the corallite matures and thickens over time the weight allowance on the roof increases, meaning a submerged structure can be completely encased in limestone that supports itself through the void.

mod el 1: p ar tial gr

owth sys

tem

I modelled and 3d printed this structure with a hollow centre to allow the crystals to grow through the column void, representing a few years of coral reef growth on a structure two hundred times the size.

mod el 2: comple

ted gr

owth

I let the mono-ammonium phosphate crystals grow to visualise a healthy coral reef structure (representing fifty to one hundred years of corallite skeleton growth deposited over a calcified compound).

rela tio nship d ia gram Potential clients go through a linear assessment process before they can transfer their money into their new accounts and become trusted lifelong clients. Once accepted they have the choice of a series of leisure activities, with facilities for submarine or scuba diving tours sharing supplies & workshops with the marine biologists living in the much less luxurious saturated air habitat. Imports (post, cash, champagne etc), support areas and life support facilities are centralised, but may be better placed on a floor below (less requirement for ocean views). The government and foreign diplomacy areas require higher security so are more isolated.

key po tential clients

scientis

ts

a ccepted clients

suppor t area

st aff / d ipl oma ts

life s uppor t

air l ocks

mo o n po ols

client entrance & exit

s

over nig ht r o oms submarine tour s

c a sh for gold

security check c afe & wc

weal th a ssessment

bribery area

fir st aid office

security office & cctv

st aff entrance & exit

security check

leis ure area

air l ock

(sea) fo od & drink

champ a gne & wine bar

we t r o om

scuba d iving

s

waiting area

hold ing cell

relaxing area

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;d irector office

bank

â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

over nig ht r o oms

st aff ro o m

gover ning office

c afe & wc

d ipl oma cy spa ce

s

business crea tio n

safe & server s

house keeping

(fixed) c a sin o

g alley (kitchen)

impor ts

scientis t entrance

air l ock

fish farming

g alley (kitchen)

life suppor t co ntr ol

d ipl oma t entrance & exit

supplies & worksho p

engineer office

alg ae harves t

s

hydr oelectric energy

living area

sleeping area

marine biol ogy lab.

sea stead per po tential clients

scientis

a ccepted clients

suppor t area

st aff / d ipl oma ts

Staff are contract workers brought in from other Caribbean nations when required. The seastead requires permanent residents to be classified as a country so I propose these to be the government (who advocate permanent residents), bankers (who form life long relationships with clients) and potentially one engineer, as Sealand has. Living at the seastead does not mean they cannot leave (of course), it just means they are registered citizens there and not in any other country.

ts s

My proposal includes: 5x staff for potentical clients, 2x governance, 12x support staff, 8x accepted client staff, 4x life support engineers (31 in total) plus 6x research scientists in a separate saturated air habitat.

life s uppor t

security (x2) The security staff, aided by the staff member in the CCTV control office, see to any trouble in the seastead, and report anything back to the government.

head & s uppor t chef The two chefs would be contracted to prepare and cook the food for all the clients and the staff at the seastead. They would probably work week long contracts.

kp

i.t . suppor t

The kitchen porter would assist the two chefs as in a normal kitchen.

The I.T. technician would keep the software running through the seastead

c a sin o s t aff (x2) Staff at the casino would be reponsible for weighted dice, trick packs of cards and other predetermined gambling activities to ensure tax evaders take their money home.

micr oalg

ae & hydr

so nnel

oelectric engineering (x4)

Engineers would be trained to know how to operate and maintain the various microalgae (harvesting) biocoils and the Gulf Stream’s hydroelectric energy collected by turbines. Replacing broken parts would be produced by a 3d printer because of the seastead’s isolation. Engineers would be also assisted by the I.T. technician.

a ssessment To be sure the potential client is wealthy enough.

Also assists Cash for Gold.

pos t w orker To receive parcels of cash, food/drink and distribute to areas in the seastead

priv a te banker

s (x2)

gover

These bankers form a life long relationship with clients who keep money in the tax haven, so are given financial incentives to live permanently at the seastead.

cctv mo

nitor

The CCTV office would monitor activities in the seastead on screens

bar s t aff (x2) The bar staff would work the same as any would terrestrially: managing and stocking the bar, serving and recommending (the more expensive) drinks to the wealthy clientelle.

mainten

The king would require an assistant diplomat for meetings with the UN and various other foreign relations. The two would effectively run the seastead.

ance (x2)

Maintenance workers would have various skills and would be on call to fix problem with the structure (if any) or general plumbing / electrical problems

waiter

s (x2)

Waiters would travel between the galley and the restaurant to serve the various meals to clients and the wealthy bankers and governance. Kitchen staff eat & drink separately.

resear

n ance ( x 2)

ch d iver s (x2)

Divers require a ‘buddy diver’ in case of an accident. These divers would travel around the reef looking for specimins of potentially new species for ressearch & analysis.

cleaning & housekeeping (x3)

doctor

Housekeeping would change beds and provide other laundry services for the staff and clients quarters. The cleaners would assist, making sure the tax haven is as clean as possible so it looks the part that multi-millionaires would expect.

leis ure per so nnel

An in house doctor would be supported by various first aid qualified personnel

(x 2)

These personnel make sure SCUBA tanks are full, that submarines and various other personal leisure vehicles are working for the clients and the marine biologists.

suppor t technicians (x2) These technicians are in charge of the safety of the saturated marine biologist team. Typical tasks include controlling the gas mixtures/levels of the habitat.

labora

tory biol

ogis ts (x2)

Specimens brought into the laboratory by research divers would need to be studied and then returned to the ocean.

The laboratory scientist requires an assistant.

par ti: prioritising s

pa ces

The scale of the existing site is so large that it doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t matter exactly where to place the seastead. However, optimum conditions for hydroelectric power conversion exist on the eastern edge, and the greatest source of nutrients arrive from the Caribbean Sea at the southern edge, so the south-eastern tip would be the best place to start the scientific research of this unexplored reef.

Furthermore, the reef flats provide the safest habitat for aquatic leisure activities (below).

LEISURE ACTIVITIES (safe reef flats)

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH (reef wall depths)

split uses: leis

As described previously, the site is located on the south eastern edge of the site to make use of all the different habitats in close proximity.

The reef is steeper on the southern edge as it has grown towards the source of nutrients. The eastern edge has the fastest flow of water going past it.

ure & resear

ch

leis ure a ctivities Tax evaders enjoy leisure activities after meetings with private bankers, heading west onto the safety of the reef flats that are calcified through accretion.

The seastead can be split into the two main activities: tax evasion and scientific research (marine biologists studying reef life in a saturated laboratory)

Positioned at the north-easternmost edge where the current is strongest to power hydroelectric turbines

scientific resear

Marine biologists staying in the saturated habitat head east towards the source of nutrients to find the most diverse species, some perhaps new to science.

Algae biocoil artificial lighting is powered by turbine energy

alg ae harves t

life suppor t

life suppor t

Double height, celebrated space

over nig ht r o oms

key s pa ces: fir st fl o or These are the main important/celebrated spaces in the building. They require the most light and should have a number of views of the reef around them.

Cantilevered over the edge of the reef to allow for moon pool exits

ED

GE suppor t services

security check

leis ure area

EF

Cantilevered to allow submarines / divers down through the moon pool

social area

over nig ht r o oms

gover ning office

The main entrance via a surface lift

RE

social area

weal th a ssess.

Central, overlooking the seastead

marine biol ogy lab.

EF

ED

GE ED EF RE

social area

Views north/ west to reef

Views not a priority, but could become more pronounced as the route continues

ch

GE

site l oc a tio n

RE

misteriosa bank

Back of house services located centrally for efficiency

(Down from security above)

d eliveries

Equipment, materials, food; as well as personal deliveries

key s pa ces: gr ound fl

o or

(Reef level). These are the support spaces which require less natural light and views. The social area is double height as it is the most important space within the seastead.

gover ning office waiting area

security check

Acting similar to a hotel foyer, where people meet before going to their rooms or the restaurant / bar

add itio n al s pa ces Although spaces such as the support areas can be broken down into a number of different areas, there are a few additional transition spaces that sit slightly separate from the main clusters.

petrific

a tio n mod el experiments

To visualise the petrification of pneumatic structures I followed the same process as bubble houses or Fosterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s moon base: inflate a membrane, cast the form in a hardening material and remove the formwork. I started by experimenting with how to inflate the membrane, using air, water, soft and rigidising foams. For the following experiments I chose air as it is easy to come by and does not leak (like water or foam) when the membrane is removed. Each were cast in mod-roc to petrify the geometry:

air Air is the most commonly used pneumatic structure inflation method because it is essentially free. It is often used at high pressure to create stronger structures.

wa ter

soft foam

Water inflation is free underwater in the same way that air inflation is free on land. A structure inflated with water is clearly affected by gravity, stretching the membrane.

Soft foams (I used puncture repair foam) can inflate membranes rapidly but they are weak and have to keep being topped up to prevent the loss of strength over time.

gelflex resin I experimented with PVC resin because it quickly sets and can be melted down afterwards and used again. Unfortunately its melting point is about 140°c so this melted through high strength balloons in early tests and again through the polystyrene balls I was hoping to cast, leaving the remains inside the block of resin.

c andle w

ax

To create a menagerie of inhabitable cavernous spaces I used various heavy duty rubber balloons. I learnt that the hot wax would melt (& pop) this formwork so I used numerous layers of mod-roc to reinforce them. Unfortunately, the hot wax melted through this as well, so the model was ultimately unsuccessful - a development would be to use a material such as plaster that sets at room temperature so as to not melt the formwork.

rigid ising foam Unlike soft foams, rigidising foams retain their strength and create a solid structure. This inflation technique is used to fill heavy duty ship berthing fenders.

earl y ske tch d

esigns: clus

ter s

How should a seastead be organised? My initial ideas focused on clustering the accommodation together into a single block; but this later evolved into a series of spaces joined by corridors, (similar to lunar base proposals). This development allows the drama of sub-aquatic circulation spaces, provides a more diverse range of habitats and creates distinct boundaries between the various accommodation types.

ske tch d

esigns: key s

pa ces

I then moved on to designing the individual spaces rather than the seastead as a whole, but in doing so this created numerous spaces that had nothing in common with each other. However these experiments led to a number of breakthroughs: the saturated air habitat for the scientists is cantilevered off the edge of the reef to provide good access to the moon pool, the casino/bar/restaurant is double height and assessment areas are located centrally as they do not require the celebrated views of the reef. These sketches represent a small sample of the ideas found in my sketchbook.

preced ents: irregular fl

o or plans

Irregular floor plans by architects such as Future Systems, Zaha Hadid and Sanaa contain internal layouts that defy conventional architectural rationale. The outer skin may not be ordered in a regular grid, Euclidean geometry or even regular curvature; so the internal spaces can be treated in a number of different ways:

o pen plan ‘bl

ob’

From ‘blobitecture’. The layout may contain basic cores but nothing more, allowing flexible accommodation as with an open plan office.

bl ob + linear grid Foster & Partners and Sanaa have used this layout to regulate irregular floor plans. The system however will nearly always create unusable spaces on the grid.

inter

n al a ccommoda

tio n

Inside the main blob sit a number of smaller blobs containing rationally planned accommodation. Foster, Future Systems and Sanaa all use this type of layout.

perpend icular grid Sanaa used this typology to create two linear walls in an apartment scheme so residents could use shelves/hang paintings easily; and it also creates internal courtyards.

This typology may be best suited for me as it allows for a rational free-form plan with internal courtyards.

irregular / grid-less More akin to Zaha Hadid than any of the previous architects, the typology of the plan is parametrically designed so results in irregular spaces all over.

linear grids Curvilinear floor plans in these examples have been rationalised with regular grid patterns which contain the accommodation.

In Future System’s museum, the support facilities are contained within Euclidean geometry to differentiate these areas from the primary exhibition spaces. Hadid’s project in Soho contains numerous (identical) regular cores within the main footprint.

Bratislava New City Centre, Zaha Hadid

Enzo Ferrari Museum, Future Systems

Social Housing, Paris, Sanaa

Galaxy Soho, Beijing, Zaha Hadid

Galaxy Soho, Beijing, Zaha Hadid

irregular / grid-less None of these examples have grids or any obvious design rationale. Whereas Hadid’s designs are parametric (and so hard to interpret without reading into), Sanaa’s are more free-form, with accommodation arranged around a series of courtyards created by the space saved from not having separate corridors (circulation is through rooms).

Reggio Waterfront Museum, Zaha Hadid

Okurayama Apartments, Sanaa

Elk Grove Civic Centre, Zaha Hadid

Rolex Learning Centre, Sanaa (diagram)

Rolex Learning Centre, Sanaa

d evel o pment ske tches: a

ccommoda

tio n

Rather than focusing on the unique spaces or the seastead as a whole, I experimented with the modular areas in the seastead, such as the overnight bedrooms for clients and bankers. I found these worked better when grouped together in a linear arrangement along a corridor, which offered views to the reef when they leave their bedrooms. The corallite limestone reef would grow over the roof of these rooms around a polycarbonate window, providing views and light inside.

d evel o pment ske tches: d

et ai ls

The exploded detail drawing below is not to scale but illustrates the basic components for the structure. Outside, corallite calcifies on a low voltage electrifiied steel mesh that is waterproofed by 3 layers of butyl rubber (typical build up for fenders).

The petrification strength comes from rigidised foam contained between twin drop stitched aramid membranes. Internally the surface finish should be reflective to bounce light around the structure, such as high strength white polyvinyl chloride.

pla ster mod

els

Unlike the high temperatures required to set pvc resin and wax; plaster sets hard under room temperature, so does not burst my formwork (various balloons). This means I donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t need to use layers of mod-roc, and I can remove the formwork simply enough by bursting the balloons, exposing the inhabitable negative spaces left behind.

After exposing these negative spaces, I enjoyed the variety and transilience of the interconnecting spaces - there are no dead ends, no straight lines or flat floors, no clear transition between floors, walls or ceilings; and shining lights through one side of the model resulted in unpredictable glows appearing elsewhere inside the structure.

sub-a q ua tic cir

cula tio n s pa ces

Inhabiting the previous model with 1:100 scaled people creates a more believable architecture, adding scale, depth, and generating conversation spaces along these pathways that overlook other routes. These weaving routes house different types of people, weaving past each other separated only by a thin pneumatic membrane and the limestone reef between.

chapter viii: d esign d evel o pment , par t ii

chapter s

ummary

By rethinking the seastead relationship diagram as a series of routes (new & existing clients, back of house support, governance, life support and research) rather than a clustered accommodation diagram, the structure fits better along the edge of the reef. Circulation spaces are celebrated, with the different routes weaving past each other to maximise natural light and reef views in key areas. Pneumatic petrification physical model experiments worked symbiotically alongside the sketch design process as a source of inspiration.

n arr ow site co

ns traints

By identifying the reef rim as a site constraint, the building can become more linear to maximise sunlight levels and be closer to ocean currents where reef life will best thrive. This in turn creates more panoramic views of the new artificial reef and allows the marine biologists a wider range of habitats for research.

5 miles

(more sunlight closer to surface)

WAVE FORCES OCEAN NUTRIENTS

-20m

-18m

-14m

3.5 miles REEF GROWTH

Misteriosa Bank reef, NTS, showing the optimum site area on the south-eastern edge - providing a range of habitats for scientists and tax evading leisure activities as well as hydroelectric potential.

Section cut (diagram right) through the reef flats, rim and the reef wall. Contours represent a drop of -50m, down to approximately -800m (seabed level varies).

The corals closest to the source of nutrients are the most successful and grow the fastest, resulting in the reef rim on the south-east side being slightly higher. The wave forces keep the reef from growing towards the surface.

As a result of this, the rim of the reef is -14m below sea level, sloping gradually down to -18m and -20m in the centre (a mile into the site). This rim creates a plinth closer to the surface that offers more natural light.

My building therefore must be built on the rim (red) of the reef because it is closer to the surface (for increased light levels), allows scientists a range of habitats to research and maximises hydroelectric potential.

key s pa ces & cir cula tio n The water pavilion by Lars Spuybroek helped me think about circulation as a series of transient spaces rather than flat linear pathways. As I found when casting pneumatic structures, diversity in levels (z axis) leads to a more organic system better suited to a coral reef. High strength polycarbonate tunnel structures in aquariums are also a source of inspiration - the narrow site constraints means designing numerous corridors which promote the success of the artificial reef.

cir cula tio n r outes I created a quick digital model to visualise the key routes of the various different types of people using the building. The cylindrical sections represent these routes that would work like the aquarium tunnels above.

Government areas on 1F have views over client bedrooms

key po tential clients

Main Social Space

Entrance

Life Support Client bedrooms at 0F level to create governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s views

a ccepted clients st aff / d ipl oma ts scientis

ts

leis ure area

s

Entrance views

Views towards artificial reef

Initial experiments

Social Space = best views

life s uppor t Scientist & back of house areas

Life support near strongest currents

New clients route drops down and in to the centre of the plan to maximise other views

foam neg

a tive exc

ava tio n mod el

As previously, I used high strength modelling balloons petrified within plaster to generate the negative space forms, but this time I used a wet (soft) plaster mix so the plaster could then be excavated. Once the rubber balloons were removed I used a litre of expanding foam to fill in these voids and recreate the identical geometry in negative. Once excavated I could then visualise the spaces that would otherwise be hidden within the plaster, and the spaces in between these pathways.

wax neg

a tive exc

ava tio n mod el

As with the expanding foam, I used high strength modelling balloons petrified within plaster to generate the negative space forms, and a wet (soft) plaster mix so the negative space could then be excavated. Using molten wax in place of the removed balloons I recreated the identical geometry in negative. Once excavated I could then visualise the spaces that would otherwise be hidden within the plaster, and the spaces in between these pathways.

co ncept mod

els

The three concept models: wax filled plaster, wax double-negative and expanding foam double-negative models all convey the concept of a series of pneumatic membranes that weave around each other to optimise light and views for people circulating the different routes; which have become petrified within the limestone over time. The wax negative model and its excavated portion (bottom left) best demonstrate this relationship between inflated circulation routes and corallite skeletal growth over time.

six cir cula tio n r outes

weal th a ssess.

business crea tio n

bank

c a sh for gold

waiting area

bar, res t a urant & c a sin o

security check

,

over nig ht r o oms

bar, res t a urant & c a sin o

waiting area

bar, res t a urant & c a sin o general stora ge

engineer office

house keeping

,

gover ning office

hydr oelectric energy

over nig ht r o oms

suppor t / servicing

gover

The back of house areas are not a route per se, but they are located in conjunction with the adjacent routes - for instance, the housekeeping should be located near the guest rooms and the kitchen and food storage located next to the bar and restaurant.

gover ning office

,

air l ock

n ance

marine biol ogy lab.

living area

scientis t entrance

sleeping

scientific resear

The government areas are located centrally and are the most well connected areas of the seastead, to allow the monarch to have good access to the scientists, the life support engineers and the main social space .

d evel o ped rela

g alley (kitchen)

life suppor t

suppor t services

fish farming

The life support areas have two constraints: the hydroelectric energy turbines must be located along the eastern edge of the reef where the current is strongest and the life support control should be located near the governing office for quick access.

bar, res t a urant & c a sin o marine biol ogy lab.

alg ae harves t

life s uppor t

security check

kitchens

s

life suppor t co ntr ol

,

Much like a hotel layout, existing clients may have their bags taken to their rooms by porters as they wait (and potentially have a drink with the monarch/bankers). They then go to their room, the leisure area or the social space.

fo od stora ge

d elivery entrance

hold ing cell(s)

gover ning office

exis ting clients

The potential / new clients go through the most linear process of the tax haven, as identified in my earlier flow chart diagrams that were based on undercover footage and online whistleblowers (former private bankers).

i.t . & server s

leis ure a ctivities

security check

po tential clients

security office

over nig ht r o oms

stora ge / worksho p

ch

The saturated air habitat is the least linear of the routes, accessed from one end through an airlock and the other via a moon pool to the reef wall. The moon pool area is separated slightly as it has high humidity levels.

tio nship d ia gram

By arranging the accommodation along this series of routes rather than a clustered arrangement (like before) it creates a linear program of spaces that is much more suited to the narrow site constraint.

key security check

weal th a ssess.

business crea tio n

hold ing cell(s) waiting area

bank

security office

c a sh for gold

general stora ge

leis ure a ctivities

over nig ht r o oms

i.t . & server s

over nig ht r o oms

house keeping

fo od stora ge

sleeping

stora ge / worksho p

g alley (kitchen)

marine biol ogy lab.

kitchens

bar, res t a urant & c a sin o

,

po tential clients

scientis

a ccepted clients

suppor t area

st aff / d ipl oma ts

life s uppor t

air l ocks

mo o n po ols

ts

d elivery entrance

gover ning office

air l ock

living area

engineer office scientis t entrance

life suppor t co ntr ol

s

alg ae harves t

fish farming hydr oelectric energy

s

d evel o pment ske tches: n

arr ow site

This narrow site constraint combined with my arrangement of aquarium-like corridors containing the modular bedroom accommodation led to a linear layout with a series of voids / courtyards in between that create additional habitats for marine life and provide light and views for people inside. By continuously drawing and drawing again with tracing paper I evolved the spaces to flow better around each other within these constraints.

d evel o pment plans

Moon pool controlled via an airlock for ocean access Diplomacy space & throne room (reef views)

Security check with office (inc. CCTV) and holding cell behind

2x Banker rooms and a master (royal) bedroom (reef views)

Double height space above the bar / casino / restaurant area

Double height maintenance walkway(s) above the hydroelectric turbines.

Surface lift

REEF EDGE

Airlock separates one atmosphere air and saturated air habitat

fir st fl o or plan a t 1:500

Moon pool cantilevered over reef edge for ocean access

New client assessment areas (no views until they are through)

Client overnight rooms (reef views)

Main social space: bar, restaurant and casino (reef views)

Algae biocoils provide oxygen

Life Support Headquarters (with surface lift)

Staff welcome area (reef views)

void

Surface lift

Hydroelectric turbines. The external structure is funnel shaped to increase water flow.

void

void void

REEF EDGE General storage (deliveries)

Staff overnight rooms have internal reef views

Housekeeping (central) with laundry, store and office

Staff changing rooms and small eating area (back of house)

Kitchen and stores (food and bar) behind restaurant

General maintenance / repair workshop for engineers

Engineer Accommodation

gr ound fl o or plan (reef level) a t 1:500

spa tial arrangement Support (back of house) areas are located on the ground floor southern edge where there are poorer views, allowing celebrated views for the tax evaders (clients) on the north side. Scientists are separate, tucked away from the client areas, as are the life support areas, which would have few windows.

key po tential clients a ccepted clients st aff / d ipl oma ts scientis

ts

suppor t area life s uppor t

s

cir cula tio n s pa ces The circulation for new clients drops down into the centre of the structure to maximise views for existing client bedrooms. These themselves are lowered to the ground floor to allow better views for the government/diplomacy spaces.

o pulence Although clients only stay one night in the tax haven on a strict schedule, the overnight rooms in my initial plans were too small and the corridor spaces not quite extravagant enough for ‘The One Percent’ 21st Century capitalist opulence. I developed the scheme to make circulation spaces more of a luxury, and to offer more reef views to bedrooms.

Leisure area moon pool doubles up as a secondary entrance for existing clients (via personal submarines)

Roof lights above client induction / wealth assessment rooms

Previous Cramped Bedrooms

Previous Government Area

New, enlarged bedrooms create more light, views and marine habitat (surface area)

New bedroom layout creates views to the front and to a single side for privacy

In-built hydroelectric turbines replaced with moored ones for easier maintenance, via new ocean moon pool

Enlarger bedrooms (see left) IT/Server Room & Bank Safe/Hold added

Reef selectively grows over bedrooms like a fringe

Typical increased bedroom layout showing external reef build up

previous a

ccommoda

Dashed line indicates central line of radius curvature (where the walls start curving up)

tio n

Once my hand drawn plans were scanned and traced on Rhino, it became apparent the internal voids were quite mean and other external spaces quite cramped due to the curvature of the structural system I created. This was due to the large radius of the butyl rubber membrane wrapping around each external line of the floor plan.

Larger ensuite, replacing shower with bath. Potential for rooflight above bathtub.

Larger delivery area & medical office

d evel o ped a ccommoda

More shared staff bedrooms to accommodate 27 contract staff (see personnel sheet)

tio n

Once I re-drew the plans to allow for these changes, the voids (internal reef gardens) clearly become much larger, increasing light, views and marine habitats. The client bedrooms stand out more, and I believe are recognisable as bedrooms externally, to help tax evaders in their personal submarines/scuba gear understand the external structure.

Enlarged voids create more light, views and marine habitat, allowing it to grow

cir cula tio n add

New void in life support area for structural support

ed

The submerged circulation sea tunnels promote the success of the new artificial reef to clientèle, deliberately placed between key spaces so they are constantly reminded that their tax evasion is funding the restoration of the marine environment. Sea tunnels also give them a view of the underside of their luxury yachts, for peace of mind.

form d

evel o pment

These diagrams illustrate the massing development, from a tight layout to one that increases its floor area to offer more views, light and reef habitat; to a layout where circulation spaces stretch out smoothly over accommodation areas - so the design reads as one single form sculpted by narrow site constraints, the flow of water and reef growth conditions.

Initial first floor accommodation

Aquaculture moon pool replaces in-built hydroelectric turbines

Circulation added

Initial ground floor accommodation

Internal void added, and sizes increased to increase light & views

Circulation added

Initial massing model

Developed massing model, with more space, light and views

Further development, with circulation and accommodation entwined

key area

s

The distinct areas of the form have been designed to maximise light and views, with the more celebrated spaces on the north side facing the new artificial reef and the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;back of houseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; areas on the south, facing the open ocean. All moon pools are cantilevered at first floor level to aid access, and the main social area is double height, as it is the most important luxury space.

scientific resear

ch

The marine biology lab and moon pool cantilevers off the side of the bank reef to allow scientists direct access to the reef wall and its unique species.

entrance cir

cula tio n

A series of routes weave past each other to maximise natural light and views north into the new artificial reef that sprawls into the distance.

over nig ht r o oms On ground floor level, five client rooms are identifiable facing the new artificial reef. Above are rooms for two private bankers and the master/royal bedroom.

inter

n al v oids

These allow light into the centre of the plan and create views in to the marine environment.

main social s

pa ces

On the left, the main double height bar/restaurant/ casino space, and on the right a cantilevered moon pool on first floor for private submarine access.

life s uppor t A single height area contains the algae biocoils, maintenance/workshop areas, and a moon pool for aquaculture and hydroelectric turbine maintenance.

lig ht & views Most submerged habitats are placed in deep water so rely on artificial lighting. Those in shallow waters have windows on the walls to give aqaunauts views into the ocean, and some in very shallow water have windows in the ceiling (roof lights) to maximise natural light. To summarise, windows in the roof offer the most light and windows around the edges offer views.

r o of lig

ht

A single large roof light or a series of smaller roof lights would allow surface light inside, but the flat shape may not be strong enough to withstand water loads.

domed r

o of lig

ht

Common in underwater habitats and aquariums as it allows people to put their head inside to view out, and its shape is naturally strong.

da ys Once the seastead is in place, a low voltage DC current passes through its skin, helping attract corallite build up gradually in the future.

wrap ar

ound windows

hybrid 1

Wrap around windows are used in aquarium tunnels and allow maximum views with the aided strength of the curved glazing/polycarbonate/acrylic.

mo nths / year

s

This hybrid is more structurally sound than the first. A series of strategically placed roof domes might create better lighting, and may allow shallower domes.

d ec ad es

As time goes by, biofoul (layers of microscopic life) begins to grow up and on the structure, attracting marine life from further afield.

pneuma tic lip do

Hybrids allow more light into the structure as well as the views out towards the artificial reef. However, a flat roof light opening may be weak structurally.

hybrid 2

In its final stage of growth, the only remaining evidence of the seastead will be the windows. As the reef grows, it attracts more marine life on its surface.

or s

Pneumatic lip doors were first designed as part of the Fuji Pavilion in the Osaka Ezpo in 1970. They are essentially four inflated air beams hung vertically and attached to each other with sewn seams so they cannot be moved independently. A compressed air tank sits above the door, allowing high enough air pressure so that people cannot squeeze through when doors are closed.

cl osed do

or s

The four closed doors act as hanging air beams, held in place by an air compressor that recycles the air passing in and out so to not rely on life support air supply.

o pen do or s As air is quickly sucked out via air compressor, the air beams create an opening for people/goods to pass through. The geometry lacks pneumatic identity.

d evel o pment 1 The bulging effect is created by stitching patterns that retain more air in the top and bottom, creating an opening first used in the Fuji Pavilion.

d evel o pment 2 This final development allows a wider opening at the base so that luggage/wheelchairs can fit through, while still retaining the identity of a pneuamtic structure.

vis ual The visual shows the door indicatively in amongst a setting with linear walls and flat floors, but the principles could be adapted for varying floor/ceiling heights.

fur nit ure d esigns To compliment the unique setting of the architecture, I have designed a number of chairs, tables and a bed. The forms are derived from the typology of the seasteadâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architecture and they are constructed in a similar way (inflated), using various combinations of water (bed), air (movable furniture) and rigidised foam (fixed furniture) inflation.

co ncepts Hollow columns used to support the weight of the Caribbean Sea and the reef growing on top can be utilised to support the weight of people (chairs) or used as tables. The long, pipe-like sections that make up the circulation routes in the seastead can be utilised as inflated air beams to provide easily buildable back rests to chairs.

Smaller air beams hold their shape better than larger volumes

Hollow support structure based on columns that support water load

Chairs with higher backs (additional air beams) are designed for the dining table (long stay)

Coffee table and dining table are scaled up versions of each other

Inflated air beam wraps around seated person

Chairs with low backs are more suitable for bar/casino (short stay) Typical dining elevation showing the larger table and the two high backed dining chairs Rigidised foam inflation in the cavity provides weight & durability Air beams of matching sizes enable more simple construction Drop-stitched base allows firm surface for cushions/comfortable foam seat to be added

wa ter Bed

These chairs are not as comfy as the lounge chairs but save space and are more suited to sitting upright (eating/drinking)

Bed composed of two layers of drop-stitched air inflated membrane and an optional third layer of water inflation (water bed)

l ounge cHair

varia tio n B

Typical waiting/social elevation showing the smaller coffee table and one variation of lounge chair

varia tio n c

coffee & d

ining t

aBle

cHair s (varying Ba

cK res ts)

d evel o pment fl

o or plans @ 1:500

fir st fl o or plan

Leisure Area Submarines

(Mezzanine)

WC

Banker Banker Rooms Rooms

Conference Space WC

Client Entrance

Master Bedroom Aquaculture Moon Pool

Lobby

Cell

CCTV & Office

REEF EDGE

Marine Biology Saturated Air Habitat

WC

Wet Room

reef level plan

Client Bed

W.A.

Bank

2 3 B.C C.F.G.

Safe WC

IT

Laundry

Staff Entrance

4

Store

Staff Accommodation

Casino, Bar & Restaurant

Cl.

Housekeeping

Algal Biocoils (Oxygen) Engineers

WC

Kitchen

Off. Staff Canteen

Deliveries & Store REEF EDGE

5

Staff Change

Staff Change

Bar Store

WC Food Store

Fridges

Support Office

Maintenance Workshop

Waste (if required)

Plant Room Hydroelectric Power

SECTION DIAGRAMS

SECTION AA

SECTION BB

These diagrams only include external spaces, demonstrating what accommodation is located where. Section AA shows the saturated air habitat’s cantilevered moon pool over the edge of Misteriosa Bank for research scientists; the staff accommodation below; the internal void in between that allows more light, views and marine habitat; the government area on the first floor; the support areas below; and the bedrooms on the far left.

Showing the main double height space through the bar, restaurant and casino with a wrap around mezzanine level; the hollow column in the centre of this space that allows corallite limestone growth through the centre; the two circulation routes on the left down to the life support facilities; and the leisure area with moon pool for scuba diving and private submarine access to existing client bedrooms from the private yachts 14m higher on the surface.

A

B

A

B

A

B

A

B

LEVEL 0 PLAN

LEVEL 1 PLAN

explan

a tory d

ia grams

po tential clients

st aff / d ipl oma ts

suppor t area

a ccepted clients

scientis

life s uppor t

ts

s

New clients go through a security check with cctv office, cells and WC; and down into banking areas

Existing clients either enter through the main security entrance or the moon pool via private submarine

Client areas in darker blue at the front have the most natural light and best views, the new clients are located centrally

Showing two circulation routes - support areas at the rear and client circulation at the front of the structure

Central government areas with the best views, separated life support and biology laboratory areas

Government circulation, from main entrance past bedrooms and into mezzanine level around main social space

Support â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;back of houseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; areas located at the rear of the structure (no views) and life support areas separated

Showing circulation from government areas down and into life support areas

par ti d evel o pment The weeks of tracing paper form development can be broadly summarised in the four diagrams below. By thinking of the tax haven as a series of routes rather than clustered accommodation, it opened up the potential of celebratory circulation spaces and internal voids that create more light, reef views and a greater surface area habitat for marine life to colonise.

clus tered a

ccommoda

tio n

The initial form was designed with the accommodation clustered around the circulation routes, with no thought given to light or views from these routes between.

lig ht & reef views

inter

By shifting all accommodation to one side of the plan, this opened up one side to bring in light and to open up views of the coral reef, making circulation interesting.

form explan

n al lig

ht & views

As the programme wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t work on a single route, a series of routes were designed, creating what are essentially internal courtyards (open to the ocean above).

increa

sed reef habit

at

By separating the individual accommodation (such as bedrooms) more light and views are created, but also a greater surface area for marine life to naturally colonise.

a tio ns

As these floor plans were all designed by hand, I have decided to diagram and describe a few of the key thought processes that were going through my head during the design process: why key spaces are where they are, their relationship to other spaces, and explanations about why certain voids and survature were generated.

New clients head down to the ground floor before views of the reef appear

In contrast, existing clients use a walkway with views of the reef

Royal bedroom far enough away (35m) from reef gallery to offer privacy

Moon pools shaped this way because of how they fit over the cylindrical support structure underneath

Stair between bedrooms & housekeeping, and meeting space and kitchen

Submarine access offers a quick, dry access point for existing clients

Mezzanine reef viewing gallery protrudes to offer panoramic reef views Engineer access for fish farms and hydroelectric turbine maintenance

Streamlined end reduces threat from hurricane waves

Security accommodation at main etrance

Kink designed to stop linear views (encouraging the king to look outwards into the reef)

Void created to add privacy between scientists and diplomats

Only once clients are deemed suitable (after their wealth assessment) do views of the reef begin to emerge Staff waiting area has unobstructed reef views

Flexible use space added adjacent to diving bell to be used for storage

Perpendicular wall layouts make positioning of beds, shelves etc easier, as Sanaa plans

Bulge created to offer a staff canteen area with reef views

Void also creates reef views for scientists

Life support control close to government and support areas

Void created for life support office & circulation views (& more reef habitat)

Bedrooms face north for the best views and so clients see their yachts (peace of mind)

Royal bedroom has panoramic reef views

Bedrooms windows on north and east, offering privacy from the west

Three hollow columns support double height space and allow reef to grow through

Moon pool curls around so clients in submarines can see the bar/casino on their approach (& vice versa)

Pneumatic cylindrical ridigised foam section supports cantilevered moon pool above

Streamlined end reduces threat from hurricane waves

Bulge in internal void means staff bedrooms have views of the reef

Support areas have numerous reef views (for staff morale)

Plan is squeezed in to allow for the ramp up to the moon pool.

air co

nd itio ning

user controlled

servers

oxygen production

constant

vault

reef level plan

first floor plan

Air conditioning is powered by a combination of the power generated from hydroelectric turbines to the west of the reef and the biofuel produced as a by-product of the oxygen production system (microalgae biocoil tanks). Constant temperatures include areas such as the server room, the bank safe and the microalgae biocoils.

With the except of the air-locks, the first floor is entirely user-controlled, as it contains bedroom spaces and wet rooms that may need adjustments for humidification (as a result of divers coming and going into the ocean). Spaces not coloured are at a constant twenty-one degrees and are not required to vary.

n a t ural / ar

tificial lig

hting

artificially lit natural & artificial

reef level plan

first floor plan

The narrow plan with its numerous reef courtyards means that most spaces in the seastead have external views and so are majority naturally lit during the daylight hours (although low energy LED lighting would be turned on 24/7 because of the varying light levels from clouds passing in front of the sun causing quite reduced lighting levels at this depth (-14m).

I have designed the space that are to be entirely naturally lit in the centre of the plan (which in turn maximises light & views for priority spaces such as bedrooms). These areas include store rooms, wealth assessment areas (no reef views straight away) and the kitchens. Peripheral areas without windows include plant/engineering areas and showers/WCs because of privacy.

a cous tic s tra tegy main priority secondary spaces

reef level plan

first floor plan

The main priority spaces are those which are to be sound proofed, such as the banking and wealth assessment areas (the tax evasion secrecy of each client is only shared between private bankers and the king - not anyone else, including other clients). Other sound-proofed areas are because they are noisy, such as the laundry room, plant room and engineering workshops.

The secondary spaces are those which are to be kept quiet, but not entirely sound proofed. These include sleeping areas and the prison cell (which cannot be entirely sound-proofed for security reasons). Clients in bedrooms should only hear the (reassuring) low hum of the air conditioning and oxygen system, not anyone in corridors outside.

wa ste recycling recycling areas surface access

reef level plan

first floor plan

Human waste feeds the microalgae as part of a closed loop oxygen production system. Algal biomass and some food waste feeds the fish and other farmed marine life that is in turn raised/ grown to feed humans. The recycling areas are large open plan spaces to allow for any unforeseen waste, and are located adjacent to diving bells for straightforward surface access.

Rubbish may include packaging (from deliveries) and any broken equipment (such as from the repair workshop). This waste that cannot be recycled is sent to the surface via diving bell and collected by the clientsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; private yachts (clients agree and sign for this as part of their inductive tax evasion process) and added to their vesselâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s waste system.

fire - general principles 120 minute rated 60 minute rated

reef level plan

first floor plan

Like terrestrial buildings, more fire protection is given to areas that are either in danger of fire or those that would be most disasterous if a fire were to occur there. Examples include the life support system, the server room, the bank vault, the plant room and the hydroelectric power conversion room. All airlocks are fire rated too to prevent fire affecting saturated air habitats.

The medium risk (60-minute rated) areas are all on the ground floor, and include areas such as store rooms, the kitchen, WCs and the life support engineer offices, as these are so crucial to controlling the seasteadâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s systems - including the manual mist suppression system and bulkhead control in the event that the automated system fails (or is sabotaged).

bulkheads (comp

ar tment a tio n)

bulkheads that close in a fire

reef level plan

first floor plan

Small fires can be controlled either by somebody with a fire extinguisher or mist suppression systems. As there isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t a fire brigade nearby (400km on the Cayman Islands), major fires must be dealt with by starving the fire of oxygen in the same way a submarine does: using a series of bulkheads that close to create fire compartments.

Once a major fire is detected, fire alarms ring so people know to evacuate into the nearest safe compartment (fire training is part of the induction). If for some reason a person cannot escape, oxygen masks drop down similar to how they do in an aeroplane. Once the bulkheads either side of a compartment are closed, oxygen is sucked out and the fire dies.

security high risk areas

secure routes into life support areas

medium risk areas

reef level plan

first floor plan

security & cctv office

The private security team are given a plan of high and medium risk areas when they start work. High risk areas include the bank vault, the prison cell and all points of access (air-locks and diving bells). Medium risk areas are areas where people or technology may be at risk from attacks, such as bedrooms, life support systems (which is out of bounds to all but engineers).

The security office is located on the first floor at the entrance where all potential clients, tax inspectors and any diplomats arrive, at the crossroads between the new and existing clients, government areas and scientistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; habitat. This along with the spiral stair down to the ground floor plan means private security are well placed to deal with any incidents in the seastead.

air s uppl y client submarine entrance

one atmosphere air air-lock saturated air

reef level plan

engineer entrance

first floor plan

scientist entrance

The entire reef level (ground floor) plan is a one atmosphere habitat achieved by the strength of the thick rigidised foam membranes allowing for an internal surface pressure environment so people do not need to go through decompression chambers or risk decompression sicknesses upon entry and exit.

The three saturated air habitats are for scientists, clients, and engineers; and are accessed via air-lock as a way of controlling pressure levels between the different habitats. Saturated air areas are pressurised to the same as the external ocean depth, which means hydrostatic pressure keeps water levels from rising up into the habitat through the moon pools.

ma ssing mod

el in co

ntext

I have modelled Misteriosa Bank reef from oceanographic surveys of The Caribbean Sea to understand the size of the structure (as described in the site analysis section - the reef flats alone are as large as Manhattan Island). The massing model sits on the south eastern edge, close to the source of ocean nutrients (south) and the Gulf Stream (east).

ocean a

ccess

3d visuals better demonstrate the relationship between the structure and its reef context. The seastead sits on the reef edge, with

one moon pool cantilevered over the reef wall (for scientific research access), another moon pool at the far east for engineers to access fish farms and hydroelectric turbines, and a third moon pool for tax evaders to use for reef exploration.

vis ualising corallite gr

owth

As the mineral accretion process attracts more investment as a result of tax evasion, the reef begins to grow up and over the structure, embedding and petrifying it in a limestone casing. Eventually all of the structure will be covered in biofoul (layers of marine plants and microscopic animal life) with the exception of the acrylic windows, as seen below:

da ys

mo nths

year s

d ec ad es

d evel o pment ima

ges

View looking west towards life support moon pool, used by hydroelectric turbine engineers and aquaculture fish farmers. In the distance, marine biologists research new species

Looking towards the leisure moon pool, where super rich tax evaders explore the reef on scuba scooters, scuba gear and personal submarines, in front of the main social spaces.

Wealthy tax evaders explore the structure on board personal scuba scooters, seeing the reef growing over the roof of the structure and the ecosystem this new artificial reef has created.

Looking from surface level down to the client bedrooms and government areas. The coral reef begins to grow up and over the structure, creating new niche marine habitats.

chapter ix: plans, sectio ns, d et ai ls

chapter s

ummary

This chapter illustrates the final seastead, showing how it sits on the site, its connection to the reef via in-situ reef piles, and how the reef will eventually grow over the structure after several decades. The surface connection drawings show the diving bell access, and the surface arrangement: with the private yachts, the sustainable fish farms and the clear divide between clients and research scientists.

The chapter also illustrates how the building works in isolation as several interconnected closed loop systems.

cl osed l o o p sys tem Rather than a single closed loop system, I have designed the habitat to be part of a series of interlocking closed loop systems that benefit each other. One of these is the natural marine life ecosystem, which gains from the mineral accreted reef and in turn provides tourism income and fish stocks.

ocean fo chains

gl oBal W arming resis t ant reef

od

mineral a ccre tio n sus t ain aBle fishing indus try

electricity ocean W a ste

ar tificial lig hting

coral g ard ening

hydr oelectric t urBines

fo od

human Wa st e

c arBo n d ioxid e

alg al Biocoi ls

ox ygen

mainten

tourism

Biofuel Bioma ss

t ax ev ad er s

ance

poWer l o o p

ÂŁ

The Gulf Stream powers hydroelectric turbines, creating electricity for the structure, mineral accretion and biocoils

fo od l o o p Algae creates biomass that feeds fish, which are then harvested for food for humans, whose waste feeds the algae

air l o o p

a Qua cul t ure (fish farming)

suBmarines

a Quan a uts

resear ch fund ing

Exhaled carbon dioxide form aquanauts feeds the algae, which supply oxygen to the habitat in return

mineral a

fo od

ccre tio n l o o p

co oKing

The mineral accretion creates a global warming resistant reef, bringing in tourists who help maintain the reef

marine life l

ÂŁ

oop

The natural closed loop system of marine life that occurs around coral reefs

t ax l o o p

air co nd itio ning (co oling & d ehumid ifying)

The fishing provides food for tax evaders, who supply the money for wages, maintenance costs and research

resear

ch l o o p

Fed from tax evasion revenue, scientists discover and research new species, which can be used medicinally

antiBio tics & med icines

Wa ges

scientific resear

ch

surfa ce co nnectio

ns

Clients arrive at the site in their luxury yachts. Some of these yachts have personal submarines which can access via the leisure areaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s moon pool, but new clients should use a type of personal transfer capsule so they enter through the security area on the south west side of the floor plan at first floor level. Instead of using a surface support system to sink a PTC down to the structure, I plan to do the opposite: using an inflated PTC system anchored to the structure, eliminating the need for surface support.

Two indicative short sections through the structure, showing its proximity to the surface and various surface connections.

Surface buoys show yachts where to drop anchor; inflated personal transfer capsules accessed by speedboat transport people underwater; and floating aquafarms contain the food (fish/lobsters) for the seastead.

scuBa / free d

iving

Scuba or free (breath holding) diving access for existing clients could be via the moon pool in the leisure area. The drawback is that clients are wet when they enter and exit the seastead through the moon pool, but this form of entry is the most common in submerged habitats.

d iving Bells Wet platform diving bells have been used to deliver supplies to submerged habitats in the past. They are designed to sink, and are simply lowered down from a support vessel with people/deliveries inside. The disadvantage is that people (and supplies) have to travel through water between the diving bell and the moon pool.

per so n al s uBmarines Most extreme-luxury yachts come with personal submarines for leisure dives. These would allow existing clients to use the leisure moon pool entrance, close to their overnight rooms and the main social space. The advantage of a submarine over diving is that clients would not come into direct contact with water upon entry/exit.

per so n al transfer c

aps ule

PTCs are lowered from a support vessel like a diving bell, but are completely enclosed, often acting as airlocks or decompression chambers, eliminating the need for one in the habitat itself (if short of space). As my habitat is not short of space, this clumsy access system is not appropriate.

surfa ce lifts A system proposed for a luxury one-atmosphere submerged hotel in Dubai (above), currently on hold because of costs.

The sheer forces from waves acting on these lifts would be enormous, with many engineers not believing the strength of this system in hurricane conditions. These would only be suitable in a sheltered marina with break-waters.

Bes poKe infla

ted sys

tem

An inflated system would be designed to float rather than sink, so would not rely on a surface support system. This would allow the access vessel to be reeled in during a storm, or just for secrecy. An inflatable system (inflated with air) offers natural buoyancy, much like surface buoys, so clients could easily see it on approach.

a ccess: pneuma

tic d iving Bell

As described in the previous page, a pneumatic diving bell does not have to rely on a surface support ship, and allows the bell to be sunk down in stormy weather. There are two diving bells for the habitat: one for new clients to arrive at the seastead and a second for deliveries at the opposite end of the structure. The 15m descent should take about a minute to complete.

The acrylic window at the top provides a view of the clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s yacht from below, but crucially not of the seastead - this is to celebrate the first views of the reef when entering inside

Outer membrane keeps the diving bell inhabitable in the event an air beam were to fail

Air beams provide buoyancy

Watertight zipped doorway composed of twin membranes to decrease chance of failure

Mooring posts for small boats Surface Level Air beams at the base are flooded with water to descend (below)

elev a tio n

The delivery diving bell is the same size but has no seat (to allow for more storage space) The pontoon is also composed of air beams for buoyancy

Seat for a prospective client and a private banker who greets them at the surface

Steel cable connects the base of the bell to the seastead below

sectio

n

3d

d escent seQ

uence

The pneumatic air beams that keep the diving bell afloat when it sits inside the surface pontoon are flooded with water, which (much like a submarine) allows the diving bell to descend due to the weight of the water. During ascent, water is pumped out and the air beams are filled with air again, from the seasteadâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s air supply.

3d sectio

n

Diving bell at surface level: a small inflatable boat carryin prospective clients apporaches the floating pontoon from the luxury yacht in the distance

Diving bell during descent: as the bell and prospective tax evader descend, the floating pontoon remains to allow small boats to moor

Internal space: the bell is small but has room for a few people plus small amounts of luggage

View looking up from the seastead: the anchored cable keeps the bell in place

1:1000 surfa ce plan North of the seastead, tax evaders’ luxury yachts are moored using non-destructive anchor drops that do not harm the reef flats. New clients access the seastead via the diving bell at the west whilst engineers and deliveries enter through the diving bell to the east. Existing clients may also enter the seastead via their private submarines, travelling past the marine life of the reef that is thriving thanks to their investment.

Above the reef wall to the south of the site, a scientific research ship floats above the marine biologists who use tax evaders’ investment to explore the reef, potentially discovering new species that can be utilised for scientific purposes (the reef is currently unexplored by science). To the east of the tax haven along the reef edge are semi-floating fish farms where the nutrients arrive. As well as ocean nutrients (such as phytoplankton) these fish are fed by the excess biomass produced by the microalgae used for oxygen production; and are then harvested to feed the tax evaders.

Tax Evaders’ Luxury Yachts

Floating Marker Buoys

Speedboat Access

Reef Flats Outline of Seastead Below

Semi-submersible Fish Farms Diving Bell (Deliveries)

Diving Bell (Main Entrance)

Reef Edge

Reef Wall Research Ship

1:200 reef level plan The reef level (ground floor) is where most of the seastead’s accommodation is located. The plan is based on a series of routes for new & existing clients, governance, staff and engineers; all weaving to optimise light and views of the reef habitat for the most important spaces along these routes.

New clients find themselves being led down into the heart of the plan. Once inducted, their first view of the reef is into the second internal courtyard and finally the more elaborate final space: the bar and casino area with panoramic reef views.

Existing client bedrooms and the bar & casino have the best views over the reef, as these are the most celebrated spaces.

The staff/support facilities are located at the rear of the plan next to the steep reef wall, and life support areas are located on the eastern edge for scuba diver access to the hydroelectric turbines and aquaculture floating fish farms.

Client Bedrooms 1 to 5

Socialising (Fixed) Casino

Private Bank

Wealth Assess.

Business Creation

Microalgae Biocoils

Up to Leisure Area

Cash for Gold

Engineers’ Room

(Mezzanine Above)

Cl.

Safe

Drinking

Dining

Plant Room

Diving Bell I.T & Servers

Seafood Buffet

Client WCs

Laundry

Life Support Office

Housekeeping Store

Diving Bell

Staff WCs

Staff Office

Staff Waiting Area

Kitchen

Service Area Repair Workshop

Deliveries & Storage Area (flexible)

Staff Showers & Lockers (M & F)

Waste Area

Staff Bedrooms & Shower Area

Waste Recycling

Hydroelectric Power Conversion

Staff Canteen Bar Store

Food Store Cold Room

Freezer Room

Up to engineers’ moon pool

1:200 fir st fl o or plan The first floor plan is home to the main entrance and security area which then divides into four routes: 1) new clients - who walk down into the heart of the ground floor plan for wealth assessment; 2) existing clients - who meet for a drink with the king (if he is available) and then down into their individual bedrooms; 3) the government/private banker area; and 4) the research scientists’ saturated air habitat.

Two further saturated air habitats are located on the first floor: one to provide an access point for existing clients with personal submarines - essentially a shortcut to their bedrooms and the bar area; and a second for marine engineers and sustainable fish farmers to tend to the hydroelectric turbines and aquaculture (fish farms) respectively.

Leisure Area: Storage, WCs & Showers

The mezzanine level above the bar and casino area offers panoramic views over the reef to celebrate the success of the reef’s transformation, and for the king to demonstrate to political and environmental groups that the funding from tax evasion is being put to good use creating a global warming resistant coral reef teeming with marine life.

Air Lock

Mezzanine Panoramic Reef Gallery

King’s Office Meeting Room

Security Point

Diving Bell

Down to Wealth Assessment

Private Banker Room 1

Private Banker Room 2

Hot Tub

Diving Bell

King’s Throne

Down to Client Rooms

Master (Royal) Bedroom

Drinking Area

Mezzanine Level above Casino Engineers’ Area for access to fish farms & turbines

Office Down to Life Support Cell

Security Storage

Security & CCTV Office

Air Lock

Kitchen & Dining Air Lock

Deliveries

Sleeping

Communication Hub

Air Tanks Marine Biology Lab.

Wet Room Diving Store

1:20 d et ai l sectio

11

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

n - da y o ne

1

Calcified Steel Mesh Low voltage current from hydroelectric turbines power the mineral accretion process that attracts coral polyps, reinforces their corallite skeletons and creates more favourable alkaline sea conditions immediately around the reef.

2

3x 20mm Butyl Marine Rubber Vulcanised (molecular level rubber adhesive) for increased water resistance around weak areas (seams)

3

Twill Woven Vectran Drop-Stitched Membrane Vectran, the strongest mass-produced Aramid fibre provides the tensile strength to allow maximum inflation pressure. Twill weave is the most durable weave (increasing strength).

Drop stitching increases tensile strength, allowing increased inflation pressure.

4

Rigidised Foam As used in pneumatic fenders and ship launching airbags. Inflating with rigidising foam creates a much stronger structure than inflation with air, as the pneumatic petrification process combines the geometric strength of an inflated membrane with the material strength of hard foam.

5

40mm Service Void For lighting cables, light fittings (LED - user controlled colour adjustable mood lighting)

6

20mm Melamine Acoustic Foam with Hypalon Coating Dampens noise of life support systems and creates a soft spongy texture underfoot. The Hypalon (synthetic rubber) coating increases light reflectivity. The floor finish continues up to glazing level and (where no window) up in to the ceiling. It can be easily cut flush to allow for services such as light fittings so can adapt to future technologies.

7

2x 150mm Acrylic Glazing with 200mm void Bolted to galvanised steel plates. Allowing a safety factor of 3 - after consultation with a marine engineer, 100mm acrylic would suffice but a safety factor of one would not be appropriate for a prototype construction such as this. Unlike glazing and polycarbonate, acrylic isn’t brittle so allows for small amounts of movement in rough sea conditions.

8

Air Supply From microalgae biocoils. Biofuel powered air conditioning dehumidifies spaces and keeps them at a constant 21°c.

9

Service Void To keep the foam floors soft and walkable, services runs are kept in the wall curvature.

10 150mm (diameter) Pile Caps Pile Caps extrude approx. 500mm from the limestone reef to allow for the reef’s irregular surface, and allow divers underneath to screw piles to the galvanised steel female fixings of the seastead as it is lowered in place.

11 Pneumatic Lip Doors Polyurethane doors for air-tightness coated in PVC. Compressed air tank above for inflation/ deflation. Air tank recycles the same air so does not rely on the habitat’s life support air tanks.

12 Dead Coral Reef The reef flats of Misteriosa Bank are composed of mainly dead coral due to The Caribbean Sea waters warming in the last few decades. This causes coral bleaching, where the coral’s endosymbiotic zooxanthellae algae leave for cooler waters exposing corallite skeletons; which are made more fragile due to increasing ocean acidification. The mineral accretion process, funded by tax evasion, will restore this reef (see next page).

10

8

9

12

1:20 d et ai l sectio

n - after 50 year

s

After fifty years the mineral accretion process will have helped coral polyps accumulate and thrive on the seasteadâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface. The limestone reef grows in the voids underneath the structure, up the sides to the cill level, and over the roof, leaving only the windows exposed.

5 1

Tax Evader The tax avoidance from extremely wealthy individuals and corporations using disguised businesses at the tax haven fund the mineral accretion process (along with hydroelectric turbines, microalgae oxygen production, scientific research etc) that help restore the coral reef and make it global warming resistant (to ocean temperatures and acidification).

2

Chelonia mydas Green Sea Turtles and many other turtles use coral reefs in The Caribbean Sea for feeding, grazing, and as way-finding devices, particularly in open oceans. The revitalised reef on Misteriosa Bank will create a new pit stop for numerous migratory open ocean species.

3

Pterois volitans Lionfish prey on small fish and invertebrates around the seaward edge of reefs. They have a hostile attitude towards other reef fish as well as research divers and tax evaders.

4

Chaetodontidae Butterflyfish pair for life and live in small territories on the reef, so are vulnerable to localised destruction of reef habitat. The seastead provides a sanctuary for the species.

5

Acanthurus sohal The sohal tang is extremely maneuverable and fast along to evade predators such as white tip reef sharks. They primarily feed on vegetable matter and soft polyp stony corals, keeping the coral growth healthy but under control.

6

Pomacanthidae Marine angelfish hide amongst the nooks and crannies of the reef and are a favourite species of many reef divers, so will be memorable for the tax evaders diving in their leisure time.

2 3 2 6

1

4

1:100 sectio

n aa - thr

oug h Bedr o oms

A

1F Plan

This section is taken through (from left to right) the client bedrooms, wealth assessment, staff areas, government areas, staff bedrooms and marine biology area above. On day one, the seastead structure sits above the dead reef (bleached coral); with the only marine life existing on the reef edge underneath the research scientistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; moon pool.

0F Plan

A

1:100 sectio

n aa - after 50 year

s

A

1F Plan

After fifty years the mineral accretion process has helped accumulate enough corallite skeleton that the reef matures and grows over the structure, exposing only the acrylic glazing elements of the seastead. Tax evaders and their private bankers enjoy exploring the reef flats (left side) on personal scuba-scooters and research scientists discover new species above the reef wall (on the right) where marine life from the open ocean arrives to utilise the reefâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resources.

0F Plan

A

1:100 sectio

n BB - thr

oug h t ax ha ven

B

1F Plan

From left to right: two walkways lead between the staff and life support areas at various levels, the mezzanine level for government officials, the double height void for corallite growth, the bar & casino, and the saturated air habitat for submarine access. The structure is lowered onto insitu pile foundations that protrude above the dead coral reef.

0F Plan

B

1:100 sectio

n BB - after 50 year

s

B

1F Plan

After fifty years the corallite skeleton grows through the hourglass shaped void in the structure, so the weight of the limestone reef is supported by itself as well as the tough (as medium strength concrete) ridigised foam that is used to inflate the dropstitched vectran membrane. On the right, tax evaders enjoy exploring the reef in personal submarines, overlooked by the ground floor bar glazing as well as the mezzanine level above the casino.

0F Plan

B

chapter x: co ns tr uctio n s tra tegy

chapter s

ummary

As identified in previous chapters, the seastead is entirely prefabricated, transported using a semi-submersible transport ship and lowered down onto site using a catamaran style offshore barge crane with tug boat assistance. The chapter also identifies the world media coverage that the transportation and installation of a new era of world politics will bring, as other investors may look to set up their own seasteads to restore dead/dying coral reefs in other locations worldwide.

co ns tr uctio

n s tra tegies

To summarise, semi-submersible ships are not appropriate because the seastead has no means of propulsion. Cofferdams, even if prefabricated, are not appropriate in the unsheltered waters around my site. Offshore barge cranes however would be the appropriate transportation method because they are often used for grounded ships or oil rigs with no propulsion.

semi - s uBmer siBle trans

por t ships

Transporter ships expel air or intake water to sink, and expel water to float, much like a submarine does. Submersible section length = 230m, total tonnage = 30,000. These statistics are ideal for my seastead (currently 210m). These can be utilised to transport my structure to site, but offshore barge cranes would also need to be transported alongside as the seastead has no means of propulsion (unlike a submarine).

offshore Barge cranes These are either ships or static barges with cranes attached for offshore lifting. Catamarans are used in heavier lifts (such as oil rig components or grounded ships) for extra stability. These can either transport the seastead themselves, or rely on a second platform ship or barge that is towed alongside.

cofferdam me

Offshore piling rigs create pile walls in-situ, anchored into to the reef bed

Reinforcement added to stabilise the piles from shear wave forces, and water slowly pumped out

Once the reef bed is exposed, all existing reef life is killed(!) Piles are driven into the reef

trans

Seastead is prefabricated, inflated with rigidising foam and lifted onto barge crane

cofferdams

thod

Seastead is lowered down by barge crane and anchored in-situ in safe, dry conditions

por t ship + Barge crane me

Barge crane travels to site with seastead onboard. Piles are laid in the reef in-situ ready for the seastead.

Cofferdams are used in offshore construction, such as bridges or dams. They work by creating reinforced sheet piling walls around an area of water, which is then pumped out to leave a dry area surrounded by water so that construction can take place in the dry void inside. They can be built in-situ (below, left) or prefabricated and floated in (below, right). In open water with ocean waves however they would be extremely impractical due to wave forces.

Water is slowly allowed back in through holes in the pile walls once the seastead is anchored in place

thod

Crane lowers seastead down on to the reef, slowly manouevered onto the pile anchors, aided by divers

Once the seastead is anchored in place, the barge moves on and replaced with various yachts

Once water pressures are identical, pile walls are removed and the seastead becomes operational

trans

The structure was designed to fit on the submersible section of a semi submersible transport ship (typically 50m by 230m).

These three diagrams show the ship taking in water and lowering into the sea so the structure can be tested for leaks. On arrival at site, the structure is lowered on to insitu piles by offshore barge cranes.

por t a tio n to site: med

ia covera

ge

Below: a convoy of world media and anti-tax enthusiasts follow in their yachts (more on the next page). The journey is tracked from news helicopters as well as suspicious Governments, who are intimidated by the prospect of their wealthiest individuals and corporations jumping ship on to this new tax haven.

The transport ship becomes home to media coverage, who are keen to document the story of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s newest nation as it journeys from ship building yards across the Caribbean Sea towards Misteriosa Bank. Political correspondents on the deck are joined by various maritime lawyers, engineers and members of The Seasteading Institute.

trans

por t a tio n to site

The seastead is followed by the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s media who bring 24/7 coverage of the journey towards a new world politics. Luxury yachts of wealthy individuals also follow the convoy, actively showing their support for lower taxes. A U.S. warship follows as an intimidation tactic but eventually is forced to leave due to mass left wing political pressure. Tug boats at the front help position the semi-submersible ship above the site.

offshore faBric

a tio n

Once the semi-submersible transport ship arrives at the site it is welcomed by an offshore barge crane. This catamaran typology is used because it offers the most stability in sea water, and its double hull adds extra strength that the cranes need to be able to support the weight of the seastead. As the transport ship submerges the weight of the seastead is partially absorbed by the water so loads on the cranes are immediately reduced.

offshore Barge crane A catamaran offshore barge crane is the most stable typology in sea conditions, and it allows a transport ship underneath

offshore Barge crane The transport ship and its tug boats leave the site, with the seastead suspended from the barge cranes

semi - s uBmer siBle ship arrives The transport ship is guided underneath the cranes with help from tug boats, and the seastead attached to the cranes

sea stead l

oWered into sea

The cranes slowly lower the seastead underwater, which is guided in the x and y axis by tug boats

trans

por t ship s uBmerges

As the semi-submersible transport ship sinks, the barge crane takes the weight of the seastead

sea stead in pla

ce

Once the seastead is anchored in place by divers, the tug boats and catamaran barge cranes may leave

offshore faBric

a tio n

The offshore barge crane is anchored to Misteriosa Bank to ensure the seastead is lowered down precisely over the insitu pile caps that have been constructed in the limestone reef. The exact site location would be determined by analysing current flow and the existing reef conditions. Top: barge crane awaits seastead transportation. Bottom: transport ship and its fleet of tug boats and potentially armed escorts arrive at the site and the seastead is tied to the cranes for lowering.

chapter xi: physic al mod

chapter s

els

ummary

Using a variety of laser cut perspex, layered timber, modelling foam and 3D printing, the seastead is represented at a variety of scales; including some final form development models that illustrate the final few design development stages. The models are also shown to an extent in the context of a small portion of the Misteriosa Bank reef, demonstrating how the seastead is perched on and slightly cantilevered over the edge of the reef to allow research scientists down into the unexplored abyss below the site.

mod el experiments Using Grasshopper3d software, I generated a series of planar surfaces that intersected my working digital massing model.

These planar surfaces were each moved along by 3mm to correspond with the thickness of the MDF I would be laser cutting onto. Before cutting commenced I extruded these surfaces by the same distance to visualise the model and so I could remove the unusual geometry caused by the curvature - such as the small tips to the bedroom pod sections.

origin

al ma ssing mod

el

Nesting numbered elements on a single sheet saves material and makes construction more straighforward

plan ar inter

sectio

ns

Using my digital model, the sections are arranged in order and measured at the correct distance apart

sectio

ns extr

ud ed

These numbered sections are then glued together in order, using 38 layers in total

mod el experiments This laser cut model is at 1:500 scale, and although this method isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t ideal for representing the form (unlike a 3d print - see next page) the series of planar surfaces do demonstrate the main areas of the seastead. The thinner the material thickness, the more curvy the model becomes, but 3d printing is better still as it makes curvilinear forms into a physical model.

reef site mod

el

I used layers of foam-board sanded to the contours of Misteriosa Bank reef to achieve the form of the reef, and then used a rough textured spray paint to achieve the aggregate-like dead coral finish to the section below my site. This model represents the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;as placedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; seastead, before the corallite limestone reef has grown over its surface.

mod el experiments 3D Printing is the most accurate way of physically modelling my building because it uses the same digital model as the one I use for all my other drawings. For these experiments I created 3 models: one showing the perimeter circulation routes around the building, one showing the volumes of key areas (clients, scientists etc) and finally a hybrid of the two.

sls 3d printing These experiments were modelled at 1:1000 scale and due to this material thinness (3.8mm) they are extremely fragile, with most small pieces such as bedroom pods and moon pool sections crumbling away and having to be glued on separately afterwards.

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) printing produces accurate forms but cannot work at such small scales.

fin al d evel o pments These models represent the final few stages of form development for the seastead, showing its evolution from having numerous moon pool ocean access points to fewer shared facilities for the fish farmers and hydroelectric turbine engineers, and therefore freeing up space for larger life support facilities at the base of the plan.

per spex mod els 3D printing experiments were limited to a 1:1000 scale because of the size of the print bed, but this meant they were too fragile

to be transported. Therefore I produced alternative models at the same scale laser cut out of white perspex that were much more robust, based on outlines of my final floor plans. The 3 models below demonstrate the two floor plans.

site mod

el

The semi-circular chamfered edge around the perimeter of the seastead is not possible to be laser cut (cuts have to be vertical) but at this small scale the model can be used tor massing representation on my small section of Misteriosa bank reef I have produced out of painted, rough textured modelling foam.

chapter xii: fin al vis uals

chapter s

ummary

Internal visuals demonstrate the calming, minimal treatment of the interiors, using soft acoustic foam to sooth any concerns clients may have over the structure. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Before and afterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; style external visuals are the best way of seeing how the reef grows around and over the seastead after several decades, as the reef transforms from a desolate underwater wasteland to a thriving hive of marine life; benefitting ocean food chains in the entire Caribbean Sea and attracting open ocean animals to the revitalised ecosystem.

sea stead in co

ntext - Before

This â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;beforeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; visual shows the seastead at the edge of the reef looking down past the main post-tax evasion leisure area (bar & casino). Currently the reef is home to little life other than research scientists (in submarines).

sea stead in co

ntext - after

This â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;afterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; visual is taken from an identical position, showing how the reef has grown over the seastead as a result of the tax evasion-funded mineral accretion process, and the hive of marine life the reef brings with it, including migrating open ocean animals. Tax evaders in the main social space drink champagne whilst looking out over the reef.

typic al client Bedr

o om

The bedrooms are designed with panoramic views of the reef north and east, offering privacy from the adjacent bedrooms and/ or circulation spaces to the east. Clients fall asleep and wake up to views of the reef they are helping rebuild with their evaded tax, and all furniture is constructed using the same principles as the seasteadâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architecture.

0F Plan

meZZanine reef g

allery

Looking down to the casino and seafood buffet from the mezzanine level. The individuals play an arranged poker game to ensure they can withdraw funds abroad (offshore casino earnings are not taxed on their way back into the United States). The mezzanine level is the best place to view the transformation of the reef as more and more funds are deposited, creating income for further coral reef rebuilding and restoration by the marine biologists.

1F Plan

reef vieWing g

allery - Before

This â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;beforeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; visual shows the seastead looking west past the casino mezzanine level to the access diving bell (left) and boat. At first only a few boats moor with reef-friendly anchors but as the seastead attracts more investment the surface becomes more busy with private yachts, speedboats and personal submarines.

reef vieWing g

allery - after

This â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;afterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; visual is taken from the same angle, showing the access diving bell now at surface level, and private yachts. Internally the reef environment is best seen from mezzanine level because it is closer to the surface so receives more light and has wider, more panoramic views. Externally tax evaders explore the reef on personal scuba scooters, or personal submarines if they want to keep dry and drink champagne whilst doing so.

mee ting r

o om

The throne room is the open office of the seasteadâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s governing body: the king (a constitutional monarchy is the smallest means of governance so is suited for this new micro-nation). Meetings take place between the king (Patri Friedman, Grandson of left wing economist Milton Friedman and founder of The Seasteading Institute), the private bankers and foreign diplomats, namely those from the UN who arrive to approve the seasteadâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s political freedom from any other nation.

1F Plan

sus t ain aBle seafo

od d inner

The table is located in the main space under the mezzanine for privacy and good views of the reef. All seafood is grown sustainably by the seasteadâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fish farmers in nearby floating aqua-pods, ensuring all seafood tax evaders eat is fresh (wine and champagne are imported). The small table encourages conversation between the private bankers and their clients, creating a life long relationship between like-minded individuals. Every tax evader has a view of the reef, the main dinner conversation topic.

0F Plan

sea stead in co

ntext

This ‘before’ visual shows the seastead at the edge of the reef looking down from approximately midway between the reef and surface level. Currently the reef is home to little life other than research scientists (in submarines) but the following page shows the final ‘after’ visual from the same position, showing the reef growing over the seastead as a result of the tax evasion-funded mineral accretion process, and the benefit this has for the biodiversity of the entire marine ecosystem.