Awt analyst summer 16

The Analyst The Voice of the Water Treatment Industry

Volume 23 Number 3

9707 Key West Avenue, Suite 100 • Rockville, MD 20850

Summer 2016

Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water System—Part 2 How Air Flow Affects Evaporative Cooling Tower Efficiency—Part 3 Aluminum Corrosion Coupon Discussion Legionella Outbreak Prevention for Cooling Towers Why Didn’t Flint Treat Its Water? An Answer at Last

Volume 23 Number 3 Summer 2016

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Table of Contents

Cover Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water System

Summer 2016

Volume 23

Number 3

12 Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water System—Part 2 Chris L. Wiatr, Buckman Laboratories, Inc. In Part 1 of this article, we discussed the detrimental and sometime injurious microorganisms that can be found in industrial water systems. Also discussed were the most common bacteria found in industrial water and their transformation into biofilms. Studies were then performed with various biocides to determine their effectiveness in killing bacteria. The result of this study is the subject of Part 2 of this article.

26 How Air Flow Affects Evaporative Cooling Tower Efficiency—Part 3 John Pitcher, Weber Sensors This is Part 3 of a four-part series on the optimization of evaporative cooling towers. Parts 1 and 2 of this series appeared in the winter and spring issues of The Analyst, respectively. In the previous two parts of this series, we discussed the effects of heat load and water flow on evaporative cooling tower efficiency.

Here, we will consider the third and last variable: airflow. The study of the properties of air (although technically it can be any vapor with moisture content) is referred to as psychrometrics.

4 Calendar of Events 6 Letter to the Editor 8 President’s Message 10 Message From the President-Elect 51 Association News 53 Membership Benefits 54 Industry Notes

34 Aluminum Corrosion Coupon Discussion AWT Cooling Subcommittee Corrosion Coupon Monitoring Task Group Aluminum alloys derive their corrosion resistance from a composite oxide layer, which, under normal circumstances, is hard and tenaciously bound to the underlying aluminum base surface and reforms quickly when damaged.

38 Legionella Outbreak Prevention for Cooling Towers Alex Rahimian-Pour, Michael Baker International, and Eric Anderson, GE Water and Process Technologies Recent reports of Legionella outbreaks in the United States have raised awareness of the need to control microbiological growth in cooling towers. Judicious use of microbe inhibitors, onsite microbiological testing, and established operational control practices are required to maintain effective prevention. Water scarcity, environmental limitations on toxic chemicals, and health and safety concerns are driving the need for improved methods to control microbiological proliferation and prevent Legionella outbreaks in cooling tower systems. This article reviews the history and etiology of Legionella control practices. The report then presents a natural chemistry process that provides outstanding microbiological control, along with integrated testing methods, to reliably prevent Legionella outbreaks.

The process involves significant water savings and maintains excellent scale and corrosion control.

Case studies with ATP testing were used to verify the efficacy of the inhibiting chemistry in preventing microorganism survival.

47 Why Didn’t Flint Treat Its Water? An Answer at Last Nancy Kaffer, Detroit Free Press Back in 2014, Flint water treatment workers expected they’d add corrosion control to the city’s drinking water—chemicals that would have prevented a public health crisis—after the city switched its water supply. But the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality said they didn’t have to.

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

62 Making a Splash 63 Certification Corner 65 CWT Spotlight 66 Ask the Experts 67 T.U.T.O.R. 69 Capital Eyes 71 Financial Matters 77 Business Notes 86 Advertising Index

9707 Key West Avenue, Suite 100 Rockville, MD 20850 (301) 740-1421 • (301) 990-9771 (fax) www.awt.org

2016 AWT Board of Directors President Bernadette Combs, CWT, LEED AP President-Elect Bruce T. Ketrick Jr., CWT Secretary Marc Vermeulen, CWT Treasurer David Wagenfuhr, LEED OPM Immediate Past President Brian Jutzi, CWT Directors Thomas Branvold, CWT Eric Fraser, CWT Peter Greenlimb, Ph.D., CWT Andrew Weas, CWT Ex-Officio Supplier Representative Kevin Cope Past Presidents Jack Altschuler Brian Jutzi, CWT John Baum, CWT Bruce T. Ketrick Sr., CWT R. Trace Blackmore, CWT, LEED AP Ron Knestaut D.C. “Chuck” Brandvold, CWT Robert D. Lee, CWT Brent W. Chettle, CWT Mark T. Lewis, CWT Dennis Clayton Steven MacCarthy, CWT Matt Copthorne, CWT Anthony J. McNamara, CWT James R. Datesh James Mulloy John E. Davies, CWT Alfred Nickels Jay Farmerie, CWT Scott W. Olson, CWT Gary Glenna William E. Pearson II, CWT Charles D. Hamrick Jr., CWT William C. Smith Joseph M. Hannigan Jr., CWT Casey Walton, B.Ch.E, CWT Mark R. Juhl Larry A. Webb

Staff Executive Director Heidi J. Zimmerman, CAE Senior Member Services Manager Angela Pike Senior Member Services Manager Shannon Sperati Vice President, Meetings Grace L. Jan, CMP, CAE Meeting Planner Morgan Wisher Exhibits and Sponsorship Manager Barbara Bienkowski Senior Graphic Designer Jon Benjamin Marketing Director Julie Hill Director of Editorial Services Lynne Agoston Accountant Dawn Rosenfeld

The Analyst Staff Publisher Heidi J. Zimmerman, CAE Managing Editor Lynne Agoston Technical Editor Bennett Boffardi, Ph.D. Email: bennett.boffardi@gmail.com Senior Graphic Designer Jon Benjamin Advertising Sales Heather Prichard Email: advertising@awt.org The Analyst is published quarterly as the official publication of the Association of Water Technologies. Copyright 2016 by the Association of Water Technologies. Materials may not be reproduced without written permission. Contents of the articles are the sole opinions of the author and do not necessarily express the policies and opinions of the publisher, editor or AWT. Authors are responsible for ensuring that the articles are properly released for classification and proprietary information.

All advertising will be subject to publisher’s approval, and advertisers will agree to indemnify and relieve publisher of loss or claims resulting from advertising contents. Editorial material in The Analyst may be reproduced in whole or part with prior written permission. Request permission by writing to: Editor, The Analyst, 9707 Key West Avenue, Suite 100, Rockville, MD 20850, USA. Annual subscription rate is $100 per year in the U.S. (4 issues). Please add $25 for Canada and Mexico.

International subscriptions are $200 in U.S. funds.

Calendar of Events Association Events 2016 Annual Convention and Exposition September 7–10, 2016 Omni San Diego Hotel and San Diego Convention Center San Diego, California

2017 Annual Convention & Exposition September 13–16, 2017 Amway Grand Hotel and Grand Rapids Convention Center Grand Rapids, Michigan

2018 Annual Convention & Exposition September 26–29, 2018 Omni Orlando Resort at ChampionsGate Orlando, Florida

2019 Annual Convention & Exposition September 11–14, 2019 Palm Springs Convention Center and Renaissance Hotel Palm Springs, California

2020 Annual Convention & Exposition September 30–October 3, 2020 Louisville Convention Center and Omni Hotel Louisville, Kentucky

2021 Annual Convention & Exposition September 22–25, 2021 Providence Convention Center and Omni Hotel Providence, Rhode Island

Also, please note that the following AWT committees meet on a monthly basis.

All times shown are Eastern Time. To become active in one of these committees, please contact us at (301) 740-1421.

Second Tuesday of each month, 10:00 am—Marketing/Communications Committee Second Tuesday of each month, 11:00 am—Legislative/Regulatory Committee Second Tuesday of each month, 2:30 pm—Convention Committee Second Wednesday of each month, 11:00 am—Business Resources Committee Second Friday of each month, 9:00 am—Pretreatment Subcommittee Second Friday of each month, 10:00 am—Special Projects Subcommittee Second Friday of each month, 11:00 am—Cooling Subcommittee Third Monday of each month, 9:00 am—Certification Committee Third Monday of each month, 11:00 am—Education Committee Third Monday of each month, 3:30 pm—Young Professionals Task Force Third Friday of each month, 9:00 am—Boiler Subcommittee Third Friday of each month, 10:00 am—Technical Committee Fourth Monday of each month, 4:00 pm—Standards Task Force Fourth Tuesday of each month, 4:00 pm—Membership Committee Quarterly (call for meeting dates), 11:00 am—Wastewater Subcommittee

Other Industry Events ACS, Fall National Meeting & Exposition, August 21–25, 2016, Philadelphia, Pennsylvannia WEFTEC, Annual Technical Exhibition and Conference, September 24–28, 2016, New Orleans, Louisiana RETA, Annual Convention, October 4–7, 2016, Las Vegas, Nevada USGBC, GreenBuild, October 5–6, 2016, Los Angeles, California

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Letter to the Editor Dear Dr. Boffardi,

Mr. Colin Frayne’s article on the future of water usage and treatment contained much useful information.

While he fairly well stated the observable problem of pending water shortages, he fails to explain the problems associated with achieving acceptable relief, if it is potentially available.

Another side to the Coastal Commission’s power is the complete shutdown of the exploitation of oil deposits in and around Monterey. Proposed fracking operations would be able to discharge California’s entire debt in about three years, assuming a price of $100/barrel.

However, no operations are permitted. Obviously, with the price of crude under $30/barrel, permitting would be nonproductive.

Much of the information presented represents efforts in the state of California. As a native Californian, I would like to address a few areas.

The village of Cambria, California, has essentially run out of available ground water for drinking and irrigation. There is a proposed and approved wastewater and desalination plant on the books, but the environmentalists have again essentially stopped implementation, applying an unknown “yuck” factor to prevent the injection of the water to restore the existing aquifer.

Perhaps the most glaring problem results from the positions and laws the environmentalists have been able to pass. It has been established that the fuel and water usage within the state shall be, and is, predicated upon a California total population of 20 million. This has resulted in an effort to begin taxing automobile travel by the mile to reduce auto use. This also is driving the building of the high-speed train system in the Central Valley. Oh, by the way, the current population of California is approximately 43 million.

California has been the leading state for indirect water reuse for the past 50 years. Wastewaters are cleaned and then treated and injected, usually into the ground or an available existing lake or reservoir to allow mixing with other drinking water supplies. It is illegal to perform direct water reuse in California at this time.

California recently passed a $26 billion bond issue to build a new dam to collect and impound water, and to raise the height of two other dams by 9 inches to impound more water. All three projects were canceled by the environmentalists and the monies allocated to alternate, nonwater projects, partially the high-speed train. Several existing dams have been destroyed and removed to allow salmon access to the upper reaches of the impounded streams. There is currently another request for a $15 billion bond issue for new water projects on the upcoming vote.

Sometime around 15–20 years ago, a large indirect reuse plant was built and initiated in the city of La Puente. There was a large celebration involving many local city and county dignitaries. Many speeches were presented at the luncheon. The final speech was by the new plant’s manager. His final statement was “I want to point out that all of the water pitchers on the tables are filled with effluent from this plant.”

As a member of AWWA’s water reuse committee, we are attempting to bring to governmental groups and the public the need for and the utility of both indirect and direct water reuse.

Years ago, the California Coastal Commission was established to prevent or curtail any building on the coastal areas. The San Diego project for a desalination plant was designed and built by exactly the same company(s) that built the last two large projects in Israel. The difference in cost was $400 million for 165–170 million gallons per day in Israel and $1 billion dollars for 50 million gallons per day in San Diego! The limiting factor was the size of the intake system allowed for San Diego. The 50 million gallons represents about 7% of the needs for San Diego drinking water. Obviously, a 170-million-gallon plant would have represented roughly 25% of the need. The remainder will have to be found elsewhere.

Please be aware that there most certainly is a finite amount of water available on earth. Recycling and reuse have occurred since the beginning of time; my question is, “In that next glass of water your drink, how many molecules passed through Julius Caesar’s kidneys?”

The answer is “not zero.”

Jim Scott, CWT, Chemist San Joaquin Chemicals, Inc.

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

President’s Message

By Bernadette Combs, CWT, LEED AP

AWT Board Meeting

Outcome 3—Advocacy

The AWT board met in early May to review the progress we’re making on our strategic plan. I can’t thank all of AWT’s wonderful volunteers enough! We implemented this strategic plan back in November 2015, and already we’re seeing major progress and success. You can learn more about our strategic plan at www.awt.org/about_AWT/strategicplan.cfm.

Advocacy is a focus for AWT as we become more proactive. For us to achieve this, the board decided to add staff resources to work specifically on advocacy.

We also recently began working with the Centers for Disease Control, participating in their Vital Signs program and assigning a Related Trade Organization (RTO) liaison to the CDC. All of this is aimed at making AWT the voice of the water treatment industry.

Outcome 1—Technical Resources

Outcome 4—Charity

This area continues to be strong, thanks to the great work of our volunteers. If you haven’t been to the Members Only page on the website recently, you should log on to see some of the amazing resources there.

Thanks to the great work of our Charity Task Force, AWT will be partnering with Pure Water for the World. Be sure to read the Message from the President-Elect—Bruce Ketrick Jr., CWT—who will tell you more about this exciting program.

A new project we are working on is developing an AWT calculations app. The app will be something you can use in the field to determine SDI, biocide dosage, blowdown rates, condensate return, and basic feed calculations. Work on this has already started, and we hope to roll it out at the Annual Convention.

Outcome 2—Business Resources AWT was built on business issues when a group of companies came together for insurance purposes.

We continue that great tradition by adding more business resources for our member companies. From the complimentary monthly webinars to the Business Owner’s Toolkit, we have many resources available.

At the conclusion of the convention, I end my term as AWT’s president. I’ve learned a lot during this time and have found it incredibly rewarding to serve AWT. This is an exciting time in AWT’s history as well as an exciting time to be part of this great organization!

As always, I welcome your feedback and can be reached at president@awt.org.

In addition, I’m happy to report that the results of the benchmarking study are now available for those who participated. The survey presents a detailed analysis of key operating data from the water technology industry.

The report includes a compilation and analysis of company sales, operations data, compensation, and benefits information. This information is vital to every water treatment company.

8

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

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Message From the President-Elect

The AWT 2016 Annual Convention and Exposition is right around the corner. It’s shaping up to be a great meeting.

From the outstanding educational sessions to the fun social events we have planned, you won’t want to miss the San Diego convention.

We have a strong lineup of presentations this year.

Starting on Thursday, following our keynote speaker, we will hear from Claressa Luca, Ph.D., with the Centers for Disease Control, who will present Legionnaires’ disease outbreak case studies to demonstrate common deficiencies in water system management and the responses needed to prevent disease associated with building water systems.

Over 30 educational sessions are scheduled for this convention, including two workshops, a roundtable discussion, breakout sessions, and interactive learning lounge sessions. I would like to thank those committee members who participate in the peer-review process. They have the herculean job of reviewing and commenting on all the papers.

One of the other aspects of the convention I am excited about is the Annual Reception and Awards Dinner at the USS Midway, America’s longest-serving aircraft carrier of the 20th century. We will get to honor those people and companies in the industry that have made a significant contribution. And, on top of that, we’ll get a behind-the-scenes tour of the Midway—and end the night with a fireworks display!

At the conclusion of the Annual Convention, I will assume my role as AWT president. AWT has some great programs and services in the works for the coming year, and I look forward to developing them alongside our committed volunteers.

10

By Bruce T. Ketrick Jr., CWT

Of all the projects on which we are currently working, I am most excited about Outcome 4: Charity. Thanks to the great work of our Charity Task Force, AWT has established a partnership with Pure Water for the World (PWW).

Pure Water for the World partners with rural and underserved communities in Honduras and Haiti, where there are high incidences of waterborne diseases and a scarcity of aid. Together, they establish comprehensive safe water solutions that include the essential tools and education to serve all community members. They provide Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) education and capacity-building programs, training other organizations to accelerate access to safe water and sanitation for all. They also monitor every project and program delivered, to ensure effectiveness and sustainability.

AWT and our members can help PWW by donating technical expertise and advice, time on the ground to install projects, and funds to sponsor programs.

Opportunities fall into four categories: • Advisory: Technical advice/support • Awareness: Events/special fundraising, AWT member guest blogs, social media postings/shares, newsletter stories • Action: Hands-on trips to Haiti/Honduras and/or special projects • Aid: Financial donation—specific PWW projects, general donations, in-country networks I welcome your input on the future direction of AWT. I can be reached at bjketrick@guardiancsc.com. Thank you for the opportunity, and I look forward to serving you!

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

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2. 93% of past attendees say the convention increases their industry knowledge.

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3. Since 2010, attendance has grown by more than 21%—exposing you to more individuals with whom you can network.

4. Attendees are viewed as one of the biggest assets of the convention. The convention’s noncompetitive atmosphere allows you to share your experiences, challenges, and concerns.

5. It’s the only convention where you’ll find exhibitors whose sole focus is industrial water treatment.

Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water System—Part 2

By Chris L. Wiatr, Buckman Laboratories, Inc.

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the Analysat Volume 20 Number 3

In Part 1 of this article, we discussed the detrimental and sometime injurious microorganisms that can be found in industrial water systems. Also discussed were the most common bacteria found in industrial water and their transformation into biofilms.

Studies were then performed with various biocides to determine their effectiveness in killing bacteria. The result of this study is the subject of Part 2 of this article.

Material and methods used in this study are described in Part 1.

Results The types of microbes that were found in the planktonic phase in cooling tower 4 are listed in Table 3. The aerobic bacteria in the cooling water of tower 4 were approximately 2x108 CFU/mL. The Enterobacter count was 600 organisms/mL, and the Escherichia coli averaged at 10 CFU/mL. The Pseudomonas sp. were enumerated at 103 CFU/mL. The levels of Pseudomonas sp. and pigmented bacteria in tower 4 were at least 2 log10 greater than in other cooling towers on site. Only a small number of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) were found.

No clostridia were detected. Yeast did not grow on tartrate-acidified PDA, but a few molds did. These were Penicillium species, which are henceforth ignored in this report but, after the trial, were killed by using a combination of methylene bisthiocyanate (MTC) and 2-(thiocyanomethylthio)benzothiazole (TCMTB) (data not shown).

Under the phase-contrast microscope, neither Gallionella nor Sphaerotilus was found. A few protozoa in tower 4 bulk water subsamples were found, and few nonfilamentous algae were also observed, but not in quantities that would indicate a problem. The interesting samples were in the biofilm samples from the cold well, heat exchanger, and surrounding piping.

An example is given in the capsule stain showing gaps or halos in the slime itself.

A mixture of bacteria is shown in copious amounts of slime exopolymer.

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Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water System—Part 2 continued

Table 3: Composition of Microbes Found in Cooling Tower 4a Total Aerobic Bacterial Plate Count b Pseudomonas Enterobacter Escherichia coli Mucoids Pigmented bacteria (yellow) Anaerobic Bacteriac Sulfate reducing bacteria Clostridium Fungid Yeast Mold

Tower 4 2,000,000 3,300 600 10 3,100 4,200 1 <1 <10 20

a. Microbiological counts are expressed as CFU/mL of cooling water sampled. b. Aerobic bacteria were counted on TGE. Pseudomonas was enumerated on PIA. c. Anaerobic bacteria were determined by sulfate-reducing medium of Postgate and thioglycollate medium (Clostridium). d. Fungi were determined on tartrate-acidified potato dextrose agar (PDA) and unacidified PDA.

Since the total aerobic plate counts of cooling tower 4 were 2 x 108 initially, we examined the cooling system and aseptically sampled biofilm from the cold well, tower fill, and deck surfaces using a 3.5 cm x 10 cm template.

In some sections of the deck surface, the biofilm had considerable cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), making an accurate count of heterotrophic bacteria impractical.

However, the bacteria from the tower fill of cooling tower 4 gave us a healthy community of cells to work with, based on a total count of 3 x 109, and the cold well had bacteria at 5 x 108. Moreover, the bacteria from the biofilm samples in Tower 4 were isolated on antibiotic-containing blood agar plates and MacConkey agar. The Pseudomonas sp. were enumerated on PIA supplemented with carbenicillin (200 mg/mL) and selected off Petri dishes containing carbenicillin and gentamycin. Gentamycin alone was used in PIA to select Pseudomonas fluorescens, but only three colonies grew on this medium at the 10-2 dilution, representing only 300 CFU/mL. The tower fill surface had Pseudomonas species that were 5.48 log10 higher than the counts in the cooling water, and the yellow pigmented bacterial counts were approximately 1.37 log10 higher than those in the cooling water.

From the cooling tower biofilm, the Pseudomonas sp. isolated were found gram-negative, measured as 3.0 mm long and 1.0 mm wide, and were motile due to polar flagella. They grew aerobically. They grew on glucose oxidatively and converted nitrate to nitrogen gas. They were oxidase positive, catalase positive. They were nutritionally quite versatile; for example, they also grew

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on MacConkey agar, appearing as lactose nonfermenters.

Their growth was optimal between 31 °C and 35 °C. They grew at 41 °C but not at 4 °C. From the results, it seemed that P. aeruginosa strains were the overwhelming majority of the pseudomonads present. However, cultures that yielded either bluegreen or yellow colonies that were oxidase positive were considered presumptive for Pseudomonas sp. and were tested further. Bacterial colonies were also replated on MacConkey agar in duplicate. Identification was made biochemically and analytically. The predominant colonies were subjected to API20E biochemical testing for identification. (See Table 4.) Fifteen colonies were selected. All 15 were confirmed biochemically as Pseudomonas (Table 4). All of these were also confirmed as Pseudomonas aeruginosa by replating on TSA and conducting MIS-gas chromatography. In addition to these results, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was found positive for pyocyanin and lipase, and produced 2-ketogluconate in Haynes broth and potassium gluconate. Therefore, the results are quite clear that the major slime-forming bacterium was Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Table 4: Microbiological and Biochemical Testing for the Identification of Enterobacteriaceaa Characteristic Oxidase (Kovacs) Catalase Motility Indole H2S on triple sugar iron agar Voges-Proskauer Urea hydrolysis L-lysine decarboxylase Ornithine decarboxylase Arginine dihydrolase Growth on citrate (Simmons) Growth on KCN medium Esculin hydrolysis Growth on 6.0% NaCl Gelatin hydrolysis at 22 °C Reduced NO2- to N2 (g) Starch hydrolysis Ferments glycerol Acid from: Glucose Fructose Sucrose Lactose Maltose Mannitol Xylose

Pseudomonas +b + + + + + + + + + + + +

a. Incubation is at 29 or 37 °C for 18 h but checked for changes in 2 days. b. + represents growth or a positive test; - is absence of growth or negative result.

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water Systemâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Part 2 continued

Samples from the cold well were also analyzed for numerous bacteria and fungi after the tower was treated chemically. The samples were collected 4 h after the cooling tower 4 bleach treatment (NaOCl) ended, when the free residual was measured as 0.2 mg/L (as Cl 2). As the data indicate in Table 5, the heterotrophic bacterial count or aerobic bacterial count was measured at almost a million, or 930,000 CFU, and a pseudomonad count of 89,000 CFU/mL in a sample drawn 24 h post treatment with 70 mg/L product (1.05 mg/L active). These results represent a log10 increase in pseudomonads and an aerobic bacteria count, which was observed to remain virtually unchanged. The aerobic plate counts of the planktonic bacteria in bulk water (Table 3) typically run in the millions. The decrease to 930,000 CFU represented only a 0.333 log10 decrease, which is not significant. In addition, the Pseudomonas count data did not indicate a significant log10 decrease, but rather an increase. Neither the mucoids nor Enterobacter changed significantly, but the Escherichia coli level dropped >1 log10. The yellow-pigmented bacteria population was decreased >2 log10 (from 4.2 x 103 to less than 4.0 x 101).

No anaerobic bacteria were detected after dosing with a combination of chlorine and isothiazolones. Fungi were also not detected and were of no concern. The prominent gram-negative bacterium was found to be Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Table 5). In addition, other gram-negative bacteria were found but were not listed in the table because they were not found as prominent colonies in the water samples. These were Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas sp. Gram-positive aerobic bacterial species were primarily Bacillus sp. and Streptococcus sp., neither of which, in this case, formed slime exopolymer.

Five mucoids were selected and identified by MIS-GC, and 100% were found to be Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Based on the results, this treatment approach had to decrease and control P. aeruginosa, which had the capability to grow a slime exopolymer. In some cases the slime polymer was overproduced, as indicated by the mucoid phenotype on several types of media. To discover the best approach for predicting performance of antimicrobials against these microorganisms, several nonoxidizing biocides were tested against a laboratory strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, then a wild type Pseudomonas aeruginosa from the biofilm, and finally the best program was tested in the mill cooling system. In cases of strong exopolymer producers, key approaches

15

would be to try several of the well-known biocides that are recognized for their capability to kill microbes and to remove biofilm (e.g., DBNPA, glutaraldehyde, polyquat, isothiazolones) and to try using synergistic biocides.

Table 5: Composition of Microbes Found in Bulk Water From Tower 4 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; After Treatmenta Nonoxidizing Biocide Total Aerobic Bacterial Plate Count

b

Pseudomonas

930,000 89,000

Enterobacter

300

Escherichia coli

<1

Mucoids

3,300

Pigmented bacteria

40

Anaerobic Bacteriac Sulfate-reducing bacteria

<1

Clostridium

<1

Fungid Yeast

<10

Mold

<10

Dominant gram-negative bacteriume

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

a. Microbiological counts are expressed as CFU/mL of cooling water sampled.

Tower 4 was treated with 0.2 mg/L free residual chlorine alone. Subsequently, the tower was treated with a nonoxidizing biocide. b. Aerobic bacteria were determined by standard procedures on TGE 24 h. after treatment was applied. c. Anaerobic bacteria were determined on sulfate-reducing medium of Postgate and thioglycollate medium (Clostridium). d. Fungi were determined at <10 CFU/mL on both tartrate-acidified and unacidified PDA. e. The dominant gram-negative bacteria were isolated from MacConkey medium and were transferred to TSA. They were identified by the API 20 method given in Table 4, then speciated by MIS-GC analysis.

An explanation of the effects of a synergistic combination of biocides is given in Figure 1. This figure illustrates a comparison of the kill rate of single treatments of MBT and TCMTB and a combination of the two, called MECT, versus a mixed culture of bacteria. The results in Figure 1 indicate that when 4.5 mg/L active of TCMTB is applied to a laboratory culture of bacteria, only 18% of the population is killed in 2 h, 60% in 5 h, and 80% at 8 h, not improving beyond that percent kill.

When 1.5 mg/L of MTC active ingredient is used, 78% of the population is killed in 2 h, and 8 h is required to achieve a 98% kill. However, when these two biocides are combined at only 1.0 mg/L total active (which is far less than the 6.0 mg/L total active of the combination or 3.0 mg/L, which would be half the combination total), 100% kill is observed in 2 h, and that kill was sustained throughout the 12 h time course.

The combination of MTC and TCMTB was much more effective because these biocides are synergistic, meaning the combination at a low dose was much more effective than the addition of the two biocides at a

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

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Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water System—Part 2 continued

higher dose. Synergism is the interaction in which the total effect is greater than the sum of the individual effects. Some combinations of biocides have a greater synergism than others. In this article the MECT shown in Figure 1 and the effect of combinations shown, particularly in Figures 2 and 3, are the result of strong synergistic combinations.

Figure 1: The kill rate of single treatments of methylene bisthiocyanate (MTC) at 1.5 mg/L, 2-(thiocyanomethylthiocyanobenzylthiazole (TCMTB) at 4.5 mg/L and a combination called MECT, at 1.0 mg/L active ingredient(s), versus a mixed culture of bacteria

Figures 2a-2b: Bacterial counts of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

FIGURE 2a: NONOXIDIZING BIOCIDES vs. Pseudomonas LAB Culture -- 3 h.

1000000 100000 10000 1000 100 10 1 Control

Percent kill

%Kill vs. Time

A

B

C

Biocide

D

E

FIGURE 2b: NONOXIDIZING BIOCIDES vs Pseudomonas LAB CULTURE -- 7 h.

110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

1000000 100000 10000 1000 100 0

2

4

6

8

10

10

12

Time (hours) TCMTB 4.5ppm a.i.

MTC 1.5ppm a.i.

1 MECT 1.0ppm a.i.

Control

A

B

C

D

E

Biocide

The following experiments were conducted (a) to test the biocide currently used at the mill for its effects, increasing the dose to determine whether there was bacterial resistance; (b) to identify a single nonoxidizing biocide that would be the best antimicrobial agent in killing the problematic bacteria, and to find out if a single biocide could not be found to control the microbial problem; then (c) to discover the synergistic combination that would perform well both in the laboratory and in the field.

The nonoxidizing biocide treatment was increased.

The isothiazolone concentration was raised to 200 mg/L product (3.00 mg/L total active isothiazolones). Based on data of several nonoxidizing biocides, this dose was known to decrease the level of the laboratory-grown Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain in 3 h (see Figure 2a, Nonoxidizing Biocide C). However, the 200 mg/L (as product) dose was ineffective in the cooling water of tower 4. A significant effect was not observed over time. The reason for failure of the nonoxidizing biocides in the field can be understood from the laboratory studies conducted. See Figures 2a-2d.

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Figure 2 c-d: Bacterial counts of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa wild type strain

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Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water Systemâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Part 2 continued

Figures 2a-2b are the bacterial counts of Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442 laboratory strain challenged by various nonoxidizing biocides for 3 h and 7 h and plated on TGE. Likewise, Figure 2c-2d consists of data of bacterial counts of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa wild type strain that was isolated from the recycled water in the cold well of the cooling tower containing biofilm. In each graph, the negative (untreated) controls are given first for each set of experiments: A represents counts obtained following treatment with 50% glutaraldehyde at 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg/L active concentration; B represents counts with 1.50% isothiazolone combination used at 0.75, 1.13, 1.5, 3.0 mg/L active; C represents results obtained by polyquat used at 0.6, 2.0, 6.0, and 12.0 mg/L active; D involved treatment with 20% DBNPA at 4, 8, 10, and 20 mg/L active; E is the combination of isothiazolones plus the polyquat used at the respective concentrations of 0.07+0.6, 0.35+3.0, 0.7+6.0, and 1.4+12.0.

The results in Figures 2a and 2b indicate that the nonoxidizing biocides A, D, and E performed well against the laboratory strain Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

In fact, biocides B and C at higher dosages performed well at 3 h. At 7 h, biocides A and E killed the best at

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all concentrations, while biocides B, C, and D at their higher dosages killed well vs. the control. (Figure 2b) By the 7 h sampling time point, some growback was starting to occur for D, which does happen with this biocide due to lack of persistence. The results in Figure 2c and 2d, however, indicate that most biocides tested did not kill the wild type Pseudomonas sp. At 3 h, only nonoxidizing biocide E at the highest dose provided a significant kill, which was slightly greater than a one log10 kill. Figure 2d indicates that all dosages of nonoxidizing biocide E gave a kill at 7 h. That is, the lowest dose gave nearly a 1 log kill, the second and third dosages gave >2 log kill, while the highest dose provided a 4 log kill. None of the other nonoxidizing biocides affected the wild type pseudomonad.

Figure 3 indicates the heterotrophic plate count (HPC) and the Pseudomonas sp. count from samples obtained from cooling tower 4 at the mill during a field trial. These are data collected subsequent to the testing done for Table 5. The counts were determined on samples taken approximately 24 h after the addition of the biocides. The results indicate the effects of the isothiazolones and the combination of the polyquat

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Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water System—Part 2 continued

plus isothiazolones on the bacterial population of cooling tower 4. Normally, treatments using 1.05 mg/L isothiazolone slug doses were done every three days with 0.2 mg/L free residual chlorine already in the water. At day 1 the HPC was 2.9 x 106 CFU, and the Pseudomonas counts were 3.1 x 105 CFU/mL. At day 3 the same treatment was added (data not shown). After the concentration of the active isothiazolones was increased to 3.00 mg/L at day 6, the total bacterial population was still not reduced significantly (2.9 x 106/day 1 to 6.7 x 106/day 2); likewise, the Pseudomonas sp. population remained almost the same (3.1 x 105 to 2.8 x 105). Evidently using isothiazolones and chlorine, the bacterial counts were found not to decrease with treatment; in fact, the total count increased approximately 0.33 log10. At day 9, a synergistic combination of polyquat and isothiazolones was introduced, and in 24 h, the total aerobic count dropped over a full log to 3.33 x 105, and the Pseudomonas count decreased to 3.26 x 104. Additional treatment at day 15 resulted in almost a log decrease in HPC and half-log in Pseudomonas count.

Figure 3: Bacterial kill of the heterotrophic plate count (HPC)

and 12.0 mg/L active polyquat caused an approximate 2 log reduction in both HPC and pseudomonad counts by day 16 and an overall >4 log reduction in HPC by the end of the trial. After the combination polyquat+isothiazolones was fed, we performed the classical experiment for the mill and returned to their previous program, using 3.00 active isothiazolones on two separate days (days 23 and 26.5). As a result, the total bacterial count rose almost a log, while the Pseudomonas count increased nearly the same (Figure 3, day 27). A return to isothiazolone chemistry as the sole nonoxidizing biocide failed even though at this time point chlorine was present at 0.25 mg/L (as free residual Cl 2). Three days later the mill wanted to return to the combination of polyquat plus isothiazolones. The combination resulted in a 2 log drop in HPC and approximately one log decrease in Pseudomonas counts.

Figure 3 illustrates the bacterial kill of the heterotrophic plate count (HPC) and Pseudomonas counts over time.

The treatments were given approximately 24 h prior to sampling of the cooling water for microbiological analysis. At day 1, the result is for the treatment using 1.05 mg/L active isothiazolones the day before. The result at day 7 is for the dosage of 3.0 mg/L isothiazolones used on the previous day. On days 9 and 15, the combination of 12 mg/L polyquat and 1.40 mg/L isothiazolones was applied. At days 23 and 26.5, the mill returned to the treatment using 3.00 isothiazolones, and the result is given as the data point at 27 days. At day 29, the combination of 12 mg/L polyquat and 1.4 mg/L isothiazolones was dosed. No nonoxidizing biocide treatment was dosed at day 30.

Discussion While the 3.0 mg/L active isothiazolone dose was effective against the laboratory strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Figure 2a and Figure 2b), this concentration did not have a strong effect against the field bacterial population in cooling tower 4 (Figure 3, Figure 2c and 2d).

Clearly, the dose of isothiazolones alone was inadequate against the wild type bacteria.

Consequently, the combination of polyquat and isothiazolones was introduced to the cooling water at days 14 and 15, and samples again were drawn for analyses approximately 24 h later. The results in Figure 3 indicate that the combination of 1.4 mg/L active isothiazolones

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In this study, several biocides as well as a synergistic biocide were examined versus P. aeruginosa in the laboratory and then applied to a problem case in the field. There, the mill felt that chlorine and isothiazolone would solve their problem; however, the data in Table 3 clearly indicate that the bacteria in cooling tower 4 were not under control using the steel mill’s standard program of chlorine and isothiazolone. After chlorine was increased, more slime-forming bacteria grew. When the isothiazolone concentration was increased in the laboratory (Figure 2c and 2d) and in the field (Figure 3), the product allowed increases in Pseudomonas counts, indicating that the organism clearly did not adapt to the

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Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water System—Part 2 continued

biocide but actually developed a resistance to it. Several single biocides also failed, and only the polyquat plus isothiazolones synergistic combination succeeded both in the laboratory (Figures 2c and 2d) and in the field (Figure 3). In the field, the classical experiment was carried out by shutting off the combination biocide and restarting the isothiazolone chemistry alone; subsequently, the isothiazolone-resistant bacteria again began to flourish. Afterwards, when the polyquat and

isothiazolone combination was returned to the cooling water, the synergistic combination demonstrated success; success in dropping the counts to only 3.99 x 105 and 2.76 x 103 quickly demonstrated proof of the successful program. Since the total heterotrophic bacteria were at a level lower than the initial level, the combination, being a successful and appropriate biocidal product for this system, easily reduced the HPC and Pseudomonas populations quickly.

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It is worth discussing the original problem where the mill supervision believed that they could gain control of the bacteria and bacterial slime development by accelerating the chlorine dosage, but chlorination alone did not solve the problem. However, it was demonstrated almost 30 years ago that low-level chlorination does not prevent attachment of the surviving viable cells and subsequent biofilm accumulation [2]. Increasing the chlorine level makes the biofilm rougher, thereby increasing the roughness on the tube surface [4]. Chlorination preferentially removes the EPS, not the biofilm cells. (HOBr and other halogenated oxidizers do the same.) The survivors are effective EPS producers [19]. Increasing chlorination leads to an increase in EPS. In the field study, based on standard microbiological and biochemical testing, the microorganisms were found to be the cause of the problem of slime in the cooling system, and the species was Pseudomonas sp., which expressed the mucoid phenotype (Tables 3 and 5). Pseudomonas sp. would have to be controlled with a nonoxidizing biocide, and the oxidizer would be used to help knock down the planktonic bacteria in the bulk water.

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Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water System—Part 2 continued

Unfortunately, single nonoxidizers that were normally effective against Pseudomonas (Figures 2a and 2b) were not effective against the field isolate that caused the slime problem in the cooling system (Figures 2c and 2d). In the case study, the isothiazolones were ineffective, most likely because it was added at a low concentration, enabling the bacteria to become resistant. Then, increasing doses of isothiazolones were also ineffective (Figures 2c and 2d). It is also interesting that in the laboratory study, single doses of both isothiazolones and glutaraldehyde were effective against laboratory strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442 but were not effective against the wild type Pseudomonas strain found in cooling tower 4. In the writer’s laboratory, 12 strains of Pseudomonas and closely related Burkholderia sp. in a culture collection are resistant to isothiazolones, and three are also resistant to glutaraldehyde. The resistance occurs at the outer membrane level, where both isothiazolones and glutaraldehyde attack. Isothiazolones at low levels are actively transported [6]. It is well known that glutaraldehyde attacks the outer membrane of the cell and reacts with the amino groups within the membrane proteins. One of the mechanisms of reaction of isothiazolone chemistry with the bacterial cell is also membrane transport dependent. A mutation in a transport protein could account for lack of transport across the membrane.

The synergistic biocide employed in this study performs by a different set of reactions. This biocide consists of a combination of nonoxidizing biocides in a proprietary water-soluble formulation. One of the actives is a polyionene, which acts as a cationic surface-active detergent. The polyionene dissociates in water to give a positively charged polyquat cation and a negatively charged chloride ion; then, the polyquat activity makes the cell membranes and the cell wall of a bacterium positively charged. The cations neutralize the negative surface charges of the bacterial cell, and the surface becomes positively charged because of the absorption of the cations. One of the other ingredients consists of two isothiazolin-3-ones, which, in combination with the polyionene, serve as a synergistic biocidal product [26]. With the polyquat attacking and neutralizing the translocation proteins within the cell membrane, the isothiazolones can penetrate the cell and perform an electrophilic attack on accessible, critical sulfhydryl groups, forming an isothiazolone–protein disulfide bond.

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Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water Systemâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Part 2 continued

Other reactions cause formation of free radicals that cause further damage [3,7]. Eventually the cells accumulate more damage than they can repair, and they die.

In previous studies [26,27], the combination of polyquat and isothiazolones was found synergistic versus other bacteria. The biocide combination is formulated in a proprietary composition called WSKT-10.

Conclusions 1. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was found to grow up in the cooling tower with Pseudomonas fluorescens and other Pseudomonas species.

2. An appropriate biocide program was required to maintain in check the biocide resistant bacteria, particularly Pseudomonas species.

3. Chlorinating alone was insufficient, and increases in chlorination led to increase in slime-forming bacterial development.

4. A nonoxidizing biocide, such as isothiazolones at sub-lethal dosage, even in the presence of free residual chlorine, was proven to be inadequate at controlling

22

wild type bacteria in the cooling system over time. Sub-lethal dosage of isothiazolones allowed development of isothiazolone-resistant bacteria.

5. A combination of nonoxidizing biocides (WSKT10) provided the best control of the wild type microorganisms, including Pseudomonas, in the cooling tower vs. bleach alone or bleach plus one nonoxidizing biocide.

6. Reduction in planktonic bacterial count does not necessarily indicate reduction in bacteria on surfaces in a cooling system. Bacterial resistance levels are often >3 orders of magnitude than those displayed by planktonic bacteria of the same strain.

7. Problematic microorganisms may reside in biofilms on system surfaces.

The presence of microbial slime masses on cooling tower surfaces, the appearance of atypical color surfaces or pigmented bacteria, and atypical differences between past and present performance of a cooling system may indicate problems of microbial deposition. During weekly inspections, it is important to observe the

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Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials in a Cooling Water System—Part 2 continued

appearance of the deposition, as bacteria can grow up well within the deposits in a short time. If found early and treated with an appropriate and effective biocide program, the microbial deposits are more easily controlled, and their problems can be reduced or eliminated. When there is less control of the situation, one finds that the biofilm populations will grow more uncontrolled, leading to major problems with the cooling systems and possibly even the health of the workers. The frequency of Pseudomonas, in particular, in causing these problems will be the subject of a different study.

References

1. Bodey, G.P., R. Bolivar, V. Fainstein, and L. Jadeja (1983) Infection caused

by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Rev. Infect. Dis. 5:279-313 2. Bongers, L.H. and D.T. Burton (1977) Bromine chloride—an alternative to chlorine for fouling control in condenser cooling systems. Final Report, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-600/7-77-053, Washington 3. Chapman, J.S. and M.A. Diehl (1995) Methylchloroisothiazoloneinduced growth inhibition and lethality in Escherichia coli. J. Appl.

Microbiol. 78: 134-141 4. Characklis, W.G (1990) Microbial biofouling control in Biofilms, ed. by W.G. Characklis and K.C. Marshall. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

5. Daniels, C., C. Griffiths, B. Cowles, and J. Lam (2002) Pseudomonas aeruginosa O-antigen chain length is determined before ligation to lipid A core. Environ. Microbiol. 4: 883-897 6. Diehl, M.A. and J.S. Chapman (1995) Biocide transport/association in Pseudomonas species. In Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the Amer.

Soc. for Microbiology. (Washington, DC), K90 7. Dimonte, D., G. Bellomo, H. Thor, P. Nicotera, and S. Orrhenius (1984) Menadione-induced cytotoxicity is associated with protein thiol oxidation and alteration in intracellular calcium homeostasis. Archives of Biochem. and Biophys. 235: 343-350 8. Dudley, L.Y. and N.S.J. Christopher (1999) Practical experiences of biofouling in reverse osmosis systems, in Biofilms in the Aquatic Environment, ed. by C. W. Keevil, A. Godfree, D. Holt, and C. Dow. Cambridge, UK, 103 9. Haker, J and James Kaper (2000) Pathogenicity islands and the evolution of microbes. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 54. Annual Reviews, Palo Alto, CA., 653

16. Jarvis, W.R. and W.J. Martone (1992) Predominant pathogens in hospital infections. J. Antimicrob. Chermother. 29:S19-S24 17. Lamont, I.L., P.A. Beare, U. Ochsner, A.I. Vasil, and M.L. Vasil (2002) Siderophore-mediated signaling regulates virulence factor production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99: 7072-8088 18. Makerness, C.W., J.S. Colbroune, P.L.J. Dennis, T. Rachwal, and C.W. Keevil (1999) Formation and control of coliform biofilms in drinking water distribution systems, in Microbial Biofilms: Formation and Control. ed. by S.P. Denyer, S.P. Gorman, and M. Susman, London, UK, 225 19. McFeters, G.A. and A.K. Camper (1985) Enumeration of indicator bacteria exposed to chlorine. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 29: 177-193 20. Meyer, J.M., A. Neely, A. Stintzi, C. Georges, I.A. Holder (1996) Pyoverdin is essential for virulence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infect.

Immun. 64: 518-523 21. Neu, H.C. (1983) The role of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in infections. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2(suppl B):1-13 22. O’Toole, G. and R. Kolter (1998) Flagellar and twitching motility are necessary for Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm development. Molecular Microbiology. 30:295-304 23. Pollack, M. (2000) Pseudomonas aeruginosa, p. 1980-2003. In G.L. Mandell, J.E. Bennett, and R. Dolin (ed.), Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 5th ed. Churchill Livingstone, Inc., New York, NY 24. Rhame, F.S (1980) The ecology and epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In L.D. Sabath, ed. Pseudomonas aeruginosa: The organism, diseases it causes, and their treatment. (Hans Huber, Bern, Switzerland) 25. Smibert, R.M. and N.R. Krieg (1981) General Characterization, in P. Gerharhardt (ed.) Manual of Methods for General Bacteriology.

Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology. p. 419 26. Wiatr, C.L. (2002) Detection and eradication of a non-legionella pathogen in a recirculating water system. In Abstract of the Amer. Soc. for Microbiology Annual Meeting, (Salt Lake City, UT), Q-132 27. Wiatr, C.L (2002) Detection and eradication of a non-legionella pathogen in a cooling water system. The Analyst. Association of Water Technologies, IX: 38-48 28. Wiatr, C.L. and O.X. Fedyniak (1991) Development of an obligate anaerobe specific biocide. J. Industrial Microbiol. 7:7-14

Dr. Chris Wiatr retired from Buckman Laboratories as technical director. He currently is a consultant for Buckman. Dr. Wiatr can be reached at (800) 282-5626.

10. Hancock, R.E.W. (1988) Resistance mechanisms in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other nonfermentative gram-negative bacteria. Clin. Infec.

Dis. 1: S93-S99 11. Harrison, T.G. and A.G. Taylor (1988) Demonstration of legionellae in clinical specimens. In A Laboratory Manual for Legionella. Ed. By T.G. Harrison and A.G. Taylor, New York: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 109-110, 127 12. Harrison, T.G. and A.G. Taylor (1988) Diagnosis of legionnaires’ disease by antibody levels. In A Laboratory Manual for Legionella. Ed. by T.G. Harrison and A.G. Taylor, New York: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 127-128, 133, 135 13. Homma, J.Y. and M. Matsuura (1991) Enhancement of nonspecific resistance against microbial infections with special reference to Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection by chemically synthesized lipid A-subunit analogs.

Antibiot. Chemother. 44: 203-208 14. Holt, J.G., N.R. Kreig, P.H.A. Sneath, J.T. Staley, and S.T. Williams (1994) Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, 9th ed., pp. 93-94, 151-168. The Williams * Wilkins Co., Baltimore, MD 15. Jacoby, G.A. and G.L. Archer (1991) New mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents. N. Engl. J. Med. 324:601-612

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

How Air Flow Affects Evaporative Cooling Tower Efficiencyâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Part 3

By John Pitcher, Weber Sensors

This is Part 3 of a four-part series on the optimization of evaporative cooling towers.

Parts 1 and 2 of this series appeared in the winter and spring issues of The Analyst, respectively. In the previous two parts of this series, we discussed the effects of heat load and water flow on evaporative cooling tower efficiency. Here, we will consider the third and last variable: airflow. The study of the properties of air (although technically it can be any vapor with moisture content) is referred to as psychrometrics.

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How Air Flow Affects Evaporative Cooling Tower Efficiency—Part 3 continued

A typical psychrometric chart is illustrated in Figure 1.

Psychrometric charts are normally based on standard atmospheric pressure at sea level (29.92 inches of mercury) and represent 1 pound of air. As an example, let’s assume the temperature is 90 °F and the relative humidity is 60 percent.

Looking at the chart, the vertical blue line is the temperature line (also called the dry bulb temperature), and the yellow line following the curve is the relative humidity line. At the point where those two lines intersect, we can see the total heat content of the air is approximately 42 BTU/lbs. (green line), and what is called the wet bulb temperature (red line) is 77 °F.

Figure 1: Psychrometric chart (Courtesy Engineering Toolbox)

Other lines of interest are the specific volume line in orange, which runs diagonally, and the grains of moisture line in purple, which runs horizontally. The specific volume at the point where the red, yellow, and blue lines intersect would be about halfway between the 14 and 14.5 lines, or about 14.25 cubic foot per pound. This tells us that 1 pound of air will occupy 14.25 cubic feet of space. Specific volume is the inverse of density or, in English, 1/(specific volume) = density. So if the specific volume is 14.25, the density of the air is around 1/14.25, or 0.07 lbs. per cubic foot. At 90 °F and 60 percent relative humidity, 1 cubic foot of air weighs 0.07 lbs. Knowing specific volume or density becomes important when performing fan calculations.

For example, if a fan is delivering 100 CFM of air at 90 °F and 60 percent relative humidity, how many pounds of air are being moved every hour?

The formula is CFM x density = pounds of air per minute (lbs. per minute) or CFM/(Specific Volume) = lbs. per minute.

100 x 0.0172 = 7.2 or 100/14.25 = 7.2.

Therefore, the fan is moving around 7.2 pounds of air per minute. By multiplying lbs. per minute times 60 minutes per hour, the result is 7.2 x 60 = 432 pounds of air moved per hour.

27

Following the grains of moisture line horizontally to the right from our spot reveals that the total amount of moisture in weight would be around 139 grains. Grains are a measurement of weight, as 7,000 grains is equal to 1 pound. Therefore, the water vapor in 1 pound of air at 90 °F (dry bulb) and 60 percent relative humidity would have a weight of (139/7,000) around 0.0199 pounds.

The light blue line in Figure 1 represents the dew point temperature. Dew point is the temperature at which the water vapor in the air will change back to a liquid. This tells us that at 90 °F and 60 percent relative humidity, droplets will form on the surface of your adult beverage container (or any other surface) if it is below 73 °F. Dew point becomes useful in dehumidification processes, as a coil at or below this temperature will remove moisture from the air.

Wet Bulb’s Role in Evaporative Cooling Tower Applications One of the most important factors in understanding evaporative cooling towers is wet bulb. Wet bulb is simply a temperature measured by taking a regular thermometer and placing a cotton sock or wick at the bulb, which is saturated with distilled water, and placing it in air moving at some velocity as shown in Figure 2. When

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

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How Air Flow Affects Evaporative Cooling Tower Efficiency—Part 3 continued

compared to a thermometer without a sock, also called a dry bulb thermometer, it is possible to calculate relative humidity. For example, at 100 percent relative humidity, both the dry and wet thermometers will be the same temperature, as the air already holds all the moisture it can. As the relative humidity falls, the temperature of the thermometer with a sock (wet bulb) will drop due to evaporation and become less than the dry bulb thermometer. The greater the difference, the lower the relative humidity.

As shown in Figure 3, the heat exchanger to the top is a counterflow type. This is because the fluid streams move in opposite directions. To accomplish efficient heat transfer, the cooler fluid in one stream begins by contacting the warmer stream of the other. The figure on the bottom is a cross-flow type. In a cross-flow application one stream moves parallel of the other.

Figure 3: Counterflow and crossflow heat exchange (Courtesy: Baltimore Aircoil)

Figure 2: Wet and dry bulb thermometers (Courtesy: Engineering Toolbox)

Wet bulb temperature is important to understand because the temperature of the water leaving an evaporative cooling tower is determined by, and directly related to, whatever the outdoor air wet bulb temperature is.

Furthermore, the water leaving the tower can be the same but never lower than wet bulb temperature.

Heat Exchangers for Evaporative Cooling Tower Applications Heat exchangers of various types, shapes, and sizes are used extensively in industry. One thing that most have in common is that they are devices designed to transfer heat as efficiently as possible between two different fluid streams. Evaporative cooling towers are no exception, as they transfer heat from a process load using water to the air flowing through the tower to the atmosphere.

Evaporative cooling towers can be designed to operate as either a crossflow or counterflow.

29

A very important factor to consider with heat exchangers is the concept of approach. Approach is calculated by knowing the difference in temperature between the inlet of one stream and the outlet of the other. For example, a refrigeration system uses an evaporative cooling tower to remove heat from the refrigerant at 105 °F via a heat exchanger called a condenser. When the outdoor conditions and the load on the refrigeration system are at their maximum, the tower water temperature leaving the heat exchanger (condenser) is designed to be 95 °F; therefore, the design approach would be 105 – 95 = 10 °F. In evaporative cooling towers, the approach is the difference in temperature between the water leaving the tower to the process and the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the tower. If the design temperature of the water leaving the tower is 85 °F, and the design wet bulb temperature entering the tower is 78 °F, the design approach is (85 – 78) = 7 °F. Probably the three most important design criteria for specifying evaporative cooling towers are the maximum design water temperature the process requires for

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How Air Flow Affects Evaporative Cooling Tower Efficiency—Part 3 continued

cooling, the range between the water entering and leaving the tower, and the maximum wet bulb of the air entering the tower. For example, if the climate where a tower is placed has a maximum outdoor wet bulb temperature of 77 °F, and the maximum temperature supply water that the process can tolerate is 85 °F, and the temperature of the water entering the tower is 95 °F, then the design approach would be the difference between the maximum tolerable process supply water and the maximum design wet bulb (85 – 77) = 8 °F, and the range would be (95 – 85)=10 °F. In this application, the maximum design tower approach would be 8 °F. This means that a tower with an approach higher than 8 °F would be undersized and not able to provide cool enough water to the application when outdoor temperatures and heat load are at maximum.

it finally reaches the temperature of the water (80 °F).

The air‘s heat content becomes around 26.5 BTU/lbs., as illustrated by the yellow line coming from the base of the triangle. This tells us that it takes about (26.5 – 20) about 6.5 BTU/lbs. for the air to change temperature from 55 °F to 80 °F. As the water evaporates, it gives up both moisture and heat to the air until the air holds all the moisture it can and reaches 100 percent relative humidity. The yellow line at the top of the triangle represents the relative humidity.

Figure 4: Water temperature lower than dry bulb (Courtesy: Engineering Toolbox)

Specifying towers with a lower than maximum design approach can be more energy efficient; however, this efficiency comes with higher upfront cost. This means that it is possible to have two towers rated for exactly the same amount of heat removal and range, but if they have different approaches, they will not be the same size or cost. Further, as the approach reaches closer to zero, the size and first cost of the tower go up exponentially.

Psyching Out the Evaporative Cooling Tower Two different scenarios are shown in Figures 4 and 5, one showing that the air dry bulb entering the tower is lower than the process water; and the other showing that the air dry-bulb entering the tower is higher than the process water.

Figure 4 represents a condition where the process water temperature is greater than the outdoor air. The triangle drawn on the chart shows the heat flow using yellow lines.

Let’s assume that the process water temperature entering the tower is 80 °F, and the air entering the tower is 55 °F with a relative humidity of 70 percent. The amount of heat the air contains entering the tower is roughly 20 BTU/lbs., as shown by the yellow line at the bottom of the triangle. As the air comes in contact with the 80 °F water in the tower, due to the fact that it is at a lower temperature, it will rise in temperature until

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

How Air Flow Affects Evaporative Cooling Tower Efficiency—Part 3 continued

So now the air that started out as 55 °F and 70 percent relative humidity becomes 80 °F at approximately 100 percent relative humidity and holds around 43.4 BTU/ bs. of heat. The amount of heat gained by the water evaporating and giving up heat is about (43.4 – 26.5) or 16.9 BTU/lbs. The total heat taken from the tower is roughly (43.4 – 20) or 23.4 BTU/lbs. So, the amount of heat to change from 55 °F to 80 °F was 6.5 BTU/lbs., and the amount of heat to change from 70 percent relative humidity to 100 percent relative humidity was 16.9 BTU/lbs.

This may initially sound a little counterintuitive, but the dry bulb temperature means very little in this equation.

This is the reason why the BTU/lbs. line is merely an extension of the wet-bulb line (only farther left). As such, the total heat that is removed is completely dependent on the wet bulb. What do I mean by that? At 55 °F and 80 percent relative humidity, the wet bulb is around 50 °F. If the dry bulb were to reach 65 °F at a 30 percent relative humidity, the wet bulb would still be around 50 °F, and the amount of heat given up to the water would still be the same amount (roughly 23.4 BTU/lbs.). The only difference is that the amount of sensible heat would decrease to roughly 5 BTU/lbs., while the latent heat would increase to 18.4 BTU/lbs.

On the other hand, what would happen if the water temperature was less than the air dry bulb entering the tower, as shown in Figure 5? Let’s assume the water temperature is 80 °F and the air temperature entering the tower is 85 °F with a 60 percent relative humidity.

At point “A” in Figure 5, the air contains about 38 BTU/ lbs. of heat. Because the air is at a higher temperature than the water, it gives up heat to the water, shown at point “B.” Now the air contains a total heat of around 37 BTU/lbs. This means the total amount of heat given up by the air into the water is around 1 BTU/lbs.

From point “B,” the air becomes the same temperature as the water at 80 °F dry bulb, and the relative humidity changes to around 70 percent. This decrease in relative humidity is not because moisture was added, but rather because the air at a higher temperature simply has a greater ability to hold moisture. Remember, relative humidity is dependent on temperature, and as temperature goes up, air can hold more moisture. From point “B,” the water begins to absorb moisture through evaporation until it reaches a relative humidity of around 100 percent

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at point “C,” where the BTU/lbs. of the air becomes about 49.2 BTU/lbs. and gains a total of 49.2 – 38 = 11.2 BTU/lbs.

Figure 5: Water temperature higher than dry bulb (Courtesy: Engineering Toolbox)

What Have We Learned?

The air that is entering the tower fan at the top of the tower is at 85 °F and 100 percent relative humidity. It is also the point where the air enters the fan, so the fan is taking in the air at this condition. If you line up that point on the chart and estimate what the specific volume is, Figure 5 shows the diagonal direction of the specific volume lines, you should come up with a number around 14.4 cubic feet per pound (between the 14 and 14.5 lines).

If you recall, when we discussed specific volume, we gave an example of how many pounds of air per hour a 100 CFM fan would be moving. Using this same example of 100 CFM, how many pounds per minute would we be moving per minute?

CFM divided by specific volume = 100/14.4 = 6.95 pounds per minute or CFM times density = 100 x (1/specific volume) = 100 x 0.069 = 6.95 pounds per minute

Great, so now tell me how much heat per hour is being removed based on Figure 5?

The formula is total heat removed (11.2) times pounds per minute of air (6.95) times 60 minutes per hour.

Heat Removed times lbs./min times 60 (converting minutes to hours) or

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

How Air Flow Affects Evaporative Cooling Tower Efficiency—Part 3 continued

The full equation then is:

11.2 x 6.95 x 60 = 4,670.4 BTU/hr.

Therefore, a tower with a 100 CFM motor at these conditions would be removing 4,670.4 BTU/hr.

CFM/tower ton = (15,000 x sp. volume)/([Ht. 2 – Ht.1] x 60) = 322 or

For extra credit, how many CFM would we need to make a full cooling tower ton at this condition?

CFM/tower ton = 15,000/([Ht.2 – Ht.1] x 60 x density) = 322 CFM

Well let’s see…a cooling tower ton is 15,000 BTU/hr.

By reversing the procedure we first solve for how many pounds of air we need. So the amount of heat removed from 1 pound is (49.2 – 38) = 11.2 BTU. Therefore, it will take 15,000 divided by 11.2 around (15,000/11.2) = 1,340 pounds of air per hour. Dividing that by 60 minutes per hour gives us 1,340 60 = 22.33 pounds of air per minute. Now we have to convert pounds of air per minute into cubic feet of air per minute, so: Pounds of air per minute (22.33) x specific volume (14.4) = roughly 322 CFM/ton or

So a fan would need to produce 322 CFM to produce a tower ton of cooling at these outdoor conditions.

Last question, what size cooling tower would we need for the 350,000/BTU/hr. oven in our previous example? Tons = 350,000/15,000 = 23.33 tons. If the air was at the above conditions we would need 322 x 15 = 4,830 CFM. John Pitcher is the CEO of Weber Sensors.

He can be reached by phone at (770) 592-6630 or by email at john.pitcher@captor.com.

Pounds of air per minute (22.33)/density (0.069) = roughly 322 CFM/ton

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Aluminum Corrosion Coupon Discussion

By AWT Cooling Subcommittee Corrosion Coupon Monitoring Task Group

Aluminum alloys derive their corrosion resistance from a composite oxide layer, which, under normal circumstances, is hard and tenaciously bound to the underlying aluminum base surface and reforms quickly when damaged.

The oxide film formed in water has been postulated to consist of a duplex film consisting of a thin layer of boehmite, (a-Al 2O3 â&#x20AC;˘ 3H 2O) approximately 1 to 2 nm adjacent to the metal surface, and topped by a more bulk

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film of bayerite (b-Al 2O3 â&#x20AC;˘ 3H 2O) 20 to 200 nm in thickness.

Although aluminum is at the anodic end of the Galvanic Series, its oxide has low solubility and is reportedly stable in natural waters from pH 4.5 to 8.5. In general, pH values below this range will destroy the oxide film more rapidly than the underlying metal and result in a more uniform corrosion of the alloy. pH values above 8.5 will attack the aluminum alloy more aggressively than its

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Aluminum Corrosion Coupon Discussion continued

oxide and promote localized pitting (it is worth noting that the stability of the oxide is poor above this pH value). The common pH guideline referenced in water treatment applications is 7.5 to 8.5. Figure 1 shows the corrosion rate of aluminum as a function of pH at 22 °C.

There are nine wrought aluminum alloy series and eight cast alloy. Both series of alloys are shown in Table 1 with their Unified Numbering System (UNS) designation. The Aluminum Association, Inc. in North America created these numerical designations.

Figure 1: Corrosion of aluminum as a function of pH at 22 °C

Table 1: Designation for Cast and Wrought Aluminum Alloys Wrought Alloys

A2xxxx A3xxxx

Commercially pure >99%) Al-Cu and Al-Cu-Li Al-Mn

4xxxx

Al-Si and Al-Mg-Si

A5xxxx A6xxxx A7xxxx A8xxxx A9xxxx

Al-Mg Al-mg-Si Al-Mg-Zn Al-Li, Sn, Zr, or B Not currently used

Casting Alloys

Composition Family

A1xxxx

Aluminum should never be part of a galvanic couple with copper or its alloys, as rapid damage can occur. This is due to metals having a high differential in electrode potential and aluminum being one of the more reactive elements.

Surface deposits, including biofilm, will lead to aluminum corrosion if the diffusion of oxygen to the aluminum surface is sufficiently impeded. Thus, keeping a clean surface is mandatory and is the reason why some facilities utilize filtration or require softened water to be used to prevent scale. Both help to protect the aluminum components from deposition.

Hundreds of aluminum alloys are in use, each offering different corrosion resistance, strength, and elasticity.

Most common usages involve sheet metals used as aircraft parts, aluminum sidings for buildings or homes, or road signage. The alloys encountered in water treatment are almost always from cast aluminum parts or machined aluminum parts. In addition to alloy differences, factors such as heat treatment, surface hardening, surface chemical treatment (such as anodizing), and other metallurgical factors can have major effects on corrosion behavior.

Copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, and zinc are the major alloying elements within the different series. Chromium, iron, lead, lithium, and other metals are sometimes added to provide additional specialty characteristics.

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Composition Family

2xx.x

Commercially pure Al Al-Cu

3xx.x

Al-Si-Cu or Al-Mg-Si

4xx.x 5xx.x 7xx.x 8xx.x 9xx.x

Al-Si Al-Mg Al-Mg-Zn Al-Sn Not currently used

1xx.x

Heat Treatment Not age-hardenable Age-hardenable Not age-hardenable Age-hardenable if Mg is present Not age-hardenable Age-hardenable Age-hardenable Age-hardenable

Heat Treatment Not age-hardenable Age-hardenable Some are Not age-hardenable Not age-hardenable Not age-hardenable Age-hardenable Age-hardenable

The first digit for the wrought alloys shows the main alloying element, the second digit shows modification, and the last two digits show the decimal percentage of the aluminum concentration (e.g., A1060 will be 99.6% Al alloy). The aluminum cast alloys utilize the last digit to indicate product form: 1 or 2 is ingot (depending upon purity) and 0 is for casting.

Of these, the 2xxx, 3xxx, and 4xxx alloys are frequently used for heat exchanger, condenser, and associated piping applications. The 3xxx, 5xxx, and 7xxx series alloys are used in process industries. The 7xxx series is used in plastic molding equipment.

The above table provides a sample listing of elements present in a number of alloys (there are currently more than 40 different designations). Additional information on the different aluminum alloys can be obtained from the Aluminum Association at www.aluminum.org.

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Aluminum Corrosion Coupon Discussion continued

The corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys is dependent on a protective oxide film. This film is stable in water within a pH range of 4 to 8.5. The oxide film is rapidly self-renewed after damage from abrasion or other mechanical means.

the copper deposit. The maximum copper concentration in water must be less than 0.1 mg/L to prevent a serious pitting problem on aluminum. Copper ions that are chelated with an azole to form a Cu-azole complex will not deposit on aluminum and pit the alloy.

The acidity or alkalinity of the water (pH) significantly affects the corrosion behavior of aluminum alloys.

Outside the pH range of 4 to 8.5, aluminum is susceptible to corrosive attack.

Figure 2 shows the Galvanic Series in flowing seawater at 25 °C. The rankings of the metals are listed according to their potential (voltage), measured with respect to the Standard Calomel Electrode (S.C.E.). The numerical values at the top of chart are the potential (voltage) values. The series provides a guide between metal couples. Metals at the negative end of the seriesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;at the right side of the figureâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;are anodic or less noble (less protective) and more likely to be attacked than those at the cathodic, or noble, end of the chart (e.g., gold).

Temperature, conductivity, pH and cathodic reactants are key factors influencing aluminum loss, but the majority of aluminum corrosion is caused by galvanic attack. Extreme care must be exercised to avoid galvanic coupling of aluminum alloy to more noble metals. (e.g., steel, copper). The copper/aluminum couple is extremely detrimental. Copper/aluminum couple can occur from direct connection of the two-alloy couple or by deposition of copper ions on the aluminum. Even in the absence of a direct connection, any copper ions in the water will plate out onto the aluminum and form copper metal via a reduction process. Pitting attack occurs under

E(V) vs. Saturated Calomel Electrode (S.C.E.) Aluminum alloys used in closed-loop systems are most often found in chilled applications but are beginning to be utilized more in closed heating systems as well.

Table 2: Aluminum Foundry and Die Cast Alloys

36

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Aluminum Corrosion Coupon Discussion continued

Temperature, conductivity, pH, and cathodic reactants are key factors influencing aluminum loss, but the majority of aluminum corrosion is caused by galvanic attack. Figure 2 shows that the greater the separation between the alloys, the more intense that attack on the anodic alloy.

Nitrate and silicates are some of the common inhibitors used to protect aluminum alloys. Specific pH buffers have also been used to limit aluminum corrosion. Azoles are need to complex copper ions and prevent their deposition onto aluminum alloys. Mercaptobenzothiazole will protect both copper and aluminum and complex copper ions.

Aluminum alloys can vary widely in their reaction to specific environments. It is very important to use corrosion coupons fabricated from the alloy of concern in the water-handling system. Monitoring corrosion rates for a different alloy may not provide useful information about the protection (or lack thereof) of the system components. It is also important to maintain flow over the Figure 2: Galvanic Series in Flowing Seawater at 25 °C

aluminum alloy coupons so that the surface oxide layer can spontaneously form in-situ. Under stagnant lowoxygen conditions, fairly rapid attack of aluminum may be experienced, even at near neutral pH values.

As aluminum corrosion resistance is heavily dependent on the proper formation of its oxide film, poor formation and maintenance of this film will have severe consequences for the underlying alloy; it may not be practical to grade aluminum corrosion rates as anything other than acceptable or unacceptable.

Corrosion loss rate values below 0.20 to 0.25 mpy are likely acceptable and probably reflect a stable, well-maintained oxide layer that will provide reasonable protection to the underlying alloy. Values above this range would suggest that the oxide layer has been compromised and that the aluminum metallurgy may be corroding at an unacceptably high rate.

It should be pointed out that environment is not the only factor influencing high aluminum corrosion rates; improper corrosion coupon cleaning methods can be overly aggressive and have been shown to significantly alter weight-loss values and falsely inflate reported corrosion values.

Referencing “ASTM G1 Standard Practice for Preparing, Cleaning, and Evaluation Corrosion Test Specimens” provides some practical detail on cleaning methods for this (and other) metals.

This document has been produced by the AWT Cooling Subcommittee Corrosion Coupon Monitoring Task Group by the following individuals: 1. Ken Sansom, CWT – Pace Chemicals Ltd. – Calgary, Alberta, Canada

2. Arthur J. Freedman, Ph.D. – Arthur Freedman Associates, Inc. – Naperville, Illinois

3. Timothy E. Keister, CWT – ProChemTech International, Inc. – Brockway, Pennsylvania

4. K. Anthony Selby – Water Technology Consultants, Inc. – Evergreen, Colorado

5. James Scott, CWT – San Joaquin Chemicals – Fresno, California

6. W. John ( Jack) Soost, CWT – Arthur Freedman Associates, Inc. – Lancaster, Pennsylvania

7. Amanda Meitz, Ph.D. – Biosolutions LLC – Chagrin Falls, Ohio 8. Keith Johnson – Keith M Johnson Consulting, Inc. – Grand Rapids, Michigan

9. Ben Boffardi, Ph.D. – Boffardi and Associates, Inc. – Bethel Park, Pennsylvania

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Legionella Outbreak Prevention for Cooling Towers

By Alex Rahimian-Pour, Michael Baker International, and Eric Anderson, GE Water and Process Technologies

Introduction Recent reports of Legionella outbreaks in the United States have raised awareness of the need to control microbiological growth in cooling towers. Judicious use of microbe inhibitors, onsite microbiological testing, and established operational control practices are required to maintain effective prevention.

Water scarcity, environmental limitations on toxic chemicals, and health and safety concerns are driving

38

the need for improved methods to control microbiological proliferation and prevent Legionella outbreaks in cooling tower systems.

This article reviews the history and etiology of Legionella control practices. The report then presents a natural chemistry process that provides outstanding microbiological control, along with integrated testing methods, to reliably prevent Legionella outbreaks. The process involves significant water savings and maintains excellent

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Legionella Outbreak Prevention for Cooling Towers continued

scale and corrosion control. Case studies with ATP testing were used to verify the efficacy of the inhibiting chemistry in preventing microorganism survival.

Legionella Survival Factors 2

According to Bartram, Legionella bacteria and cysts are endemic and found in almost all bodies of water, soil, and municipal water supplies. Cooling towers are natural accumulators of Legionella derived from air scrubbing and makeup water. Bartram states that water conditions inclined to promote growth of Legionella include: • Stagnation • Warm water temperatures between 20° and 50 °C (68 °F and 122 °F) • pH betvween 6.0 and 8.5 • Sediment that tends to promote growth of commensal biofilm • Presence and growth of amoebae, the only microbiological host that harbors the organism • Sludge, scale, sediment, and biofilm that can harbor Legionella cysts and/or the host amoebae

to prevent buildup of scale and sediment and biofouling, all of which support Legionella growth and reduce operating efficiency.”

System design and operation can have a large impact on microorganism counts. Piping dead-legs and periods of shutdown and startup raise specific concerns.

“A system should be designed in such a way that water circulates through all parts of the system that should be wetted whenever it is operational.

Dead-legs on existing systems should be removed or shortened (so that their length is no longer than the diameter of the pipe), or should be modified to permit the circulation of chemically treated water.”

Biofilm and algae may harbor L. pneumophila, but the bacteria do not proliferate extracellularly, rather they procreate exclusively within an amoebae host.

According to Kuiper:4 “Extracellular growth of legionellae in association with other microorganisms may happen in nature,

Traditional hard-water treatment seldom allows tower operation above 6 COC and limits pH to the 7.0 to 8.9 range. Hard-water treatment is vulnerable to scale deposition, which can harbor biological growth, and is also vulnerable to biofilm formation, as managing the complexiPeople crafted solutions since 1976. ties of biocide application requires monitoring and cost tradeoffs.

Managing Legionella Survival and Prevention of Outbreaks Cooling system operating practices and maintenance are critical factors in managing pathogen risk, as noted by The World Health Organization.2 “Visual inspection and periodic maintenance of the system are the best ways to control growth of Legionella and related organisms. Good maintenance is necessary both to control Legionella growth and for effective operation. The system should be properly monitored and maintained

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Legionella Outbreak Prevention for Cooling Towers continued

particularly in biofilms. Recent studies suggest that the only manner in which L. pneumophila generates progeny in biofilm systems is through intracellular growth in amoebae.”

According to Tom Marie, MD,5 “Various amoebae species and human beings are the only two known hosts of L. pneumophila.”

Cooling tower maintenance, including spray-downs and basin cleaning to remove accumulations and biofilm, will minimize safe havens for L. pneumophila and host amoebae.

Proactive treatment and maintenance can prevent Legionella infestation and avert taking the cooling system offline for decontamination. Decontamination requires staff to wear “encounter suits,” as they are exposed to potentially fatal pathogens and high levels of chlorine used to eliminate the infestation.

Pre-treatment Softening of Cooling Tower Makeup Water This treatment replaces calcium carbonate scaling water with highly soluble sodium carbonate chemistry. The softened makeup is concentrated by tower evaporation, typically to 50 to 100 COC range to produce TDS residuals from 20,000 to 100,000 mg/L and pH in the 9.6 to 10.2 range. The treatment employs natural silicates in highly cycled soft water to mitigate corrosion. The soft makeup chemistry has been used since 2005.7 Soft-water treatment chemistry can operate at 1% to 2% wastage of total makeup with efficient pre-treatment design. The retained and concentrated water volume then naturally generates the elevated pH and TDS for microbiostatic chemistry.

Several biostatic chemistry benefits result from the concentration of softened tower makeup: 1. The increased concentration of natural total dissolved solids (TDS) in the makeup water shifts the osmotic pressure across microorganism cell membranes. Thus, single-celled life encounters a function-limiting environment with an osmotic driving force causing water to migrate from inside the cells, disrupting their normal life cycle—a natural biostatic condition.

40

2. Because the resulting pH is in the 9.6 to 10.2 range, “Proteins, DNA and RNA find themselves outside their iso-electric point and begin to denature and hydrolyze. Over half of the 20 most common amino acids are reactive at pH levels below 9.4. If the pH is raised to 9.7, 17 of the 20 amino acids will react and their proteins will hydrolyze. Statistically, it is highly improbable that any organism/cyst/virus will have a peptide chain without at least some of the bonds being at sites which will hydrolyze at pH 9.6 or above.

This natural “biostatic” action occurs without addition of traditional toxic biocides.”1 Operating the cooling system with a variable combination of high pH and TDS chemistry naturally inhibits microbiological growth. The chemistry inhibits biofilm and the amoebae host of the parasitic L. pneumophila. If Legionella trophozoites are produced and expelled from their protected environment into water concentrated to elevated pH values above 9.6, the pH is lethal to these vulnerable organisms. The free-living Legionella cells become gradually less vulnerable as pH values decline below 9.6.

Heterotrophic Bacteria and Legionella Testing Practices

Microbiological counts at or below the 104 CFU/mL range are typically accepted as adequate control. Testing for Legionella bacteria with serogroup typing is also frequently recommended. However, there are noted concerns with reliance on Legionella testing.

According to the World Health Organization:2 “There appears to be little correlation between Legionella culture test results and human health risk. Legionella testing cannot be considered a control measure because of: • Uncertainties about the reliability of culture • Time delays • Differences between culture requirements for different Legionella species • Dynamics of the population According to OSHA6: “Legionella tests are not recommended as a guide for control measures, because their inherent unreliability

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Legionella Outbreak Prevention for Cooling Towers continued

means that the results cannot be used as a reproducible, sensitive and timely measure of system control. Legionella testing should only be used to verify and validate a Water Safety Plan (WSP)—test results should not be seen as a surrogate for a comprehensive control strategy.”

higher dormant organisms are naturally concentrated from air and water sources, as compared to test methods designed for traditional hard water makeup towers operated at 2–6 COC. These two factors lead to false-high microbiological counts.

Cooling towers are high-profile systems since they are a habitat for Legionella and other dangerous organisms.

Reliable test and monitoring methods are needed for onsite control and response.

Field-testing with agar dipsticks is also problematic due to sampling technique variables. Key variables include sample exposure time, uniform drainage, and standard incubation temperature. Inconsistencies lead to frequent reporting errors, and only aerobic organisms are detected.

Test Reliability Issues for High TDS/pH Chemistry (High COC Tower Operation) Laboratory plate count procedures require a diluted sample to be placed on nutrient culture media, which then detects both active and dormant (cyst) organisms.

The laboratory dilution methods thus reduce the biostatic effects of the tower water chemistry, which allows dormant organisms to grow. The plate count methods also do not take into account samples with 10X–50X higher concentrations of dormant organisms resulting from cooling towers operated at 50–100 COC. The

The inherent inaccuracy of plate count, dipstick, and Legionella testing of high pH/TDS chemistry necessitated the search for a more reliable test method. Recent testing and analysis shows that Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) technology provides a proactive and reliable test method for high COC chemistry.

ATP Testing Methods ATP methods have several advantages over traditional plating methods. They require less than a minute to

Figure 1 (a–d) shows the results of cooling towers A and B RLU values vs. pH or TDS respectively.

Figure 1a

Figure 1b

Figure 1c

Figure 1d

41

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Legionella Outbreak Prevention for Cooling Towers continued

perform and detect every microorganism in the water, whether alive, dormant (cysts), or recently dead. ATP testing is a USDA approved methodology for food plant sanitation, relied on for over 20 years. ATP will detect increases in microorganisms immediately, allowing proactive intervention. In contrast, decisions are delayed 24–48 hours for dipstick cultures, and longer for remote lab testing.

The ATP test uses an enzyme solution that is activated

by ATP in the sample, causing luminescence to be quantified by a photometer and reported as “Relative Light Units” or RLU. An article by Davenport, 3 provides interpretation and guidelines for Total ATP/RLU in cooling water systems as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Relative Light Units (RLU) Open Recirculating Cooling Water Systems Pass Caution Fail

< 300 RLU 300–750 RLU > 750 RLU

42

ATP Case Analysis ATP testing was performed in two industrial cooling towers that were using the high-cycle, high-pH, highTDS treatment program. No biocides were used to treat these systems. The ATP results demonstrated strong correlation with dip-slide CFU counts at the inhibitive levels of the chemistry. The dip-slide results on seven samples were at 100 CFU or less, and one sample was 1,000 CFU, all considered excellent microorganism control. The following figures show strong correlation between ATP/RLU values and the concentrations of the inhibitive pH and TDS chemistry. The ATP results were exceptionally low, approaching zero RLU at the higher pH/TDS chemistry concentrations, and were well below the 300 RLU caution guideline for cooling towers shown in Table 1.

Case Conclusions • ATP results show that increasing pH/TDS levels naturally inhibits microbial life.

• Exceptionally low ATP values confirm insignificant microorganism presence.

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Legionella Outbreak Prevention for Cooling Towers continued

• Biochemistry confirms Legionella trophozoites will perish rapidly in contact with high pH/TDS water.1

Alex Rahimian-Pour has over 20 years of experience in water treatment. His current position is associate—water/wastewater at Michael Baker International, Irvine, California.

He can be reached at (949) 330-4230. Mr. RahimianPour was previously employed by GE Water and Process Technologies as a technical representative in the area of cooling and boiler water systems.

Summary A reliable control mechanism was needed to inhibit survival of microorganisms in circulating cooling water systems and to prevent Legionella outbreaks. A simple process elevates pH and TDS levels through normal evaporative concentration of soft makeup to cooling towers, which provides a concurrent mechanism for microbiological control. High pH/TDS chemistry is naturally inhibitive of the biochemical functions of prevalent microorganisms (including amoebae, active bacteria, and dormant cysts) and is lethal to Legionella trophozoites that require a protected environment. ATP testing provides immediate confirmation of the efficacy of the inhibitive chemistry.

The broad spectrum of effectiveness with this chemistry, supported by ATP testing, provides a reliable process for preventing Legionella outbreaks.

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References 1. Anderson, E; 2007, “Project Report PRWCTI-2007-1; Preliminary Review of the Effects of pH and TDS on Bacteria, Viruses, and Cysts in Water”; E.A. Anderson Engineering, Inc., May 2007.

2. Bartram, J., Ed. Legionella and the Prevention of Legionellosis, The World Health Organization, 2007.

3. Davenport, K., “Effective Microbial Monitoring Systems”, The Analyst, Winter issue, 2006.

4. Kuiper M.W., Wullings B.A., Akkermans A.D.L., Beumer R.R., and van der Kooij, D. (2004) Intracellular proliferation of Legionella pneumophila in Harmanella vermiformis in aquatic biofilms grown on plasticized polyvinyl chloride.

Applied Environmental Miro-biology 70:68266833 5. Marrie, Thomas J., M.D.; Dean, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Personal communication; June 22, 2015.

6. OSHA Technical Manual (OTM) | Section III: Chapter 7- Legionnaires’ Disease, https://www. osha.gov/tds/osta/otm/otm_iii_7.html

7. Yang, Leitai Ph.D.; “Laboratory and Field Studies of Localized and General Corrosion Inhibiting Behaviors of Silica in Zero Liquid Discharge (High TDS Cooling Water) Using Real Time Corrosion Monitoring”, Report 07626. NACE Corrosion Conference and EXPO. 2007.

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

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Why Didn’t Flint Treat Its Water? An Answer at Last

By Nancy Kaffer, Detroit Free Press Dated: March 31, 2016

Back in 2014, Flint water treatment workers expected they’d add corrosion control to the city’s drinking water—chemicals that would have prevented a public health crisis—after the city switched its water supply. But the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality said they didn’t have to.

Up to this point, it’s been hard to understand why the state didn’t require Flint to use corrosion control—chemicals that stop lead from leaching into the city’s water supply. And the state’s rationale—that it misunderstood federal guidelines—has mystified water treatment experts interviewed by the Detroit Free Press. It also drew scorn from the Flint Water Advisory Task Force, appointed by Gov. Rick Snyder himself to investigate the crisis. The task force called the department’s interpretation of the rule “egregious” and “lax,” saying it bypassed important and obvious questions about water safety.

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An investigatory task force concluded Wednesday that the state of Michigan is fundamentally accountable for Flint’s lead-contaminated water crisis.

Why Didn’t Flint Treat Its Water? An Answer at Last continued

But testimony at a legislative hearing this week from the city’s utilities chief may help explain: When Flint began to pump drinking water from the Flint River, the city’s water treatment plant wasn’t capable of adding corrosion control treatment, not without equipment upgrades the broke city couldn’t afford.

In fact, Flint didn’t start to install the required equipment until November 2015, when the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality signed off on an October permit application for a temporary phosphate

feed system while a permanent feed was under construction, according to state records.

That’s the same month Snyder finally acknowledged that there was a problem in Flint, that the abundant evidence amassed by independent researchers was accurate, and that the city’s drinking water was not safe.

It’s critical context for understanding the state’s disastrous decision-making in Flint.

Michael Glasgow, then a lab supervisor and now the city’s utilities administrator, testified Tuesday at a legislative hearing about the Flint water crisis.

The state has said for months that the department misinterpreted the federal Lead and Copper Rule, a guideline for treating water to prevent the kind of public health crisis that happened in Flint; because water pumped from the Flint River hadn’t been dosed with corrosion control chemicals, the city’s residents, including nearly 9,000 children younger than 6, were exposed to lead-contaminated water for almost two years.

And even after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency told the state last spring that Flint must begin corrosion control immediately, the state didn’t act, claiming in official emails that it was appropriate to continue monitoring the city’s water before changing its treatment, even as two rounds of state testing showed lead levels in the city’s drinking water climbing.

The decision to skip corrosion control certainly didn’t save money. Corrosioncontrol chemicals, which keep lead contained by coating the inside of plumbing pipes, are cheap; some reports estimate the cost of treating Flint River water at less than $150 a day.

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Why Didn’t Flint Treat Its Water? An Answer at Last continued

The Flint, Michigan water crisis became a criminal case Wednesday when two state regulators and a city employee were charged with official misconduct, evidence tampering and other offenses over the lead contamination. (April 20, 2014) Associated Press.

the state’s decisions in the wake of EPA’s order to start corrosion control immediately.

Plant upgrades, however, are expensive. A 2014 engineering report, performed in conjunction with a bond offering for a new regional water authority the state approved Flint to join in 2013, said the local treatment plant would require $8 million in upgrades to process the Lake Huron water the new system would pump.

Flint was broke by the time it joined the new regional water authority and under the oversight of a stateappointed emergency manager hired to cut costs. And it was still broke the next year, when a different emergency manager opted to pull drinking water from the Flint River while the new system was under construction instead of purchasing water from the Detroit system Flint had patronized for years.

Both choices were billed as cost-saving measures, justified because of Flint’s financial situation.

In a series of emails earlier this year, Department of Environmental Quality spokespeople said that the state hadn’t required Flint to upgrade its corrosion control equipment because upgrades weren’t required.

It’s the kind of circular, maddening illogic that makes parsing the causes and consequence of the Flint water crisis so maddening.

But one thing’s for sure: As we all work to understand what happened in Flint, the conditions at the water treatment plant—and whether the cost of adding equipment impacted public health decisions—should be a part of the conversation.

Detroit Free Press political columnist Nancy Kaffer won one of journalism’s most prestigious awards for her writing on the Flint water crisis and other stories that matter to Michigan residents.

That 2009 report didn’t specify how much of that $8 million total installation of corrosion control equipment would account for, but the idea that Flint’s plant needed a corrosion control upgrade wasn’t new. A 2009 engineering analysis associated with the same water system detailed equipment necessary to add corrosion control at Flint’s plant: a 6,000-gallon bulk storage tank, a transfer pump, and a 120-gallon day tank and chemical metering pumps.

According to the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, no upgrades to corrosioncontrol equipment were made at the plant before it began to pump and treat Flint River water, which was more corrosive than the Lake Huron water it expected to use when the new system was complete.

I asked Ari Adler, a spokesman for Snyder, whether the plant’s lack of equipment was a factor in the state’s decision to skip corrosion control. Adler stuck with the state’s line—that the Department of Environmental Quality misunderstood the Lead and Copper Rule.

Nor, Adler said, did the Flint plant’s capacity impact

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Association News

Strategic Plan

Get Involved!

AWT is currently working on several outcomes to achieve the goals in our strategic plan. We’re very excited about the progress that is being made! You can learn more about the plan at www.awt.org/about_AWT/strategicplan.cfm.

AWT is working on many exciting projects right now. You can volunteer for a project that fits your time constraints and schedule. Volunteering not only increases your understanding of water treatment but also introduces you to water treatment professionals and suppliers nationwide, better establishing you in the industry. To get involved, contact us at (240) 404-6477 or visit our website at www.awt.org.

Outcome 2—Business Resources

The Business Resources Committee developed guidelines on how to prepare for a DOT inspection, which can be found on the Members Only page on the website at www.awt.org/members_only/business_resources.cfm.

Outcome 4—Charity

Thanks to the great work of our Charity Task Force, AWT will be partnering with Pure Water for the World. AWT members will be able to help Pure Water for the World by providing technical knowledge and advice, helping to install equipment on site, and sponsoring projects. Visit awt.org for more information.

Webinars Did you know that AWT records all its webinars? If you missed one, you can still view it at www.awt.org/members_only/ webinars.cfm. The webinar topics are wide ranging, from insurance to foam control and recruiting to glycol. Be sure to check them out!

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

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Members of AWT will enjoy substantial savings of 31% to 88% off the manufacturers’ list price on frequently purchased items and get reduced pricing on more than 12,000 in-stock products and 3,700 environmentally preferable products and services. Members will also receive discounts on certain ImPress® print and document services. Whether you order online or at an OfficeMax store, your exclusive AWT member discounts apply. This member program offers: • • • •

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Industry Notes

H2O Dr. Zahid Amjad Receives NACE International’s 2016 Technical Achievement Award and Fellow Honor NACE International, The Corrosion Society, announced the winners of its 2016 Association Awards, which honor the extraordinary achievements of NACE members worldwide.

Dr. Zahid Amjad with the Division of Mathematics and Sciences of Walsh University in North Canton, Ohio, was a recipient of the Technical Achievement Award at NACE’s annual CORROSION 2016 conference held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The Technical Achievement Award is given in recognition for technical achievement in corrosion engineering that had significant impact on the practice of corrosion control or on the enhancement of the profession of corrosion engineering. Dr. Amjad is recognized as a leader in science of scale and deposit control and for his contribution to NACE symposia and publications.

Dr. Amjad was also a recipient of the Fellow Honor at the NACE conference. The honor of NACE Fellow is given in recognition of distinguished contributions in the fields of corrosion and its prevention.

Dr. Amjad is recognized for demonstrating the unique ability to develop new proprietary chemicals to control scale and corrosion-related problems for industrial water systems operation under extremely challenging conditions worldwide.

“The Association Awards are NACE International’s way of celebrating those individuals who have made significant contributions to our industry, whether it be in corrosion science, engineering, education, or extraordinary service to NACE International,” said David Enos, awards committee chair. For more

information on NACE International’s awards program, visit www.nace.org.

Dr. Amjad, a long term AWT member, is the recipient of the 2002 Ray Baum Memorial Award.

Dr.HAmjad SOis4 also the technical consultant to The 2 Lubrizol Corporation, located in Wickliffe, Ohio.

Visit www.carbosperse.com for more information.

AquaPhoenix Scientific Expansion AquaPhoenix Scientific recently acquired additional property to establish a new home base and secure space for the future growth of the company. The acquisition includes 22 acres of land and more than 192,000 square feet of manufacturing and warehouse space.

AquaPhoenix Scientific was established in June 2003 and, over the past 12 years, has achieved many milestones and rapid growth. The company is a manufacturer and distributor specializing in custom kitting, packaging, and product sourcing. The business’s main product lines include industrial water test kits and classroom-ready science kits.

ETI Founder Recognized for 30 Years of Contributions

ETI is proud to announce that Robert D. Keeler was recognized with a Lifetime Achievement Award for his commitment, leadership, and 30 years of service.

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the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

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In 1986, three independent water treatment service companies shared a vision of creating a support entity to complement their organizations. Owners Ross Weaver, Mark West, and Bob Keeler envisioned a supporting structure that would allow them to be at their best for their customers. Bob Keeler, founder of The Keeler Company, served as ETI’s president and CEO for over 20 years, and he is the current board chair. At the ETI 30th Anniversary celebration on May 3rd, Gary Reggiani, current president and CEO, praised Keeler’s leadership style, characterized by his high ethics and humility.

Keeler was also awarded a Plaque of Appreciation by John Phetteplace of Buffalo Industrial Chemical, representing ETI’s network of over 30 partner distributors.

As part of the annual meeting, two additional awards were given. The Mark A. West Award, named in honor of one of the original founders and presented to the individual who has made a significant contribution to the growth and success of the organization, was awarded to Marty Myers of ProAsys. The Rookie of the Year, given to a valued contributor new to the network, was awarded to Stephen Ashbolt of ClearWater Industries.

“We have a solid track record of exceptional customer service and are proud of the relationships we’ve built and maintained over the years. We’ve earned the reputation of being a true partner because we offer unique solutions and provide a competitive advantage. Our success is tied to the success of our customers and partners. We’re honored to feature their personal stories on our website for our 30th anniversary,” said Gary Reggiani, president/CEO. For more information, visit www.go2eti.com.

ETI Announces New Technical Team Members ETI (Eastern Technologies Inc.) is proud to announce two additions to its technical team: Stephen P. Wood (technical director) and Doug Flick (product manager).

As technical director, Steve Wood oversees assessment and integration of new technologies and is responsible for marketing, distributor sales support, and new sales development.

He works closely with ETI’s growing distributor network to lead

56

the drive for technical excellence and innovative water treatment solutions.

A graduate of the State University of New York (SUNY) with a bachelor of science degree in chemistry, Steve has over 25 years of industry experience in field service and sales, technical support, and applications lab support. He has the unique advantage of having worked as a water treatment service provider and as an industrial end-user.

Currently living in southern New Jersey, he will be relocating to the Reading, Pennsylvania, area.

As product manager, Doug Flick manages ETI’s existing product lines.

In his technical team role, Doug optimizes product offerings, strengthens customer application support, and helps ETI continue to develop leading-edge technologies moving forward.

Doug has over 20 years of experience at ETI with a wealth of product line knowledge and customer relationships. A graduate of Delaware Valley University, College of Science & Agriculture, he resides in Chester County, Pennsylvania.

For more information, visit www.go2eti.com.

SanAir Technologies Starts Major Expansion SanAir Technologies Laboratory, a national environmental testing and analysis facility based in Powhatan County, Virginia, announced today a major expansion of its facilities, along with the addition of approximately 10 new technical associates.

Build-out for SanAir’s 3,000-square-foot space is underway and is expected to be completed by June 15.

Recruiting for 10 new geologists with experience in polarized light microscopy has begun.

SanAir Technologies began in 2003 in 6,000-squarefeet of space at Oakbridge Industrial Park, just west of the Watkins Center development. Its new space in the Oakbridge complex will bring the company’s total physical size to about 12,000 square feet.

“Beginning in 2003 with three technical and administrative staff, we’ve grown rapidly to encompass a national market

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Industry Notes continued

for our specialties in environmental testing and analysis,” said Sean McGlynn, SanAir president and CEO. “This new expansion is especially gratifying,” McGlynn added, “as it confirms that our current staff of some 35 technical and administrative people are doing such a good job.”

For more information, visit www.sanair.com.

Milton Roy Enhances mRoy Metering Pump for Water Treatment, Chemical Processing, and Oil and Gas Markets Milton Roy, the world’s largest manufacturer of controlled-volume metering pumps, and a brand of Accudyne Industries, has enhanced the mRoy metering pump with a series of improvements designed to help customers in the water treatment, chemical processing, and oil and gas industries. Milton Roy showcased the mRoy pump at the Offshore Technology Conference, which took place May 2–5 at NRG Park in Houston.

The upgraded mRoy pumps include new features for enhanced safety, improved hydraulic efficiency, and easier startup and maintenance. These enhancements comprise a unique set of technical and performance advantages that deliver the extreme accuracy and high reliability that is required for critical process control.

Specific enhancements include a liquid end bleed system, making it easier to commission a new or a newly maintained pump, and threaded elements on the housing to ensure there is no easy access to potential moving parts. mRoy pumps have been used in tens of thousands of applications worldwide, with a proven track record of performance and reliability. mRoy metering pumps are designed to accurately control chemical dosing while meeting API 675, CE, and ATEX standards. The durable, compact design enables metering of some of the harshest chemicals with 100-to-1 turndown capabilities and repetitive steady-state accuracy at a ±1% range. “mRoy’s reputation is based on a combination of performance and reliability, and the enhancements we’ve made bring an even higher level of functionality to a brand that customers trust,” said Jim Carling, global product line manager for Milton Roy Industrial and Municipal Products. “It is not unusual to find mRoy pumps still

57

operating at design performance after 20 or more years in service,” he added. For more information, visit www. miltonroy.com.

SHARC System Converts Wastewater Into Energy According to the U.S. Department of Energy, water heating is the second largest energy expense in U.S. homes. It typically accounts for about 18 percent of the average utility bill after heating and cooling.

Additionally, all hot water that goes down the drain carries away energy with it, typically 80 to 90 percent of the energy used to heat water in a home.

Utilizing a raw sewage filtration system, a Port Coquitlam, British Columbia-based company is converting that wastewater into energy. International Wastewater Systems (IWS) has developed, manufactured, and installed what it is calling the SHARC system, which can heat and cool buildings as well as provide hot water. The heat exchange technology conducts simple and direct heat exchange from untreated wastewater.

“The IWS SHARC system is a pre-engineered turn-key solution for exchanging thermal energy with wastewater streams—a resource that offers a tremendous source of energy transfer for both space air conditioning and water heating applications,” says Lynn Mueller, president and CEO of IWS. “The proprietary filter technology screens solids contained within pumped wastewater streams so that the water stream is safe and efficient to use with custom, high-efficiency, plate-frame heat exchange technology, without risk of clogging the process-side of the heat exchanger. Fluid flows connected to the load-side of the heat exchanger accept or reject energy as needed and as available.”

Wastewater heat recovery is currently being commercialized throughout the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. IWS recently completed several installations, which provide heating and cooling for the buildings from either the municipal or the building’s sewage wastewater.

In a recent 172-unit condominium complex installation, the system provides hot water for all of the units at about 550 percent efficiency—saving the residents about

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Industry Notes continued

70 percent on their hot water heating bills. In addition, there is an estimated 100-metric-tons-per-year emissions reduction. The company is presently designing systems that will be installed in the United States and Canada as well as the United Kingdom.

“We have installed a SHARC system as an energy retrofit at the Camden Municipal Authority treatment facility in Camden, N.J.,” says Mueller.

Because hot wastewater is typically dumped down the drain untapped, a lot of energy has been used to heat this water. Tapping into that thermal energy helps cut down costs in large buildings.

“We are just reusing the thermal energy over and over again. This has a great effect on the energy efficiencies for a building, while reducing carbon emissions that come with alternative heating sources like natural gas or diesel,” says Mueller.

Cost savings and energy reduction are additional benefits of the system and will vary with each project depending on a number of factors, including wastewater flows available, temperature of wastewater, heating and cooling load of a building, and the price of utilities.

The challenge of heat exchange technology is that people typically do not want to deal with raw sewage because of its nature.

“Our system is completely hermetically sealed—so no smell, and we are able to deliver a complete packaged solution so our customers get all the benefits hassle free,” says Mueller.

The earliest SHARC system was developed by IWS in 2011 and 2012. “We now have nine active installations across Canada, the U.S., and the U.K., with several planned in the project pipeline, including our first in Australia,” says Mueller. For more information visit www.sharcenergy.com.

Cortec® Presents “Green” BioClean Spray—Gentle Solution for Hard Surfaces!

BioClean Spray, a new addition to the Cortec® biobased line of products, is a blend of coconut oil phospholipids, “green” corrosion inhibitors, and surfactants designed

58

to disperse and inhibit microbiological growth. It is nontoxic, nonhazardous, and biodegradable and is manufactured from renewable resources. BioClean Spray perfectly eliminates existing microbiological contamination as well as prevents future growth. The product is designed to clean hard surfaces, such as wood, metal, and plastics, and provide strong corrosion protection!

Contrary to traditional antimicrobiological methods, BioClean Spray contains the same gentle and nonirritating technology that can be found in cosmetics and personal care products, such as hand cleaners, shampoos, and even baby wipes! Through this unique chemistry, BioClean Spray supports antimicrobial properties and is powerful enough to maintain the performance mandated by industry standards, while providing a solution that is completely safe for both humans and the environment.

Nonirritating and ready-to-use BioClean Spray is packaged in EcoAir® spray cans without propellants and is safe for handling, transport, and disposal. BioClean Spray is also offered for spot cleaning applications and in a liquid form as an additive.

BioClean Spray has been tested by a certified laboratory in accordance with ASTM F-483 (Total Immersion Corrosion Test) and is RoHS and REACH compliant.

For more information, visit www.cortecvci.com.

Grundfos Breaks Ground on New 40,000-Square-Foot Office in Kansas

Global pump manufacturer Grundfos officially broke ground on a new 40,000-square-foot office building in Lenexa, Kansas during an April 12 ceremony. Expected to be completed during fall 2017, the new LEEDcertified design facility will replace Grundfos’ current Kansas City offices located 8 miles southwest in Olathe.

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Industry Notes continued

The new offices will continue to house the company’s customer service, technical training, marketing, business development, and other support functions for the Americas region and U.S. sales.

Attending the ceremony were several company executives and local dignitaries, including Grundfos group executive vice president Poul Due Jensen; Lenexa mayor the Hon. Michael Boehm; and members of the Lenexa City Council.

A global leader in developing high-tech water pumps and systems, the $3.85 billion (USD) Denmark-based company employs 1,300 people in the United States and nearly 18,000 globally with 80 companies in more than 55 countries.

“Throughout its history, Grundfos has been proud to become ingrained in the communities we call home.

We are excited to move forward in our journey by putting down roots in Lenexa,” says Terry Teach, executive VP of sales for domestic buildings for Grundfos. “As Grundfos continues to grow within the industry, Lenexa offers us the space and resources we need to thrive, and we look forward to seeing our new home take shape.”

For additional resources, please visit grundfos. media‑resources-ordp.com/2016/ lenexa‑groundbreaking.shtml.

Grundfos Appoints New Regional Managing Director of the Americas Grundfos Pumps Corporation recently appointed Dieter Sauer as regional managing director of the Americas Region. In this role, Sauer will oversee all aspects of the global pump manufacturer’s North and South American business, including driving regional growth and maintaining a top-motivated employee workforce. Sauer will report directly to Grundfos Group Executive Vice President Poul Due Jensen.

“I am honored to take on this new responsibility and look forward to working with the Americas team to deliver our regional objectives,” said Sauer, who holds more than 20 years of pump industry experience, most recently serving as President of Grundfos Water Utility, the Grundfos-owned water utility company based in Aurora, Illinois.

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Sauer replaces Duncan Cooper in his new role. “With his extensive knowledge of the pump industry and leadership acumen, we are confident that Dieter will expand upon the progress the region has made under Duncan’s leadership,” said Executive Vice President Poul Due Jensen. For more information, please visit www.grundfos.com.

Documented Functionality Tests Now Standard for Grundfos Booster Pump Systems Grundfos today announced that all of its Hydro Booster Pump systems will contain copies of individual product functionality reports, helping to ensure top-quality performance in the field. The global pump manufacturer said that all of its Hydro systems (Hydro MPC BoosterpaQ , Hydro Multi-E and Hydro Multi-B) will ship with documented performance testing. The quality control report will include a complete system hydrostatic test, a no-flow detection function test, a water shortage alarm function test, and a two-point setpoint performance curve test. Grundfos also offers more extensive testing options, including a Verified Performance Test, which allows customers to physically observe the testing from a viewing platform, and a Remote Witness Verified Performance Test, which the customer can view via video conferencing. All testing is conducted with clean water treated with mechanical and carbon filters and an ultraviolet light system. This ensures that all boosters leave the facility clean and ready for installation, a crucial point, especially for those systems being shipped to serve water delivery applications. For more information, please visit www.grundfos.com.

Mexel’s Superior “Green” Technology Adopted in University Cooling Tower System Superior chiller cleanliness, effective corrosion control, and improved cooling tower results were the hallmarks of a highly successful trial of the innovative Mexel 432/0 water treatment technology. Mexel USA, LLC announced that an 8-month trial on a cooling system servicing the main campus of a major Midwest university impressively surpassed prior performance and will continue operating. Mexel 432/0 showed effective control of scaling, corrosion, and biological the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Industry Notes continued

activity across a wide variety of operating conditions in a 3,000-ton evaporative cooling tower, chiller, and free cooling system.

The excellent results were achieved with short daily injections of Mexel’s proprietary filming amine emulsion, replacing larger quantities of conventional chemicals previously applied. Consistently efficient results were obtained over a wide range of water chemistry, operating conditions, and cycles. Post-season chiller inspections demonstrated cleanliness levels better than any previous program and visible reductions in deposits on the tower fill.

Veteran Owned Small Business (VOSB). For more information, visit www.bardons.com.

Rivertop Renewables Introduces Waterline Family of Products For Water Treatment Applications Rivertop Renewables launched Waterline™ corrosion inhibitors and chelating agents, a new family of cost effective, high performance and sustainable chemicals designed to be integrated with products in the water treatment industry. The new products are high performance, low cost alternatives to phosphate-based options in water treatment formulations.

Improved energy efficiency in heating and cooling systems is another key contribution of the Mexel 432/0 technology. Biofouling control and cleanliness of heat transfer surfaces leads to significant improvements in cooling efficiency along with reductions in power use. The trial further demonstrated substantial potential water treatment cost savings with simpler equipment and reduced chemical costs and labor requirements

The replacement of phosphorus and heavy metal based ingredients is an ongoing challenge across multiple industries that use large volumes of process and cooling water in their operations, such as power generation, oil & gas, mining, metals, pulp & paper, and many others.

Rivertop’s proprietary sugar acid technology platform offers—for the first time at commercial scale — a range of versatile organic corrosion and scale inhibitors to help meet this challenge.

Mexel 432/0 is an innovative emulsion recently approved for registration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a biocide with documented effectiveness against Legionella bacteria. It can be safely discharged to surface waters or municipal water systems.

Waterline SI chelating agents help control and prevent hard water scale accumulation while Waterline CI corrosion inhibitors offer formulation flexibility as well as superior environmental performance compared to other corrosion inhibitors.

Mexel USA president Mary Wolter Glass noted, “At a time when economic efficiency and Legionella control are critical for our customers, we are pleased to be able to offer a water treatment program that delivers results from a strong technical foundation. Equally important, we are committed to offering a product that is environmentally responsible and protects the safety of workers and the public.” For more information on Mexel water treatment products, please visit http://www. mexelusa.com.

“Over time, water can have negative impacts on tanks and pipes,” said Mike Knauf, Chief Executive Officer of Rivertop. “By formulating Waterline corrosion inhibitor and chelation chemistries into water treatment products, cooling and process water professionals can better maintain infrastructure and improve the overall performance of facilities – with sustainable ingredients made from renewable sources.”

Bardon’s Water Technologies Celebrating 30th Anniversary

Bardon’s Water Technologies is celebrating its 30th year in business in 2016. Bardon’s is a long-time member of AWT. With 14 field and administration staff, Bardon’s is poised to grow considerably over the next five years.

Bardon’s is also proud to announce that it is a “verified”

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Waterline products are produced at commercial scale in a plant operated by DTI in Danville, Virginia. Rivertop sells direct to water treatment service companies and plans to establish a network of resellers. More information is available at www.rivertop.com.

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

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Making a Splash

Michael L. Bourgeois, CWT Technical Director Chemco Products Company Paramount, California What prompted you to start volunteering with AWT?

I first learned of the potential to participate in a committee while attending an AWT sponsored training event. I was approached by one of the trainers, who suggested that there was a space available with the Certification Committee. I asked AWT staff if I could join, and they had me signed up right then and there.

Since that time, I have also joined the Boiler Technical Subcommittee. My primary motivation for joining both committees was my strong desire to give back to an organization that has helped me grow in my chosen profession. I also joined the committees because of the chance to work more closely with some of the leaders of our industry.

What has been the most rewarding thing about volunteering?

As a result of the committee work in which I have been able to participate, I have developed a broader understanding of the common challenges we all face in the industry as well as the unique way that others are facing these challenges. I have also been pleasantly surprised to learn that there are a large number of individuals, with a variety of experience and knowledge levels, who are very actively involved. These members are putting in the time and effort, not to get any glory, but because they are committed to giving back to an organization that has helped them or their company. Along the way, I have seen that many of these individuals have developed very positive relationships with fellow committee members, despite the fact that some of them compete for the same business.

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How has volunteering improved your professional career?

Being a committee member has given me a greater appreciation for the broad level of experience and professionalism that exists in AWT. AWT member companies are involved in all levels of industry, competing very well against the majors. This has motivated me to improve my level of knowledge and my own professionalism, as a direct result of the example provided by the other committee members.

Why would you encourage others to become a volunteer?

I think that most people who volunteer find that the value of AWT membership increases in direct proportion to their level of involvement. Being a member of any professional organization is not cheap, so we ought to get as much from the membership as we can. Committee work is one of the ways that a member can increase the value.

How have you been able to utilize the expanded business connections you’ve made while volunteering?

The numbers of contacts and the resources available to me have grown since I became involved. I find that I rely on these resources on a regular basis. These contacts have proven to be extremely valuable to me, and to my customers, as I apply the advice that they have provided.

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Certification Corner

The Certified Water Technologist (CWT) exam is the only legally defensible exam that represents the highest professional credential in the industrial and commercial water treatment field. Designed and tested by AWT, it provides professional recognition for individuals involved in water treatment and technology to indicate to the general public, co-workers, employers, and others that an individual has achieved a certain level of experience, knowledge, and education in the water treatment industry. The CWT designation ensures that the water treatment professional possesses a core body of knowledge and has extensive professional experience in all aspects of water treatment.

Preparation materials, such as the types of questions to be asked on the exam, can be obtained from this column and from selected text and manuals. The following reference materials are available for purchase through the AWT bookstore at www.awt.org:

1. Which of the following materials would need the most frequent replacement as a sacrificial anode in a cooling water system?

A. Zinc B. Cadmium C. Aluminum D. Magnesium 2. Sacrificial anodes in a chiller condenser water system are always connected A. On the makeup water line to the tower B. On the outside of the chiller water box close to the copper tubes C. To the discharge side of the circulating water pump D. On the inside of the chiller water box close to the copper tubes 3. What approximate level of dissolved oxygen will a properly operating deaerator likely achieve?

A. Zero B. 5–7 ppm C. 1.0 ppm D. 5–7 ppb

• AWT Technical Reference and Training Manual • AWT Raw Materials Specifications Manual • Water Treatment: Industrial, Commercial and Municipal (Textbook) • Boiler Water Treatment: Principles and Practice, Volumes I and II (Textbook) • Cooling Water Treatment (Textbook)

4. PCA, DTMPA, MDTP, PAPEMP are all types of A. Azoles B. Aspartates C. Acrylic copolymers D. Phosphinocarboxylates 5. Select the best phosphate stabilization chemistry from the following?

A. Polymethacrylate B. Maleic terpolymer C. Phosphinocarboxylate D. Acrylic acid AMPS copolymer

Answers: 1. D, 2. D, 3. D. 4. D, 5. D 63

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

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CWT Spotlight

Chris Muller, CWT Regional Manager Aries Chemical, Inc. Bloomfield, New York What prompted you to obtain your CWT, and when did you begin the process by taking the test?

My first experience with a CWT was many years ago during my time at a large technical institute as a stationary engineer. One of my duties was handling the water treatment program of several cooling towers, closed loop systems, and steam plants. The water treatment supplier had earned his CWT and I was impressed by his knowledge. Soon afterwards, it became important to me to earn my CWT credential during my initial experience as an account manager in the water treatment industry.

I began the AWT training process after a few years of field experience. My employer, Aries Chemical, values the knowledge and expertise that AWT provides, and the exceptional skills and experience among my colleagues there have been an outstanding complement.

How did you prepare for the test?

To prepare for the CWT exam, I attended the technical training several times over the past five years—it has been a humbling experience! The instructors’ presentations were comprehensive and thorough. As volunteers, I truly believe the instructors care about the quality of the training program and our industry. In addition, I have read several water treatment industry books that have been helpful in my learning process and with increasing the depth of my understanding of various topics.

However, nothing has been more beneficial than taking what I have learned through AWT technical training and putting it into daily practice, thus working to perfect the art of water treatment.

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Why do you feel this credential was important to have?

The CWT credential is important to me and the company I work for, as it allows us to communicate to customers that we have the training and expertise to help them improve their water treatment programs by increasing effectiveness and, in many cases, reduce their operating expenses through improved energy efficiencies and reduced equipment downtime.

Earning my CWT credential and providing my customers with experience-based solutions to their water treatment problems has been the biggest accomplishment in my career to date.

What do you think are the most prominent issues facing the water industry today?

In my opinion, the most prominent issue facing our industry is water conservation and successful reuse.

Protecting our environment is crucial to our world; to do anything less is irresponsible and compromises the health and future of our planet.

Congratulations to Our Newest CWTs

Please join us in congratulating the latest individuals to become CWTs (April 20, 2016–May 25, 2016) • • • • • •

David Hurd, CWT, CH2O, Incorporated Craig Marcantel, CWT, Water ChemSultants, Inc. Tom Mercer, CWT, DuBois Chemicals, Inc. Chris Muller, CWT, Aries Chemical, Inc. Timothy Ronan, CWT, Chemco Products Company Andre Ruel, CWT, Magnus Chemicals Ltd.

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

Ask the Experts

The discussion below occurred on AWT’s listserv and/or LinkedIn page. Be sure to join to be part of the conversation!

Chill Loop With 66+ ppm Iron on GE OR4407

Answer 5

I did a procedure for a once-thru system that worked very well, but I didn’t have to deal with the iron generated – it was flushed out with the once-thru water.

Answer 6

Question I have an opportunity to take over an account with positively awful closed loops. The chill loop has over 66 ppm iron in it. I might flush the loop but the levels of BOD and COD may be too high for that. What alternate strategies would you take to rehabilitate this loop? I’m looking to put our organic phosphonate/polymer corrosion inhibitor in this loop.

Answer 1

Is there currently any filtration on the circuit? You may be able to pull out a significant amount.

Response 1

Yes, they are down to 0.5 micron. The water has clarity but a black/green color.

Answer 2

You did check copper also right?

Response 2

Yes, a result of 1.0 ppm for copper.

Answer 3

Was that electronic or visual colorimeter? I have seen interference when iron is excessive.

I suggest that you replace your filter with a greensand filter to remove the iron. It may take a few weeks, but you should be able to reduce the residual to under 0.5 ppm. Such an arrangement has worked well for us in two critical accounts.

Answer 7

I have used a polymer in the past to coat a sock filter (starting with maybe 20 micron and working down to 5 micron) to coagulate the iron and pull it out of solution. This would require you to be onsite and monitor the pressure drop across the filter housing and change the filter socks as they bind.

Answer 8

I agree. We have base-fed a high molecular weight polyamine (epichlorhydrin) at 0.25-0.5 ppm upstream of the filter to coagulate the iron and act as a filtration aid (i.e., contact coagulation/filtration). You should, of course, jar test the closed loop water to verify the proper dose.

Increasing the pH to a range of 9-10 should help in the precipitation and coagulation of the metals.

Answer 9

I have heard of chlorine at low levels being added to precipitate the iron but you may end up having to flush that system. How large (gallons) is the circuit?

Response 3

The iron was a 1:20 dilution. Copper was a 1:10 dilution.

The loop is approximately 50,000 L (11,000 Gal).

Answer 4

Your customer has a mess to deal with. Have you or the customer inspected any internal piping or equipment? I would suggest you ask him how he would like to approach. Too often we look at jobs as our problem. It is our challenge to offer options.

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I have found that organic phosphonate/polymer chemistry will actually release iron in closed loops that have had corrosion issues. Sometimes the dissolved iron content is not a good way to judge the effectiveness of the program in this case, and if you start a program like that after cleaning the system, you may find the Fe levels going up again.

Answer 10

We clean badly fouled loops with citric acid to maintain pH of 4. 400 ppm sodium bisulfite. 100 ppm phosphonate sulfinated copolymer and one bottle of dawn detergent. Maintain the pH sulfite above 400 and it flat out cleans iron fouled loops without harming the metallurgy will expose leaks once iron is removed. the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

T.U.T.O.R.

Technical Updates, Tips, or Reviews

Water Sources: Principal Natural Constituents in Water Only small to moderate amounts of these substances occur in most freshwater sources. Groundwater characteristics vary based on physical and geochemical settings. Acceptable quality depends on water use.

Constituents

Concentration in Natural Water

Effects on Usability of Water

Silica (SiO2)

Generally range from 1 to 3 mg/L, although as much as 100 mg/L is fairly common; as much as 4,000 mg/L is found in brines

In the presence of calcium and magnesium, silica forms a scale in boilers and in on steam turbines. Silica may be added to soft water to inhibit iron pipe corrosion

Iron (Fe)

Groundwater with a pH less than 8 may contain 10 mg/L; rarely as much as 50 mg/L may occur. Acid water from thermal springs, mine waste and industrial wastes may contain more than 6,000 mg/L.

More than 0.2 mg/L precipitates after exposure to air; causes turbidity; stains plumbing fixtures, laundry, and cooking utensils; and imparts objectionable taste and colors to food and drinks.

Manganese (Mn)

Generally 0.2 mg/L or less. Groundwater and acid mine water may contain more than 10 mg/L. Water at the bottom of a stratified reservoir may contain more than 150 mg/L

More than 0.2 mg/L precipitates on oxidation; causes undesirable taste; deposits on food during cooking; stains plumbing fixtures and laundry; and fosters growth in reservoirs and distribution systems. Can cause pitting on stainless steel

Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg)

Calcium averages about 15 mg/L in surface water, higher in ground water. As much as 600 mg/L in some western streams: brines may contain as much as 75,000 mg/L.

Calcium and magnesium combine with bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate, and silica to form heat-retarding, pipe-clogging scale in boilers and in other heat-exchanger equipment. Calcium and magnesium combine with ions of fatty acid in soaps to form soap suds; the more calcium and magnesium, the more soap required to form suds. A high concentration of magnesium has a laxative effect, especially on new users of the supply.

Magnesium averages as much as hundreds milligrams per liter in some western streams; ocean water contains more than 1,000 mg/L, and brines may also contain as much as 57,000 mg/L.

Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K)

Sodium exists as much as 1,000 mg/L in some western More than 50 mg/L sodium and potassium in the presence of North American streams, about 10,000 mg/L in seawater, suspended matter causes foaming, which accelerates scale and about 25,000 mg/L in brines. formation and corrosion in boilers. Sodium and potassium carbonates in recirculating cooling water can cause deterioration Potassium generally has less than about 10 mg/L and of wood in cooling towers. More than 65 mg/L of sodium can as much as 100 mg/L in hot springs, and as much as cause problems in ice manufacture.

25,000 mg/L in brines.

Carbonate (CO3) and Bicarbonate (HCO3)

Carbonate concentration in surface water is commonly 0 mg/L and less than 10 mg/L in groundwater. Water high in sodium may contain as much as 50 mg/L. Bicarbonate is commonly less than 500 mg/L; may exceed 1,000 mg/L in water highly charged with carbon dioxide.

Upon heating, bicarbonate is changed in steam to carbon dioxide and carbonate. The carbonate combines with alkaline earth—principally calcium and magnesium—to form a crust-like scale of calcium and magnesium carbonate that retards flow of heat through pipe walls and restricts flow of fluids in pipes.

Water containing large amounts of bicarbonate and alkalinity is undesirable in many industries.

Sulfate (SO4)

Commonly less than 1,000 mg/L except in streams and wells influenced by acid mine draining. As much as 200,000 mg/L in brines.

Sulfate combines with calcium to form an adherent, heatretarding scale. More than 250 mg/L is objectionable in water in some industries. Water containing about 500 mg/L of sulfate tastes bitter; water containing about 1,000 mg/L may be a laxative.

Chloride (Cl)

Commonly less than 10 mg/L in humid regions; tidal streams contain increasing amounts of chloride (as much as 19,000 mg/L) as a bay or ocean is approached. About 19,300 mg/L in seawater, and as much as 200,000 mg/L in brines.

Chloride in excess of 150 mg/L imparts a salty taste.

Concentrations greatly in excess of 150 mg/L may cause physiological damage. Food processing industries usually require less than 250 mg/L. Some industries—textile processing, paper manufacturing, and synthetic rubber manufacturing— desire less than 100 mg/L.

Fluoride (F)

Concentrations generally don’t exceed 10 mg/L in groundwater or 1 mg/L in surface water. Concentrations may be as much as 1,600 m/L in brines.

Fluoride concentrations between 0.6 mg/L and 1.7 mg/L in drinking water have a beneficial effect on the structure and resistance to decay in children’s teeth. Fluoride in excess of 1.5 mg/L in some areas causes mottling enamel in children’s teeth. Fluoride in excess of 6 mg/L causes pronounced mottling and disfiguration of teeth.

Nitrate (NO3)

In surface water not subject to pollution, nitrate concentration may be as much as 5 mg/L but commonly is less than 1 mg/L in groundwater; nitrate concentration may be as much as 1,000 mg/L where polluted but generally less than 50 mg/L.

Water containing large amounts of nitrate (more than 100 mg/L) is bitter tasting and may cause physiological distress. Water from shallow wells containing more than 45 mg/L has been reported to cause methemoglobinemia in infants.

Dissolved Solids

The mineral constituents dissolved in water constitute the dissolved solids. Surface water commonly contains less than 3,000 mg/L; streams draining salt beds in arid regions may contain in excess of 15,000 mg/L.

More than 500 mg/L is undesirable for drinking and many industrial usages. Less than 300 mg/L is desirable for dyeing of textile and the manufacture of plastic, pulp paper, and rayon.

Dissolved solids cause foaming in steam boilers; the maximum permissible decreases with increases in operating pressure.

Groundwater commonly contains less than 5,000 mg/L, and most of it at shallow depths contains less than 1,000 mg/L; some brines contain as much as 3,000,000 mg/L.

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Capital Eyes

OSHA Finalizes Reporting/Recordkeeping Requirements Rule

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has issued its final rule on electronic tracking of workplace injuries and illnesses. The rule, which becomes effective on January 1, 2017, will revise OSHA requirements for recording and submitting records of workplace injuries and illnesses. Some of this recorded information will now be posted on the OSHA website.

In addition, the final rule includes provisions that encourage workers to report work-related injuries and illnesses to their employers and prohibit employers from retaliating against workers for making those reports.

OSHA’s aim in implementing this final rule is to help improve workplace safety through expanded access to timely, establishment-specific injury and illness information for OSHA, employers, employees, employee representatives, potential employees, customers, potential customers, and public health researchers. In addition, the agency believes that public disclosure of the data will “nudge” employers to reduce work-related injuries and illnesses in order to demonstrate to investors, job seekers, customers, and the broader public that their workplaces provide safe and healthy work environments for their employees.

Background OSHA’s regulations require employers with more than 10 employees in most industries to keep records of occupational injuries and illnesses at their establishments. Employers covered by these rules must record each recordable employee injury and illness on an OSHA Form 300 (“Log of Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses”). Employers must also prepare a supplementary OSHA Form 301 (“Injury and Illness Incident Report”) that provides additional details about each case recorded on the OSHA Form 300. Finally, at the end of

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each year, employers are required to prepare a summary report of all injuries and illnesses on the OSHA Form 300A (“Summary of Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses”) and post the form in a visible location in the workplace.

Posting on Website The final rule requires certain employers to electronically submit the injury and illness information they are already required to keep under existing OSHA regulations. The electronic submission requirements in this final rule do not add to or change any employer’s obligation to complete and retain injury and illness records under OSHA’s regulations.

This requirement applies to the following: • Establishments with 250 or more employees that are currently required to keep OSHA injury and illness records must electronically submit information from OSHA Forms 300, 300A and 301.

• Establishments with 20–249 employees that are classified in certain industries with historically high rates of occupational injuries and illnesses must electronically submit information from OSHA Form 300A. For the first year, the injury and illness recordkeeping Form 300A must be submitted by July 1, 2017. The following year, employers are required to submit information from all 2017 forms (300A, 300, and 301) by July 1, 2018. Beginning in 2019, the submission deadline will be changed from July 1 to March 2.

Employers who are not required to submit records yearly may still be required to submit information upon

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Capital Eyes continued

OSHA’s direction, OSHA intends to provide notification of these data collections through direct mailings, publication in the Federal Register, and publication on its website and other notices.

Employees’ Right to Report Free From Retaliation The rule also contains three provisions to promote complete and accurate reporting of work-related injuries and illnesses.

• Employers must inform employees of their right to report work-related injuries and illnesses free from retaliation.

• An employer’s procedure for reporting work-related injuries and illnesses must be reasonable and must not deter or discourage employees from reporting.

• An employer may not retaliate against employees for reporting work-related injuries or illnesses.

By August 10, 2016, employers must establish a reasonable procedure for employees to report work-related injuries and illnesses promptly and accurately. After establishing the procedure for reporting work-related injuries and illnesses, employers must inform each employee about it. An employer will need to be able to prove its employees received the information, Specifically, the employer must tell all employees: A) they have the right to report work-related injuries and illnesses; and B) a company is prohibited from discharging or in any manner discriminating against employees for reporting work-related injuries or illnesses.

To read the rule in its entirety, follow this link: https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-05-12/ pdf/2016-10443.pdf.

Janet Kopenhaver is president of Eye on Washington and serves as the AWT Washington representative. She can be reached at (703) 528-7822 or via email at janetk@eyeonwashington.com.

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Financial Matters

How to Invest Like a Nobel Laureate

As regular participants in exclusive seminars sponsored by our investment firm partners, we’ve had the opportunity to be taught directly by Professor Eugene Fama, internationally recognized as the Father of Modern Finance and recipient of the 2013 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences; Robert Merton, retirement finance expert and recipient of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences; and Kenneth French, the leading academic in financial markets and investment strategies.

We also steep ourselves daily in the findings of the renowned Father of Modern Portfolio Theory, 1990 Nobel Laureate Harry Markowitz, and his Nobel Prize co-recipient, William Sharpe, as well as the world’s leading authorities in behavioral finance, including 2002 Nobel Laureate Daniel Kahneman.

Learning from these deans of financial science and their distinguished colleagues keeps our team on the cutting edge so that we can continually deliver state-of-the-art strategies to our clients. Based on these award-winning scholarly findings, Mercer Advisors recommends that our clients follow these five prudent and time-tested investing practices:

#1

Widely Diversify to Reduce Risk

Dr. Harry Markowitz, recipient of the 1990 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences for his pioneering work in the theory of financial economics, documented the risk-reduction benefits of diversification.1 The groundbreaking work’s practical application to your investments: Diversification is the key to effectively reducing a portfolio’s risk, since gains from assets that increase can help offset losses from assets that decrease.

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Financial Matters continued

For example, through low-cost mutual funds that are scientifically designed to deliver the return of a designated asset class, you can efficiently and easily invest in essentially the entire world of stock markets—nearly 11,000 publicly traded stocks in 64 countries. Plus, as Figure 1 shows, by strategically adding multiple classes to your portfolio, you can increase expected return while reducing risk.

Bad Bets: Investment Risks That Aren’t Worth Taking Academic research has identified the risks you “get paid for” and those that are “uncompensated.”2 Some of the risks that don’t pay off in the long run include: • Holding too few stocks or bonds • Speculating on specific market sectors or countries • Following market predictions by so‑called experts • Betting on the direction of interest rates • Wagering on the direction of the economy

See end notes for expected return, expected standard deviation, and strategy disclosures. Data from January 1, 2000 – December 31, 2015.

The bottom line: Let the market work for you.

Reject avoidable and concentrated risks by investing in a low-cost, tax-efficient, globally diversified portfolio.

Most importantly, tailor your investment mix to your personal goals, financial situation, and risk capacity.

#2

Buy The Market Instead of Trying to Game the Market

Professor Eugene Fama, awarded the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 2013 for his empirical analysis of asset prices, developed the Efficient Markets Hypothesis, which asserts that market prices reflect values and information accurately and quickly.3 Consequently, it’s difficult—if not impossible—to regularly capture returns in excess of market returns without taking greater-than-market levels of risk. Likewise, as shown in Figure 2, it’s impossible to know which markets will outperform from year to year. Furthermore, investors cannot consistently outperform the stock market, except by chance.

FIGURE 2: Conventional Investment Methods—Low Success Odds Fraction of mutual funds that survived and beat their benchmark over the 10-year period ending December 31, 2015.

Source: The U.S. Mutual Fund Landscape, Dimensional Fund Advisors, 2016.

FIGURE 1: Building an Optimized Risk/Return Portfolio

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Financial Matters continued

Decades of research back this hypothesis, documenting that despite their best efforts, vast resources, and sophisticated tools, market-timing fund managers have largely failed over the long term to persistently outperform their appropriate benchmark.4 So, steering clear of money-losing attempts to time the market or chase performance is a key step toward applying this financial science to your everyday investing.

By viewing the capital markets as an ally rather than an adversary, investing in a globally diversified portfolio takes the guesswork out of investing and positions you to capture returns whenever and wherever they occur.

#3

Target the Sources of Higher Expected Returns

In their seminal research, Professors Eugene Fama and Kenneth French found that investors can expect to earn higher returns from stocks over bonds, from small company stocks over large company stocks, and from lower-priced value stocks over higher-priced growth stocks.5 In addition to the “risk premiums” delivered by these asset classes (Figure 3), more recent research has identified the risk premiums associated with momentum investing (buying assets that recently outperformed and selling those that underperformed) and profitability strategies (buying high-quality assets without paying premium prices).

The key to earning these higher expected returns is to strategically construct a portfolio to include these risk premium dimensions according to your risk profile, maintain the discipline to stay invested for the long haul, and then remain at the forefront of newly identified strategies.

#4

Tap Into The Benefits of Slow Thinking

Daniel Kahneman, Emeritus Professor of Psychology at Princeton University and recipient of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences, is internationally recognized for demonstrating that one major reason we make bad decisions is loss aversion—our natural tendency to put far more weight on what we may lose than on what we may gain.6 While your so-called “System 1” emotional and instinctive way of thinking will always dominate, you can help your more deliberate and logical “System 2 ” kick in when making important investment decisions. One of the most effective ways to make more thoughtful decisions is to develop a formal investment policy statement, and then make it a habit to review it regularly to remain focused on your long-term goals and plans.

With your written plan as your anchor, you’ll be able to ignore the barrage of conflicting commentaries from so-called market experts—unlike the average investor

FIGURE 3: Portfolios Can Be Structured to Pursue Dimensions. Investors can pursue higher expected returns through a low-cost, well‑diversified portfolio that targets these dimensions.

1

Beta: A quantitative measure of the co-movement of a given stock, mutual fund, or portfolio with the overall market.

2

Price-to-Book Ratio: A company’s capitalization divided by its book value. It compares the market’s valuation of a company to the value of that company as indicated on its financial statements.

3

Profitability: A measure of a company’s current profits. We define this as operating income before depreciation and amortization minus interest expense, scaled by book equity.

Source: Dimensional Fund Advisors, 2015.

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Financial Matters continued

(Figure 4). You’ll also be able to resist the temptation to shift your money into the winners of the day, or bail out of the market when you’re bombarded with alarming news and doomsday predictions.

#5

Keep More of Your Earnings By Minimizing Investment Costs

Professor William Sharpe, recipient of the 1990 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences for his development of a general theory for the pricing of financial assets, has devoted his professional life to putting theories into practice. The Nobel Laureate continues his pioneering work today, educating and advocating for individual investors and contributing to the field of what he has named “retirement economics.”

Professor Sharpe summarizes two of his golden rules of investing in two words: diversify and economize.

Specifically, the emeritus finance professor encourages investors to “hold the entire market portfolio” and keep costs low by “avoiding unnecessary investment expenses.”7 You can put this scholarly advice into practice by sizing up your portfolio’s costs. One way to minimize expenses is to build your portfolio with institutional-grade mutual funds that are designed to deliver the return of a designated asset class or targeted strategy. With their stated goal to maximize returns for investors, these types of funds diligently curb costs through advanced portfolio design, management, and trading.

Mercer Advisors is a 30-year-old Registered Investment

Advisor (RIA) firm. As an RIA, we are duty bound by the SEC to represent and advocate for our clients’ best interests—above and beyond all else. Accordingly, we do not sell products or receive commission for the advice or services we provide. For a single asset management fee, we provide our clients with comprehensive financial planning, investment management, asset protection, tax planning and preparation, Social Security and Medicare optimization, and estate, trust, and legacy planning services. Our total wealth services are provided in-house, affording our clients the benefit of receiving collaborative strategy design and implementation from a single source of professionals.

References

1. Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media, June 2014

2. Capital Asset Prices – A Theory of Market Equilibrium Under Conditions of Risk, William F. Sharpe, Journal of Finance, March 1964 3. The History of Economics, Dimensional Fund Advisors, June 2014

4. Luck Versus Skill in the Cross-Section of Mutual Fund Returns, Eugene F. Fama and Kenneth R. French, The Journal of Finance, May 2010 5. The Cross-Section of Expected Stock Returns, Eugene F. Fama and Kenneth R. French, Journal of Finance, February 1992 6. Thinking, Fast and Slow, Daniel Kahneman, 2011

7. Interviews with William Sharpe: Stanford Graduate School of Business, April 2013; Money Magazine, July 2007

Notes Annual, Annualized, and/or Cumulative Returns: These returns represent simulated/back-tested portfolios, rebalanced monthly to the model allocation, reflect reinvestment of all estimated earnings less estimated management fees based on Mercer Advisors’ fee schedule determined by the estimated assets under management, 0.10% estimated trading costs, and the estimated mutual

FIGURE 4: S&P 500 Index vs. Average Equity Fund Investor – 20-Year Annualized Returns. Investors lose almost 50% of the broad equity market return as a result of buying during highs and panic selling at lows.

Note: the original analysis began in 1984, so 2001 represents an 18-year analysis and 2002 represents a 19-year analysis. Beginning in 2003, the long-term analysis covers a 20-year timeframe. Source: Dalbar’s 22nd Annual Quantitative Analysis of Investor Behavior 2016.

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Financial Matters continued

funds’ internal administrative expenses and transaction fees. These simulated/back-tested portfolios are based upon Mercer Advisors’ professional opinion and upon historical data of the indexes. Accordingly, the returns of these simulated/back-tested portfolios are not actual Mercer Global Advisors Inc. (“Mercer Advisors”) portfolio returns. As such, Mercer Advisors does not guarantee that clients will achieve these returns.

Expected Returns and/or Expected Standard Deviation: Expected returns and expected standard deviations for the simulated/back-tested portfolios are determined utilizing a Component Method. This method combines academic research, historical evidence, and professional opinion as the building blocks for determining the percentages. Accordingly, the expected returns and expected standard deviations are not actual Mercer Global Advisors Inc. (“Mercer Advisors”) portfolio results. As such, Mercer Advisors does not guarantee that clients will achieve these results.

All Equity Capital Appreciation Allocation – 100.1.TDv3 (as of December 31, 2015): 20.00% US Large Value – DFUVX, DFA US Large Cap Value III, 01/01/1996 - Current; 20.00% US Large Momentum – AMOMX, AQR Large Cap Momentum Style I, 07/01/2009 Current, AQR Large Cap Momentum TR USD reduced by fund operating expenses of 0.40%, 01/01/1996 06/30/2009; 10.00% US Small Value – DFSVX, DFA US Small Cap Value I, 01/01/1996 - Current; 10.00% US Small Momentum – ASMOX, AQR Small Cap Momentum Style I, 07/01/2009 - Current, AQR Small Cap Momentum TR USD reduced by fund operating expenses of 0.64%, 01/01/1996 - 06/30/2009; 9.00% International Large Value – DFVIX, DFA International Value III, 01/01/1996 - Current; 9.00% International Large Momentum – AIMOX, AQR International Momentum Style I, 07/01/2009 - Current, AQR International Momentum TR USD reduced by fund operating expenses of 0.55%, 01/01/1996 - 06/30/2009; 3.00% International Small Core – DFISX, DFA International Small Company I, 10/01/1996 - Current, MSCI ACWI Ex USA Small NR USD reduced by fund operating expenses of 0.53%, 06/01/1994 - 09/30/1996, MSCI EAFE Small Cap Index (priceonly) reduced by fund operating expenses of 0.53%, 01/01/1996 - 05/31/1994; 3.00% International Small Value – DISVX, DFA International Small Cap Value

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I, 01/01/1996 - Current; 6.00% Emerging Markets Core – DFCEX, DFA Emerging Markets Core Equity I, 05/01/2005 - Current, MSCI EM NR USD reduced by fund operating expenses of 0.61%, 12/01/1998 04/30/2005, MSCI Emerging Markets Index (priceonly) reduced by fund operating expenses of 0.61%, 01/01/1996 - 11/30/1998; 5.00% Master Limited Partnerships – MLPTX, Oppenheimer SteelPath MLP Select 40 Y, 04/01/2010 - Current, Alerian MLP TR USD reduced by fund operating expenses of 0.88%, 01/01/1996 - 03/31/2010, BofA Merrill Lynch US Corp & Gov’t 1-3 Year TR USD reduced by fund operating expenses of 0.88%, 01/01/1996 - 12/31/1995; 5.00% Global Real Estate – DFGEX, DFA Global Real Estate Securities I, 07/01/2008 - Current, S&P Devlp REIT TR USD reduced by fund operating expenses of 0.24%, 01/01/1996 - 06/30/2008.

Sources: Bloomberg, Fama/French, MSCI, Standard & Poor’s, Dimensional Fund Advisors, Morningstar.

This “Practical & Timely Advice” article is reproduced with permission from the Mercer Advisors Investment Committee: Mercer Global Advisors Inc. is registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission and delivers all investment-related services. Mercer Advisors Inc. is the parent company of Mercer Global Advisors Inc. and is not involved with investment services. Wes Fish, CFP ®, MBA, is client advisor at Mercer Advisors. He can be reached at (813) 895-3876 or wfish@merceradvisors.com.

the Analyst Volume 23 Number 3

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Business Notes

The Ideal Supplier: In Search of a Mythical Creature

By Brian Liotta, Brenntag North America

Introduction

Supplier Evaluation Methodology

When I think about the term “ideal,” I immediately imagine synonyms like “perfect,” “flawless,” and “exemplary.” And, of course, “ideal” in and of itself is quite a subjective quality. If you poll 50 people for their beliefs on the matter as it relates to cars, houses, governments, spouses, children, careers, etc., the responses will likely be very different. Therefore, applying the term to a business entity means it’s a risky proposition to even dare to believe in such a thing because, statistically, this creature is unlikely to exist in nature. Actually, one of the definitions of ideal specifically states “existing only in the imagination.” And the reason is simple: because businesses consist of human beings, all individually and uniquely imperfect. So, how can a bunch of flawed individuals ever band together to achieve an ideal construct?

I think this is a good question, however rhetorical. That said, by defining what one version of an “ideal” could look like, we at least have something to shoot for, and perhaps even a roadmap for getting there. At least, that’s “ideally” what this paper hopes to achieve. And there’s that word again…

Several techniques are used by companies to evaluate suppliers and measure performance. The first step in implementing any of the techniques being discussed is to determine the attributes that should be considered. A firm should focus on the attributes that it finds most important. Some attributes are easy to measure while others are more challenging. A rule of thumb is to consider the total costs associated with a purchased product or service, not just the purchase price. Some models are proficient in considering total costs, but they are usually very difficult and time consuming to implement. Thus, the resources available to the firm’s purchasing function will drive the firm’s model choice.

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According to the Institute of Supply Management, there are three fundamental models for identifying and evaluating suppliers: 1) the Categorical Method, 2) the Weighted-Point Method, and 3) the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) approach. A few other evaluation methods exist, some very complex and quantitative, but I’ll just address these three for the sake of simplicity.

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Business Notes continued

The Categorical Method involves categorizing each supplier’s performance in specific areas defined by a list of important attributes. So, the buyer can decide what’s important and compare each supplier against these criteria. The evaluator assigns to every vendor either a preferred (+), unsatisfactory (-), or neutral (O) rating for each of the selected attributes. Then, the ratings are totaled for each supplier and compared.

In the Weighted-Point Method, the same list of attributes chosen in the Categorical Method above are assigned a weight depending on the importance to the overall supplier performance. The weight for each attribute is then multiplied by its assigned score. Finally, these products are totaled to determine a final rating for each supplier.

five key criteria that I believe an ideal supplier would embody. It is further suggested that the management team consider these elements and apply them within a categorical evaluation or a weighted-point framework to provide some type of quantitative score. Before we dive into these criteria, I would like to first acknowledge the importance of a safety culture in our industry. The topic of “safety” shows up later as a component of these key criteria, but it should not be construed that safety is anything less than extremely important in our industry.

It should be considered in everything we do. I’ll start with a graphic depiction of these five criteria: Criteria #1 Communication

You will notice that Communication is at the center of the diagram. Effective communication is easily one of the most important Relationship concepts in business that we’re constantly Management striving to “get right.” Nearly every success and failure that we enjoy or endure can be traced back to communication—whether it was done with skillful execution or woefully missed its mark.

Thus, this Support Communication criteria is foundational to the other four (i.e., if a supplier doesn’t get this one right, the others can’t exist).

The Total Cost of Ownership (TCO), or life cycle cost analysis, approach is more comprehensive because it considers all the costs associated with quality, delivery, and service. These costs include a number of non-value-added activities, Strategic such as Alignment service costs, receiving costs, quality costs (inspection, rework, reject costs), failure costs, and administrative costs, including management time, maintenance, disposition, and life-cycle costs.1 Lifecycle Crafting messages with careful considQuality costs are costs incurred throughout the eration of the audience, with appropriate Management life of a product or service. In one study, style, clarity, and choice of medium, as it was concluded that the price of a piece of well as the timing of it, can make or break an production equipment for a firm’s operations was otherwise healthy customer/supplier relationship. only 35 percent of the total cost of that piece of equipIn fact, there are so many moving parts to this topic, one ment over its life cycle.2 Despite the high percentage of cannot hope to completely cover it in this short discusthe non-value-added costs, firms tend to either underession. So allow me to hit some high points as it relates to 3 timate or completely ignore them. our current business environment.

Five Key Criteria for Evaluating Suppliers

Education, Training

Considering that most of the Association of Water Technology (AWT) member companies fall into the small to medium-sized enterprise (SME) category (<250 employees), the TCO method may prove too cumbersome to implement, with little practical advantage for the effort. To simplify matters, I’m going to suggest

Simply put, the best suppliers educate and share information with their customers. They are experts in their fields, and they are confident enough in their ability to proactively impart their knowledge and experiences to their customers. In doing so, the intent should be to enhance the value of products and services that those

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Business Notes continued

customers impart to their clients in turn. Thus, education becomes part of the value chain and one of the most significant differentiators between competing suppliers.

There are two broad categories of education: one deals with the application of the products being supplied (i.e., the technical point-of-use side), the other with the product market itself. In the former case, teaching customers about how the products can solve problems in the field is an invaluable differentiator, as long as it’s done with impartiality and objectivity. For the latter instance, the next section will address this.

business once and for all. Ideal suppliers understand this and keep customers appropriately informed.

Frequency and value of face-to-face meetings

One of the worst mistakes we’ve seen perpetrated by suppliers is to undervalue or take for granted face-to-face encounters with the customer. We also see an inadequate number of contact points throughout key functional areas of the customer’s business—sales/marketing, finance, and operations. Meetings with ideal suppliers are deliberately organized with an agenda and goals, and these should be agreed upon by both companies prior to Timely market updates the meeting. Key stakeholders should be identified and All product markets experience some sort of price moveinvited to take part, even if that means simply soliciting ment, whether it’s seasonal or cyclical, or a result of some their thoughts or opinions via email ahead of time. A man-made or natural disaster. For an ideal supplier, woefully inefficient strategy is to have customer meetings it’s an important part of the education process to make for the sake of some vague guideline that they need to be sure that customers are aware of these held “with sufficient frequency.” What changes as well as the drivers affecting this really says is that if there are enough them. While it’s not necessary to call reports on file, the relationship provide a constant stream of is being managed effectively, Education/Training information (taxing the which is usually incorrect. customer’s patience and attention), predicting Criteria #2 Relationship market movement An ideal supplier based on key indicators demonstrates a willcan provide valuable ingness to develop Face-to-Face Market Updates & data that customers genuine relationships.

Meetings Intelligence can use. The operative These should not only word for this point is span many functional “timely.” As someone areas of the business, famously said, “It is but also up and down better to remain silent and be thought a fool, the chain of command. Multi-level relationships than to speak and remove all doubt.” On the other can facilitate meaningful discussion between individhand, given a timely market update, customers can make uals with similar purposes and goals. For example, sales decisions about 1) inventory holding, 2) price manageand marketing people are naturally connected across the ment for their customers, and 3) the addition or deletion supplier-customer relationship, but what about financial of products from their own offering. This really boils managers, operations managers, and customer service? down to expectation management. Done well, and in a Do the presidents of both companies know one another? timely manner, telegraphing market movements can Ideal suppliers make sure there are multiple title-to-title mean the difference between an exceptionally profitconnections to help ensure the best possible communiable quarter or one plagued by short or long inventory, cation up and down the organization and across many raw material replacement costs that are at odds with the functional areas. The foundation of all these relationships firm’s current selling price, and the potential to inadshould be measured against these criteria: vertently cause stock-outages for their customers. Done poorly, or in an untimely manner, the supplier will create Respect: If respect exists between a supplier and an impetus for customers to actively seek out a new customer, then their relationship can be more open and supplier or phase the “problem” raw material out of their honest.

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Business Notes continued

Trust: Ideal suppliers are trustworthy. They do what they say and are open and communicative if something falls apart. They have your back.

Mutual Benefit: One definition I’ve often used to describe a good business relationship is “mutual, consensual exploitation.” The term “exploitation” can have a negative connotation, but in this context it simply means that each party is bringing something to the table that the other can use to further their goals and objectives.

But the key here is the word consensual—no hidden agendas. The ideal supplier and you know precisely how each will benefit from working together.

on safe handling of the products being purchased and used in the plant.

Responsiveness is another key support trait that truly differentiates suppliers from one another. On this topic, suppliers generally can be assigned to one of three categories: 1) Difficult to reach, 2) Easy to reach but has no useful information, or 3) Easy to reach and has useful information. The first two are all too prevalent in our industry. Seek the third category, as that is a quality of ideal suppliers.

Criteria #4 Strategic Alignment

As discussed in point #3 concerning Support, strategy Fairness and Honesty: Fair and honest dealings are a alignment will be critical to ensuring success for both cornerstone of the ideal supplier relationthe supplier and customer. The supplier ship. There is also a very pragmatic reason should be evaluated on the basis of their for making friends with suppliers. People go-to market strategy. For example, are usually willing to do more for what is their channel selection for a friend than someone they just selling products and their criteria Respect know by a corporate for going direct to an account number. Simply end-user. How will they put, all things being equal, promote their products, and people prefer to do busihow does your company Fairness & ness with people with fit into that mix? How is Trust Honesty whom they can identify. their sales force comprised Friends buy from friends, and managed, and how will and that often means that affect their ability to be commodity differentiators responsive to your needs? like price fade a bit more This strategy composition Mutual into the background. can have many permutations, but Benefit the key is to have an open dialog Criteria #3 Support about your company’s strategic direction Being supportive is a multi-faceted quality. and the supplier’s, and to make sure they For example, one could easily steer the work together and not against one another. conversation to the topic of price support to win new business, but it can also go much deeper. When a Growth plans in place supplier is supportive, there exists an empathy for the Simply put, if your company has specific growth plans customer’s business resulting from learning about and for 1, 3, 5, and 10-year horizons, these should be acknowledging the customer’s strategy, validating it, communicated and discussed to make sure that your and aligning that direction with their own. This alignaspirations are congruent with the supplier’s ability and ment can mean special pricing, combinable products willingness to help you reach those goals on schedule. for volume pricing, special payment terms, rebates, and An ideal supplier will not only agree to participate in creative inventory handling (e.g., custom stock levels your growth plans but will be able to demonstrate its and locations), or consignment. Support can also mean capability to do so. conducting training for the customer’s sales force on applications or guidance for their procurement staff regarding market dynamics or for their operations staff

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Business Notes continued

Preferential consideration

Once strategies have been aligned and growth plans agreed upon, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s not unusual or unreasonable to request preferential treatment from the ideal supplier. This treatment can take many forms. For example, passing along sales leads and inquiries to the customer is a tangible way for a supplier to demonstrate channel partnership (i.e., helping the customer grow its business). Sharing the cost and the spotlight in a joint advertising campaign or sharing exhibit space at a high profile trade show or convention can have mutual benefit. In return, the supplier may ask for some preferential consideration from you as well. Committing to a certain percentage of spending is typical. But the main theme here is that the ideal supplier treats you as a partner more than a buyer.

Criteria #5 Quality Management System

An ideal supplier will have some form of a quality management system in place. This system should be designed to not only track important quality parameters, but also use the data for continuous improvement. An ideal supplier should also be able to demonstrate measurable quality improvement over time resulting from the use of this system.

For evaluating suppliers, the following criteria should be scrutinized for accuracy on each order placed: Correct product

Andâ&#x20AC;Ś all this should be accomplished without a safety mishap to themselves, the general public, or your own firm.

I would encourage any firm evaluating a supplier to challenge them to explain their safety philosophy, then demonstrate through action that they believe in it and practice it each and every day. It needs to be part of their culture!

Conclusion Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve outlined a series of criteria that can form the basis of a very comprehensive supplier evaluation methodology if employed by a thoughtful and organized team. Frankly, they are lofty expectations for any company.

The ideal supplier may be something of a mythical creature, but using our imaginations to develop a set of ideal qualities at least gives us something to which we can all aspire. Mistakes will happen, of course. But one key difference between an ideal supplier and an ordinary supplier is how they react to the error, correct their mistake, and then learn from it. They have a passion for improvement!

References 1. Arcan Arsan, Aimee Shank, Performance Measurements and Metrics: An Analysis of Supplier Evaluation, 2011 2. Arcan Arsan, Aimee Shank

3. Ellram, L. Fall 1993. Total cost of ownership: Elements and implementation.

International Journal of Purchasing and Materials Management. 29(4): 2-12

Brian Liotta is marketing director for Water Additives at Brenntag North America. He can be reached at (510) 816-4903 or bliotta@brenntag.com.

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76 Bio-Source, Inc.

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85 Peabody Engineering & Supply Inc.

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39 Browne Laboratories, Inc.

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52 Walchem, IWAKI America Inc.

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