The Dawning Place

The Building of a Temple, the Forging of a Global Religious Community by Bruce W. Whitmore 2nd Edition Revised and Expanded

Bahá’í Publishing 401 Greenleaf Avenue, Wilmette, Illinois 60091-2844 Copyright © 2015 by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States All rights reserved. Published 2015 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper ∞ 18 17 16 15 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Whitmore, Bruce W., 1944– The dawning place : the building of a temple, the forging of a global religious community /

by Bruce W. Whitmore. — 2nd Edition, Revised and Expanded. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-61851-083-9 (alk. paper) 1. Bahá’í Temple (Wilmette, Ill.) 2. Wilmette (Ill.)—Buildings, structures, etc.

3. Bahai Faith—United States. I. Title.

NA5235.W483W5 2015 726’.1793097731—dc23 2015004251 Cover design by Andrew Johnson Book design by Patrick Falso Photograph on cover by Bobby Aazami www.FionaandBobby.com Photo credits: pp. 280, 281, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287—Bahá’í International Community; pp. 253, 255— The American Bahá’í; pp. 3, 5—Wikimedia, (public domain); p. 149—Portland Cement Association; pp. 19, 72— Edna True; pp. 61, 221, 228—Bruce Whitmore. All other historical black & white photographs come from the Bahá’í Publishing Trust, the Heritage Project, and the National Bahá’í Archives, Wilmette, IL. Photographic Insert: Color photos on pp. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (top), 6, 7 of insert by Sholeh Samadani Munion.

Photographs on p. 5 (bottom), 8 courtesy of The American Bahá’í.

CONTENTS Note on Translations...........................................................................................................................ix Preface to the First Edition..................................................................................................................xi Preface to the Second Edition............................................................................................................. xv Foreword.......................................................................................................................................... xvii 1 Prologue........................................................................................................................................1 2 It Started at the Fair.......................................................................................................................3 3 The First Decade...........................................................................................................................9 4 Mother of the Temple..................................................................................................................19 5 Corinne True Goes to Acre..........................................................................................................25 6 The Search...................................................................................................................................37 7 Nettie Tobin’s Stone.....................................................................................................................43 8 Birth of the Bahai Temple Unity.................................................................................................. 51 9 The Ceremony.............................................................................................................................57 10 The First Long Wait.....................................................................................................................69 11 The Quest for a Design................................................................................................................79 12 Day of Decision...........................................................................................................................89 13 The Agony of Victory................................................................................................................ 101 14 The Second Long Wait.............................................................................................................. 117 15 Skyward.....................................................................................................................................137 16 The Master Craftsman...............................................................................................................147 17 The Temple’s Beauty Emerges.................................................................................................... 161 18 The Fame of the Temple Spreads.............................................................................................. 175 19 The Final Years..........................................................................................................................183 20 The Dedication.........................................................................................................................201 21 The Decade of Transition.......................................................................................................... 211 22 Six Decades of Service .............................................................................................................. 221 23 Challenges.................................................................................................................................239 24 Epilogue....................................................................................................................................257 Appendices 1 The Bahá’í Faith........................................................................................................................261 2 The Dawning Place of the Mention of God..............................................................................265 3 The Meaning of Worship...........................................................................................................269 4 To Know and Worship God: An Architectural Perspective.........................................................273 vii

CONTENTS

5 6 7 8 9

viii

Ashgabat, the City of Love........................................................................................................275 Other Bahá’í Houses of Worship...............................................................................................279 National and Local Houses of Worship.....................................................................................289 Brief Biographies of Some Bahá’ís Associated with the Temple Project...................................... 291 Tables and Other Miscellaneous Information.............................................................................299

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION When Terry Cassiday, Director of Acquisitions at the time, informed me of Bahá’í Publishing’s desire to issue a new edition of this book, she defined three objectives. First, identify any corrections that needed to be made; second, update certain portions of the text such as visitor statistics; last, add any new information that had surfaced since the original publishing date in 1984.

At first glance the task seemed straightforward. The original edition, however, spanned only six decades from the introduction of the Bahá’í Faith in America (1893) to the dedication of the Temple (1953). During the intervening decades, hundreds of significant events have taken place within the Temple’s environs. There were also other subjects of interest that either involved tangentially or impacted upon the Temple, such as the passing of Shoghi Effendi, the establishment of the Universal House of Justice, and the persecution of the Bahá’ís in Iran. In addition, efforts at restoration and conservation of the Temple needed to be addressed. There were also several potential additions to the original text that had come to light in recent years. The task suddenly seemed anything but simple.

In a letter I received from Rú¥íyyih Khánum during the latter stages of writing the first edition, she wished me “more power to your elbow!” Although technology played an important role toward the end of preparing the original manuscript, word processing and databases were still quite rudimentary.

Indeed, my elbow got quite a workout for several years as one yellow pad after another filled with early drafts of the book.

My use of technology in this revision, however, has been amazing by comparison. Tools such as word processing, digital scanning, electronic mail, the wealth of information on the Internet, and my personal database with thousands of interlinked entries saved an enormous amount of effort and made this a very different experience.

It should be noted that while this edition does explore the decades between the Temple’s dedication in 1953 and the present day, my years of service at the House of Worship spanned the period of the early 1970s through the mid-1980s. There is a greater emphasis, therefore, on the years leading up to the 1990s with only brief highlights from more recent years. This expanded edition is the third historical overview of the House of Worship with Allen McDaniel’s Spell of the Temple being the first. Although a considerable amount of previously unpublished information and many new insights are contained herein, countless stories remain untold. Future historians will undoubtedly add many volumes to this unique history.

The history of Bahá’í publishing in the United States spans more than a century, owing its beginnings to dedicated early believers such as Thornton Chase and Albert Windust. The staff with whom it was my pleasure to work on this edition have proven to be just as dedicated and immensely talented.

Collaborating with Terry Cassiday prior to her sad and untimely passing was a most rewarding experience. Losing her expertise was dispiriting. It was a privilege working with her. I was extremely fortunate that Bahhaj Taherzadeh assumed her editorial duties for this book. He made the process of finalizing xv

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

this edition an enjoyable experience. I am also indebted to the efforts of Tim Moore, the General Manager of the Publishing Trust, and Christopher Martin for his proofreading skills. Finally, Duane Troxel of the Heritage Project at the Bahá’í National Center provided invaluable assistance with the photographic portion of the book.

I again owe a huge debt of gratitude to archivist Roger Dahl, whose support and guidance were as meaningful for this edition as for the last. I also wish to convey my deep appreciation to the late L. Caswell Ellis, Pamela Barrett, and Dorita Fuller for helping to “fill in the gaps” since my departure in 1986; to Stephen Jackson and Geoff Wilson for sharing recollections regarding the acquisition of the National Center building in Evanston; to the Temple’s former conservation team—Dennis Davis, Barbara Geiger and, in particular, Erik Anderson—who provided much insight regarding current and future efforts to preserve the building; to Mike Urbano for his assistance in conducting research at area libraries; to Glenford Mitchell for writing the foreword to this edition; to Chris Vodden who also provided valuable information on the current operations at the Temple; and to Thomas Day for advanced programming of my database; and to my wife, Patricia; my daughter, Heather; my granddaughter, Haley; Kenneth Bowers; Linda Lee Polk; and Joseph Shinnick; each of whom reviewed all, or part, of this edition and provided valuable suggestions for its improvement. I must also acknowledge my fiveyear-old great-granddaughter, Ava, who kept insisting that twirling her around in my office chair was more important than working on this manuscript—and often it was!

There are numerous individuals who lovingly cared for the Temple and its environs over the decades, including my stepfather, Paul Stirneman. Among those whom it was my honor to know include Irvin Somerhalder, who gave decades of his life to the Temple, during many of which he was on call day and night to address any problem. Hayden Mohr’s skills were wide-ranging; more importantly, his intense love of, and devotion to, the Temple were reflected in the high quality of everything he did. Ira Burgett also fell in love with the Temple. For over a decade he worked as the building’s custodian. Only toward the end of this time did he become a Bahá’í. His respect for the Temple was so great, however, that each night, before he began buffing the auditorium floor until it shone like glass, Ira would sit in his favorite chair upstairs and offer prayers. Special tribute is due not only to these individuals but to all of the people who have served the Mother Temple of the West with such devotion.

Finally, I wish to rectify an oversight in the original preface. When I began my research in the National Archives in the mid-1970s, Raymond Collins was the manager of the House of Worship, my boss, and my friend. Had he not given me his support and encouragement, and allowed me to spend those long hours in the National Archives, this book might never have come into existence.

xvi

FOREWORD The building of the Bahá’í House of Worship, the first in the western world, on the northern outskirts of Chicago, is a story of epic dimensions. Bruce Whitmore tells us how a dream held by a few people prompted a worldwide response that translated it into a concrete reality of monumental significance.

The dreamers scarcely imagined the magnitude of the implications of the idea upon which they seized in 1903, and which was transformed into a plan of action in 1920, that attained a glorious fulfillment three decades later. Theirs was the response of eager neophytes to an impulse to establish a place for worship in the spirit and name of the as yet obscure belief they had embraced, the Bahá’í Faith.

News had only recently reached America about this monotheistic religion, newly born in the Middle East amid unusual and heroic happenings characteristic of the phenomenon that at different times throughout human history has marked the appearance of a Divine Revelation. The World Parliament of Religions, a landmark event connected with the World’s Columbian Exhibition of 1893, provided the occasion for the first public mention in the western hemisphere of Bahá’u’lláh, the founder of that Faith. This date marks the beginning of Bahá’í involvement in the destiny of America. What these early Bahá’ís set out to do went far beyond the construction of an edifice, however novel and magnificent it turned out to be. Indeed, the building project created the occasion for the founding of a national Bahá’í community with its unique system of administration. This wider framework from which the author culled his story is mentioned simply to hint at the importance of his report rather than to elaborate.

Apart from the telling of chronological details, his is an enthralling narrative of the indomitable faith and unflagging courage that so noble a project had inspired in the face of formidable obstacles.

Worship of God, according to the teachings of Bahá’u’lláh, implies a breadth and variety of expression that transcends all previous conceptions of it. It is embodied in all endeavor that advances civilization. This requisite of human fulfillment is rooted in the universal context of the oneness of God, of religion, and of humankind. The Bahá’í Temple symbolizes this universal oneness in its structural form and institutional capacity, which assure to the practice of worshiping God a coherent spiritual and practical realization. The purpose of worship in the fullness of its spiritual and social dimension derives potency from a new understanding of the meaning of religion. Horace Holley captured the essence when he wrote: “This is the new, the universal concept of religion which Bahá’u’lláh has revealed today: the source of faith is the Prophet, the Manifestation of God, not the man-made creed, doctrine, rite, ceremony or church, for the will and the love of God are conveyed to humanity in each age by His chosen and inspired Messenger; and the expression of faith is in direct service to human needs, sacrifice for the sake of world peace, and consecration to the cause of the oneness of mankind.”1 Although dedicated solely to the worship of God, principally through prayer and recitation of the Holy Word, the Bahá’í Temple is at the center of a cluster of institutions of social service standing apart from it as dependencies. These, as Shoghi Effendi has described, “shall afford relief to the poor, shelter to the wayfarer, solace to the bereaved, and education to the ignorant.”2 xvii

FOREWORD

In so deliberately connecting communion with God and humanitarian works, Bahá’u’lláh has indicated the necessity of integrating these components of worship in a mutual reinforcement of soul, mind, and body that fosters the progress and prosperity of civilization. Here, too, Shoghi Effendi brought clarity to the matter: “Divorced from the social, humanitarian, educational and scientific pursuits centering around the Dependencies of the Mashriqu’l-Adhkár,”* he explained, “Bahá’í worship, however passionate in fervor, can never hope to achieve beyond the meager and often transitory results produced by the contemplations of the ascetic or the communion of the passive worshiper. It cannot afford lasting satisfaction and benefit to the worshiper himself, much less to humanity in general, unless and until translated and transfused into that dynamic and disinterested service to the cause of humanity which it is the supreme privilege of the Dependencies of the Mashriqu’l-Adhkár to facilitate and promote.”3 There are, of course, innumerable examples of social service provided by agencies associated with synagogues, churches, mosques, and other houses of worship throughout the world. These indicate a conscionable response to human need and are among the noblest of achievements. The great distinction between such examples and the pattern of activities that connects the Mashriqu’l-Adhkár to its dependencies is that the latter has been explicitly ordained and institutionalized by divine decree; moreover, such activities have been brought within a definition of worship heretofore unexpressed in sacred scripture.

Bahá’u’lláh’s instruction that houses of worship be built in cities and villages confers divine authority on institutions for which no parallel of equal authority existed in previous religious dispensations.

Lacking such a call in any of their sacred texts, adherents, for instance, of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam agonized at their separate beginnings over the question of creating structures for worship. At first they opposed such action, preferring to worship in the open or in natural spaces like caves. The earlier opposition eventually yielded to a need perceived by leaders at a later time to establish symbols of identification for a religious community that would both distinguish it from others and become a means of attracting membership. The paradox produced by this development was impossible to resolve as, increasingly, splendid structures were erected that appealed to admirers of aesthetic achievement. The habit of centuries now evident in the plethora of edifices dedicated to worship has no doubt minimized the effect of the discomfort felt by worshipers in the past, even if the paradox has remained an academic curiosity. Yet and still, after so many centuries and despite the current situation, the issue of aesthetics nags the conscience of some present-day worshipers.

As this book shows, the initiators of the Bahá’í Temple in Wilmette were free of such concerns, and for good reason. However, they faced a greater worry of a different kind: How was Bahá’u’lláh’s

* The Dawning-place of the Praise of God: a title designating a Bahá’í House of Worship or Temple, which is the heart and center of a complex of institutions collectively designated by the term “Mashriqu’l-Adhkár.” ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains that this complex of institutions is intended to serve the needs of the community and that among the subsidiary institutions it includes are “a hospital, a drug dispensary, a traveler’s hospice, a school for orphans, and a university.” xviii

FOREWORD

prescription for the physical structure to be achieved? For had He not laid down a specification for houses of worship too demanding to fulfill? “Make them as perfect as is possible in the world of being” is His clear statement in the Most Holy Book.* And He thus elaborates: “adorn them with that which befitteth them, not with images and effigies.” It is no wonder then that the design selected was so aesthetically sophisticated that technical men at the time thought it impossible to execute. The striving for perfection, for beauty, in projects associated with the sacred is motivated by the greatly enlarged vision of the character of worship stirring the consciousness of Bahá’ís. In a letter of encouragement to a student of agriculture, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá expressed with remarkable simplicity a previously unrecognized truth, thus expanding the meaning of worship: “in accordance with the divine teachings,” He said, “the acquisition of sciences and the perfection of arts are considered acts of worship.” And as if to emphasize the motivational power of so liberating an insight, He exclaimed: “What bounty greater than this that science should be considered as an act of worship and art as service to the Kingdom of God!”4 Indeed, what wings an awareness so elevated must lend to the practice of sciences and arts in the new dispensation inaugurated by Bahá’u’lláh!

The new Revelation has refreshed and refined human endeavor, making all its aspects one with the divine purpose of creation, one with the will of God, and thus with the nature of worship itself. The overarching principle in this regard is that work performed in the spirit of service is counted as worship.

This makes for an epiphany: The Bahá’í House of Worship is itself created from acts of worship. It stands in the guise of a prayer manifest in concrete. Here is an instance when the means all too clearly justify the glorious end.

To underscore so fresh a point of understanding is not to be carelessly redundant; it is to deepen consciousness of a newly acquired truth of insuperable importance. So far as the Mashriqu’l-Adhkár is concerned, creating its physical form is itself a prayer, engaging in its functions an act of worship.

Moreover, the edifice radiates a beauty that aspires to perfection—this to awaken the nobility of the soul of the beholder and thus prepare it for the ultimate experience: communion with its Creator, the Lord of heaven and earth.

As an institution of ramified reach, the Bahá’í Temple in Wilmette has not yet emerged from its embryonic stage. Its dependencies remain to be fully conceived and built. But there can be no doubt that it has, nonetheless, exerted an enormous influence on the expansion of the Faith from which it sprung and on the consolidation of other fundamental Bahá’í institutions throughout the world. The pages that follow amply note the major events within its walls and with which it has otherwise been associated since its dedication to public worship half a century ago. But the prospects of an institution of such transcendent purpose can only dimly be discerned with the aid of the vision projected in the

* The Kitáb-i-Aqdas, or Most Holy Book, is the chief repository of Bahá’u’lláh’s laws and the Mother Book of His revelation. Revealed in Acre circa 1873, it is believed by Bahá’ís to be “the Charter of the future world civilization.” xix

CHAPTER TWO

IT STARTED AT THE FAIR

World’s Columbian Exposition, 1893.

A decade before the birth of the Temple project, the citizens of Chicago were intently focused on Christopher Columbus. The United States Congress had selected Chicago as host to a world’s fair intended to mark the four hundredth anniversary of the New World’s discovery. Among the thousands of events to occur during the exposition’s six months of operation would be the first public mention of the Bahá’í Faith in the western hemisphere.

More than two years before the Columbian Exposition opened, on a gray and windy day in early January 1891, several of the country’s most prominent architects gathered along a desolate stretch of 3

IT STARTED AT THE FAIR

Lake Michigan’s beach. Known as Jackson Park, this square mile of unsightly land was located a few miles south of downtown Chicago. The land was considered by most of the architects to be unredeemable. The men were there at the invitation of Daniel Hudson Burnham, one of the architects who rebuilt Chicago after the Great Fire of 1871 had destroyed more than 14,000 of the city’s buildings.

Burnham had been named the exposition’s chief of construction and he was determined to convince this distinguished group to participate in one of the most dramatic building projects ever attempted in the United States. The project called for dozens of beautiful and enormous buildings, which had to be designed, constructed, and then surrounded by a massive landscaping effort, all in a mere twenty-one months. Burnham’s vision for the exposition inspired the architects, and they accepted the challenge.

It took seven thousand workmen to create the lagoons, canals, islands, pathways, and 150 buildings that sprawled across the nearly seven-hundred-acre site. Most of the buildings were designed in the neoclassical style of architecture, exceedingly elaborate in appearance and awesome in scale. The gilded dome of the Administration Building rose 275 feet, higher than the dome of the United States Capitol.

The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building covered thirty-two acres and was the largest structure ever built up to then. Yet these massive structures were constructed of flimsy materials, for they would be demolished once the exposition ended.

The colossal project was plagued with problems from its inception. In 1891 alone eighteen workers were killed, seven hundred injured. The weather that winter was unusually severe. Heavy snows collapsed roofs, torrential rains washed away equipment and even buildings, and mud entombed nearly everything else.

The Congress had set 21 October 1892 for the dedication. That the exposition would not be completed in time had been obvious for months. Even the press overlooked the “stark appearance” and “unfinished feel” of the exposition’s dedication. “To have done otherwise would have been an act of disloyalty to Chicago and the nation.”1 More than 140,000 attended the ceremonies, but the most memorable event that day took place away from the fairgrounds. The tremendous interest in Chicago’s efforts had inspired a nationwide effort by the United States Bureau of Education; in every schoolroom in every state, the Pledge of Allegiance was recited for the first time.

It was six months later on the 401st anniversary of Columbus’s discovery (1 May1893) when the fair finally opened to the public. President Grover Cleveland officiated, pressing an electric key that caused mysterious machines to come to life throughout the site. Electric motors raised dozens of flags up their poles. A shroud covering the 111-foot, gilded Statue of the Republic fell away. As the heavy guns of several assembled warships were discharged, countless frightened seagulls rose into the air. The most remembered aspect of the ceremony, however, was the untold number of onlookers injured by the crush of the crowds.

More than twenty-seven million people were attracted to the glittering fair during the six months it was open. They received an unparalleled educational and cultural experience—a vision of a world without boundaries. “It introduced the world to America, and America to the world.” 2

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IT STARTED AT THE FAIR

There were hundreds of exhibits to explore including those of forty-six nations. Norway sailed a replica of a Viking ship to the fair while Germany’s pavilion focused on artillery weapons. There was a Mexican desert and a tranquil Japanese garden. The United States was represented by several states and territories which offered imaginative pavilions such as Illinois, where one could explore a full-scale mockup of a battleship, or Wisconsin which sported an eleven-ton piece of cheese.

There were also displays like the first electric kitchen complete with an automatic dishwasher, a 1,500 pound statue of Venus de Milo made of chocolate, and an electric-powered sidewalk that moved along one of the waterways. Edison’s 82-foot Tower of Light consisted of over 18,000 bulbs. Visitors could also experience many new products, some of which are still common today such as Cracker Jacks, Shredded Wheat, Juicy Fruit gum, and Aunt Jemima’s pancakes. The most popular activity was to ride the massive Ferris wheel, the first ever built. Soaring nearly three hundred feet above the ground and transporting thirty-six cars, each twenty-four feet long and thirteen feet wide, the wheel could carry 2,160 people at a time. The ride cost fifty cents, a huge amount at that time. Yet every day the waiting line of eager riders stretched for blocks.

The Ferris wheel was nearly three hundred feet tall.

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IT STARTED AT THE FAIR

“That all nations should become one in faith and all men as brothers; that the bonds of affection and unity between the sons of men should be strengthened; that diversity of religion should cease and differences of race be annulled; what harm is there in this? Yet so it shall be.

These fruitless strifes, these ruinous wars shall pass away, and the ‘Most Great Peace’ shall come.

Do not you in Europe need this also? Let not a man glory in this, that he loves his country; let him rather glory in this, that he loves his kind.”6 In commenting on Reverend Jessup’s reference to Bahá’u’lláh, Shoghi Effendi, the great-grandson of Bahá’u’lláh who was destined to become the leader of the Bahá’í Faith after the passing of his grandfather, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, wrote four decades later: “Of pomp and circumstance, of any manifestations of public rejoicing or of popular applause, there were none to greet this first intimation to America’s citizens of the existence and purpose of the Revelation proclaimed by Bahá’u’lláh.”7 The utterances of Bahá’u’lláh reached beyond the parliament, for portions of Reverend Jessup’s talk were reprinted in at least two Chicago newspapers. There is no indication, however, that the speech or its publication generated any interest in the Bahá’í Faith.* The historic Columbian Exposition ended thirty-three days after the closing of the parliament. Nine months later it almost entirely disappeared when most of its buildings were destroyed by a fire. Yet it would not be quickly forgotten for it had a profound effect, not only on Chicago, but the entire nation.

* The Bahá’í Faith had been mentioned previously in the United States in several newspapers and magazines, the earliest known article appearing in the January 1846 issue of the Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science and Art (p. 142). But these early articles were directed at describing the barbaric treatment of the Bábís, forerunners of the Bahá’ís, rather than introducing the teachings of Bahá’u’lláh. (See Momen, Bábí and Bahá’í Religions, p. 4.)

The Faith came to the attention of the United States government as early as 1867 when a group of Bahá’ís from Baghdad sent a petition to the Congress through the United States consul general at Beirut. The document described the history of the Faith; the martyrdom of the Báb, the Prophet-Forerunner of the Bahá’í Faith; and the persecutions inflicted upon Bahá’u’lláh, although He was not mentioned by name. The closing of the petition said in part: “Consequently we unanimously agreed to report and inform the Congress of the Republic, of the state of that wise man, that God may prepare for him relief and acquittal, and that you may help and find out a way to deliver that oppressed person from under tyranny and oppression.” (Petition from the Persian Reformers, 16 March 1867, Record Group 59, “General Records of the Department of State,” microfilm file T367, reel 5, National Archives, Washington, D.C.) The petition was delivered to William H. Seward, secretary of state under Andrew Johnson. The fate of the petition remains unknown.

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CHAPTER THREE

THE FIRST DECADE 1903 was before either the discovery of the North Pole or the start of the federal income tax. It was also before Oklahoma became the forty-sixth state, before women could vote in national elections, and before the devastating San Francisco earthquake. There were, however, several notable events in 1903 including the Wright Brothers’ first flight, the first United States coast-to-coast automobile trip, the first World Series, and the first Tour de France. Marconi transmitted the first transcontinental radio signal from this country to England, a message of greetings from President Theodore Roosevelt to King Edward VII. The Ford Motor Company sold its first car while the Binney and Smith company sold the first box of crayons. 1903 was also a noteworthy year in Chicago, for what would prove to be the most historically significant event of that city’s young Bahá’í community also took place.

Nine years earlier, Bahá’u’lláh’s Faith was embraced by its first Americans adherents. They were introduced to the Faith by Ibráhím George Khayru’lláh, a Syrian Christian by birth who became a Bahá’í in Egypt in 1890. His attempts at earning a livelihood were diverse. He was a grain and cotton merchant in Cairo. He then invented a device to assist soldiers to march faster, which he failed to sell to both Russia and Germany. He came to the United States to market a concept for an admission ticket designed to be used at the Columbian Exposition; that venture also failed. In Chicago he sold oriental wares. Then, to earn additional income, he decided to become a spiritual teacher and healer.

Despite his limited understanding of Bahá’í teachings, Khayru’lláh formed classes on the Faith which he called “Communes.” Only toward the end of the series did a participant learn of Bahá’u’lláh.

Four of these students declared themselves believers in mid-1894.* The following year six more Chicagoans joined, one of whom moved to New York. By 1897 there were 238 people in Chicago who either considered themselves Bahá’ís or were interested in the Faith. New York had nine members, and a third city, Kenosha, Wisconsin, soon had eighteen Bahá’í residents.1 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, the son of Bahá’u’lláh, would at one time call Khayru’lláh “‘the second Columbus,’” although this seeming compliment likely had an additional meaning for the autocratic tendencies of both Columbus and Khayru’lláh served neither man well.† Khayru’lláh tended to be quite secretive, * According to a membership list maintained in Chicago between 1894 and 1899, the first four individuals to enter the Bahá’í Faith in the United States were William F. James, Marian A. Miller, Edward W. Dennis, and James B. Thornton Chase. Thornton, in an article he wrote about the early history of the Faith in America, states that five individuals embraced Bahá’u’lláh’s Cause that first year. If there was a fifth person, he or she remains unknown. † ‘Abdu’1-Bahá was Bahá’u’lláh’s eldest son and His closest companion, protector, and aide. Bahá’u’lláh specified in writing that following His own death ‘Abdu’1-Bahá was to function as the head of the Faith and the authoritative interpreter of Bahá’u’lláh’s teachings. (For additional information see appendix 1, “The Bahá’í Faith.”)

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