2018 Fall Analyst

the Analyst The Voice of the Water Treatment Industry

Volume 25 Number 4

1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14 • Rockville, MD 20850

Fall 2018

It’s Not Me, It’s You: System Failures Unrelated to Water Chemistry Considerations in Applying Supplemental Monochloramine Disinfection for Legionella Remediation in Premise Plumbing Systems Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal Volume 25 Number 4 Fall 2018

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Fall 2018

Volume 25

Number 3

10 It’s Not Me, It’s You: System Failures Unrelated to Water Chemistry

Patrick D. Guccione, Chem-Aqua, Inc., and Adam Green, Baker, Donelson, Bearman, Caldwell & Berkowitz, PC Identifying the true cause(s) of building water system failures is critical to prevention, mitigation, and, where applicable, legal defense. Any system failure is generally the result of several often complex variables. Because of the specialized nature of the technical knowledge required to provide successful chemical water treatment, water treaters have become an easy scapegoat for a wide variety of system failure claims. However, the origin of these problems is frequently either unrelated to water chemistry, or water chemistry is just one of several variables contributing to cause the failure.

18 Considerations in Applying Supplemental Monochloramine Disinfection for Legionella Remediation in Premise Plumbing Systems

Nicola Doniselli, Ph.D., and Alberto Comazzi, Ph.D., Sanipur Increasingly, more healthcare facilities are applying supplemental disinfection to maintain a consistent disinfectant residual throughout the building water system. This choice helps to avoid putting patients at risk by minimizing Healthcare Acquired Infections (HAI) from Legionella and other waterborne pathogens. Water temperature plays a key role in Legionella colonization. Therefore, the decision on where to apply a supplemental disinfectant, whether on the main cold line of a building or on the domestic hot water loop, becomes of primary importance in the Legionella control process. There is not a universal answer for this particular topic, and several factors must be taken into account during the project evaluation. The factors to be considered fall into three general categories: Chemistry, Microbiology, and Economics.

28 Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal

Peter E. Greenlimb, Ph.D., CWT, Chemagineering Corporation and AWT Special Projects Technical Subcommittee Smaller industrial and commercial closed-loop recirculating water systems often experience more than their fair share of water-related problems, such as corrosion, scale and deposition, fouling, and microbiological growth. Because of their smaller capacities (generally 1,000 gallons or less), they command fewer sales incentives and are more likely to be overlooked for treatment and frequent sampling and testing.

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4

Calendar of Events

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President’s Message

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Message From the President-Elect

48 Industry Notes 52 Association News 54 Membership Benefits 56 T.U.T.O.R. 58 Ask the Experts 60 Capital Eyes 63 Financial Matters 66 Business Notes 68 CWT Spotlight 70 Advertising Index

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14 Rockville, MD 20850 (301) 740-1421 • (301) 990-9771 (fax) www.awt.org

2018–2019 AWT Board of Directors President

David Wagenfuhr, LEED OPM

President-Elect

Secretary

Michael Bourgeois, CWT

Treasurer

2019 Technical Training West

East

March 27–30, 2019 Hotel Annapolis Annapolis, Maryland

2019 Annual Convention and Exposition

Matt Jensen, CWT

Immediate Past President

September 11–14, 2019 Palm Springs Convention Center and Renaissance Hotel Palm Springs, California

Marc Vermeulen, CWT

Directors

Steven Hallier, CWT Stephanie Keck, CWT Andy Kruck, CWT Bonnee Randall

2020 Annual Convention and Exposition

Ex-Officio Supplier Representative

Garrett S. Garcia

Past Presidents

Association Events February 27–March 2, 2019 DoubleTree San Diego–Mission Valley San Diego, California

Thomas Branvold, CWT

Jack Altschuler John Baum, CWT R. Trace Blackmore, CWT, LEED AP D.C. “Chuck” Brandvold, CWT Brent W. Chettle, CWT Dennis Clayton Bernadette Combs, CWT, LEED AP Matt Copthorne, CWT James R. Datesh John E. Davies, CWT Jay Farmerie, CWT Gary Glenna Charles D. Hamrick Jr., CWT Joseph M. Hannigan Jr., CWT

Calendar of Events

Mark R. Juhl Brian Jutzi, CWT Bruce T. Ketrick Jr., CWT Bruce T. Ketrick Sr., CWT Ron Knestaut Robert D. Lee, CWT Mark T. Lewis, CWT Steven MacCarthy, CWT Anthony J. McNamara, CWT James Mulloy Alfred Nickels Scott W. Olson, CWT William E. Pearson II, CWT William C. Smith Marc Vermeulen, CWT Casey Walton, B.Ch.E, CWT Larry A. Webb

Staff

Executive Director

September 30–October 3, 2020 Louisville Convention Center and Omni Hotel Louisville, Kentucky

2021 Annual Convention and Exposition

September 22–25, 2021 Providence Convention Center and Omni Hotel Providence, Rhode Island

2022 Annual Convention and Exposition September 21–24, 2022 Vancouver Convention Centre Vancouver, Canada

2023 Annual Convention and Exposition

October 4–7, 2023 Grand Rapids Convention Center and Amway Grand Hotel Grand Rapids, Michigan

Senior Member Services Manager

Also, please note that the following AWT committees meet on a monthly basis. All times shown are Eastern Time. To become active in one of these committees, please contact us at (301) 740-1421.

Vice President, Meetings

Second Tuesday of each month, 11:00 am – Legislative/Regulatory Committee

Heidi J. Zimmerman, CAE

Deputy Executive Director

Sara L. Wood, MBA, CAE Angela Pike

Grace L. Jan, CMP, CAE

Meetings Manager

Morgan Prior

Second Tuesday of each month, 2:30 pm – Convention Committee

Exhibits and Sponsorship Manager

Second Wednesday of each month, 11:00 am – Business Resources Committee

Exhibits and Sponsorship Associate Manager

Second Friday of each month, 9:00 am – Pretreatment Subcommittee

Barbara Bienkowski, CMP Brandon Lawrence

Marketing Director

Julie Hill

Website Manager

Jeyin Lee

Marketing Coordinator

Second Friday of each month, 10:00 am – Special Projects Subcommittee Second Friday of each month, 11:00 am – Cooling Subcommittee

Tawana Jacobs

Production Manager

Jennifer Olivares

Third Monday of each month, 9:00 am – Certification Committee

Technical Writer/Copy Editor Lynne Agoston

Accountant

Dawn Rosenfeld

The Analyst Staff Publisher

Heidi J. Zimmerman, CAE

Third Monday of each month, 3:30 pm – Young Professionals Task Force Third Tuesday of each month, 3:00 pm – Education Committee Third Friday of each month, 9:00 am – Boiler Subcommittee

Managing Editor

Lynne Agoston

Production Manager

Jennifer Olivares

Advertising Sales

Heather Prichard, advertising@awt.org

The Analyst is published quarterly as the official publication of the Association of Water Technologies. Copyright 2018 by the Association of Water Technologies. Materials may not be reproduced without written permission.

Contents of the articles are the sole opinions of the author and do not necessarily express the policies and opinions of the publisher, editor or AWT. Authors are responsible for ensuring that the articles are properly released for classification and proprietary information. All advertising will be subject to publisher’s approval, and advertisers will agree to indemnify and relieve publisher of loss or claims resulting from advertising contents. Editorial material in the Analyst may be reproduced in whole or part with prior written permission. Request permission by writing to: Editor, the Analyst, 1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14, Rockville, MD 20850, USA. Annual subscription rate is $100 per year in the U.S. (4 issues). Please add $25 for Canada and Mexico.

International subscriptions are $200 in U.S. funds.

Third Friday of each month, 10:00 am – Technical Committee Quarterly (call for meeting dates), 11:00 am – Wastewater Subcommittee

Other Industry Events

ASHRAE, Winter Meeting, January 12–16, 2019, Atlanta, Georgia BOMA, Winter Business Meeting, January 18–21, 2019, Miami, Florida CTI, Annual Conference, February 5–9, 2019, New Orleans, Louisiana

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the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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President’s Message

By David Wagenfuhr

ASHE, PDC Summit, March 17–20, 2019, Phoenix, Arizona NACE, Corrosion Conference & Expo, March 24–28, 2019, Nashville, Tennessee ACS, Spring National Meeting & Expo, March 31–April 4, 2019, Orlando, Florida

up your profile. There have been a lot of great discussions on the Exchange already. I encourage you to join the conversation.

Outcome 4: Charity

It is exciting to start my presidential year coming off of the highly successful Annual Convention in Orlando. Thank you to all who participated and made it such a positive meeting!

Thank you to everyone who donated to Pure Water for the World (PWW) during the AWT Annual Convention. AWT members raised over $10,000.

Donating is not the only way to get involved; you can also sign up for a service trip. PWW has multiple trips scheduled for 2019. It’s a great way to support our industry, share your expertise, and give back, all at the same time.

Outcome 1: Technical Resources

They’re here! AWT has started rolling out the “Introduction to Water Treatment” online training modules. This is a very exciting development. The modules will quickly give new and younger employees the basics of water treatment. I’ve started using this with my employees and encourage you to do the same. You can view the modules on the AWT website.

Get Involved!

AWT volunteers give selflessly of their time and talents to help further our industry; they provide invaluable contributions that truly make the difference.

AWT volunteers subscribe to the idea that everyone is capable of inciting change and making progress. In some way, large or small, we are all capable of doing good. A quote from Margaret Mead says “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it’s the only thing that ever has.”

Outcome 2: Business Resources

Attention business owners—have you marked your calendar for the 2019 Business Owners Meeting? I hope to see you in New Orleans, February 21–22, for this exclusive event, which has been expanded to be its own 1½-day stand-alone conference. This is your time to focus on the business of running a business. This meeting not only features informative speakers and panel discussions, but it also provides time for attendees to break out into smaller groups to discuss topics that are important to you. Most importantly, the meeting will have lots of time built in for you to ask questions, share ideas, and brainstorm with your peers—other owners of water treatment companies. Sign up today at https://www.awt.org/businessmeeting19.

Being a volunteer does make a difference. By lending your time to a task force, committee, or project, you can further the water treatment industry. Even the smallest gesture counts! In the words of Sir Winston Churchill, “We make a living by what we get. We make a life by what we give.”

My goal as AWT president will be to continue building our team of very dedicated volunteers to help accomplish our mission. I invite all of you to help me attain that goal, and who knows—maybe at a future convention, it could be you being recognized and celebrated from the podium for your contributions to the

Outcome 3: Advocacy

You’re using the new Exchange, right? The Exchange is our new online community where you can ask questions of others in AWT, view material in the library, and set

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the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Message From the President-Elect

By Tom Brandvold, CWT

The hotel is just minutes away from the Palm Springs Aerial Tramway, Palm Springs Art Museum, and boutique shops along the city's main thoroughfare.

industry! Thank you.

As always, I welcome your feedback and can be reached at president@awt.org.

Educational Program/Annual Meeting

We’re currently accepting abstracts for the 2019 Annual Convention. If you have a presentation that you think would be of interest to the membership, submit an abstract to be part of the program. Our keynote speaker has been booked and will deliver an unforgettable, magical message that will leave us shaking our heads.

Planning is already underway for the 2019 Annual Convention & Exposition, which will take place September 11–14, in Palm Springs, California.

The Location

Mark your calendars now for the 2019 Annual Convention & Exposition!

AWT will be back at the Convention Center and Renaissance Hotel in Palm Springs where you’ll find the ultimate desert playground for outdoor adventure, arts, culture, gaming, and entertainment.

As we plan and prepare for Palm Springs, I welcome your input and feedback. I can be reached at carmac@ premierwater.com. Thank you for being part of the AWT family, and I look forward to serving you!

The city of Palm Springs has a village atmosphere that has been preserved and embellished over the years. The palm-lined streets invite you to explore boutique shops, art galleries, restaurants, and museums, all while soaking up the sunshine and being surrounded by stunning desert scenery.

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the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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It’s Not Me, It’s You: System Failures Unrelated to Water Chemistry Patrick D. Guccione, Chem-Aqua, Inc., and Adam Green, Baker, Donelson, Bearman, Caldwell & Berkowitz, PC

Introduction

Examination of the events giving rise to system failures is inherently complex and can involve highly technical analyses involving disciplines of engineering, metallurgy, and chemistry. There are frequently a myriad of contributing factors to any given failure that may occur over long periods of time. In fact, certain critical events in the life of the system can occur years prior to failure.

As system failures devolve into claims and litigation, the need to properly diagnose the true root cause of system failure is critical for numerous reasons. First, the damages involved in these incidents can be significant and grossly disproportionate to the amount of money earned for work related to the system, especially in the case of the chemical water treater. Next, those seeking recovery are typically unconcerned with the true cause of their damages and will often implicate anyone involved in the design, construction, installation, commissioning, treatment, and maintenance of the system regardless of their true culpability. In so doing, claimants frequently imply that the mere fact of a system-related failure necessarily means that those involved with the system were somehow the cause. Consequently, they will scour the record for any imperfections in the duties performed by any craft involved with the system. They then employ results-oriented logic and assert that the shortcomings identified were the actual cause of the failure.

Despite their limited access to the system, limited scope of work, and limited pay, chemical water treaters have become favored targets in these scenarios. A system failure occurring during a water treater's term of service is often enough to result in the water treater being implicated. This publication examines common causes of system failure unrelated to water treatment, including (1) operational issues, (2) design issues, and (3) lack of legacy knowledge with respect to the system operation and maintenance practices.

It is the intent of the authors that understanding these possible causes will aid in identifying the root cause of the occurrence.

Failures Incident to Operational Issues

Systems may fail for reasons unrelated to their design, construction, or treatment and entirely due to the manner of their operation. This section addresses

common operational pitfalls, including (1) improper commissioning, (2) inadequate cycling of the system, and (3) overfiring or underfiring.

Improper Commissioning The need to properly and in a timely manner commission and passivate a building water system is critical to preserve the life of the system. Specifically, the exposed metal surface should be chemically "passivated" to ensure that the piping system metals have some reserve corrosion resistance to carry the protection forward. In the absence of proper corrosion and microbial control during this period, the addition of water jumpstarts the microbial proliferation and the ensuing corrosion acceleration, which advances uninhibited.

Despite the universal recognition of the need for proper passivation, the failure to do so at initial startup or following a seasonal layup remains a prominent cause of system failures. Case studies reflect that this step is often overlooked or deprioritized as a mere line item maintenance task. Consequently, systems are often "dead on arrival," as untreated water is allowed to come into contact with the inner pipe surface for extended periods.

As a result, precipitated corrosion products (such as iron oxide) and microbiological depositions (such as iron and sulfate reducing bacteria, which imbed themselves into iron deposits) may form on the inner wall of the pipe surface.

Depending on the nature and extent of this underdeposit corrosion, subsequent chemical treatment may no longer be able to directly bathe the inner wall of the pipe but instead is in contact with the hardened corrosive layer.

The result is a frequently irreversible corrosive process occurring beneath an impenetrable layer of hardened corrosive deposits that continue to feed on the pipe wall.

Evidence of this corrosive process is often concealed from the bulk waters to which the treater has access for testing and treatment.

Case Study #1 A 20-story commercial building in a seasonal climate was equipped with a hydronic system that could be used for heating or cooling. The configuration included an open cooling tower system with a closed condenser loop and a hot water loop. These separate loops would mix at all times between valve exercise and mode operation.

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the Analyst Volume 24 Number 4

It’s Not Me, It’s You: System Failures Unrelated to Water Chemistry continued

Accordingly, at any given time, the water chemistry would be shared among the systems.

During the warmer summer months, the hot water loop would be "laid up" for at least 120 days. As opposed to draining, drying, and cleaning the surface before startup in the fall, the building maintenance crew would leave the hot water loop partially filled and isolated.

Ultimately, the system and its attendant equipment failed. The owner and property manager blamed the monthly water treater, citing elevated bacterial levels in the water as the purported root cause of failure. It was discovered in litigation that because the hot water system was not completely drained and dried, microbiological colonies flourished during the stagnant period. This water contaminated the rest of the system.

Despite the fact that the property manager had full access to the premises 365 days a year, the monthly water treater was promptly blamed for the failure to drain and repassivate. This was the case, although the equipment manufacturer's written standards advised that "proper cleaning and surface preparation must be completed prior to system startup." Notably, the water treater's contract specifically provided that the "owner will not be liable for any charges other than those described and expressly authorized." The authorized acts were limited to a single monthly service visit for the express purpose of treatment of the systems and water analysis. For that task, the treater was paid a gross sum of $300 per month.

The agreement was silent regarding any shutdowns, cleaning, flushing, or passivation.

Nonetheless, the owner opted not to turn to its property manager that was charging in excess of $20,000 per year. Instead, it opted to target the $300 per month water treater whose contract limited it to a single monthly visit that lasted no more than an hour each month, with the chief task of water analysis. When asked where these duties appeared within its contract, the owner stated, "We hired you guys to take care of the system. You're the experts."

It was successfully argued that the task of repassivation was beyond the scope of the limited duties to be completed during the once per month visit of the water treater. Further evidence revealed that the hot water

12

loop could not be independently shut down, cleaned, and drained, and the chemical treater did not have the autonomy or discretion to do so.

Inadequate or Improper Cycling of the System One of the more common root causes of failure is the improper operation of the equipment itself. It is well accepted that water treatment chemicals can only provide protection in a dynamic system when water is flowing at proper velocities. There is no chemical treatment for hydraulic or thermal stresses that can arise out of improper system cycling. Likewise, is well known that corrosion inhibition protocols for stagnant systems are completely different from those of active systems.

Case Study #2 A major internet retailer built a new data center in a desirable East Coast location. Maintaining a proper temperature of the server rooms was integral to protecting the integrity of the data, so large redundancies were built into all aspects of the cooling system.

This included a 500% redundancy in the cooling tower system. Unfortunately, this consisted of five separate towers on individual sumps. On startup, the commissioning engineers called for the system to rotate towers every week. This resulted in one system being on and four being offline at any given time. This meant that each sump and its associated piping were stagnant for four out of every five weeks. Biological fouling and microbially influenced corrosion developed immediately. Pinhole and larger leaks began to appear within six months of startup.

Initial blame fell on the water treatment company.

However, the Field Service Reports and treatment plan both contained good documentation of the risks posed by stagnant water in the idle systems, along with suggestions on how to remedy these problems. As a result of this data, and because the building was still in its first year of operation, the mechanical and general contractors were held liable for the repair.

Overfiring and Underfiring Just as no motor oil can protect a vehicle’s engine if it is consistently run above the “red line,” no chemical treatment can protect a system that is being overfired and operated outside the manufacturer’s guidelines.

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

It’s Not Me, It’s You: System Failures Unrelated to Water Chemistry continued

Case Study #3 A group of several five-story office buildings in an office park in North Carolina was successfully treated for a number of years by a well-recognized water treatment company. The building owners brought in new management and directed them to find ways to “save money/ reduce costs.” The new management decreed that the heating system would be shut off overnight to “save energy.” In cooler weather, the maintenance staff would arrive in the mornings and immediately put the system in “high fire” mode to get the building warmed up before tenants arrived. They failed to follow the manufacturer’s guidelines that the system should never be started on high fire, but rather should gradually be warmed up over a minimum 4-hour period. Likewise at night, operators were instructed to simply “shut things down and leave.”

Again, this ignored the manufacturer’s recommendation that the system should be gradually cooled down.

By the end of the heating season, nearly all of the hot water heating boilers were leaking internally.

The building owners and management initially cited improper water treatment as the cause, demanding several hundred thousand dollars in damages.

Examination of the failed components by a certified metallurgical lab found the failures to have been caused by creeping and stress corrosion, which was due to uneven rates of expansion and contraction in the boilers.

This was caused by overfiring the boilers when they were cold and uneven cooling when they were shut off.

Failures Incident to Design Issues

The lack of a proper design can cause a litany of fatal issues in a building water system. Some of the usual suspects include improper material selection and improper hydraulic balancing. In addition, case studies reflect that the design may be properly conceived but not properly executed. Regardless of the design problem at issue, these defects are often so pervasive that otherwise perfect operations and water treatment programs cannot avail the system.

Improper Material Selection The failure to select appropriate materials for a building water system application can prove to be a critical mistake. Despite the fact that chemical water treaters have no involvement in selecting the metallurgy of the system they are treating, they are nonetheless routinely 13

implicated in failures for poorly designed systems.

Despite the fact that water treaters are hired for a limited purpose and given limited access to the system, it is frequently alleged that they should have somehow diagnosed the improper material selection and somehow “saved the system.”

Case Study #4 A leading manufacturer of personal protective gear had a large plastics plant, where, among other things, they made hard hats. They initially had 10 production lines for the manufacture of hard hats, but demand was great and they added five more.

The plant almost immediately began to experience corrosion failures in the five new molds. The water treatment company was wrongfully implicated for the corrosion. An initial investigation found that stress corrosion cracking was resulting in the failure. Further investigation found that to “save money,” the new molds were purchased from a lower cost vendor. Metallurgical analysis found that these new molds, although 420-grade stainless steel, were heat treated at a higher temperature, resulting in the metal being more brittle and prone to stress corrosion cracking. When the molds were replaced with ones from the original higher priced supplier, the problem subsided. (NOTE: Before the remedy was implemented, the plant went through 15 molds at an approximate cost of $17,500 each. The original mold supplier’s price for the molds that were deemed too expensive was approximately $2,500 per mold higher.)

Case Study #5 The closed loop piping system used at an asphalt emulsion facility failed due to leaks incident to tube fractures.

The piping loop from two water tube boilers supplied steam to coils in the asphalt emulsion tanks, and condensate was returned to the boiler's water feed tank from the tank coils. After a year of service, water was discovered leaking from the boiler. Investigation revealed that a water tube in the boiler's pressure vessel had fractured.

The fractured tube was removed and replaced. A week later, additional tubes were fractured and leaking.

The owner's expert opined that the tubes failed due to caustic-induced stress corrosion cracking. It was alleged that surface pitting and general corrosion in the tube were caused by a low pH level in the boiler's feed water the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

It’s Not Me, It’s You: System Failures Unrelated to Water Chemistry continued

and that the presence of indicators for these corrosion mechanisms suggested that appropriate water chemistry was not being maintained while the boiler was in operation. In pursuit of this theory, the owner's expert found innocuous instances of noncompliance with the boiler manufacturer's treatment specifications and attempted to allege they were the cause of the failures. Based on the expert's report, the owner sought damages exceeding $100,000.

Investigation revealed that the conditions leading to the fractures were not found throughout the tube surface but were localized to very specific locations. In fact, examination of the nonfractured areas of the tubes suggested no evidence of general corrosion. The boilers at issue were high-capacity efficiency boilers that were represented as being able to produce extreme heat quickly such that it can go from being idle to producing steam in 5 minutes or less. It was discovered that all of the tube fractures were in locations in close proximity to the main burner. The fracture location was impinged upon by the flame from the main burner during operation.

(plus basement) to seven floors (plus basement) and were a mix of dormitories, classrooms, dining halls and activity centers. Construction and commissioning were both “rushed” at the end of the project to have space available for the start of the academic year. As a result, the key step of hydraulically balancing the systems was not as thorough as it should have been.

Consequently, system flow rates were improper for many of the materials of construction. There were documented flow velocities in excess of 12 feet/second (fps) in small diameter copper piping serving all of the bathrooms in two of the dormitory buildings. Within two years, copper elbow fittings began to leak, and within another 18 months, pervasive pinhole leaks began to develop throughout the copper system in all buildings. Metallurgical analysis confirmed the root cause of the problem as erosion corrosion due to excessive water velocity in the copper pipes.

All seven buildings had to be completely replumbed.

Damages were on the order of $75 million.

The failed tubes were found to be made of plain low-grade carbon steel. Although the steel grade met the minimum standards for a typical boiler (AISI 1010 and ASTM Standard A192) a higher grade should have been used, given the exceptional heat flux involved for the boilers used.

Design Specifications Not Followed System failures relating to design issues are not exclusively based on design flaws. As reflected in the below case study, otherwise sound design choices may not effectively be communicated or executed by those responsible for construction or commissioning of the system.

The combination of the burner alignment that came preset from the boiler manufacturer and the use of low-grade steel proved to be the actual cause of the incident. Following the last of the tube fractures, the efficiency boiler was replaced with a conventional boiler, and no further issues arose.

Case Study #7 The condenser water system in a mixed used building in New England was designed with 10-inch closed-loop piping serving the residences on the 2nd through 20th floors. After several design revisions, the first floor lobby and retail spaces were connected to a rooftop cooling tower. This open-loop system was fitted with 4-inch carbon steel pipe running from the rooftop mechanical room down to the first floor.

Inadequate Hydraulic Balancing Proper balancing of a building water system is essential for effective performance. Despite the need for a systematic approach to ensure that proper balance is achieved, it remains common to find examples of poorly balanced systems and the resulting problems.

Case Study #6 A major university in the Southwest commissioned a new campus of seven buildings to house its new Honors Program. These buildings ranged in size from two floors 14

Evidence revealed that the system design experienced areas of significant "low flow," as the small bore piping had maximum design flow rates of 2.5 linear feet per second. These velocities were inadequate to push water treatment chemical through the system and insufficient to inhibit solid and microbiological depositions, thereby leading to non-uniform corrosion and underdeposit corrosion. the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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It’s Not Me, It’s You: System Failures Unrelated to Water Chemistry continued

In less than two years, the small bore open loop experienced leaks incident to massive tuberculation and corrosion completely eating through the pipe wall. The building owner filed a lawsuit seeking more than $2.5 million in damages naming the design engineer, general contractor, mechanical subcontractor, construction phase water treater, and the ongoing monthly water treater.

During litigation, documents were discovered reflecting that the design engineer did not intend for the open loop design to be utilized. These documents, which predated substantial completion, indicated that the mechanical subcontractor was to "revise the retail loop to be on the closed side of the heat exchanger." During one inspection, the design engineer indicated that he was "disturbed" by the system layout and that he "thought the retail loop was going to receive closed water."

These documents lead to cross-examination of the design engineer who conceded that the open loop design was the cheapest of the available options and the riskiest for corrosion related failure, and that a closed loop system could have worked but was more expensive. After the incident, the open loop was converted to a closed loop design, and no further issues occurred.

Erosion Corrosion Erosion corrosion refers to "acceleration in the rate of corrosion attack in metal due to the relative motion of a corrosive fluid and a metal surface.� The increased turbulence caused by pitting on the internal surfaces of a tube can result in rapidly increasing erosion rates and eventually a leak.1 This phenomenon is often associated with systems with high flow velocities, small pipe diameters, and piping run designs that create abrupt changes in flow direction.

Case Study #8 During the warmer summer months in Colorado, a hot water loop servicing a 14-story building would be "laid up" for at least three months. As opposed to draining, drying, and cleaning the surface before startup in the fall, the building maintenance crew would leave the hot water loop partially filled and isolated. Despite this practice, the system operated without incident for over 10 years before the pumping configuration was changed and the pumps upgraded. After the summer layup in the first full season following the pump upgrades, the 16

building water system and its attendant aluminum heat exchangers failed.

The manufacturer of the heat exchanger denied the warranty and concluded that improper water treatment chemistry was the cause of the failures. The owner and property manager likewise blamed the monthly water treater citing elevated bacterial levels in the water as the purported root cause of failure.

However, metallurgical graphing of the pipe walls revealed evidence of erosion secondary to turbulent water flow. Specifically, it was confirmed that foreign debris and dissolved solids were allowed to stagnate in the system during the summer layup. Because the hot water system was not completely drained and dried, microbiological colonies flourished during the stagnant period.

The foreign debris that was allowed to accumulate combined with turbulent water flow and caused the resulting damage to the system.

Failures Incident to Lack of Legacy Knowledge

Increasingly, veteran and experienced maintenance staff and system operators are retiring and leaving the work force. In decades past, the replacement for these veterans would be hired six months to a year ahead of their retirement, allowing for a significant amount of site- and system-specific on-the-job-training. However, current hiring and staffing practices are being dictated by shortterm financial considerations. As a result, a substantial amount of site- and system-specific legacy knowledge is being lost, often with expensive consequences.

Case Study #9 An older multi-story office building in New England used a direct contact fluid cooler to provide cooling during the summer months. The system was not difficult to treat and operated without incident for many years. As often happens, the initial building manager retired and was replaced by an experienced manager who was new to this property. Around the same time, the veteran head of the maintenance staff also retired.

The new maintenance personnel did not take the time to read all of the operational manuals for what they perceived was a relatively simple cooling system. As the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

It’s Not Me, It’s You: System Failures Unrelated to Water Chemistry continued

a result, the new maintenance staff failed to properly drain the cooling water loop during winter months, resulting in cracks due to freezing in the fluid cooler heat exchanger on the roof.

Once again, the new building manager was quick to put the initial blame on the water treatment program.

However, metallurgical analysis and review by a Registered Professional Engineer confirmed that the damage was caused by freezing due to improper/incomplete draining of the system at the end of the cooling season.

Conclusion

There is a high degree of risk in disputes arising from complex system failures where the ultimate decision-makers (judges, jurors, and arbitrators) are frequently unfamiliar with the technical principles at issue. The conflation of flaws, which are mere imperfections that did not cause the failure, and defects, which are those deficiencies that actually caused the harm, can serve to inflame an already perilous litigation for those wrongfully implicated.

17

In light of these factors, the ability to properly identify the actual root cause of a system failure can be critical. This is especially true for chemical water treaters.

Despite their limited access, scope of work, and pay, water treaters have become a "catch-all" target for any ill that befalls a system. Most water treaters possess a high degree of technical competence in the discipline of water chemistry. This level of proficiency in their respective field is often exploited by opportunistic claimants who will allege that the treater is a complete systems expert who should somehow save the system from engineering, operation, and design failures.

As shown in the aforementioned case studies, water chemistry is frequently targeted as the culpable cause, despite compelling facts demonstrating that issues arising from defective system design, improper operations, and the lack of legacy knowledge are the true culprits.

Reference

https://www.nace.org/Corrosion-Central/Corrosion-101/Erosion

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Considerations in Applying Supplemental Monochloramine Disinfection for Legionella Remediation in Premise Plumbing Systems Nicola Doniselli, Ph.D.1,and Alberto Comazzi, Ph.D.2 1 2

Sanipur srl, Via Quasimodo, 25, 25020 Flero BS, Italy Sanipur US, 912 Spring Mill Avenue, Conshohocken, PA 19428 USA

Legionella in plumbing systems

Legionellae, a gram-negative bacteria genus comprising over 60 known species (Euzeby J. P., 2018), are ubiquitous in natural and artificial water environments worldwide and survive in a range of environmental conditions (Fliermans et al., 1984). Among these species, a significant number are able to cause disease (generally known as Legionellosis), with a range of different implications— from acute, self-limiting, influenza-like illness without pneumonia (Pontiac Fever) to severe pneumonia that, if untreated, can be fatal (Castillo et al., 2016). For these reasons, it is of great importance to monitor its presence and contrast its proliferation in human-related water distribution systems.

The growth and the incidence of Legionella in premise plumbing systems is influenced by several different factors (Wadowsky and Yee, 1983). Some of these factors are pH, oxygen level, nutrient availability, temperature, and the design of the plumbing system in the building.

It has also been demonstrated that other microorganisms can favor Legionella proliferation; in particular, protozoa represent an important vector for the survival and growth of Legionella, able to colonize and proliferate within amoebae. As related to plumbing system design, it is extremely important to apply good engineering

practices that minimize dead legs and sections of the pipes with low-flow linear velocity—factors favoring the initial attachment and successive growth of bacterial biofilm synthetized by Legionella and other bacterial species. The presence of tank water heaters and selection of the piping materials are also considerations that influence amplification of this opportunistic pathogen.

Even though the plumbing systems design and materials influence Legionella growth, the water temperature plays the key role in this unwanted process. It is repeatedly reported in the scientific literature that the optimum growth of this pathogen is found to be at ≈ 99 °F (≈ 37 °C) (Wadowsky et al., 1988; Yee and Wadowsky, 1982). However, live Legionellae have been isolated from hot-water systems up to ≈ 151 °F (≈ 66 °C), and even if the rate of reproduction decreases with decreasing temperature, it is shown that the bacterium can grow at temperature > ≈ 68 °F (> ≈ 25°C) (Dennis et al., 1984; Wadowsky and Yee, 1983). For this reason, domestic hot water systems can provide a perfect environment for Legionella colonization.

The results reported in Table 1, show the influence of the temperature and the pipe material on the total flora and specifically on Legionella pneumophila (Rogers et al., 1994).

Table 1. Effect of temperature and pipe material on the total flora and L. pneumophila colonization.

Temperature (°C)

20

40

50

60

Pipe Material

Colonization (CFU∙cm-2)

Copper Polybutylene PVCs Copper Polybutylene PVCs Copper Polybutylene PVCs Copper Polybutylene PVCs

Total Flora 2.16∙105 5.70∙105 1.81∙106 5.70∙104 1.18∙105 3.67∙105 2.26∙104 3.21∙106 1.22∙105 4.47∙102 4.25∙104 5.19∙103

L. pneumophila 0 665 2,132 1,967 111,880 68,379 0 868 60 0 0 0

As shown in the experimental results reported in Table 1, temperature has a deep impact on Legionella growth; in fact, the CFU/cm 2 of L. pneumophila is ≈ 30 times higher switching from 86 °F to 104 °F (from ≈ 20 °C to ≈ 40 °C) with PVC pipes and ≈ 168 times with polybutylene pipes for the same temperature range.

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Considerations in Applying Supplemental Monochloramine Disinfection for Legionella Remediation in Premise Plumbing Systems continued

The literature reports that at temperatures above 122 °F (≈ 50 °C) the pathogen cell number starts to decrease; however, this does not mean that this elevated temperature completely eliminates the risk of Legionella. In fact, some of the bacteria can survive at even higher temperatures when protected by biofilm (Dennis et al., 1984).

Moreover, as reported in Figure 1, when temperatures close to 104 °F (≈ 40 °C) are reached in the system, the number of Legionella pneumophila can increase from 1 Log CFU to almost 6 Log CFU within five or six days.

Figure 1. Growth of Legionella pneumophila measured experimentally at T= 40 °C and with different pipe materials. Circle: Polybutylene; Up-Triangle: Copper; Down-Triangle: PVCs (Rogers et al., 1994).

Since the risk of legionellosis is directly related to the presence of this bacteria in the water system, healthcare facilities (hospital, nursing homes), hospitality (hotels, casinos) venues, and condominium complexes are more and more concerned about this pathogenic threat. For this reason, the installation of onsite (supplemental) disinfection treatment units has become more widespread in recent years to reduce the risk of proliferation of bacteria that survive the first two steps of municipal disinfection. EPA-listed biocides used as supplemental disinfectants under the Safe Drinking Water Act are chlorine (HClO), chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and monochloramine (NH 2Cl).

Figure 2. Typical scheme from municipality treatment plants to building supplemental disinfection.

This strong relation between Legionella colonization and the system temperature has linked the occurrence of this waterborne pathogen with a hot water system in nearly 85% of the cases where Legionella was found (Ruf et al., 1988; Tadashi et al., 2006).

Supplemental disinfection remediation treatments

The municipal water treatment plants usually use chlorine as disinfectant to kill bacteria. However, this disinfectant is an oxidizing agent, and its decay rate can lead to very little disinfectant residual in the water that enters the buildings. For this reason, chlorine or monochloramine are often used as secondary disinfectant. The secondary disinfection aim is to keep a consistent disinfectant residual in the water that goes from the treatment plant through distribution to the building, in order to avoid the growth of bacteria at the distal points.

20

The type of onsite disinfectant chosen plays a fundamental role in the control of Legionella and other waterborne pathogens throughout the building. However, it is important to take into account that the effect of the disinfectant is not limited to Legionella control, but, based on the chemistry of the biocide, it can also have a significant impact on the plumbing system (corrosion issues) and bring on the formation of unwanted disinfection byproducts (DBPs). In the light of current scientific knowledge, monochloramine has proven to be the best disinfectant that can be applied as a supplemental disinfectant because: 1) it is effective at a residual of 2–3 ppm (mg/L), and due to its stability as a combined chlorine species, it is more effective than other oxidizing biocides; 2) if correctly produced, monochloramine does not generate disinfection byproducts; and 3) it is minimally corrosive compared with chlorine and chlorine dioxide (Marchesi et al., 2016). Its high stability also allows it to better penetrate biofilm without reacting out at its surface, leading to a more complete and efficient

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Considerations in Applying Supplemental Monochloramine Disinfection for Legionella Remediation in Premise Plumbing Systems continued

disinfection (Treweek et al., 1985; Le Chevalier et al., 1993; McNeill and Edwards, 2001).

How and where to apply supplemental disinfection to ensure a better efficacy

As explained previously, the choice of disinfectant plays a crucial role on the effectiveness against Legionella.

However, this is not the only factor that drives the supplemental disinfection treatment to be successful or not: the design of the generator unit, how it is plumbed, and in which system it is connected are also factors that must be taken into account when speaking about supplemental disinfection.

Since it is known that Legionella colonizes primarily in warm water, one of the most asked questions is “should just the hot water of the building be treated, or should the all cold water coming into the facility (which includes both cold and hot water) be treated?”

Alternatively, as a last option, should two different supplemental water treatment units be installed—one on the main cold line and one on the hot water system?

At a first glance, it may seem to make more sense to add the disinfectant to all the water coming into the building, but unfortunately, there is not a universal answer to this very important question. The decision in treating either the hot water system or the entire plumbing system (or both) has to be made considering three main factors: chemistry, microbiology, and economics of the alternatives.

Chemistry Different disinfectants have different physical chemical properties, and the temperature of the water in which the biocide is dosed plays a crucial role for their efficacy.

Temperature strongly influences the disinfectant decay rate. Higher temperature leads to a faster decay. This effect is stronger for chlorine and chlorine dioxide since these biocides are known to be unstable, even at low temperatures. An increase in water temperature from 70 °F (≈ 21 °C) to 120 °F (≈ 49 °C) decreases the half-life time (time to half the biocide concentration) from 20 h to 10 h and from 12 h to 5 h for chlorine and chlorine dioxide, respectively (Ammar et al., 2014; Fischer et al., 2012; Hua et al., 1999). Monochloramine is a more stable oxidizer, so the half-life time would be decreased 22

from 200 h to 100 h with the same increase in water temperature from 70 °F to 120 °F. In the cases of chlorine or chlorine dioxide, this lack of stability will make the diffusion process to all the fixtures and the faucets in the building difficult. In addition, if the biocide feed would be discontinued for any reason, the building/ facility pipe system would remain without a consistent biocide residual within a few hours with chlorine or chlorine dioxide.

Another important chemical factor related to the water temperature is the “thermal shock” at which the disinfectant would be subjected if fed into the cold water system. After the dosing point in the main cold line—even if just a small portion—part of that water will flow through the water heaters at some point. This step will quickly increase the water temperature up to ≈ 140 °F–150 °F (≈ 60-65 °C). This sudden temperature increase would have a negative effect on the disinfectant stability, and the degradation of the biocide could produce disinfection byproducts (DBPs) as THMs, HAA5, chlorites, and free ammonia; moreover, it determines a strong reduction of active biocide concentration. If the supplemental disinfection unit is installed only on cold water, it could be a serious threat for what concerns DBPs issue since the formation of byproducts wouldn’t be controlled in the hot water system(s). For this reason, if the disinfectant is added to just the cold water line, some solutions must be taken into account to reduce and control the formation of byproducts in the hot water loop and to maintain a consistent biocide residual within it. A possible and simple solution could be to install purge valves in the hot loop(s) and purge them for a certain amount of time to reduce the water age in the system. These purge valves could be driven by different parameters as time, ORP and oxidant level (total and/or free chlorine). Another byproducts control system, when monochloramine is used and fed in the main cold water line, can be designed to recombine the free ammonia residual present in the hot water system back to monochloramine by feeding a chlorine-based solution in the hot water loop(s). This last option ensures a better environmental impact because no water is discharged and new fresh disinfectant is formed in the system.

The design and the type of biocide dosage into the system are other important factors. When the biocide the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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Considerations in Applying Supplemental Monochloramine Disinfection for Legionella Remediation in Premise Plumbing Systems continued

generator is installed in the hot system, the water is always circulating thanks to the return pumps. That means that even though there is no hot water consumption, i.e., during night hours, it is possible to trim the disinfectant production if needed and add it into the system by monitoring oxidant levels. The biocide, once generated, can be injected into the hot water supply and immediately diluted and distributed into the whole recirculated hot water system. This type of production trimming cannot be done in the case of cold water installations since the disinfectant is generated only when new water is flowing, so no precursors can be added to maintain a consistent residual in no-flow conditions.

Economics Chlorine and monochloramine demonstrated to be effective against Legionella at residuals between 2–3 ppm (Coniglio et al., 2015), while chlorine dioxide is effective at concentrations between 0.5–0.7 ppm (Zhang et al., 2009). The disinfectant levels needed are not different if the biocide is injected in either cold or hot water, but the difference is the volume of water that needs to be treated.

It has been demonstrated that into a building, the hot water usage is about 6–10% of the total water. That means that to treat all the incoming cold water, 10–12 times more biocide has to be generated, and 10–12 times the amount of chemicals have to be stored and used.

Microbiology As would be expected from the core temperature of the human body, ≈ 98 °F (37 °C), that normal human microbiota and pathogens (e.g., E. coli, Salmonella spp., and Lactobacillus spp.) are mesophiles. In general, that means they are adapted to moderate temperatures, with optimal growth temperatures ranging from room temperature ≈ 70 °F (≈ 20 °C) to ≈ 113 °F (≈ 45 °C) (Elliot et al., 2002). As a thermo-tolerant pathogen, Legionella does not proliferate efficiently in cold water < 70 F (< ≈ 20 °C).

For these reason, treating all the cold water that comes into the building/facility is often not needed to reduce the risk of legionellosis and could present some microbiological issues. In particular, considering the monochloramine degradation due to the water-heating step that brings an increase in concentration of free ammonia, this could lead to proliferation of nitrifying bacteria like Nitrosomonas spp. that, ultimately, could create the conditions for other bacteria growth, as reported by Pryor et al., 2004. If, for any reasons, monochloramine disinfection of the cold water main line is requested, is important to consider the biocide degradation during the heating step and apply one of the solutions proposed above (i.e., install purge valves in the hot loop(s) and purge them to reduce water age in the pipes or, even better, recombine the free ammonia residual present in the hot water system back to monochloramine by feeding a chlorine-based solution in the hot water loop(s). However, it is reported that if the concentration of monochloramine dosed will be constantly maintained above 2 ppm no bacterial growth should be observed in hot water (Duda et al., 2014; Casini et al., 2014).

Two simple cold and hot water installation diagrams are shown in Figure 3.

24

Figure 3. Cold (top) and hot water diagram installation.

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Considerations in Applying Supplemental Monochloramine Disinfection for Legionella Remediation in Premise Plumbing Systems continued

The increase in the amount of reagents leads to an increase in the operating costs plus possible storage problems. Also, bigger generator units have to be designed and installed, increasing the capital cost of the disinfection process. As an example, to treat hospitals and nursing home hot water systems, disinfectant generator units capable of producing just a few grams per hour of biocide are usually enough. On the other hand, if all the incoming cold water has to be treated, units capable of producing hundreds of grams per hour of disinfectant are needed.

Other factors Besides the previous points, there are, of course, other driving factors. One of them is state regulations. Each state has its own regulations about water disinfection, so it’s not hard to run into applications in which the state’s regulations specifically require treating either just the cold system or both.

Another factor that influences the installation of the disinfection unit is the design of the plumbing system.

The final aim of the application of a supplemental disinfection unit is to minimize the Legionella risk of proliferation but at the same time, always ensure,a cost effective solution. For several plumbing systems, this could turn out to be a hard job. Especially in old buildings, the plumbing systems could be improperly designed. For example, some facilities could have multiple hot water loops, which would increase the capital cost of treating all of them so that treating all the incoming cold water on the main line would seem to be the best solution. On the other hand, sometimes the main cold line also feeds chillers and cooling towers that already have their own disinfection treatments, so treating all the incoming cold water is not necessary, and the best design would be to just treat the hot water loop.

Conclusions

Supplemental disinfection units are applied in building water systems to ensure a consistent disinfectant residual in a building’s pipes. The type of disinfectant chosen plays a crucial role in the efficacy of the disinfection treatment. A key factor that affects the Legionella remediation process is the temperature of the water where the disinfectant is applied. In other words, the choice of feeding the disinfectant either in the main cold water line or in the domestic hot water loop (or both) becomes 26

extremely important. The main factors that influence this important decision are related to chemistry, microbiology, and economics.

From a chemistry standpoint, higher temperatures could increase the decay ratio of the disinfectant. Thus, if the disinfectant is injected in the cold line, part of the treated water will flow through the water heaters, and the “thermal shock” at which the biocide is subjected could break down the molecule, reducing its concentration and increasing the potential formation of harmful disinfection byproducts. On the other hand, injecting the disinfectant in the domestic hot water loop helps to control byproduct formation and ensure a better dosage control because the water is always circulating into the system, even when nobody is using hot water (i.e., during night hours).

Microbiologically, Legionella colonizes primarily in hot water; therefore, treating the whole cold water system would be useless and could also modify the microbiological environment, with the risk of an increase of mycobacterium and other coliform bacteria. Economically, treating the entire building plumbing system would increase the equipment and operational costs because bigger disinfection units have to be installed and a larger volume of reagents is going to be consumed. This last consideration could be also a safety threat because a larger volume must be stored on site.

These are the three main factors to take into account when applying a supplemental disinfectant, but there are other driving forces to take into account during the decision process, such as state regulations and plumbing system design and materials.

References 1. Ammar T.A., Abid K.Y., El-Bindary A.A., El-Sonbati A.Z. “Chlorine dioxide bulk decay prediction in desalinated drinking water.” (2014) Desalination, 352:45-51.

2. Casini B., Buzzigoli A., Cristina M.L., Spagnolo A.M., Del Giudice P., Brussaferro S., Poscia A., Mosctao U., Valentini P., Baggiani A., Privitera G. “Long-term effects of hospital water network disinfection on Legionella and other waterborne bacteria in an Italian university hospital.”

(2014) Infect. Contr. Hosp. Epidemiol., 35, 293-299.

3. Castillo N. E., Rajasekaran A., Ali S. K. “Legionnaires' Disease: A Review.” (2016) Infect. Dis. Clin. Pract., 24, 5, 248-253.

4. Coniglio M. A., Melada S., Yassin M. H. “Monochloramine for controlling Legionella in biofilms. How much we know?” (2015) Journal of Nature and Science, 1, 2:1-4.

5. Dennis P.J., Green D., Jones B.P.C. 1984. “A note on the Temperature tolerance of Legionella.” (1984) J. Appl. Bacteriol. 56, 349-350.

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Considerations in Applying Supplemental Monochloramine Disinfection for Legionella Remediation in Premise Plumbing Systems continued

6. Duda S., Kandiah S., Stout J.E., Baron J.L., Yassin M., Fabrizio M., Ferrelli J., Hariri R., Wagener M.M., Goepfert J., Bond J., Hannigan J., Rogers D. “Evaluation of a New Monochloramine Generation System for Controlling Legionella in Building Hot Water Systems.” (2014) Infect.

Contr. Hosp. Epidemiol. 35, 1356-1363.

16. Rogers J., Dowsett A.B., Dennis P.J., Lee J.V., Keevil C.W. “Influence of Temperature and Plumbing Material Selection on Biofilm Formation and Growth of Legionella pneumophila in a Model Potable Water System Containing Complex Microbial Flora.” (1994) App. Environ. Microbiol,.

60, 1585-1592.

8. Euzeby J. P. List of Prokaryotic names with standing in nomenclature— Genus Legionella. Research made on 18th July 2018.

18. Tadashi K., Tetsu Y., Michio K., Akira N. “Influence of temperature on growth of Legionella pneumophila biofilm determined by precise temperature gradient incubator.” (2006) Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 101, 6: 478-484.

7. Elliot S. L., Blanford S., Thomas M. B. “Host-pathogen interactions in a varying environment: temperature, behavioural fever and fitness.” (2002) Proc. Biol. Sci., 269, 1599–1607.

9. Fisher I., Kastl G., Sathasivan A. “A suitable model of combined effects of temperature and initial condition on chlorine bulk decay in water distribution systems.” (2012) Water Research, 46, 10:3293-3303.

10. Fliermans C. B., Soracco R. J., Popes D. H. “A note on the temperature tolerance of Legionella.” (1984) J. Appl. Bacteriol., 56, 349-350.

11. Hua F., West J. R., Barker R. A., Forster C. F. “Modeling of chlorine decay in municipal water supplies.” (1999) Water Research, 33, 12: 2735-2746.

12. Le Chevallier M. W., Lowry C. D., Lee R. G., Gibbon D. L. “Examining the relationship between iron corrosion and the disinfection of biofilm bacteria.” (1993) Journal AWWA, 85, 111-123.

13. Marchesi I., Ferranti G., Mansi A., Marcelloni A. M., Proietto A. R., Saini N., Borella P., Bargellini A. “Control of Legionella Contamination and Risk of Corrosion in Hospital Water Networks following Various Disinfection Procedures.” (2016) Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2, 82, 2959-2965.

14. McNeill L. and Edwards M. “Review of iron pipe corrosion in drinking water distribution systems.” (2001) Journal AWWA, 93, 88-100.

17. Ruf B., Schurmann D., Horbach I., Seidel K., Pohle H.D. “Nosocomial Legionella pneumophila: demonstration of potable water as the source of infection.” (1988) Epidemiol. Infect., 101, 647-654.

19. Treweek. G. P., Glicker J., Chow B., Sprinker M. “Pilot-plant simulation of corrosion in domestic pipe materials.” (1985) Journal AWWA, 77, 74-82.

20. Wadowsky R. M. and Yee R. B. “Satellite growth of Legionella pneumophila with an environmental isolate of Flavobacterium breve.” (1983) Appl.

Environ. Microbiol. 46, 1447-1449.

21. Wadowsky R. M., Butler L.J., Cook M.K., Verma S.M., Paul M.A., Fields B.S., Keleti G., Sykora J.L., Yee R.B. “Growth-supporting activity for Legionella pneumophila in tap water cultures and implication of hartmannellid amoebae.” (1988) App. Environ. Microbiol., 54, 2677-2682.

22. Yee Y.B., Wadowsky R.M. “Multiplication of Legionella pneumophila in unsterilized tap water.” (1982) Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 43, 1330-1334.

23. Zhang Z., McCann C., Hanrahan J., Jencson A., Joyce D., Fyffe S., Piesczynski S., Hawks R., Stout J. E., Yu V. L., Vidic R. D. “Legionella control by chlorine dioxide in hospital water systems.” (2009) Journal AWWA, 101, 5:117-127.

15. Pryor, M., Springthorpe, S., Riffard, S., Brooks, T., Huo, Y., Davis, G., Sattar, S.S. “Investigation of opportunistic pathogens in municipal drinking water under different supply and treatment regimes.” (2004) Water Sci. Technol., 50, 83-90.

Bionetix_4.5x4.5.indd 1

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Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal Peter E. Greenlimb, Ph.D., CWT, Chemagineering Corporation and AWT Special Projects Technical Subcommittee

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the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Introduction

Figure 2. Fouled side-stream filter cartridge.

Smaller industrial and commercial closed-loop recirculating water systems often experience more than their fair share of water-related problems, such as corrosion, scale and deposition, fouling, and microbiological growth. Because of their smaller capacities (generally 1,000 gallons or less), they command fewer sales incentives and are more likely to be overlooked for treatment and frequent sampling and testing.

An additional problem encountered in smaller closedloop systems includes degrading ethylene glycol with its associated corrosion, fouling, and microbiological growth issues. Plant maintenance managers often utilize an inhibited glycol to “treat” their smaller loops, whether freeze/burst protection1 is needed or not. Because there is often the misconception that the system is “treated,” many smaller closed loops generally are neglected until production losses occur or an inspection of the water reservoir tank suggests that there may be issues with the chilled water quality.

While many smaller closed loop systems have been successfully treated and maintained, Figures 1 through 3 illustrate the effects that can occur when smaller water systems are ignored and neglected: An acidic and corrosive degrading glycol solution with soluble metal concentrations of 1,100 ppm iron (as Fe), 76 ppm aluminum (as Al), and 210 ppm zinc (as Zn), but virtually no copper (<1 ppm as Cu); a fouled pleated side-stream filter cartridge encased in iron oxide corrosion product sludge; and a turbid glycol coolant with a fungi, molds, yeasts dip slide result and isolated system organic debris. Each of these examples clearly underscores the importance for the water treatment professional to properly treat, monitor, and maintain all systems within the plants he or she services.

In this segment on smaller closed-loop systems, specific cleaning method chemistries will be discussed for mineral scale, deposit, and debris removal in small recirculating water systems. These foulants can include hardness scales such as calcium carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates; silica scales; and metal oxide system corrosion products. The two most common cleaning chemistry approaches utilize acidic inorganic and organic acids and near-neutral blends of organic chelating agents, organophosphonates, and sequestrants. Cleaning systems fouled with microbiological and organic debris will be reviewed in the second part of this series.

Details regarding what defines effective inorganic and organic cleaners will be discussed, and cleaning procedures offered for both approaches will be presented, along with identifying the risks associated with each cleaning process.

Figure 3. A microbiologically fouled glycol coolant.

Figure 1. Corrosive, degrading glycol coolant.

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the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

Background Small Closed Loops For the purposes of this discussion, a smaller closedloop system is defined as having a total water capacity of generally 1,000 gallons or less. Typically these systems can be readily cleaned by most independent water management companies utilizing properly inhibited acids or well-engineered proprietary cleaning formulations with minimal investiture in elaborate equipment and labor. It is often difficult to accurately identify how long a cleaning task will take, but the descaler that provides the shortest cleaning time is normally preferred. It is important to note that focusing one’s cleaning efforts on smaller systems is intended to offer the customer a vital service while minimizing an extended time commitment on, perhaps, a less profitable service task.

While small systems can include complexities with intricate water heating and/or cooling needs, the limited system volume provides some confidence that the cleaning task can be controlled and managed in the shortest amount of time. Once a chemical cleaning job is initiated, there is an obligation and responsibility to be on site until the task is completed. The use of a stronger inorganic mineral acid initially appears as a more expedient way to remove scales and deposits, but capturing and neutralizing the spent acid prior to discharge could extend the time on the job site. All organic descaling chemistries generally are more effective at extended residence times, although there are fewer complications associated with their disposal.

Small closed-loop systems are usually associated with reduced liability risks when all contingency plans are anticipated and all safety precautions are followed.

However, when investigating the possibility of cleaning one of these systems it is important to select cleaning options that minimize the time commitment.

Cleaning complex or larger industrial closed-loop systems usually is rewarded with increased sales opportunities.

However, those opportunities are typically accompanied by (1) greater time commitments; (2) expanded probability of “unknown circumstances” and “hidden areas of challenge”; (3) increased costs to both capture and incinerate spent ethylene glycol solutions; and/or (4) additional costs to capture and neutralize used cleaning chemicals.

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For example, the cleaning of glass-lined steel reactors illustrates the added complexity of the cleaning task.

Strong mineral acids are not recommended in this type of application because these acids can liberate atomic hydrogen during the corrosion half-cell reduction reaction of hydrogen ions. The hydrogen diffuses into the grain boundaries of the steel and strains it (embrittlement). The atomic hydrogen also forms hydrogen gas, which accumulates between the vessel’s inner steel shell and the glass liner, spalling the lining. Neutral organic cleaners are recommended for this type of chemical cleaning application.2,3 Often, the better choice is to recommend that a more experienced specialty cleaning company that is equipped for handling these larger and more complicated tasks be contracted directly by your customer.

Circulation and Heating In the successful undertaking of any chemical cleaning task, adequate cleaning agent recirculation and movement is important to the cleaning agent’s effectiveness.

In addition, most cleaning agent chemistries are more effective at elevated temperatures. However, extended cleaning agent contact at higher temperatures should be avoided because the organic corrosion inhibitors in the descaling agent can oxidize and degrade over time, rendering the system’s cleaned, exposed metal surfaces susceptible to attack by any remaining active descaling agent. The excellent inhibition of an organic corrosion inhibitor, for example, is illustrated in the reported 99.72% reduction of mild steel corrosion rates in an inhibited 10% hydrochloric acid for six hours at 200 °F.4 Small, recirculating cleaning rigs are commercially available5 or are fairly easy to assemble. An example of a scratch-built cleaning assembly consisting of a cart, recirculating pump, insulated reservoir, and immersion heater is illustrated in Figure 4. Figure 5 provides detail of the system’s manifold assembly for the simultaneous cleaning of multiple cooling water zones.

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

Inorganic Acidic Cleaners The use of an acid to chemically clean smaller closed systems is typically very effective, relatively inexpensive, and accomplished in a minimum amount of time. Technically, it would appear that most inorganic and organic acids could function as acidic scale and deposit cleaners. Cost, availability, and handling considerations are often utilized to encourage the use of one acid versus another.

Figures 4 and 5. Fabricated chemical cleaning system.

Of the commonly utilized inorganic acids for industrial cleaning, the adverse handling issues pertaining to the use of hydrofluoric acid dictate that this particular material be used only by experienced contract chemical cleaning firms. Hydrofluoric acid has very good effectiveness in removing tightly adhering silicate-containing scales and deposits. For example, silicate scales such as acmite [Na 2O•Fe2O3•4SiO2], analcite [Na 2O•Al 2O3•4SiO2], and hydrated magnesium orthodisilicate [Mg3Si 2O7•2H 2O] can successfully be removed with hydrofluoric acid.6 However, hydrofluoric acid is extremely toxic and very difficult to handle.7 Hydrofluoric acid should only be used to remove silicate scales by experts trained in the material’s use. A safer silicate scale removal cleaning agent is based on ammonium bifluoride (NH4HF 2). However, even this comparatively “safer” cleaning chemistry should only be handled by experienced, competent professionals.8 Nitric acid does have utility in the chemical cleaning of stainless steels, although the fumes associated with this acid must be anticipated and adequately handled. Sulfamic and phosphoric acids, along with sodium bisulfate, generally have the greatest utility in cleaning very small systems and isolated parts and heat exchangers. These tasks can normally be conducted in-plant by personnel from the facility’s maintenance staff. Commonly used inorganic acidic cleaning agents are tabulated in Table I.6 Table I. Inorganic acidic cleaning agents.

Inorganic Acidic Cleaners Hydrochloric Acid Hydrofluoric Acid Sulfuric Acid Phosphoric Acid Sodium Bisulfate Sulfamic Acid

Use Concentration

Compatible with…

Not Compatible with…

5.0, 7.5, and 10.0% 1% 5, 10, and 15% 3, 5, and 10% 5, 10, and 15% 10%

A, B, C, and D A A, B, C, D, and G A, B, C, D, and G A, B, C, D, and G A, C, D, and G

E, F, and G E, F, and G E and F E and F E and F B, E, and F

Key: A – Carbon Steel; B – Cast Iron; C – Admiralty Brass; D – Copper; E – Aluminum; F – Zinc and Galvanized; G – Stainless Steel.

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the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

Organic Acidic Cleaners While inorganic acids are usually the most economical and efficient cleaners to use in removing scales and deposits, organic acids generally offer several advantages in handling ease, safety, simplicity of disposal, lower toxicity, and reduced metal corrosion during the cleaning operations. They may, however, require higher cleaning temperatures, longer contact times, and more efficient cleaning solution circulation. They also have much higher costs associated with their use. Commonly used organic acidic cleaning agents are tabulated in Table II.6 Table II. Organic acidic cleaning agents.

Organic Acidic Cleaners Citric Acid Formic Acid Hydroxyacetic Acid Oxalic Acid

Use Concentration 3% 1% 2% 3%

Compatible with…

A, B, C, D, E, and G A, B, C, D, and G A, B, C, D, and G A, B, C, D, E, and G

Key: A – Carbon Steel; B – Cast Iron; C – Admiralty Brass; D – Copper; E –

Not Compatible with…

F E and F E and F F

Aluminum; F – Zinc and Galvanized; G – Stainless Steel.

It is important to note that all acidic chemical cleaners exhibit no preference for either dissolving scales and metal oxide corrosion products or attacking clean system metal surfaces. Therefore, it is important that, whichever acid is used in a cleaning task, it be properly and effectively inhibited. There is a wide variety of organic specialty chemical inhibitors on the market for most, if not all, of the acids summarized in Tables I and II.

Corrosion Inhibition The objective of any industrial water system chemical descaling is to dissolve and remove insulating scales and fouling metal oxide corrosion products. Of all the acidic cleaners identified in Tables I and II, if system metallurgies are compatible with the cleaner, and if safety and environmental issues are anticipated and addressed, dilute inhibited hydrochloric acids generally provide the most efficient cleaning chemistries. However, the aggressive nature of this corrosive acid dictates that it must be properly inhibited; its residence time within the system cannot be extended beyond a finite period (typically six hours maximum), and cleaning solution strengths (recommend max 10%) and temperatures must not be excessive (low carbon steel ~170 °F maximum). Metal corrosion rate data for 5.0% uninhibited and inhibited hydrochloric acids at 78 °F and 140 °F is summarized in Table III.9 Table III. Corrosion of system metals in hydrochloric acids.9

5% HCl @ 78 °F: Metal Mild Steel Cast Iron Copper 302 Stainless Brass Bronze Aluminum Zinc

Uninhibited 1.253 3.567 0.046 0.204 0.032 0.065 122.0 54.97

5% HCl @ 140 °F:

Inhibited 0.209 0.905 0.046 0.119 0.016 0.049 0.860 17.075

Uninhibited 8.021 25.40 0.107 2.669 0.713 0.097 Dissolved Dissolved

Notes: 1) Corrosion rates are expressed in Mils per Day; 2) Sandblasted, virgin metal coupons; 3) Average exposure time four hours.

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the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Inhibited 0.357 8.194 0.122 0.357 0.842 0.113 9.96 23.25

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

The handling and use of strong acid cleaners demand that the system into which they will be applied be carefully surveyed so that all system metallurgies are known in order to avoid irreversible damage to system components. Equally important is the need to observe maximum chemical residence contact times and cleaning temperatures. One additional point to note is that the corrosion rate data summarized in Table III is expressed in mils per day, not mils per year. In the study cited, a corrosion rate of 1.253 mpd on mild steel in uninhibited HCl at 78 °F is equivalent to 457.3 mpy! This data must be interpreted carefully.

Two other important chemical additives that contribute to the effectiveness of the acidic descaler include both wetting agents and surfactants to maximize the penetration and dispersion of deposits and debris containing organic contaminants. Often, small supplemental additions of a foam control agent will be required, particularly if the primary nature of the scale is a carbonate salt. Wetting agents and surfactants can normally be formulated into the acidic cleaner, whereas the defoamer typically is an adjunct product added to the recirculating water reservoir when a foaming condition exists.

Figure 6. Metal oxides “plugging” a corrosion pit.

Figure 7. System foulants obstructing flow in a water supply tube.

All acidic descaling chemistries should be inhibited to minimize attack of the cleaned metal surfaces by the cleaning agent(s). Use of appropriate neutralizing agents, such as dilute caustic soda or soda ash, to remove the last traces of the acidic cleaner is also very important.

Preparation Surveying the Scaled System In the initial considerations to determine if a given system should be chemically cleaned with an acidic cleaner, it is important to inform your customer that some system metal thickness will be lost during the process. For this reason, frequent repetitive acid cleanings are not advised. It is also important to inform your customer that during the cleaning process, there is the possibility of exposing small pinhole leaks initially sealed with mineral deposits and/or system corrosion products (Figure 6). Another common occurrence is the possible release of dislodged corrosion products or system foulants with their eventual transportation throughout the recirculating water system and possible relocation in narrow water passageways (Figure 7).

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System Metallurgies During the process of considering an acidic descaling chemistry to clean a closed system, a thorough evaluation of the system’s metallurgy must be determined.

For example, aluminum components in a system might very likely be attacked by most acidic cleaning agents and alkaline neutralizing and/or passivating agents.

However, systems containing aluminum have reportedly been successfully cleaned with a dilute (3.0%) solution of citric acid6 at 150 °F. Systems containing galvanized iron and zinc6 can also be successfully cleaned with a properly inhibited dilute (5%) hydrochloric acid under carefully controlled conditions. Other literature cited in this article appears to refute these latter two claims.

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

In the determination of a specific cleaning chemistry that is compatible with a closed system’s recirculating water metallurgy, it is advisable to err on the side of caution. Key considerations are the nature of the acidic cleaner that you select, its use concentration, the temperature at which the cleaning will be performed, and the duration of the cleaning process.

Initial System Samples During the system survey, a representative sample of the system recirculating water (32 fl oz.) should be obtained to determine the compatibilities of possible descaling chemistries with the chemically treated recirculating water. Any scales, sludges, foulants, and/or debris from the bottom of the water reservoir tank should also be collected. A Bacon Bomb Sampler 10,11 is a very effective tool for obtaining samples from the bottom of cooling water reservoir tanks. Figure 8 illustrates a Bacon Bomb sampling device, and Figure 9 identifies “typical” cooling water reservoir tank sludge and debris.

Figure 8. Bacon Bomb sampler.10

Sample Evaluation Techniques All samples collected should be chemically analyzed to determine the composition of the treated closed-loop water and the chemical nature of scale or debris. These samples should then be evaluated for chemical cleaner compatibility and effectiveness as cleaning options are evaluated. Such testing can be used to evaluate any adverse, exothermic, or gas-emitting reactions that may occur. For example, a system treated with a buffered sodium nitrite at 500 ppm (as NaNO2) and treated with an acidic scale remover can be expected to have off-gassing if a dramatic and sudden pH reduction is imposed on the treated chilled water.

Conducting simple laboratory pre-cleaning tests before any acidic cleaner is added to a 1,000-gallon system identifies the volume, if any, of noxious gases that might be emitted. If the small sample readily emits a copious amount of noxious gas, or if the reaction is highly exothermic, or if any other adverse condition is encountered in laboratory testing, then either an alternate chemical cleaner should be evaluated or pH reduction and acid cleaning should not be considered.

Organic acids and chelating agents applied at near-neutral pH’s offer viable solutions to low pH inorganic acid applications. Inorganic acids are very effective descaling cleaners, but they typically function at very low pH’s (1.0-to-2.0). In addition to carbon dioxide and the fumes associated with several inorganic acids, hydrogen can also be liberated, as its formation is the primary cathodic half-cell reaction in the electrochemical corrosion process in waters below a pH of 5.0.12 Depending on the treated water chemistry and/or the composition of system foulants, other objectionable gases could be formed in low pH waters.

Figure 9. Chilled water reservoir tank debris.

Oxidation at the Anode: M°  2 e- + M++

eq. 1

Reduction at the Cathode: pH >5.0 2 e- + ½ O2 + H 2O  2 OH- pH <5.0 2 H+ + 2e-  2 H•  H2

eq. 2 eq. 3

Detailed chemical analyses in most situations provide helpful data preceding the evaluation of cleaner effectiveness. That data along with laboratory bench tests will assist in answering the following questions: 38

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

1. Is the scale and/or debris the result of system metal corrosion?

Figure 10. Dual bag filter housings on a chilled water system.

2. Is the debris the result of waterborne minerals and/ or foulants?

3. Is the debris due to airborne dusts and particulates scrubbed out of the atmosphere into the water reservoir tank?

4. Is the debris readily dissolved by the dilute inhibited acid or other chemistry, or will additional physical cleaning methods need to be employed?

5. Are there any adverse reactions between the treated chilled water and the debris with the cleaning chemistry (e.g., excessive heat formation, evolved gases, violent reaction)?

Filtration During most chemical cleaning processes, once scale particulates and/or debris are dislodged from a system waterside surface, it is important to remove those materials from the recirculating cleaning solution. The particulates redeposit in small cooling water crevices and passageways, and their abrasiveness in the recirculating cleaning solution contributes to additional metallic component corrosion. This debris also continues to deplete the cleaning agentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strength as it further dissolves.

The most common technique for removing recirculating cleaning solution particulates is to utilize either a Bag Filter suspended in the water reservoir tank to capture any insoluble debris in the cleaning solution return, or disposable fabric bag filters or filter cartridges in a sidestream filter13 installed on the discharge side of the recirculating cleaning solution pump. Figure 10 illustrates two bag filter housings installed as a side-stream during the cleanup of a chilled water system.

Inorganic Chemical Cleaners Hydrochloric Acid: Of all of the acidic descalants listed in Table I,6 hydrochloric acid is both the strongest and typically the most effective cleaning agent. However, it is recommended that commercially available, 20° Baume hydrochloric acid (~32%) should not be considered, as this acid is both very corrosive and very aggressive.

It is also very difficult to handle properly, it is highly reactive, and when diluted on site, it fumes excessively, representing a severe hazard in smaller confined areas. Generally, this acid strength is only considered for serious offline descaling and under the strict guidance of experienced chemical cleaning professionals.

Hydrochloric acid is effective in solubilizing and removing some metal oxides and deposits bound with iron oxide. Hydrochloric acid is typically the preferred inorganic acid utilized by professional equipment descaling contractors.

All cleaning dilutions of hydrochloric acid are not recommended for closed-loop systems containing aluminum, zinc and galvanized metals, and stainless steel. In all applications of hydrochloric acid as a chemical cleaner, proper and effective inhibition with a proprietary organic corrosion inhibitor is vital!

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the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

Hydrochloric Acid Dilutions: Dilutions of hydrochloric acid are very effective in removing most hardness scales and iron oxide corrosion products. It is often considered as the go-to cleaner in many small but difficult cleaning operations. It is the chemistry of choice in offline cleaning of heavily scaled systems. Even a 1:1 hydrochloric acid dilution (~15%) is far easier to handle, with significantly less HCl fuming and minimal heat generation when diluted. However, a 1:1 HCl cleaning agent should only be applied under the guidance of experienced descaling professionals, as it is still highly corrosive. While it retains its dissolving capability with most iron oxide deposits, all of the specific restrictions on its use noted in the preceding paragraph should be followed.

Further diluting this acid in manufacturing contributes to the ease of handling this cleaner in actual field application without compromising the cleaning results.

Sulfuric Acid: Sulfuric acid is also recognized as a very strong descaling agent, approaching the strength of hydrochloric acid. However, the handling difficulties associated with the concentrated acid (66° Baume, ~96%) easily position it on many companies’ “Do Not Use Lists”! This acid is not only very corrosive and aggressive toward system metals, but it also releases large quantities of heat when diluted. While dilute solutions of this acid can effectively descale heavily scaled systems, the acid itself is hard to handle properly, is highly reactive, and very exothermic when diluted. Sulfuric acid should only be considered for serious offline descaling applications and under the guidance of experienced chemical cleaning professionals. It is also interesting to note that during the removal of hardness deposits, the sulfate salts of calcium have limited water solubility (Table IV).14 Hence, hardness scales can be dissolved with sulfuric acid, but they may very readily post-precipitate from the recirculating cleaning solution as the sulfate salts.

Table IV. Calcium salt solubilities in ambient-temperature waters.14

Calcium Salt Calcium Carbonate, CaCO3

Calcium Chloride, CaCl 2 Calcium Sulfate, CaSO4

Calcium Phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2

Calcium Citrate, Ca3[C6H5O7]2•4H 2O

Solubility 0.0014 gm @ 25 °C 59.5000 gm @ 0 °C

0.2100 gm @ ~30 °C

0.0020 gm @ ~25 °C 0.8500 gm @ 18 °C

Note: Solubility, gm/100 ml water at °C.

40

Descaling smaller closed-loop systems with dilutions of sulfuric acid are typically arduous tasks. Diluting concentrated, 66° Be sulfuric acid is an extremely dangerous act, as excessive quantities of heat are liberated in the dilution process. Even a “once-cut” (~50%) sulfuric acid solution provides safety risks when further diluted to acceptable use concentrations (5–15%) in the field. Sulfuric acid is regarded as a very strong descaling agent, only exceeded in strength by hydrochloric acid.

When an inhibited sulfuric acid solution is properly used, it is very effective (ref. Table I).

Sodium Bisulfate: The scope of this discussion on smaller closed loops up to 1,000 gallons in capacity limits the use of sodium bisulfate for this size system. Sodium bisulfate is a crystalline, easy-to-handle acidic cleaner offering a simplistic alternative to hazardous, corrosive liquid inorganic acids. Sodium bisulfate is safer to handle, nonregulated, less aggressive to system metals, highly water soluble, and easily fed thru a pot feeder. The need to prepare a fairly large quantity of solution for descaling a 1,000-gallon system is a large deterrent to its use.

Typically, sodium bisulfate reacts slower with carbonate scales, but being considerably less corrosive with a reduced exothermic reaction when preparing aqueous solutions is advantageous. Its performance on iron oxide-based scales is fair to poor at best. Sodium bisulfate is not very effective in removing calcium sulfate and phosphate scales.

Phosphoric Acid: Of the three widely used inorganic acid cleaners, phosphoric acid releases the least amount of heat when diluted to practical use concentrations (cf.

Table V).14 While phosphoric acid is corrosive at all use concentrations, it is a more aggressive calcium carbonate descaling agent. Phosphoric acid can be more corrosive to cleaned system metal surfaces during extended contact times, again re-emphasizing the importance of properly inhibiting this and all acidic descaling agents. Calcium phosphate also has limited water solubility at ambient temperatures (cf. Table IV), underscoring the importance of filtration in the cleaning operation to avoid sludging problems. Residual phosphoric acid and phosphate salts need to be completely rinsed from the system to avoid the nutrient effects that phosphates provide for microbiological growth. Phosphoric acid is a good iron oxide cleaner, but far less effective on calcium sulfate and calcium phosphate scales. the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

Table V. Heats of solution for acidic inorganic cleaners.16

Inorganic Acid Cleaner Hydrochloric Acid, liquid Sulfuric Acid, liquid Sodium Bisulfate, solid o-Phosphoric Acid, liquid

Kilo-cal per GramFormula Wt. +17.44 @ 18 °C +17.75 @ 18 °C +1.20 @ 17 °C +5.35 @ 20 °C

Citric Acid: Citric acid is very water soluble at ambient temperatures (116 gm per 100 ml @ 25 °C). It is very safe to handle and easily fed to a system from a pot feeder.

It has a slower but gentler action in dissolving calcium carbonate scales, requiring longer cleaning periods. It is very effective in removing iron oxide scales and, because of its decreased aggressiveness, it can be utilized over extended cleaning periods.

Sulfamic Acid: Sulfamic acid is available as a white crystalline solid with appreciable water solubility (14.68-gm/100-ml @ 20°F).14 It is far easier to use than either hydrochloric or sulfuric acid and safer to handle, although it is still classified as a DOT corrosive material.

It can be fed as a solid product through a bypass feeder, although pre-dissolving in water is the preferred normal method of use.

When removing calcium carbonate scales with citric acid, initially a rapid cleaning response is exhibited.

However, calcium citrate has a very limited water solubility (0.96 gm/100 ml @ 23 °C) and begins to precipitate out of the cleaning solution, forming an off-white sludge suspended in the recirculating cleaning solution.

Even with effective filtration, calcium carbonate scale removal with citric acid has limited use.

Sulfamic acid is considered to be a gentler calcium carbonate scale remover but only performs fair on iron oxide-based scales. It is not very effective on calcium sulfate and phosphate scales. Uninhibited sulfamic acids can be corrosive to system metals during extended contact times. Because the product has to be dissolved prior to use, additional labor and time will be added to the cleaning operation. If the objective is to clean, then clean! The proper use and application of more aggressive inorganic acid cleaners will not only get the cleaning task accomplished, but typically in considerably less time on the job site.

Gluconic Acid: Pure gluconic acid is crystalline in nature, with a melting point of 125-6 °C and soluble in water at room temperature. Commercially, gluconic acid is supplied as an aqueous solution. It is safe to handle, easily applied in chemical cleaning applications, and slowly but less aggressively dissolves calcium carbonate.

The reduced activity of gluconic acid requires extended cleaning times. Calcium gluconate has fair water solubility characteristics (3.3 gm/100 ml @ 15 °C). It is an effective iron oxide scale remover and, because of its less aggressive nature, can be utilized over extended application periods.

Organic Chemical Cleaners In the chemical cleaning of high-pressure boilers with iron and copper oxide deposits, hydrochloric acid is limited because of the solubilized copper deposits on the cleaned boiler waterside surfaces. To solve this issue, citric acid and its ammoniated salts were found to not only solubilize both the iron and copper oxide deposits but also chelate the copper, preventing its redepositing on the cleaned boiler waterside surfaces.15,16 Many other organic carboxylic acids, chelating agents, synthetic polymers, and organophosphonates have been found to exhibit scale-removal properties. Specialty chemical manufacturers have claimed success in utilizing these types of organic chemicals in cleaning the scaled waterside surfaces of heat transfer equipment. A few applications of organic chemical cleaners are well suited for descaling smaller closed-loop systems.

Chelants: Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is commercially available as the crystalline acid and as various sodium salts. EDTA is also available as a 38% aqueous sodium salt solution. EDTA is generally considered safe to handle and it is easy to apply.

Products incorporating EDTA can be fed directly to a system’s recirculating water reservoir tank or through a bypass feeder. Generally, the scale solubilizing times of EDTA-based products can be longer, requiring extended cleaning times. Chelated calcium salts are highly soluble.

EDTA-based products are effective iron oxide scale removal agents over longer time periods. These products can, however, be corrosive when residence times within a system are overextended.

41

Organophosphonates: Many organophosphonates are corrosive when shipped as aqueous solutions. The dry, the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

crystalline phosphonate salts are easier to handle and apply through bypass feeders. Their effectiveness at removing calcium scales is reduced in comparison to the inorganic acids,6 often requiring extended retention times. Solubilized complexed calcium salts are generally very soluble. Organophosphonates can be effective iron oxide descalers if retention times within a system are extended. However, longer system exposure times result in more active corrosion to cleaned metal surfaces.

Commercially Available Descalants Concentrated hydrochloric, phosphoric, and, less frequently, sulfuric acids and their dilutions are readily available. In many instances, these products incorporate colorants and fragrances, and many are inhibited.

Purchasing multiple case lots of off-brand chemical cleaners at the local hardware store is very impractical when cleaning a 1,000-gallon system; hence, developing your own formulation is encouraged. Of all the specialty chemicals that are available in one’s tool box, an inhibited acidic cleaner is one of the least sophisticated products utilized by water technologists. Suppliers of the organic corrosion inhibitors for these acids would most likely be available to assist in recommending a suitable formulation.

Proprietary blends of organic acids, chelating agents, and/or phosphonates are also commercially available.17,18 In some of these formulations, the major scale-removal agent might be an organic, such as citric acid utilized in conjunction with a lesser amount of gluconic acid and/or an organophosphonate. The commercially available products are formulated to provide some level of corrosion protection during the cleaning process, although the use of supplemental corrosion inhibitors during any chemical descaling should be considered. Products of this nature typically are safer to handle during application and are far less aggressive in comparison to the inorganic acids.

The effectiveness of one such organic blend at a pH of 6.0–8.0 is illustrated in Figure 11.

42

Figure 11. Effectiveness of an all-organic chemical cleaner.

Organic-based descaling chemicals generally are biodegradable, readily disposed of, very safe to handle, and available as near-neutral, nonhazardous products. In addition, they are compatible with gaskets, seals, and recirculating pump components. Furthermore, upon completion of the descaling process, many systems can simply be drained and fresh-water flushed. There is no need to neutralize low-pH acidic cleaner wastes or residual acid remaining in the clean-water system.

Typically, fewer of the extensive clean-water rinses are associated with inorganic acid-based cleaners upon completion of the cleaning task.

All-organic chemical cleaners often are excellent-tovery good iron and copper oxide removal agents as well as calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide solubilizers. They do, however, exhibit minimal cleaning effectiveness on phosphate and sulfate scales.

Generally, all-organic cleaners are more effective at moderately high temperatures (180–200 °F) for 1–2 hours at application strengths of 5 to 25% v/v. Additional cleaning time is normally required at lower temperatures and at lower cleaner use concentrations.

Being all-organic, such products are more expensive, often costing considerably more than inhibited inorganic acids. However, for smaller closed-loop systems, they offer many handling and disposal advantages versus the inorganic acids.

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

Applications In-Service vs. Offline Cleaning It is always the preferred plan to chemically descale smaller closed-loop systems utilizing an offline procedure. In-service descaling should only be considered as a last option, simply due to the fact that once you descale a system, you may well have large amounts of hardness salts, metallic oxide corrosion products, and/or other dislodged particulates moving throughout the system.

Low-flow or constricted flow areas can be seriously fouled; elevated concentrations of dissolved scales and deposits recirculating through the system can be very corrosive, especially to the softer, more susceptible metals like brasses, aluminum, zinc, and galvanized metals; and recirculating particulates can be difficult to manage.

While the same effort is required to isolate and clean a fouled heat exchanger or chill roll, if the equipment is cleaned while in service, significant added losses could occur during a production run. Filtration by design, if present, will only trap the particulates that traverse the cooling system to the filter. Conventional filtration has no effect on high concentrations of soluble dissolved solids. All descaling techniques normally rely heavily on the efficient operation of filtration equipment.

Initial Drain and Flush Pre-draining and fresh-water flushing of the system before the actual chemical cleaning procedure commences significantly minimizes potential compatibility problems with existing system chemical treatments. Smaller capacity recirculating water systems generally afford the opportunity to drain and tap-water flush the system to avoid exothermic acid/base neutralization reactions, as well as minimizing the initial excess chemical consumption of acidic cleaning chemicals by alkaline treated closed-system cooling waters. In addition, if the recirculating water contains a hazardous agent such as ethylene glycol, those materials can be captured in reconditioned drums and disposed of through contract waste haulers before their chemistry is tainted with acidic cleaning agents.

Note that a sufficient quantity of 55-gallon drums and appropriate labels and shipping manifests need to be available on site as the system cleaning is initiated.

Providing the customer with shipping documents and 43

Safety Data Sheets adds another depth of professionalism to the services provided.

The customer needs to be aware that he not only owns the captured spent glycol wastes, but also that it is his responsibility to contract the waste hauler. If this part of the cleaning operation is conducted properly, other neutralized cleaning wastes and rinse waters most likely will be acceptable for disposal directly into the plantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s routine water discharges. A comprehensive knowledge of the cleaning chemistry enables the services provider to be the liaison with the local municipality.

Contingency Plans19,20,21 Every chemical scale-removal task potentially has associated with it one or more unexpected events. Awareness of possible incidents prior to their occurrence affords one the opportunity to â&#x20AC;&#x153;plan ahead.â&#x20AC;? Anticipating and planning for all health and safety risks is of paramount importance.

Other unexpected events, like recirculating water hose ruptures, hose coupling failures, and system piping leaks, can and do occur. The following list is intended to aid in the pre-planning that should be conducted for each chemical cleaning task. This list is not intended to be all-inclusive, although it should help the project coordinator in planning out the scope of the chemical cleaning.

Time Management: When planning the chemical cleanup of a smaller closed-loop system of up to 1,000-gallon capacity, it is important to recognize the accompanying responsibilities and obligations. Specifically, once the job is started, it should be managed and supervised through the completion of the task. Selecting an inorganic cleaning chemistry to complete the job in the shortest amount of time may add additional time to capture and neutralize spent cleaning wastes. Blended organic cleaners normally require longer, cleaner exposure times, although disposing of the spent cleaners can be less arduous and time consuming.

Assistance and Support: Chemically cleaning a 1,000gallon system is not a one-person task. Backup assistance and support is an important consideration. If the customer supplies personnel to assist on startup of the cleaning, who might be available if the job extends into the late afternoon shift?

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

Health and Safety: A review of the Safety Data Sheets for any inorganic acid or blended organic cleaning agent very clearly identifies the hazards associated with the application, use, and disposal of the descaling material. This resource should be thoroughly reviewed with the customer’s environmental and safety managers in advance of the date on which the cleaning is scheduled.

All necessary safety equipment, such as rubber boots, aprons, gloves, safety shields, and eye protection, should be on site. In addition, large industrial fans are essential to ensure a healthy environment in the vicinity of the equipment to be cleaned, along with a self-contained breathing apparatus if the need arises.

System control panels should be locked-out and tagged to prevent any unauthorized plant employee from inadvertently starting up a system’s associated equipment during the cleaning operation.

Gas Evolution: Normally, the primary gas that is evolved during the chemical removal of scales and deposits is carbon dioxide from the dissolution of calcium carbonate scales. In a confined area, sufficient carbon dioxide can accumulate to the extent that the atmosphere’s oxygen concentration could be reduced, presenting a significant health hazard. In small closed loops with an open water reservoir, this possibility is greatly diminished. Elevated head-pressures in closedsystem areas in which a large volume of carbon dioxide might be liberated could pose additional problems.

Awareness is the important point to stress!

Other gases can be present during chemical cleaning: Hydrogen chloride when an inhibited hydrochloric acid is used; hydrogen gas at cathodic half-cell reaction sites in low pH waters; and hydrogen sulfide when sulfur-containing deposits are present within a system, or if the system has been known to harbor sulfate-reducing bacteria.

Foam Formation: Extensive foaming may occur during a chemical cleaning operation if the dominant waterside scale is calcium carbonate. In other situations, rapidly returning large volumes of cleaner to the water reservoir tank may contribute to a serious foaming condition.

Some chemical cleaning agents are formulated with organic surfactants and penetrants to assist in removing organic contaminants that bind the mineral scales, which 44

then contribute to a foaming condition. Effective silicon-based defoamers usually are not compatible with the descaling agent as manufactured and need to be added directly into the water reservoir tank when foaming occurs (typically 1–4 fl oz.).

Hose Failures and System Leaks: When a recirculating acid hose ruptures or becomes disconnected at a coupling junction, warm cleaner sprays shower the immediate area until the recirculating chemical cleaning pump is shut off. To minimize significant cleaning solution losses and their associated hazards and messes, someone must always be watching for system leaks and monitoring the progress of the cleaning operation.

Prior to beginning the cleaning task, all important items and materials that would be rendered valueless if they got wet should be removed out of the cleaning area.

Items that cannot be moved, such as electrical panels and nonmoveable equipment, should be covered by plastic sheeting. In the event of significant system cleaning solution loses, containment of the spills with pigs and oil dry should be considered.

Particulates and Debris: Insoluble particulates and system debris can contribute to both excessive system corrosion, potential re-lodging in narrow water passages, and/ or continued cleaner exhaustion as the debris gradually dissolves. To minimize these issues it is advisable to continuously remove the particulates with some means of filtration. Sidestream Filtration13 with a cartridge or bag filter has proven itself to be very effective. Another approach is to direct the returning cleaner flow over a meshed pad as it returns to the cleaning rig reservoir.

Restricted Chemical Flows: If one cannot circulate the descaling chemical throughout the system due to a restricted water passage, the scale cannot be dissolved.

When confronted with this situation, plant maintenance personnel have literally attempted to drill holes through plugged heat exchanger tubes in order to create that initial cleaner passage, permitting chemical circulation.

If small heat exchangers and/or system components are thus obstructed, the scaled equipment is often scrapped and replaced.

Cleaning Duties and Tasks: Prior to committing to any chemical cleaning task, it is important to carefully the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

consider all aspects of the project and plan for the unexpected occurrence. Typical stages of the actual chemical cleaning include an initial draining and fresh-water flushing of the system; controlling customer-supplied utilities; handling recirculating rig hoses and open/close valves; physically removing debris from the system’s water reservoir tank; chemical solution recirculation; continuously monitoring the system and cleaner concentrations at all times throughout the cleaning operation; continuously watching for system leaks; and janitorial cleanup of the work area at completion of the cleaning task.

Chemical Descaling With Hydrochloric Acid In all chemical descaling tasks, knowing the chemical composition of the scale and/or foulant is very important in identifying which descaling chemistry should be used, and at what concentration and temperature the chemistry should be applied. When utilizing dilute inhibited hydrochloric acids, the suggested initial acid dosage is 1–5% by weight. Scale-removal rates increase as the temperature of the hydrochloric acid solution is increased. Normally, 120–130 °F is recommended, with a maximum temperature of 140 °F. A typical inorganic acid cleaning operation will require 2–12 hours, depending on the strength of the cleaning solution used, the solution temperature, and the chemical nature and quantity of the scale or deposit. A typical chemical cleaning procedure utilizing inhibited dilute hydrochloric acid is as follows.21 1. In glycol-treated systems, capture all of the system water in 55-gallon drums for recycling or disposal.

2. If determined to be needed, thoroughly pre-clean the equipment with an alkaline cleaner to remove oils, greases, dirts, sulfates, organics, and silica.

3. In a separate tank, make up the required solution of inhibited hydrochloric acid in tap water. Always add acid to water.

4. Using an acid-resistant or expendable pump, circulate the cleaning solution through the equipment from the bottom of the equipment up to ensure contact in all areas. Intermittent circulation may accelerate the cleaning action. For example, run the pump two out of every five minutes of recirculation time.

45

5. Periodically (once every 15–30 minutes) monitor the pH of the recirculating acid solution and any other parameters (e.g, iron and/or copper residuals). pH indicator strips22 are acceptable for monitoring the cleaning solution pH. Descaling may be considered complete when the pH remains constant (~1.5–2.0 pH) for 15–30 minutes.

6. If descaling is not complete after 6–8 hours, the unit should be drained and a new acid solution added. If a second application of acid is required, contain the spent solution from the first cleaning for neutralization before discharging from the plant.

7. After descaling is complete, flush out loosened scale with fresh water, and neutralize the system with a 2% solution of caustic soda or soda ash.

8. Neutralize all spent acid cleaning solutions in compliance with local regulatory requirements before discharging.

Cleaning Notes: a. Aluminum, zinc, galvanized metals, and some stainless steels are attacked by most dilute, inhibited hydrochloric acid solutions. b. Acid reservoirs constructed and/or lined with glass, ceramic, epoxy or fiberglass, and polyethylene have no temperature limits; tanks lined with rubber (150 °F) and polyvinyl chloride (140 °F) should not exceed the temperatures noted. c. Recirculating pumps with discharge pressures >100 psig should be constructed of Hastelloy C; <100 psig Teflon™, epoxy, and Viton®-lined pumps are acceptable. d. Packaged “pump cart systems” are commercially available.5

Chemical Descaling With All-Organic Cleaners Predictably, some blends of organic acids, sequestrants, and chelants coupled with surfactants, dispersants, and/ or corrosion inhibitors are very effective scale and deposit removers.6 These products can be formulated and applied at near-neutral pHs. They typically are not considered as the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

DOT corrosives, and being all-organic, most often they can be easily discharged directly into an existing plant’s sewer system. As illustrated in Figure 11, such products are excellent deposit removers. While these types of products are typically far more expensive than inorganic mineral acid descalants, they offer many advantages, especially in the cleaning of small 1,000-gallon-capacity systems.

For example, one near-neutral organic blend is designed to solubilize and disperse metallic foulants, such as iron, copper, and aluminum oxide corrosion products, and calcium scales. Removal of foulants such as these improves flow through recirculating water passageways.

It also improves the heat rejection efficiency of equipment and reduces pressure drops through equipment attributed to deposit restrictions. A typical out-of-service cleaning method for these types of chemistries is as follows: 1. When equipment is fouled to the point that noticeably higher chilled water or cooling water temperatures are experienced, or when losses in production occur because of insufficient heat transfer and cooling, this procedure is recommended.

2. After removing the equipment from service, drain and flush the system(s) to be cleaned. In those situations in which it is convenient, inspect accessible areas in which debris, scale, and foulants are most likely to form/accumulate. To minimize chemical cleaning product consumption, physically remove foulants and debris in all accessible areas (Figure 9).

3. Chill rolls can be shut off at the closest valve and cleaned through the rotary unions. All vibrator rolls should be cleaned at one time by isolating chill mains from the rest of the chilled water system with valves. Clean out tees and valves of all visible debris.

4. Connect hoses from the pump discharge of a portable cleaning system to the supply side of the mains on the rollers. Connect return hoses and place in the supply tank of the cleaning equipment.

To minimize excessive foaming, the return hosing should extend below the surface of the cleaning solution. Wire in power to the recirculating pump unit at the required voltage.

46

5. The approximate volume of the system should be approximated. Based on that calculation, fill the cleaning equipment reservoir tank with 1 gallon of cleaner for each 5 gallons of hot water used (~20% v/v). Hot water of the best available quality is preferred, as this shortens the heat-up period at the beginning of each cleaning cycle. Start the chemical solution recirculation pump to empty the reservoir tank and repeat this sequence until the system is full Tank capacities can be simply calculated.

Rectangular: [width x length x height in feet] x 7.5 equals system volume (gallons). Cylindrical: [3.14 x radius x radius x height in feet] x 7.5 equals system volume (gallons).

6. Recirculate the cleaning solution for one to three hours, depending on the solution temperature and the extent of the mineral scale deposition. The progress of the cleaning action can be monitored by periodically (e.g., every 30 minutes) measuring the pH of the cleaning solution with a pH indicator strip.22 7. If the pH of the cleaning solution does not rise above 8.0 after three hours of application at temperatures greater than 140 °F (maximum temperature of 180 °F), the cleaning operation is complete and steps 8–10 should be followed.

However, if the pH of the cleaning solution exceeds 8.0, the cleaner has been exhausted, and mineral scales and foulants may remain within the system.

In this situation, repeat the procedure beginning with step 5.

8. When the chemical cleaning is determined to be complete, many organic descaling chemistry solutions are accepted by most municipal sewer systems. The user is charged with the responsibility to determine any restrictions on cleaning solution discharges with his local municipal water treatment facility. In many instances, the cleaner solutions are safe and biodegradable. Cleaning solutions of this type are applied over a pH range of approximately 6.0–8.0. In most instances, no neutralization of spent cleaning solution is required. In the removal of metallic corrosion products, often the concentration of spent cleaner metals will dictate the acceptability of the plant discharges. the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Smaller Closed-Loop Chemical Cleaning Guidelines: Scale and Deposit Removal continued

If acceptable for discharge, and when the chemical cleaning is determined to be complete, drain and flush the spent solution to the municipal sewer system.

References 1

2

3

9. Refill the system with fresh water, recirculate, and drain to remove all debris and scale particles that were dislodged by the cleaner's action. This procedure may have to be repeated until the rinse water runs clear. If desired, inspect system components that are readily accessible.

4 5

6

7

8

10. Place the equipment into service by filling the system with high-quality water properly treated for the application and service.

Summary

9

10

11

Managing a chemical cleanup on a smaller recirculating system (<1,000 gallons) provides an excellent educational and learning opportunity. When investigating chemical cleaning options, it is recommended that the following points be considered:

1. For the purposes of this discussion, a “smaller closed-loop” system is defined as having a total water capacity of ~1,000 gallons maximum.

2. Dilute 5–10% concentrations of inhibited hydrochloric acid is a good inorganic acid descaling chemistry for many multiple-metal cooling water systems. Caution needs to be heeded in systems containing aluminum, galvanized metals, stainless steel, and zinc.

3. Organic acids generally offer several advantages in handling ease, safety, simplicity of disposal, lower toxicity, and reduced metal corrosion during the cleaning operations.

12

13

14

15

16 17

18 19 20

21

22

R. T. Blake, Freeze Protection of Chilled-Water Coils, Plant Engineering, October 28, 1982.

Glass-Lined Steel Equipment Use and Maintenance Basics, DuPont Engineering Guidelines.

W. Mikrut, Personal Communication, Rohm & Haas Co., Chicago, IL (2006).

Armohib Corrosion Inhibitors, Akzo Nobel, Chicago, IL (2008).

Pump Cart System, Apex Engineering Products Corporation, Plainfield, IL (1985).

J. W. McCoy, Industrial Chemical Cleaning, Chemical Publishing Co. Inc., New York, (1984).

Hydrofluoric Acid – Safety Data Sheet, Thermofisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, NJ (2018).

Ammonium Bifluoride – Safety Data Sheet, Thermofisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, NJ (2018).

Nalclean 8940 Inhibited Acid Cleaner, Nalco Chemical Co., Oak Brook, IL (1979).

Koehler Petroleum Bacon Bomb Sampler, Thermofisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA (2018).

ASTM D4057, Standard Practice for Manual Sampling of Petroleum and Petroleum Products, HIS Markit, Englewood, CO (2012).

H.H. Uhlig, Corrosion and Corrosion Control, 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1971).

D. Lingen, Sidestream Filtration of Cooling Systems, Industrial Water World (2018).

Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th ed., The Chemical Rubber Publishing Co., Cleveland, 1963.

S. Alfano, Process for Removing Copper-Containing Iron Oxide Scale from Metal Surfaces, U.S. Patent 3,072,502 (1963).

W. E. Bell, Scale Removal, U. S. Patent 3,248,269 (1966).

Industrial Heat Transfer System Cleaner, Quantum Chemical Corp., Cincinnati, OH (1984).

Chemical Cleaning with Citric Acid Solutions, Pfizer, Inc. (1981).

D. Ohman, Acidizing Preparations and Support, Cudahy, WS (1987).

R. Buenz, Instructions For Flushing a Single-Zone System, Melrose Park, IL (1999).

Dissolving Water Scale, Lime and Rusts, Apex Engineering Products Corporation, Plainfield, IL (1985).

Hydrion pH Indicator Strip, Micro Essential Laboratory, Inc., Brooklyn, NY (2018).

Acknowledgment

The author graciously acknowledges and sincerely thanks the Association of Water Technologies’ Special Projects Technical Committee, Mr. Garret S. Garcia, chair, for its input and editorial review of this document.

4. In all chemical cleaning tasks, adequate cleaning agent recirculation and movement is vital to the cleaning agent’s success.

5. In the cleanup of large closed-loop systems, providing consultative and monitoring services to the contracted chemical cleaning firm and/or the client also provides opportunities to expand one’s experience and capability base.

47

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Industry Notes IDEXX Pseudalert Method Accepted as an ISO Standard

The IDEXX Pseudalert method has been published as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) worldwide standard 16266-2 for the 24-hour detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in water.

P. aeruginosa can cause life-threatening infections in hospitals and is a frequent cause of skin, ear, and eye infections from pool and spa water. Public and private laboratories and healthcare and hospitality industry facilities count on the Pseudalert method to monitor their water for this pathogen.

The Pseudalert method features: Detection of P. aeruginosa in 24 hours—less than half the time of other commercially available methods.

High sensitivity and specificity.

No confirmation steps.

Can be more easily used with water samples that have high levels of background flora.

The Pseudalert method’s acceptance as an ISO standard marks the second such ISO milestone for an IDEXX water diagnostic. The IDEXX Colilert®-18 method was published as an ISO standard (ISO 9308-2) in 2012 and was included as one of the two reference methods for coliforms and E. coli in the revised European Union Drinking Water Directive in 2015.

For more information on IDEXX Pseudalert, visit www. idexx.com/water.

Bond Water Technologies Celebrates 20 Years With a New Website and New Look

We are excited and proud to announce two milestones for Bond Water Technologies. We are celebrating 20 years in business, and we’ve made major updates to our 48

H2O website. Thank you to the clients, vendors, and friends we have made over the years!

Today, we are trusted by over 2,000 building engineers, plant managers, and owners to deliver outstanding service, value, and innovative water treatment solutions!

H2SO4

The following is a list of some of the many updates we have made to our website.: Wastewater Treatment Services and Our New Office. We have expanded our wastewater treatment services, and we’ve opened an office that services southern Virginia and the Carolinas.

The New HVAC Rehab Division. Another major change is the rebuilding and renaming of our Specialty Services division to the HVAC Rehab division. As you will see when you visit the HVAC Rehab section of our website, we are dedicated to cleaning, renovating, and preserving your equipment. Our water treatment specialists work hand-in-hand with our HVAC Rehab division to make sure your equipment is running as efficiently as possible.

Improved Showcase of Our Products and Installation Services. We found that many of our prospects and some of our clients are not familiar with all the products and installation services that we offer. Our installation and product section showcases many of the products and installation services that we provide.

ResinTech to AMP Up Power Industry Offerings With Powdered Ion Exchange Acquisition

ResinTech, Inc. announced that has signed a letter of intent to acquire AquaChem s.r.l., a manufacturer of quality powdered ion exchange media and inert materials used for condensate filtration in conventional and nuclear power plants. The terms of the agreement, which is expected to close by October 31, 2018, were not disclosed.

ResinTech sees AquaChem's exceptional line of powdered resins as a complement to its own condensate the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Industry Notes continued

polishing products. The company hopes to provide viable product alternatives to power industry clients who are experiencing excessive lead times due to the raw material shortages occurring worldwide. The company also believes having both manufacturing and a full-service lab in Italy will give European and international customers access to products and services previously limited to U.S. customers.

Jeffrey Gottlieb, ResinTech's CEO, said, "This transaction is a great fit for us on many levels. Aqua Chem's history is similar to our own. From a strategic point of view, having a European presence improves our ability to warehouse product and decrease lead times for customers in that part of the world. We look forward to even greater synergies when our new cation plant begins production."

AquaChem was established by Roberto De Martino, a legendary figure in the condensate filtration industry.

After founding the company in 1988, Mr. De Martino became world-renowned for his technical but animated presentations, where he preached the importance of using quality products and equipment in plant operations. Over the next three decades, AquaChem became one of the most respected companies in the powdered ion exchange world.

Mr. De Martino became ill in 2017, shortly after being approached by ResinTech. Andrea De Martino, the founder’s son and current chairman, chose to proceed with the transaction despite his father's passing earlier this year. "I know my father Roberto felt we had a great deal in common with ResinTech and was convinced that a merger would have been a good thing for everyone," Andrea De Martino said.

AquaChem is headquartered in Fosdinovo, Italy, and maintains a production facility in Milan. The deal marks ResinTech's first international acquisition.

H2tronics Introduces Panel Builder— The First Online Custom Panel Building and Quoting Program H2tronics, Inc., is very proud to announce the release of Panel Builder, a brand new online custom panel design and quoting program. The H2 Panel Builder simplifies the quoting process and allows you to choose

49

from hundreds of products as you design and build your custom panel online—and in just minutes! Easily navigate your way through each step to pick the components you need. Once complete, a real-time quote, drawings, and component datasheets are available for download.

Panel customization has never been this easy. Simply follow the intuitive prompts and choose the controller, sensors, panel material, and accessories to fit your specific needs. The Panel Builder process is broken down into five easy steps: Step 1–Controllers: Select from Walchem and Prominent controllers, with more controller manufacturers coming soon.

Step 2–Sensors and I/O: Select your sensors and any additional I/O that might be needed for accessories such as flow meters or level sensors.

Step 3–Panel Options: Build your flow panel—choose from three different panel materials. Select items such as rotameters, check valves, coupon racks, isolation ball valves and options to mount pumps on the flow panel.

Step 4–Flow Direction: Select the flow orientation you need for the installation.

Step 5– Accessories: Choose from several categories of accessories, such as double containment tanks, level sensors, flow meters, and chemical pumps to complete your equipment requirements.

To learn more about Panel Builder or to try it yourself, visit www.h2tronics.com/panelbuilder or contact our team at (817) 251-7184 or sales@h2tronics.com.

IDEXX Potable Water Study

The study “Comparison of Legiolert®/Quanti-Tray® MPN test for the enumeration of Legionella pneumophila from potable water samples with the German regulatory requirements methods ISO 11731-2 and ISO 11731” was recently published in the International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. As the study states, “The new method (Quanti-Tray®/Legiolert®) represents a significant improvement in the enumeration of L. pneumophila from drinking water and related samples.”

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Industry Notes continued

In summary the study found the Legiolert method to be significantly more sensitive for the recovery of L. pneumophila for 100 mL samples compared to the ISO 11731-2 method and concluded that Legiolert could be an acceptable and potentially superior alternative to the combined current German ISO 11731-2/ISO 11731 testing procedure.

We can provide the report in its entirety upon request, but find more detailed findings below: This study concludes the Legiolert method to be significantly more sensitive for the recovery of L. pneumophila for 100 mL samples compared to the ISO 11731-2 method.

• Legiolert also recorded a significantly greater number of positive samples for the 100 mL sample test volume.

• In addition, Legiolert provided s counts of L. pneumophila that were not statistically different than the ISO 11731-2 method provided for all species of Legionella, including L. pneumophila.

• On a presence-absence basis, the study found that ISO 17731-2 was twice as likely to miss positive samples as Legiolert, including samples that were above the German action limit.

This study concludes that Legiolert could potentially be an acceptable alternative to the combined ISO 11731-2/ISO 11731 test procedure for the detection of L. pneumophila.

This study also evaluated the practicality of the Legiolert method, finding Legiolert demonstrated advantages such as ease of use and labor-savings.

The comparison of Legiolert to the 1 mL test volume was “inconclusive” due to requiring 10,660 additional samples for a reliable assessment to be made per ISO 17994 requirements.

And here’s some background and methodology information: German drinking water ordinances included a technical action value and analytical testing reference methods for Legionella.

Within this comparison study, six accredited laboratories (hospitals, water company, and commercial laboratories) in Germany compared Legiolert and the German combined ISO 117311–1 / 2 approach for the enumeration of L. pneumophila over the period of August 2016 to March 2017.

50

846 potable water samples from naturally contaminated building (cold tap) water and related systems (hot tap water, shower, circulation systems) were analyzed as either 1) 100 mL aliquots analyzed by the ISO 11731-2 membrane filtration method and analyzed by the Legiolert method, or 2) 2 x 0.5 mL aliquots analyzed by the ISO 11731 direct plating method and analyzed by 1 mL by the Legiolert method.

L. pneumophila causes 97% of Legionnaires’ disease cases, according to data from cultures of 4,719 patients over seven years in 17 countries (European Centers for Disease Control data).

Tintometer Inc. Names New Industrial Water Sales and Marketing Manager

Tintometer Inc., has named Landon Markes as a sales and marketing manager of industrial water. Backed by several years of industrial sales experience, Landon has a distinct role in developing and growing sales and support channels for the Lovibond brand within this ever-evolving space.

Formerly, Landon maintained his passion for learning and helping others through a bachelor of applied science degree in education from the Oklahoma State University.

We’re pleased to have Landon join our team and look forward to the new opportunities he’ll facilitate within the industrial water market.

Tintometer Inc., the U.S. subsidiary of the international Tintometer Group, is a leading manufacturer of water testing and color measurement products and home of the trusted Lovibond brand. With the user in mind, Tintometer Inc. offers high-quality reagents in tablet, powder pack, liquid, and tube test forms concerning key parameters like COD, chlorine, bromine, and phosphate.

We pride ourselves on our reliable and ergonomic instruments to test these key parameters with full customer service and support at-the-ready. For more information, please visit www.lovibond.com.

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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As temperatures rise, it is critical to have a clean industrial cooling water system!

Keep industrial cooling water systems clean with AMSA BCP™ Chemistry, especially during hot summer months and deliver an energy savings of 5-10% to your customer!

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Association News

AWT Members Raise $10,000 for Pure Water for the World

Volunteering and giving back is a core value of AWT. To fully embody this value, AWT partners with Pure Water for the World (PWW), a nonprofit dedicated to improving the health and livelihood of children and families living in rural and underserved communities in Central America and the Caribbean, by providing effective tools and education to establish sustainable safe water, hygiene, and sanitation solutions.

During the AWT Annual Convention, AWT members raised over $10,000 for PWW. To learn more about PWW or sign up for a trip to Haiti or Honduras, visit www. awt.org.

AWT Presents 2018 Award Winners

Mike Standish, on behalf of Radical Polymers, received the Supplier of the Year Award. Radical Polymers received this award because of its outstanding customer service, quality products, and contributions to the industry. The company has been a long-standing supporter of AWT and the water treatment industry.

Membership Dues

Be on the lookout for your 2019 membership dues invoice. Payments received after December 31, 2018, are subject to a late fee of $50, so get your dues payment in early! This is also a great time to make any updates or additions to your company contact information. Watch your mailbox!

AWT awarded the Ray Baum Memorial Water Technologist of the Year and the Supplier of the Year Awards at the 2018 Annual Convention & Exposition in Orlando, Florida.

Chris Golden, CWT, Taylor Technologies, Inc., received the prestigious Ray Baum Memorial Water Technologist of the Year Award. The award recognizes entrepreneurial spirit and outstanding contributions to the field of water treatment and service to AWT and its members.

As evidence of his dedication, Chris currently serves on several technical subcommittees. “Chris’s contributions to AWT have helped this organization grow and prosper,” said Marc Vermeulen, CWT, AWT’s immediate past president.

52

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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Membership Benefits

New Member Benefits!

AWT Exchange—New Online Community If you haven’t already done so, be sure to log onto the AWT Exchange, our new online community. The Exchange replaces our listserv and has some expanded features, including: Enhanced discussion capabilities. Now you'll receive emails that are more structured and easier to read than a traditional listserv or forum alert.

Improved Member Directory search. You can find members by name, location, work setting, and more.

Granular privacy controls. You can have complete control over what information you share with members of the community and your contacts.

Centralized subscription management. You can manage your subscriptions to all discussions in one place.

Choose to receive daily digests or real-time emails by group.

Resource sharing. All attachments posted to discussions are archived in a dedicated Resource Library. You can also add documents to share anytime you want.

Go to the Members Only page to log onto the Exchange today!

Introduction to Water Treatment Online Modules If you've hired some new staff members who will be going on technical calls for your company, AWT has launched a new online training module that will help you to get them trained quickly. From the role of a service technician to transporting products, Introduction to Water Treatment will walk your team members through the entire service call process.

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This online training is only available to AWT members and it’s free. New modules will be released as they are completed. Modules include: Role of a Service Technician Properties of Water (available now) Pretreatment Equipment Cooling Equipment Basic Water Chemistry Common Water Treatment Components Basic Water Treatment Calculations Installing Water Treatment Equipment Maintaining Water Treatment Equipment (available now) Inspections Testing Recordkeeping and Reporting Transporting Products Sign up today at www.awt.org.

Updated AWT Calculations App The AWT Calculations App allows you to determine your boiler system conditions, conduct a cooling tower survey, calculate dealkalizer capacity, and determine energy savings.

New features of the app include combining imperial and metric versions, navigation enhancements, and RSI/LSI calculators. Calculations now accept decimals in all input fields. The new version also allows users to download/ send PDFs of their calculations.

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

T.U.T.O.R.

Technical Updates, Tips, or Reviews

Handling the Heat Burden

The application examples below demonstrate a simple method of calculating the total amount of heat released by a recirculating chiller.

Numerous applications need water for cooling purposes, but tap water, cooling tower water, or process-cooled water is often unavailable or unsuitable, and, as a result, facilities need to consider use of a dedicated recirculating chiller.

These chillers provide a source of temperature-controlled fluid, typically water or an ethylene glycol/water mix, which removes heat from a process and transports it back to the chiller. However, the chillers themselves generate heat from the system’s fan motor, compressor, pump, and electronics which is released into the room.

The Importance of Calculating the Heat Burden

Employing a recirculating chiller in place of the typical facility water can provide better temperature stability and accuracy, protect valuable process equipment, reduce associated maintenance costs, and enable cost-effective use of facility resources. However, it is important that the room temperature is maintained to preserve the system’s cooling capacity. Accurately determining the heat released enables users to select the most appropriate chiller— either air-cooled or water-cooled.

Air-cooled chillers do not require the use of other water sources because they absorb the heat load from the application (process heat) and release it into the surrounding environment along with all heat generated by the chiller itself. Due to this heat release, it is necessary to ensure that the Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) system is sized accordingly. Water-cooled chillers remove process heat using a water source, and most of the heat generated by the water circulation pump and the compressor is added to this water. The remaining heat released into the room is significantly less than that of an air-cooled chiller.

Calculating the Heat Burden

The energy usage of the chiller can be calculated by referring to the system’s serial number tag and using the formula below to translate the chiller’s power consumption into watts. voltage [V] x square root phase [Ø] x amps [A]= watt [W] 56

Air-cooled chiller example A powerful air-cooled chiller, featuring a large three horsepower (HP) centrifugal pump and offering a cooling capacity of 10 kW, was used. The system’s electrical specifications were as follows: 200-230V 60 Hz 3 PH

MCA: 22.3 MOPD: 35.0

COMP: RLA: 10.4 LRA: 78.0

MOTOR: PUMP: 1 EA FLA: 8.6 HP: 3.0

FAN: 1 EA FLA: 0.7

The amp draw was calculated, and this number was used to calculate power consumption.

10.4COMP + 8.6PUMP + 0.7FAN = 19.7 amp total 230 V x √3 Ø x 19.7 A = 7,848 watts To complete the room heat load calculation 10 kW of process heat generated from the application was added, summing up to a total heat load of 17.8 kW or 60,915 BTU. Air-Cooled Chiller Heat

4.1 kWCOMP + 3.4 kW PUMP+ 0.3kW Fan + 10.0 kW PROCESS = 17.8 kW Room

This number was then converted to BTU: 17.8 kW Room x 3,412 BTU/kW = 60,734 BTURoom This represents the worst-case heat load to the room from the air-cooled chiller under the specific process load.

Water-cooled chiller example This example has the same recirculating chiller as above, but equipped with a water-cooled condenser. The system’s electrical specifications were as follows: 200-230V 60 Hz 3 PH

MCA: 22.0 MOPD: 35.0

COMP: RLA: 10.4 LRA: 78.0

MOTOR: PUMP: 1 EA FLA: 8.6

FAN: 1 EA FLA: 0.4

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

T.U.T.O.R. continued

The total heat load released by the water-cooled chiller into the room was 1.6kW, and that released into the facility water was 16.1 kW.

The amp draw was determined and used to calculate power consumption.

10.4COMP + 8.6PUMP + 0.4FAN = 19.4 amp total 230 V x √3 Ø x 19.4 A = 7,728 watts

The total heat load from the water-cooled chiller to the room was:

Adding the 10 kW of process heat, the total heat load was calculated at 17.7 kW.

Heat

The process heat all goes into the facility water supply.

Approximately 94% of the chiller’s compressor power is converted into heat by raising the refrigerant gas temperature during compression (heat-of-compression), and this is also removed by the facility water-cooled condenser.

Compressor heat:

230 V x √3 Ø x 10.4 A = 4,143 watts (4.1 kW)

0.0 kW PROCESS + 0.2 kWCOMP + 1.2 kW PUMP + 0.2 kWFan = 1.6 kW ROOM

Water-Cooled Chiller 10.0 kW PROCESS + 3.9 kWCOMP+ 2.2 kW PUMP + 0.0 kWFan= 16.1 KwFACILITY H20

Heat

The total heat load from the water-cooled chiller to the facility water was: The total room heat load was then converted to BTU: 1.6 kW Room x 3,412 BTU/kW = 5,459 BTURoom

4.1 kW x 0.94 = 3.9 kW to the facility water 4.1 kW – 3.9 kW = 0.2 kW to the room

The system’s pump motor also generates heat, the total amount of which varies with pump HP, type, flow, and pressure. For an approximation of the heat released into the room by the pump motor, the pump HP is converted to kW and subtracted from the pump’s power usage. The horsepower to kilowatts conversion was calculated:

A water-cooled chiller releases a much lower amount of heat into the room compared to an air-cooled chiller (Table 1).

WaterCooled Chiller

230 V x √3 Ø x 8.6 A = 3,426 watts (3.4 kW) 3HP*0.746 kW/HP = 2.24 kW

Process Heat

Room Heat

Room Heat (BTU)

Facility Water Heat (kW)

7.8

10.0

17.8

60,734

N/A

7.7

10.0

1.6

5,459

16.1

(kW)

AirCooled Chiller

Pump heat:

Chiller Heat

(kW)

(kW)

Conclusion

3.4 kW – 2.24 kW = 1.16 kW to the room.

Recirculating chillers are relied upon across various industries to maintain ideal temperatures to maximize efficiency of their applications. When using these chillers, it is important to understand and alleviate the heat burden that they place, and this can be done by calculating the total heat load released by the system.

As a result, users can make informed decisions when choosing between air-cooled and water-cooled chillers.

The remaining 2.24 kW goes into the facility water kWp= Total pump power (kilowatts) HPp=pump horse power Finally, water-cooled chillers use less energy than air-cooled chillers because they use a smaller fan to exhaust the heat from the case.

For more information, please visit thermofisher.com/recirculatingchillers.

Fan heat:

230 V x √3 Ø x 0.4 A = 159 watts (0.2 kW) 0.0 kW to the facility water 0.2 kW to the room

57

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Ask the Experts The discussion below occurred on AWT’s Exchange.

Be sure to join to be part of the conversation!

Thermal Energy Storage System Treatment Question 1

Due to the shear volume of these systems—500,000 gallons plus—traditional closed system treatment seems to be an expensive proposition. What alternative treatment programs are there for this kind of system?

Answer 1 Traditional chemistry is indeed expensive, especially if you consider the potential for microbial fouling and the associated MIC. Routine or even semi-routine dosing of biocides is very expensive. Add that to the fact that these systems are not typically closed loops at all, but really large vented systems with plenty of air coming in/ out.

My experience is the use of molybdenum ($$) plus silica or nitrites with plenty of azole is working really well.

I'm wondering if the new filming amines have been tried with any success.

Answer 2 All right, I'm going to go on a limb here, but if you're treating systems of that size, I would start to think of using calcium carbonate as your corrosion control, by bringing calcium up to a neutral LSi that will for the most part stop all corrosion. Then I would take a hard look at either UV disinfection or a non-chemical water treatment device such as a dolphin, pulse pure, or Wave 2.0. And the very last piece of advice for alternate water treatment would be the use of sacrificial anodes upstream of metallic systems that you're trying to protect. Whatever you do, don’t use any biocides that will break down and either contribute to corrosion or become bug food.

Question 2

Why do they need to be semi-open to the atmosphere?

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Answer 3 Two questions are raised here: 1. Why do TESS need to be semi-open? Answer is that during operation, the volume of water rises and falls. Also, the volume increases/decreases with decreases/increases in thermal changes (also density decreases with increase in temp). So, the system has to have a pressure release/venting system, and there is no nitrogen blanket employed.

2. With shear volume, traditional closed-loop treatments seem expensive proposition. What are alternatives? Nitrite/borates will never work in these systems due to a host of risks, including the semi-open nature of TESS. But my first thoughts are you should not be looking at a treatment solution until you understand and can diagnose the problems or potential problems of such a system. All these TESS systems in the U.S. and abroad have different designs, metallurgies, flow rates, and degrees of risks associated with dead-legs and quality (or not) of initial cleaning/passivation/bug elimination programs.

(Almost never done properly—often due to cost limits or lack of vision of what problems might eventually occur.)

What treatments went before? Were they successful? What monitoring has been performed? My own experience says that most TESS are never subjected to a thorough and appropriate precommission cleaning/passivation program.

Wrong chemistries, poor flow rates, lack of upfront biological control, and thus, they eventually suffer from degrees of waterside underdeposit corrosion and intermittent increases in microbiological infestation (with associated localized fouling/corrosion problems). So, find out what you have got to deal with first, such as biological fouling risks, which lead to deposits in finned copper chiller boxes, which leads to depassivation of natural copper tubing protection and absorption of inhibitors, all leading to eventual leaks. Maybe some form of cleanup first? Or perhaps improved corrosion monitoring using Corrator LPRM and Neosens biofilm monitors in critical areas. (Metal coupons the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Ask the Experts continued

are useless with these large systems, but biofilm coupons can be used in corrosion racks.) All this being said, 100–120 ppm of silicate is a pretty standard treatment, along with some TTA, phosphonate, and a tracer, such as Mo, and other formulation components. I think Kevin Thurston is, indeed, going out on a limb by using CaCO3 as primary corrosion control because the corrosion problems are almost always related to fouling in low-flow areas, leading to underdeposit corrosion and MIC. Personally, I simply would never trust any type of non- chem device in such circumstances, but I do accept Kevin's thoughts that use of continuous UV disinfection and sacrificial anodes can be useful. However, I also disagree with not using conventional biocides periodically, and argue that before taking on a TESS project, and short of totally re-cleaning these systems (at high flow rate and high cost) to remove all the inorganic/organic foulants likely to be present in these systems from the first days—or subsequently—due to the semi-open nature of the design, biocides will be necessary.

The oleylamine-based amines can work very well, but it might take some precleaning and several months before you can establish an amine residual. Also, they can film the monitoring devices, so you are not sure of the validity of monitoring results.

tank and loaded it afterwards. It was a coated tank, so that wasn't an issue, but the startup didn't go as well as I liked.

There was just too much time between flushing/cleaning of the piping and getting inhibitor into the system. On these really large loops, I've considered feeding something like DEHA during the flush to scavenge oxygen. It is also a passivator. Anyone else have any experience with that type of approach or comments in general about startup on really large loops?

Answer 5 Bio-activity is a real concern because of stagnation. Thus nitrite/borate has never been a good choice.

In the North, most of these systems are glycol-, methanol-, or calcium chloride-based, and each has its own issues.

Proper precleaning is extremely important, and filtration is a must with a big enough filter to handle the load of a big system. We tend to recommend 1 micron filtration for these loops.

Disclaimer: This information is provided with the understanding that neither AWT nor the contributors are rendering legal, engineering, or other professional advice. Neither AWT nor the contributors shall be liable for damages caused, directly or indirectly, by the use of this information, including the use of any recommendations, methods, products, services, instructions, or ideas.

Good luck!

Answer 4 Good stuff...I understand the large volume would require equally large expansion tank capability, but I would think that is an achievable engineering task. And nitrogen is cheap compared to biocides. If I owned such a system, I'd solve the expansion air exposure because the relative cost of keeping biological activity out of these systems is steep, and difficult.

The cleaning/flush of the systems I've worked on had a phase change material encapsulated in a type of plastic. On the one I did, I think phase change materials were around $30k, and when it came time for flushing, we couldn't get the manufacturer of the phase change materials to sign off on a NaOH cleaner. We flushed the system without the phase change materials in place, and then they opened the storage

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the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Capital Eyes

November Election— What Did Happen?

By Janet Kopenhaver

In March, I published a column about what we might expect to happen in the November elections. I even went on record predicting what the gains and losses would be for each party. So how well did I do? Let’s dig into the numbers.

the 2017 GOP tax overhaul bill, as well as targeted fixes that both Republicans and Democrats say are needed.

He also wants to work on an infrastructure package to pay for much needed road and bridge repair as well as retirement savings incentives.

First, what steered this year’s election? The biggest takeaway was that suburban voters wanted to send a message to the president by electing more Democrats to represent them in the House. However, the GOP base and Trump supporters succeeded in several Senate races whose states went to the president in 2016 (i.e., Indiana, Missouri, and North Dakota). Also, women voters played a big role (especially those with a college education), which resulted in a record number of women being elected. It also has been noted that voters were seeking a divided government to ensure checks and balances between Congress and the White House.

So how did I fare? Well, I had estimated that the Democrats would pick up 30–35 seats, and therefore control the House of Representatives. Almost there… two more to go to hit my margin.

The House of Representatives

Democrats needed to flip 23 seats to take control. At press time they had flipped 28 seats, with another 15 too close to call. This will mean all new leadership in the House, including speaker and committee chairs.

Of particular importance to water treatment companies would be the Transportation Committee and the House Ways and Means Committee.

Rep. Peter DeFazio (D-OR) is expected to chair the Transportation Committee. In the past, he has championed proposals to raise revenues across all modes of transportation. It is anticipated that he will propose to raise fuel taxes and index them to inflation that would serve as the cornerstone of a surface transportation reauthorization bill.

The House Ways and Means Committee, which has jurisdiction over tax measures, is expected to be led by Massachusetts Democrat Richard Neal. It is anticipated that he will hold hearings in early 2019 on the impacts of 60

The Senate

In the Senate, Republicans had better outcomes. They experienced a net gain of two seats (Missouri, Indiana, and North Dakota flipped to GOP hands, but Nevada went Democratic). At press time, there were still three races too close to call (Florida, Mississippi, and Arizona). This means that the Republicans retained control of the Senate by at least a 51 to 46 margin.

Therefore, the leaders will remain the same, although the chair of the Senate Finance Committee (which oversees tax measures)—Orrin Hatch—is retiring at the end of this year. This means that either Sen. Charles Grassley (R-IA) or Michael Crapo (R-ID) will take the gavel.

Both would be expected to focus on health care and additional tax measures.

So how did I fare on the other side of the Capitol? I had predicted that the Republicans would retain control of the Senate and gain two or three seats. Phew!

What’s Next?

Indeed, we have a divided government again, but this might be a good thing, especially in the short term. Both the president and the Democratic leaders in the House are aiming to prove they can get things done as we head toward the 2020 election. Therefore, we could see an active six to eight months starting January 2019 on the following initiatives: the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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Capital Eyes continued

Infrastructure – Highways and other infrastructure issues are both a priority of incoming Speaker Nancy Pelosi and the president, and we could actually see some bipartisanship work to push a bill through the Congress and signed into law. There also could be a deal reached to reauthorize the Highway Trust Fund. A 2015 law reauthorizing spending on highways and transit programs expires in 2020, right when the Highway Trust Fund (that covers the cost of those programs) will be in dire need of a fix. The Congressional Budget Office estimates that the fund’s transit account will run out of money in 2021 and the highway account in 2022. However, the parties do differ on how to pay to refill the coffers.

With respect to an infrastructure bill, Trump campaigned in 2016 to pump $1 trillion or more into the nation’s roads, airports, electric grid, and other infrastructure, but the issue was never put on the front burner. Democrats agree that more spending needs to be done on our nation’s infrastructure. Success on this initiative directly depends on whether the president is willing to buck the Republicans and side with the Democrats about spending this funding, which would likely necessitate some type of new tax structure or budgetary earmarking.

Also on the horizon is dealing with the debt ceiling, which is anticipated to hit its cap by March 2, 2019, and the need to negotiate a new set of appropriations caps for fiscal year 2020 and 2021.

My Wish

Let’s hope that the two parties find a way to work together during the 116th Congress and get some important measures passed and addressed that are so critical to our country. Even in a divided government, it is not impossible to do big things. Remember: a Democratic-controlled House worked with a Republican president and Senate to produce a bipartisan tax code overhaul in 1986 and the last major reworking of Social Security in 1983. Surely this new Congress can rise above the partisanship and accomplish things in 2019.

Janet Kopenhaver is president of Eye on Washington and serves as the AWT Washington representative. She can be reached at (703) 528-7822 or janetk@eyeonwashington.com.

Drug Prices – both parties have stated that they want to work on measures to lower drug prices, and certainly successful legislation on this front would be widely supported by voters. It also would give both Democrats and the White House “bragging rights” into 2020.

There are also some issues that need to be addressed during the lame duck session of Congress in November/December. First, the spending bill funding the government expires on December 7, 2018. To keep the lights on, Republicans in the Senate need some Democratic support. This gives Democrats some leverage in spending priorities.

On tax matters, as usual lawmakers are facing a 2019 filing season without the temporary “extenders” in place. If there is no action before early next year, taxpayers face the loss of about $10 billion in tax savings. Several fixes to the 2017 tax law are also in the queue, but there is no guarantee that Democrats will agree without getting something in return from the president.

62

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Financial Matters

How to Be Tax-Smart When It Comes to Mutual Funds Mutual funds are so common these days that many people overlook the tax considerations involved. Here are some tips on how to be tax-smart with these investment vehicles.

tax-efficient funds, such as index funds, which generally have lower turnover rates, and “passively managed” funds (sometimes described as “tax managed” funds), which are designed to minimize taxable distributions.

Avoid year-end investments

Another option is exchange-traded funds (ETFs). Unlike mutual funds, which generally redeem shares by selling securities, ETFs are often able to redeem securities “in kind”—that is, to swap them for other securities. This limits an ETF’s recognition of capital gains, making it more tax efficient.

Don’t fall for the common misconception that investing in a fund just before a distribution date is like getting “free money.” True, you’ll receive a year’s worth of income right after you invest, but the value of your shares will immediately drop by the same amount, so you won’t be any better off. Plus, you’ll be liable for taxes on the distribution as if you had owned your shares all year.

But don’t ignore tax-inefficient funds

Typically, mutual funds distribute accumulated dividends and capital gains toward the end of the year. It’s generally wise to avoid investing in a fund shortly before such a distribution. Why? Because you’ll end up paying taxes on gains you didn’t share in.

You can get a general idea of when a fund anticipates making a distribution by checking its website periodically. It’s also important to make a note of the “record date”—because investors who own shares of the fund on that date participate in the distribution.

Invest in tax-efficient funds

When it comes to tax efficiency, not all funds are created equal. Actively managed funds tend to be less tax efficient — that is, they buy and sell securities more frequently, generating a greater amount of capital gains, much of it short-term gains taxable at ordinary-income rates. To reduce your tax liability, consider investing in

Tax-inefficient funds may have a place in your portfolio. In some cases, actively managed funds may offer benefits, such as above-market returns, that outweigh their tax costs.

If you invest in actively managed or other tax-inefficient funds, ideally you should hold them in nontaxable accounts, such as traditional IRAs or 401(k) plan accounts. Because earnings in these accounts are tax-deferred, distributions from funds they hold won’t have any tax consequences until you withdraw them. And if the funds are held in a Roth account, qualifying distributions will escape taxation altogether.

Make no assumptions

It’s important to do your due diligence on mutual funds.

Don’t assume that a fund that historically has been tax efficient will stay that way in the future. © 2018 Thomson Reuters

Reinvested distributions can lead to double taxation Many investors elect to have their distributions automatically reinvested in their mutual funds. But it’s important to remember that those distributions are taxable regardless of whether they’re reinvested or paid out in cash.

63

Reinvested distributions increase your cost basis in a fund, so it’s critical to track your basis carefully to avoid double taxation. If you fail to account for these distributions, you could end up paying tax on them twice— once when they’re paid and again when you sell your shares in the fund. the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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Business Notes

The Art of Strategy Is About Knowing When to Say No

By Brian Halligan, Harvard Business Review

When HubSpot was in its earliest stages, I used to say yes to almost anything: new features, new initiatives, new ideas. It empowered my team to move fast and get things done. I prided myself on being a “yes” man.

We were working hard on getting product-market fit right, so anything we could do to get more customers and find the right feature mix was a critical learning opportunity.

A popular core feature of our product was our website grader. Looking to expand our reach and impact, I was quick to say “yes” to a Twitter grader… and to a Foursquare grader (yes, that was hot at the time)… and to a press release grader. If someone had a marketing grader idea, chances are I would say “yes” to it.

I said “yes” to a highly fun and creative video series.

I said “yes” to a HubSpot All Star Leaderboard that measured and posted customer engagement with our product.

By the time we’d grown to a couple hundred employees, all that dissipated energy had begun to yield diminishing returns. “Brian, this ‘yes-man’ thing worked fine in startup mode,” said Lorrie Norrington, one of our board members. “But it’s backfiring in scale-up mode. You have half-baked projects all over the place. You need to add the word ‘no’ to your management vocabulary.”

Lorrie had seen the path from startup to scale-up first hand at companies like eBay and Intuit, and I valued her perspective. Borrowing a morsel of wisdom from HP co-founder David Packard, she warned me that “more companies die of indigestion than starvation.” Lorrie was right: I had a serious overeating problem.

I adopted three practices to put balance into my yes-no diet:

66

Put It in Writing

The single best tool I have found to help unlearn the yes-man ways of a startup CEO is a single-page document we call our MSPOT. With it, we articulate our Mission, the constituencies we Serve, the Plays we’re going to run this year, the plays we are going to Omit, and how we will Track our progress.

The most painful portion of that document is the Omissions. Painful, because they are usually excellent ideas with high potential—but necessarily omitted because we are better off doing a few things very well.

One of the most agonizing Omissions I had to make was deferring the opening of our first international office by a year.

Whether to go international was a no-brainer. At the time, in 2011, we already had over 300 non-U.S. customers in more than 30 countries, representing nearly 10% of our business. What’s more, international customers were particularly happy, with a significantly lower churn rate than we were seeing domestically. Everything was pointing toward a full-on international expansion.

When to go international was another matter. Alongside the international question, I had also made the decision to radically focus on our newly clarified target buyer.

We used to have two buyer personas—“Owner Ollie,” the owner of a small business, and “Marketing Mary,” a marketing director of a medium-sized business who needed to convert website visitors into leads. I had made the decision to refocus all of our product development, sales, and marketing efforts on the marketing director.

Could we do both at the same time—align our organization around a single market and launch internationally?

We already had significant momentum for international expansion, including a few executives readying to lead the charge, making plans to move their families and careers to London. the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

Business Notes continued

Ultimately, I decided going international would have to wait another year, when we would have the wind in our sails from full alignment across product, marketing, and sales. I added “international office” to the Omissions box in our MSPOT and made sure to broadcast the decision internally: I’m dying to do international, but I want to put HubSpot’s wood behind the core economic engine of the business next year and get the machine running really well. Europe is going to happen, but I want every extra dollar on my P&L to go into Marketing Mary, and the Europe stuff is going to be a pretty big initiative that will not help with this.

The only thing I regret about this decision is that I totally jerked around [specific individuals]. I feel terrible about this. I’m confident I’m doing the right thing for the business, but in the process have done them wrong.

Let Your “No” Mean “No”

We’re a reasonably flat organization, and we give the floor to all sorts of competing opinions. Usually, we’re pretty good at coming to a conclusion, and everyone involved heads off to act on it.

Sometimes, though, ardent advocates on the short end of the decision would return to me and renew their case, perhaps with additional data or a more effective spokesperson. And, too often, in the absence of the full team, I’d see the sense in their augmented argument and give them half a green light as well. Inevitably, that led to a reconvening of all parties, which frequently enough would lead to uninspired compromises.

That decision to “put every extra dollar on my P&L into Marketing Mary” came after too many such compromises between chasing both Marketing Mary and Owner Ollie. By continuing to serve two masters, we watered down our marketing effort, and hampered our product development velocity. By finally saying “no,” in writing, to Owner Ollie, the post-decision hallway lobbying evaporated. Not only was everyone informed that the book had closed on an issue, but it became much easier to just point to the MSPOT and dispel plaintiffs seeking to re-litigate a decision.

67

And Let Your “Yes” Mean “Yes!”

The other parts of that MSPOT are for what constituents we will Serve, and what Plays we will do—with conviction, and no looking back.

In startup mode, we could make decisions quickly, and it didn’t necessarily matter if it was the right decision.

We could examine the results, and if we didn’t see early promise, we were agile enough to adjust, change course, or, if necessary, cut our losses and kill it. Remember that Foursquare grader project? We gave it a run, and we moved on.

That entrepreneurial mindset and willingness to say “yes” was instrumental to finding product-market fit.

However, in scale-up mode, the virtue of keeping our options open, and changing gears based on new information, is disruptive and expensive.

When we committed to the Marketing Mary play, there could be no turning back. That comes with risk, of course, in case we had miscalculated. But, in the transition from startup to scale-up, we had accumulated enough data and experience to be confident. And that confidence energized our entire organization as we executed our goal with intensity.

As HubSpot has grown from a startup to scale-up, the discipline of saying “no” has paid big dividends for us.

We launched HubSpot 3, our Marketing Mary play, in September 2012. By the end of the year, we had increased the number of customers by 42% over 2011.

And in spring 2013, we opened our European headquarters in Dublin.

Brian Halligan is the co-founder and CEO of HubSpot, a marketing and sales software company based in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Copyright © 2018 Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

CWT Spotlight

Kyle J. Rossi, CWT

Business Development Manager Aqua-Serv Engineers, Inc.

What prompted you to obtain your CWT and when did you begin the process by taking the test?

I remember walking into my first AWT convention back in 2012 in Palm Springs and seeing the CWTs wearing their ribbons proudly under their nametags. They were the men and women that I wanted to talk to and to learn from, the “upper echelon” of this industry. I told myself that I would do whatever it takes to get my own CWT certification. The Certified Water Technologist is the highest certification one can achieve in this industry, and it was just something that I had to have. From that day back in 2012 forward, I began the process of preparing myself for the exam. I was always pushed by my boss, Buck Long, to achieve this accomplishment, and I am forever indebted to him.

What advice would you give those thinking about taking the exam?

The advice I would give to those thinking about taking the exam is SET A DATE!!! AWT has provided so many resources to help you prepare, and there is no reason not to take on the task. Get the Technical Reference and Training Manual, if you don’t already have it, and take the three-day training course that AWT offers.

These will help you in preparing to obtain your CWT. You will thank yourself when you receive the CWT certificate in the mail.

How did you prepare for the test?

I had been preparing for the exam since the first day I started in this industry. The knowledge I have gained every single day was applied to the exam. To dive deeper into the technical portions of the exam, I used the best technical resource in the industry, AWT’s Technical Reference and Training Manual. The manual was a fantastic guide for the “self-taught” portion of the training. To have a hands-on, listening type of training, I attended the three-day AWT technical training course 68

on Water Treatment about one week prior to taking the exam at a remote location. The training I received in this class furthered my confidence and prepared me to take on the 200-question exam.

Why do you feel this credential was important to have?

This credential was important to me to prove to myself, my wife, my colleagues, and my customers that I have what it takes to be a professional water treater—that I have “gone the distance” to prove that what I say has credibility. It was also important to me to prove to my team that this credential is attainable and completely worth it. Getting this credential has motivated my team to become certified and become the best water treaters they can. Since getting my CWT, four of my co-workers have received their CWT credential, and we have more ready to take on the task.

What are the advantages of having the CWT designation?

One main advantage of having the CWT certification is that many new bid specs are requiring that a CWT either be employed by the awarded water treatment company or actually be the service technician handling the account. Without having the CWT certification, our company could lose out on valuable business.

What has been your greatest professional accomplishment?

I would have to say that getting my CWT certification is definitely up there, and getting more involved with AWT is a close second. Since getting my CWT designation, I have joined multiple committees and programs within AWT, and I will strive to volunteer my time to better this industry as best I can. Meeting new people in this industry has been an amazing experience, and I can say that I have made many friends already. I look forward to the many future experiences being involved with AWT. the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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CWT Spotlight continued

Please join us in congratulating the latest individuals to become CWTs

What do you think are the most prominent issues facing the water industry today?

(August 11, 2018–October 15, 2018)

One of the most prominent issues facing the water industry today, at least in our market on the West Coast, is customer involvement in their own facilities.

From what I have been told, facility personnel “in the old days”—operators or engineers—would completely manage the water treatment programs by testing, making program adjustments, diagnosing issues, etc. The water treatment company would show up for a normal service visit to almost “spot check” the equipment, supply chemistries, and be available for consulting. Nowadays, it is difficult to get some customers involved with their own systems. The liabilities and responsibilities have definitely shifted over past years. Getting our customers more involved will continue to be an issue, but it is something we should never stop trying to do.

Chandler Mancuso, CWT Plymouth Technology, Inc. Andrew McGill, CWT AquaPhoenix Scientific Inc. Tim Mueller, CWT Bond Water Technologies, Inc. Jeremy Stokes, CWT QualiChem, Inc.

Advertising Index 7

Albemarle Corporation

64 IDEXX

51 AMSA, Inc.

33 Lovibond Tintometer

17 APTech Group, Inc.

36 Myron L Company

21 AquaPhoenix Scientific Inc.

23 Neptune Chemical Pump Co.

53 Bio-Source, Inc.

15 North Metal & Chemical Company

27 Bionetix

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31 Brenntag North America

69 QualiChem, Inc.

59 Browne Laboratories, Inc.

61 Sanipur US LLC

52 Chem-Met Company

72 Special Pathogens Laboratory

8

CHEMetrics, Inc.

62 Uniphos, Inc.

9

Cortec Corporation

25 Walchem, IWAKI America Inc.

Pulsafeeder, Inc.

55 Environmental Safety Technologies, Inc.

71 Water Science Technologies

5 H2trOnics

65 WaterColor Management

70

the Analyst Volume 25 Number 4

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the Analyst

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