the Analyst The Voice of the Water Treatment Industry
Volume 26 Number 2
1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14 • Rockville, MD 20850
Spring 2019
Ion Exchange Part 2: Tips on Moving Ion Exchange Resins from Place to Place Blessing or Curse? How Legionella Water Management Programs Present Challenges and Opportunities for Water Treaters Evaluation of a Mixed-Oxidant System for Controlling Legionella and Other Waterborne Pathogens in a Healthcare Facility Hot Water System What Are Strategies for Reducing Uncertainty in Legionella Analysis?
Volume 26 Number 2 Spring 2019 AWT_analyst_spring2019 051019.indd 1
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5/10/2019 3:09:11 PM
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D
oller
OR
and
Cover Cover photo: Legionella pneumophila.
Courtesy of IDEXX Laboratories, Inc.
Spring 2019
Volume 26
Number 2
10 Ion Exchange Part 2: Tips on Moving Ion Exchange Resins from Place to Place
Peter Meyers, ResinTech, Inc. Moving ion exchange (IX) resins (from place to place) is Part 2 of a series of articles that covers various aspects of how IX resins are used—not the actual applications, but rather the physical aspects of touching resins, feeling them, and caring for them. This part covers moving resins, including physical (dry) methods, slurry methods, and miscellaneous aspects of resin transfer.
18 Blessing or Curse? How Legionella Water Management Programs Present Challenges and Opportunities for Water Treaters
Matt Freije, HC Info In less than four years, the number of facilities with Legionella water management programs (WMPs) has risen from negligible to thousands in response to the ASHRAE Standard 188, New York regulations, and the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Legionella mandate. Some water treaters have seen the WMP demand as a blessing, while others think WMPs are a diversion from their core water treatment business and have refused to offer them. Most companies, it seems, have decided to provide WMPs, but only to protect their water treatment accounts from competitors.
26 Evaluation of a Mixed-Oxidant System for Controlling Legionella and Other Waterborne Pathogens in a Healthcare Facility Hot Water System
Frank P. Sidari III, PE, CEE, SPL Consulting Services; and Janet E. Stout, Ph.D., Special Pathogens Laboratory To reduce the amplification of Legionella in building water systems, particularly those serving such a susceptible population as healthcare facilities, supplemental disinfectants are often necessary. The four technologies that provide a residual disinfectant and have historically been considered for disinfection of building water systems to control Legionella include supplemental chlorination, chlorine dioxide, monochloramine, and copper-silver ionization. An evaluation of disinfection methods to demonstrate their efficacy should be evidenced based and follow a four-step approach.
36 What Are Strategies for Reducing Uncertainty in Legionella Analysis?
4
Calendar of Events
5
President’s Message
6
Message From the President-Elect
7
AWT Convention Preview
52 Industry Notes 56 Association News 58 Membership Benefits 60 Making a Splash 62 T.U.T.O.R. 66 Ask the Experts 67 Capital Eyes 68 CWT Spotlight 70 Financial Matters 79 Business Notes 82 Advertising Index
Brian M. Swalla, Ph.D.; Theresa L. Knight; Veronica L. Newport; Amy L. Pednault; and Dan H. Broder, Ph.D.,IDEXX Laboratories, Inc. Legionnaire’s disease is an escalating worldwide public health problem. Certain segments of the population are more susceptible, including the elderly, individuals with certain medical conditions, and those with a history of smoking. Testing for Legionella may be performed using a variety of methods and technologies; however, microbiological culture remains the gold standard. Such methods are complicated by the use of multiple parallel testing approaches, optional treatment steps, and a requirement for significant analyst expertise and judgment. Furthermore, the accuracy of these methods may be affected by a variety of factors that increase measurement uncertainty.
This article discusses the impact of these factors on measurement uncertainty and a most probable number method for quantification that provides an alternate approach to reducing measurement uncertainty.
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the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
5/10/2019 3:09:16 PM
1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14 Rockville, MD 20850 (301) 740-1421 • (301) 990-9771 (fax) www.awt.org
2019 AWT Board of Directors President
David Wagenfuhr
Calendar of Events
Association Events 2019 Annual Convention & Exposition
Secretary
September 11–14, 2019 Palm Springs Convention Center and Renaissance Hotel Palm Springs, California
Treasurer
2020 Annual Convention & Exposition
President-Elect
Thomas Branvold, CWT Michael Bourgeois, CWT
September 30–October 3, 2020 Louisville Convention Center and Omni Hotel Louisville, Kentucky
Matt Jensen, CWT
Immediate Past President
Marc Vermeulen, CWT
Directors
Steven Hallier, CWT Stephanie Keck, CWT Andy Kruck, CWT Bonnee Randall
2021 Annual Convention & Exposition
Ex-Officio Supplier Representative
Garrett S. Garcia
Past Presidents
Jack Altschuler John Baum, CWT R. Trace Blackmore, CWT, LEED AP D.C. “Chuck” Brandvold, CWT Brent W. Chettle, CWT Dennis Clayton Bernadette Combs, CWT, LEED AP Matt Copthorne, CWT James R. Datesh John E. Davies, CWT Jay Farmerie, CWT Gary Glenna Charles D. Hamrick Jr., CWT Joseph M. Hannigan Jr., CWT
Mark R. Juhl Brian Jutzi, CWT Bruce T. Ketrick Jr., CWT Bruce T. Ketrick Sr., CWT Ron Knestaut Robert D. Lee, CWT Mark T. Lewis, CWT Steven MacCarthy, CWT Anthony J. McNamara, CWT James Mulloy Alfred Nickels Scott W. Olson, CWT William E. Pearson II, CWT William C. Smith Marc Vermeulen, CWT Casey Walton, B.Ch.E, CWT Larry A. Webb
Staff
Executive Director
Heidi J. Zimmerman, CAE
Deputy Executive Director
Sara L. Wood, MBA, CAE
Senior Member Services Manager
Angela Pike
Vice President, Meetings
Grace L. Jan, CMP, CAE
Meetings Manager
Morgan Prior
Exhibits and Sponsorship Manager
Barbara Bienkowski, CMP
Exhibits and Sponsorship Associate Manager
Brandon Lawrence
Marketing Director
Julie Hill
Production Manager
Jennifer Olivares
Website Manager
Jeyin Lee
Technical Writer/Copy Editor Lynne Agoston
Accountant
Dawn Rosenfeld
The Analyst Staff
Publisher, Heidi J. Zimmerman, CAE Managing Editor, Lynne Agoston Production Manager, Jennifer Olivares Technical Editor Michael Henley (303) 324-9507 mdhenleywater@gmail.com
September 22–25, 2021 Providence Convention Center and Omni Hotel Providence, Rhode Island
2022 Annual Convention & Exposition September 21–24, 2022 Vancouver Convention Centre Vancouver, Canada
2023 Annual Convention & Exposition
October 4–7, 2023 Grand Rapids Convention Center and Amway Grand Hotel Grand Rapids, Michigan
Also, please note that the following AWT committees meet on a monthly basis. All times shown are Eastern Time. To become active in one of these committees, please contact us at (301) 740-1421. Second Tuesday of each month, 11:00 am – Legislative/Regulatory Committee Second Tuesday of each month, 2:30 pm – Convention Committee Second Wednesday of each month, 11:00 am – Business Resources Committee Second Friday of each month, 9:00 am – Pretreatment Subcommittee Second Friday of each month, 10:00 am – Special Projects Subcommittee Second Friday of each month, 11:00 am – Cooling Subcommittee Third Monday of each month, 9:00 am – Certification Committee Third Monday of each month, 3:30 pm – Young Professionals Task Force Third Tuesday of each month, 3:00 pm – Education Committee Third Friday of each month, 9:00 am – Boiler Subcommittee Third Friday of each month, 10:00 am – Technical Committee Quarterly (call for meeting dates), 11:00 am – Wastewater Subcommittee
Other Industry Events
AWWA, Annual Conference & Expo, June 9–12, 2019, Denver, Colorado BOMA, Annual Meeting, June 22–25, 2019, Salt Lake City, Utah ASHRAE, Annual Meeting, June 22–26, 2019, Kansas City, Missouri ASHE, Annual Convention & Expo, July 14–17, 2019, Baltimore, Maryland ACS, Fall National Meeting & Expo, August 25–29, 2019, San Diego, California WEFTEC, Annual Technical Exhibition and Conference, September 21–25, 2019, Chicago, Illinois RETA, Annual Convention, October 8–11, 2019, Las Vegas, Nevada USGBC, GreenBuild, November 20–22, Atlanta, Georgia IWC, Annual Conference, November 10–14, 2019, Orlando, Florida
Advertising Sales
Heather Prichard advertising@awt.org
The Analyst is published quarterly as the official publication of the Association of Water Technologies. Copyright 2019 by the Association of Water Technologies. Materials may not be reproduced without written permission. Contents of the articles are the sole opinions of the author and do not necessarily express the policies and opinions of the publisher, editor or AWT. Authors are responsible for ensuring that the articles are properly released for classification and proprietary information. All advertising will be subject to publisher’s approval, and advertisers will agree to indemnify and relieve publisher of loss or claims resulting from advertising contents. Editorial material in the Analyst may be reproduced in whole or part with prior written permission. Request permission by writing to: Editor, the Analyst, 1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14, Rockville, MD 20850, USA. Annual subscription rate is $100 per year in the U.S. (4 issues). Please add $25 for Canada and Mexico. International subscriptions are $200 in U.S. funds.
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President’s Message
By David Wagenfuhr
AWT Business Owners Meeting
I’ve been thinking lately of the phrase "everything old is new again."
Many years ago, AWT used to hold a spring and fall meeting. The spring meeting tended to focus on business topics, and the fall meeting was more technical in nature. Over the years, the programs evolved, and the fall meeting became the annual convention, while the spring meeting was discontinued. Today, we have a new meeting exclusive to our business owners. The first offering of this meeting occurred in February in New Orleans and was a great success. Attendees heard from informative keynote speakers and learned new ways to grow their business. Interactive panel sessions and roundtable discussions gave everyone time to learn directly from their peers in the industry. We’re currently researching the dates and location for 2020. AWT member business owners should stay tuned—you won’t want to miss this event next year.
For example, the word “green” gets thrown around a lot. As water treaters, we inherently understand what it means to be green. Our whole industry is about sustainability. We understand the important role that water plays in our lives and work to conserve this precious resource. And yet, we’ve been a green industry before green was a catchphrase. This idea also applies to some AWT programs and services.
Legionella Paper
Our Legionella Task Force recently updated the 2003 AWT Legionella statement to reflect the new reality we face as water treaters. The updated paper addresses new standards, such as ASHRAE 188-2015, as well as the fact that many facilities are required to have risk management policies in place.
In-Person Technical Training
The AWT Training Seminars were a huge success this year. We had some of our highest attendance numbers ever. For the first time in a while, wastewater training was offered on the West Coast. Attendees learned the ins and outs of treatment and got to participate in hands-on jar testing. The Fundamentals and Applications course taught essential skills to those newer to our industry. Technical Training covered the higher level aspects of water treatment, including a new session on Legionella. In addition, courses on sales training and RO were offered. If you missed the in-person training, you can take the myriad of online courses AWT offers for all skill levels. Visit the AWT website to find the training that’s right for you.
Legionella 2019: A Position Statement and Guidance Document provides current Legionella and related legionellosis information in a broad and useful format that can be easily utilized by water treatment professionals and their clients as a reference and guidance document to manage the risk of Legionnaires’ disease from water systems under their care or supervision. It is a comprehensive update of collective information and data available from numerous research, investigative, and authoritative sources on Legionella and legionellosis. Be sure to go to the AWT website to download this vital tool.
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As always, I welcome your feedback and can be reached at president@awt.org.
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Message From the President-Elect
Charity
Convention
All of us are passionate about water. Beyond being life sustaining, water is for most of us, a way of life. But all too often we take it for granted. If you think that’s not the case, try going a day or two without any water. Not only will your appreciation for water grow, but you will experience the reality for millions of people around the world…no access to safe drinking water.
Like you, every year, our small business has to evaluate who we send to the convention. It’s an investment to be sure—there are the actual costs of travel and registration, plus the intangible of having people out of the field. But for us, sending our team to the convention or training is an investment that pays dividends. The sessions and panels at the convention always provide tangible tools and experiences that improve the results we deliver to our customers. Whether it's enhanced technical knowledge and skill sets or learning about new products and chemistries from the trade show floor, there are always things our attendees take away from the convention and incorporate in their day-to-day workflow back home.
AWT wants to help you transfer your passion for water into action. For the last several years, AWT has partnered with Pure Water for the World (PWW) to literally change the lives of people who do not have safe water. Through PWW, you and your employees are able to embody AWT’s commitment to help ensure that others have access to clean water.
This year will be no exception. A robust and magical program is being finalized that is sure to have something for everyone who is in the water treatment universe. In addition to papers being presented in the traditional fashion, there will be more panel presentations that will allow attendees to interact with multiple subject matter experts in a common setting.
We are excited to continue to strengthen our partnership with PWW this year. Representatives from PWW will be joining us at the convention in Palm Springs. This year, we hope to host a silent auction on items you use every day in your business. This will be a new and exciting way to raise money that will help bring safe water to people, who in many cases, have never had any!
Our goal is to have something for everyone. We want members and guests alike to come back from the convention with greater knowledge and new ideas that we can implement to make ourselves and our companies better. We know it’s easy to get wrapped up in the daily grind of work, but getting a break from the norm to learn, experience, and network with other water treatment professionals is a great way to stay motivated.
In 2018, PWW directly impacted 9,244 people in Haiti and Honduras, providing them with clean water. Here are some statistics about PWW’s successes last year: Worked in 35 communities Impacted 1,688 family homes and 44 community schools
These connections we make are invaluable. Whether it’s meeting someone new or renewing a long-time relationship, these in-person convention connections provide benefits long after the convention is over. You won’t regret taking a few days and bringing your team to join us in Palm Springs September 11–14 for the 2019 AWT Annual Convention & Exposition.
Installed 1,651 biosand water filters and 232 single family latrines Monitored 74 schools and 1,547 homes The work PWW is doing is incredible. I hope you consider getting involved at www.awt.org/about_AWT/ giving_back.cfm.
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By Tom Brandvold, CWT
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AWT Convention Preview
Annual Convention & Exposition September 11-14, 2019 Palm Springs Convention Center and Renaissance Palm Springs Hotel
Palm Springs, California
Thank You to Our Sponsors (as of 5/9/19)
AquaPhoenix Scientific Inc. Brenntag North America Buckman Carlon Meter, Inc. French Creek Software, Inc. H2trOnics J.L. Wingert Co. LMI Pumps Lutz-Jesco America Corp. Myron L Company
Peabody Engineering & Supply, Inc. Pulsafeeder, Inc. QualiChem, Inc. Radical Polymers Scranton Associates, Inc. Taylor Technologies, Inc. Uniphos, Inc. Water Science Technologies ZIBEX, Inc.
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AWT Convention Preview continued
Work is well underway on the 2019 Annual Convention & Exposition, to be held September 11–14 in Palm Springs, California. Location
Throughout the course of the meeting, there will be tracks on water treatment, wastewater, equipment, corrosion, and cooling water treatment as well as sessions on boilers, RO, and potable water. There will also be a Legionella panel and a panel on secondary disinfection. And we will have a young professionals panel, where you can learn what young professionals are looking for in a career.
We’re going back to the desert playground of Palm Springs for this meeting. While the convention offers an outstanding educational program, numerous networking opportunities, and the chance to meet with vendors, Palm Springs offers outdoor adventure, arts, culture, gaming, and entertainment. The city sits at the base of the San Jacinto Mountains and has maintained its village atmosphere with boutique shops, art galleries, and museums. With its great weather, Palm Springs has many outdoor activities available throughout the year. You can take a ride on the Palm Springs Aerial Tramway or hike the palm groves of the Indian Canyons—it is the ideal blend of outdoor entertainment and casual relaxation.
Finally, we’ll have dynamic, interactive Learning Lounges. They’re a great way to learn and connect with your peers at the same time!
Networking Opportunities
The AWT convention is the only place in the water industry where you can meet people who are confronted with the same challenges as you. As small to medium-sized businesses, attendees at the annual convention can relate to the exact challenges you face. And as we all know, networking is one key factor in being a successful business owner. The best way to get through tough times, be it a business slump or times of incredible growth, is to have a trusted peer in the industry who you can turn to for advice and counsel.
Hotels
You probably won’t have too much time in your room, as we plan to keep you busy, but when you’re there, you’ll have three options to choose from. AWT has booked rooms at the Renaissance Palm Springs, the Courtyard Palm Springs Marriott, and the Hilton Palm Springs. The room rate at each hotel is $169/night, so you can choose the hotel where you get points or where you might be most comfortable. The hotels are only about 2 miles from the Palm Springs International Airport, and they offer complimentary shuttles to and from the hotel.
Golf Tournament
The golf tournament will be held at Indian Wells Golf Resort, which is one of the few properties to have two courses ranked in the Top 25 of the "Best Municipal Courses in the United States" by Golfweek magazine. In addition to spectacular mountain views, the Par-72 Celebrity Course features breathtaking fairways and flowing water in the form of streams, brooks, and splitlevel lakes connected by striking waterfalls, with vibrant floral detail. This course is unrivaled in beauty and playability. From start to finish, the Celebrity Course offers an unmatched golf experience. You won’t want to miss the chance to play at this incredible location.
Educational Program
But of course, you don’t just come to an AWT convention for the location—you come for the education. We’ll start the educational sessions out right with an illuminating presentation by Ryan Oakes, who will present on “The Magic of Water Treatment.” Water treatment professionals are magicians—tackling the hard work of treating water, which is both a science and an art. And this is done all while serving and delighting the customer. Water treatment professionals provide first-class service. This means seamlessly handling the day-to-day troubleshooting issues when they arise and sweating the details. Customers must know they can count on their water treater. They must feel valued and understood. You’ll walk away from the keynote address amazed at the magic you bring every day.
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Annual Reception and Awards Dinner
We’re also looking forward to a great Annual Reception and Awards Dinner, which will again take place on Thursday evening to allow more people to celebrate with us. We’ll be celebrating in style this year, with a red-carpet magical event. It will be a fun time and a nice way to honor our award recipients. 8
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AWT Convention Preview continued
Register Today!
This is one convention you can’t afford to miss! Visit https://www.awt.org/annualconvention19/ for extensive information about the convention. We hope to see you there!
New Exhibitors and Vendors
The AWT Exposition provides attendees with an excellent opportunity to discuss the latest technologies and applications with the industry’s leading suppliers. Where else can you meet face to face with such a diverse group of experienced suppliers—all under one roof? Some of this year’s exhibitors (as of 5/9/19) include: Aceto Corporation Advantage Controls, Inc. Aerobiology Laboratory Associates Albemarle Corporation All-Plus Chemical Co. American Water Chemicals, Inc. AmeriWater AMSA, Inc. Anhui Trust Chemical Co. APTech Group, Inc. AquaMedix Aquapharm Chemicals Pvt. Limited AquaPhoenix Scientific Inc. Aquionics Inc. Bio-Source, Inc. Biosan Laboratories, Inc. Biosolutions, LLC Brenntag North America BWA Water Additives Carlon Meter, Inc. CDG Environmental, LLC CHEMetrics, Inc. ChemQuest Chemicals, LLC Chemtrol Commonwealth Chemical Specialties, LLC Cooling Tower Institute Cortec Corporation Creative Water Solutions LLC Droycon Bioconcepts Inc. Eddington Industries, LLC Elkem Silicones EMEC SRL EMSL Analytical Inc. Enviro Tech Chemical Services, Inc. Environmental Safety Technologies, Inc. Eurofins EMLab P&K French Creek Software, Inc.
Gaomi Hyond Chemical Technology Co., Ltd. General Treatment Products, Inc. GEO Specialty Chemicals GF Piping Systems Griswold Water Systems Grundfos H2trOnics HC Info Heyl Brothers North America L.P. High Chem Inc. Houghton Chemical Corporation Hygiena IDEXX Innovative Water Care Innovative Waters LLC International Dioxcide, Inc. Interstate Chemical Co., Inc. J.L. Wingert Co. Justeq LLC Kemira KOST USA, Inc. Lakewood Instruments LLC LMI Pumps Lovibond Tintometer Lubrizol Corporation, The LuminUltra Technologies Ltd. Lutz-Jesco America Corp. Marlo, Inc. Masters Company, Inc. McGowan Insurance Group Metal Samples Co. MVTL Laboratories, Inc. Myron L Company Nantong Kanghua Chemical Co., Ltd Neptune, part of PSG, a Dover company Nouryon Surface Chemical NuStream Filtration, Inc. Occidental Chemical Corp.
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ODYSSEE Environnement Pacific Sensor LLC Peabody Engineering Rotational Molding Phigenics, LLC Process Engineered Water Equipment ProMinent Fluid Controls, Inc. PTCFO, Inc. Pulsafeeder, Inc. Pumps and Controls Pure Water For the World Pyxis Lab, Inc. QualiChem, Inc. Quantrol, Inc. Radical Polymers ResinTech, Inc. Sanipur US LLC Seko Dosing Systems Corp. Shandong Boke Water Treatment Co., Ltd. Smart Release SNF Holding Company Solid State Technologies, LLC Spartan Bioscience Special Pathogens Laboratory Spectra Colors Corporation Stenner Pump Company Suez Water Technologies & Solutions Taylor Technologies, Inc. Thermal Charge Tiarco Chemical U.S. Micro-Solutions, Inc. Uniphos, Inc. Univar USABlueBook Vector Industries, Inc. Walchem, IWAKI America Inc. Water Science Technologies WaterColor Management Wincom, Inc.
the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Ion Exchange Part 2: Tips on Moving Ion Exchange Resins from Place to Place Peter Meyers, ResinTech Inc.
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(Author’s note: This article is Part 2 of a series of articles that covers various aspects of how ion exchange resins are used— not the actual applications, but rather the physical aspects of touching resins, feeling them, and caring for them. This part covers moving resins, including physical (dry) methods, slurry methods, and miscellaneous aspects of resin transfer. Part 1 examined resin storage, including new resin, used resin, and what happens to resin as it is stored under various conditions.)
Introduction
IX resins look and feel a little like sand. A bucket of resin weighs about half as much as a bucket of sand. Resins can be moved “dry” or wet and can be vacuumed. Resin slurries can be pumped, educted, or vacuumed by a variety of means. Small quantities of dry resin can be scooped up and poured into a container using a scoop or bucket. Larger quantities can be lifted by crane, hoist, or forklift and dropped into a tank. Physical methods of moving resin include the following approaches:
Cutting bags open is another labor intensive but quick way to move resin. Simply lift the bag up to the manway, cut the bag, and pour the resin into the tank. This method has risks, especially if the worker must carry the bag up a ladder. It is also all too easy to leave pieces of the bags in the tank. When cutting bags, a single cut through the “belly of the bag,” followed by grabbing the corners of the bag and shaking it is generally the most efficient and risk-free way of doing this. (Pro tip: Keep a firm hand on the knife, and do not leave anything (like a cell phone) in your shirt pocket.) Figure 2 illustrates loading a bag of resin directly into an IX vessel. In the photo, workers atop a vessel are preparing to empty a bag of IX resin. Figure 2: Workers prepare to empty a bag of IX resin atop a resin vessel at a power station.
Bucket brigade. The bucket brigade is a very reasonable way to move smaller quantities of resin, especially when none of the slurry methods are conveniently available. In its simplest form, a worker fills a bucket from a larger container of resin (usually a drum or super sack) and then pours it into the exchange tank— either through an open manway or through a funnel. When more than one worker and bucket are available, the process can be sped up by passing buckets from one worker to the next. Although admittedly labor intensive, a surprisingly large volume of resin can be loaded rather quickly in this fashion. Figure 1 shows an example of IX resin in a bucket. Figure 1: Bucket filled with IX resin.
Chutes. For larger vessels with top mounted manways, where the resin is provided in bulk sacks, a crane or hoist can be used to position the sack above the tank. The spout at the bottom of the sack is then opened, allowing the resin to drop into the tank. For vessels with sidemounted manways, this method can still be used by 11
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Part 2: Tips on Moving Ion Exchange Resins from Place to Place continued
fashioning a chute that is inserted into the manway and pouring the resin from the bulk sack down the chute and into the vessel. Funnels and vacuums. Resins can also be vacuumed. This method is especially useful for smaller tanks but has been successfully employed with very large tanks where waterless loading was desired. A vacuum is applied inside the tank and the resin is sucked in, either through a hose or perhaps a funnel. Vacuum-assisted funnels are a great way to load small fiberglass tanks. When dry loading a tank from bulk sacks, it is generally advisable to pre-fill the tank part way with water (a foot or two above the underdrain) so the water acts as a cushion, protecting the internals from possible damage. In cases where waterless loading from bulk sacks is desired, the discharge from the first sack(s) should be carefully controlled to prevent the resin from dropping “en masse” onto the internals. Once the internals are covered with resin, this extra caution is no longer needed.
Slurry Methods
Resin is readily transferred as slurry. Although slurry methods may require additional hardware, they are usually faster than dry loading methods and require less manpower. Slurry methods of loading resin generally employ one of the following: Eductor syphons Pumps (either air diaphragm or a variety of trash pumps) Pressurized transfer from a pressure vessel Eductors (ejectors) use water pressure to create a vacuum that sucks up resin and entrains it in the discharge. These devices are inexpensive and easy to use. They are not very fast and use large volumes of water. They are somewhat less prone to plugging than other slurry methods and thus are perhaps better for beginners. A 2-inch (in) eductor using 60-gallons per minute (gpm) of motive water can transfer approximately 2 to 5 cubic feet (ft3) per minute. Depending on motive water 12
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pressure (higher is better), eductors typically cannot suck resin up more than few feet and cannot discharge it to greater than 15 feet height. Eductors require a minimum of 40 pounds per square inch (psi) motive pressure; however, 60 psi is better, and 80 psi or more is ideal. Figure 3 shows an eductor used for moving IX resin. Figure 3: Eductor used for moving IX resin.
Resin pumps. Slurries can be pumped by a variety of pumps. Resin pumps are very fast and efficient. Resin loading using a resin pump is simple and requires very little manual labor. However, pumping slurries can be tricky and does require attention to slurry basics. There are a few simple tricks to the process that must be learned in order to load tanks efficiently and without problems. The two most popular types of resin pumps are double diaphragm and recessed impeller-type centrifugal pumps. Tube pumps, gear pumps, and conventional centrifugal pumps (where the impeller is not recessed) are more problematic because they have a greater tendency to fracture some of the resin beads and are also more prone to plugging. Air- or electric-driven double-diaphragm pumps are convenient and effective. They are more prone to plugging than recessed impeller pumps and more difficult to clear when plugged. A minimum size of 1½ in is recommended, but 2 in is better. Recessed impeller pumps (sometimes known as trash pumps) have the impeller positioned outside the flow path and work by creating a vortex that sucks up the slurry. Although not specifically designed to pump resin, they are relatively inexpensive and fairly easy to use, and they the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Part 2: Tips on Moving Ion Exchange Resins from Place to Place continued
are heavy. The best sizes are 2-in or 3-in, and cast iron is probably better than stainless steel because it is better at dissipating heat, and the stainless pumps do tend to overheat if used for more than a few minutes at a time. Figure 4 shows an illustration of a resin bin and pump used to move IX resin into a vessel. Figure 5 shows resin being loaded into a vessel by pumping in an industrial facility. Figure 4: Illustration of IX loading approach using a bin and pump.
Pressurized Resin Transfer
Resin can also be transferred from the bottom (or bottom side) of a pressure vessel using water and/or air pressure. For air-water pressure transfer, the following general guidelines apply: 1. Two volumes air (at >30 pounds per square inch gauge [psig]) per volume of resin minimum. 2. One volume of water per volume of resin minimum. 3. Resin transfer sequence: a. Fluidize resin first by backwashing. b. Start water transfer first, then add air (after approximately 1 minute). c. Stop water but continue air when resin is approximately half transferred. i. Allow the vessel to drain, but keep water over the resin until almost all the resin has transferred. ii. Add more water as needed to maintain the resin slurry d. When almost all the resin and water has transferred, add more water to refill. i. Allow water level to rise to approximately 6 in. ii. Allow water level to drop until only air is flowing out the transfer line. iii. Cycle back and forth between filling and draining to transfer the last traces of resin from the vessel.
Figure 5: Loading IX resin into a vessel by pumping.
e. Depressurize vessel by turning off air and water and opening vent.
Resin Slurry Fundamentals
For any slurry method, start the flow of water first and then add the resin for best results. This is especially true of pumping methods. There is some “learned technique� associated with using resin pumps, especially with granular medias that do not flow easily. Moving resin as a slurry is generally easiest if the flow of water is established first and then the resin is introduced 13
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Part 2: Tips on Moving Ion Exchange Resins from Place to Place continued
into the flow. This practice greatly reduces the chance of resin plugging up the transfer line. Transfer piping considerations. Moving granular materials by slurry and having the transfer piping plug up can be a very frustrating experience. Following a few basic principles will help prevent problems. Here are some guidelines for smoother operation: 1. Keep the slurry velocity above 4 feet per second (fps). At lower flows, the resin tends to separate out below the water. A minimum of 6 to 8 fps velocity is ideal (no upper limit except that of prudent piping design). 2. Keep the liquid-to-resin ratio at 1:1 or greater. Two volumes of water per volume of resin is ideal. 3. Small transfer lines plug easier than larger lines. Do not use anything smaller than 1-in transfer piping. Piping sized at 2 or 3 in is better. 4. Keep transfer lines as short as possible, especially if the transfer lines are 1 in. 5. Hose is good, but watch out for hose fittings that severely restrict the opening size, and avoid hose that is corrugated on the inside. 6. Pipe is good, but avoid short radius elbows or tees. Do not use piping smaller than 1½-in—you are just asking for trouble. 7. ALWAYS start the flow of water first, before adding resin to the slurry.
Dewatering Strategies
Since all wet methods of removing resin into or out of a tank involve the use of water, it is usually necessary to consider dewatering when planning for resin loading or unloading. The least amount of water needed is when unloading with a vacuum or with tank tipping. Here, the volume of water could be as little as the interstitial void volume (approximately one-half of the resin volume). However, other methods require considerably more water. Pressurized transfer and pumping methods use between 1.5 and 3 volumes of water per volume of resin. Eductors and gravity flow methods require even more water. 14
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Hopefully, the containers the resin will be unloaded into will be self-draining (meaning they have a strainer and drain or are porous enough for the water to escape while retaining the resin). If the containers are not self-draining, it is necessary to allow for the extra water volume in planning how many containers are needed. Dewatering bins, totes, or plastic tanks can be fitted with a drain and strainer that permit convenient dewatering. These containers are especially useful if the resin will be stored and later returned to the service vessel. Be sure to allow some extra capacity to account for excess water. These containers are generally not as convenient if the resin will be subsequently disposed of because additional steps are needed to transfer the resin into the final disposal container. Dewatering hoppers are generally only used for permanent facilities where resin unloading and dewatering is frequently required. The hopper should have a cone angle of at least 60° (steeper is better) and should be equipped with screened drains close to the bottom of the cone. The bottom of the cone should be sufficiently elevated to position and drum or bulk sack underneath. A 6-in or larger butterfly valve placed at the very bottom of the cone permits unloading dewatered resin directly into a drum or bulk sack without any further requirement for unloading. (Pro Tip: It helps to have an air wand that can be lowered into the tank and directed at clumps of resin that stick to the sidewall. This method permits removal of all but a few beads.) Dewatering wand. For drums, totes, and bins, it is fairly easy to construct a dewatering wand. This is simply a pipe with a screen over the end connected to a shop vac or other vacuum. The wand is pushed down to the bottom of the container, and excess water is vacuumed out. It helps to tip the container with the wand positioned at the low point. Drip dry. Bulk sacks filled with water and resin are not stable and must be supported until the water drains. The last of the water pools at the bottom of the sack. Lifting the sack and allowing it to drip dry helps complete the dewatering process.
the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Part 2: Tips on Moving Ion Exchange Resins from Place to Place continued
Closure
This discussion about moving IX resins is Part 2 of a multi-part work describing the physical aspects of how resins are used. Other articles in this series include an introduction to using IX resins, storage, loading, unloading, disposal, and step-by-step procedure outlines. Author Peter Meyers is the technical director for ResinTech Inc., an ion exchange resin manufacturer. Mr. Meyers has more than 45 years of experience covering a wide range of ion exchange applications, from demineralizers, polishers, and softeners to industrial process design and operation. Mr. Meyers is co-inventor along with Mike Gottlieb for a hybrid ion exchanger used to remove arsenic from potable water. He can be reached at pmeyers@resintech.com. This article is based on a paper presented by the author at the 2018 AWT Annual Conference, which was conducted Sept. 26–29, 2018, in Orlando, Florida.
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Deadly, but preventable. Add the reliable culture test for Legionella pneumophila to your customers’ water management plan to reduce the risk of Legionnaires’ disease.
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Blessing or Curse? How Legionella Water Management Programs Present Challenges and Opportunities for Water Treaters Matt Freije, HC Info
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regulations for minimizing Legionella risk associated with cooling towers. The picture on this page shows the cover for the 2018 (2) ASHRAE 188 standard.
In less than four years, the number of facilities with Legionella water management programs (WMPs) has risen from negligible to thousands in response to the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 188 (1, 2), New York regulations, and the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) Legionella mandate. Nearly all the WMP demand has been met by water treatment companies—something for which the industry and the Association of Water Technologies (AWT) should be proud of, because effective WMPs protect health and life. Some water treaters have seen the WMP demand as a blessing, relishing the opportunity for another revenue stream. Others think WMPs are a diversion from their core water treatment business and have refused to offer them. Most companies, it seems, have decided to provide WMPs, but only to protect their water treatment accounts from competitors.
Requirements
The June 2015 release of ASHRAE Standard 188 (1) represented a consensus among government agencies, industry groups, and Legionella experts about the best approach to Legionella prevention—namely, to implement a WMP. To comply with the standard, facilities must have a WMP for any cooling tower, whirlpool spa, ornamental fountain, water feature, mister, air washer, or humidifier. The standard also impacts plumbing systems in buildings that have a centralized hot water system of more than 10 stories, housing for people over the age of 65, patients staying longer than 24 hours, or occupants more susceptible to Legionella infections than the general population. ASHRAE Standard 188 outlines a framework of key elements a WMP must include (see “Providing a quality deliverable” below), leaving most of the details to the WMP team. Just a few days after its release, ASHRAE Standard 188 came into the spotlight because of an outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease in New York City that sickened more than 120 people and caused 12 deaths. Shortly after the outbreak, New York City and New York State adopted emergency ASHRAE Standard 188-related
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Used with permission of ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA.
Legionella awareness and the demand for WMPs picked up more steam in 2016. New York City and New York State updated their regulations and made them permanent, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) released a report to the media about a sharp rise in Legionnaires’ disease cases. Several large media outlets published the CDC’s conclusion that building water systems must be better managed. These included USA Today, which reported, “Most outbreaks can be prevented through better water management, according to the CDC report.” What has increased demand for WMPs more than anything to date was the CMS “requirement to reduce Legionella risk in healthcare facility water systems,” (3, 4) released in June 2017. To avoid a citation for noncompliance, hospitals and nursing homes receiving Medicare reimbursements must implement a WMP based on ASHRAE Standard 188 and the CDC toolkit. (5)
Challenges
Challenges still facing water treaters due to the demand for WMPs include the following: Providing water treatment services but not WMPs. Water treaters that do not provide WMPs, or at least refer their customer to a company that does, risk losing water treatment accounts to competitors that get a foot in your customer’s door. Even if the WMP provider is not a water
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treatment competitor, you could lose a degree of control over the water treatment program if the WMP includes specifications for the cooling water treatment program. Selling WMPs. Even with ASHRAE Standard 188 and the CMS mandate, many water treatment companies find it hard to sell WMPs. You must convince the customer that the benefits of a WMP outweigh the cost. If you effectively articulate the reasons to implement a WMP but the customer chooses not to, you have not failed; the customer has. Next, you must convince the customer that developing a WMP on its own will ultimately cost more than paying for setup services. And finally, you must persuade the customer that you can provide a better WMP for the price than water treatment competitors as well as industrial hygiene, engineering, or consulting firms offering WMPs. Providing a quality deliverable. The WMP must have the essential ASHRAE 188 framework elements with details pertinent to the facility’s water systems, including: A brief description of all building water systems, with flow diagrams. Figure 1 shows a sample potable water flow diagram. Figure 1: Potable flow diagram.
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Blessing or Curse? How Legionella Water Management Programs Present Challenges and Opportunities for Water Treaters continued
A hazard analysis that correctly notes which water systems present a significant potential for Legionella growth and transmission and, for each that does, whether it is a location at which Legionella control measures can be effectively applied. Letting the customer decide which water systems should be included in the WMP is a crucial mistake. All building water systems—not just cooling towers— should be properly managed for Legionella control, including point-of-entry domestic water, as shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows a comfort cooling system atop a high-rise building in New York City. Figure 2: A point-of-entry for domestic water, which also should be managed to control Legionella. Photo courtesy of HC Info. Used with permission.
Figure 3: Example of a comfort cooling water system atop a high-rise building in New York City.
Control measures that are practical, yet defensible, and comprehensive, smart, specific, and evidence-based. Control measures are the most important part of a WMP because they are what will either succeed or fail in reducing the risk of disease. Other parts of the WMP—flow diagrams, water systems descriptions, hazard analysis—are important but in themselves do not reduce risk. Under ASHRAE 188 (Figure 4), control measures require a performance limit, monitoring procedure, and corrective action. Figure 4: Per ASHRAE Standard 188, each control measure must have a performance limit, monitoring procedure, and corrective action.
Validation procedures must be outlined to measure the effectiveness of the WMP in accomplishing its main objective, to control Legionella. Although a good WMP will reduce the risk of many waterborne pathogens, Legionella is the best pathogen by which to define the scope and objective of a WMP because Legionella is almost entirely waterborne. Several commercial laboratories in the United States can test for it in water samples, and numerous scientific studies provide an abundance of data on which to base control measures and remediation methods. Persuading the customer to test for Legionella. Although disinfectant levels, temperatures, and other tests can provide valuable information for water management, Legionella test results for water samples properly collected from key locations and analyzed by a proficient laboratory—if interpreted and applied properly—are the best indicator of Legionella control and thus the best way to validate a Legionella WMP. Since Legionella testing is beneficial and important for your customer, you should
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Blessing or Curse? How Legionella Water Management Programs Present Challenges and Opportunities for Water Treaters continued
effectively communicate the benefits of testing even if you are not offering sampling services. If the customer refuses to sample, ensure the written record reflects it was the customer’s decision despite your advice. Producing and delivering WMPs efficiently. The speed of WMP setup is important for minimizing cost and legal risk for the water treater. It is important for the customer, too, so that implementing Legionella prevention commences as soon as possible. After starting the WMP development project, move it along for a rapid completion. A common mistake resulting in delays is giving the customer control over WMP decisions that the WMP provider (water treater) should be making until turning the WMP over to the customer. Training is key to keeping control of the project, because to do so, the water treater must have confidence. Knowledge increases confidence, and training increases knowledge. Other keys to efficiently surveying sites and developing WMPs are defining up front exactly who (water treater vs. customer) is responsible for what, limiting your dependence on information from the customer, and delivering the WMP with written communication that clarifies that the WMP is finished and being turned over to the customer, including clear instructions for getting started with implementation.
get started with control measures and perhaps quarterly meetings for at least a year to ensure that implementation is on pace. The proposal should be written so that it will not be interpreted to imply that the water treater is responsible for implementing the WMP.
Opportunities
Market for WMPs. One of the lessons learned in the last four years is that only a small percentage of facilities will implement an effective WMP voluntarily. (7) Since the 1990s, government agencies and professional societies have been warning engineers and building operators that water systems must be properly managed to reduce the risk of Legionnaires’ disease, but relatively few facilities implemented Legionella preventive measures prior to the June 2015 release of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 188-2015. (1) Although WMPs have increased several-fold since ASHRAE Standard 188 was released, the number of facilities implementing effective WMPs is still only a fraction of what it should be. What have moved the needle are New York regulations, with respect only to cooling towers, and the CMS mandate. The surprising and sad reality is that most facilities have done only what is required, and water treaters should anticipate demand accordingly. If several states establish regulations requiring WMPs per ASHRAE Standard 188, demand will increase many-fold. If no new requirements are established, demand will likely increase gradually, with awareness of WMP benefits vs. costs. Scalability is the smart play.
For more information on delivering quality WMPs with speed and efficiency, see the AWT 2017 convention presentation “Site Surveys for Legionella Water Management Plans: 9 Keys to Maximizing Efficiency and Minimizing Risk.” (6)
Competition for market share. Don’t fret about companies that offer inadequate content or loss-leading services to get an initial WMP sale and then try to make up for it with over-priced add-on services. Companies that provide high-quality WMPs will win in the end.
Persuading the customer to implement the WMP. A WMP will reduce the risk of illness only if it is implemented. In addition, not implementing a WMP makes the job of an attorney representing a plaintiff who allegedly contracted Legionnaires’ disease at the customer’s facility much easier.
Customers will eventually discover which companies are providing the best value. In addition, facilities with inadequate WMPs will be associated with disease more than facilities that implement good ones, increasing legal risk for both the facility and the WMP provider (water treater).
Clearly, it’s the facility and not the water treater that is responsible for implementing a WMP, but the water treater should propose a meeting to help the customer
As with most products and services, companies that provide excellent quality and service at fair prices will prosper and sleep better.
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Blessing or Curse? How Legionella Water Management Programs Present Challenges and Opportunities for Water Treaters continued
Summary
Water treaters get to choose whether the demand for WMPs is a blessing or curse to their business. The ones that put off dealing with it, or handle it poorly, run the risk of losing accounts or being labeled incompetent. The ones that dive in and do it well will have happier customers, more profit, and lower risk.
References
1. ASHRAE (2015). ASHRAE Standard 188: “Legionellosis: Risk Management for Building Water Systems.” American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA. 2. ASHRAE (2018). ASHRAE Standard 188: “Legionellosis: Risk Management for Building Water Systems,” updated version, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA. 2018 update available for purchase at https://www. techstreet.com/ashrae/pages/home.
3. CMS (2017). “S&C 17-30-Hospitals/CAHs/NHs,” Department of Health & Human Services, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Baltimore, MD. Available at https://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Provider-Enrollment-and-Certification/SurveyCertificationGenInfo/ Downloads/Survey-and-Cert-Letter-17-30.pdf. 4. CMS (2018). “QSO-17-30-Hospitals/CAHs/NHs.” Department of Health & Human Services, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Baltimore, MD. Available at https://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Provider-Enrollment-and-Certification/SurveyCertificationGenInfo/ Downloads/QSO17-30-HospitalCAH-NH-REVISED-.pdf.
5. CDC (2017). “Developing a Water Management Program to Reduce Growth & Spread in Buildings: A Practical Guide to Implementing Industry Standards.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/legionella/maintenance/wmp-toolkit.html. 6. Freije, M. (Sept. 13–16, 2017). “Site Surveys for Legionella Water Management Plans: 9 Keys to Maximizing Efficiency and Minimizing Risk,” 2017 Association of Water Technologies Annual Conference, Grand Rapids, MI.
7. Freije, M. (2018). “Why State Officials Hold the Keys to Preventing Legionnaires’ Disease: And ASHRAE Standard 188 is their Best Option for the Next Five Years.” Available at https://hcinfo.com/blog/statesmust-require-ashrae-188-to-prevent-legionnaires-disease/.
Matt Freije is the founder and CEO of hcinfo.com and the content director for LAMPS, its cloud-based application for water management plans, analytics, and training. He has presented Legionellarelated educational sessions at several AWT conventions since 2001. Mr. Freije may be contacted at mfreije@hcinfo.com. This article is based on a paper presented by the author at the 2018 AWT Annual Conference, which was conducted Sept. 26–29, 2018, in Orlando, Florida.
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Evaluation of a Mixed-Oxidant System for Controlling Legionella and Other Waterborne Pathogens in a Healthcare Facility Hot Water System Frank P. Sidari III, PE, CEE, SPL Consulting Services; and Janet E. Stout, Ph.D., Special Pathogens Laboratory
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Introduction
To reduce the amplification of Legionella in building water systems, particularly those serving such a susceptible population as healthcare facilities, supplemental disinfectants are often necessary. The four technologies that provide a residual disinfectant and have historically been considered for disinfection of building water systems to control Legionella include supplemental chlorination, chlorine dioxide, monochloramine, and coppersilver ionization. An evaluation of disinfection methods to demonstrate their efficacy should be evidenced based and follow a four-step approach. Those steps (1) are as follows: 1. Demonstrate in vitro efficacy. 2. Anecdotal experience of efficacy in individual hospitals.
This is the first prospective independent (self-funded) evaluation of a mixed-oxidant disinfection system for Legionella control in a healthcare facility’s hot water system.
Study Background
3. Peer-reviewed controlled studies of prolonged duration documenting efficacy and prevention of Legionnaires’ disease. 4. Confirmatory reports from multiple hospitals with a prolonged duration of follow-up. No single disinfection technology is applicable to all water systems. A successful supplemental disinfection system needs to consider numerous factors (2), including the following: 1. Ability to achieve and maintain a residual that is effective for controlling Legionella; 2. Arrangement of water system piping and components; 3. Consumables; 4. Operation and maintenance; 5. Water quality; and 6. Permitting requirements. Supplemental disinfectants are most commonly installed on the recirculating hot water system in buildings. Hot water, rather than cold water, is where conditions are most conducive for Legionella amplification. Hot water installation also minimizes equipment costs because of smaller treated water volumes and limits of exposure by building occupants to additional chemicals in their cold drinking water.
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Mixed-oxidant generation is a relatively new approach for Legionella control. Mixed oxidants have been used in cooling towers, recreational waters, and potable water applications for control of other microorganisms and water quality. In potable water, mixed-oxidant products have been used for municipal and commercial water treatment for more than 20 years with thousands of applications in the United States. This technology is an onsite chemical disinfection system that combines water, salt, and electricity to generate a chlorine and hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectant.
The prospective controlled study was conducted at a facility that is a continuing care retirement community (independent, assisted, and skilled care) located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. The facility includes 250 independent living homes and 55 assisted living homes and is licensed for 70 skilled nursing beds. At the time of the evaluation, the facility was operating at capacity. The mixed-oxidant generator (MIOX Rio Zuni 2 PPD by Johnson Matthey, Albuquerque, NM) was installed on the recirculating hot water system serving the facility. The unit has the capacity to generate 2 pounds (approximately 65 gallons) of free available chlorine (FAC) per day. Potable water supplied through a reverse osmosis filter and a brine solution is piped to the generator that produces the concentrated mixed oxidant solution for a day tank. The mixed-oxidant solution is fed using a metering pump into the hot water supply to the building. A chlorine analyzer on the hot water return line is used to monitor free chlorine in the circulating loop and adjust the feed rate to the system. Figure 1 provides a photo of the installation.
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Evaluation of a Mixed-Oxidant System for Controlling Legionella and Other Waterborne Pathogens
Figure 1: Mixed-oxidant generator installation including RO feed water, brine tank, and generator with oxidant storage, feed pump, and chlorine analyzer.
continued
followed by a 1-minute flush and collection of hot water for chemistry analysis. Cold water was then flushed for 1-minute and samples for microbiology and chemistry analysis were collected. Sample collection from the incoming cold water and hot water return was performed after a 1-min flush from the sample valve. The 120 째F hot water storage tank drain was sampled by collecting the immediate sample (pre) and a flushed sample (post), while the 160 째F tank had only a flushed sample (post) collected from the drain. Microbiologic samples were analyzed by Special Pathogens Laboratory for Legionella, Heterotopic Plate Count (HPC), Pseudomonas, and non-tuberculous Mycobacteria using standard laboratory procedures.
The installation was completed and brought on line starting on September 19, 2016, with a target of free chlorine in the hot water return of 0.5 to 1.0 milligrams per liter (mg/L). The target free chlorine in the hot water return was reduced to 0.2 mg/L on March 29, 2017.
Data Collection
Monitoring locations included the incoming cold water, hot water return, 120 째F hot water storage tank (pre and post), 160 째F hot water storage tank (post flush), and 10 representative distal (outlying) water outlets. Microbiological monitoring was conducted in two phases: 1. Pre-installation baseline; and 2. Postdisinfection. Two rounds of baseline samples were collected on July 21, 2016, and September 8, 2016. Seven rounds of post-disinfection sampling were performed between September 22, 2016, and October 18, 2017. Twenty-five samples were collected during each microbiological monitoring event. Baseline water chemistry samples were collected on July 21, 2016. Twelve rounds of post-disinfection water chemistry sampling were performed between September 22, 2016, and October 18, 2017. Four samples were collected during each chemistry monitoring event. Sample collection from distal outlets was performed by collecting first draw hot water for microbiologic analysis 28
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Aqueous chemistry samples were analyzed by a thirdparty laboratory for metals (iron, calcium, magnesium, zinc, lead, copper, and manganese) and disinfection byproducts (trihalomethane and haloacetic acids). Metals samples were collected in acid-preserved bottles. Disinfection byproducts were collected in separate amber glass bottles with preservative and zero-head space. Free and total chlorine was measured in the field using a DPD (N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine) method with a HACH SL1000 instrument.
Data Analysis
Statistical analysis was performed on the data comparing baseline and post-treatment results using two-sample t-tests with equal variances. Data was analyzed as a whole set and only distal outlets. Legionella. Legionella pneumophila serogroup 3 was detected during baseline sampling, while Legionella, blue-white species and L. pneumophila serogroup 3 was detected post-disinfection. There was a significant reduction (P<0.0001) in Legionella positivity over all sampling locations comparing baseline (50.0% [25/50]) to post-treatment (1.7% [5/300]). Similarly, there was also a significant reduction (p<0.0001) in Legionella positivity at the distal outlets comparing baseline (52.5% [21/40]) to post-treatment (1.7% [4/240]) (Figure 2). There was also significant reduction in the concentration of Legionella recovered overall (0.75 versus 0.02 colony forming units per milliliter [CFU/mL]) as well as at the distal outlets (0.76 versus 0.02 CFU/mL).
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Evaluation of a Mixed-Oxidant System for Controlling Legionella and Other Waterborne Pathogens
continued
Figure 2: Legionella positivity of distal hot water outlets was significantly reduced with the application of the mixed oxidant. Distal site positivity was maintained post-treatment below the threshold of 30% as an indicator that risk for Legionnairesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; disease was being managed.
Heterotrophic plate count. There was a significant reduction in HPC post-treatment with a mean 1.8-log reduction (p<0.0001). Distal outlets showed a 2-log reduction post-treatment (p<0.0001). The average baseline HPC concentration in the hot water return was 24,455 CFU/mL (x=2) and was reduced to 20 CFU/ mL (x=12) post-treatment. The average baseline HPC concentration at the distal outlets was 282,822 CFU/ mL (x=20) and was reduced to 13,789 CFU/mL (x=120) post-treatment. Non-tuberculous Mycobacteria. Mycobacteria gordonae was identified during baseline and post-disinfection sampling. Over all sampling locations, there was not a significant reduction in positivity (36.7% [18/49] baseline versus 39.1% [107/274] post-treatment) or in average concentration (0.54 versus 0.41 CFU/mL) of Mycobacteria. Similarly, considering only distal outlets, there was not a significant reduction in positivity (46.2% [18/39] baseline versus 44.3% [97/219] post-treatment) or in average concentration (0.68 versus 0.48 CFU/mL). Pseudomonas. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was identified 30
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during baseline and post-disinfection sampling. Over all sampling locations, there was not a significant reduction in Pseudomonas positivity (8.0% [4/50] baseline versus 7.1% [18/255] post-treatment). Similarly, considering only distal outlets, there was not a significant reduction in positivity (10% [4/40] baseline versus 8.8% [18/205] post-treatment). The same was true for concentration, with no significant difference between baselines and post-treatment. Metals. There were no statistically significant differences in metals concentrations between baseline and post-treatment or between incoming cold water and hot water during the post-treatment period. Trihalomethane (THM). Overall, there was no significant difference in THM levels between baseline and post-treatment. This was also true when comparing hot water between baseline and post-treatment. Posttreatment THM levels were higher (p=0.006) in the hot water compared to incoming cold water. Figure 3 compares the THM concentrations in the incoming cold water and average hot water. the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Evaluation of a Mixed-Oxidant System for Controlling Legionella and Other Waterborne Pathogens
continued
Figure 3: THM concentrations in the hot water post-treatment were significantly higher than the incoming cold water. Incoming cold water (two events) and hot water (eight events) had THM concentrations above the EPA MCL of 80.0 Âľg/L.
Haloacetic acid (HAA). Overall and at distal outlets, HAAs were higher post-treatment when compared to baseline (p=0.04). Post-treatment HAA levels were also higher (p=0.001) in the hot water compared to incoming cold water. The mixed-oxidant concentration was higher at the start of application. So HAAs were significantly higher during this period compared to baseline or later in the study when treatment levels were reduced (p=0.008). Figure 4 compares the HAA concentration in the incoming cold water and average hot water. Figure 4: HAA concentrations in hot water post-treatment were significantly higher than the incoming cold water. The difference was greatest just after treatment started and was reduced after the treatment was adjusted in March. Incoming cold water HAA levels approached, but did not exceed, the EPA MCL of 60.0 micrograms per liter (Âľg/L), and average hot water had HAA levels exceeding the MCL during all seven events post-treatment.
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continued
Chlorine. As typical in building water systems with no supplemental disinfection, free chlorine (FC) and total chlorine (TC) in the hot water system were much less than the incoming cold water during baseline monitoring (hot water return FC=0.01 mg/L, TC=0.01 mg/L, incoming cold FC=0.29 mg/L, TC=0.59 mg/L). After treatment started, the target free chlorine in the hot water return was 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L, the average free chlorine from three sampling points was 0.89 mg/L. The target free chlorine in the hot water return was reduced to 0.2 mg/L on March 29, 2017; the average free chlorine from four sampling points after this adjustment was 0.30 mg/L. Figure 5 shows the free available chlorine in the incoming cold water, hot water return, and average hot water distal outlets. Figure 5: The incoming cold water had a detectable free chlorine residual throughout the study. The addition of the mixed oxidant added a disinfectant residual, measured as free chlorine, to the hot water return and at the hot distal outlets after treatment started. At treatment startup on Sept. 19, 2016, the target free chlorine in the hot water return was 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L. The target free chlorine in the hot water return was reduced to 0.2 mg/L on March 29, 2017.
Discussion
The results from this study demonstrate that a water treatment system providing a mixed-oxidant disinfectant was an effective method for Legionella control. The application of the mixed oxidant provided a reduction in distal site positivity below 30% within two weeks of application and maintained low-distal positivity throughout the 15-month monitoring period. Total bacteria, measured as HPC, were also reduced through treatment with the mixed oxidant. Non-tuberculous Mycobacteria and Pseudomonas were unaffected by the mixed-oxidant treatment during the study. This was not a surprise, as these bacteria are known to be more resistant to chlorine disinfectants. Mycobacteria can tolerate elevated levels of oxidants such as chlorine. M. gordonae, which was isolated in this 33
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study, is 330 times more resistant to chlorine than E. coli. (3) While there was no significant decrease in either pathogen, the application of the mixed oxidant also did not significantly increase the presence of these organisms in the water system. Corrosion concerns were noted during the initial phase of the study, following the system startup. Within the first six months of installation of the system, pinhole leaks were reported by the facility at an increased rate. Data regarding the extent or increase in prevalence of the pinhole leaks was not available, and as such, these anecdotal reports cannot be quantified. In addition, the cause of the pinhole leaks was not investigated as part of this study, so no conclusion can be the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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made about cause and effect. Possible interpretations are that the corrosion issue was not associated (would have occurred anyways), indirectly associated (because of the mixed oxidant removing internal deposits), or directly associated (as a result of the mixed oxidant accelerating corrosion). The system dosage was lowered from between 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L free chlorine to approximately 0.2 mg/L, and within the next few months pinhole leaks were no longer reported. Legionella positivity remained under control after the reduction in the mixed oxidant set point. Metals concentrations (iron, calcium, magnesium, zinc, manganese, lead, and copper) did not increase after the application of the mixed oxidant. Chlorine-associated disinfection byproducts (trihalomethane and haloacetic acid) were observed to increase in the hot water after treatment when compared to the incoming cold water. While there was an increase in the hot water post-treatment, it was also noted that the disinfection byproduct levels in the incoming cold water were at or above the EPA MCLs for potable water on several occasions, suggesting the incoming coldwater quality might contribute to elevated disinfection byproduct levels in the building water system. Installation challenges for mixed oxidants would not be unlike other supplemental disinfection systems, including water quality, system physical conditions and constraints, and the need for control of other waterborne pathogens. All should be considered by the operator prior to making a selection. A successful installation should consider: 1. Completing a through pre-assessment, including documenting baseline Legionella colonization, evaluating piping systems, understanding system communications, and investigating permitting needs.
3. Performing system monitoring and validation through environmental testing for Legionella to demonstrate efficacy. Communicate results with the water safety team and make adjustments as needed to continue to provide appropriate treatment levels.
Conclusions
The results of this field evaluation demonstrate that hot water application of a mixed-oxidant disinfectant successfully reduced Legionella positivity in the building hot water system and outlets and may be a useful supplemental disinfection system for the prevention of Legionnaires’ disease. Additional prospective peer-reviewed studies of efficacy in other healthcare water systems are necessary to determine whether the results reported in this study are reproducible and to provide further insight into benefits and potential concerns for long-term use of this disinfectant in a building water system.
Acknowledgment
This study was self-funded by Special Pathogens Laboratory. The authors would like to thank Frank Pirog and Buddy Knight with International Chemstar, Inc. and the administrator and facility team at the continuing care retirement facility where the study was conducted.
References 1. Stout, J.E.; Yu, V.L. (2003). “Experiences of the First 16 Hospitals Using Copper-Silver Ionization for Legionella Control: Implication for the Evaulation of Other Disinfection Modalities,” Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 24(8), pp. 563-568. 2. Sidari, F.P.; Stout, J.E.; Duda, S.; Grubb, D.; Neuner, A. (2014). “Maintaining Legionella Control in Building Water Systems,” Journal of the American Water Works Association 106(10), pp. 24-32.
3. Le Dantec, C.; Duguet, J.-P.; Montiel, A.; Dumoutier, N.; Dubrou, S.; Vincent, V. (2002). “Chlorine Disinfection of Atypical Mycobacteria Isolated from a Water Distribution System,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68(3), pp. 1025-1032.
Additional Source Drozda, S.A. (2009). “Demonstration of a Mixed Oxide Process for Control of Corrosion and Microbiological Growth in Cooling Towers,” U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ERDC/CERL TR-09-28.
2. Developing a water safety and management plan to manage Legionella risk and establish operating limits, monitoring requirements, and corrective actions for the supplemental disinfection system.
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Author Frank P. Sidari III, PE, BCEE, is technical director for SPL Consulting Services at Special Pathogens Laboratory. A professional and board certified engineer, Mr. Sidari has more than 19 years of experience in all phases of water engineering projects, with specialization in water quality and Legionella. In 1996, Mr. Sidari published the first U.S. field evaluation of chlorine dioxide disinfection in a hospital water system for Legionella in the Journal for American Water Works Association. He may be contacted at fsidari@specialpathogenslab.com.
continued
Author Janet E. Stout, Ph.D., is president and director of Special Pathogens Laboratory and research associate professor at the University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. A clinical and environmental microbiologist, Dr. Stout is recognized worldwide for more than 30 years of pioneering research in Legionella. Her expertise includes prevention and control strategies for Legionnairesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; disease. Dr. Stout is a 1999 recipient of the 1999 Ray Baum Memorial Award. During her career, she has evaluated all major Legionella disinfection options used today and continues to explore innovative technologies for detection and control. Dr. Stout may be contacted at jstout@specialpathogenslab.com. This article is based on a paper presented by the author at the 2018 AWT Annual Conference, which was conducted September 26â&#x20AC;&#x201C;29, 2018, in Orlando, Florida.
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What Are Strategies for Reducing Uncertainty in Legionella Analysis? Brian M. Swalla, Ph.D.; Theresa L. Knight; Veronica L. Newport; Amy L. Pednault; and Dan H. Broder, Ph.D., IDEXX Laboratories, Inc.
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Introduction
Legionnairesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; disease (LD) is an escalating worldwide public health problem (1, 2). The disease is caused by bacteria from the genus Legionella and can result in a severe bacterial pneumonia that may be fatal (3). Certain segments of the population are more susceptible to LD, including the elderly, individuals with certain medical conditions, and those with a history of smoking. Although there are many species of Legionella, the disease is most frequently caused by L. pneumophila serogroup 1 (1, 2, 4). LD is acquired by inhalation or aspiration of aerosolized water containing Legionella bacteria (3). Legionella are ubiquitous at low levels in the environment, but upon introduction into a building water system, they can proliferate to high levels that increase the probability of infection and disease (3, 5). Water systems in which Legionella can multiply include both potable and non-potable sources such as plumbing networks, medical equipment, decorative fountains, cooling towers, and evaporative condensers (3, 6). Cooling towers and related systems are particularly important because of their potential for amplification and aerosol transmission of Legionella (7). Risk factors for Legionella proliferation in such systems include water temperature, plumbing network design, and inadequate procedures for disinfection and cleaning. Effective management of Legionella contamination requires an appropriate program that includes control measures and routine monitoring for Legionella (8â&#x20AC;&#x201C;10). Testing for Legionella may be performed using a variety of methods and technologies; however, microbiological culture remains the gold standard. Examples of culture methods for Legionella testing include those published by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (11â&#x20AC;&#x201C;13). Such methods are complicated by the use of multiple parallel testing approaches, optional treatment steps, and a requirement for significant analyst expertise and judgment. Furthermore, the accuracy of these methods may be affected by a variety of factors that increase measurement uncertainty, such as interference from non-Legionella organisms, subjective interpretation of test results, and differential performance of media and reagents. 37
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In this study, we discuss the impact of these factors on measurement uncertainty with a specific focus on testing of non-potable waters from cooling towers. Our results show uncertainty to be a significant concern that should be considered when selecting and implementing a test method, and strategies for reducing uncertainty are suggested. We also discuss a most probable number (MPN) method for quantification that provides an alternate approach to reducing measurement uncertainty. Comparisons are presented between conventional colony-count methods and a new MPN-based method for detection of L. pneumophila.
continued
chemical components or two separate mixtures with separate storage. We also observed differences in the selective GVPC formulation affecting the antibiotics vancomycin (1 to 5 milligrams per liter [mg/L]), polymyxin B (80,000 to 100,000 Units/L), and glycine (2 to 3 g/L). Figure 1: Comparison of colonies on GVPC agar medium prepared from reagents produced by two different manufacturers. Replicate 0.1 mL aliquots of two non-potable samples were plated on each of the two media. After incubation, differences in colony size and the number of colonies formed were consistently observed between the two media.
Results and Discussion Differential performance of agar media from different manufacturers. A variety of medium formulations are used for Legionella cultivation. Most formulations share a common recipe for base components, including buffer, charcoal, and yeast extract, known as BCYE. This base medium may be supplemented with additional selective agents, primarily antibiotics, to prevent growth of non-Legionella organisms (NLO) that may otherwise interfere with the test. For example, selective formulations used in standard culture methods include PCV (polymyxin B, cycloheximide, and vancomycin), GVPC (glycine, vancomycin, polymyxin B, and cycloheximide), and CCVC (cephalothin, colistin, vancomycin, and cycloheximide) agar (11â&#x20AC;&#x201C;13). These different agar media may be prepared in the lab from individual components or can be premade mixtures that simplify the process. Fully prepared media that is ready for use is also available and may be obtained directly from manufacturers or third-party suppliers. During routine testing in our laboratory, it was observed that aliquots from the same Legionella-positive sample consistently showed different numbers of colonies, or colonies of different sizes, when plated on agar media from different manufacturers (Figure 1). To explore this difference, we inspected the base BCYE formulation and preparation procedure for several different commercial products. We observed that different concentrations of yeast extract (10 to 11.5 grams per liter [g/L]), ACES buffer (6 to 10 g/L), charcoal (1.5 to 2 g/L), and agar (13 to 17 g/L) were used among the different products. We found that the method of supplying materials varied by manufacturer and either employed a single mixture of all 38
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Collectively, these differences suggested that the different products might vary in their ability to culture Legionella quantitatively. To examine this possibility, GVPC media was prepared with BCYE base reagents obtained from three different manufacturers, herein designated A, B, and C, each according to the respective product instructions. The GVPC selective component was either prepared following the manufacturerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s instructions or, if unspecified, according to the recipe published by the CDC (12). Each medium was then tested for its ability to support Legionella growth by plating equal aliquots of natural non-potable samples in parallel on each medium. Samples were obtained from commercial laboratories and represent those that are routinely tested for Legionella. Testing was performed over multiple days using multiple independent batches of each medium. Results from 170 non-potable samples showed that differences in Legionella counts were obtained between the different media types (Figure 2). Analysis of the data by one-way ANOVA the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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continued
indicated these differences were significant (p = 0.006). Post hoc comparison of the means using a Student’s t-test showed that Media A and C were both significantly different from Medium B (p = 0.036 and p = 0.002, respectively), while Media A and C were not significantly different from each other (p = 0.297). The mean of Medium C (27.7) was 2.4-fold higher than the mean of Medium B (11.5), and the mean of Medium A (22.4) was 1.9-fold higher than the mean of Medium B (11.5). These results showed that the choice of medium had a significant impact on the Legionella test result. The observed differences may result from one or more of the factors discussed above, or other potentially important factors, such as the method of production and the age of the materials. For example, Medium A was prepared using a manufacturer-supplied GVPC formulation, while Media B and C were prepared using the CDC recipe. The observed difference between Media B and C shows that performance of the base BCYE ingredients or formulation can vary. Collectively, these findings suggest that measurement uncertainty could be reduced by ensuring that the agar medium is obtained consistently from a single source and that the method of preparation is uniform.
Figure 2: Quantitative recovery of Legionella on GVPC medium prepared from three different manufacturers, “A”, “B”, and “C”. Replicate aliquots of 170 non-potable samples were plated on each medium. The number of confirmed Legionella colonies obtained on each plate is shown in the plot. The mean recovery of each group is indicated by a horizontal green line, with the 95% confidence interval around the mean shown by the top and bottom points of the green diamond.
Effect of bacterial concentration on measurement uncertainty. With microbiological colony counting methods, an accurate count requires the number of colony-forming units (CFU) on a petri plate to be within a specified range. For a typical 90-millimeter (mm) plate, it is generally accepted that the appropriate range for quantification is between a lower limit of 20 to 30 and an upper limit of 200 to 300 CFU per plate (14–17). However, it has also been reported that the appropriate range may vary depending on the organism and culture system under 39
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study (14, 17). The lower limit is because of the decreasing accuracy of small counts as the result approaches the method limit of detection. The upper limit is created by constraints on the growth of bacteria at higher concentrations; as the number of cells inoculated on an agar plate approaches the upper counting limit, the number of colonies that result will not concomitantly match, and the inoculum will be underestimated. Many factors affect the ability of a cell to form a discrete colony on a plate that can be observed and the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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counted. First, when multiple inoculated cells are deposited close together, the colonies that form may merge into a single colony that is not clearly different from a colony originating from a single cell. This occurs more often at high bacterial concentrations and may be exacerbated by regional plating effects, such as an uneven distribution of cells on the surface and the size and shape of colonies formed by organisms that may be large or spread over the plate.
continued
Figure 3: Effect of increasing inoculum concentration on colonies formed by L. pneumophila. Dilutions of a L. pneumophila strain suspension were prepared in water and plated on GVPC medium to inoculate increasing numbers of cells on each plate.
Second, at higher levels of growth, the nutrient supply of the medium may become depleted, or the accumulation of metabolic waste products and secondary metabolites may become inhibitory. Third, in cases where mixed populations are growing together, cells that form colonies sooner may inhibit detection of others that grow more slowly. This may occur among different cells of the same species, or when two or more bacterial species having different growth rates are co-cultured. Representative plates displaying the effect of increasing inoculum on the size and separation of colonies formed by Legionella are shown in Figure 3. The plates show both generalized and localized effects that increase the uncertainty of the colony count. To examine the quantitative counting range of Legionella on agar media, an experiment was performed in which increasing concentrations of L. pneumophila were plated on GVPC (Figure 4). Three different sources of the bacteria were tested, including an artificial suspension of a pure L. pneumophila lab strain in water and two natural non-potable samples known to be contaminated with L. pneumophila. To control for chemical effects in the varying inoculum levels, each sample was diluted with a portion of the same sample that had been sterile filtered through a 0.22-micron (µm) membrane. This removed microorganisms and larger particulate matter but is expected to have little to no impact on the chemical composition of the diluent. Figure 4: Quantitative response of varying L. pneumophila inoculum on GVPC agar medium. Known dilutions of a pure bacterial suspension (A) and two natural non-potable samples (B, C) were plated on GVPC medium. The corresponding colony count obtained for each inoculation volume is shown. Each point indicates the average obtained from four or five replicate plates. For each plot, the data was examined for a linear response near the origin. A linear regression (dotted line) was fit to the portion of the data judged to be linear, corresponding to the first 11 to 13 data points in each case. The dotted line was extrapolated to show the expected response across all volumes tested. A second-degree polynomial regression was fit to all data (solid line) to show the non-linear response observed experimentally at higher volumes. 125
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In all three cases, at lower L. pneumophila concentrations, the number of CFU obtained showed a linear response proportional to the volume of sample inoculated on the plate. In contrast, at higher concentrations, the number of observed colonies was less than expected based on the volume plated. Although consistent with results from other bacteria as discussed above, the effect we observed with L. pneumophila was more pronounced and showed that the accuracy of colony counts may be affected at levels significantly lower than the typical upper quantification limit of 200 to 300 CFU per plate. Results with a pure strain suspension in distilled water showed that reduced colony counts occurred when only L. pneumophila was present, indicating that this organism is sensitive to its own colony density (Figure 4A). For the two natural samples, the situation was more complex, as the natural water matrix also contained chemical and biological components that may have affected growth. The first sample produced only colonies of Legionella on GVPC, indicating that the GVPC selective agar suppressed growth of any other viable microorganisms that may have been present in the sample. Results in this case were consistent with the pure strain, with both appearing to depart from a linear response at approximately 50 to 75 CFU per plate (Figure 4B). The second sample showed a mixture of L. pneumophila and several different types of NLO growing on the plates. In this case, the observed counts showed a loss in linearity at a lower L. pneumophila count of approximately 30 CFU per plate (Figure 4C). In this case, self-inhibition by L. pneumophila may have been compounded by an additional inhibitory effect caused by the NLO present on the plates. Collectively, these results show that the generally accepted practice to quantify Legionella on plates containing up to 200 or 300 CFU may lead to underestimation of the true Legionella concentration. The results are directly relevant to the processes used in standard culture methods; the data points shown at the right side of each plot correspond to plating 0.1 milliliters (mL) of sample directly onto GVPC medium, as would typically be performed in a standard culture method. The reduced L. pneumophila counts obtained from these conditions show that the accuracy of standard method procedures will be highest in a relatively narrow range of colony counts. Improved accuracy would likely be obtained by 44
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continued
preparing appropriate dilutions to provide counts equal to or fewer than 100 CFU per plate. However, dilution factors must be selected carefully to also avoid producing counts that are too low and that fall below the lower quantification limit of the method.
Non-Legionella interference NLO are frequently observed during analysis of non-potable water, where they can have a dramatic effect on the accuracy of Legionella detection and quantification. Non-potable waters originate from many different natural and manmade systems and have the potential for contamination with different organisms at varying concentrations. Example results from plating 0.1 mL of a non-potable water sample containing problematic NLO on GVPC are shown in Figure 5. Despite the use of a selective medium, a variety of interfering organisms are observed. Some form small colonies that may have limited impact. Others form spreading colonies that could prevent detection of Legionella over a large area of the plate. Figure 5: Example results showing interference from various non-Legionella organisms (NLO) observed during plating of non-potable cooling tower samples on GVPC.
Although some NLO may interfere by obscuring or out-competing Legionella colonies because of their more rapid or expansive growth on the plate, other organisms, such as Pseudomonas, can inhibit Legionella through the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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the more subtle effects of secreted secondary metabolites (18, 19). The accuracy of a Legionella plate count may therefore be affected, even when the frequency or extent of NLO interference appears low. Chance events can also affect results. For example, replicate plates can yield significantly different Legionella counts due to inconsistent co-inoculation of a problematic NLO. Notwithstanding such outcomes, Legionella colonies are routinely identified from among NLO, based on their characteristic colony morphology. However, some NLO form colonies that appear similar to Legionella, and a definitive result is only obtained after presumptive positive colonies are confirmed in a secondary test. Collectively, the accuracy of the result obtained in the
continued
presence of NLO will depend on the nature and level of interference as well as the experience and subjective judgment of the analyst. To mitigate the effects of NLO interference, non-potable samples are typically tested using a selective medium in combination with acid or heat treatment. We conducted an experiment in which a collection of 30 non-potable samples, including many from cooling towers, were plated on different selective and non-selective media, both with and without acid pretreatment. A summary of the frequency and extent of NLO interference that was observed is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Frequency of non-Legionella organisms observed on agar plates.
Degree of NLO Impact Non-quantifiable (a) Countable NLO (b) None (c)
Media Formulation BCYE BCYE Acid 100% 93% 0% 3% 0% 3%
PCV 13% 77% 10%
PCV Acid 0% 43% 47%
GVPC 7% 43% 43%
GVPC Acid 0% 23% 60%
CCVC 37% 60% 3%
CCVC Acid 10% 87% 3%
Notes: a Plates were judged unreadable when >300 colonies of NLO were observed. b Countable colonies of NLO were in the range of 1 to 300. c NLO were not observed.
As expected, the results showed that non-selective media such as BCYE performed poorly with non-potable samples and few usable plates were obtained due to the presence of NLO in the water. The addition of acid treatment provided only a small increase in usability with BCYE. In contrast, the various selective formulations showed improved utility, with GVPC medium combined with acid pretreatment giving the lowest extent of NLO growth. Although Legionella is generally more resistant than NLO to acid and the selective agents in GVPC or other media, their use can reduce the number of Legionella colonies that are detected (20, 21). It is therefore preferable to use selective media and pretreatments only when necessary, e.g., by conducting tests in parallel with less selective or non-selective conditions, as described in the standard Legionella culture methods (11–13).
Benefits of an MPN-based approach. A culture method based on an MPN quantification technique can reduce or eliminate the limitations of agar-plate methods already discussed. In an MPN test, 46
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the water sample is divided into an array of independent aliquots of the same volume at one or more dilution levels. After incubation, each aliquot is individually scored as positive or negative, and the concentration of the target organism in the original sample is determined, typically using a pre-calculated lookup table, based on the statistical probability of obtaining the observed ratio of positive and negative aliquots (22, 23). Positive aliquots are identified based on a characteristic result that may include development of turbidity due to visible cell growth, or a colorimetric or fluorescent change resulting from reaction with a chemical indicator substrate. The results of an MPN test are expressed as a “most probable number”, which is equivalent to the CFU obtained in an agar plate test. LegiolertA is an example of an MPN-based culture test that has been developed for the specific detection of L. pneumophila. Throughout the remainder of the article, Legiolert is abbreviated as “the MPN culture method”. In this test, sample aliquots are compartmentalized into two arrays of independent the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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chambers, each with a different volume. This design provides two ‘dilution’ levels for the MPN calculation, resulting in a broad counting range from 1-2273 MPN. After incubation, a positive result for L. pneumophila is indicated by a brown color change (Figure 6). Figure 6: Example positive result showing L. pneumophila detection in an MPN-based method. The four trays are replicates of the same test and show very consistent positive large (L) and small (S) well counts of 6L-16S, 6L-16S, 6L-15S, and 6L-14S. The MPN for L. pneumophila obtained from each test was 98.9, 98.9, 92.1, and 85.4, respectively.
continued
The first aspect of the MPN approach that contributes to reduced uncertainty is compartmentalization of the sample into independent chambers. The physical barrier created between aliquots confines inhibitory effects and prevents them from spreading to affect other parts of the test. To demonstrate this effect on quantification of L. pneumophila, the linearity of MPN-based quantification with the MPN culture methodA was tested using the same experimental strategy and biological samples as already discussed (Figure 7). The MPN approach displayed a linear response across all dilutions tested, and in one case, reached an upper limit of approximately 400 MPN. This contrasted with the GVPC results where nonlinear counts were observed at much lower levels. This improved result using the MPN approach was likely due to the elimination of inhibitory effects through compartmentalization of the sample, including self-inhibition of L. pneumophila growth and the negative impacts of NLO. As shown in Figure 4C, one of the non-potable samples showed a negative effect likely due to NLO interference; however, no impact on the MPN culture method was observed with this sample (Figure 7C).
Figure 7: Quantitative response of varying L. pneumophila inoculum with an MPN-based method. The same dilutions of a pure bacterial suspension (A) and two natural non-potable samples (B, C), shown in Figure 4, were inoculated into the MPN culture method. The corresponding MPN obtained for each inoculation volume is shown. Each point indicates the average obtained from 4 or 5 replicate plates. For each plot, a regression line (dotted line) was fit to the first 13 data points and extrapolated to show the expected response across all volumes tested. A second linear regression line (solid line) was fit to all data. 400
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A second benefit of an MPN approach is a more objective result interpretation. As discussed, because the colonies formed by different Legionella species on agar plates can vary in appearance, and because some NLO form colonies that resemble Legionella, the correct identification of true positives depends on the subjective judgment of the analyst for each colony morphology that arises. In contrast, the MPN approach can provide a more uniform positive signal that requires less interpretation. Assessment of a positive MPN result is more objective because it relies more on the fundamental performance characteristics of the test and less on analyst judgment.
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To achieve a more objective result, an MPN test must be robust to interference from non-target organisms. Unlike an agar-plate test where individual cells are separated on the plate to allow isolated colonies to form, in an MPN test, each aliquot may contain a mixture of different organisms. To prevent false-positive results, such a test must produce a positive reaction signal that is highly specific for the target organism. For example, this may be accomplished through formulation of a selective growth medium, use of a specific indicator substrate, and use of specific incubation conditions. Although it can be challenging to develop an MPN test with the required specificity, when successful, this approach can greatly simplify test interpretation. An additional benefit is that a “confirmed” result may be produced without requiring the added time, cost, and complexity of secondary confirmation testing. Furthermore, a specific test simplifies analysis of samples lacking the target organism by consistently providing completely negative results that can be interpreted unambiguously. The MPN culture method, for example, was developed to be specific for L. pneumophila and provides all the advantages described above for an MPN-based test. The specificity of this test results from its selective growth and indicator formulation and the efficacy of its pretreatment reagent that was specifically developed for use with non-potable samples. A recent study with North American non-potable water samples showed that the MPN culture method provided very high selectivity for L. pneumophila (24). In the rare event that an NLO does proliferate and cause a reaction in the test, the independent nature of each well prevents interference with other wells in the tray. This contrasts with the agar plate, where a single spreading organism could potentially compromise the result from an entire plate (Figure 5).
Materials and Methods Legionella testing with agar media Legionella testing was performed as described by the CDC (12). Briefly, 0.5 mL of sample was transferred to a sterile 1.5 mL centrifuge tube containing 0.5 mL of potassium chloride-hydrochloric acid (KCl-HCl) acid (18 parts 0.2 molar [M] KCl mixed with 1 part 0.2M HCl), mixed, and incubated for 15 minutes at room 48
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continued
temperature. A 0.1 mL aliquot of acid-treated sample was then inoculated onto GVPC agar plates. For comparison of media from different manufacturers, GVPC medium was prepared using BCYE base materials from each manufacturer following each set of product instructions. Selective GVPC components were prepared and used following the manufacturer’s instructions or, if unspecified, following the CDC protocol. For comparison of plates containing different selective agents, BCYE, GVPC, PCV were prepared according to the CDC protocol (12), and CCVC was prepared according to Standard Methods 9260J (11). All agar plates were incubated at 35 ± 2°C with humidity for seven days. Cultures were examined after seven days to identify bacterial colonies resembling Legionella. Two suspect colonies were confirmed from each sample by streaking on BCYE and blood agar plates (tryptic soy agar with 5% sheep’s blood). After incubation at 35 ± 2°C with humidity for two days, colonies that grew on BCYE but not on blood agar were considered confirmed Legionella.
Legionella pneumophila testing with the MPN culture methodA Testing was performed following the product insert using the protocol for non-potable samples. Briefly, 0.2 mL of sample was combined with 0.2 mL of pretreatment solution in a 1.5 mL microtube and incubated for 60 ± 5 seconds. A 0.2 mL aliquot of the treated sample (containing 0.1 mL of original sample) was then transferred into a 100-mL vessel containing the reagent powder dissolved in deionized water. The vessel was mixed and the contents were poured into the special MPN quantification device. These trays were sealed and incubated at 37 ± 0.5°C with humidity for seven days. Positive results were identified by the appearance of turbidity or brown color. Linearity of quantitative response Two non-potable water samples known to contain high concentrations of Legionella pneumophila were selected for evaluation. To create a cell-free diluent, a portion of each non-potable water sample was sterile filtered using a 0.22-µm polycarbonate membrane. Each sample was then diluted with its respective sterile filtrate to create different dilutions containing from 0.25% to 100% of the original sample. Each dilution series was then tested in the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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parallel using both acid-treatment and plating on GVPC according to ISO 11731:1998 (25), and the MPN culture method’s non-potable protocol as already described. Briefly, for the 11731 protocol, 0.45 mL of sample was mixed with 0.045 mL of 10x concentrated KCl-HCl acid solution (3.9 mL of 2M HCl solution mixed with 25 mL of 2M KCl) and incubated for 5 minutes at room temperature. Four 0.11 mL aliquots of acid-treated sample were then plated on replicate GVPC plates. Plates were incubated at 36 ± 2°C with humidity for seven days. Two of each colony type were confirmed by subculture onto BCYE and blood agar plates as already noted. The MPN culture method was used as already described, except that four replicate aliquots of each pretreated sample were inoculated into separate trays for quantification. For the pure strain analysis, Legionella pneumophila ATCC 33152 (Serogroup 1, Philadelphia 1) was selected for evaluation. A suspension of this strain having an optical density of 0.1 at 600 nanometers (nm) was prepared in sterile one-quarter strength Ringer’s solution (2.25 g/L sodium chloride, 0.105 g/L potassium chloride, 0.12 g/L calcium chloride, 0.05 g/L sodium carbonate). Serial dilutions of this suspension were prepared in the same diluent to provide an inoculum ranging from approximately 1 to 200 CFU. Each dilution was inoculated directly onto GVPC or into the MPN culture method (without acid treatment or pretreatment), and the respective tests were incubated and analyzed as above.
Conclusion
continued
Uncertainty may result from multiple factors, including the source of agar media, the number of CFU counted on an agar plate, the subjectivity of test interpretation, and the presence of non-Legionella organisms, among others. Where possible, it is advisable to take actions to reduce the impact of these factors, including for example, preparation and use of consistent agar media, reporting results from within the linear range of the measurement system, and minimizing the impact of NLO interference. However, these factors are challenging to control fully in practice. For example, the availability of media from a specific source cannot be guaranteed and it may be necessary to obtain materials from alternate sources. Furthermore, the frequency and extent of NLO interference is variable and cannot always be reduced without collateral effects on Legionella quantification. Such challenges are particularly important for analysis of non-potable samples, such as those from cooling towers that may contain high levels of Legionella or extensive NLO contamination. An MPN-based test can provide an alternate approach to reducing uncertainty that is not subject to the same limitations as agar.
Endnote AThe
“MPN culture method” referred to in the text is known as the Legiolert™ method. This analysis technology was developed by IDEXX Laboratories, Inc. (Westbrook, ME). Legiolert is an MPN-based liquid culture method that uses bacterial-enzyme technology to specifically detect and quantify Legionella pneumophila in water.
This study showed that factors affecting measurement uncertainty can lead to statistically significant differences in the number of Legionella reported when non-potable samples are analyzed. If the true Legionella level is underestimated, critical remedial actions may not be implemented to maintain Legionella concentrations below acceptable levels and increased public health risk may result. Conversely, overestimation of the Legionella level may lead to unnecessary consequences and costs for system decontamination. This study suggest that underestimation of the true Legionella concentration is more likely to occur because of the specific limitations affecting quantification with agar-plate based methods.
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References
1. Adams, D.A.; Thomas, K.R.; Jajosky, R.A.; Foster, L.; Sharp, P.; Onweh, D.H.; Schley, A.W.; Anderson, W.J. (2016). "Summary of Notifiable Infectious Diseases and Conditions—United States, 2014," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 63, pp. 1–152, doi: 10.15585/mmwr. mm6354a1. 2. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2016). "Legionnaires’ Disease in Europe, 2014," doi: 10.2900/585125.
3. Fields, B.S.; Benson, R.F.; Besser, R.E. (2002). "Legionella and Legionnaires’ Disease: 25 Years of Investigation," Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 15, pp. 506-526, doi: 10.1128/CMR.15.3.506-526.2002. 4. Yu, V.L.; Plouffe, J.F.; Pastoris, M.C.; Stout, J.E.; Schousboe, M.; Widmer, A.; Summersgill, J.; File, T.; Heath, C.M.; Paterson, D.L.; Chereshsky, A. (2002). "Distribution of Legionella Species and Serogroups Isolated by Culture in Patients with Sporadic Community‐Acquired Legionellosis: An International Collaborative Survey," Journal of Infectious Diseases, 186, pp. 127-128, doi: 10.1086/341087. 5. Breiman, R.F. (1996). "Impact of Technology on the Emergence of Infectious Diseases," Epidemiol Review, 18, pp. 4-9.
6. Muder, R.R.; Yu, V.L. (2002). "Infection Due to Legionella Species other than L. pneumophila," Clinical Infectious Diseases, 35, pp. 990-998, doi: 10.1086/342884.
7. Walser, S.M.; Gerstner, D.G.; Brenner, B.; Höller, C.; Liebl, B.; Herr, C.E. (2014). "Assessing the Environmental Health Relevance of Cooling Towers—A Systematic Review of Legionellosis Outbreaks," International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 217, pp. 145-54, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2013.08.002. 8. ASHRAE (2015). ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 188-2015. "Legionellosis: Risk Management for Building Water Systems," American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA.
9. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016). "Developing a Water Management Program to Reduce Legionella Growth and Spread in Buildings: A Practical Guide to Implementing Industry Standards," CDC, Atlanta, GA. 10. Kerbel, W.; Krause, D.J.; Shelton, B.G.; Springston, J. (2015). "Recognition, Evaluation, and Control of Legionella in Building Water Systems," American Industrial Hygiene Association, Falls Church, VA. 11. APHA (2007). 9260J: Detection of Pathogenic Bacteria: Legionella. In: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 22nd ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, pp. 28-32.
12. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2005). “Procedures for the Recovery of Legionella from the Environment,” CDC, Atlanta, GA. 13. International Organization for Standardization (2017). ISO 11731:2017 “Water Quality— Enumeration of Legionella,” Geneva, Switzerland. 14. Tomasiewicz, D.M.; Hotchkiss, D.K.; Reinbold, G.W.; Read, J.R.; Hartman, P. (1980). “The Most Suitable Number of Colonies on Plates for Counting,” Journal of Food Protection, 43, pp. 282-286.
15. Maturin, L.; Peeler, J.T. ( January 2001). Bacteriological Analytical Manual, Chapter 3: “Aerobic Plate Count,” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, accessible at: http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/LaboratoryMethods/ucm063346.htm. 16. Sutton, S. (2012). “The Limitations of CFU: Compliance to CGMP Requires Good Science,” Journal of GXP Compliance, 16, pp.74-80.
17. ASTM International (2012). ASTM D5465: Standard Practice for Determining Microbial Colony Counts from Waters Analyzed by Plating Method,. D5465-93. doi: 10.1520/D5465-93R12.1.
18. Gomez-Lus, R.; Lomba, E.; Gomez-Lus, P., et al. (1993). “In Vitro Antagonistic Activity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Aeromonas spp. against Legionella," spp. In: Barbaree, J.M.; Breiman, R.F.; Dufour, A.P., eds., Legionella: Current Status and Emerging Perspectives, American Society for Microbiology, Washington DC, pp. 265–267. 19. Kimura, S.; Tateda, K.; Ishii, Y.; Horikawa, M.; Miyairi, S.; Gotoh, N.; Ishiguro, M.; Yamaguchi, Y. ( June 2009). “Pseudomonas aeruginosa Las Quorum Sensing Autoinducer Suppresses Growth and Biofilm Production in Legionella species,” Microbiology, 155, pp. 1934-1939, doi: 10.1099/mic.0.026641-0.
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20. Lu, H.F.; Tsou, M.F.; Huang, S.Y., et al. (2001). “Factors Affecting the Recovery of Legionella pneumophila Serogroup 1 from Cooling Tower Water Systems,” Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection, 34, pp. 161-166.
21. Ta, A.C.; Stout, J.E.; Yu, V.L.; Wagener, M.M. (1995). “Comparison of Culture Methods for Monitoring Legionella species in Hospital Potable Water Systems and Recommendations for Standardization of such Methods,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 33, pp. 2118-2123.
22. Halvorson, H.O.; Ziegler, N.R. (1933). “Application of Statistics to Problems in Bacteriology: I. A Means of Determining Bacterial Population by the Dilution Method,” Journal of Bacteriology, 25, pp. 101-121. 23. Hurley, M.A.; Roscoe, M.E. (1983). “Automated Statistical Analysis of Microbial Enumeration by Dilution Series,” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 55(1), pp. 159-164, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1983. tb02660.x.
24. Petrisek, R.; Hall, J. (February 2018). “Evaluation of a Most Probable Number Method for the Enumeration of Legionella pneumophila from North American Potable and Non-Potable Water Samples,” Journal of Water Health 16(1), pp. 25-33, doi: 10.2166/wh.2017.118
25. International Organization for Standardization (1998). ISO 11731:1998: Water Quality—Detection and Enumeration of Legionella,” pp. 1-16.
Author Brian Swalla, Ph.D., received his doctorate in microbiology from the University of Illinois, where he investigated bacteriophage site-specific DNA recombination. He has more than 15 years of industrial experience developing new technologies in the fields of microbial and enzyme biocatalysts, protein therapeutics, cellulosic biofuels, and water quality. Since 2011, Dr. Swalla has worked for IDEXX Laboratories on new products for water microbiology, where he jointly led the development of Legiolert™, a quantitative method for detecting Legionella pneumophila in water. He may be contacted at Brian-Swalla@idexx.com. Author Theresa Knight is a scientist at IDEXX Laboratories. Over the past 12 years with the Water Microbiology Research and Development team, she has played a key role in the development of several new products, including Enterolert-DW and Legiolert. Ms. Knight earned her master’s degree in applied medical science from the University of Southern Maine. She may be contacted at Theresa-Knight@idexx.com. Author Veronica Newport is a scientist at IDEXX Laboratories and earned her bachelor’s degree in biology from Saint Joseph’s College of Maine. She has been in R&D for 13 years and played a key role in the development of several new products, including Pseudalert, HPC for QuantaTray, and Legiolert. She may be contacted at VeronicaNewport@idexx.com. the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Author Amy Pinault is a scientist in the Water line of business at IDEXX Laboratories with a bachelor’s degree in biology from Merrimack College. She has been in R&D for more than 10 years, contributing to the development of Pseudalert and Legiolert products as well as ISO 17025 accreditation. Having grown up in Maine, enjoying the local lakes and beaches with family, her career in developing water microbiology products is truly a passion. She may be contacted at Amy-Pednault@idexx.com. Dan Broder, Ph.D., is a scientist and team leader for new product development in water research and development at IDEXX, where he develops new methods for quantifying waterborne microorganisms. Dan earned his doctorate in microbiology from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, where he studied the biochemistry and genetics associated with protein degradation in gram-negative organisms. At IDEXX, Dr. Brader is the project manager for Legiolert. Dan has managed multiple large fields trials and numerous smaller validations for the comparison of Legiolert to international standard methods. Prior to IDEXX, Dr. Broder was a senior scientist at Sequenom, a high throughput genomics company. He may be contacted at Dan-Broder@idexx.com.
continued
g/L: grams per liter GVPC: A culture medium that uses glycine vancomycin polymyxin cycloheximide. KCl-HCl: potassium chloride-hydrochloric acid LD: Legionnaire’s disease mL: milliliter mm: millimeter MPN: most probable number NLO: non-Legionella organisms PCV: A culture medium that uses polymyxin B, cycloheximide, vancomycin. µm: micron
This paper was presented at the 2018 Cooling Technology Institute Annual Conference Houston, Texas, which was conducted February 4–8, 2018. It is published with permission from the Cooling Technology Institute
Glossary of Acronyms ACES buffer: N-(2-acetamido)-2aminoethanesulfonic acid BCYE: Buffered charcoal yeast extract agar CCVC: A culture medium that uses cephalothin, colistin, vancomycin, and cycloheximide. CDC: Centers for Disease Control CFU: Colony forming units. May also be abbreviated as “cfu” or “Cfu”.
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Industry Notes
H2O Solid State Technologies, LLC Welcomes Adam Luperini
Solid State Technologies, LLC welcomes Adam Luperini as national sales manager. With over 10 years of experience serving the roles of business development manager and senior account executive, Adam’s vast experience in material handling as well as point-of-use water solutions has enabled him to generate growth revenue based on his targeted focus in key vertical markets and field intelligence concerning regional market conditions, emerging industry trends, competitive product activities, and strategies.
After an internship with the Ray Graham Associates, his passion to help others continued with participation in the PWT cares team, organizing blood drives and coordinating a Hurricane Harvey support team generating large sums of funds to donate to victims. We welcome this passion and enthusiasm as he joins SST and embarks on a leadership role in developing customer understanding in the safer, simpler, and unique way to handle chemical treatment. For more information please visit www.solidstatetech.net.
De Nora Acquires MIOX
De Nora, a global leader in electrochemical technologies and the world’s largest provider of electrodes, coatings, and complete solutions for electrochemical processes, has acquired the Albuquerque-based MIOX business from Johnson Matthey for an undisclosed price. The acquisition strengthens De Nora’s growing portfolio of water purification technologies that minimize environmental impact through improved energy efficiency, intelligent options, and chemical use reduction. De Nora’s onsite generation product offering includes electrochlorination 52
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systems using either seawater or brine for water treatment and biofouling control. The MIOX technology adds knowledge and experience in producing proprietary mixed oxidants on site for advanced applications.
H2SO4
Since its inception in 1994, MIOX has been a provider of reliable, cost-effective onsite generator equipment serving the municipal, industrial, and oil and gas markets in the Americas, delivering a broad range of solutions to its customers. “De Nora brings innovative electrochemical, disinfection, oxidation, and filtration solutions to diverse applications around the world. Our expertise and footprint make us a leader in the electrochemical market. Now, the acquisition of MIOX expands that market reach in municipalities and industrial segments, in food and beverage, and propels our presence into cooling tower applications, adding the possibility to choose between hypochlorite and mixed oxidants productions. The MIOX technology complements De Nora’s offering with minimal overlap with our existing ClorTec products,” said Paolo Dellachà, Group CEO of De Nora. De Nora has been supplying electrodes to MIOX for more than 20 years. “Our long-term relationship will support the integration of our natural synergies, reinforcing De Nora’s leading position in the onsite generation market. Merging our extensive expertise and strong IP will benefit the customers of both companies with more efficient and faster development of new products already in the R&D pipeline.” added Paolo. “De Nora is a natural fit for MIOX’s cutting-edge technology and its brilliant people,” said Cem (“Gem”) Candir, MIOX president. “MIOX has accomplished good growth in recent years, especially in the U.S. municipal and industrial markets, and De Nora will enable MIOX to better serve its customers with expanded global equipment servicing capabilities.” the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Industry Notes continued
Partnership Offers Clean-in-Place Solutions for Heat Exchangers
NSF/ANSI 60 of the Safe Clean Water Act in 2013 and approved as a drinking water treatment product.
Goodway Technologies, of Stamford, Connecticut, and SWEP have formed a partnership to offer descaling solutions for SWEP industrial heat exchangers to help processes maintain efficiency and optimal heat transfer. Brazed plate heat exchangers transfer energy with high efficiency and minimal thermal loss. When operating in environments with high temperatures or hard water, scale deposits from minerals within the water source may fall out of suspension and adhere to the heat transfer surface, creating an insulating barrier. This can have a detrimental impact on the heat exchanger’s performance and efficiency. In addition to efficiency loss, continued scale buildup can act as a breeding ground for particulate fouling, which can result in corrosion issues. According to the companies, Goodway’s ScaleBreak-MP effectively cleans brazed heat exchangers without affecting the equipment’s long-term integrity. Comprising a blend of corrosion inhibitors and wetting and penetrating agents, the cleaner dissolves scale deposits into a liquid suspension, allowing them to be flushed out of brazed plate heat exchangers with no residual solution. SWEP has tested and verified the compatibility of ScaleBreak-MP with its products and found them completely safe. According to Goodway, the partnership gives processors using SWEP heat exchangers a resource for ongoing clean-in-place operations.
ROS Can Eliminate Legionella in 10 Seconds, Says Special Pathogens Report
A third-party study by Special Pathogens Laboratory, a CDC-ELITE facility, demonstrated that reactive oxygen species (ROS) ions were effective at achieving a 6-log reduction of Legionella Pneumophila in less than 10 seconds after reaching an ORP +650 mv. Bio-hydrox, an advanced oxidation liquid formula, achieved immediate 6-Log reduction of Legionella using a dosage of 3 mg/L. Chlorinated compounds may require 30 minutes for same results. Bio-hydrox is effective at removing biofilm and control recolonization in the water system. It can also help prevent scaling and corrosion and is not sensitive to pH or water temperature. It was certified 53
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According to Envirocleen, the exclusive distributor of Bio-hydrox, the formula brings solutions to difficult situations where very effective oxidation is required and where reliability is not questionable. A free copy of the Special Pathogens Laboratory study report can be downloaded at www.envirocleen.com.
Center Can Test Range of Process Cooling Equipment
The Wilson E. Bradley Research Center contains eight environmental chambers for testing industrial process cooling equipment, high-pressure refrigeration, and low-pressure refrigeration and components. Evapco Inc. says its 60,000 ft 2 facility in Taneytown, Maryland, is among the largest of its type in the refrigeration industries. Specially designed environmental laboratories analyze and test cooling towers and closed-circuit coolers up to 1,400 nominal tons (6,150 kW) in capacity—greater than the capacity of the company’s largest factory-assembled units. The ammonia refrigeration laboratories consist of an environmental test chamber—for testing high-side evaporative condensers up to 700 nominal ammonia tons (3,015 kW)—and a low-temperature evaporator laboratory. The low-temperature evaporator section is powered by a 250 hp (186.4 kW) compressor capable of -40 °F (-40 °C) saturated suction temperature. In addition, Evapco constructed a low-charge ammonia refrigeration system test stand to assess full-scale low-charge ammonia systems of up to 60 refrigeration tons at -20 °F saturated suction temperature. Another area of the testing center includes an air-cooled condenser laboratory for evaluating air-cooled heat exchangers condensing steam under vacuum or a range of operating conditions.
In-Situ Inc. Acquires ChemScan Inc., Formerly Known as ASA Analytics
In-Situ Inc. is pleased to announce that it has acquired ChemScan Inc., formerly known as ASA Analytics. The acquisition will expand In-Situ’s ability to serve process applications, including municipal and industrial the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Industry Notes continued
wastewater, drinking water, and other industrial water process markets.
ChemScan and In-Situ together to continue building our expertise and serving our customers as one team.”
For more than 40 years, In-Situ has been a leader in the design and manufacture of superior water-level and water-quality monitoring equipment. With the introduction of the Aqua TROLL 600 and Aqua TROLL 500 multiparameter sondes, the purchase of the Australian flow-meter manufacturer MACE, and now the acquisition of ChemScan, In-Situ is now positioned to become a major competitor in the municipal water, wastewater, and industrial process market.
ChemScan President Bernie Beemster agrees that the purchase aligns the core capabilities of both companies. “After considering offers from other organizations, our board and shareholders considered the relationship with In-Situ to be the best fit for our company,” Beemster says. “In-Situ’s strong technical and management capabilities will help ChemScan products realize their full potential in the international marketplace, and our strength in municipal water and wastewater will be a benefit to the In-Situ family of products.”
Located in Waukesha, Wisconsin, ChemScan specializes in the manufacture of automatic chemical analysis systems for water and wastewater monitoring and control. ChemScan analyzers use technology originally developed under contract with NASA to detect ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, and other parameters in water and wastewater using UV light absorbance for analysis. In business since 1994, the company provides operators and control systems with timely process chemistry measurements that facilitate increased plant capability, efficient energy and chemical usage, and compliance. “We’ve made significant investments in new product development and strategic partnerships to improve our capabilities in the process market” says In-Situ CEO John Pawlikowski. “With the addition of ChemScan, we have an extremely robust offering to better serve customers in the municipal water, wastewater, and industrial markets. ChemScan has provided analyzers for municipal and industrial facilities worldwide for more than 25 years,” Pawlikowski adds. “We’re excited to bring
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Concurrent with the acquisition, ASA Analytics has changed its name to ChemScan Inc. The company will continue operations in Wisconsin and operate as ChemScan, an In-Situ company. About In-Situ: In-Situ Inc. designs, manufactures, sells and rents water-level, water-quality, and flow-monitoring instrumentation for groundwater, surface water, and coastal waters. In-Situ also provides a full solution for decision-quality data via best-in-class mobile and cloud software and telemetry. Please visit www.in-situ.com or call (800) 446-7488. About ChemScan: Formerly known as ASA Analytics, ChemScan specializes in the manufacture of automatic chemical analysis systems for water and wastewater monitoring and control. Please visit www.asaanalytics.com.
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Association News
Why Are Management Skills Important?
Good managers are essential for leading, teaching, and motivating their team members to excel at their jobs— strengthening your business and increasing profits. To provide the best-suited management development courses for your water treatment company, AWT has partnered with Dale Carnegie, a leading training provider.
of Arthur Freedman Associates, Inc. as well as AWT's deputy executive director, Sara Wood, MBA, CAE. One of more than 65 exhibitors, AWT’s purpose at the event was twofold.
Management Development Courses Include: A Manager’s Guide to Sustainable Employee Engagement Building Your Power Team Coaching for Improved Performance Goal Setting and Accountability Meetings That Work Performance Reviews That Motivate Secrets of Motivation Sales training courses are also available. Learn more at www.awt.org.
AWT Exhibits at Cooling Tower Institute Annual Conference
In February, AWT traveled to New Orleans, Louisiana, to exhibit at the 2019 CTI Annual Conference and Expo. CTI focuses solely on cooling towers and cooling technologies that benefit the public, and as such some AWT members are involved with CTI for its laser focus on this part of the water treatment industry. Conversely, AWT attends the meeting to represent the associations interests as a whole as well as further promote the AWT membership as leaders in the global water treatment industry. Officially representing AWT was Bill Pearson, CWT, 56
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First, and foremost, Bill Pearson sits on the CTI Water Treatment Committee on behalf of AWT. Both he and staff attended the committee meetings that took place during the event and provided helpful guidance as CTI works through several initiatives. To start, AWT is currently involved in the development of WTG-161: Performance Standards for Cooling Water Treatment Programs. While details of this discussion are not yet ready for public release, Bill fielded questions on panel on behalf of the committee. The next item of note is WTG-130: Methods for Cooling Water System Microbiological Monitoring. This document was recently released and is now available on the CTI website. Also, GDL-159 is an update to CTI’s Legionella Guideline for open evaporative cooling water systems. Bill is the current chair of the committee reviewing this document, and he reports that they are very close to a final draft going to the CTI ad hoc review process. Expected release is in 2019. the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Association News continued
AWT and Related Trade Organizations
Did you know that AWT represents you in the industry? As part of AWT’s overall advocacy efforts to become the global voice of the water treatment industry, representatives from AWT liaise with multiple organizations with water treaters from around the world. Liaisons will sit on committees, attend events, and build relationships on behalf of AWT. AWT’s Current RTOs: Association of State Drinking Water Administrators (ASDWA) American Water Works Association (AWWA) American Society for Healthcare Engineering (ASHE) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) The second purpose of the visit was to showcase AWT membership, education, and training during the expo. Both Bill and Sara were on hand to discuss the latest with AWT and promote our associations programs to a broader audience. We would like to extend a special thank you to each member who made time to stop by and say hello!
Center for Disease Control (CDC) Cooling Technology Institute (CTI) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) International Water Conference (IWC) National Association of Corrosion Engineers NACE U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) Water Quality Association (WQA) AWT is committed to expanding its footprint within the water treatment community, and by creating formal spaces within these organizations for AWT to have a voice. Through these efforts, multiple guidelines, standards, and more have been created thanks to the efforts of AWT members. If you have a relationship with a related organization that is not listed here, and you think it would be beneficial for AWT, please contact Sara Wood at swood@awt.org.
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Membership Benefits
AWT Benefits Program
AWT is pleased to offer members a comprehensive and affordable health benefits solution that meets all the compliance requirements of the Affordable Care Act (ACA). This program is designed to help AWT members strategically manage healthcare costs while still providing employees with great benefits!
Your Company Can Enjoy:
Why Is the Lifestyle Health Program So Unique?
Flexible, level-funded medical plans
Level-funded group medical plans underwritten by “A” rated carriers
Value-added benefits to save out-of-pocket
Premium savings averaging 5–15%
Association-negotiated economies of scale pricing
Up to a $500 deductible credit available to all wellness participants
Integrated wellness with deductible credits and cash rewards
Integrated cash rewards and incentives for lifestyle improvement
Premium savings of 5–15% from traditional plan designs
24/7/365 telemedicine access
Consumer-driven features for proactive cost containment
Innovative prescription, outpatient lab, and diabetic supply coverage included Proactive cost-containment measures integrated into every plan design For more information, please contact Hillary Thompson at (574) 231-6530 or hthompson@keystoneinsgrp.com.
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Making a Splash
Shivi Selvaratnam, Ph.D. Weas Engineering, Inc., Lab Director
What prompted you to start volunteering with AWT? When I joined the Weas Engineering team three years ago, the industry was unfamiliar to me, and I wanted to gain a better understanding of the water treatment field. One of the best ways to learn about a particular field is to be a volunteer, and hence my decision to participate in the Cooling Subcommittee. What has been the most rewarding thing about volunteering? As a member of the Cooling Subcommittee, the most rewarding aspects have been learning about the many advances in the field, connecting professionally with other members, sharing ideas, and working cooperatively with these colleagues on the subcommitteeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s various tasks and projects. How has volunteering improved your professional career? Career-wise, volunteering has kept me informed on the latest issues and topics and has provided me with opportunities to learn from other professionals in the field.
Why would you encourage others to become a volunteer? There are so many benefits to volunteering regardless of the type of organization and responsibilities. Personally, an added value of being an AWT volunteer has been the ability to work with like-minded people and having the opportunity to contribute in a meaningful way to the advancement of water treatment. Additionally, working on common goals has helped me realize the skills sets and unique strengths I bring to the table. Tell us about a current project you or your committee is working on? A current project that the cooling subcommittee is working on is the development of a comprehensive document that provides an overview of techniques for monitoring microbes in cooling water systems. The document will include a summary of current techniques and tools, technical requirements, and potential pros and cons for utilizing these techniques, and other information, such as manufacturers and suppliers of these tools.
Annual Convention & Exposition September 11-14, 2019 Palm Springs Convention Center and Renaissance Palm Springs Hotel
Palm Springs, CA
AWT's Annual Convention & Exposition continues to grow each year, yet it still remains the perfect size for professionals in our industry. With over 1,200 attendees, the meeting provides you with plenty of opportunities to increase your business connections and resources while it maintains its exclusive focus on industrial water treatment. You won't want to miss the 2019 Annual Convention & Exposition being held in Palm Springs, California.
Sign up today at www.awt.org. 60
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the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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T.U.T.O.R.
Technical Updates, Tips, or Reviews
Part 1: Understanding Cycles of Concentration and Cooling Water Quality By Edward G. Helmig; Susan E. Ambler, P.E.; and Peter Ogonek, EIT, AECOM
The objectives of this article are to provide the following: Fundamental understanding of open recirculating cooling towers. The equations (1) related to the calculation of cycles of concentration, evaporation, blowdown, and drift. The importance of water quality and the effect of increasing the concentrations of anions and cations in a cooling tower. Figure 1 shows a typical open recirculating cooling tower. Figure 1: Typical four-cell, open recirculating cooling tower. Photo by Ed Helmig.
applications. Cooling tower designs typically consist of crossflow, counterflow closed-loop, or open-loop systems. In the United States, cooling towers are usually sized and specified based on capacity in terms of tons of refrigeration. We would like to start by viewing a cooling tower as one big evaporator where heat is absorbed and dissipated via a single fan or multiple fans. The fans pull air over a surface of structured packing (usually plastic) where water, falling countercurrent to the air stream and by gravity over the packing, forms a thin film that facilitates rapid heat dissipation through evaporation. The recirculation pump pulls cooled water from the tower sump or basin and then sends it across a heat exchanger and back to the top of the tower where the adsorbed heat is again removed. The recirculation rate is normally measured in gallons per minute (gpm). A typical cooling tower will recirculate and go through multiple cycles of the same water, known as a cycle of concentration (COC). Cooling towers usually go through two to 10 COC, with four to six cycles being the most common. Figure 2 (2) shows a diagram of a forced-draft cooling tower. Figure 2: Schematic diagram of forced-draft cooling tower system. Source: Federal Energy Management Program, Reference 2.
In Part 2 of this article, we will discuss the use of a model to simulate cooling tower performance from a water quality aspect.
Fundamentals of Cooling Towers
There are several types of cooling towers, including forced draft, induced draft, and others. This article discusses forced draft, the most common type used for industrial
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Water Quality and Cooling Towers
Water quality influences the potential for corrosion or scaling to occur in cooling towers. Typical water quality parameters for cooling towers include circulating water with a pH between 6.5 and 8, a maximum inlet water temperature not to exceed 120 °F, no significant contamination by unusual chemicals or foreign substances, and adequate water treatment to minimize scaling and corrosion potential.
Table 1 provides typical water quality requirements for cooling towers based on references from water treatment literature as well as specific control limits for Brand M towers and a specific client’s chemical treatment program. The water quality requirements as defined by the client’s utilities service engineer appear to compare well with the other references but tend to be slightly more conservative than the Brand M manufacturer’s recommended limits. The makeup water scenarios developed and evaluated were compared to the client’s treatment standards in most cases.
Table 1: Typical Cooling Tower Water Quality Parameters
Brand M2
Key Performance Indicators3
SU µmhos/cm °F mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
Literature1 Conventional N/A 5 N/A < 120 500 500 200 20
6.5–9.0 2,400 < 120 455 N/A 250 500
6.54 –9.0 < 2000 N/A < 500 N/A N/A < 500
mg/L
130
N/A
< 1,300
mg/L mg/L
500 10
5,000 N/A
< 750 N/A
N/A 320 3 0.1 150
N/A N/A < 0.1 N/A < 100
Parameter
Unit
pH Conductivity Temperature (°F) Chloride (as Cl) Fluoride (Fl) Sulfate (as SO4) Total alkalinity (CaCO3) Total hardness (CaCO3) Total dissolved solids Total suspended solids Aluminum Calcium (Ca) Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Silica (SiO2)
mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
Metals
0.1 125 0.5 0.5 50
Notes: 1. Literature values as reported in Water Reuse, 2007 (Metcalf & Eddy) (3). 2. Values as reported on Brand M website for galvanized steel cooling towers. 3. Key Performance Indicators were provided by a utilities service engineer. 4. Ranges and maximum values may vary based on materials of construction. 5. N/A— Not Applicable or not provided.
Cooling Tower Operation and Seasonal Variability
Cooling towers typically operate at four to six cycles of concentration. The recirculation rate of a cooling tower is dependent on the number of chillers running in the plant and the makeup, blowdown, evaporation, and drift rates 63
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of the cooling tower. Building cooling tower operation varies depending on the season. Tower recirculation rates and return line temperatures increase with summer operations and decrease during winter plant operations, resulting in higher water usage during the summer months. the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Blowdown
Water cooling occurs as the tower continuously evaporates a portion of the water that is recirculated. Although water is lost by evaporation, it is replenished by the makeup water system and exits the tower as pure water, leaving behind its portion of dissolved solids in the remaining water. To maintain a water quality that is protective of the cooling towers and circulation system, concentrations of dissolved solids must be stabilized through the periodic discharge of recirculated water to the sewer. The discharge is referred to as blowdown. The formula for blowdown is given in Equation 1 (2). Blowdown (gpm) = Evaporation (gpm) / (Cycles – 1)
Eq. 1
Drift
Drift is the loss of water in the tower due to the effect of wind. Losses due to drift are usually very small in new, well-maintained towers equipped with drift eliminators. Equation 4 is the formula for calculating drift losses in cooling towers. D = F2 x R
Eq. 4
Where: F 2 = 0.01 to 0.03% in most towers and as low as 0.001 to 0.005% in new, well-maintained towers R = Recirculation rate (gpm)
Makeup
The amount of water continually evaporated from a cooling tower varies directly with the heat load applied. In addition to evaporation, water is normally lost to blowdown, which is necessary to maintain dissolved solids concentrations at acceptable levels within the circulation system. Make-up water is added to the system to offset losses due to evaporation and blowdown. Makeup water rates for towers are usually tracked at the facility through the Building Management System (BMS). The formula for makeup (assuming leaks and drift are negligible) is shown in Equation 2: Makeup (gpm) = Evaporation (gpm) + Blowdown (gpm) Eq. 2
Leakage
Leakage is water loss from leaks in the tower sump or circulation system. There is no formula for calculating leakage, it must be determined empirically from a leak test.
Water Quality as a Function of COC
In a cooling tower and heat-exchanger circuit, there are four interrelated considerations with regard to water chemistry, as shown in the Figure 3. Figure 3: Four parameters that must be considered in cooling tower water treatment.
Evaporation
Evaporation is the main mechanism of cooling in a cooling tower. The evaporation expected from cooling towers is highly dependent on ambient temperature, humidity, and recirculation rates. Equation 3 shows the formula for evaporation. Evaporation = 0.001 x F1 x R x ΔT
Eq. 3
Where: F1 = Heat loss by both evaporation and sensible heat exchange (typical value is 0.8) R = Recirculation rate (gpm) ΔT = Temperature drop across tower (°Fahrenheit)
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The objective of water quality modeling is to predict the potential for scaling and corrosion due to the cycle-up of minerals (anions and cations) while accounting for the effects of pH, temperature, alkalinity, and ionic strength or activity (as total dissolved solids [TDS]). This chemistry is extremely complex, and various scaling and corrosion indices (most notably the Langelier Saturation Index or LSI) have been developed in an attempt to simplify the prediction process. However, recent advances in modeling and simulation allow the use of computers to solve complex chemical equilibrium and solubility balances such that much more than just calcium carbonate solubility/precipitation chemistry can be predicted. In Part 2 of this article, we will discuss the concepts behind modeling and simulation of the water chemistry that occurs in cooling towers.
References 1. Association of Water Technologies (2001). Technical Reference and Training Manual, 1st ed., AWT, Rockville, MD. Note: All formulas used in the text are from the AWT manual.
2. Federal Energy Management Program (February 2011). “Cooling Towers: Understanding Key Components of Cooling Towers and How to Improve Water Efficiency,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. 3. Metcalf & Eddy Inc. an AECOM Company (2007). Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies, and Application, 1st ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Digging Deeper Cooling Technology Institute (CTI). “Water Chemistry and Biological Terms,” accessible at http://www.cti.org/whatis/glossary.shtml.
Author Ed Helmig is a principal engineer with AECOM and has more than 35 years of experience, primarily as an environmental manager and water/ wastewater subject matter expert in the pharmaceutical industry. Mr. Helmig’s experience includes work at fermentation and antibiotics, vaccine, chemical synthesis, formulation, and biotech facilities around the world. As a technical leader at AECOM, he works with his team to develop models and simulations designed to provide water chemistry and biological-based solutions to clients. Mr. Helmig has a B.S. in environmental engineering from Temple University. He may be contacted at Ed.Helmig@ aecom.com. Author Susan E. Ambler is a licensed water/wastewater engineer with experience in design, modeling, and project management. As a key member of the AECOM Industrial Wastewater Team, she not only manages projects but also leads the development of technical work products, including both simple and complex models. Ms. Ambler develops custom models and mass balances that fill gaps not adequately covered by commercially available software. To aid in design and modeling, Ms. Ambler uses various computer programs, including WaterCycle®, GPS-X, Toxchem, Bentley MicroStation, PondPack, HydroCAD, PENTOXSD, AutoCAD, and various RO membrane performance models. She has a B.S. in civil engineering from Manhattan College and an M.S. in water resources engineering from The Pennsylvania State University. Ms. Ambler may be contacted at Susan.Ambler@aecom.com. Author Peter Ogonek, EIT, is a water/ wastewater engineer in training with experience in industrial wastewater design, research, and lab work. He has worked on wastewater treatment bench and pilot studies, plant evaluations, and industrial wastewater treatment design projects. Mr. Ogonek has a B.S. in civil engineering from the University of Dayton. He may be reached at Peter.Ogonek@aecom.com.
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Ask the Experts The discussion below occurred on AWTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s online community, the Exchange. Be sure to join to be part of the conversation!
Can Reverse Osmosis Remove Water From a Glycol-Treated System Question 1
I'm interested to know if reverse osmosis can be used to remove water from a system treated with glycol. I have a large system that requires 35% propylene glycol that was undertreated and tests at 20%. This would mean that we throw away a 20% solution while adding in 98% solution to catch up the system to 35%. In a large system this can be a costly mistake. Is it possible to use an RO to dewater the system? Are there other low cost alternatives that would do the same thing?
Answer 1 We have had similar situations as you describe when bring glycol systems up in concentration. One alternative is to capture the glycol mixture and save it for use in a new system. If you have a good relationship with a mechanical contractor they are usually happy to be able to cut their glycol costs by starting with a 20% mix.
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Answer 2 We tried to separate glycol and water using an extremely high pressure (1,000 psi) RO unit about 20 years ago. It did not work, as the molecular weight and charge of the glycol was too close to that of water. What did work was a thin-film evaporator, which removed the water from the glycol solution. Answer 3 I don't know but it sounds reasonable. You can run a trial for not much money. Depending on the cleanliness of the system you may need a lot of pre filters https://www.ebay.com/itm/2012-150-Membrane-Replaced-RO-Water-Filter-Housing-Cartridge-HomeDrink-Purify/253204511502?hash=item3af42a3b0e :m:mPGQGyk_RyOzNYbIEFt26BQ:rk:3:pf:0 Answer 4 There is an interesting article on the topic that can be found here: www.vsep.com
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Capital Eyes
How Can Congress Fix the Highway Trust Fund By Janet Kopenhaver
For nearly a century, taxes on gas and diesel fuel funded what Congress spent from the Highway Trust Fund on roads, bridges, and mass transit; however, better mileage for cars and trucks and slower growth in the number of miles Americans traveled combined to produce less revenue than Congress voted to spend. The current fiveyear transportation law, which expires in September 2020, covered that shortfall by transferring $70 billion from the general fund. To spend similar amounts from 2021 through 2025, Congress would have to find an extra $17 billion to $23 billion a year, or $94 billion over five years, according to the Congressional Research Service (CRS). And that is only to maintain a spending level that is inadequate, according to business and transportation advocates. The American Society of Civil Engineers’ national infrastructure report card in 2016 said there was a $1.1-trillion shortfall over the coming decade between total needs for surface transportation and estimated funding available. When other public works such as water and sewer systems, the electrical grid, and airports are included, the shortfall exceeds $2 trillion. Something needs to be done. Here are five ways that Congress is investigating to cover this funding shortfall.
Gas and Diesel Taxes
Last raised in 1983 in a compromise signed by President Reagan, the federal gas tax is 18.3 cents per gallon, and the diesel tax is 24.3 cents per gallon. If those rates had been indexed to inflation, in 2017 they would have been 31.7 cents for gas and 42.1 cents for diesel, according to the CRS. In 2015, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) said a 1-cent increase in fuel tax rates would generate about $1.7 billion a year, but that would drop to $1.5 billion within 10 years. That indicates that a 10-cent increase in the gas tax, indexed to inflation, would come close to plugging the first year’s shortfall, but it would not accommodate any major increase in spending. 67
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As the traditional funding source, fuel taxes are the most discussed option for closing the trust fund shortfall. They are also the easiest to implement and have the lowest administrative costs. But any tax increase, even one sold as a user fee, comes with political danger, especially in a politically polarized environment a year ahead of a presidential election. House Ways and Means Committee member Earl Blumenauer (D-OR) has stated that as a national funding model, the gas tax would not be reliable in 10 or 15 years. “But in the short term, the fuel tax, I anticipate, will be what we hear people feel most comfortable with,” he recently said. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce has endorsed a 25-cent increase over five years. The American Trucking Associations has endorsed a 20-cent increase over four years.
Miles-Traveled Tax
Taxing miles traveled would require plug-in electric cars that do not fill up at the pump – which comprised 1.1 percent of vehicle sales in 2017—and hybrids that use less fuel to contribute more toward their wear and tear on roads and bridges. But such taxes are only in the experimental stage in some states, and taking them national would incur new administrative and enforcement costs, which could range from 5 percent to 13 percent of collections. The system would also have to address privacy concerns, since putting a global positioning tracker in a vehicle to measure how far it travels would also tell the government where it went and when. House Transportation and Infrastructure Chairman Peter DeFazio (D-OR) has said he would prefer the next transportation bill to create a national pilot program and that the tax be designed to charge less for using lightly traveled rural roads and more for adding to rush-hour congestion.
Continued on page 68
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Capital Eyes. continued
Tolls and Private Financing
While the number of miles of roads with tolls grew by 1,280, to a total of 6,001 from 1990 to 2017, toll revenue as a share of total transportation spending has remained steady at about 5 percent to 7 percent for more than 50 years. Future upgrades or replacements could be made to federal projects by allowing private companies to collect tolls to recoup construction costs through public–private partnerships. But local officials may resist new tolls on bridges that were previously free, and such projects would need enough guaranteed traffic to make the private investment feasible.
Roll Back Tax Cuts
Senate Democrats in 2018 released an infrastructure plan that included a proposal to roll back parts of the Republican-crafted 2017 tax overhaul. Specifically, it called for raising the top individual tax rate back to 39.6 percent from 37 percent for couples with more than $600,000 in income and individuals with more than
$500,000; increasing the Alternative Minimum Tax, the estate tax, and taxes on the income of hedge fund operators; and raising the top corporate tax rate to 25 percent from 21 percent. This proposal has little chance of being signed by President Trump as he goes into his 2020 reelection bid. House Democrats have indicated that it is not a route they will be pursuing.
Spend Less
Some lawmakers argue that the highway trust fund should be dedicated solely to roads and bridges and that Congress should end setting aside for transit the first 2.86 cents of the 18.3-cent gas tax. Janet Kopenhaver is president of Eye on Washington and serves as the AWT Washington representative. She can be reached at (703) 528-6674 or janetk@eyeonwashington.com.
CWT Spotlight Brandon Norris, CWT Guardian-IPCO, Inc.
What prompted you to obtain the CWT? I wanted to set myself apart as a professional in the field, and I saw it as an opportunity to demonstrate my proficiency to my customers, prospects, co-workers and myself.
What advice would you give to those thinking about taking the exam? Relax. Set a schedule to review all of the possible topics. You’ve worked on this stuff for five years now, and that makes you an expert. Just treat every question like it’s from one of your favorite customers, and you’ll be all right.
What was the most difficult aspect of the exam? I felt prepared and that my knowledge of the content was sufficient. The anxiety associated with a professional assessment was my biggest hurdle before and during the test.
What do you enjoy most about working in this field? I get to take burdens off my customers by solving their unique problems, and every day is something new: a new person, a new process, or a new problem.
Congratulations to Our Newest CWTs (January 15, 2019–March 6, 2019)
Matt Haikalis, CWT APTech Group, Inc.
Trevor Mason, CWT ICU Medical
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Brandon Norris, CWT Guardian-IPCO, Inc.
the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Acids & Alkalis, Activated Carbon, Bioaugmentation, Biocides & Disinfectants, Chlorine Dioxide, Coagulants, Corrosion Inhibitors, Defoamers, Filtration Media, Flocculants, Glycols, Heavy Metal Removal, Ion Exchange Resins, Odor Control, Other Specialties, Permanganate, and Scale Inhibitors.
Water is Life – That’s Why We Care Companies treating water to ensure a safe and reliable supply perform a vital service that impacts the entire world. Brenntag Water Additives offers products and solutions tailored to each customer’s individual needs. Our technicians and sales experts utilize our global network to devise innovative solutions and procure the highest-quality products on the market. To learn more about what we have to offer, visit brenntagwater.com, email contactus@brenntag.com, or call (800) 890-0355.
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Financial Matters
2019 Tax Changes The changes to the Internal Revenue Code (I.R.C.) for 2019 are certainly less extensive than the ones made for 2018. Nevertheless, some significant alterations and adjustments to the I.R.C. are evident this year.
Just a reminder as you read this article: you should consult with a qualified tax or financial professional before making short-term or long-term changes to your tax or financial strategy.
This article reviews the 2019 adjustments to the Internal Revenue Code as well as the following:
Tax Changes and COLAs for Households
Key tax changes and cost of living adjustments (COLAs) for households Key tax changes and COLAs for businesses
Here are some notable changes affecting individual taxpayers this year (the changes are far less seismic in 2019 than those brought about in 2018 by the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act).
1. Income tax brackets have been adjusted for inflation. The I.R.S. has made some 2019 COLAs, resulting in slightly altered taxable income thresholds:
Social Security and Medicare changes Other interesting developments
Bracket
Single Filers
Married Filing Jointly or Qualifying Widows
Married Filing Separately
Married Filing Head of Household
10% 12% 22% 24% 32% 35% 37%
$0 - $9,700 $9,701 - $39,475 $39,476 - $84,200 $84,201 - $160,725 $160,726 - $204,100 $204,101 - $510,300 $510,301 and up
$0 - $19,400 $19,401 - $78,950 $78,951 - $168,400 $168,401 - $321,450 $321,451 - $408,200 $408,201 - $612,350 $612,351 and up
$0 - $9,700 $9,701 - $39,475 $39,476 - $84,200 $84,201 - $160,725 $160,726 - $204,100 $204,101 - $306,175 $306,176 and up
$0 - $13,850 $13,851 - $52,850 $52,851 - $84,200 $84,201 - $160,700 $160,701 - $204,100 $204,101 - $510,300 $510,301 and up
The thresholds for these brackets are roughly 2% higher than in 2018.7
2. The standard deduction has increased a bit. Another COLA here. The increase ranges from $200–$400, depending on filing status. Single filer: $12,200 (instead of $12,000) Married couples filing separately: $12,200 (instead of $12,000) Head of household: $18,350 (instead of $18,000) Married couples filing jointly and surviving spouses: $24,400 (instead of $24,000) The additional standard deduction is $1,300 this year for single filers who are blind or aged 65 or older (and $1,650 for unmarried taxpayers blind or aged 65 or older). A person who is claimed as a dependent on another taxpayer’s 1040 70
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Financial Matters continued
form for 2019 can take a standard deduction of either a) $1,100 or b) the sum of $350 + that person’s earned income, whichever is greater.7
3. AMT exemption amounts have also received a COLA. The Tax Cuts & Jobs Act made the exemption amounts for the Alternative Minimum Tax permanently subject to inflation indexing. Here are the inflation-adjusted exemption amounts for 2019. Single filer or head of household: $71,700 Married couples filing separately: $55,850 Married couples filing jointly and surviving spouses: $111,700 Trusts and estates: $25,000 How about the thresholds where these exemptions begin to phase out? For 2019, they are set now at $510,300 for individuals and $1,026,000 for joint filers.7,8
4. The Affordable Care Act penalty for not having health insurance has been cut to $0. Technically, the penalty linked to the ACA individual mandate is not “gone,” but it is suspended for 2019, and perhaps years to come. This development does not necessarily mean that if you go without health insurance, you will face no penalty this year. In some states (such as New Jersey), legislatures are considering or approving bills to impose state fines on uninsured taxpayers. The other provisions and stipulations of the ACA remain in place, including the employer shared responsibility provision and the requirement for self-insured employers to report worker coverage using Form 1095-C or Form 1095-B.9
5. The AGI threshold for the qualified medical expense deduction has risen. This itemized deduction provides a significant tax break for some households. It permits a taxpayer to deduct out-of-pocket medical (and dental) expenses exceeding a percentage of adjusted gross income (AGI). For 2018, the percentage threshold was set at 7.5% of AGI. This year, it climbs to 10%, meaning this deduction will be reduced.7 71
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6. The federal tax treatment of alimony payments has changed. Should you happen to divorce this year, any alimony paid to you in the wake of a divorce finalized on or after January 1, 2019, will be considered tax-exempt income. That is a change from 2018 and before, when alimony received was defined as taxable income. Before 2019, alimony payments made from a higher-earning ex-spouse to a lower-earning ex-spouse were tax deductible. Now, that is no longer the case, unless the payments result from a divorce finalized before January 1, 2019.10
7. Contribution limits on many retirement plans have increased this year. For Roth and traditional IRAs, the annual contribution limit is now $6,000 (rising by $500 in 2019, the first increase in six years), with the usual $1,000 “catch-up” contribution allowed for IRA owners 50 and older. Roth IRA contributions cannot be made by taxpayers with high incomes. To qualify for the tax-free and penalty-free withdrawal of earnings, Roth IRA distributions must meet a five-year holding requirement and occur after age 59½. Tax-free and penalty-free withdrawal also can be taken under certain other circumstances, such as a result of the owner’s death. The original Roth IRA owner is not required to take minimum annual withdrawals.11 Withdrawals from traditional IRAs are taxed as ordinary income and, if taken before age 59½, may be subject to a 10% federal income tax penalty. Generally, once you reach age 70½, you must begin taking required minimum distributions.11 For employer-sponsored retirement plans such as 401(k)s, 403(b)s, most 457 plans, and the federal government’s Thrift Savings Plan (TSPs), the annual contribution cap is now $500 higher at $19,000, with the “catch-up” contribution permitted for plan participants 50 and older remaining at $6,000. Distributions from 401(k) plans and most other employer-sponsored retirement plans are taxed as ordinary income and, if taken before age 59½, may be subject to a 10% federal income tax penalty. Generally, once you reach age 70½, you must begin taking required minimum distributions.11
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Financial Matters continued
TSPs follow the same contribution guidelines as 401(k)s; however, the total amount a TSP member can contribute in any given year is up to $54,000 under the Maximum Annual Addition Limit.11 Yearly contribution limits for SIMPLE retirement accounts also rise by $500 for 2019, to $13,000. The annual catch-up contribution limit for older plan participants is unchanged at $3,000. Distributions for SIMPLE-IRAs and solo 401(k) are taxed as ordinary income and, if taken before age 59½, may be subject to a 10% federal income tax penalty. The penalty may be as much as 25% if a withdraw is taken the first two years of plan participation. A SIMPLE-IRA is only available to businesses with 100 or fewer employees who earned at least $5,000 in the prior year. To use a SIMPLE-IRA, a business cannot offer any other employer-sponsored retirement plan.11 Self-employed individuals and small business owners may direct employer contributions (as a percentage of salary) of up to $56,000 this year into SEP-IRAs and solo 401(k)s, up from $55,000 in 2018. That is the new annual limit for the amount of money that can be directed into defined contribution plans in 2019. (The annual compensation limit that figures into the savings calculation for such plans increases from $275,000 to $280,000.) Distributions from SEP-IRAs are taxed as ordinary income and, if taken before age 59½, may be subject to a 10% federal income tax penalty. Generally, once you reach age 70½, you must begin taking required minimum distributions. IRAs have exceptions to avoid the 10% withdrawal penalty, including death and disability. Unlike the self-employed 401(k), which is only available to business owners with no employees, you cannot take a loan from your SEP assets.11,12 The maximum amount that a defined benefit plan may pay a participant each year rises $5,000 to $225,000 in 2019.11 Are you a business owner whose company has an employee stock ownership plan, or ESOP? You should know that the dollar amount for figuring the maximum account balance in an ESOP subject to a five-year distribution period is now $1.13 million. The dollar amount used to determine the lengthening of that period is now $225,000.12 72
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In addition to these COLAs: Another 2019 COLA affects the definition of a key employee who participates in a top-heavy workplace retirement plan. That cap rises $5,000 this year, to $180,000. Similarly, the dollar threshold for the definition of a highly compensated employee in a 401(k) plan heads north by $5,000 to $125,000.12
8. Phaseout ranges affecting Roth and traditional IRA contributions have been altered for 2019 Traditional IRA Contribution Deductions When You or Your Spouse Has Access to a Retirement Plan at Work In 2019, the modified adjusted gross income (MAGI) phaseout ranges are: Single filer or head of household: $64,000–$74,000 ($1,000 higher) Married couples filing jointly: $103,000–$123,000 ($2,000 higher) Married couples filing separately: $0–$10,000 (it never changes) If your MAGI falls below these phaseout ranges, contributions to a traditional IRA are fully deductible.12 Traditional IRA Contributions if You Lack Access to a Workplace Retirement Plan, but Your Spouse Has Access to Such a Plan Married couples filing jointly: $193,000–$203,000 ($4,000 higher) Married couples filing separately: $0–$10,000 (it never changes)12
Roth IRA Contributions Your ability to make a 2019 Roth IRA contribution is reduced when your MAGI falls into these phaseout ranges. Beyond the high end of these ranges, that ability disappears. the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
5/10/2019 3:10:30 PM
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Single filer or head of household: $122,000–$137,000 ($2,000 higher) Married couples filing jointly: $193,000–$203,000 ($4,000 higher) Married couples filing separately: $0–$10,000 (it never changes)12
9. The federal estate and gift tax exemption has also had a COLA. In 2019, it rises to $11.4 million for individuals, up from the previous $11.2 million. An ultra-wealthy married couple now has a chance to protect up to $22.8 million of their estate from federal death taxes (which can reach 40%), provided the surviving spouse elects to use the late spouse’s unused portion of their estate and gift tax exemption. (According to the Tax Policy Center, less than 2,000 estates were subject to federal death taxes in 2018.)13 10. Capital gains tax thresholds have been adjusted slightly northward this year. The 2019 capital gains tax brackets are set as follows: Bracket Single Filers
Joint Filers
Heads of Household
10% 15%
$0–$78,750 $78,751– $488,850 $488,851 and up
$0–$52,750 $52,751– $461,700 $461,701 and up
20%
$0–$39,375 $39,376– $434,550 $434,551 and up
As a reminder, these rates apply to long-term capital gains, which are taxed at different rates and thresholds than regular income.14
11. You can earn slightly more and claim the Saver’s Credit. The yearly MAGI limit for this tax credit, an incentive to foster greater retirement savings among low-income and moderate-income workers, has risen as follows: Single filers and married couples filing separately: $32,000 ($500 higher) Head of household: $48,000 ($750 higher)
12. The maximum Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) has been adjusted for 2019. This year, the maximum EITC is $6,557 for taxpayers with three or more qualifying children, $5,828 for taxpayers with two or more qualifying children, $3,526 for taxpayers with one qualifying child, and $529 for taxpayers without any qualifying children. These amounts have increased a bit from 2018.14 13. Another COLA concerns the phaseout thresholds for the Lifetime Learning Credit. This education credit can be as large as $2,000 (that is, the credit can be equal to 20% of the first $10,000 you spend on qualified higher education expenses in 2019). The MAGI phaseout range for single filers and heads of household is $58,001–$68,000. For joint filers, it is $116,000–$134,000. Above the high ends of these phaseout ranges, you cannot claim the credit.15 14. Some COLAs apply to the Adoption Credit. In 2019, the MAGI phaseout range for this tax credit is $211,161–$251,160; above $251,160, the credit cannot be claimed. The credit maxes out at $14,080 of qualified adoption expenses for a child with special needs this year and $13,810 of qualified adoption expenses for other adoptions.7,16 15. More COLAs apply to Health Savings Accounts and Medical Savings Accounts. In 2019, the yearly individual and family contribution caps for HSAs are, respectively, $50 and $100 higher, at $3,500 and $7,000. (An additional catch-up contribution of up to $1,000 is permitted for account holders 55 and older.) As for the high-deductible health plan (HDHP) requirements, the minimum deductible has not changed for 2019 (at least $1,350 for individuals; at least $2,700 for families); the annual out-of-pocket expense limit has risen $100 for individuals, to $6,750, and increased $200 for families, to $13,500. For MSAs, the criteria for linked HDHPs has changed slightly. The linked HDHP must have a yearly deductible between $2,350 and $3,500 for an individual and between $4,650 and $7,000 for a family. The maximum out-of-pocket expenses for an individual this year: $4,650. For family coverage: $8,550.5,7
Married couples filing jointly: $64,000 ($1,000 higher) 12 74
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16. The hardship withdrawal rules for 401(k)s have changed. The Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018 brought some changes following in the path of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. There are three changes to note this year, and they also apply to similar retirement plans in the nonprofit sector. Qualified non-elective contributions, qualified matching contributions, and account earnings may all be taken as part of hardship withdrawals from 401(k) plans. A 401(k) plan participant may now take a hardship withdrawal without having to take a loan from the plan first.
Taxpayers who own certain consulting or service businesses (including businesses of this kind in the fields of law, health care, financial services and brokerage services, and athletics) may not fully qualify for the deduction based on their taxable income levels. The 2019 taxable income thresholds determining eligibility for the Sec. 199A deduction are: Single filer or head of household: $160,700–$210,700 Married couples filing jointly: $321,400–$421,400
Participants in 401(k)s no longer need to wait six months to resume contributing to a plan after taking a hardship withdrawal. Of course, not all employer-sponsored retirement plans allow hardship withdrawals; those that do allow them are being directed to follow these new rules and amend plan documents.17
17. There are higher limits on the foreign earned income exclusion. If you earn income while living and working in another country in 2019, and you are eligible to claim the foreign earned income exclusion, you may shield up to $105,900 of such earned income this year. For 2018, the limit was $103,900.7
Tax Changes and COLAs for Businesses On the business side, not much has changed this year after a truly momentous 2018.
1. Taxable income thresholds pertaining to the 20% deduction of qualified business income have been updated. Many pass-through business entities will be able to exclude a bit more income from federal taxation in 2019. To be very specific here, Internal Revenue Code Section 199A lets non-corporate taxpayers deduct 20% of their qualified business income (QBI) from a partnership, LLC, or S corporation as well as 20% of the dividends
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they realize from qualified real estate investment trusts (REITs), cooperatives, and publicly traded partnerships.
Married couples filing separately: $160,725–$210,72518
2. The limit on earnings subject to the Social Security payroll tax has increased. The taxable wage cap is set at $132,900 for 2019. Last year’s cap was $128,400. This $132,900 limit also applies to net self-employment earnings.19,20 3. The standard mileage rate is now $0.58. This is the mileage rate that pertains to the business use of a motor vehicle and can be used to calculate deductible costs of operating such a vehicle in a business context. Last year, the rate was $0.545 per mile.21 4. Up to $265 per month may now be excluded from a worker’s income for qualified parking benefits. This is $5 more than in 2019. This $265 monthly limit also applies to monthly employee vanpooling expenses as well as bus and train pass expenses.16 5. The yearly QSHERA reimbursement limit has risen. Do you own a business that provides tax-free reimbursements of medical expenses for eligible workers via a qualified small employer health reimbursement arrangement (QSEHRA)? If so, note that the payment/ reimbursement limit has increased by $100 for self-only coverage (to $5,150) and by $200 for family coverage (to $10,450).16
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6. A COLA has been given to the phaseout range for the Small Business Health Care Tax Credit. If you are a solopreneur or own a small business, note that the phaseout range for this credit applies at $27,100 this year ($500 higher). The top of the phaseout range is now $54,200 (a $1,000 increase from 2018).16
Social Security and Medicare Changes 1. Social Security recipients get 2.8% more in retirement benefits. This is a COLA in response to inflation and represents the largest annual increase to Social Security payments in seven years. It means that the average monthly Social Security payment will be $1,461 during 2019. The maximum possible payment for those retiring at what the Social Security Administration deems Full Retirement Age (FRA) is now $2,861.1,19 2. The earnings limits for Social Security withholding have increased. Before and during the year you reach Full Retirement Age (FRA), Social Security withholds some of your benefits when your earned income surpasses certain thresholds. If you were born during 1943–1954, your FRA is 66. If you receive Social Security retirement benefits and have yet to reach your FRA, you may earn up to $17,640 in 2019 before having $1 in benefits withheld for each additional $2 in earned income above that level. (That is a $600 increase from 2018.) If you reach your FRA in 2019, you may earn as much as $46,920 before having $1 in benefits withheld for each additional $3 in earned income above that level. (That is a $1,560 increase from 2018.)18
3. 2019 brings higher Medicare Part B premiums. The standard monthly premium is $1.50 higher, at $135.50. All but about 3.5% of Medicare recipients are expected to pay that amount per month for Part B coverage this year. That contrasts with 2018, when most Medicare recipients paid about $130 per month for Part B rather than the standard premium of $134, thanks to Medicare’s “hold harmless” provision.22 76
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4. New income brackets determine the Part B premiums for high earners who receive Medicare. Last year, monthly Part B premiums ran anywhere from $187.50 to $428.60 for individual Medicare enrollees who earned more than $85,000 and married Medicare enrollees who earned more than $170,000. A new income bracket has been added this year to define who pays the most for Part B (this new bracket complements those already added in 2018). Individual Medicare recipients who earn $500,000 or more in 2019 and married Medicare recipients who earn $750,000 or more in 2019 will pay $460.50 per month for Part B this year. Last year, the top bracket had a much lower threshold: $160,000 for an individual; $320,000 for a married couple.22 5. Medicare’s Part A and B deductibles have risen. The Part A deductible (for hospital stays) has grown by another $24, to $1,364. (Many Medicare enrollees do not have to pay it, thanks to supplemental insurance coverage.) That deductible covers inpatient days 1–60 in a benefit period. During inpatient days 61–90, Medicare enrollees face a coinsurance charge; in 2019, that is $341 per day, $6 more than in 2018. The Part B deductible, which stayed at $183 in both 2017 and 2018, is $185 this year.22
6. Part C plans have become cheaper and more numerous. In September, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services stated that the average monthly Part C plan premium would be roughly $28 in 2019. This is about $1.80 less than in 2018 and furthers a trend of decreasing Part C premiums that started in 2015. At the same time, there are notably more Medicare Advantage plans to choose from this year: the Center puts the number of Part C plans at about 3,700, compared to around 3,100 in 2018.22 7. You might pay a little less for Part D coverage in 2019. Do you have a standalone Part D plan? The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services project that the average basic monthly premium for this type of Part D plan will be about $1.10 lower in 2019 (circa $32.50). If you the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Financial Matters continued
have an “enhanced” prescription drug plan, however, your premium may be substantially more than that. The annual Part D plan deductible limit rises $10 this year, to $415.22
8. The Part D “donut hole” closes this year, but only for brand-name medications. Medicare enrollees are paying just 25% of the cost of the brand-name drugs covered by their Part D plans this year. Next year, the donut hole closes for generic drugs; in the interim (that is, this year), enrollees will pay 37% of the cost of generics listed on their Part D plan’s formulary.22
Other Interesting Developments
This Special Report is not intended as a guide for the preparation of tax returns. The information contained herein is general in nature and is not intended to be, and should not be construed as, legal, accounting or tax advice or opinion. No information herein was intended or written to be used by readers for the purpose of avoiding penalties that may be imposed under the Internal Revenue Code or applicable state or local tax law provisions. Readers are cautioned that this material may not be applicable to, or suitable for, their specific circumstances or needs, and may require consideration of non-tax and other tax factors if any action is to be contemplated. Readers are encouraged to consult with professional advisors for advice concerning specific matters before making any decision. Both Jim Webb and MarketingPro, Inc. disclaim any responsibility for positions taken by taxpayers in their individual cases or for any misunderstanding on the part of readers. Neither Jim Webb nor MarketingPro, Inc. assume any obligation to inform readers of any changes in tax laws or other factors that could affect the information contained herein. Securities Offered Through H. Beck Inc., Member FINRA/SIPC. Capital Financial LLC, H. Beck Inc, and MarketingPro, Inc are unaffiliated.
1. The new 1040 form is the size of a (very large) postcard. Measuring 5" x 7.5", it is two-sided. In tandem with the new 1040, taxpayers may need to use up to six new schedules (named Schedule 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6) and/ or the traditional “alphabet” schedules to fully detail their 2018 tax picture, whether they file electronically or submit a paper return. The 1040A and 1040EZ forms have been discontinued.23
This material was prepared by MarketingPro, Inc. for use by Jim Webb.
2. A new W-4 form is in the works for 2020. The I.R.S. released the 2019 Form W-4 in December, and it differed only marginally from the 2018 version. The agency needs to overhaul the form in the wake of the Tax Cuts & Jobs Act, and according to an article at the website of the Society for Human Resources, the revamped 2020 W-4 will likely be unveiled during the first quarter of 2019. (One expected change: workers will state a specific dollar amount they want withheld for a calendar year, replacing withholding allowances.)19
7. forbes.com/sites/kellyphillipserb/2018/11/15/irs-announces-2019-taxrates-standard-deduction-amounts-and-more [11/15/18]
Citations
1. cnbc.com/2019/01/08/irs-confirms-tax-season-to-start-jan-28-despitegovernment-shutdown.html [1/8/19] 2. blog.indinero.com/2019-business-tax-deadlines [6/1/18]
3. thebalancesmb.com/payroll-tax-deadlines-for-january-and-february-3974577 [1/4/19] 4. taxact.com/support/24459/2018/irs-filing-deadlines [1/10/19]
5. trustetc.com/resources/investor-awareness/contribution-limits [11/1/18] 6. shrm.org/resourcesandtools/hr-topics/benefits/pages/agencies-previewform-5500-for-2019-filings-while-revamp-delayed.aspx [11/26/18]
8. fool.com/taxes/2018/12/15/your-2019-guide-to-the-alternative-minimum-tax.aspx [12/15/18] 9. paychex.com/articles/compliance/aca-individual-mandate-penalty-reduced-2019 [12/21/18]
10. foxbusiness.com/business-leaders/amazon-ceo-jeff-bezos-divorce-subjectto-these-tax-changes [1/10/19] 11. forbes.com/sites/ashleaebeling/2018/11/01/irs-announces-2019-retirement-plan-contribution-limits-for-401ks-and-more/ [11/1/18] 12. irs.gov/newsroom/401k-contribution-limit-increases-to-19000-for-2019-ira-limit-increases-to-6000 [11/27/18]
13. forbes.com/sites/ashleaebeling/2018/11/15/irs-announces-higher-2019estate-and-gift-tax-limits [11/15/18] 14. taxfoundation.org/2019-tax-brackets [11/28/18]
15. thebalance.com/lifetime-learning-tax-credit-3192933 [1/11/19] 16. tinyurl.com/ycdgvpr5 [1/14/19]
17. investrustwealthmanagement.com/2018/09/27/what-are-the-new-rulesfor-401k-hardship-withdrawals/ [9/27/18] 18. tax.thomsonreuters.com/news/moves-that-will-maximize-the-new-deduction-for-pass-through-income [12/12/18]
19. shrm.org/resourcesandtools/hr-topics/compensation/pages/fica-social-security-tax-2019.aspx [12/19/18] 20. irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p334.pdf [2019] 21. tinyurl.com/ycd6bl8q [12/14/18]
22. medicareresources.org/faqs/what-kind-of-medicare-benefit-changes-cani-expect-this-year/ [10/15/18]
23. forbes.com/sites/howardgleckman/2019/01/15/the-new-1040-will-fit-ona-big-postcard-but-it-wont-make-tax-filing-any-simpler [1/15/19]
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Business Notes
How to Mentor Employees Who Don’t Know What Their Career Goals Should Be By Tania Luna, LifeLabs Learning, and Jordan Cohen, Weight Watchers International
“Tell me about your career goals.” How often have you said this to a person you’re managing or mentoring, only to get a blank stare in return? Perhaps the person confides that he doesn’t know what his goals should be, or even whether there are opportunities to advance at your company. How do you begin to provide support? Career dissatisfaction is a growing challenge in today’s world, which is why we’ve decided to do things differently at Weight Watchers, with the help of LifeLabs Learning. The results of CEB’s 2015 employee survey capture the problem well: 70% of employees surveyed (across many industries) reported being dissatisfied with career opportunities at their company—a disturbing figure given that opportunities to advance are one of the biggest drivers of engagement and retention. At the same time, 75% of organizations said they expected to face a shortage of necessary skills and knowledge among their employees. So, on the one hand, employees feel that they can’t advance fast enough, and on the other, companies believe employees are growing too slowly. How can such a blatant and dangerous contradiction exist? And what can managers do about it? Before offering solutions, we’d like to propose a radical diagnosis: The problem lives not in a lack of career opportunities, but rather in the very concept of a career. We are suffering from an outdated belief in the primacy of a linear career progression. Let's call it the “career myth.” Consider the etymology of the word “career.” It comes from the 16th-century word for “road.” When we envision a career, we imagine a direct path with a final destination. And not long ago, this concept was useful. Career growth meant attaining incremental increases in prestige and compensation. You could look at the past and use it as a gauge for the future—you could simply take the steps that others took to get ahead. This vision 79
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of career growth no longer matches reality. We no longer need to be good at predicting the future; we now have to succeed when the future is unpredictable. We must abandon the career myth and create a new framework for personal and professional growth. Let’s return to the employees who need direction and feel confused about their careers. If you can’t point them toward a reassuring career ladder, what can you do to support their growth and increase their impact on the company? Here are some of the steps we’re taking at Weight Watchers to help employees move beyond the career myth.
1. Dispel the Career Myth
First, we tell employees that it is fine and even preferable not to have a concrete career path in mind. Being overly attached to a specific path can become a trap — blinding us to nonlinear opportunities for growth. We recently launched biannual growth conversations between managers and employees. Rather than discussing job titles, employees talk about experiences, responsibilities and lifestyle changes they might want. Good questions for managers to ask: What problems excite you? What strengths can you build on? What types of work do you want to do less of or more of? What would you do differently if you were to quit your career?
2. Focus on Transferable Skills
We train our managers to help their direct reports develop transferable skills, not climb a career ladder. the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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Transferable skills increase employability because they can be applied to a variety of roles and situations now and in the future (for example, communication, self-management, writing, and public speaking). We tell employees that they should diversify their career capital rather than investing in one path. To provide some direction, we also want managers to advertise the skills that are most wanted on the team. Good questions to ask: Of the skills we’re looking to grow on the team or in the company, which interest you most? What skills would help you gain more influence in your current role?
4. Encourage Small Experiments
The growing complexity and unpredictability of work means we need to run many small experiments to discover what suits us best. To fuel a spirit of experimentation, we’ve launched opportunities for employees across the world to get training in areas they are curious to explore. We’re also helping managers encourage experiments among their reports by equipping them with skills to give clear, actionable feedback on their reports’ progress. Good questions to ask: What areas of the business intrigue you? How might you design a short experiment to test your interest level?
What skill gaps are holding you back?
Who might you want to collaborate with?
3. Create Milestones
One of the perks of an old-school career is the title progression that delineates advancement. As organizations become flatter and growth becomes nonlinear, we have to put extra effort into creating milestones that mark progress. One way we’ve done this is to create badges that demarcate growth. For example, when managers receive training, they receive a certificate. To get their next badge, they must complete an advanced program. A badge system can create a portfolio of skills and accomplishments that a traditional resumé lacks. Another milestone solution we’ve implemented is a quarterly conversation focused on tracking goals that employees have set for themselves and that align with companywide priorities. Next, we’ll develop more visible recognition platforms for employees to celebrate their accomplishments and share their knowledge.
What have you discovered about yourself from your past experiments? Every job you’ve held and every relationship you’ve forged is a key that can unlock a future opportunity. The keys don’t have to make sense together—you just need to know how to use them. If your employees are worried that they don’t have a clear career path in mind, just lean on the wisdom of Lewis Carroll: “If you don’t know where you are going, any road will get you there.” Tania Luna is a partner at the leadership training company LifeLabs Learning. Jordan Cohen is the vice president of people U.S. at Weight Watchers International. ©2018 Harvard Business School Publishing Corp.
Good questions to ask: What do you want to achieve next? How will you know you’ve achieved it? Let’s gamify this goal. What’s level 1? How about level 2? What do you want to name this next milestone? How might you share what you’ve learned? 80
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Business Notes continued
Selecting the Right COBRA Administrator Offered by McGowan Insurance Group, Inc. /Keystone.
COBRA is temporary health coverage for retired or former employees, spouses, and dependents at group rates. Employers offering group health plans subject to ERISA or PHSA with more than 20 employees for more than 50% of its typical business days in the previous calendar year are subject to offer COBRA. If your business is required to offer COBRA, do you handle its administration? Many elements of COBRA have changed, including policy limits, which makes compliance difficult. Add to that potential penalties for noncompliance, including potential attorney fees, and the ultimate cost to you is even greater. Because of these responsibilities, you may outsource your COBRA administration to a third-party administrator, or TPA. Even if you do, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s imperative that your TPA is qualified to truly handle COBRA administration. Keep these elements in mind when working with one.
Insurance and Software
Your administrator should have errors and omissions insurance to protect against errors made in documentation as well as cyber liability, which can help protect a business from theft of data or damage to data systems. Speaking of software, does your administrator utilize solutions that are built for COBRA administration?
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These systems are designed to ensure that information is documented correctly for seamless and accurate reporting. Not all systems are the same!
Expertise and Training
Do you know your administrator's level of prior experience in COBRA, or how large their team is that handles this area of compliance? What continuing education do they offer employees to make sure their knowledge of compliance and privacy laws like HIPAA are up to date?
Communications and Testimonials
What is their communications plan for their constituents, including carriers, insureds, and you? How often do they keep you up to date of COBRA activities? Does your TPA have prior testimonials from other clients that help exemplify their capabilities as a trusted advisor? Keystone can help employers with their employee benefits and compliance needs. We help employers control costs with group benefits based on each unique situation. We also offer added solutions like dental, vision, life, and voluntary benefits. To learn more, contact Hillary Thompson, director of small business solutions, Employee Benefits Division, at (574) 231-6530 or hthompson@keystoneinsgrp.com.
the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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the Analyst Volume 26 Number 2
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