CONTENTS Introduction to the Second Edition
1
1 Perspectives on Materialism Capitalism and materialism Pathways to a materialistic attitude Perspectives from psychology
7 11 13 16
2 Exploiting Desire: The Rise of Consumerism Children and the marketing industry Materialism and youth
20 24 27
3 Materialism and Discontent The escalation of expectations: A cycle of neediness Contentment The pursuit of happiness
31 34 35 37
4 Materialism and Mental Health Depression and society Fear and anxiety Violence and self-destructiveness Affluence and the ‘Affluenza’ phenomenon The recession effect Loneliness and materialism Lifestyle choices influenced by materialism
43 46 49 54 58 61 65 66
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5 Materialistic Science and Bioethics Materialistic science Who is a person? An ethical debate The notion of ‘abortion after birth’ Prenatal selection and abortion
72 72 78 79 80
6 Finding the Balance: Materialism and Intrinsic Values Intrinsic and extrinsic values In search of the true self Human desire: Religious perspectives The dynamics of material and spiritual nature A culture of pleasure Science and greed
83 83 86 92 97 102 106
7 Wealth, Poverty and Moral Values Egotism vs. humility Moral challenges in present-day society Global poverty and wealth World health and poor nations
110 115 117 120 125
8 Global Warming, Climate Change and Environmental Degradation Climate change and man-made pollution What leads to global warming and climate change? Environmental degradation
129 129 132 133
9 Consequences of Materialism Material wealth and spiritual poverty Child labour Human trafficking and forced labour Human organ trafficking ‘Blood diamonds’ and ‘conflict minerals’ Ivory and the exploitation of elephants The medicalization of life challenges
137 137 139 141 142 144 147 148
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Beyond material attachment Making the right choices
150 153
10 Bahá’í Perspectives on Materialism Two calls to success and prosperity The cult of individualism The cancer of materialism Spiritual progress in a material world The mysteries of detachment Meanings of self and transformation
158 162 164 166 167 169 177
11 Spiritual Dimensions of Human Prosperity Spirituality and personal transformation Spiritual susceptibility
180 180 188
12 Rethinking the Concepts of Wealth and Well-being Toward a spiritual civilization
194 201
Conclusion
206
Excerpts from the Bahá’í Writings
210
Bibliography References Index About the Author
215 231 249 263
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CHAPTER 2
EXPLOITING DESIRE: THE RISE OF CONSUMERISM Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s need, but not every man’s greed. Mahatma Gandhi1
From ancient times to the Industrial Revolution, people traditionally acquired goods according to their needs. However, with the advancement of technology, the expansion of advertising and easy access to goods through shopping malls, department stores and more recently online, the psychological knowledge of the human mind and motivation has been exploited to transform the sense of ‘need’ into ‘want’. This has led to a strong desire for consumption, especially in urban populations. The transformation began with social and political activism for greater freedom in society; this gradually changed into a movement aiming to create more diverse products for marketing and to stimulate consumers’ desire. This process has been well researched and publicized, notably in 2002 in the BBC documentary The Century of Self which explored the use of psychology as a tool to promote individualism in post-World War America.2 The film reveals how the Freudian concept of desire was used to manipulate people’s minds so that they bought more. The key to selling more goods was to connect human emotions to specific products and bring about a shift from contentment and fulfilment of needs to a desire to obtain more and more goods. Consequently, consumption 20
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came to be identified with American democracy and a materialistic way of thinking became the order of the day. Tapping the deepest human desires, the culture of consumption – a ‘happiness machine’ – became very popular in the 1920s until October 1929 when the US market crashed. Richard Robbins in his book Global Problems and the Culture of Capitalism (1999) elaborates on the rise of consumerism. He believes that in order for this to happen in the United States, the buying habits of the population needed to be transformed. He points out that what used to be considered as luxuries and vanities had to come to be perceived as necessities, and he identified ways through which this could be accomplished.3 Exploring the powerful role of advertising as another ‘revolutionary development’ in the promotion of a consumer culture, Robbins writes: The goal of advertisers was to aggressively shape consumer desires and create value in commodities by imbuing them with the power to transform the consumer into a more desirable person . . . In 1880, only $30 million was invested in advertising in the United States; by 1910, new businesses, such as oil, food, electricity and rubber, were spending $600 million, or 4 percent of the national income, on advertising. Today that figure has climbed to well over $120 billion in the United States and to over $250 billion worldwide.4
In modern times ‘possession’ has became a ‘virtue’. One of the most popular expressions of this ‘virtue’ is the fashion industry. The temptation to be fashionable has prompted millions of people to buy things not because they need them but because of style and image. People today live in an environment influenced by a culture of consumption linked to materialistic desires and lifestyle. Marketing is aimed at reshaping human desire and the gratification of instinctual needs and appetites. To elicit a response from customers, the material desires are overrated and excessively glamourized. 21
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Likewise, a person’s worth is measured by how much he or she possesses (or seems to possess) in material terms, for example ‘looking like a million dollars’. In his classic book To Have or To Be? (1976) Erich Fromm exposes the false perceptions of this mentality. He identifies two different kinds of character structure or fundamental modes of existence in society. In the ‘having’ mode a person’s relationship with the world is one of possessing and owning. In the ‘being’ mode of existence the person relates to the world in an authentic way that reflects his/her true nature and reality. Fromm also states that ‘God, originally a symbol for the highest value that we can experience within us, becomes, in the having mode, an idol’ – something to possess.5 The having mode is a by-product of the materialistic mindset which seeks security and satisfaction through material power and possession. In contrast, moderation and detachment characterize the being mode. Consumption itself is influenced by the need for profit. As a major component of free market economics and its variations, the search for profit is the driver of ever-increasing consumption in societies based on capitalism. This connection between materialism and economics constitutes an integral part of human dependency on material means as a source of satisfaction and survival.6 But consumption also includes a vast array of leisure activities, and our senses are constantly bombarded with publicity for these through the mass media. In such a society, individuals internalize habits and influences toward material attachment, which are culturally encouraged. This phenomenon shapes individuals’ attitude, behaviour, and expectations in their day-to-day lives as they embrace a new identity based on the culture of pleasure and self-indulgence. Although with the advancement of science and technology there has been significant refinement and sophistication in the market economy and the approach to consumption, the basic attitude of appealing to the human mind and instinct to maximize the need for happiness is not new. The utilitarian concept 22
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of life and happiness described in Chapter 1 is consistent with modern-day consumerism and advertising marketing practices. The approaches of the latter are aimed at people’s interest in happiness and pleasure, which is rewarded or maximized through the acquisition of more and more material goods. Thus, with the help of modern technology, consumerism in the 20th century became a practical embodiment of an 18th-century utilitarian and empiricist philosophy.7 In recent years there have been an increasing number of research studies examining the relationship between human wellbeing and consumption. According to Ahuvia (2002), research on consumption and subjective well-being (SWB: a term meaning the belief that one is happy) shows that people in rich countries, on average, enjoy significantly higher levels of SWB as compared to people in poor countries. This is consistent with a link between one’s overall level of consumption and one’s SWB. But when a comparison is made between individuals within the same country, there is very little relationship between income and SWB once basic needs are met. This also supports the notion that ‘higher levels of consumption may not be linked to higher levels of SWB’.8 According to Rosenberg (2004) most consumer behaviour is automatic because people examine neither their consumption actions nor the real needs that are only temporarily satisfied by buying things. She believes that the advertising industry uses this non-conscious process to lead us to believe that we want to consume by capitalizing on our tendency to be automatic (not mindful) in buying advertised goods. When this type of behaviour continues, people begin to think that what they see in advertisements is what they need and that the fulfilment of these ‘needs’ will bring happiness. Thus they develop a conditioned response to material possessions, with the false assumption that possessions will be a source of inner contentment.9 The enormous sensory overload of advertising messages by marketing companies has become a daily distraction. From early 23
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morning when one gets up in western cities to bed time one faces hundreds if not thousands of all sorts of publicity messages generated by the marketing industry. These include unsolicited phone calls from marketers as well as media messages on radio, television and the Internet, bombarding listeners and viewers with countless advertisements. Outside the home, ads in public places, on billboards, in busy subways and other means of public transportation, in shopping centres and at the beginning of movies, target consumers for all kinds of products. Using mind-influencing psychology, these messages designed to attract people’s attention are becoming increasingly sophisticated and enticing. With the advancement of cell phones, ipods and social media such as Twitter it is hard to find a moment’s peace. The explosion of new information has thus created a dilemma: technology and communication science have become a powerful instrument for the expansion of capitalism, but consequently life has become a struggle for survival. In our busy lives we often miss opportunities to stop and evaluate the messages we receive from the media or from our personal encounters which might go against our inner convictions and logic. This is the price we pay for becoming so occupied with technology and progress that we lose out on those moments of reflection so precious to our mindfulness and survival. Children and the marketing industry
The pervasive nature of the marketing industry has an impact not only our minds but our family relationships too. These impacts can have a long-term effect on children who, in some parts of the world, spend more time in front of the television and on the Internet than at school. Children are by nature highly impressionable, and their way of processing information is different from that of adults. They try to make sense, in their own way, of messages they receive from the world around them. This makes them particularly vulnerable 24
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to promotional marketing. Levin and Linn (2003) point out that children below the age of 8 are more vulnerable to this kind of exploitation than older children because their ability to reason and to think in abstract terms is not yet fully developed. When they see advertisements they have a tendency to believe what they see rather than question the message. And advertising corporations make no realistic distinction between desire and need when they launch the promotion of certain foods or games for children. Their strategy is to expand and multiply human wants for consumption, and is psychologically devised to produce maximum effect in young children. The proliferation of electronic media and other factors have also contributed greatly to the transformation of children into a consumer group. Children between the ages of 2 and 14 influence the purchase of almost US$500 billion worth of goods each year – a huge business. Levin and Linn note that money spent by corporations on marketing goods for children had increased to $12 billion a year by 2002. For example, in 2000 Burger King spent $80 million on advertising to attract children.10 This bombardment by extensive marketing campaigns and advertisements means that the average child sees 40,000 commercials each year. Using their sophisticated technology and psychological expertise, many large corporations have created powerful advertising strategies to influence children though TV, movie characters, websites and computer games. These largescale advertising activities naturally influence children’s minds, suggesting what they should desire. Given the emotional vulnerability of children, such exploitation raises questions about the ethics of such a practice and how to protect children in a world engulfed in consumerism.11 The exposure of children to television advertising was prohibited in the early days of television. Some countries, including Sweden and Norway, still prohibit advertising directed toward children under 12 years of age. But in the United States, such a policy is not followed; television is seen as a media whose purpose is entertainment, not education.12 25
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