The Oxford Scientist: Networks (#11) by The Oxford Scientist

Oxford University’s independent, student-produced science magazine.

networks

Networks

the Oxford Scientist

l . s ophi e gul l i no

editor’s letter

ni c l i ew

the cytoskeleton: cell biology’s tireless microscopic highways

pey ton c herr y

cat cafes: for humans and nonhumans alike

j oe tester

apex predators in the anthropocene

j acques w i l l i am bouv i er

the incomplete network of scientific information

nel l mi l es

fungi: the worldwide web beneath our feet

tanmay ee des hprabhu

distributed communication networks: bridging science fiction and reality

hel en col l i ns

the end of dunbar’s number?

harr i s on france

a very rewarding network: dopamine and the brain

el l a s hal om

gutted: how your microbiome affects your mental health

ni thi kk a s enthi l kumar

is the cure for disease hidden within ourselves? mapping biological and genetic networks in personalised medicine

emma m. ford

the movement of water

j oi n the team

for michaelmas 2022

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF L . S O P H I E G U L L I N O CREATIVE DIRECTOR C E C I L I A J A Y PRINT EDITOR K A T A R I N A J E R O T I C COMMENT EDITOR S O P H I E B E R D U G O WEB EDITOR H E L E N C O L L I N S MARKETING DIRECTOR M O L L Y H A M M O N D NEWS EDITOR S A R Y A F I D A N SCHOOLS AND TECH ADVISOR G A V I N M A N

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SUBEDITORS: ally darnton, anastasia bektimirova, anezka macey-dare, dominic clearkin, elisabeth mira rothweiler, franziska guenther, ike boran, mason wakley, molly hammond, natalie stevenson, rhienna morar

Networks

the Oxford Scientist

verything around us is constantly interacting. We spend most of our lives connecting with others, exchanging words or thoughts, conveying pieces of ourselves and our experiences. Our social networks and relationships define us to the extent that we become increasingly more similar to the people we interact with. Likewise, in the animal kingdom we can observe different kinds of networks, both within and between species: from animal communities, to the complex interactions between predators, prey and the environment. Even fungi, with their striking biodiversity, form large networks that can connect entire forests, and are essential in supporting the ecosystem. On a larger scale, the movement of water across the Earth occurs in intricate networks fuelling all forms of life. In this issue, we explore the concept of networks on many different levels in nature, science and technology. In the biomedical field, we discover how genetic networks impact health and disease, and delve deep into brain networks to look at the complex relationships between neurons and the neurotransmitters they release. Even within our cells we can find intricate mazes, such as the cytoskeleton, the microscopic highways that support essential cellular functions. Lastly, information, communication and technology often rely on networks as well, so you can join us in examining communication networks, from current 5G cellular networks to more futuristic landscapes. There is something beautiful and vibrant about the incredible complexity of all these connections and how even the smallest microbiota can prove invaluable in the light of its interactions. I hope you enjoy the journey with us! L. Sophie Gullino Editor in Chief, TT22

Networks

the Oxford Scientist

road work ahead

the cytoskeleton: cell biology’s tireless microscopic highways

ompared to nearly 200,000 papers published on mitochondria since 2015, the cytoskeleton boasts a mere 32,000 hits. This statistic correlates with how young people first learn about cells. During GCSE Biology we are introduced to intracellular components as though they were specialists in a high stakes heist team: Nucleus—the brain, Lysosomes—the demolition experts, Golgi apparatus—the transport, Mitochondria—the powerhouse, Centrosome—the organiser, and Plasma Membrane—the one that keeps them all together. Oh, and the cytoskeleton—that’s there too. Perhaps the reason the cytoskeleton has been pushed to the background of popular science is because it is, quite literally, in the background of most cellular processes. The cytoskeleton is a diffuse network consisting of three kinds of proteins. Microtubules facilitate protein transport throughout the cell, and help the cell handle mechanical stress. Actin determines cell shape and generates force. Finally, filaments are known to support microtubules and actin. Much like roads and pathways in macroscopic life, cytoskeletal filaments make up the highways and county lines in a bustling microscopic country, full of commuters cramming to get onto membrane bound public transport bubbles driven by road specific motor proteins. To form intracellular roads, tubulin subunits stack together in a spiral pattern and form a hollow tube called a microtubule. Tubulin subunits connect to each other in a particular orientation, forming a microtubule filament with one growing and one stable end. The stable end where microtubules start is anchored near the nucleus, at a protein complex called the microtubule organising centre. From here many microtubule filaments grow outwards like an asterisk. Motor proteins called kinesins transport other proteins to the cell periphery, while dyneins carry proteins back towards the nucleus. Proteins, called cargo, are typically carried in vesicles. Cargo destined for the same location are loaded with special markers called adaptors, which match targets in a vesicle destined for that location. This process is similar to having the right luggage tag on your checked bags at an airport.

artwork by allanah booth

Road conditions and closures are key in determining how quickly proteins reach their destination. Cytoskeletal roads may shift, collapse and rebuild. In microtubules, this is called dynamic instability. As more tubulin subunits bind to a growing microtubule, there comes a critical length at which the microtubule will bend and break. Thus, the longest microtubules will be at biggest risk of breaking. Dynamic instability allows microtubules to

sample as much of the cell as possible and only stabilise in areas where they are needed most. To stabilise a microtubule filament, cap proteins like EB1 are added at the growing ends. These road maintenance proteins are only present at sites with heavy protein transport traffic, such as around protein degradation centres, or cell-cell adhesion sites. Acetyl residues may also be added to the microtubule, changing the structure of the filament slightly, making it more resistant to tensile stress, and increasing longevity of the road. Microtubules with popular destinations may be decorated with adaptor proteins that bind to vesicles destined for said location, positively reinforcing movement. Sometimes, these signals can even recruit a second motor onto the vesicle, allowing faster transport. With acetylated “streetlights” and adaptor “road signs” in place, motor proteins have plenty of signals to ensure they are travelling along the right path.

“scientists are still unsure to what level of detail the cytoskeleton can define the destination of its travellers” The cytoskeleton also helps the cell move and change shape. One of the ways cells change shape is through investigating their environment and eventually moving in an advantageous direction. Think of a single celled organism like an amoeba extending arm-like protrusions in order to crawl towards a tasty bacterial lunch, or an immune cell rolling towards an infected site. These shape changes are led by the actin, the branch of the cytoskeleton involved in cell shape and force generation. Actin subunits stack together to form a filament that looks like a pair of twisted ropes. Like microtubules, they have an end rapidly growing to the periphery of the cell, and a stable end near the nucleus. When a cell needs to form a protrusion, proteins like profilin bind to individual actin subunits and help them join onto the growing strand, enabling faster actin elongation, and allowing it to push the cytoplasm and cell membrane into a nub at the edge of the cell. From here, actin filaments may bundle together and grow outwards to form a finger-like protrusion called a filipodium, or spread out in a wide, fan-like protrusion called a lamellipodium. The formation of the latter is a great example of how different branches of the cytoskeletal network can interact with each other. The proteins that trigger actin to form a protrusion

also stabilise microtubules at the same area. While actin is expanding space available in the cell, truckloads of actin activators are delivered to the bustling construction site via microtubules. This cytoskeletal crosstalk allows the cell to operate efficiently, giving it the speed and responsiveness it needs. Transport is crucial among neurons. Our longest neuron is around 1 meter long, from spine to toes, with the cell body at one end and the synapses at the other, connected by a long axon. Bundled microtubules make up highways along an axon, while rings of actin form supportive arches over them to ensure stability. At this moment there are thousands of motor proteins making this axonal pilgrimage one eight nanometer (that’s 0.0000000001 meters) step at a time. As they trudge along the axon, motor proteins carry neurotransmitters, maintenance proteins and even entire organelles such as mitochondria. There are two main types of axonal transport, fast (about 300mm a day) and slow (about 1mm a day). Proteins taking slow axonal transport can take years to get to their destination, and in adults this “slow train” mainly consists of maintenance proteins. On the other hand, fast axonal transport is dominated by mitochondria as the synapse requires a lot more energy to function compared to the cell body. The synapse needs this energy in order to sense your environment and feedback sensations like temperature or pain back to your brain. Constant transport ensures that broken mitochondria are taken back to the cell body across the axon, and new mitochondria can replace what is lost. Breakdown in this mechanism often underlies neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington’s, Alzheimer’s and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. So, while mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell, the cytoskeleton is the system that directs and maintains that power. With the commuting protein having the right ticket, getting on the correct transport driven by the appropriate motor proteins, and given good road conditions and proper signs, it just might get to work on time. Even today, scientists are still unsure to what level of detail the cytoskeleton can define the destination of its travellers. It seems that the cytoskeleton continuously astounds us with its level of sensitivity. Nevertheless, cytoskeletal travel still feels rather logical, and not unlike how we commute in our daily lives. It is a little whimsical to think of your proteins looking out the window of their vesicle, as they are towed along by a tired kinesin. Maybe next time you get on a train, you can feel a certain sort of solidarity with the millions of proteins inside your cells, bearing the journey with you. Nic Liew

the Oxford Scientist

cat cafes:

Networks

ince the world’s first cat café, ‘Cat Flower Garden’, opened its doors in Taipei, Taiwan, in 1998, closely followed by ‘Neko no Jikan’ (Cat’s Time), in Osaka, Japan in 2004, the cafés have been welcoming tourists from near and far. These distinctive spaces have spread across the world and enjoy regular patronage in the UK, especially in large cities like London and Birmingham.

Studies on variation in the phonemes (sounds) made in cat-cat versus cat-human interactions demonstrate that cats adapt their behaviour dependent on context. This includes exaggerating vocalisations—like the ‘meow’— and including behaviours such as rubbing, nose touching, and play. As scientists have discovered, cats are ‘socially flexible’, with their behaviour around other cats, domesticated animals, and indeed humans varying according to their development and environment. For example, café cats, especially those who have spent a large part of their lives cohabiting with other felines and a variety of people, are better adapted to a vibrant social lifestyle than house cats or feral cats.

Generally, these cafes harbour half a dozen to two dozen felines, alongside food and drink for guests. Guests typically have between thirty minutes and an hour and a half of allotted time at the café, which both manages the number of guests and reduces stress for the cats. Japanese cat cafés often capitalise on the idea of guests experiencing a sense of comfort and healing, known as iyashi. Lorraine Plourde, who conducted ethnographic research into Japanese cat cafés, situated the networks of cat cafés as part of ‘affective labour’ performed primarily by the resident felines. Affective labour suggests that its products are immaterial, shaped by intimate connections and feelings. This calmness and comfort benefit the cats as well.

Donna Haraway, Professor Emerita at the University of California, theorised that humans are ‘becoming with’ other species as we encounter them. Our intimate encounters with nonhumans, especially with companion species like cats and dogs, help us understand ‘who and what we are’, notably without taking away the agency from either humans or nonhumans. The benefits of such cohabitation become clear in cat cafés, where humans find solace in the tranquil companionship of café cats, while cats in turn enjoy the ability to curl up next to a guest who offers comfort.

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Although famously independent, cats are also social creatures. This doesn’t just apply to certain species of wild big cats, like prides of lions. For example, groups of feral cats are referred to as “colonies”. Indeed, domestic cats, feral or otherwise, are often social with other cats, other companion animals like dogs, and, of course, humans. Studies have shown not only that sociality varies among individual cats, but also between café versus house cats. For example, café cats were found to more accurately predict the café owner’s face after hearing the matching voice. This may be explained by the café cats’ increased daily interactions with people, allowing better discrimination between voices and faces.

for humans and nonhumans alike

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Plourde found that those who frequent Japanese cat cafés are more likely to strike up a bond with a resident feline, who may then in turn recognise them by scent or by the sound of their voice. The common theme found in research investigating the sociality of cats and humans in these spaces is the idea of ‘home’ and ‘familiarity’. Cat cafés are soothing oases designed to take visitors away from the mundanity of their daily lives. They simulate a ‘home’, a space where the cats undoubtedly belong, while removing the stressors that may exist in the guests’ actual abodes. In a wellmanaged cat café, the homely atmosphere is welcoming and inclusive for humans and nonhumans alike. Peyton Cherry

Networks

the Oxford Scientist

apex predators in the anthropocene by joe tester “We live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms have recently disappeared.” Alfred Russel Wallace, 1876

ong before the industrial revolution brought Earth into its sixth mass extinction, a wave of anthropogenic extinctions had already swept the globe. As humans spread out of Africa and into new continents, they rapidly hunted large grazers and competing apex predators to extinction, with most of the Pleistocene’s megafauna disappearing over the last 50,000 years. Humans eventually began herding livestock in place of the megafauna which they had driven extinct. But the disappearance of large prey species forced the remaining predators to turn to our herds and flocks too, intensifying conflict with large carnivores—a trend that continues today, and is now aggravated by habitat loss and the fur trade. Our impacts are also no longer limited to the land: today, industrial fishing fleets use militarygrade technology to hunt large marine predators like sharks and tuna for their meat and fins, whilst other

back, allowing the trees to regenerate. This attracted bison, beavers, and songbirds back to the region, and as root growth reduced soil erosion, the normal flow of rivers was restored which encouraged the return of fish, amphibians, and otters. The carrion left behind by wolf kills even provided food for growing populations of bears, eagles, and crows, with this reintroduction allowing the entire ecosystem to flourish. Predators not only regulate plant biomass, but also control other aspects of their ecosystems, such as disease. Regions of sub-Saharan Africa where lions have been extirpated have seen more frequent outbreaks of intestinal parasites among growing Olive baboon populations, whose high densities provide more opportunities for infection. The loss of predation has also expanded their ranges, bringing them into closer contact with humans which poses a serious risk to public health. Trophic cascades also have implications for climate change. Seagrass meadows account for up to 10% of global carbon sequestration despite occupying only 0.1% of the ocean’s surface, making them one of earth’s most powerful carbon sinks. But at lower latitudes, they are increasingly threatened by heatwaves— and their resilience hinges on the presence of healthy populations of Tiger sharks. Seagrasses can

regenerate easily after dugongs and sea turtles graze on their shoots, but when these grazers dig into the sediment to feed on their starchy roots, it is harder for the plants to grow back. In the presence of sharks, grazers stick to feeding on shoots, as taking their eyes off their surroundings to dig into the mud makes them vulnerable to attack. But when sharks disappear, grazers no longer need to remain vigilant, so can afford to spend more time digging. In the absence of sharks, increased root excavation can kill off the remaining plants more quickly than they can grow back after a heatwave, so protecting sharks is vital to ensure the persistence of these carbon sinks in the face of rising temperatures. Trophic cascades have now been documented in every major aquatic and terrestrial biome on Earth. But unlike at Yellowstone, there is usually little recognition of what is lost when we allow apex predators to disappear, and initiatives to restore populations of predators are complex, and often met with public concern. Ultimately, the future of both humans and natural ecosystems is tied to the fate of apex predators, and it is more important than ever that we learn from the past and ensure their long-term protection before it is too late.

vessels routinely kill and discard them as bycatch. Despite surviving the mass extinction which killed the dinosaurs, sharks have plummeted in global abundance by 70% in only the last 50 years. Predators regulate the abundance of other species of animals and plants through their consumption of prey. So, when they disappear, the release of prey species from predation can create a shock-wave which propagates downwards through the food web, in what is called a trophic cascade. A classic example is the eradication of Grey wolves across most of the USA by the mid-1900s. Booming populations of grazing elk, no longer kept in check by predation, converted woody forests to grassland by feeding on saplings, and as the trees disappeared, so did the various other species relying on them for food and habitats. As put by the ecologist Aldo Leopold, “just as a deer herd lives in mortal fear of its wolves, so does a mountain live in mortal fear of its deer.” It was not until the mid-1990s that researchers finally reintroduced a pack of 31 Grey wolves into the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, which knocked elk populations

artwork by peyton cherry

Networks Networks

the Oxford Scientist

jacques william bouvier on

the incomplete network of scientific information

cience is the pursuit of truth. With roots which extend 3000 years back to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, science has long represented a means by which humans have sought to invoke understanding upon the world in which we live. Through its framework of systematic observation and experimentation, science has facilitated our comprehension of everything from how the solar system was forged out of gas and dust some 4.6 billion years ago, to whether one should take an umbrella when leaving the house in the morning. Ultimately, science is everywhere around us. It is among the cornerstones of our identity as an inquisitive species, differentiating us from all others. Further, the knowledge gleaned from science has enabled all technological and social innovations celebrated today. Science is what you are wearing right now, it is how you brushed your teeth this morning, it is how I am typing this article and you are reading it. More poignantly, science underpins the structure of our 21st century society, allowing each of us to embrace our daily routine without the worry of foraging or hunting for our next meal. Crucially, science is also what will allow us to be pragmatic in tackling the grand challenges threatening our future existence on Earth, including climate catastrophe, food security, and (as brought to light by recent events) infectious pandemics.

At its dawn around the 17th century, modern science was advanced by the upper echelons of society. With a modest number of exceptions— including the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace who helped pioneer the radical theory of evolution by natural selection alongside Charles Darwin—many of the prominent forerunners of science were associated with privilege. In large part this is because during the era of the Scientific Revolution in the early modern period, the investment of time and resources required for science would have been simply inconceivable to the majority of the population

enduring poverty and the tumultuous struggles of day-to-day life. Naturally, science thus became adopted as an amateur vocation for the wealthy gentleman who could afford to sit and ponder the big questions. This origin of science restricted its initial discourse to across tables of exotic foods at fine dinner parties, or interspersed between sips of strong alcohol and mouthfuls of tobacco smoke between comfy armchairs laid before open fires. Against this historical backdrop, it is remarkable how far science has already come. Although there is still much room for progress, and it would be an error to assume otherwise, it is fair to say that science has made considerable steps to enhance its inclusivity compared to the past. For example, we need only look to our education to see that the subject has become a compulsory staple of the academic curriculum that is taught to children from the age of five in every classroom across much of the developed world. Moreover, the pursuit of science has also benefited tremendously in its evolution from a part-time hobby to a professional career, a transition which has opened its doors to sections of society not previously eligible to enter. Since its invention, science has moved from the leather-bound notepad in the pocket of the aristocrat, to a widely accessible discipline which permeates the lives of all of us. Despite the jump in accessibility that modern science has already made, traditionalist attitudes still haunt the field to this day. A crucial one of these hangovers pertains to the method in which scientific findings are disseminated. Specifically, scientific progress is fuelled by money. Scientists compete for this resource using grant applications which serve to outline the utility that the financial investment will have and what returns might be expected. Successful applicants conduct their proposed research, and typically proceed to present their findings in journal articles for review by the wider scientific community. However, an

integral problem with this system is that although a significant fraction of research investment is taken from the pocket of the taxpayer, the majority of scientific output is published behind exorbitant paywalls in journals. For instance, a subscription to the high-profile British journal Nature rings to the tune of £199.99 per annuum, whilst the price of pay-perview services in scientific journals commonly exceeds £30 per individual article. This arrangement fails the public as it requires the taxpayer to invest twice for research, the first time for its labour, and the second time for the fruit that the labour bears. The scarcity of freely available research has created a missing link in the network of scientific information. Through no fault of the public, the profit-oriented agenda of the system has acted to monopolise scientific fact. Coupled with the esoteric language in which scientific studies are written when made available, it is unsurprising that the lay person has become alienated by science, especially in the present information overload climate. This situation has unwittingly fed the current era of “fake news” and clickbait journalism which we have found ourselves navigating. It has meant that scientific truth is unknowingly traded for distorted opinions or even myth garnered from social media or viral videos. Although steps are being taken to counter these issues and make science more available— including the recent surge in “open access” research articles, as well as the growing engagement of scientists in public outreach—it is evident that there is still considerable work to be done. In a world in which information is one of the most powerful resources we have, and disinformation is one of the most dangerous, science should continue to make every effort to be as inclusive as possible. It is imperative that continued action is taken to liberate scientific information from its ivory tower.

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Networks Networks

the theOxford OxfordScientist Scientist

fungi: the worldwide web beneath our feet nell miles

o most, the word ‘biodiversity’ conjures up images of rainforest flora, strange looking insects or famous endangered mammals like the panda. Even if some people think beyond these classic nature documentary images, biodiversity rarely makes us think of the ground beneath our feet. But despite its lack of recognition, the soil below is packed with life—it’s teeming with fungal networks. Mycelia are the root-like structures that make up the main body of a fungus. They comprise a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae that permeate through the soil, and this is what fungi look like for most of the year (rather than the mushroom fruiting bodies we are so familiar with). The mycelial networks might be hidden from the eye but they are by no means inconsequential: it’s estimated that each cubic centimetre of soil can contain enough hyphae to stretch a whole kilometre if laid out end to end. There are an estimated two to five million species of fungi

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worldwide and only a fraction of these have been classified. That compares to only 391,000 species of plants—fungi truly are symbols of biodiversity. Although they were once classified with land plants, the fungal kingdom is actually more closely related to animals. It includes budding and hyphal fungi, with the latter forming mycelial networks in soil. Soil fungi can make up to 30% of the soil rhizosphere (the soil surrounding plant roots), and play hugely important roles in their ecosystems. Fungi are the decomposers of the natural world, recycling organic matter from dead plants and animals to release scarce but essential nutrients back into the food web and degrading material that would otherwise remain trapped in debris. They’re one of the only groups of organisms able to digest lignin, a tough compound found within plant cell walls that makes wood and bark particularly strong and resistant to degradation. Indeed, without fungal networks, dead

plant matter would never be broken down and would remain inaccessible to other organisms in the ecosystem. Hyphal fungi also famously form associations with plant roots to form a mycorrhizal network. These networks can connect entire forests and recent studies have unveiled their incredible capacity to transmit resources through forest ecosystems, with trees sending carbon, water and trace nutrients through the mycelial links to nearby plants. Trees have been found to send more resources to closely related individuals and so might be able to increase their indirect fitness through supporting the survival of plants that share more of their genes. Some studies have even suggested that trees send survival signals across the forest when they experience disease, allowing others to raise defence against incoming pathogens. The mycorrhizal networks do not just benefit plants: fungi receive carbonrich sugars made by plants

artwork by yasmin azizbayli

in exchange for phosphorus and nitrogen they scavenge from the soil. These extensive networks have promoted the survival of both groups through time and continue to play a vital role in shaping the aboveground diversity we see today. Fungi also very relevantly play a key role in carbon sequestration. An estimated five billion tonnes of carbon dioxide flow into fungal networks each year, equating to over 50% of the anthropogenic CO2 emissions in 2021. Though not all of this carbon is stored, a Swedish study found 5070% carbon locked up in soil to be from tree roots and their associated mycorrhizal

networks. This represents a significant sequestration capacity, something we know the importance of all too well given the increasing need for climate action across the globe.

“fungal networks are essential to the health of our planet” More recently, science has shown the power of fungal networks for biotechnology applications. The US company Ecovative was the first to produce composite material

made of heat-treated mycelia to provide an alternative to polystyrene packaging. The so called ‘MycoComposite’ is produced by culturing hyphal fungi on farming and forestry by-products like sawdust and rice husks within a mould before heat treating it to kill the organism and leave behind a lightweight material that can be used to protect breakable goods in transport. The fungi can be cultured on locally available byproducts to reduce transport costs, and has already been used by Dell and IKEA in place of polystyrene. Fungi have also been used to produce vegan leather, mycoprotein meat alternatives and to

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the Oxford Scientist

clean up environmental toxins. Shiitake mushrooms are used for medicinal purposes in Asia, and provide an accessible source of protein due to their long shelf life and ability to be dehydrated for storage. The incredible diversity and utility of fungi and their networks offers humanity myriad opportunities for innovation, providing solutions to many of the pressing problems of the 21st century. Like most of the natural world, fungi are under threat. Heilmann-Clausen et al (2015) found fungi to be threatened by habitat decline, overexploitation, land use change and climate change in the Anthropocene. Despite this, chronic underfunding of fungal research, lack of recognition and focus on more charismatic taxa mean they are routinely overlooked when it comes to conservation efforts. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, Convention on Biological Diversity and International Union for Conservation of Nature, World Conservation Congress represent three of the leading initiatives on global conservation and are responsible for the global approach to the climate and biodiversity crises in coming decades. Yet none of these institutions recognise fungi in their scope of action, leaving a gaping hole in efforts for biodiversity conservation. Fungal networks are essential to the health of our planet, but there is very little data quantifying their impact so we often fail to include them in commitments to biodiversity goals. This represents a significant flaw in environmental legislation, which could be fatal to the millions of fungal species powering our planet.

Nonetheless, several scientists are fighting to give fungi the recognition and protection they need. The Chilean mycologist Giuliana Furci made headlines in 2013 when her work led to Chile becoming the first country to include protection of fungi in environmental legislation. She founded the nonprofit Fungi Foundation in 2012 to raise awareness of fungal uses and diversity worldwide, and works with communities in South America to document new species as well as promote sustainable foraging and markets for the mushrooms. Recently the Foundation collaborated with researchers at the University of Oxford to publish a paper outlining four key steps to bring fungi to the forefront of policy and society. These include acknowledging fungi as an independent kingdom of life; incorporating fungi into sustainable policy targets; monitoring the conservation status and trends of wild fungi; and promoting the responsible use of wild fungi as a livelihood opportunity for rural communities. The paper aims to inspire a fungal revolution, allowing us to better appreciate, use and conserve the fungal networks that lie beneath us. Whilst it might seem that the task ahead to document and protect such ubiquitous yet hidden beings is vast, the recent steps taken by international mycologists and community scientists are promising. Now more than ever do we need to safeguard these vital ecosystem engineers in ensuring a safe and equitable future for life on Earth, the many benefits of fungi could mean the shared need to conserve our fungal networks truly becomes the hypha to connect us.

artwork by ally darnton

the Oxford Scientist

distributed communication networks: bridging science fiction and reality

Networks

tanmayee deshprabhu

hat is the first thing that comes to mind when someone says “future technology”? Flying cars, robotic butlers, and artificially intelligent cities are staples of science fiction but some ideas within these fantasy worlds may be more plausible than you think. It is far from uncommon for science fiction from the 19th and 20th centuries to have predicted our present. Jules Verne, for example, correctly described in the late 1800s several of the technologies that now form part of our everyday life, including elevators, video-calling, and electrically powered calculators that can communicate with each other over vast distances through messages, much like the internet. Therefore, one can reasonably assume that other such fictional ideas will eventually inspire future real-world innovation. This article will explore some of the most popular science fiction ideas and the role of next-generation communication networks within them. Mobile communication technology is evolving rapidly, with 5G cellular networks now in place across the UK. The next generation, 6G, is expected to rely heavily on ‘distributed networks’, a type of communication network that will form a pivotal part of these exciting futuristic technologies that we read about or see in movies. So, what is different about distributed networks?

Our typical telecommunication networks take on a centralised structure, as shown in the diagram above. This means that any exchange between participants in the network travels via a central hub. For example, if Person A were to send a text to Person B, that text would travel from A via the communication link to a cellular base station, and then via a further link to B. Similarly, payments usually travel through banks, and energy through the National Grid. The hub regulates the network, acting as a traffic controller and screening any exchanges happening between devices in the network, or nodes, for security. However, the activity in a centralised network is limited by what the hub can handle, sometimes causing bottlenecks in dense, busy

networks such as phone lines at midnight on New Year’s Eve. The hub also forms a major point-of-failure in the system and is therefore a security risk. This point-of-failure vulnerability is evident in James Cameron’s Terminator film franchise: Skynet, an artificially intelligent, self-aware neural network, attempts to launch a nuclear attack against humankind. Skynet is defeated by an attack to its hub, i.e., the central device that defends Skynet’s other nodes. When the hub goes down in a centralized network, there are no links or protocols in place between the remaining nodes that allow them to continue communicating with each other, so the network fails. In the third Terminator film, however, Skynet returns as a distributed network comprising many interconnected computers across the world. It cannot be disabled in the same way as before because it no longer has a single point-of-failure, and to disable it would require taking down all the devices. Thus, Skynet wins. Mass human extinction aside, this contrast between the first and third movies highlights that decentralising a network can result in a more robust system. As the nodes work together in a cooperative and selfregulated way, there is no reliance on a single central authority and the network becomes more resistant to

attacks. Terminator also demonstrates how decentralising a network allows it to scale more easily. Skynet was able to spread its reach across the globe because each infected computer only needed to be connected to one other infected node to be a part of the network, rather than all needing to be connected to the same central hub. This way, Skynet could span a much larger area than its centralised equivalent, a trait that will be especially useful for large-scale applications such as smart city infrastructure, as discussed in the coming paragraphs. In the real world, attacks on network hubs happen

frequently. For example, in April 2021, a member of an online forum acquired and published the personal details of over 530 million Facebook users by hacking Facebook’s central database. Although the internet seems at first to be distributed, given that everyone participates in it independently, the handling of information on the internet is highly centralised. Richard Hendricks, the fictional protagonist in HBO’s series Silicon Valley, attempts to tackle this issue by re-designing the internet from scratch. “We could build a completely decentralised version of our current internet,” says Hendricks, “with no firewalls, no tolls, no government regulation, no spying. Information would be totally free in every sense of the word.” Though idealistic, the mission of decentralising the storage and exchange of our personal information is plausible given that a similar leap has been made in the financial world: according to Fortunly, an estimated average of over £90 billion per day is exchanged via distributed cryptocurrency networks, the once-unthinkable alternative to our centralised banking systems. Another useful type of distributed network is a wireless sensor network (WSN); a collection of many sensor nodes that cooperatively collect sensor readings in real-time. For example, in the 1996 natural disaster film Twister, a team of scientists invent a device that releases thousands of tiny flying sensors into the heart of a tornado to collect atmospheric readings from inside. These interconnected sensors work together to capture a bigger, more detailed picture of what happens inside a tornado than a single large sensor could achieve alone. The idea for Twister’s flying sensors came from a real-world attempt at building an identical system by the NOAA’s National Severe Storms Laboratory. Sadly, NOAA’s WSN, nicknamed TOTO, was never successfully deployed into a tornado and was retired before going on to inspire the movie. There have since been numerous, more successful attempts and, in addition to monitoring extreme weather, WSNs are expected to become an integral feature of our biggest industries. One such industry is e-agriculture, where a WSN can be distributed across vast areas to gather real-time information about the environment to trigger a response mechanism, such as adjusting crops’ irrigation in response to fluctuations in humidity and soil moisture. WSNs are deployed for data acquisition wherever there is large scale automation across multiple devices. No futuristic landscape is complete without a ‘smart city’, a metropolis of highly automated infrastructure including flying taxis and delivery drones zipping through the air. Amongst many others, Futurama’s introduction sequence shows exactly this, but the idea goes back decades, with Isaac Asimov’s 1953 Sally featuring a distributed network of cars and autonomous public transport. The core idea is that the city forms an ecosystem of different interconnected

devices such as vehicles, buildings, speed cameras etc. that communicate directly with each other and make decisions without the need for human input. These automated, ecosystem-like networks are called the Internet of Things, or IoT. Current scientific research is developing this idea and the aim is to enable any device to make highly informed decisions autonomously on our behalf, such as vehicles collectively and safely negotiating the right-of-way between themselves at a busy junction. There are, however, still technical challenges to overcome before distributed networks can be fully integrated into our everyday systems. One hurdle is the delegation of responsibility in the system – without a central authority, who allocates system resources? Who makes the decisions? Researchers are attempting to develop the fairest, most efficient consensus protocols, which dictate how network nodes will make group decisions. Another challenge is finding a reliable and practical way for the devices to independently assess each other for security purposes. Without a central authority to regulate the network, what happens when a node goes rogue or is compromised? Some distributed networks include powerful devices that can secure the network computationally such as the super-powerful computers that validate transactions in a typical blockchain network. However, the majority of devices such as phones, sensors, and personal computers don’t have the complexity to handle these computationallyintensive security protocols. In Charlie Brooker’s Black Mirror, the episode Nosedive explores a world in which people rate each other on a scale of one to five after every interaction, such as after a conversation or based on appearance. A person’s overall rating then determines their leverage and opportunities in society, with higher-rated individuals having access to better services. This reputation concept can be applied directly to devices in a distributed communications network, and there is a whole field of scientific research devoted to developing secure trust inference algorithms, where the devices rate each other after interactions. Trust and consensus are just two areas of exploration in the field of distributed communication networks, but already one can see that these issues are almost human in nature. Perhaps, they signal the first steps towards the age-old fantasy where machines and humans are indistinguishably similar. With the advent of machine learning, and as the technology for IoT nodes evolves, one can hopefully expect to see a resemblance between the next generation of communication networks and some of the more down-to-earth science fiction ideas within the next decade or two. For flying cars – maybe a little longer.

artwork by tanmayee deshprabhu

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artwork by daniel coneyworth

the end of

dunbar’s number have our social networks

changed for good? helen collins

hen the COVID-19 pandemic hit the world in 2020, our social circles shrank away to nothing. For many of us, the lack of social contact was hugely detrimental to our mental health and was a stark reminder of how social we are as a species. In fact, it’s long been thought that humans innately create social networks of approximately 150 people, a figure referred to as Dunbar’s number. Dunbar’s number is the proposed limit on the size of our social networks, made up of people with whom we can sustain stable relationships. In a paper published in 1992, Professor Robin Dunbar imaged the brains of 38 non-human primate species. He paid particular attention to the size of the neocortex, the region of the brain that relates to cognitive abilities such as communication, planning and thought, finding that it was tightly correlated with the average size of the primates’ social groups. Dunbar then extrapolated to the human neocortex, predicting that humans are limited to social networks comprising of 148, usually rounded to 150, individual relationships. Any larger than this and we must fragment into smaller groups to maintain our innate social structures. Of course, there are very few human societies left on Earth that have fewer than 150 people—millions and even billions are now the norm. But it is the definition of ‘relationship’ that is important when understanding this number. The apparent limit of 150 is on the number of relationships we have, where we know each person in a group and how they relate to everyone else. Writing in his 1998 book, Grooming, gossip and the evolution of language, Dunbar describes these relationships as ‘people you would not feel embarrassed about joining

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uninvited for a drink if you happened to bump into them in a bar’, or the ‘people you know well enough to greet without feeling awkward if you ran into them in an airport lounge’. Throughout history, it is surprising how often a figure of roughly 150 crops up. For example, the mean size of a neolithic English village was 160 people, Roman army units averaged 150 men, and even modern Christmas card networks max out at 153 people. In the past, humans would have needed large social groups for support and protection, but not so large that they would be unable to feed every member. A group of around 150 people appears to have been the sweet spot. Yet recent analysis has cast doubt on this number. In 2021, a Swedish research group reanalysed Dunbar’s original data, predicting that human social networks could sustain on average 290 relationships. More importantly, however, was the finding that the statistical error on this number was so large that possible estimates varied from social networks of 2 to 336 people. Analysis of an expanded dataset found even greater disparity, varying from relationships between 4 to 520 people. ‘It is not possible to make an estimate for humans with any precision,’ commented Andreas Wartel, a co-author of the study. Real-world data on the size of human social groups also undermine Dunbar’s theory. A 2010 study calculated that people actually know between 472 and 611 people. Individual variation also means one number will certainly not apply to all people. Women are thought to be better at understanding other people’s perspectives than men, which has been linked to having larger social circles. Personality traits are also

important, with extroverts having larger networks and introverts having smaller ones. Even the highly cited examples of 150-people networks have been criticised as overwhelmingly skewed towards rich, educated, and industrialised societies, with non-western cultures rarely mentioned. Confirmation bias may well be a factor in the popularity and acceptance of Dunbar’s number. The theory also assumes that the human brain, although slightly larger, retains the same wiring and function as it did over 10 million years ago when we evolutionarily split from our primate ancestors. In the meantime, we have developed new cognitive abilities such as language and planning that affect our social structures. The size of our brains no longer equates to its abilities in the same way it does in monkeys. Besides, in 2022 there is another huge influence on our societies that researchers in 1992 could not account for—social media. A survey of Facebook users in 2016 found that over 50% of people had more than 200 friends. The average number of Twitter followers is larger at 707. Following a new account doesn’t push out the memory of another, so our brains must have the capacity to remember and keep track of more than 150 people. ‘This number would make sense if we still relied on a Rolodex and talking to people,’ says Angela Lee, a professor at Columbia Business School, ‘but that’s not the world we live in’. Once again Dunbar maintains it is the type of relationship that is important. Often the quality of the relationships on social media are low and one-sided, for example with celebrities or influencers, contradicting the definition of relationships as between people that know each other. Still, even on social media the number of 150 pops

up. The mean number of Instagram followers is 150, and research suggests that outside of our top 150 friends and family the other people that we follow are just acquaintances or people we have never met. In fact, 60% of our time on social media is spent talking to just our 5 closest contacts. Maybe this transformation in the structure of our social networks signifies a change in how we define ‘relationships’. References to airport lounges and pub trips certainly feel outdated since the pandemic, and even as we return to normal, our work and social routines may have been irreversibly altered. There is also evidence that 18–24-year-olds, who have spent more of their lives with the internet, have many more social media contacts than people aged 55 and over, yet they do not feel that the quality of their social lives is any less rich or meaningful. Perhaps over the last two decades we have adjusted to online relationships, needing less in-person contact and distributing our limited time and energy more broadly across more people. On the other hand, maybe Dunbar is right after all. Every other species on Earth develops stable social networks that have been largely unchanged for hundreds of thousands of years, why should humans be any different? Maybe we do have a cognitive limit to the number of relationships we can sustain. But what sets humans apart is that we no longer rely solely on our brains for our relationships—we can develop new technologies to surpass our innate capacities, allowing us to manage more relationships than ever before. Despite the lockdowns and restrictions, our social networks keep growing, and who knows where this will take us.

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uch like a computer motherboard, different parts of the brain are assigned different functions. Individual brain areas have specific responsibilities in helping the body perform its regulatory and proactive tasks. Chemical neurotransmitters also play a vital role in regulating brain activity. Understanding the specific anatomy and chemistry underlying normal function can improve our knowledge of neurobiological disorders, including drug addiction. Probing healthy function forms a basis for identifying abnormalities that may cause disordered states. Among the important neurotransmitters is dopamine, commonly considered to be the “reward chemical”. While dopamine is involved with motivation and pleasuregenerating activities, it has also been shown to assist with processing unexpected rewards, labelled the reward error hypothesis. According to this model, dopamine neurons respond when the individual encounters a stimulus that benefits them, helping to assign greater value to the actions that contributed to the encounter in the future. A seminal study by Hollerman and Schultz in 1998 tested the reward error hypothesis by recording the electrical signals in dopamine neurons of monkeys. The monkeys were trained to recognise patterns among shapes and pull a lever corresponding to the pattern. Sweet juice was given as an unexpected reward for a correct match, leading to a burst of activity in the dopamine neurons. Over time, as the monkeys learned to anticipate the reward, the neurons stopped firing in response. This showed that dopamine helps us learn what activities are valuable, guiding behaviour to seek out rewarding results. This insight into the dopamine pathway has allowed research to progress in its understanding of addiction. While social media, gambling, and other activities can hijack the normal signalling of the dopamine pathway, most illustrative is the effect of drugs. Many substances cause addiction through directly interfering with dopamine pathways: for instance, cocaine causes the released dopamine signals to persist. Drug taking is consequently perceived as extremely rewarding, and thus is repeated, generating lasting changes in the circuitry of the brain that prove challenging to overcome.

“dopamine helps us learn what activities are valuable, guiding behaviour to seek out rewarding results” Due to these broad, biological changes resulting from sustained drug use, addiction treatments require a holistic approach to break these harmful learned associations and remodel the pathway to restore normal activity. Fortunately, the continuously improving understanding of complex systems involved in and affected by dopamine signalling in addiction contributes to development of better interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy, medication, and trans-cranial stimulation. In the future, we are likely to see non-invasive methods of stimulating regulatory networks that may counteract aberrant reward processing, offering a new avenue and hope for patients caught in the vicious cycle of drug addiction. Harrison France

a very rewarding network:

dopamine and the brain

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artwork by aleksandra wilk

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the Oxford Scientist artwork by tanmayee deshprabhu brain signalling) and a derivative of dopamine—low concentrations of which are associated with depression. The ability to synthesise DOPAC is heavily correlated with high levels of Caprococcus bacteria, with the two sharing many of the same genes. This suggests a key link between gut composition and the levels of neurotransmitter in the brain, which is further evidence for the association between the gut microbiome and depression. Cognition Another popular focus of microbiome research is its impact on cognitive function. We can define cognition as ‘the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses’. Cognitive function is linked to brain plasticity, the brain’s ability to change and form new connections in response to stimuli. It allows us to learn new and improve existing skills.

e’re all familiar with the feeling of butterflies in your belly—maybe before an important job interview, or a first date. So, it should come as no surprise that there is in fact a physical link between what’s going on in your head and what’s happening in your gut. The National Human Genome Research Institute defines the human gut microbiome as ‘the community of microorganisms that live in the gastrointestinal tract’. The potential influence of this community on other systems within the body was first realised in the 20th century. Since then, it has been a key focus of diverse fields of research, including mental health and cognition.

Mental Health According to the World Health Organisation, approximately 5% of the global adult population suffer from depression. There is no one cause of depression, however, gut microbiome composition is currently at the forefront of mental health research. A study conducted in 2019 found that the bacterial species Coprococcus and Dialister were hugely reduced in individuals with depression. The faecal analysis of the microbiomes of 1,054 people through the Flemish Gut Flora Project reflected that the link to depression could correspond with the microbiome’s ability to synthesise specific molecules such as DOPAC.

A study conducted this year reflected the role of the gut microbiome in the brain plasticity of mice. This examined two groups of mice, one kept in an enriched environment with space for exploration and exercise, and the other in a standard cage. Changes in brain plasticity were observed from density of dendritic spines, the part of the neurons that receives inputs from other neurons. The density was analysed in tandem with gut health, with a higher density suggesting more plasticity. Analysis of the microbiota reflected that, despite being fed an identical diet, the composition of their microbiomes differed significantly after 90 days. It also showed that the mice in enriched environments had significantly more dense dendritic spines. Furthermore, a faecal transplant (allowing the transfer of the bacteria from one organism’s gut microbiome to that of another) from the enriched mice to those in the ‘standard’ housing resulted in promoting brain plasticity in the recipients.

The links between gut microbiome and an individual’s mental health and cognitive ability, although not yet fully understood, are growing hot spots for research and potential applications. Future efforts could see an exponential increase in mental health treatments using probiotics, live microorganisms that are ingested to balance the composition of bacteria in the gut. Supplements containing Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus bacteria are currently popular choices for attempting to ease the symptoms of depression. The complexity of the microbiome and the bacterial diversity that it contains means that the opportunities could be endless, and we haven’t even scratched the surface yet. Ella Shalom

gutted: how your microbiome affects your mental health

DOPAC is a neurotransmitter (a chemical involved in

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is the cure for disease hidden within ourselves?

mapping biological and genetic networks in personalised medicine ‘There is a great difference in the constitution of individuals. Each person combines the humours in a particular manner, which constitutes one’s idiosyncrasy’, Hippocrates.

ating back to 400 BCE, Hippocrates’ understanding of biological individuality remains ever relevant today. Personalised medicine pioneers the practice of personalised diagnostics and upends the prior paradigm of a “one-size-fits-all” approach to medical treatment. Combining genetics, biology, medicine, and mapping these networks paves the way for future medical practice. By decoding the human genome, efforts towards solving the riddle of “untreatable illnesses” advance. Molecular profiling, a method of genomic testing used to determine the level of gene expressions within cancers, can help identify abnormal gene changes and analyse biomarkers. A biomarker’s characteristics indicate biological and pathogenic processes that provide insight regarding response to therapeutic intervention. This approach can be profound in understanding risk factors for certain diseases, and thereby encourage an effort to identify and act on patients’ predispositions. Hybridising cellular RNA using microarray technology involves combining two single-stranded molecules via complementary base pairing where nucleic acid fragments are bound to a chip and detected. This contrasts the traditional approach of classifying cancers based on cell and tissue morphology. Simultaneous detection of the expression of thousands of genes allows for comparison of clinical therapies with known outcomes using a predetermined algorithm. Ultimately, information, such as survival rates, derived from this method aids doctors in providing the most appropriate cancer treatment for each individual patient. Genomics England’s “The 100,000 Genomes Project” shows promising developments for rare diseases and cancers.

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Furthermore, by looking beyond the gene’s single pathway, identifying cumulative effects of gene alterations can broaden knowledge of genetic diseases. Cystic fibrosis is caused by more than 1,700 mutations in the CFTR gene, and there are over 800 genes associated with autism, many of which are yet to be analysed. Genomics, proteomics and metabolomics can consider environmental factors related to disease. Metabolomics, a method of observing all metabolic networks at once, can be used to study cell profiles of individuals with autism to investigate possible abnormalities. If further pioneered, our own individual biological blueprint could bring science closer to identifying predispositions and providing best possible treatments. Over the past century, the male model has been the framework for medical research, and the vast majority of drugs are provided without taking the sex or race of patients into consideration. For instance, 80% of drugs withdrawn from the market are due to adverse side effects in women. Personalised medicine considers individual genetic and biological networks, and hence may reduce such disparity. The NHS predicts that personalised care will benefit up to 2.5 million people by 2024, and reduce the annual £16.8 billion drugs bill. Providing more autonomous care through these methods aids progression towards a more sustainable healthcare system. Announced on 14th April 2022, a trial led in UKE, Germany, ‘opens new avenues for personalised medicine’. The use of novel biomarkers such as bio-ADM and DPP3 allow early identification of endothelial (blood vessel lining) dysfunction leading to non-obstructive coronary artery disease (nonCAM), a principal constituent of the pathophysiology of COVID-19. Thus far, the biomarkers have shown ‘favourable outcomes’ and are expected to generate clearer insight into COVID-19 treatment. These current developments further scientific understanding of public health matters.

artwork by matthew kurnia

Nevertheless, with cancer diagnosis, the heterogeneous nature of tumours presents a challenge. A molecular targeted agent effective against a mutated cell pathway may only function until resistance of cancer cells develops. It may be difficult to determine how many mutations are enabling self-survival and tumour proliferation. Additionally, equipment used is expensive: a single microarray analysis costs more than $900 in materials alone. Investments into projects with undetermined success rates during a time of financial strain present a dilemma, and doubts about how standardisation of care will be delivered must also be addressed.

If financial, practical, and scientific limitations can be resolved, mapping individual biological and genetic networks through personalised techniques can be influential for medicine. These scientific innovations drive healthcare towards the goal of providing the best possible treatments for patients at the right time. Detangling the information held within our genetic code pioneers the paradigm shift towards curing disease. Nithikka Senthil Kumar

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ater. We drink it, we bath in it, we swim in it. Humans transport water around the world in plastic bottles and around cities via a complex network of pipes. It is near impossible to think of a single part of our day-to-day lives that does not involve water in some way. It forms 60% of the human body and 71% of our planet. In the absence of this one molecule, H2O, all forms of life would perish.

the movement of water emma m. ford

There is the same amount of water on Earth now as there was at the beginning of its formation. Water moves continuously through the hydrological cycle and atmospheric processes. From evaporation of terrestrial water to condensation into droplets forming rain, water moves around the Earth System connecting every living thing via an intricate and complex network of movement. This water network passes through all spheres of the Earth, from atmospheric water vapor, condensing as rain into the hydrosphere forming rivers and oceans, then freezes as ice in the cryosphere or percolates into soils in the biosphere. Humans, most vitally in the anthroposphere (the part of the environment modified for human activity), tap into the natural movement of water to harness it for our survival and technologies. Most importantly, we take water from rivers and treat it for drinking. It is also used in large quantities for industrial, textile, and agricultural processes. Dams and channels have been built to stop and alter the course of the movement of water. Beyond this anthroposphere—which has changed the natural environment and relies heavily on a continuous water supply—the Earth System requires the movement of water as part of the global circulation system. This movement is driven by solar energy input from the sun. Solar energy input differs depending on the latitude receiving it, with the equator receiving an excess of solar energy and the poles a deficit. This energy drives atmospheric circulation and creates weather patterns, such as the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Jet Stream, which impact weather systems in the United Kingdom.

Laurence Smith, Professor of Environmental Studies at Brown University and author of the 2020 book Rivers of Power, wrote that, ‘when the first rains came, the world changed forever’. Water allowed humans to form civilisations, with early humans moving and settling in close proximity to water sources for survival. The Egyptians made discoveries about seasonal flooding and how to harness and predict the movement of water, which allowed cities to prosper. Water is depicted throughout history in music, art, and literature as not merely for survival, but also as something beautiful, connecting the natural environment with culture. For example, Claude Monet painted multiple impressions of views involving water, including The Water Lily Pond and Reflections of Clouds. Water has been expressed and described for centuries in poetry, from Henry Vaughan’s ‘The Waterfall’ to Edward Thomas’ ‘Rain’. These poets describe water as something to be revered and interconnected with human emotion and the passage of life. Yet, as human activities have impacted the environment, water is being seen as a scarce and polluted resource. Humans are overusing water and releasing toxins and microplastics into water systems. Since the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s, humans have been releasing exponentially more and more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This has led to global temperature rises which will intensify the hydrological cycle and increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. How this will impact the severity and distributions of rainfall patterns is not clear. Our ability to harness water and use it for our societies will therefore become more complex. What we are yet to address as a society is how the intricate network and movement of water through the Earth system, which fuels all forms of life, may be disrupted due to climate change. It remains to be seen how we will learn to live with this altered water system.

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