Research in the Community, vol. 5 by Bay School

Volume 5

Research in the Community

The Bay School of San Francisco

Contents Issue 2: March 2013 Art in Schools: Where the Brush Meets the Canvas

Alex Ahrens

A Bright Solution to a Burning Problem

Luc Borden

Lia Carver

10 Cent Crisis

Michelle Chui

The Impact of a Wrong Turn

Elisa Cooney

Jackson Forman

John Henry Frankel

Reika Goh

Darcy Groves

William Hunscher

Ali Imperiale

Bryant Lui

Jameson McQueen

Leila Meraz-Baca

Cole Mogan

Facebook, Changing More Than Teen’s Statuses?

Twinship: A Double-Edged Sword Piracy Killed the Radio Star: Solutions and Sociology of Online Music Piracy What if you Woke Up on the Other Side of the World? Fan the Flames Should we as a community take Internet privacy seriously? You wouldn’t understand! #Parentingproblems Smart Art Abuse and Mal-Prescription of A.D.D. Medications amongst children and teens Can Horseback Riding Help Autistic Children? Do You Like it Big or Small? Living with (Central) Auditory Processing Disorder: Can We Succeed? Influences of Computers on a Child’s Mind Preschool vs. Playschool Depression: Not Another Illness! Shattering the Glass Ceiling: The Status and Issue of Women in United States Politics

Tucker Morris 105 Alex Oh 111 Savannah Owens 117 Nori Patterson 121

Danielle Rosenthal 126

A Deep Sleep, A Small Leap

Thomas Ryan 134

The 64 squares of life

Aaron Schlier 139

A Global Search: the Place of Geocaching in National Parks Street Art: Making Change

Sydney Shafer 144 Sammy Shea 151

Teens and Sleep Deprivation The Magical World of Disney Movies: A Gender Fantasy? The Robot in the Room: Artificial Intelligence in Medicine When Push Comes to Shove: Stress in Students A City Forgetting Sacrifice All I Want For My Birthday Is A Big Booty Hoe: Misogyny in Hip-Hop Culture Private Schools: Are They Worth It?

Malik Sy 156 Tess Tanaka 161 Nolan Van Dine 167 Aidan Van Runkle Olden 171 Harrison Welsh 176 Arel Wiederholt-Kassar 180 Seline Zhao 185

Issue 3: June 2013 Who are you suing now? Why Major Record Labels Aren’t All That Good for Artists Anymore Explaining a Modern Phenomenon: Live Electronic Music Worth Its Wait in Gold “I can’t do it,” Mental Aspect of Sports and Sport Psychology

Quinn Barker-Plummer 194 Ian Berman 199 Jacob Bunker 207 Brooks Carman 213

Deep Impact: We Have a Fracking Problem Here

Chris Clifford 219

Safe and Economical Power for the People

Tucker Coad 224

Is Medication Always the Best Treatment? Adolescent Risk-Taking

Sarah Fay 229 Samantha Forman 234

Cultural Effects from Russian Immigrants in San Francisco

Elena Freiwald 242

The Consequences of Living in a Selective Society: Media’s Impact on Body Image

Bianca Galarza 249

The Effect of Racial Stereotypes on our Everyday Mindsets and Values: Our Silence is Consent

Sidney Johnson 256

Procrasti – eh. I’ll think of this title later Why Should We Speak for the Trees? Special Education and the Art Classroom Unassisted: Advantages and Disadvantages of Sports and Physical Activity To Zoo Or Not To Zoo The Power of Words

Danielle Konovich 263 Monica Lee 268 Rosalyn Lemmo 274 John Ludeke 280 Camden McMillan 285 Tait Morrison 292

Tell My Son That I— The Importance of Proper Holocaust Education Shakespearean Pronunciation

Claire Murphy 300 Rainier Pearl-Styles 308

Drug Decriminalization – The Practical Approach to Our Drug Problem Food Fight: The Quest to Improving the Standard School Lunch

Ben Purtell 315 Ayana Renoldi-Bracco 320

It's a bird, it's a plane... yes it is. Why drones spark a concern about privacy than safety Herb Your Enthusiasm

Keith Roehl 325

Isabella Shmelev 330

Internet Piracy: A Global Sharing Phenomenon

Nathan Siegel 335

Immigrant families: How Culture Affects Dynamics

Nina Tanujaya 342

The High-Speed Future of California Rail

Theron Tarigo 351

Life’s a Bleach Sports, Studies & Procrastination: A Delicate Balance

Nick Tse 357 Jonah Wooley 362

Fall 2012

Research in the Community The Bay School of San Francisco

Winter 2013

Research in the Community The Bay School of San Francisco

Alex Ahrens

Art in Schools: Where the Brush Meets the Canvas I don’t think I’ll ever forget the name Dylan Green. The boy sauntered into my 6th period painting class every day reeking of alcohol and disregard, with the same stained khakis and greasy hair swinging over his green eyes. Though we never spoke about much more than his artwork, he confessed to me on his graduation day that because of his dyslexia he never would have come to school or any of his academic classes if it wasn’t for the last period art class he took. Fifteen years later I got a phone call from Dylan requesting that we meet at a café to talk. He recognized me as soon as I entered, though I never would have been able to identify him; his dark hair was unsoiled and short enough for me to see the white of his scalp underneath, and he was brawny and clean. His pants still carried hundreds of little splotches of paint, from his construction job, he explained. This indistinguishable man confessed that in high school he had stolen a leather bag and a camera that together totaled to $500 from me and sold it to get money to buy drugs. He had asked to meet with me with the intention to pay me back- but I insisted that the man use the $500 to get his own daughters into art class. As Dylan left and thanked me, he

confessed that he never would have been able to get help with his addictions, nor would he have been married and had his two beautiful girls, if not the daily art class.

Art teacher Joel Eis’s heartwarming tale suggests how art programs in school can encourage children to attend other more academic classes. Even though America's art education is decreasing and people describe art as useless, the benefits of involving children in art programs are undeniably constructive. Art and creativity can each be defined in many different ways, but each definition reveals another valuable aspect of making art. Art “offers a valuable creative outlet as a relief valve” says Bill Longenecker, a substitute elementary art teacher, and Steve Appleford (a child therapists) agrees, stating that tasks involving the creative process are “outlets for deepest emotions”. These two expert artists believe art to be a form of expression, while Rick Anderson, a children’s book author, describes art as “the window to the individual soul” (qtd. in DunnSnow and D’Amelio). Joel Eis, an art teacher with forty years of experience explains that a piece of art can be a way communication; the viewer of the piece sees the artist’s essence in what they try to convey, while the artist see’s the viewers soul from their response to the art. Though some people look to God, or other forms of expression to fulfill themselves, Christopher Knight calls art “an attempt to fill a profound physiological hun3

ger”. It is for this reason that art should be discussed, scrutinized, and the spectator and artist should make an attempt at understanding. Works are made from creativity, but mistakes made during the process produce a unique piece when the task allotted is making students feel uninspired. Peggy Dunn-Snow and Georgette D’Amelio, contributors to the 50th volume of Art Education, insist that creativity can be described as building something that has never been made before. Steve Appleford contributes his opinion, saying that inventiveness “is a very important part of the human personality. We all have it”. However, as people grow old they lose touch with their creativity and art abilities (“Art Attracts”), and that’s why it’s important that kids continue making art- to express themselves and to stay in touch with their inspiration (Appleford). Making art and using imagination helps students find the issue and produce a resolution. Bill Longenecker adds that “art simply makes this possible in a sugar coated way” (Longenecker). In other words, art teaches numerous skills, but in the most fun way possible, as well as encouraging kids to make the world a more beautiful place; this is one of the many ways art can contribute to a community. Art also adds to a society by bringing people together, and enhancing their surroundings. Robert Zimmer, President at the University of Chicago, says the arts are a great way for a university to contribute to and benefit from the city, concurring with the

idea that arts enhance the atmosphere, and also providing another example of the advantages of the arts (Henning). In his article about the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Christopher Knight affirms that traumatizing events establish “an instant craving for community” because of the fear to feel alone. Involving yourself in public art projects “creates a reassuring… sense of participation and community usefulness. It’s a symbol of national togetherness” (Knight). It provides physiological and emotional meaning. Support that art is valuable come from styles of art education incorporated in American schools. Journalist Theresa Marche declares that the way art is taught now can be described as developing community, but previously it was defined as creativity and aesthetics. The University of Chicago’s new art studio strives towards students combining innovative ideas with the traditional Eurocentric forms of American art education and “academic inquiry” (Henning). The man who introduced the European form of art, and was described as “the single most influential figure in 20th century American art education” (Johnson) was Viktor Lowenfield, an art teacher who in the 40’s and 50’s “advocated a therapeutic approach to art education with children and adolescents” (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). The connections between therapy and making art are still a field of research that is relevant and useful in today’s world.

Because the advantages of the art process are not so illustrious, many people are advocating for the decrease of art education. Many people don’t even know that October is national art and humanities month (Knight), indicating the typical American lack of knowledge about the advantages of taking art classes. Rick Anderson advocates for art classes: “we need more art in schools”, when many states are suffering from budget cuts because of the recession (“MC Dys”). Another article supports increasing art in schools declaring that, “As D.C. public schools begin to make gains in student achievement, it is important that Chancellor Michelle A. Rhee can help to move forward with her plans to provide music and art education in all of the city’s public schools” (“Students”). The decrease in art in schools is harmful to the community because the temperament of education is “collaborative and communal”, just like art. Also, because of flaky health-care, as well as other affects of the recession, there is a lack of options for schooling or medical assistance, which is why art used therapeutically and for help of academic skills is necessary in public schools (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). The best time to expose children to art is during their “heightened interest in using various mediums” (the time when they are most intrigued by using their hands) which is why schools should include art making. All a teacher or parent needs to know are colors and shapes to introduce a child to art (“Art Attracts”). Art lessons develop the whole mind, “uniting the right and left sides in a common goal” (Longenecker), and the con-

tact of art teacher and pupil is the heart of instructing art (Marche). When mistakes are made during art (paint spills, things rip, clay brakes) young artists want to throw it away. Art teachers call these “happy accidents” and help kids use skills to salvage their work and show their students how mistakes make pieces unique. (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). Creative teachers develop a variety of alternative solutions especially with “happy accidents” (Longenecker), displaying to students the ease of problem solving when you are resourceful. Art teachers lead children through making the first mark on the paper. It takes courage to make a mark. But once it’s done, there’s a release to finishing the daunting task. It shows commitment to stay with a piece. Children in all schools are affected by violence, poverty, unemployment, and drug use. In response, they become emotionally unstable. These children are either sent to special education classes, or may end up affecting the learning of other students around them. Schools search desperately for quick and successful ways to fix the increasing number of students with behavior, conduct, emotional, and aggression disorders (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). After spending a day in the art studio with a group of third graders Bill Longenecker states that “elementary school art is not a frivolous luxury”. In art in schools is crucial to helping all types of students succeed. One of the most important benefits of art is its ability to help children with dyslexia express themselves. Writer Richard Benke 5

tells how one artist described himself as being treated as a “border-line retard” due to the severity of his learning differences. However, his dyslexia gave him the gift of three dimensional thinking, which helped him to become an accomplished architect. Dyslexia has “unplugged the torrent of creativity” in certain artists and given them a determination other artists lack. Dyslexia can give individuals the insight and perspective they need to create fabulous art. The pain from suffering through dyslexia undiagnosed gives a starting point for young artists (DeBurgh). In academic classes, most schools focus on helping students use the left side of their brain, which centers around reading, writing, and calculations. Right brained people, on the contrary, often become scientists, musicians, math whizzes, and of course, artists. Art not only encourages children with learning differences, but also works as a form of therapy. In our “post-Freud world”, healing is more psychological than physical (Knight), and there is a significant correlation between the artistic process and the therapeutic process (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). Though many sources state that art is fun, therapeutic, and creates children with good behavior (Longenecker), Christopher Knight’s disagrees. In his article about the post trauma of 9/11 Knight states that “the idea that art functions as a remedial agentuseful for the treatment of social, spiritual, or emotional disorders- is positively Victorian”. However, art is therapeutic in nature and educators will “nurture” student’s emotions of “compe-

tence” in a broadly beneficial fashion (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). Educational art is used for teaching and learning, while art therapy is explained as “art for purposes of therapy”, and though there are distinguishable differences, the methods are very similar. Art therapists are trained to understand the art process, types of human development, and personality theories (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). Fear, sadness, and loneliness are occasionally shown in abused children’s art, indication a different way of conveying feelings through creativity (Appleford).Therapists look for meaning beyond the literal content, and the feeling or mood that is conveyed (in art), just like art interpreters (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). The first “level” of art interpretation (done by the artist, the viewer/interpreter, or the therapist) is made of describing what you see. In the second level describe conscious associations to feelings, memories, wishes, or dreams. The third level consists of what is implied in the second level. During therapy, clients are helped to gain insight about themselves and their environment “through visual expression”. When creating pieces, artists “can use insight to reconstruct new fences which have been destroyed”. The author of the work can understand new motives, behaviors, desires through the artistic process and by revisiting the piece. Anyone can be an artist, but you need training and certain traits to be a counselor. However, “encouraging an emotional experience of expression is not always therapeutic”, and psychoanalyst R. Taubee adds “when a per6

son is already teary, don’t add water” (qtd. in Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). Christopher Knight speaks about art therapy with certain implications, explaining that “America’s sentimental relationship to art periodically drives us into the suffocating arms of therapeutic culture”. Though this may be evidently true, there is no fault in being involved in, or even relying on, expression through community building and self-enhancing art projects. If fact, in certain distressing situations art can be used as an emotional outlet. Abuse is very restrictive on a person’s creativity and art provides an alternative release for kids and makes them proud. (Appleford) and when teachers talk with students about their artwork, it becomes remedial (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). A teacher can help, or even make art more therapeutic, by asking a child questions about their art, which convinces the student that an adult is interested in their work. Art is about more than just fun “every work has a purpose, a meaning, and deserves notice/ comment by adults” (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). Even the “tools used in art making [we believe] have a psychological impact on artists”. A tool gives distance between the artist and their materials. The greater the distance between the creator and their work, the greater the cognitive control during the art making process and (on a more physiological note) the greater the reflective distance (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio).

An artist’s own process greatly reflects the therapeutic and mental transitions that occur during the art-making practice. According to Peggy Dunn-Snow and Georgette D’Amelio, in both the artistic and therapeutic processes there are three stages; the encounter stage, the destructive stage, and the reconstructive stage. In the encounter stage there is “an encounter with a vision, an obstacle, an issue, or a core problem. This creates “new, unique, and original artwork”. Teachers give the potential for an “encounter” and then the chance to “commit” by pursuing the idea and confronting the issue by making and talking about the art, listening to criticism, or reflective writing. The encounter is stimulated by bright colors or “facing a blank canvas”. With an assignment, students use creative resources to “accomplish a skill or solve a problem”. In the destructive and reconstructive stages creative insights from our subconscious become know and the artist begins to realize previous narrow mindedness. Deconstruction is perceived as negative, but it leads to reconstruction, and both parts are necessary in the artistic and therapeutic procedures. Previous ways of seeing things are destroyed during the art making process and new thoughts are allowed to emerge. What initiates deconstruction of previous ideas are insight and imagination. Projects can be intricate or free and the style and technique used depends on the choices of the artist. Whether a project is simple or complex depends upon the number of steps and mental operations required in using a particular medium. If the task 7

is directed by the teacher or therapist it’s a structured assignment, while if the task is developed by the artist in spontaneous expression, it’s called unstructured. “Students who function in normal to high ranges of cognitive, emotional, and social skills… should benefit from directing their own learning.” Students with special needs should have more direction (DunnSnow and D’Amelio). When children make art, they are able to use crucial academic talents in a new way (Longenecker). Going through the creative process gets students “out of their shell” and makes them self assured (Appleford). Peggy Klien adds that “art develops the whole brain and fosters the imagination, creativity, and motor skills” (qtd. in Fitzroy). Multiple studies have proven that “art and music programs boost student advancement in core subjects” (“Students”). Art, music, and physical education classes can help children with behavior issues (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio), and art programs after school keep students out of trouble, distract them from TV, internet, and keep them from being bored (Mitchell). Art is a good use of time “in today's complicated world. Wholesome activities for children like artwork are needed to veer them away from constant distractions brought by modern technology” (“Art Attracts”). Bill Longenecker, when speaking of his experience as an art teacher, says that the student’s ability to focus reflects on positive grades, not the technical skill of their art. Art is enjoyable, comforting, and helps a child’s possibility to adapt, cope, and thrive.

Along with the other valuable aspects, artistic expression also supports resiliency in children and helps to create activities that address certain student’s precise areas of concern with a “safe, socially acceptable” means of “expressing their needs, concerns, hopes, and fantasies” (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). Art helps students increase responsiveness, interest, and aids children to liberate inventiveness. Schools should include art in curriculum because it is proven to inspire children to go to school and helps them excel in academic subjects, eventually creating a grade increase. Children who take an art are better at finding patterns in graphs or in history (“Art Attracts”) and UCLA found that art involved students score better on standardized tests (“Students”). Art making reinforces a student’s independence, while projects and assignments increase a student’s capability to pay attention to directions and teach them to prepare an approach and implement procedure within the designated time (Longenecker). The student’s ability to concentrate and strength of mind is tested, reinforced, and because of the variety of struggles students have, there is always the possibility art can transform them (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). Art institutes create a rich environment with multiple levels of participation. Performance and production use critical thinking (Henning).There is always the potential to be successful in at least some aspect while the high success rates heighten assurance. It’s cheesy but, “everyone’s art is unique and that’s what makes it ok” (Fitzroy). 8

Art also helps children discover their potential, and recognition from parents gives kids an increased self-confidence. For this reason parents should hold enjoyable art sessions for their kids, even at home, if schools art systems are lacking (“Art Attracts”). By not giving adult interpretations of a child’s art, and by asking students to find themes and subject matter, students are encouraged to explore and expand creative skills (Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio). The psychological vulnerability of art making helps heal people with emotional instabilities, while other qualities of the art process contribute to academic, social, and behavioral skills. It’s an important part of development, in children especially, as it can help with formation of fresh ideas and the dissipation of old biases. Contributing to and becoming involved in community art benefits many aspects of society and the individual. It is indisputable that a child with art well incorporated into their life is well-rounded, stable, and emotionally fulfilled.

I would like to acknowledge Elisa Cooney, Harrison Welsh, and Craig Butz for editing my paper. I would also like to acknowledge Ascha Drake, Elia Pochron, Joel Eis, and Jamila Dunn for being so involved in my field research projects.

Works Cited Appleford, Steve. “Abused Children Find a Therapeutic Outlet in Art.” Los Angeles Times. National Newspapers Core, 3 May. 1991. Web. 4 Jan. 2013. http://search.proquest.com/docview/281399628/13B6D1FAA5E 7B8A935F/9?accountid=3830 “Art Attracts.” Manilla Bulletin. Manilla Bulletin, 19 Nov. 2010. Web. 16 Dec. 2012. http://www.questiaschool.com/library/1G1-242472448/art-attract s Benke, Richard. "Successful Artist, Architect Turns His Dyslexia into a Wellspring of Creativity; Success: Encouraged by a Kind Great-Great-Uncle and by Frank Lloyd Wright Himself, Bennett Strahan Views His Condition as a Gift." Los Angeles Times. National Newspapers Core 7 Nov. 1999. Web. 4 Jan. 2013 . http://search.proquest.com/docview/421609790/13B6D3468DE 42FA8DB2/44?accountid=3830 De Burgh, Jane. "Dyslexia and Inspiration: The Art of Michelle Molyneux." The Lancet. ProQuest Research Library, 2000. Web. 4 Jan. 2013. http://search.proquest.com/docview/199065565/13B6D3468DE 42FA8DB2/38?accountid=3830

Dunn-Snow and D’Amelio, Peggy, and Georgette D’Amelio. “How Art Teachers Can Enhance Art-Making as a Therapeutic Experience: Art Therapy and Art Education. Art Education. ProQuest Research Library, 2000. Web. 4 Jan. 2013.

Luc Borden

A Bright Solution to a Burning Problem Day in and day out, we fuel our energy needs by burning fossil fuels, which are sucked and torn out of the ground by gargantuan machines, destroying landscapes and releasing hazardous gases into the atmosphere. To make matters worse, we have already used about a third of the Earth’s light and medium oil reserves, the only types of oil that are reasonable to use at the moment (“Fossil Fuels”). Considering that it is estimated that the Earth holds 1.354 trillion barrels of light and medium oil, we are using up our supply of fossil fuels very quickly (“Fossil Fuels”). In short, it is necessary for us to lessen our reliance on fossil fuels. One technology that emerges as a potential solution to our reliance on fossil fuels is solar power which utilizes the energy of the sun. There’s so much sunlight to be collected and the sun isn’t going to stop shining down on Earth anytime soon. Solar power is the smarter, renewable choice to use over fossil fuels to power buildings, communities that lie off the grid and other stationary energy situations and will be better ecologically in the long run, but it needs to become more economically viable to become widespread; fossil fuels are the wiser decision

for mobile purposes, and the economical choice at the present time for most people. " There are many benefits to continue using fossil fuels, but on the whole the drawbacks greatly outweigh the benefits. In terms of renewability, fossil fuels are non-renewable. Once we use all of the available fossil fuels, they will not replenish themselves for millions of years. This is because fossil fuels are typically regenerated by the natural deposition of oils and fats on the sea floor (“Fossil Fuels”). At the rate we use fossil fuels today there is no way they could possibly regenerate at the same speed, at least naturally. " Although fossil fuels are non-renewable, they are very good at powering things due to their high density of energy. This makes fossil fuels the primary candidate for providing energy to moving things; fossil fuels are easy to take with you. Just think: one gallon of gas can power an energy efficient car for upwards of 40 miles. However, since fossil fuels are so good at powering transportation, we use fossil fuels to power almost all modes of transportation, which has become a major contributor to global warming (“Fossil Fuels” Alternative Energy). And fossil fuels aren’t only good at powering all forms of transportation. In general, “industrialization requires energy sources at much higher density and these have generally been met through the use of fossil fuels” (“Fossil Fuels”). Basically, the en11

tire modern world requires fossil fuels to power everything they use. Economically, fossil fuels are the most appealing energy source for most people, because they are generally the cheapest option. Cheaper things are generally more appealing at first sight, which is a large contributor to the fact that fossil fuels are far more widely used than renewables.“Most people will not choose an expensive source of power when a cheap one is available, even if the cheap source contributes to pollution” (“Fossil Fuels” Alternative Energy). In this case, the cheap source of power is fossil fuels, and the expensive yet environmentally friendly option is renewable energies such as solar energy. As a result, fossil fuels generally appeal to the poor, who can’t afford renewable solutions and need more energy for each dollar, stingy and frugal folk and people who aren’t educated about global warming and other environmental concerns. Also, fossil fuels are readily available because the systems to refine and transport them around the globe are already in place. Fossil fuels power most peoples’ home, transportation and pretty much everything else because the infrastructure is already in place to use them constantly. After fossil fuels are extracted, many fossil fuels, like petroleum, require refining. Refining is a complex process of distilling (“Fossil Fuels”), but this is not a roadblock in the continued use of fossil fuels because there are plenty of existing refineries. Subsequent to being refin-

ed—if refining is necessary, fossil fuels are transported all around the planet via pipelines, trucks and oil tankers (“Fossil Fuels” Alternative Energy), all so we can easily use them to power everything we need to. The major economic drawback to the continued use of fossil fuels is that fossil fuels—particularly oil—often result in strife and war. This is because 56% of the world’s proved oil reserves lie in the Middle East (“Fossil Fuels”), and a lot of other countries in the world—including the U.S.—want a claim to the oil so the Middle Eastern countries can’t hoard it all and make it outrageously expensive (“Fossil Fuels” Alternative Energy). In other words, fossil fuels are scarce but in very high demand. We are so economically dependent on oil that we will fight over it, which is a huge problem.

Figure 1: Map of worldwide crude oil reserves—very high concentration in the Middle East. Major Crude Oil Reserves. 2003. people.hofstra.edu. GIF File. 12

Fossil fuels may be economically sound for the most part, but at the same time they wreak havoc on the environment. Burning fossil fuels produces acid rain, which is mainly caused by fossil fuels releasing nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. When these two chemicals are in the atmosphere, they chemically bond with water to create several acidic compounds, which then return to the planet’s surface via rain (“What is Acid Rain?”). Acid rain can seriously harm aquatic ecosystems such as coral reefs (“Fossil Fuels” Alternative Energy). Another way fossil fuels can pollute water is by oil spills, such as the British Petroleum oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Oil spills can destroy entire ecosystems, and, like acid rain, are incredibly harming to coral reefs (“Fossil Fuels” Alternative Energy). Besides polluting the water, fossil fuels pollute the air to a great extent. The burning of fossil fuels produces smog, dangerous carbon monoxide, as well as other harmful effects (“Fossil Fuels” Alternative Energy). By polluting the air, there are many serious health problems for people that live and work near the generation of energy by fossil fuels. To name a few, one may contract chronic bronchitis or cancer, receive nerve damage, or even die (“Fossil Fuels” Alternative Energy). However, keep in mind that there are many more health concerns other than these few.

Figure 2: The smog over Los Angeles created by burning fossil fuels. Devaraj, Arun. Smog over Los Angeles. 2012. the-world-welivein.blogspot.com. JPEG File.

In addition, the extraction of fossil fuels can be seriously harmful to ecosystems and landscapes, especially coal mining, which is so devastating that in some situations, entire mountains have been razed, and deep valleys have been carved out where they weren’t before.

Figure 3: The destruction of the landscape from coal mining. Kent Kessinger. JPEG File.

Looking to a future of continued usage of fossil fuels, global warming will become an irresolvable issue which will ravage the planet, and after we run out of fossil fuels to burn, we will have no energy because we have not been developing alternate sources of energy such as solar power. In this future, the drawbacks far outweigh the benefits, and thus we should start easing off fossil fuels now. Fossil fuels are certainly out of the question, so we need to look for other sources of energy to power our world. One particularly promising source of energy is the sun, and that energy can be

collected by solar energy collectors, such as solar panels. There’s ample sunlight around the globe and we could implement solar power almost anywhere with very positive effects—both financial and ecological. Solar farms could be put in where oil refineries use to be or where coal mining desecrated the landscape. Solar energy does have its drawbacks as it is still in a stage of development, but even now the benefits of solar energy make it much more promising then fossil fuels. One of the biggest advantages to solar power is that it is entirely renewable, meaning that it produces practically unlimited energy once the infrastructure is in place. As a result of solar power’s renewability, solar is great to power things that are off the grid, such as satellites, far flung communities and weathermonitoring devices in remote locations. Coincidently, solar energy is great for powering individual homes because it provides clean and virtually free energy—once the system is initially paid for. Because powering your home and other stationary needs for energy don’t usually require fuels with high densities of energy, this industry should be dominated by renewables such as solar (Andrew). Even though solar panels only generate electricity during the day, the technology for storing this energy—batteries—is being constantly improved (Andrew), so there’s no reason to worry about not having enough energy during the night as long as you don’t use way more than your solar energy system generates. Although solar energy struggles to compete with

fossil fuels in the transportation sector, solar power is much better at powering stationary things. Solar energy has a lot of economic drawbacks because it is a developing technology, but on the whole solar powerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economics are more promising for the future. As of late, the solar energy industry has been growing massively; it is one of the fastest growing industries (SEIA President). In fact, the cost of solar power has declined 75% in the last four years (Brown), and the industry grew 67% in 2010 alone (SEIA President). However, for continued growth, the solar industry needs to have consistent and predictable policies that have support from both national and international sources (SEIA President, Resch). This is because of the fact that it isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t just the cost of the panels that makes solar power somewhat expensive at the minute, a large part of it is permitting, licensing, connecting the panels to the grid and engineering the individual solar power system that makes solar power expensive (Brown). If we were to adjust these policies, then the solar industry would thrive even more, because the process of getting solar power would be far more streamlined, benefitting the entire planet.

Figure 4: This graph of installation of solar power, in megawatts, shows the growth of the industry. Solar Energy Industries Association. 2012. GIF File.

At the moment, the solar power industry is extremely competitive and profit margins are often very small, which creates a high defect rate in panels and makes people less likely to invest in the industry. The high defect rate is due to manufacturers churning out panels as fast as possible, because the industry is so cutthroat; producing quantity over quality (Baker). A prime example of this is First Solar, an Arizonian company, which lost $164 million dollars in replacement costs of panels last in 2011 (Baker). Secondly, the solar energy industry struggles for inves15

tors because it is not quite yet a proven technology. Investors are hesitant to invest in solar power because “people tend to invest in known technologies” (Pfau). Also, average investors don’t invest because they have no idea which company to invest in, because any solar company could possibly become bankrupt due to the fact that it is such a dog-eat-dog industry. In short, “people aren’t sure what solar company to invest in, so they don’t [invest]” (Andrew). Thus, the lack of investors and the competitive industry makes it very hard to succeed in the industry, which is a huge problem. On a brighter note, one of solar power’s defining economic benefits is that the government will give you tax credits to put solar power on your roof. Since the average solar home system costs about $23,800 (Baker), even a small tax credit could help some people make the decision to go solar. Also, there are programs in place that allows one to lease a solar system, and instead of making one big upfront payment, one pays a monthly fee that is less than ones’ energy bill. Peter Pfau, an architect who heads Pfau Long Architecture, uses this system in his house. He loves it because he gets the full benefits of solar power, and doesn’t need to worry about maintaining the system. His only regret is not installing more panels (Pfau). Together, solar panel leasing and tax credits make solar power economically appealing for people.

Right now, a lot of the U.S. is struggling to find a job. The solar energy industry, since it is growing so rapidly, could be an excellent source of jobs. Even though China, Japan and Korea manufacture most of the solar panels (Pfau), the U.S. makes a surprising amount, as well (Baker). Solar energy could be a path for the U.S. to get back into the manufacturing business. Solar energy is also an emerging strategy for countries without an abundance of oil to become energy independent (Solar Energy). This way, countries and communities would never have to fight over resources because the countries that needed oil before would no longer want oil because they realize there is plenty of sunlight to go around. In fact, these newly energy independent countries would be better off than the ones who were rolling in oil and other fossil fuels, because they would not have any of the awful environmental side effects of burning fossil fuels. In contrast to fossil fuels, solar energy has practically no carbon footprint. All kinds of solar power do not produce any emissions; no radiation or carbon dioxide is produced from solar power. One could argue that when solar panels are manufactured, there are some emissions involved since the energy is often generated by fossil fuels, ironically (Solar Energy), but this could be easily remedied by powering solar panel manufacturing plants using solar power. Another negative effect solar power can have on the environment is that solar farms may 16

harm desert ecosystems. Because there are so many panels in solar farms, solar farms can sometimes mess up the lives of desert organisms such as tortoises and snakes (Pfau). However, rooftop solar does not hurt tortoises or snakes in any way, so this isn’t really a major problem for the solar industry. From an ecological perspective, because solar power has practically no negative impacts on the environment, it is wise to start to make the transition off fossil fuels and onto renewables such as solar energy. Aesthetically, many people seem to think that solar power is an eyesore. People don’t like shiny things on their neighbors’ roofs such as some types of solar panels, but hardly anyone complains when the panels are matte (Pfau). On the other hand, some people find solar panels quite attractive. Then again, solar panels aren’t meant to be nice looking, they’re meant to be functional and long lasting. In the coming years, we will start to see many more rooftop solar projects as the technology becomes more efficient and cheaper. The state of California already encourages small-scale projects, with Jerry Brown’s California Solar Initiative (Cart). At the same time, we will see lots more solar farms pop up, because they are being funded by the federal government (Pfau). Together, solar farms and rooftop solar will make the industry grow immensely, which will only make it grow faster. Solar farms are necessary for this to happen because “if you want to

get solar to scale, and start to replace coal-burning or oilburning plants, you need a lot of scale … you’re not going to get that from putting [solar] cells here and there” (Andrew). In short, rooftop solar isn’t going to make the industry on its own. On the other hand, rooftop solar is necessary for the industry because rooftop projects maintain public interest because these projects are much more appealing to the individual (Cart). To boot, we’ll gain inspiration from natural sources to help us improve our solar technology. For one, leaves are essentially nature’s solar panels, and there’s a lot to learn from evolution. Another source of inspiration comes from polar bears. Polar bears’ white fur acts as a fiber-optic cable for sunlight, which is then directed to the polar bear’s black skin. This process converts an incredible 95% of sunlight cast down upon the polar bear into heat (Solar Energy). Combine all of these factors and you get a very bright outlook for solar power. In 2007, Greenpeace and the European Photovoltaic Industry Association estimated that solar power could account for 1% of the global energy demand in 2020 (The Promise), which would be a huge, positive step for solar power. The American populous agrees that widely implementing solar is a good idea. In 2011, 94% of Americans supported solar power, and 75% of Americans supported building solar farms on public lands (SEIA President). Unlike fossil fuels, the benefits of solar power far outweigh the drawbacks, but because the technology 17

needs improvement to be super effective economically, we should not put our entire budget into solar power; we should ease off fossil fuels and onto solar power. Sadly, about 58527 trillion British Thermal Units (a measurement of energy) were generated by fossil fuels, in the U.S. and only 109 trillion BTUs were generated by solar power in 2010 (How Long). In order to change this number, we first need to educate the public about the benefits of solar power, which would motivate people to commit to solar power. Because this will take time, fossil fuels will undoubtedly dominate the energy industry for a while longer. Brent Andrew, Director of Public Relations at Chevron Energy Solutions, knows that the energy situation is bleak and thinks the only way we’ll ever make our primary source of energy renewable is an entirely different social atmosphere. He says that “if we’re really going to throttle back on fossil fuels, there will be huge social changes before we do” (Andrew). This makes sense because the human race is resistant to large amounts of change, and the American economy is even more resistant. In order to change, we will an entirely different paradigm. Mr. Pfau thinks that we will change out of necessity to renewables rather than the desire to change. He comments that “people are so set in their ways; sometimes it takes a disaster for them to wake up” (Pfau). Hopefully we will change our paradigms before that inevitable disaster strikes, and if we don’t, we will have learned our lesson.

Concisely, we need to change our energy generation methods. Although fossil fuels are great for powering a lot of things, we need to make the transition to renewables such as solar in order to achieve the future we desire.

Works Cited Andrew, Brent. Personal Interview. 15 Jan. 2013. Baker, David R. “Troubling Solar-Panel Defect Rate Seen.” Sfgate.com. San Francisco Chronicle, 22 Dec. 2012. Web. 25 Dec. 2012. Brown, Alan S. "DOE creates its own solar X-Prize." Mechanical Engineering-CIME Nov. 2012: 22+. Gale Science In Context. Web. 22 Dec. 2012. Cart, Julie. “Small-scale Solar’s Big Potential goes Untapped.” Latimes.com. Los Angeles Times, 29 Dec. 2012. Web. 29 Dec. 2012. "Fossil Fuels." Alternative Energy. Eds. Neil Schlager and Jayne Weisblatt. Vol. 1: Fossil Fuels, Bioenergy, Geothermal Energy. Detroit: UXL, 2006. 1-55. Gale Science In Context. Web. 16 Jan. 2013. "Fossil fuels." Environmental Encyclopedia. Gale, 2011. Gale Science In Context. Web. 16 Jan. 2013.

“How Long Will Fossil Fuels dominate? Daniel Yergin and Vinod Khosla Disagree on When Alternative Energy Will Play a Bigger Role.” Online.wsj.com. The Wall Street Journal, 25 Mar. 2012. Web. 22 Dec. 2012. Pfau, Peter. Personal Interview. 17 Jan. 2013" Resch, Rhone; Kaye, Noah. “The Promise of Solar Energy.” UN Chronicle 44.2 (2007): 63-64, 72. Web. 19 Dec. 2012. “SEIA President Rhone Resch Testifies before the U.S. House Natural Resources Committee”. Targeted News Service 1 June 2011. Proquest Research Library. 21 Dec. 2012. "Solar Energy." Alternative Energy. Ed. Neil Schlager and Jayne Weisblatt. Vol. 2: Hydrogen, Nuclear Energy, Solar Energy. Detroit: UXL, 2006. 209-259. Gale Science In Context. Web. 22 Dec. 2012. “What is Acid Rain?” United States Environmental Protection Agency. U.S. Government, 4 Dec. 2012. Web. 29 Jan. 2013.

Lia Carver

Facebook, Changing More Than Teen’s Statuses? Is social networking changing teens’ social skills and academic skills for the worse? Joanie Gillispie, a contributor to an interesting study on teens and social networking says, “ “Three out of four teenagers in the US have a current social networking account, of that statistic, nearly 51% of teens visit social networking sites daily, and more than a third of teens visit their social networking site several times a day.” (Social networking, Social Life). Social networking has become an increasingly large part of teenagers’ daily lives. It is changing the way they communicate, share information, and relate to one another. Facebook, the biggest social networking site in the world, has become a very controversial topics on the impact that social networking it is having on teenager’s lives. The impacts of Facebook and social media can be both negative and positive. Facebook can help teens become more confident with their social skills, help

them connect with their peers and widen their social network. The negative effects, however, greatly outnumber the positive. Bullying, distracting students from their school work, promoting multi-tasking and poor cognative habits are some of the most commonly cited examples, as well as increased feelings of missing out and anxiety, and reduced ability to have meaningful face-to-face conversations. Facebook is negatively impacting people’s lives in ways the founders never imagined. It has become a place for bullies to easily target teens, especially ones who care a lot about others’ opinions of them (Val). When a person has a screen protecting them from seeing the effect of their words on others, it’s easy for them to type whatever they want without considering the consequences. When you’re on a computer, you've got this sort of digital wall between you and others . Val Hooper, who wrote an article on Facebook behavior and etiquette said, “You're not actually talking to people so if you don’t feel comfortable, you can just disconnect and disappear, and never see them again. But if you're face-to-face, you can't escape that easily” (Val). Bullies take advantage of the internet and the protection that it gives them, often with serious consequences for their victims. There are countless stories in the press of people self-harming or even killing themselves after being cyber-bullied. Jessica Laney, for example, was a young 16 year old girl from Florida who wanted to fit in. She hadn’t done anything to deserve the 20

comments and ridicule she received, “Why are you so ugly?” “Just kill yourself, you’re worthless” (Murray) are some of the things that her persecutors said about her. Jessica became depressed and eventually ended up committing suicide. Cyberbullies may not be able to physically hurt any of their victims, but their words can have just as strong an effect, if not greater on the teens they target. Another important example of social networking negative effects on teen’s social behavior is the way it distorts the way they communicate with one another. The reliance on social media has created a society that values frequent and brief communication over lengthier and more in-depth communication. Researchers agree: “…we’ve also watched emoticons (digital smiley faces) replace words as tools for expressing feelings” (Cain). Some people spend their entire day and night checking social media, hiding behind a 'digital veil’, instead of talking in person. Because of this, the amount of time people spend communicating on social networking sites reduces face-to-face social skills, resulting in young adults who have become poor conversationalist (Gillispie). Teens need to acquire the necessary social skills needed to maintain and form new friendships, skills which are vital to have to be successful in the work world. In addition to social networking and its effects on teenager’s social skills, studies also show teens tend to develop poor person to person communication skills because Facebook allows multi

tasking and short attention spans. In fact, “since 2000, our collective attention span has decreased by 40 %”(Bicchierai). Due to this, the way teenagers communicate today needs to be highly visual, to capture their shrinking attention spans. Communicating on Facebook allows a person to take time to decide what they want to say, whereas when people meet face to face they must respond immediately to what others are saying, which can often be stressful and uncomfortable. This lack of face-to-face conversation skills can really be an issue in the long run, as success in the adult work world sometimes partially depends on a person’s social skills (in person social skills), something Facebook clearly doesn’t encourage. Another problem associated with social networking and teenager’s social skills is this constant fear on missing out or “FOMO”, a commonly known acronym that means “fear of missing out”. FOMO can stir up emotions to make a person feel that he/she is missing out on something, which may cause anxiety that they’re missing out on something fun what their friends are doing. Imagine you’re sitting home having a nice relaxing evening when you decide to quickly skim through your newsfeed. You see pictures of your friends who had gone out that night, and you weren’t invited. This makes you feel like are maybe not liked and you may feel you’re not included in the exciting things that their friends are doing, which can possibly lead to lower self esteem. FOMO can cause people to have feelings of anxiety, inadequacy and irritation” (Wortham). Although teens 21

still may feel left out when their friends are talking about their awesome weekend in front of you, pictures and status being posted of your friends having fun without you, can reinforce these feelings of missing out and make them even worse. Unfortunately, there will always be this constant “FOMO” as long as social networking sites are running. Another important, but not as significant concern as the others, is social networking sites effects on teenagers’ academic wise. Social networking sites appear to be a huge distraction, along with music, TV, and texting, there is Facebook. Teens enjoy multitasking because they feel they are getting more work done in a timely manner, but research shows otherwise. Multitasking is a bad habit which can reduce the quality of one’s work. An interesting article, posted about the negative outcomes of multitasking on your brain, states that, “In a study published a decade ago they found that, contrary to popular belief, people are less efficient—not more—when they multitask. That's because it takes more time to complete one of the tasks, especially as they become more complex, versus focusing on a single task”(“Why Multitasking is Bad”) Constant interruption of teens being bombarded with notifications, texts, and updates reduces their ability to focus and can have a negative outcome on their work. There have been studies conducted saying that Facebook can in fact reduce a teenagers GPA, but studies also say there is no

direct correlation between the two. A recent pilot study at University of San Diego shows that students who don’t have a Facebook account appear to spend more time studying and have higher grade point averages than students who have a social networking account (Grabmeir). This study showed that students on Facebook usually spend one to five hours a week studying, while non-users spend 11 - 15 hours per week studying (Grabmeir). This was the only study that provided any direct evidence that Facebook does most likely cause lower grades. It is still not possible to confirm that this information is true. There will need to be more studies conducted to prove anything about social media’s effect on teenagers academic performance. Social networking isn’t all bad. It has positive effects on teenager’s lives and their social behavior. An interesting survey, sponsored by Common Sense Media, of teens 15-18 in the US says that more than one in four teens say that using their social networking site makes them feel less shy (29%) and 28% feel more outgoing ( Social networking: Social Life). These feelings can help them eventually feel more confident in face-to-face social interactions. That is just one of several studies which show that social networking really can help teenagers. There are other benefits associated with social networking, especially for the youth who are striving to establish their identity as young adults. For young teenagers, having an online profile has a sig22

nificantly positive effect on their self-esteem and psychological wellbeing (Valkenburg). Many parents and other people wonder what is it about Facebook and social networking that makes teenagers want to spend countless hours glued to their screens. One answer lies in the in the chemistry of the brain. An interesting study on dopamine and what it does to your mind states, “As it turns out, receiving and answering a notification results in a hit of dopamine, a chemical neurotransmitter associated with the motivation and reward response in the human brain. Dopamine is also released in high quantities when we consume drugs or people have sex. Social media notifications can have the same effect”(Bicchierai). The interesting thing is that people may feel addicted to their computers but technology isn’t possible to be addicted to. It’s more of a compulsion. An addiction has to be to a substance, whether it’s to alcohol, drugs, or sex. Facebook is fun; it feels good to connect with friends and “like” their statuses and pictures. Like anything that’s fun though, you are only allowed to do it occasionally. It becomes an issue when you have trouble stopping.”Teenagers are social animals that thrive on connecting with others”(Galasbi). Teenagers should start to focus on more important things in life rather than just maintaining their online identity. Thankfully, this increasing concern about Facebook could be ending soon. Similar to all new technology “it blows up and then

dies down” (Galisbi). When the first phone came out, for example, people were concerned about the effects that it would have on society. But their concerns never materialized. People got used to the effects that phones were having on their lives, and they weren’t nearly as bad as people had imagined. Facebook could just be another fad that may die out in the next couple of years. It would appear that people’s fears that social networking is causing growing problems for teenagers are in fact real. Although there may be some benefits to social networking and having an online profile, the negative effects outweigh the benefits. My suggestion for making social networking less of a problem is, for example, this problem of bullying. Facebook could get alerts when people post or type words such as suicide or death. Facebook wouldn’t necessarily need to monitor peoples every moves to make sure that people are safe, they could just make some minor adjustments that could save many teenagers lives. Also, there should be a way you can set a time limit for the amount of hours you spend when you log into Facebook. After you have used up your amount of time for the day, it automatically logs you out and won’t allow access to the website. Till the next day, this could cut down on an excessive amount of time wasted browsing through news feeds, and cut down on some of the other problems associated with social networking sites. By educating teens on the negative effects that social networking could be having on their lives, we could possibly cut 23

down on time teenagers spend communicating online, and hopefully this would help teens develop stronger social skills with face-to-face interactions. Everyone can agree that social networking is fun, but there needs to be a balance. It should be, used on occasion, a fun way to communicate with people, as well as a way to get help from peers on school work, but it also shouldn’t end up consuming your entire life. So the next time you log onto your Facebook account, think about the negative effects, which are far greater then you realize, that it may be having on your life.

Gross, Doug. "Social Networks and Kids: How Young Is Too Young?" CNN. Cable News Network, 2 Nov. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2012.

Work Cited

Gillispie, Joanie M., and Pat House. Cyber Rules: Strategies for Excelling at E-business. New York: Currency/Doubleday, 1999. Print.

Aspan, Maria. "How Sticky Is Membership on Facebook? Just Try Breaking Free." Pro Quest. N.p., Feb. 2011. Web. 1 Jan. 2013. Biccieriari, Lorenzo. "Mashable." Mashable. N.p., 3 Nov. 2012. Web. 30 Jan. 2013. Cain, Kevin. "The Negative Effects of Facebook on Communication." Social Media Today RSS. N.p., 29 Jun. 2012. Web. 6 Jan. 2013. Classman, Tavis. "Implications for College Students Posting Pictures of Themselves Drinking Alcohol on Facebook." Pro Quest. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, Jun. 2012. Web. 5 Jan. 2013.

Hooper, Val. "What Is and What Is Not Acceptable Behaviour on Social Networking Sites:."Pro Quest. Academic Conferences International Limited, Apr. 2012. Web. 20 Dec. 2012. Karpinski, Aryn. "Study Finds Link Between Facebook Use, Lower Grades in College."Study Finds Link Between Facebook Use, Lower Grades in College. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Jan. 2013.

Murray, Rheana. "Cyber-bullying, Social Media Blamed after Florida Teen Commits SuicideÂ ." NY Daily News. N.p., 12 Dec. 2012. Web. 8 Jan. 2013. Osborn, Brian. Weblog post. Geek.com. N.p., 14 Apr. 2009. Web. 5 Jan. 2013. Plonowski, Julia. "Social Media, Social Life: How Teens View Their Digital Lives | Common Sense Media."Social Media, Social Life: How Teens View Their Digital Lives | Common Sense Media. N.p., 12 June 2012. Web. 8 Jan. 2013.

Wortham, Jenna. "Feel Like a Wallflower? Maybe It’s Your Facebook Wall." The New York Times. NY Times Co., 9 Apr. 2011. Web. 1 Jan. 2013

Michelle Chui

10 Cent Crisis Another plastic bag drifts through the wind, slowly making its way to the great ocean. On its journey to the Pacific Ocean, the plastic bag faces many dangers like wild animals and marine life, like birds and fish. One sea turtle burrows its head into the bag and gets stuck in it and slowly begins to suffocate. This is just one of the million animals that suffer each year from these plastic bags. Other things are also being affected by these nondecomposable pieces of plastic. The production of these bags emits more CO2 into the air, which adds to the global warming situation. (Global Warming Causes). Reducing the number of bags used would really help us and the environment, which is why the new plastic bag banning ordinance was an excellent idea, and people should continue bringing their own bags. Recently, states in the US and around the world have adopted an ordinance that could potentially reduce the amount of plastic bags that are negatively affecting our economy and environment. In February 2012, Ross Mirkarimi, a member of the board of supervisors of San Francisco, introduced a law that requires stores to add a checkout bag charge of 10 cents whenever they provide a customer with a checkout bag (SF Board of Supervisors). This law prohibits store owners from giving out single-

use, non compostable plastic bags to all customers. Mr. Mirkarimi was hoping this new ordinance would help reduce the number of bags consumed each year. He predicted that, with this new law, people would turn to the option of either bringing their own bag, or buying a paper bag for ten cents. By the end of the month, the whole board of supervisors approved this law. Almost all stores, such as pharmacies, liquor stores, and others suppliers that sell packaged food and alcohol, must abide by this law; only restaurants, bakeries, coffee shops, and participants of food stamp organizations, such as WIC or EBT, are exempt from this charge (Kumeh). However, the state is considering including restaurants in this ordinance by the year 2013. A few months after this ordinance was put into action, other cities like Alameda, San Mateo and Oakland, adopted this law because the results showed a decline in number of bags consumed. One store owner said, â&#x20AC;&#x153;before the law, only about one out of twenty people brought their own bags. But now, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s like every other person has their own.â&#x20AC;? Currently, 49 other cities, as well as states and countries, enacted similar laws (Expanded ban on Plastic Bags). The purpose of this ordinance is to encourage customers to bring their own bags whenever they go shopping to reduce the impact of plastic bags on our community and the environment as a whole. So far, statistics show that this new ordinance has been effective and fewer bags are consumed every month.

With this new law, there has to be a physical record of the ten cent payment after every bag is purchased to prove that the customer actually paid for their bag. It has to be listed on their receipt, not counting as a tax item. There is a fine for stores that don’t charge their customer ten cents. The fines within a year increase, depending on the infringement; stores have to pay one hundred dollars for the first violation, two hundred for the second violation, and five hundred for the third violation. Regulatory agents check intermittently to make sure all the records are in order and customers are paying for their bag. Stores must also keep a monthly record of how many paper and reusable bags were purchased and sold to customers just so the government has relative idea of the bag sales. Bags have a significant impact on the environment. For the past few years, there has been an annual consumption of three trillion bags worldwide. This means that one person consumes more than six bags every day. Of all these bags, 15,000 bags are dumped into the ocean on the daily basis. Plastic bags have been the most collected items on international coastal cleanup day and the top sighted pollution by sailors and fishermen over the past 25 years (Russo). Two thirds of the world’s fish stocks are suffering from plastic ingestion, which is also affecting us. Because the fish are ingesting these toxic wastes, and we eat the fish, we are also consuming it, which is not health at all. Fish are not the only creatures that face this problem. 267 other marine animals are also being affected by this

pollution; they get caught, suffocate or eat this plastic, which clogs up their digestive system, leading to death. All this only accounts for a portion of the polluted bags. Others, that make it to the ocean, gather in a massive vortex of plastic waste, known as the great pacific garbage patch. There, they float and eventually break down into smaller pieces. It takes thousands of years just for the plastics to break down into smaller pieces. However, they can never completely disintegrate. Clearly, these plastic bags have immensely affected our environment and if we don’t do anything about it, it could cost us the world. There are some groups that disagree with the inaction of this bag ordinance. Stephen Joseph, an attorney for the Save the Plastic Bag Coalition, along with others, filed a lawsuit seeking to halt the implementation of this law because they believed that the city had not adequately studied the environmental impacts of the legislation. People argue that other wastes, such as fishing gear, have also been killing Marine life. So they should also put some time and money into dealing with other, more drastic environmental destroyers. Daniella Dimitrova Russo, the founder and executive director of the Plastic Pollution coalition, disputes that “bags kill just as many [marine animals] and the broader impact on the environment makes it a much more urgent concern” (Russo) Another problem that arose is that the people who make and ship these bags are now starting to become unemployed because there is no longer a high demand for these plastic bags. Additionally, some people 27

have been driven out of their city to shop because they were unwilling to pay ten cents for their bags. Steve Prescrotti, being one of these people, said “I work in Pleasanton but live in Tracy. I shop frequently in Pleasanton out of convenience before I head home. I will no longer do so. I didn’t realize this new law and was at Safeway yesterday. I left a grocery cart full of items at the check stand in protest of this stupid law. I’ll just do all my shopping in Tracy going forward.” Clearly, this law has angered him, along with some others who feel this law is just a way for the states to collect even more money from us. Some studies show that plastic bags have a better effect on the environment than paper bags. The energy used to produce one paper bag is equivalent to the amount of energy used to produce three plastic bags. Also, plastic bags generate 68% fewer greenhouse gasses. However, plastic is not decomposable, which means that once it goes into the ocean or anywhere in our environment, it just sits there until someone cleans it up. The fact that it cannot fully decompose also makes it clear that if people just recycle, the paper bags show more positive results in the long run. The cost of cleaning up the litter in our environment is very high. About $4000 is spent to recycle one ton of plastic bags. Plastic can also get stuck in the recycling equipment, such as the Tipper Conveyor system of the dump and run shredders, which costs even more money to repair. Right now, San Jose, California spends over one million dollars each year, just to fix the equipment. The building of these machines also

requires the use a lot of fossil fuels, which is a limited source of energy. This pollutes the air and adds to the overall carbon dioxide that is polluted into it, which causes the global warming situation to worsen. (Plastic Statistics). This new ordinance has decreased the number of plastic and paper bags used monthly and the amount of reusable bags used increased. Ever since the regulation was put into action, the number of disposable bags consumed decreased by up to eighty percent. Many, including Melanie Nutter, the director of Department of the Environment, believe that “the ordinance marks a huge step forward in reducing our use of single-use bags and help to rid our environment from costly and harmful plastic bags”(Expanded ban on Plastic Bags). Abdullah Albasir, the owner of a store, agrees with the motive behind the new ordinance. He feels that with the new law, fewer bags will be polluted. He has noticed and tells Titania Kumah, the reporter, that he has “seen it with [his] own eyes: people ask for a bag and then as soon as they leave the store they throw it in the street” (Kumah). Since it was passed, he had noticed a significant change in the number of bags consumed over all. He believes that this law has been effective because he’s already seen the changes in his customers. He sees them pay 10 cents and carry out their purchased items in their paper bag, but the next time, they show up with their bag. Another citizen of San Francisco, Victor Tam, believes this law has been helpful. He says 28

“Before, I would always get a bag. But now, this law has made me realize that I really don’t need one.” There are still people who are against this new ordinance and feel it is unnecessary or ineffective. There have been some areas where the bag ban triggered negative responses by the citizens. Mohammed Moasee, feels that the law is okay in areas where the people have higher income. However, “especially for the people living in the ghetto, 10 cents is a lot of money” (Kumeh). Denise Snyder agrees with Moasee and adds that it “hurts people that can’t afford it. I know it’s an ordinance, but there are just too many penalties and fines and fees already” (Neil). In areas where people have lower income, there have been many complaints and even displays of outrage on the owners of these stores. They did not like the idea of paying an extra ten cents for a bag. Sam, an owner of a liquor store, told reporter Neil Riley, that he had lost between twenty and thirty dollars worth of produce because of the law. Many customers were infuriated and simply returned the items to the shelf and walked out. Some people felt similarly to Steve Prescortti, and were driven out of the city due to the new bag ordinance. Aside from those who don’t like the new ordinance, a majority of the customers are very understanding and are responding well to this. Karl Aguilar, another store owner, says “we got a few complaints when we first put up the sign [stating the new law], but 99 percent are understanding” (Neil). Also, after visit-

ing a couple stores, a new trend started to form. According to store baggers, before the ordinance, people rarely brought in their own plastic bag. However, since the plastic bag ordinance, there had been a large increase in the number of reusable bags used. According to NCPA.org, 60 percent of the stores reported a 10 percent sales increase with the ban. For those stores without the ban, four of out five percent that the sales said that their sales had dropped by about 6.7 percent (Villarreal).this shows that the ban has an overall positive effect on the community. Some stores are also taking action to encourage more people to bring their own bags. At the Whole Foods supermarkets, they give customers five cents back to every customer for every reusable bag they use. At the Organic Market, customers who bring their own paper bag receive five cents back while those who bring in a canvas or cloth bag, collect ten cents back. The most motivational store is Trader Joes. Along with other retailers like Macy’s, Walgreens, Bath and Body Works, and CVS, they sell their own bags. Every time a customer brings in their own reusable bag, they are entered into a raffle to win a twenty five dollar gift card to Trader Joes. Activists believe that the ban has changed and helped the economy.“Banning plastic bags will redirect funds to infrastructure and spur entrepreneurial efforts to come up with alternatives to plastic” (Russo). Also, since the money collected for the bag is going back to the store owner, they can use it to buy 29

more produce and stimulate economic growth. With more money, stores can hire more workers, which will lead to a decrease in number of unemployed people. One person suggested that the government should maintain recycle bins for the bags around the city using the money collected with the ordinance. Also, Barry F. Scher, a spokesman for Giant Foods, a chain grocery store, said that “bags don’t litter – people litter. There needs to be more citizen education”(Stern) Mr. Scher believes that by educating the people about this worldwide issue, people would become more aware of how these plastic bags are negatively affecting our environment. With this in mind, more people may feel obligated to bring their own bag to help reduce the pollution and save the Earth. Sarah Burton, another citizen of the city, agrees with the idea of raising awareness through education. She told reporter Stern that she was “influenced by the information her children were bringing home from school.” Overall, this new bag banning ordinance has positively affected both our community and our environment. Although there are some minor disadvantages, like financial disabilities on the whole, it reduces unnecessary waste which is costly to taxpayers in San Francisco and harmful to Marin life (SFenvironment.org). Change happens slowly, and if Americans and people around the world keep it up, the future of our planet’s “health” is looking bright.

Works Cited "Board of Supervisors: Former Supervisor Ross Mirkarimi." Board of Supervisors: Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Dec. 2012. "Capitola Bans Plastic Bags." Targeted News ServiceDec 14 2012. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 16 Dec. 2012. "Expanded ban on plastic bags, new 10-cent bag fee takes effect | www.Expanded ban on Plastic Bags." San Francisco, Oakland & San Jose: Bay Area News, Weather &... | www.Expanded ban on Plastic Bags. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Jan. 2013. Galliers, Kate. "Can the D.C. Bag Tax Be A National Model?." Planet Forward. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Jan. 2013. Glionna, John M. "Paper Or Plastic? San Francisco Decides." Los Angeles Times: 0. Mar 28 2007. National Newspapers Core. Web. 17 Dec. 2012 . "Global Warming Causes, Climate Change Causes - National Geographic."Environment Facts, Environment Science, Global Warming, Natural Disasters, Ecosystems, Green Living - National Geographic. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Feb. 2013. Kumeh, Titania. "New plastic bag ban receives mixed reactions from customers, storeowners in Oakland | Oakland North." Oak30

land North | North Oakland News, Food, Art and Events. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Jan. 2013. "Plastic Bag Ban." US Fed News Service, Including US State NewsAug 22 2012. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 17 Dec. 2012. " Plastic Statistics." oceancrusaders.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 21. Jan. 2013. Riley, Neil J.. "New ordinance not quite everybody's bag SFGate." SFGate: San Francisco Bay Area - News, Sports, Business, Entertainment, Classifieds - SFGate. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Jan. 2013.

STERN, IRENA CHOI. "Greening Up by Cutting Down on Plastic Bags - New York Times." The New York Times - Breaking News, World News & Multimedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Feb. 2013. "Checkout Bag Ordinance | sfenvironment.org - Our Home. Our City. Our Planet." sfenvironment.org - Our Home. Our City. Our Planet | N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Jan. 2013. < Villarreal, Pamela, and Baruch Feigenbaum. "A Survey on the Economic Effects of Los Angeles County’s Plastic Bag Ban | NCPA." Free-Market Public Policy | National Center for Policy Analysis | NCPA. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Jan. 2013. <http://www.ncpa.org/pub/st340>.

Romer, Jennie R.. "plasticbaglaws.org | A resource for legislative bodies considering laws limiting the use of plastic bags." plasticbaglaws.org | A resource for legislative bodies considering laws limiting the use of plastic bags. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2012. Russo, Daniella Dimitrova. "Should Cities Ban Plastic Bags? WSJ.com." The Wall Street Journal - Breaking News, Business, Financial and Economic News, World News & Video - Wall Street Journal - Wsj.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. San Francisco Board of Supervisors. File No. 101055: Environment Code-Checkout Bags. San Francisco, California: City and County of San Francisco, 2012. PDF file. 31

Elisa Cooney

The Impact of a Wrong Turn A shrill scream is let out by the ref’s whistle, vibrating in the eardrums of players, and making nervous hearts pound as fast as possible. A tall, frail-looking girl with brown hair gets the ball and sprints down the field, focusing on her target: the goal. The defender on the other team pants trying to catch up with the girl, the dewy morning grass threatening to trip her, but finally gets ahead. The brown haired girl sets her left foot to trick her, and goes to turn. Snap. A piercing scream rips out of her mouth, as she falls to the ground, punching the hard grass due to the pain. Her coaches sprint out, and she slaps their hands away and shouts “OH MY GOD, OH MY GOD!” The coaches are unprepared, alarmed, and panicked—they have absolutely no idea what to do. Every player on the field cringes at the sound of the girl’s screams and her loud tears, and they think: that could have been me. Twenty agonizing minutes later, the ambulance comes, and the girl is slowly and carefully lifted on to a stretcher and taken off the field. She will now have to go through one of the toughest processes in her life: coming back from an ACL tear. ACL tears have become a serious issue

among girls that can potentially take away their sport’s careers. Each year, the number of girls with torn ACLs goes up—and will continue to until this issue is addressed. An ACL tear is a serious knee injury that girls have been proven to be at a higher risk of, but is preventable by tireless knee strengthening at an early age, and also awareness. " Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears are a relatively new problem, as Joe Miller, a news correspondent for NewsObserver, wrote: “The prevalence of ACL injuries among female athletes is a relatively new phenomenon, dating to 1972 and enactment of the federal Title IX legislation…” The Title IX legislation required schools under federal funding to let girls and boys receive equal opportunities in their schools’ sports programs. After the legislation was passed, the number of girls playing sports increased dramatically, and soon people were starting to see problems. In 2003, one in ten female athletes injured a knee due to playing sports, a scary statistic that gradually began to grow (McCormick, Brian). As more advanced research was done, doctors and researches alike found that girls are at least five times more likely to tear their ACL’s in the same sport as a boy. (Vostrejs, Fern, Chando) Today, doctors and researchers are able to state that girls are much more prone to tearing their ACLs, and now anterior cruciate ligament tears are a pressing problem for girls in sports.

" The anterior cruciate ligament is one of four ligaments in the knee, and is centered in the front of the knee joint. At the back of the knee is the PCL, the posterior cruciate ligament. While on each side of the knee there is a collateral ligament. All these ligaments try and stabilize the knee while a person is making twisting or pivoting movements (Shen). Together they give the leg stability. The anterior cruciate ligament looks a bit like a rope, and is quite small; it connects the thigh bone to the tibia. Anterior cruciate ligament tears are the most common due to the “…lack of muscle support for twisting or rotational movements around the joint” (Palmer). ACL tears, for girls, can be caused by a high speed twisting or cutting motion. (Vostrejs). The sudden motion can cause for the ACL to snap, which then leaves the knee unstable. A tear is described by all to feel like a snap, tear, or an immediate burning sensation—and it is quite painful to try and walk afterward. Dr. Mike Vostrejs, an orthopedic surgeon at Kaiser Permanente, said that a tear can feel as bad as a sprained ankle, but is not on the same level of pain as a broken bone. Dr. Vostrejs then added that an ACL tear has become the most common sports injury for female athletes. Another part of an ACL tear is the costly, and serious, surgery. An “ACL surgery is done by making small incisions in the knee and inserting instruments for surgery through these incisions (arthroscopic surgery) or by cutting a large incision into the knee (open surgery)” (WebMD). Another common option for the surgery is an allograft, in which people use a ligament from a ca-

daver and then use it for their own knee. After the surgery, it takes around twelve weeks of intense knee rehabilitation to get motion back into the knee and break the scar tissue (Chando). For a serious athlete who wants to continue to play, it will take at least six to nine months before she can even begin to think about touching the ball again, but while “the knee is never normal…most people regain enough strength and motion to return to their usual activities” (WebMD). Girls are at a much higher risk of tearing their ACL’s for a variety of reasons: anatomical, hormonal, muscular differences, especially differences in strength. Before puberty, boys and girls tear their ACL’s at about the same rate, since there are no physical distinctions in early childhood that set either gender at a higher risk. (Chando). But when girls reach the age of twelve (around the time girls hit puberty), there is a marked increase in the number of ACL tears (Chando). The serious danger lies in the level of competition children are playing during puberty, and the earlier a child hits puberty, the greater the risk, not to mention the added higher factor of intense competition that many children are playing--all of which can lead to a much greater danger of tearing an ACL (Thompson). This scenario makes sense because throughout puberty it is still common for children to be physically awkward. As they get taller, boys develop more muscles, and girls hips widen, but they still don’t know how to control their bodies. So whenever they are running, cutting, pivoting and crashing into other children, and trying to score a bas33

ket, goal or touchdown, they are also putting their knees at serious risk.

as basketball and volleyball, which require constant movements such as jumping, pivoting, and quick turns, all at the same time.

One key difference that makes girls more susceptible to a knee injury is their anatomical structures. Gender differences in hip width, knee structure, as well as how girls can rotate their knees, makes their body structure quite different than boys, and therefore makes them more susceptible to tearing their ACL’s.

The actual anatomy of the knee reveals some answers as to why girls are at a much higher risk for injury. The ligaments are placed in what Dr. Vostrejs described as “canals.” He explained that the “notch in which the ACL goes through, is like a tunnel, and it’s much narrower in [girls] then in boys. So in boys it’s much less likely that the ligament will catch—so the same twisting motion in a boy might not tear their ligament than it would in a girl” (Vostrejs). He continued to explain that since the canal is smaller for girls, the actual ligament itself is much more fragile. So, if a girl were to make a quick turn, her ACL would catch more easily, and as a result it take much less pressure for the ACL to snap, since it is smaller than a boy’s ligament.

When a young girl enters puberty her pelvis begins to get much wider and “…the muscles attached to [her] pelvis go in more, so then there’s a wider angle at the knee joints. So, as women twist, there is more of an angle, which puts more stress on the ACL” (Vostrejs). Boys, on the other hand, don’t develop hips during puberty—thus they don’t have the knee angle that girls do, putting them at a much lesser risk. The more the knees go in, the more of a Q-angle or valgus stance there is. A Qangle is “measured through the femur, tibia and lower leg” (Thompson). The Q-angle (a.k.a. valgus position) depends almost entirely on the hips. Based on how wide the hip is, the thighs will go in. The knees go in as well, but then the tibia and lower leg angle outward, and the greater the angle between the thigh and calf, the more stress on the ACL to stabilize the knee. When a female athlete jumps, she lands with a force of at least three to five times her body weight, and all the stress of her weight, due to the Q-angle, is put on the ACL (McCormick). This fact alone can leave room for serious problems for sports such

The actual way girls often use their knees is also a key difference. Knees are supposed to move like hinges, in and out—but not sideways, it’s a strict movement. The ACL’s job is to try and prevent any type of rotation of the knee. Girls, on the other hand, tend to use their knee as a ball or socket joint (Thompson). Mr. Thompson describes the way girls move their knees as “…a pivot, or like your hip and shoulder. This can also lead to more strain on the ACL since the ACL helps prevent rotation of the knee joint.” By having more flexibility in the knee, the girls put more strain on the ACL, and while cutting, pivoting, changing speed, or twisting, a girl might easily tear her ACL. 34

Boys avoid this problem because they are much less flexible in the knee, so they use their knees in the hinge-like way. Post-pubescent girls and boys are also completely different when it comes to core and muscle strength, as well as the balance of strength between their legs. One of the developments that occurs during puberty for girls is that they tend to get much taller in the first three years. As they get taller, girls don’t have as much core strength, so they often lose the ability to control the alignment of their upper and lower body. Dr. Timothy Hewitt, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Cincinnati and an orthopedic surgeon at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital said, ”Our research suggests that the issue in injured female athletes is the lack of high-level ability to control deceleration and acceleration at their center of their mass in three dimensional space” (qtd. in Reynolds). For a girl to keep her knees safe when cutting and changing speeds, she has to be able to keep her lower body in proper balance under her trunk so that her weight isn’t shifted while trying to make a move. Most girls gain weight during puberty, thus it is much harder to work on core muscle strength, and this leaves girls at a much higher risk of knee injuries. Often female athletes have a difference of strength in their legs. This can happen due to a girl constantly playing with one foot, and not trying to work on her other leg. This imbalance ends up “contributing to the other leg being more vulnerable to injury”

(Thompson). Lastly, ligament usage is an important factor. As mentioned earlier—a girl becomes much more flexible when she hits puberty. She is able to stand with her knees hyper extended, which strains the anterior cruciate ligament, as Mr. Thompson said: “Girls tend to use their ligaments for stability and posturing more so than boys. This fact can be easily seen when girls stand. Girls will tend to stand with their knees locked or hyper extended, and this posture places significant stress on the ACL during daily activities and may contribute to an increase in laxity” (Thompson). Also, young women rely mostly on the quadriceps to straighten the knee, which means that they don’t work on strengthening their PCL, ACL or collateral ligaments; so while the quadriceps are strong, the key ligaments are left vulnerable and fragile (Thompson). One of the main changes that a child will experience during puberty is hormones. For boys it is a positive change for their knees. The increase in testosterone results in more muscle, as well as the loss of “baby fat,” and they gain more strength yet reduce their flexibility (Chando). For women, the increase in estrogen causes a girl to be much more flexible. Matt Chando, a news correspondent for the South Jersey media group, says that “higher estrogen levels in pubescent girls relaxes ligaments, making them more flexible than boys” (Chando). The added estrogen also causes weight gain, which in turn makes it much harder for girls to try and build core strength, and this 35

chemical change, combined with all the other factors, makes a girl more prone to a tear.

The lack of these fundamental skills could lead to potential knee tear.

The situations in which girls and boys get an injury are much different. Dr. Vostrejs estimated that “around one third of the girl’s ACL injuries are contact, and two thirds are non-contact.” Boys, on the other hand, usually tear their ACL’s by contact situations. Thus, it is far more likely for a girl to be running down the field and twist, cut, or turn the wrong way, resulting in an ACL tear, than for a boy to receive a blow hard enough to tear his ACL.

What many young girls don’t know is that an anterior cruciate ligament tear is somewhat preventable. Due to female physiology, girls will always be more susceptible to an ACL tear, but they can reduce their level of risk. Strengthening, awareness, as well as coaching styles are ways that ACL tears can be reduced in young post-pubescent girls in sports.

The final element that has been noticed by coaches, in particular, is the risk for girls of “overplaying.” Serious female athletes usually play the same sport year round; for example, a girl who plays soccer might play club in the fall, futsal in the winter, and then high school varsity--as well as club--in the spring, then during the summer she probably trains non-stop. This female athlete never rests. A well-known high school soccer coach, Dan Tocasino, believes that “[the girls] legs are tired; they play so much between high school, club and indoor. I don’t think they give their bodies a break. They play almost year-round” (qtd. in Chando). These girls are working the exact same muscle, time after time, and are not thinking about trying to work on their strength. If they don’t work on both legs, then not only would they have an imbalance in strength between the two legs, but they might also have strong quadriceps and weak ligaments.

As soon as a female athlete hits puberty, she should immediately be screened to try and find any apparent weaknesses that could put her at risk of injury (Reynolds). Dr. Timothy Hewitt has come up with an easy home test that parents and coaches can use for their athletes: “Set up a foot-high box. Have the athlete stand on it and hop down lightly, then immediately leap straight up as high as she can and land back on the ground. Watch closely or videotape her. Did her knees move forward each time? Did they seem to collapse as she exploded up? Did she lean forward or to the side as she landed back on the ground? Those are all probably hallmarks of high risk” (qtd. in Reynolds). Once an apparent issue is noticed, the girl’s parents then need to come up with a strength program for their daughter to help put her out of risk. If the girl routinely works with a trained professional on “…specific exercise programs that target strength and balance, she could reduce female her risks until they are almost comparable to the risks for a male athlete” 36

(Reynolds). And although she would never be able to make herself risk-free, she would not only protect herself, but also improve her athleticism. Conditioning is of upmost importance, and Dr. Vostrejs believes that the “component of girls not being well-conditioned is a reason as to why the numbers [of ACL injuries] are so high” (Dr. Vostrejs). So by focusing on her core, her ligaments, and her upper body strength, any female athlete can become faster and stronger. She also wouldn’t have to be so concerned about injury and would almost certainly prolong her athletic career. Such strengthening exercises shouldn’t just be confined to post-pubescent girls. All children should be screened, and parents ought to urge their young kids to play games that require figuring out movement problems, such as hopscotch and tag (McCormick, Brian). By the time kids get a little older, around age 11 or 12, young girls can begin to lift weights and work on strengthening their knees. Pediatric Dr. Uta Kerl from PRIMA medical group says, “I think it’s certainly been shown that even weights or specific strengthening exercises in younger kids is safe…and I think that younger kids can benefit from that, but I think that it’s really important that it’s supervised by someone who is very knowledgeable and careful.” As long as the parents are careful selecting someone who knows how to work with kids and their child’s limits, then it would be a good idea if they know their daughter is going to be a serious athlete.

Although it is not a solution that parents and their children can address by themselves, coaching styles can have a direct influence on ACL tears. Many coaches see that their players are at high risk of tearing their ACL’s, but the issue is that they don’t know how to address the problem. (McCormick). “Kids need to be trained as athletes first, and need the experienced coaches to do so” (McCormick). Before children, especially girls, try and learn all the fancy moves a sport has to offer, they must learn the basics. For example, in basketball a girl needs to learn how to pivot, land, jump, and cut without putting stress on her knee (McCormick). Another solution that parents and children can talk about with their coach is the essential need for warm-up exercises before playing. Warm-ups targeted towards working the knee ligaments have also been proven to help. In study was done with 1,500 girls, researchers found that there was a dramatic difference between the control group that did not do any warm-ups and the experimental group that did do warm-ups. They found that the experimental group had many less knee injuries (Genevra). By stretching before a game or practice, girls can build strength in their ligaments which will then protect them against any sudden movements that could potentially hurt their knees. The only problem with this solution, says Dr. Cynthia Labella, a teacher at the Northwestern Feinberg School of Medicine in Chicago, is that: “Coaches are oftentimes hesitant to take practice time away from skill development; they may only get one hour of 37

gym time” (qtd. In Genevra). Thus, it is imperative that the importance of simple warm-ups targeting knee/ligament strength is expressed to coaches to try and decrease the number of ACL tears per capita. The final solution is the simplest, and anyone can do it-awareness. Young female athletes have to recognize that they are at a high risk of tearing their ACL’s. Dr. Vostrejs says that girls must “be aware that they are five times more likely to tear their ACL as a boy in the same sport.” Parents should also be trying to find out more, as Dr. Kerl explains: “…education and awareness are a big part of [decreasing ACL injuries], not just for the athletes but also the parents and primary providers.” By doing further research about the seriousness of ACL tears, a girl will not only learn about what an ACL really is, but she will also be much more cautious. The athlete will see how vital it is to work on her knees and ligaments, tell her friends about what she learned, and through this cycle we could start to see a decrease in the number of ACL tears per year. Although girls will always be at high risk of tearing their ACL’s, they can put themselves at a lower risk by strengthening their ligaments, awareness, and working with their coach to come up with a conditioning plan. Girls must accept that they will always be more likely to tear their ACL’s, for many reasons, but if they work hard they can reduce their level of risk. Dr. Vostrejs summed up the problem by saying: “Girls will always be more

likely to tear their ACL’s…in the same sport as a boy, but I think we can influence the rate at which girl’s tear their ACL’s through awareness, conditioning, and probably cut [the number of torn ACl’s] in half or so.” Although conditioning isn’t easy, as long as a girl loves the sport she plays, it will be worth it. By continually working on what Dr. Vostrejs mentioned, a female athlete will be benefiting immensely.

Works Cited “Anterior Cruciate ligament (ACL) Surgery.” Web MD. HealthWise, 14 May. 2010. Web. 6 Jan. 2013. Chando, Matt. “A girls worst enemy: ACL injuries.” New Jersey.com. New Jersey.com, 12 Nov. 2011. Web. 6 Jan. 2013. Frederick, M. Azar. "Surgical Treatment of ACL/PCL/ MedialSide Knee Injuries." Operative Techniques in Sports Medicine 11.4 (2003): 248-56. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. "Girls and the ACL." The Washington Post. National Newspapers Core, May 29 2001. Web. 16 Dec. 2012 McCormick, Brian. “Girls Should not Play Basketball.” Brian McCormick Basketball. PlayMakers Basketball Development League, 26 Jun. 2011. Web. 6 Jan. 2013.

Miller, Joe. “Female athletes are more prone to ACL injuries.” News Observer. News Observer, 20 Aug. 2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012. Palmer, Brian. “Exit Sandman: A torn ACL may have ended Marino Riveras career. Why are ACL so common?” Slate. The Slate Group, 4 May. 2012. Web. 24 Jan. 2013. Pittman, Genevra. “Warm-ups cut sports injuries in teen girls: study.” Reuters. Reuters, 10 Nov. 2011. Web. 6 Jan. 2013. Reynolds, Gretchen. “Phys Ed: Preventing ACL injuries in Girls.” New York Times. New York Times, 9 Sep. 2009. Web. 28 Dec. 2012. Shen, Fern. "Even Strong Women can be Weak in the Knees; Injuries: Ligament Tears are More Common among Female than Male Athletes. It's "a Scourge" in Women's Sports, One Coach Says." Los Angeles Times. National Newspapers Core, Jun 25 2001. Web. 16 Dec. 2012 Thompson, Steve. Variance Between Boys and Girls in Relation to ACL Injuries. Ross Valley Breakers FC: Demosphere International Inc, No Date. PDF.

Jackson Forman

Twinship: A Double-Edged Sword Twins have been around since the dawn of history. Twin expert Barbara Klein writes, “Probably since the beginning of human history, twins have been a source of wonder and fascination or of repulsion and fear” (Not All Twins Are Alike xvii). Identical twins “come from a single fertilized egg that splits in two” and share the same DNA (P. Miller 47). Fraternal twins come from two eggs and share “on average half their DNA” (P. Miller 47). From 1915 to the 1970s, the birth rate for twins remained constant, “at about 2 percent of all births” (Martin). Then, from 1980 through 2009, the twin birth rate rose 76 percent, from 18.9 to 33.3 per 1,000 births (Martin). If the twin birth rate had not changed from the 1980 level, about “865,000 fewer twins would have been born in the United States over the last three decades” (Martin). Because of the increase in twin births, more families are raising twins, more schools are coping with twins, and more people are experiencing what it is like to be a twin.

Therefore, the experience of having twins and being a twin is much more significant today than it has ever been. The experience of parents having twins and being a twin is complex. Parenting twins can be very demanding and very rewarding. It can be exhausting to care for one infant much less two. Parents are required to treat each twin as an individual and also support their unique twin bond. It is no less challenging to be a twin. The very fact that a child is born at the same time as his or her twin sibling makes them dependent on each other. With that dependency, it can be hard for each twin to branch out and become an individual. Being a twin is a “Double-edged sword,” according to Diane Provo, an educational consultant in Marin County. But most twins cherish being a twin, and knowing “that we always will have someone to go to,” in the words of Sophie Adams, a junior at the Bay School and a fraternal twin (“Twin Survey”). Despite the challenges to the family and the challenges faced by the twins themselves, being a twin is ultimately beneficial because twins can develop greater empathy and enjoy the lifelong support of their twin. Having twins creates huge challenges for most families. Physically, parents are exhausted and sleep deprived. Having one child is demanding, having twins is twice the work (“Twin Issues”). “Feeding and getting up at night” for two infants is tiring because parents “cannot put either twin on hold” (Provo). Some families have people helping them, such as nannies or rela40

tives; other families cope on their own. In addition to being exhausted, parents of twins have little free time to do anything for themselves. Jeff Mezzocchi, a parent of four-month-old twins, summed up his situation with a wry smile: “No sleep, no money, no life” (Mezzocchi). In order to find time to exercise, socialize, or even go to the movies, parents need to be very organized. The parents who manage to take care of themselves and their twins may have to run their home life like a “boot camp” (Provo). Eventually, when the twins are older, they are able to take care of themselves and each other, but for several years, twins are all-consuming. Beyond the physical challenges, twins present emotional challenges. Parents often struggle to develop strong bonds with each twin. Because there is so little available time, the mother and father may have trouble spending one-on-one time with each twin. Jeff, the parent of the four-month-old twins, plans ahead to make time for each twin. He takes one with him to the grocery store and the other with him on a run (Mezzocchi). It is much easier for parents to do things together with both twins, but parents need to make sure they know each twin individually, and that requires parents giving “two hundred percent” (Provo). The relationship between parents and twins requires one-onone time to be healthy. Twins also present an emotional challenge to their siblings. For the non-twin siblings, it is “hard enough to have one baby sib-

ling, and even worse to have two” (Provo). Any child has to make a dramatic transition when his parents have another child; this transition is even more difficult when the new babies are twins because the non-twin sibling will usually get left out more (Provo). Since “the world oohs and aahs over the twins,” nobody pays much attention to the non-twin siblings (Provo). In addition to finding time to bond with each twin, the parents must find time for the non-twin siblings. This puts even more time pressure on the parents. The biggest emotional challenge to the parents of twins is helping each twin become his or her own person. Parents need to do whatever it takes to “help twins pursue separate interests” even though it can be a lot of work (Provo). It might be more convenient for the parents if both twins play soccer or both twins play baseball because their schedules would be the same and carpooling would be easier. But for twins to discover who they are, they often need to explore different things. Knowing this, parents must go out of their way to provide to each twin what they need to be individuals (Provo). This is not always physically possible, and parents should not feel guilty about saying no sometimes. Alice Holmes, a junior at the Bay School and fraternal twin said, “you never are the only one in the house with plans, and your parents aren’t [always] willing to drive you to Oakland and your twin to San Jose in the same day” (“Twin Survey”). Parents might have to go out of their way when it comes to the choice of schools for twins. Sometimes twins are 41

better off at different schools. Parents might have to accommodate driving to two different schools with two different schedules. All this might be necessary to ensure that each “twin is happy in their own way” as an individual (Provo). While the parents have certain struggles, the twins face their own challenges. Because twins are together from birth, they automatically develop a very close relationship. This leads to a natural dependency on one another. For example, it is very common in twins for one to be stronger and more outgoing than the other, while the other is much quieter (Provo). The quieter twin often relies upon the more sociable twin. Mark Williams, a twin, stated, “Socially, I feel as if [my twin] overshadows me sometimes” (“Twin Survey”). Also, sometimes one twin doesn’t develop certain skills because the other twin “takes care of it” for them (Rice). If twins are in the same English class, for example, one twin may let the other make the flashcards because he finds the task tedious. To a certain extent, each twin’s reliance on the other is inevitable and healthy. The twin’s dependency on one another can stop them from functioning on their own. Consequently, at some point, the twins will need to be separated for some periods of time or activities. Note, however, that it is not good to force separation between twins (“Fraternal Twins”). At her interview, Clara Miller described how she “piggy backed” off her twin, Dakota, in social situations. When Clara came to Bay without Dakota, she had to learn to make friends on her own. Now, she is much more sociable, so the separation

helped her “grow” (C. Miller). Dakota agreed that the separation was beneficial (D. Miller). This separation can cause anxiety, one of the emotional costs of being a twin. Often, twins can first feel this separation anxiety when they are required to transition into different classrooms in primary school (Provo). The twins might struggle psychologically, because they are used to having a support system (Rice). Sophie Adams, the twin, wrote, “once though where I was away from her for more than a day--it was really difficult” (“Twin Survey”). For some twins this discomfort is milder. Mark Williams says about his twin that “if he’s gone for a week or more I miss him” (“Twin Survey”). Not all twins experience separation anxiety, but most will at some point. The dependency between twins can create other problems as well. Being so close, twins feel a natural sympathy and compassion for each other. When one twin is suffering, the other will feel bad. Jackie Reed wrote about her twin, “If she is hurting, I feel almost as if I am hurting myself” (“Twin Survey”). For most twins, it is painful when his or her twin is having a hard time. This empathy creates a problem when a twin is overwhelmed by the emotions of her twin. If one twin does not make the varsity team, her disappointment can keep the other twin from enjoying her own success. This is mild example, but some cases are more extreme and can cause much more damage. If the twin, identical or fraternal, were to commit suicide, the other 42

twin is much more likely to also commit suicide (“Loss of a Twin”). Twins can suffer from “too much empathy” (Provo). This dependency can make twins feel responsible for the happiness, safety and success of their twin. Twins naturally look out for each other. A twin might step in when his twin is getting bullied on the playground or share the notes from a class his twin missed. Jackie Reed, a junior at the Bay School says that “Because [my twin] is so close to me I feel as if it is my job to take care of her” (“Twin Survey”). Some twins feel responsible for their twin’s emotional well being. Alice wrote, “if he is sad then I am as well so his happiness is just as important as mine” (“Twin Survey”). Other twins feel responsible for their twin in a broader sense: “I feel responsible for him being a decent human being to a certain extent. And his safety. His success is on him” (“Twin Survey”). Because they feel both responsibility and empathy, twins can be “caught between loyalty and wanting to protect their twin” (Provo). A hypothetical twin named Susie wants her twin to have fun at a concert, but she may worry about the twin doing something unsafe at the concert. Susie may feel torn between saying something to their parents, which could protect her twin from being harmed, and saying nothing, which could protect the twin relationship. How Susie handles the dilemma could be important for herself and for her twin. Samantha Harris, a freshman at Redwood High School whose twin brother goes to Bay

said, “I feel like I have to protect him sometimes, or sometimes step out of the way” (“Twin Survey”). Teenagers often face this dilemma with friends and siblings, but it is much more intense when it happens between twins (Provo). It is “more frightening to watch your other twin getting in trouble” (Provo). Jeff Harrison, a fraternal twin, said, “I just like to let her do her own thing, though if anything drastic prevented her from achieving happiness, safety, . . . I would intervene” (“Twin Survey”). Another problem with being a twin is being compared to each other. Twins “have a much higher risk of being compared due to their extremely similar traits; identical twins struggle the most with this” (Provo). When comparing twins, one always comes out ahead, and the other behind. It can be something small such as “you are better organized” or something more drastic and personal such as “you are better looking.” Comparison is never good; one twin mentioned it as being her least favorite thing about being a twin. Alice Holmes commented, “It is a constant fear for twins to be haunted by the idea that the other is better, more intelligent, more loved” (“Twin Survey”). Jackie Reed agreed, “I feel that other people around us are judging and comparing me to her, so I have to prove myself as equal” (“Twin Survey”). This is something that all siblings struggle with; twins in particular can be damaged because of their striking similarities. Parents often say “you’re stronger in this way, and he is stronger in another way” (Provo). It doesn’t correct the problem to compare the twins on two different qualities, when 43

one twin is better at one thing but worse at the other. They are still being compared, which can be painful. Jackie wrote, “If someone says something about her being better or worse than me, I can get very defensive and hurt” (“Twin Survey”). Instead, Alice urges parents to “Try your level best to make them believe you value them both equally” (“Twin Survey”). Excessive comparison and too much overlap in activities and interests can cause competiveness between twins. A little competition can be good “if it pushes one [twin] to excel” (“A Few Questions on Twins”). Twins, by nature, can motivate each other to do better and to try harder. Alice’s favorite thing about being a twin is “Always having someone there who can push you further than anyone else can” (“Twin Survey”). On the other hand, too much competition can cause trouble between twin’s relationships. “It is bad [for] . . . twins if they try to outdo one another” (“A Few Questions on Twins”). Competition is more intense for same gender twins and identical twins. Tommy Thompson said regarding competition with his twin that “in things that we are both good at it gets highly competitive” (“Twin Survey”). Sophie thought similarly, saying that “since we’re so alike, we end up liking the same things—like clothes, boys, etc. This creates tension to see who can get it first” (“Twin Survey”). Sophie and Amy are fraternal twins, although they look almost identical, which may make their level of competition higher.

Whereas comparison sets up twins against each other and can lead to competitiveness, the reverse problem is that twins are often treated as one unit. This is especially difficult for identical twins or twins that appear to be identical. Amy Adams said that many people see “us as the same people” (“Twin Survey”). Twins that are in the same community are often viewed as one person, rather than two individuals: “some people forget that twins also pursue individual hopes and dreams” (Entwined Lives 328). Justin Williams, twin of Mark, commented, “we attended the same school and therefore were always linked in people’s definition of us” (“Twin Survey”). Other people naturally “pay more attention to similarities than differences” (Rice). Parents do this unintentionally in many different situations: they make the twins share one set of toys, or buy them the same toys, or dress the twins alike. Parents may also assume that if one twin likes a food or an activity, the other twin feels the same way. In addition, parents might expect one to be good at something the other is good at, which is another form of comparison. Friends and acquaintances might often do the same thing, which denies the twins their individuality. Ashley Reed doesn’t like that “People categorize you as ‘one of the twins’ which kinda sucks” (“Twin Survey”). It is important, when dealing with twins, to treat them as individuals with their own unique abilities and preferences, so that “you will treat them fairly” (“Twin Issues”).

" All the reasons above contribute to twins struggle to develop an individual identity. This is a large problem for all twins, especially identical twins. Rice states that the main conflict within twin relationships is the struggle to create one’s identity. Identical DNA means that twins are “genetically programmed to have similar interests and likes” (Rice). The problem is humans by definition strive to be seen as their own person. Alice Holmes describes her feelings about individual identity; “Somewhere deep down, subconsciously, there is a desperate need to distinguish yourself from the other twin” (“Twin Survey”). Despite this need, this process of individuation is especially hard for twins who are so close to each other. Allison Sherman stated that “It can be hard to define yourself when you are so attached to someone else that is so similar to you” (“Twin Survey”). Jackie Reed also expressed the complications there can be in defining herself as an individual, adding that “It’s hard to find the line between being different and similar at the same time” (“Twin Survey”). Families with twins experience many struggles, as do the twins themselves. But the benefits to having twins and being a twin far outweigh the challenges. When twins are young, families struggle emotionally and physically when raising them; however, when the twins get older, families can have an easier time because the twins can take care of each other. School aged twins can amuse each other without the constant supervision of parents. Parents may feel more comfortable allowing teenaged

twins to do something together rather than a single child (Provo). Parents might be reluctant to letting a single child go to a concert alone or with friends, but more comfortable letting twins go. Trusting them together does guarantee safety, but it can guarantee they will look out for each other, even more than close friends would. Amy Adams said, “I feel the need to keep her on track [and] always want the best for her” (“Twin Survey”). But the biggest benefit to a family with twins is the uniqueness of their situation. Dennis Hartzell, father of nineteen-year-old fraternal twins, agreed that the “Challenges and difficulties are doubled with twins” but so are the “satisfaction and fulfillment” (Hartzell). He said having twins was “double the joy and double the excitement” (Hartzell). Non-twin siblings are often overlooked because of the twins’ high demands. This difficulty can prove beneficial because the non-twins can become more independent earlier. The non-twins can also become more dependable, contributing to the family rather than causing disruption. According to Provo, “these are all traits that can help somebody succeed better in life” (Provo). Morey Lipset, a sibling of seven-year-old twins, noted another benefit: “Having twin siblings gives you perspective on how people grow up. By seeing two children in very similar conditions became completely different people” (Lipset). The twins themselves benefit the most. From birth, twins develop a very close relationship with their twin. Some even de45

velop a special language between each other (Provo). This closeness leads to a highly sensitive empathy for one another. Diane Provo said, “Early on twins develop empathy; this could be called ultimate empathy because the twins are like one person” (Provo). This trait can help them be more empathetic to people around them. Allison Sherman noted, “I care about [my twin] a lot and it makes me understand how hard close relationships can be” (“Twin Survey”). Twins can be constant companions. They are rarely lonely. One twin, Amy Adams, described how she and her twin “are always going everywhere together, since day one we have not been apart” (“Twin Survey”). Mark Williams described one of the benefits of being a twin: “Always having someone your own age with a similar level of maturity that you can share interests with” (“Twin Survey”). Twins also support each other. Ashley Reed said her favorite thing about being a twin is having “Someone who always has your back that you can tell almost everything and receive help from” (“Twin Survey”). Ashley also discussed how twins often encourage each other: “They give you the reassurance that you need” (“Twin Survey”). This support can be very powerful, coming from a peer with intimate knowledge of one’s dreams and aspirations. A twin usually wants the best for his or her twin. Clara Miller said, “I want her to be happy and successful, and I try to make sure that happens” (“Twin Survey”). The support from a twin can help a twin do better in many things, including academics. Twins can share notes and help each other study.

Where one twin struggles with certain subjects, the other twin may be able to help them. Alice said directly, “I would say my twin has very much been useful in maintaining my level of academic success and I have done the same for him in return” (“Twin Survey”). This support can be especially useful when one twin is going through a hard time. Sophie Adams describes the value of this support: “Just having someone there, having a good friend that I know will never leave me and will be with me until the end” (“Twin Survey”). Although a twin cannot always fix a problem situation, he can always listen and comfort his twin better than anybody else could. A twin knows “you better than anybody else does or ever could” (“Twin Survey”). This can be helpful whenever a twin is disappointed with a grade, does not make the sports team they were hoping to, or goes through a tough break up. Having a twin by your side helps with all the difficulties of growing up. A sibling relationship of any kind, especially that of twins, is “life’s most influential and longest lasting relationship” (“The Joys and Complexities”). John Anderson thinks it is good to have someone “to endure being a teen and handle our parents with” (“Twin Survey”). In addition to the emotional benefits, there is a significant physical benefit in being a twin. Because of their similar or identical genetics, twins are able to donate tissue in case of illness. Provo, the educational consultant, asserts, “If one twin gets sick 46

and needs a blood transfusion or bone marrow transplant, the twins can, in this way, support each other’s physically health” (Provo). This benefit is even more relevant today because of modern medical advancements. For many twins this issue does not come up, but if it does, having a twin can enable one to survive. This medical benefit is not the main value in being a twin. Having a lifelong companion, confidant, and supporter are the most valuable aspects to twinship. While not all twins are close, Segal writes, “Most twins treasure their mutual trust and companionship” (Entwined Lives 328). Ashley Reed commented that “it is pretty cool to have someone around all the time that you can talk to” while Allison Sherman admitted, “We don’t always talk but when we do I have the best time” (“Twin Survey”). Jackie Reed gave specifics about the quality of her bond with her twin: “Having the same sense of humor, same likes, and always being able to hang out and do crazy stuff with them” (“Twin Survey”). Having a twin may make handling life’s difficulties easier: “I think that having someone to face the world with you might make you try to survive . . . if not for your sake but for the sake of your other” (“Twin Survey”). In fact, there is evidence that twins have a lower suicide rate than non-twins because of the mutual support they provide (“Loss of a Twin”). The overall tone from the research and the twin survey is that twins cherish the fact that they are twins. One twin even said, “I couldn’t imagine life without my brother” (“Twin Survey”). Alice spoke for herself

and for many other twins when she wrote, “Being a twin makes you...more perplexing. Unique. . . . It's a comforting thought that you never will be all alone” (“Twin Survey”). The birth of twins creates complicated dynamics for everyone in the family. Having twins, especially when they are younger, is time consuming and exhausting for parents. Non-twin siblings can often be left out. The twins themselves may struggle in many ways. The natural dependency on one another can lead to separation anxiety. Twins naturally feel sympathy and compassion for each other, which can lead to excessive empathy or feeling too much responsibility for the other. Twins are often compared to one another and this can lead to high levels of competition. Twins are often treated as a set which can make it hard for each twin to attain an individual identity. Though families and twins struggle, they both benefit from the experience. Families may experience less hardship when the twins are older; the twins can amuse each other and often look out for each other. The non-twin siblings may become more independent, something which may help them in the long run. Lastly, the twins themselves gain a lifelong companion. Having someone to grow up with and help with that process enriches one’s life immeasurably. Despite all the challenges of being a twin, most twins cherish their special status. When asked if she considers her twin her best friend, Ashley said, “I don’t call [her] ‘my best friend’ but you know [she] is” (“Twin Survey”). 47

Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge Maggy Hughes, Craig Butz, and Shannon Forman for editing my paper and giving me their thoughts on it. I would also like to acknowledge William Hunscher and Thomas Ryan for peer editing my paper as well as Darcy Groves and Seline Zhao for giving me feedback. Additionally, I would like to acknowledge Diane Provo for taking time to allow me to interview her, and the same for Dennis Hartzell and Jeff Mezzocchi. Also, I would like to acknowledge all the twins at the Bay School as well as many of their twins that go to different schools for filling out my survey; then Camden and Darien McMillan for allowing me to follow up with them and interview them in person. I would also like to acknowledge sources that I did not meet in person, but contacted in some other way that were just as helpful with my research: Morey Lipset and Nancy Segal.

Works Cited Hartzell, Dennis. Personal Interview. 5 Feb. 2013. Klein, Barbara. “Twin Issues.” Barbara Klein, Ph.D., 2005. Web. 16 Dec. 2012. Klein, Barbara. Not All Twins Are Alike. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2003. Print.

Lipset, Morey. “Interview for Research Class.” Personal Email. 4 Feb. 2013. Martin, Joyce A., Brady E. Hamilton, and Michelle J.K. Osterman. “Three Decades of Twin Births in the United States, 1980–2009.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics, 4 Jan. 2012. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. Mezzocchi, Jeff. Personal Interview. 24 Jan. 2013. Miller, Clara. Personal Interview. 23 Jan. 2013. Miller, Dakota. Personal Interview. 23 Jan. 2013. Miller, Peter. "A Thing or Two About Twins." National Geographic Magazine. Jan. 2012: 38-65. Print. Provo, Diane. Personal interview. 29 Dec. 2012. Rice, Jessica. “Twins: The Struggle for Individuality.” Research in the Community Vol. 3. Issuu, 2010-2011. 258-260. Web. Segal, Nancy. “A Few Questions on Twins.” Personal Email. 2 Feb. 2013. Segal, Nancy. Entwined Lives: Twins and What They Tell Us About Human Behavior. New York: Plume, 1999. Print.

Segal, Nancy. “Fraternal Twins—The Hidden Pairs.” Psychology Today. Twofold, 2008. Web. 20 Dec. 2012. Segal, Nancy. “Loss of a Twin.” Psychology Today. Twofold, 2009. Web. 20 Dec. 2012. “The Joys and Complexities of Sibling Relationships.” Adoption.com. Adoption Media. Web. 5 Jan. 2013. “Twins Survey.” Survey Response. 16 Jan. 2013.

John Henry Frankel

Piracy Killed the Radio Star: Solutions and Sociology of Online Music Piracy Piracy has become a major issue in the music community. Whether it comes from a file sharing website or CD downloading, it has detrimental effects for the artist and the record label that has paid to have the artist produced. With less money in the hands of the record labels, less artists get promoted and produced. With dwindling sales and jobs, many musicians have to find alternate solutions to the problem of piracy. This affects the individual because less money means less music to listen to. Most pirates are average people, who simply pirate because it is convenient, and not through any malicious intent. What they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t understand is that they are contributing to the loss of music, and the hurting of artists. This is especially ironic be-

cause people pirate from artists that they like, and so hurting some of their favorite musicians. Through varied solutions such as pay-what-you-want albums and easier music distribution, artists are managing to stay musicians, instead of waiters. While online music piracy is becoming an increasingly large issue in the music community, many available solutions are emerging for artists to employ. However, for the music industry to continue producing great new music, piracy needs to be slowed or even stopped. Piracy comes from many different sources. The first of which are peer to peer file sharing websites, sometimes referred to as P2Ps. These are websites that people can upload files to, as well as download files from, usually all completely free. This is piracy because the people who both upload and download files are doing so without the artist or bandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s permission. And by downloading a file instead of buying it, people who download songs on these sites are robbing the creator of the song. Some notable file sharing sites are The Pirate Bay, Kazaa, and Limewire, and P2P file sharing websites encompass about 45% of internet traffic (RIAA). Another form of piracy is downloading from YouTube. There are many sites that can take songs from YouTube and convert them into MP3 files. This is very easy access piracy, as almost all songs can be found on YouTube. All these forms of piracy, while illegal, are easy access. People can

very easily download a song, and not think twice about it, and this spells out bad news for the musician who made it. Another form of piracy is where the person doesn’t know they are stealing. Anyone who steals without realizing it is just as legally vulnerable as someone who steals and knows that it is piracy. One early source of this was Napster, which sold songs without the permission of the artist or band. The RIAA, or the Record Industry Association of America, an organization dedicated to protecting the musicians, has decided to take action against the pirates. They started a campaign of lawsuits, suing random people who had downloaded from Napster. While some people knew it was piracy, some didn’t, and this became a problem when they sued young children, who had no idea what they were doing was wrong, for thousands of dollars. Another form of unknowing piracy is CD sharing. This is when people make multiple copies of CD’s and sell them, or when people download music from CD’s that aren’t theirs. One San Francisco teenager takes out music CDs from the library, and downloads them to her computer. This by itself is ok, but when she returns the CD, she keeps the file on her computer, and sometimes transfers them to her iPod. She isn’t malicious, but she could be sued for copyright infringement by any of the musicians who’s CD she downloaded, because “Ignorance of the law is no excuse,” (Bloom). Situations like this are common, which shows that people don’t understand what piracy is and what it isn’t. By simply raising awareness of what piracy is, and legal ways to

get music, piracy can be lessened. While this doesn’t affect people who know what they’re doing, this small chunk of pirates, the unwitting ones, can be whittled down until there is no more of it by simply telling people about what they’re doing and what they can do instead. Piracy in the U.S. has caused an aggravated response from the RIAA. In the U.S., piracy has been very harmful to the music sector of the economy, which in turn has been negative for the economy in general. Piracy costs the U.S. over 70,000 jobs per year, meaning everyone from musicians to copyright lawyers are out of jobs. One part of the music industry that has been hit hard is the record stores. They have been losing money consistently (Zentner), and over 800 were shut down in just three years in the mid 2000s (Wooley). These are mostly middle class people, some who have families they have to support. Not only does piracy lose the U.S. many jobs, but it has also causes the loss of more than a billion dollars every year in the economy. These severe losses have led to massive RIAA lawsuits. The RIAA has sued many randomly-selected individuals who download from file-sharing sites, using their ISP provider to track them. The RIAA first started out with college students, suing them for around 17,500 per track. These were usually settled out of court. The suits have increased in amount, until people were sometimes being sued for more than 150,000 per track, and with multiple tracks downloaded, this can lead to a multi-hundred thousand dollar lawsuit (RIAA). Most of these 51

suits have been settled out of court for a few thousand dollars, with many people unwilling to risk the massive suits facing them. Even settling out of court, however, is a problem for many people, who can’t afford to pay even the few thousand dollars (Kravets). Widespread piracy in the U.S. has caused many lawsuits, which are often very harmful for the people who pirate music. While this is a solution to piracy, it is too harsh and shouldn’t be employed as often or with as much monetary impact as it is. In Europe, countries such as Sweden are finding anti-piracy strategies and are using them to effect. Only about 15 percent of people in Europe use P2P sites (International), but around 95% of downloads are illegal (“Business”). These factors have led to the decline in the music sector by more than a third in many European countries. Lawsuits are less effective as well, due to their expensive and time-consuming nature. Two countries that have been affected less by piracy, however, are Germany and Sweden. Due to Germany’s cheap and efficient legal system, there have been more than 100,000 prosecutions, and the number of illegal downloaders is down to 6%. In Sweden, shutting down the website The Pirate Bay, as well as requiring ISPs (Internet Service Providers) to give away more information about pirates, has led to a 60% decrease (“Business”). These changes have been beneficial to Sweden’s and Germany’s music sector, and the amount of signed artists there are growing.

Some European countries, however, are facing much worse trends in music sectors. In France, for instance, the amount of signed artists is down by 60% since 2001, partly because 25 percent of the people download music illegally. Another one of the worst places for musicians is Spain. In Spain, the culture has a very relaxed attitude towards piracy, and a whopping 32 percent of people use P2P sites. This has led to the Spanish music industry dropping 1/3 in the past 10 years, which means very few signed Spanish artists. In fact, there has been a 65% decrease in local artists in the top 50 charts in Spain since 2001 (International). All these different countries show the extreme variability in what can happen with piracy. In some cases, it can be all but eradicated. In others, it can take hold in the culture of a country and destroy most of the local music. These are just some of the varied effects piracy can have on countries and cultures, but some people still believe that piracy is socially acceptable or even a morally good practice. Despite several legitimately good reasons to pirate, there are many reasons that are thought of as good but are actually not. One pro is that piracy gives people easy access to old or obscure music. Legitimate music sources don’t have every song. This means that to get the remix of a remix of a remix of an already obscure song, many people look to piracy sites. Also, many old pieces of music are not on legitimate music sources either, leading people to look for them elsewhere (Clemmitt). If people don’t have easy access to the music they want to listen 52

to on legitimate music sources, they turn to illegitimate ones. Another pro is that many people believe that piracy really has no economic effect. According to Cato Institute Research Fellow Julian Sanchez, 80 people wouldn’t spend their money on the album if they couldn’t pirate it. The other 20%, according to him, would just spend their money somewhere else, which, although detrimental to the music sector, wouldn’t be harmful to the U.S. economy in general. According to his study, artists are losing only one fifth of what they say they are losing, and there is no overall effect to the U.S. economy because of piracy (Clemmitt). Another reason for piracy is that people are upset about the RIAA lawsuits, and don’t want to give money back to the people who have sued them personally, people they know, or just been overzealous with lawsuits in general. Many of this resentment towards the RIAA and the music industry comes from people sometimes believe that the music industry owes them something. This comes from several sources. One of which is the RIAA suits against very poor families, who can’t even afford several thousand dollars in which to settle out of court (RIAA). Another source is resentment at the switch from vinyl to CD. Some people had to replace their entire collection, a costly endeavor that they could have deemed unnecessary (Horne). While resentment of the music industry, belief that piracy isn’t harmful, and trying to find obscure music are all reasons that people pirate, the main reason that most people use is that piracy is free,

and easy (International). People don’t want to have to pay for songs, and piracy is so incredibly easy to do on the internet, that they have the access to. There also aren’t a lot of inherent risks from pirating, and people are often stingy with money when they can be. These are all reasons why people pirate, but with no moral context, it makes piracy seem like something only cheapos and music-haters do. This is, in fact, false, as piracy is committed by a large portion of morally upright people. To really understand why people pirate and what can be done about it, the morals of piracy need to be understood. While there are many reasons why people pirate, there are only a few when it comes to why they feel morally upright about their decision to pirate. The first of these reasons is cynicism. According to a study done in part by Darryl J. Wooley, people who are more cynical are more willing to pirate music, and most college students think that it is acceptable to pirate music. These are both true in part because piracy is generally socially acceptable (Wooley). When people tell other people that they’ve pirated music, they aren’t treated like criminals. Instead, it’s just treated like a normal, everyday occurrence. Another factor is that antipiracy ad campaigns have little effect (Wooley). One ineffective anti-piracy ad was the Swedish “Piracy Kills Music”. It was has been parodied with “Piracy Kills No Music” and “Piracy Creates Music,” and had little effect on the people who saw it (Spilker). If these ads targeted the perception of piracy instead of just say53

ing that it was wrong, they might be taken more seriously and have a more lasting impact on whether people pirate or not. Another reason for people feeling morally upright about their piracy is how they justify what they are doing (Bonner). People do this many different ways. The first of these ways is the line of thought that “just by downloading this person’s music, their name is getting out there, so I’m actually helping them,” (Bonner). This is one of the more incorrect thoughts that people could have about downloading music. If one pirate tells two pirates about a great new artist, each of which who tells two more, who tell two more, who tell two more, you eventually have a thousand pirates who have all downloaded the song, but the artist still makes no money! Another justification, this one more subconscious, is that piracy is the theft of a “sales opportunity” instead of taking an actual physical item, so it doesn’t feel like theft (Wooley). This is wrong as well, because the song a musician has made is their artistic property. If someone takes it without compensation, it counts as theft just as much as stealing a car would. Another common thing heard when discussing whether music piracy is morally upright or not is “I only download songs from big-name, multi-platinum superstars.” While this makes people feel better about what they’re doing, it actually isn’t much better than pirating from the less well known musicians. This is for several reasons. The first of which is that even superstars generally make less money than they say. This is especially true with the rap genre, as a main component of it

is describing how incredibly wealthy the rapper is. This is usually exaggerated, either to look cool or for comedic purposes. Not every rapper has a gold plated Ferrari, and it’s naïve to use that logic as a basis for morally pirating music. The other reason is that the money made from the music doesn’t go to just one person. Generally, the more popular and more produced a piece of music is, the more people have worked on it before it’s released. In fact, the teams can be very extensive, including engineers, marketing teams, sound technicians, songwriters, talent scouts, producers, computer technicians, as well as the main recording artist (Clemmitt). This means that every dollar spent on music is split up into many parts, so by pirating from the platinum superstar, you’re also pirating from the middle class sound technician trying to support a family. All these means of justifying piracy, if thought about, are actually unfounded. This means that there’s no way to hide behind morals when it comes to piracy.

To combat their losses due to piracy, there are many solutions that can help artists make up the deficit. One of the most well known solutions was the Radiohead album In Rainbows. This album was released in the pay-what-you-want model, which means that instead of giving a set price, they gave customers a chance to pay whatever they want for the album. Not only was the pay-what-you-want model unique at the time, but Radio54

head also did many things differently with this album than other commercial albums did. The first was that they just released it on their website, not through any other legitimate music sources such as iTunes or Amazon. They also didn’t have a record label at the time of the album release, a rare event for a band as commercially successful as Radiohead. On the website, there was a button that said “normal price”. When clicked on, all it said was “it’s really up to you.” (Time). When announced, the solution was not received well, as it seemed like a great way to make no money on an album. However, this was proven wrong. The formula worked very well, and it quickly became Radiohead’s bestselling album to date. The psychology behind this is that people actually generally felt guilty not paying anything for the album, so they usually paid the equal amount or more than they would pay for a normal album (Time). Another strategy to make more money, or halt piracy, is the twoband price, named for how there are two different prices at different times. Using this method, an album is first released with a lower price, with an obvious end time for when the price would go up to the normal album price. This can help accommodate for lower-income people who can’t afford higher priced albums, and the presence of a deal lures many people to buy it who wouldn’t normally (Khouja). A third strategy is actually many minor strategies, all employed by the band OK Go, to squeeze money out of albums that barely make them anything. First of all, OK Go built the world’s

largest Rube Goldberg machine, a machine that uses cool and complicated mechanisms to complete a very simple task, and used it in a music video. This helps bring in money by views from YouTube, tours of the machine, and word of mouth recognition (people saying to their friends “check out this crazy YouTube video!”). A more widely accessible strategy OK Go employs is to sell t-shirts and other band paraphernalia at tours and on their website. This is an easy way for bands to make a little bit more money because people love gear representing their favorite music, and this gear is easy to manufacture and sell for a profit (Carnes). OK Go has incorporated several different strategies to make more money than just by selling albums, which a great thing for beginning musicians to do to counter the effects of piracy. Another way more money has been found for bands and artists is increasing ticket sales. This is an indirect effect of piracy, just because as the musicians struggle to make money, they try to find it somewhere else. One extreme example of using tours instead of albums is what the artist Prince did for his “Mail on Sunday” album. He released it completely free, which was initially criticized, but then he sold out every venue on his next tour (Time). There are also ways in which companies can restrict piracy while providing a legal music source. The obvious ones are sources like Spotify and Pandora, where there’s easy, legal, and free access to a huge amount of streamed music. Another one, less well known in the U.S., is the Danish telecom TBC. 55

TBC has offered a music service which gives users access to download some 5 million songs with a subscription, which serves as a easy way to get legal song downloads. The catch, however, is if the subscription expires, the downloaded files “self destruct” and become unplayable. This is good for the industry because it gives cheap access to downloadable files, and TBC likes this because it promotes loyalty to their company (“Business”). All these solutions can and should be applied to the music sector, in hopes of stopping piracy. While the solutions employed by the artist are generally just about making more money, when combined with the legal music sites, piracy can be lessened and the artists can make enough to continue practicing their art. Piracy is a practice that we need to cut out of our systems, if not for ethical reasons, for selfish ones. Less money in the music sector means less artists, and less artists means less music for us to listen to and enjoy. One easy way that we can help stop piracy is by promoting awareness. Most people don’t know that pirating steals money from other people than the main recording artist, or even that piracy equals less music for them to enjoy and listen to. It’s ironic, because “the more people like music, the more likely they are to pirate,” and “the more people listen to music, the more they pirate,” (Bonner). When people pirate, they do it from artists they like. It’s as if someone only steals cars from their friends and family. The music that moves you, that you talk about, is the music you download. This is

irony at its finest, and people need to understand this. Even if you’re cynical, and don’t care that you’re hurting the artist, you should stop pirating for selfish reasons. If your favorite artist can’t make enough money, they’ll stop making music (Bloom). This is the same for artists. The artists have to be vigilant about their music, try to stop it from being pirated if they can, and try to employ solutions so that they can stay in business. Piracy and the state of the music industry have many people worried if music will stay so widespread, and if artists will be able to support themselves as artists instead of gardeners or waiters. However, the music sector will grow back, as more anti-piracy strategies are employed and people realize that they shouldn’t pirate. In conclusion, “nobody can turn off the music, because the music is within us.” (Bloom.)

Works Cited Bonner, Steven, and Eleanor O'Higgins. "Music Piracy: Ethical Perspectives." Management Decision 48.9 (2010): 1341-54. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 19 Dec. 2012. "Business: Singing a Different Tune; Music Piracy." The Economist Nov 14 2009: 73-4. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 19 Dec. 2012 . Carnes, Rick. "The Reduced Focus on Recording Is a Loss to Music." The Music Industry. Ed. Noah Berlatsky. Detroit: Green-

haven Press, 2012. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. Clemmitt, Marcia. "Internet Regulation." CQ Researcher 13 Apr. 2012: 325-48. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. Cook, Nicholas. Music: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Print Geigner, Tim. "Musicians Will Continue to Record Great Music." The Music Industry. Ed. Noah Berlatsky. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2012. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. Greenblatt, Alan. "Future of the Music Industry." CQ Researcher 21 Nov. 2003: 989-1012. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. Horne, Alistair. "Sour notes: Alistair Horne on what publishing can learn from the music industry's mistakes." The Bookseller 23 July 2010: 19. Literature Resource Center. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). "Illegal File Sharing Hurts Musicians and Society." The Music Industry. Ed. Noah Berlatsky. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2012. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 7 Jan. 2013.

Khouja, M., and H. K. Rajagopalan. "Can Piracy Lead to Higher Prices in the Music and Motion Picture Industries?" The Journal of the Operational Research Society 60.3 (2009): 372-83. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 19 Dec. 2012. Kravets, David. "Copyright Lawsuits Plummet in Aftermath of RIAA Campaign | Threat Level | Wired.com." wired.com . N.p., 18 May 2010. Web. 14 Jan. 2013. <http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/05/riaa-bump/>. Lessig, Lawrence. Free Culture: The Nature and Future of Creativity. New York, New York: Penguin Books, 2004. Print McKelvey, Seth. "After Napster: more piracy, better music?" Reason Mar. 2012: 14.Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. "RIAA v. The People: Five Years Later." Electronic Frontier Foundation. Electronic Frontier Foundation, 30 Sept. 2008. Web. 14 Jan. 2013. <https://www.eff.org/wp/riaa-v-people-five-years-later>. Spilker, Hendrik Storstein. "The network studio revisited: becoming an artist in the age of 'piracy cultures'." International journal of communication [Online] (2012): 773+. Literature Resource Center. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. Woolley, Darryl J. "The Cynical Pirate: How Cynicism Effects Music Piracy." Academy of Information and Management Sci57

ences Journal 13.1 (2010): 31-43. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 19 Dec. 2012. Zentner, Alejandro. "File-Sharing Copyrighted Music Hurts Music Sales."Â Copyright Infringement. Ed. Roman Espejo. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2009. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 7 Jan. 2013

Reika Goh

What if you Woke Up on the Other Side of the World? As I sat by my desk with tears pouring down my face, I screamed at my parents who could only stand by and watch me weep. I choked through tears telling them how much I hated San Francisco. I didn't want to be here. I wanted to be back in Cambodia with all my close friends. I hated my school, the people, my new house. In fact, if you asked me three years ago how I felt about a certain something in San Francisco, I could point out something I did not like about it. I was in a new environment and culture. I did not know what "hella" was or what happened on the recent Pretty Little Liars TV series. All my life, I had grown up in Asia and although I was excited to move to America, it was much different from what I had expected. I turned from an optimist to a pessimist over the first few months after my arrival. It was a new turn in life and I was definitely not liking it. I was going through the Third Culture Kid grief. The term Third Culture Kid (TCK), was created by sociologist and anthropologist Ruth Hill Useem in the early 1950s (You

Know you're a TCK when...). A Third Culture Kid is a child who has grown up spending their developmental years in countries and cultures other than their own. Although the life of a Third Culture Kid sounds similar to an immigrant's, they are different, as Third Culture Kids are expected to return to their passport country (Pollock and Van Reken). While the Third Culture Kid is the main term, other terms like Global Nomads, Trans-culture Kid, and 3CK are used as well. The reason why the term is Third Culture Kid is according to David Pollock and Van Reken, the authors of Third Culture Kids Growing Up Among Worlds decided that Third Culture Kids worldwide shared a third culture of leading an international lifestyle. The first culture is one's home culture, the second, is the host, while the third culture is the shared commonalities of people who lead international lifestyles (Pollock and Van Reken). Third Culture Kids may lead very privileged lives due to their parents' careers and affluence, but when it is time to return home, it is the hardest relocation. The parents of Third Culture Kids are either diplomats, military officials, missionaries, journalists, or people who run international businesses (Schuler). Because these parents are usually posted by their companies or governments, Third Culture Kids lead very privileged lives (Lewis). Their school fees are usually subsidized by their parents' employers and some of them have chauffeurs and maids that serve them (Schuler). 59

Though they often move about every two to three years and grow up in worlds other than their own, Third Culture Kids are expected and will eventually go back home, which, can be the hardest relocation (Sichel). It is the hardest because they face what is called the "identity blur" it is when they feel out of sync among their peers and feel that they do not belong in their home country. Although moving back home is the toughest relocation, it is always difficult during each move. These relocations can cause a Third Culture Kid to go through depression due to their exposure to new and different cultures, making transitions to their new environment much harder and perplexing. Although leading the Third Culture Kid life comes with the struggles of experiencing culture shock, exclusion and identity blurs, Third Culture Kids have the opportunities to explore and learn about different cultures and lifestyles of the world, benefiting them in the long run. In order to receive firsthand information and experiences from Third Culture Kids, I have conducted eight interviews. On Skype, I interviewed three students overseas (currently residing in Cambodia, Australia, and The Netherlands) and five from The Bay School of San Francisco. The interviewees shared their experiences and stories, how they coped with any mental or emotional struggles, and the pros and cons of leading a Third Culture Kid lifestyle. Although most of them shared the ways they coped with grief, one wanted to keep that private. While most had said that they encountered difficulties when relo-

cating, they were all willing to share their experiences and stories. While Third Culture Kids might have a privileged lifestyle and are able to travel the world and gain firsthand experiences, there are many disadvantages to being one and many problems and difficulties to face, such as "culture shock". Culture shock is when one experiences an unfamiliar culture where people might live differently, have a different set of morals and values or have different customs. One of the interviewees, Genevieve Gibbings, a half British, half Cambodian, who is currently residing in Australia, said that one of the biggest culture shocks she faced was moving to the Middle East. She was exposed to many of the Muslim customs where she learned that people prayed five times a day and fasted during Ramadan. Although Genevieve found that a bit odd, her family fasted along with the people during Ramadan, out of respect for their customs. Another interviewee, Tabitha Payne, a half Filipina, half American who is currently residing in Cambodia, said that she experienced culture shock in the United States where she said that, "Americans are immodest. They strut around in their bikinis at the water park. They aren't even at the beach!" In addition to experiencing different social customs, Wali Kamp, a Bay School student from the Netherlands, shared his story about his language barrier. When Wali moved to the United States in fourth grade, he could not speak a word of English. For the first six months at public school, he could not speak English or commu60

nicate with his peers. Not only did the language barrier affect his ability to communicate and learn, the different education system also made the transition harder. Because that Wali was so foreign and different from the rest of his peers, he was the laughing stock of his class. The way people treated him and the difficulties in transitioning to a different education system, caused him to transfer to a total of four schools before finally settling down at The Bay School of San Francisco. While other interviewees didn't go through as harsh experiences due to language barriers and different education systems, one of them was impacted by the different vibe he received from the new environment. Chris Vale, an American student who also attends The Bay School, said that when he moved to Switzerland after living in Bangalore, India, for a year, he felt weird not being in a noisy environment and having to always be alert. He remembered feeling very nervous on the highway in Switzerland since the cars did not go at such high speeds. Even subtle things such as the ones pointed out by Chris, can cause an impact. While these are only a few examples from the interviewees, there are other experiences of culture shock such as learning about peoples' different morals or values, the way they might dress, they way they behave or react to certain things, and even small and usually unnoticeable social customs like eating with different utensils or pronouncing a word slightly differently. As mentioned before, a Third Culture Kid's hardest relocation is usually back to their passport country, where they might encoun-

ter an "identity blur" and lose their sense of belonging. Since each Third Culture Kid's experience is different, depending on how long the family lives in the previous country, author of Children on the Move: Third Culture Kids, Warna D. Gillies said it affects TCKs' feeling of ownership and membership in multiple cultures. Families on short-term assignments, for example, may stay one to two years in their new assignment before returning to their country of origin. They may view their posting as an adventure, and therefore have few difficulties in adjusting (Gillies). The term for experiencing the adjustment to one's home country, is "reversed culture shock". In the interviews conducted, it seemed that the more countries or moves the person made, the less they felt like they belonged to their passport country. Having lived in three countries, Kiyona Mizuno, a half Japanese, half American student at The Bay School said, "When moving around, you don't feel like you fit in any of those countries. We try to identify where we fit in. It's hard. You feel like a part of all of them, but you feel like a part of a different country when you're in your home country." It is common for Third Culture Kids to face identity blurs since they have been raised in different cultures and environments. Genevieve, for one, doesn't feel that Australia, her passport country, is her home. She feels that wherever her family is, or wherever there is a community of Third Culture Kids (international schools), that is where home 61

is. In some other cases, for people who have already lived and settled back in their home countries during the teen years (where they start to develop their sense of identity) such as Chris Vale (who has lived in London, India, Switzerland, and visited countries worldwide), Arel Wiederholt-Kassar (who has lived in Spain), and Andreas Balslev (who has lived in Switzerland, England, and Denmark), they feel that America is their home and that the previous countries they lived in are considered their second home. While Third Culture Kids do go through identity blurs and reversed culture shock, it is harder for the ATCKs (Adult Third Culture Kids), as when they begin to have their own careers and lifestyles, they tend to get confused by where they belong or what they should do. Having to move every three years or so, Third Culture Kids tend to get lonely and are impacted heavily by the relocations. Third Culture Kids know that they are always on the move, so they build up walls and lose certain important skills such as avoiding "interpersonal problems, side-stepping potential conflicts because they know the problem will 'go away.' After all, they will be moving soon" (Gillies). With that kind of mindset, Third Culture Kids often feel friendless and are deprived of the practice of having long interpersonal relationships, which is an important life skill (according to AWAL: A World In a Lifetime) (Schuler). Without this important

life skill, Third Culture Kids find it hard to commit to people, places and schools (Lewis). During each move, Third Culture Kids lose their friends in the previous country and have to restart the whole process of familiarizing themselves in their new surroundings. Not only do they miss their friends, but they also miss their homes and the previous country's vibe and culture. Because that they are often rushed to think ahead about their new destination and have no time to "contemplate" their losses, "They cycle through the stages of grief each time they move -or they don't, and push it down, submerge it, only to have it bubble up later in life, unexplained" (Sichel). When a Third Culture Kid moves, even if it may be beneficial, "Loss always engenders grief and the greater you have loved a situation or place or people, the greater the grief" (Van Reken). In addition to their losses, when Third Culture Kids are in a new environment such as a school with a pop culture unknown to them, they start to feel very self conscious and out of place as they struggle to fit in. Although Third Culture Kids can voice out their emotions, they usually don't as others "did not recognize the trauma of uprooting and cultural dislocation, because many aspects of this were beyond their own experience and, thus, their ability to comprehend" (Seaman). Because that peers around them have not gone through the same experiences, Third Culture Kids would not talk about their stories or experiences as they know that their peers would not understand. 62

Being in a new location with no friends to voice out to, a Third Culture Kid can only share these emotions with their family or cope in their own ways. My interviewees have said that they have faked sick and skipped school, blamed their parents for their struggles, have had suicidal thoughts, transferred schools, felt insecure, and demoralized. Arel Wiederholt-Kassar and Chris Vale would distract themselves from their struggles by engaging in activities that they loved such as playing soccer and reading up science books. Genevieve Gibbings said that she tried to make biracial friends, as she felt that they were more exposed to another culture, and were more worldly than others. If Third Culture Kids aren't given time to grieve and contemplate their losses, their mental struggles can worsen and cause them more problems in the future. Without friends or anyone to talk to, most times, Third Culture Kids have to cope with their own struggles such as finding a way to communicate with others or by observing and living similarly to the local culture. Most of the Third Culture Kids I interviewed said that they communicated with their parents and siblings a lot, and because of that, Third Culture Kids' families tend to be closer (Gillies). Another common way to cope is to stay in touch with friends living in their previous country. Because of how close-minded Genevieve thought of her peers, she would try to make friends who were biracial or have visited other countries, because they had a more "worldly" view than others. Tabitha would try to ease things by making jokes about being a

Third Culture Kid. A way Third Culture Kids cope with their insecurities is when settling or fitting in within the new environment, they are very observant, as they try to dress similarly, adopt local customs and try to get "in" with the pop culture. To lessen or prevent the painful and stressful grieving period, Third Culture Kids should keep an optimistic mind, try to communicate with others, find a time to say proper goodbyes, and be resilient of their own emotions. In addition to interviewing Third Culture Kids on how they coped with their grieves, I interviewed a therapist, Victoria Vogel, for professional advice. Although Vogel has not worked with Third Culture Kids before, she helps people who suffer from depression and grief. When I interviewed her, I shared my interviewees' and my experiences and stories with her. In return, she kindly gave some advice on how Third Culture Kids can cope with their emotional struggles. One of the first and main advice Victoria gave was to maintain a strong bond with one's parents. Third Culture Kids need to have their parents as an anchor so that they are there for their children and are able to hear them out. In addition to having a strong bond with one's parents, Third Culture Kids should make use of today's modern technology by keeping in touch with old friends. They can also try to find other Third Culture Kids who are going through the same experiences by joining forums online, or by visiting blogs and sites such as denizenmag.com, a website where Third Culture Kids all over the world share interesting stories, experiences and advice. Other than forming a 63

strong bond with one's parents and by using the internet, Third Culture Kids can gain help own their own as well. Third Culture Kids can practice to be mindful and to go inward to control their thought patterns. By being mindful and aware of how one is feeling, Third Culture Kids can try to keep an optimistic mind. In addition to having a positive attitude, Third Culture Kids can also join therapy groups with other teenagers or even have "therapy sessions" with other Third Culture Kids, by having the time to talk about their grief and problems. While the sound of leading the Third Culture Kid life sounds stressful and sad, there comes many benefits and rewards to being one. A Third Culture Kid is very lucky and privileged to travel the world and gain firsthand experiences. Like Genevieve Gibbings said, "we get to learn and see the way other people live. What kind of jobs they have and what they do in their daily lives. We also learn how different their lives are compared to ours." Third Culture Kids also develop an open mind. They learn to accept, respect and admire the variety and differences in the lifestyles of people all over the world. By being exposed to different languages, Third Culture Kids are also given opportunities to be multilingual. Because of how well-traveled they are and the experiences they go through ,Third Culture Kids "are among the most adaptable, empathetic group of people around" (Nadeau). Third Culture Kids are able to understand the hardships of life, have gained social skills when meeting new people, and are usually not prejudiced.

While there are many difficulties and struggles faced in being a Third Culture Kid, all interviewees and I have agreed that even though we bump into many obstacles in our lives, it is definitely worth being a Third Culture Kid, as the benefits outweigh the cons.

Works Cited Balslev, Andreas. Personal Interview. 18 Jan 2013. Corinna Schuler Contributor to The Christian,Science Monitor. "When no Place Feels Like Home ; US Students Schooled Abroad often Gain the World - but Sometimes Lose their Bearings." The Christian Science Monitor: 14. Dec 23 2003.National Newspapers Core. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. Dolby, Nadine, and Aliya Rahman. "Research in International Education." Review of Educational Research 78.3 (2008): 676-726. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.(Pros and Cons getting an International Education). Dubbeldam, Tim. Internet Videoconference Interview. 15 Jan 2013. Gibbings, Genevieve. Internet Videoconference Interview. 23 Dec 2012.

Gillies, Warna D. "Third Culture Kids." Childhood Education 75.1 (1998): 36-8. ProQuest " Research Library. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.

Sheard, Wenda. "Lessons from our Kissing Cousins: Third Culture Kids and Gifted Children." Roeper Review 30.1 (2008): 31-8. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.

Janssen, Linda A. . "Emotional resilience in expat life: Identity & the expat."I am Expat in the Netherlands - For expats of all colours, shapes & sizes.Web. 7 Jan. 2013. <http://www.iamexpat.nl/read-and-discuss/expat-page/articles/e motional-resilience-in-expat-life-identity-the-expat>.

"TCKID: What is a Third Culture Kid? (TCKs)." TCKID: A Home for Third Culture Kids and Adults (TCKs). Web. 7 Jan. 2013. <http://tckid.com/what-is-a-tck.html#chara>.

Kamp, Wali. Personal Interview. 11 Jan 2013. Mizuno, Kiyona. Personal Interview. 27 Dec 2012. Nadeau, Barbie. "Always Home; Studies show that Expat Kids are among the most Adaptable in the World." Newsweek Jan 27 2003: 52-. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 18 Dec. 2012 . Payne, Tabitha. Internet Videoconference Interview. 23 Dec 2012.

"Teens Play a Role in Moves Overseas." Personnel Journal 71.3 (1992): 71-. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. (Support for teenagers when moving around) Turner, ByDavid. "Third Culture Kids." FT.com (2009)ProQuest Research Library. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.(discusses whether being a TCK is worth it) Vale, Christopher. Personal Interview. 9 Jan 2013. Wiederholt-Kassar, Arel. Personal Interview. 9 Jan 2013. Vogel, Victoria. Personal Interview. 16 Jan 2013.

Pollock, David C, and Reken R. E. Van. The Third Culture Kid Experience: Growing Up Among Worlds. Yarmouth, Me: Intercultural Press, 1999. Internet resource. Sandoz, Josh. "Denizen - » Dealing with TCK grief and depression ." Denizen - » for third culture kids. 7 Jan. 2013. <http://www.denizenmag.com/2010/06/dealing-with-tck-grief-an d-depression/>. 65

Darcy Groves

Fan the Flames We like things to go fast. Wi-Fi, phone service, cars, airplanes, you name it. This speedy mindset isn’t just present in our personal lives, however. Nowadays, even changes in political and social norms happen extremely quickly. In recent years, it’s been shown that the typical, grassroots revolution is a thing of the past. With a population rising to more than seven billion people, there must be a faster way to communicate new ideas and new information (“Current Population Clock”). This is where social networking comes in. With the introduction of Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, and other sites to the daily lives of people around the world, there has never been such a wealth of information available to people. Surveys estimate that 56% of all adults around the world are using social networking sites currently (“Social Networking Statistics”). This enormous resource is being used for a good cause. Recently, we have seen the introduction of the ‘Facebook revolution’. People are communicating ideas and organizing revolutions online, and with the click of a button, making that information available to millions of people. However, these movements are not completely fail-proof. Al-

though the use of social networking in revolutions can mean the compromise of information, which can lead to government infiltration, using sites like Facebook and Twitter is beneficial. It allows for spreading of information internationally, efficient organization of protests, distribution of information between social classes, and better communication within the actual revolution. Before we can get into why technology is advancing revolutions, it is important to understand why revolutions take place. It seems fairly obvious at first—unhappiness with a political leader, feeling undeveloped in comparison with other countries. But sometimes the cause is subtler. Unhappiness can fester for years, with the anger towards an issue building up like a geyser. People are whispering to each other, be it at the dinner table, a bus stop, or at a bar. Eventually, these whispers gain enough momentum to become full-on shouts, and a revolution is born. Of course, it is not that simple. In order for the anger and lust for new beginnings to gain speed, there must be communication between the people. This is where Facebook and Twitter come in. When one person makes a ‘status update’ on their Facebook page, it immediately becomes available for all their friends to see, in real time. Similarly, on Twitter, a person can post a ‘tweet’ (essentially a status update, but it has to have no more than 140 characters) that is available to all their followers in real time. The tweet can be retweeted by a follower, and is then available to see by all of the followers of that user, 66

and so on (Picard). This technology is a breakthrough for revolutions, allowing for ideas and feelings to be spread throughout the world. One such revolution that has utilized social networking is called the Arab Spring. The Arab Spring is a political and social revolution that took (and is taking) place in the countries of the Middle East. So far, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Yemen, and many more countries have participated in mass protests. Egypt, in particular, was a driving force in the Arab Spring. The purpose of the Egyptian revolution was to push out the dictator of more than thirty years, Hosni Mubarak. The revolutions took place as giant protests, usually held in crowed squares. The first of these protests took place on January 25, 2011 (“Hosni Mubarak”). Thousands of people rushed into Tahir Square, holding signs and yelling for the resignation of Mubarak. There weren’t only protesters, however. Supporters of Mubarak also showed up, and the two groups clashed for days, with the protestors given the extra task of fending off police and military involvement. In the end, the revolutionaries won out. The supporters of Mubarak were silenced, and the police and military told Mubarak that they would not harm the protestors any longer. Without military support, Mubarak was done for. On February 11th, 2011, Hosni Mubarak resigned, turning over his power to the military (“Hosni Mubarak”). The following April, he was tried and convicted for ordering the killing of protestors, among other

things. He was sentenced to life in prison (“Hosni Mubarak”). In this sense, the Egyptian revolution was successful. The Egyptian people managed to overthrow a powerful tyrant who had long overstayed his welcome in their country. They had banded together, creating a tight-knit community, and had earned the backing of thousands of people all around the world, as well as their own military and police. But this is where the success ended. After Mubarak fell, the military controlled Egypt. But there was soon a new power. Another political party, the Freedom and Justice Party, sought to establish their prevalence. An election was held, and a member of their part, Mohammed Morsi, became president of Egypt (“Egypt News—Revolution and Aftermath”). Ever since, there has been a general unhappiness in Egypt in regard to the new president. There has been a lot of speculation as to why the Egyptian revolution was so successful in accomplishing their initial goal, but the obvious answer is social networking. The revolutionaries organized through Facebook and Twitter, shouting their discontent over the web. They created pages on Facebook where protestors and supporters could make posts and suggest new tactics and meeting places. They made Twitter accounts, updating their progress in real time for everybody to see. They wrote about their feelings, spreading information about Mubarak and his party all around Egypt, and the world. This isn’t to say that demonstrators only used the Internet in their movement, however. Some young protestors used grassroots methods, such 67

as text messaging, putting up fliers, and writing messages on bank notes (Miriam Fam). They needed to spread the message any way that they could. In Egypt, the youth demographic played a huge part in getting the revolution on social networking sites. Because they were brought up within the age of inexpensive and widespread use of technology, they possessed the most extensive knowledge of social networking. They also had the most energy and hope. They put everything they had into spreading the world, be it over the internet or the kitchen table. Miriam Fam, an expert on the Egyptian revolutions, says that “The activism on Facebook is part of larger efforts by youths across the Arab world to use technology—from blogs to cellphone text messages to YouTube—to challenge their governments and push the envelope on dissent in ways older generations didn’t know” (Fam, Miriam). The youth were using their power in the way that they knew how to—and it paid off. The reason that using sites like Facebook and Twitter is so wise for a political movement is that because the internet is so vast, it is extremely hard for the government to find out who wrote what and prosecute them. In the past, before technology was so widespread, revolutionaries would have secret meetings to discuss their opinions and actions, but there was constant threat of being discovered and arrested. This makes protestors feel safe on the internet, and allows them to say exactly what

they feel about the government, rather than just keeping their opinions to themselves. Other people see this, and realize that they feel the same way. They show support, and perhaps protest themselves. This communication is vital for any revolution, but when it happens in such a short time, it is extraordinary. But even though these revolutions were so successful in communicating via social networking sites, they were the subject of many harsh critiques. Critics of ‘Facebook Revolutions’ say that the information being spread isn’t secure. They argue that with government officials patrolling Twitter and Facebook looking for any signs of uprising, information can be taken down quickly and the police will be able to act faster. But in many ways, this is simply not true. Because there are so many people actively participating in the revolution, it is almost impossible to shut down any plans that have already been made. Also, many people using Facebook and Twitter have ‘fake names’ on their accounts so that authorities cannot locate them. The protestors expect to have police at their demonstrations. To not would be naïve. But for extra security, many people made private pages that only people who were ‘invited’ to join could see. They also made full use of private messaging, code words, and other more discreet forms of communication. All these things were hallmarks for not only the revolution in Egypt, but also all over the Middle East.

The uprisings taking place in Egypt aren’t the only example of a country using social networking to rise up. Saudi Arabia, a country in the Middle East, has also started a ‘Twitter revolution’. Saudi Arabia isn’t getting quite the revolutionary response that Egypt, Tunisia, and other countries involve with the Arab Spring are having, but they are taking steps in the right direction. The reason that the measures being taken in Saudi Arabia aren’t defined as ‘revolutionary’ is because there are no actual demonstrations. The people are having what could be more aptly called an ‘information revolution’, which has been made possible by the likes of Twitter and Facebook. Before there were any whispers of revolution, the people of Saudi Arabia new that something big was afoot. There was a huge class divide. They had long been distrustful of their government, the members of which were extravagantly rich and owned incredible amounts of land. The people wanted to convey how unsatisfied they were, but they needed to do it without putting themselves in danger. That’s when Twitter came in. A relatively safe place for people to talk about what was going wrong in the government quickly became the meeting place for thousands of Saudi Arabian citizens looking for dirt on their government. Interestingly enough, Saudi Arabian scholars and other people of note ran many of the most popular accounts. As Robert F. Worth said, “Twitter has allowed Saudis to cross social boundaries and address delicate subjects collectively and in real time, via shared subject headings”

(“Twitter Gives Saudi Arabia a Revolution of its Own”). People are loving their new platform for change. There is even an account, with a fictional name, of course, that leaks gossip about the Saudi royal family. It exposes their expenses, tax returns, how much money they have, how much land they own, and other incriminating facts. The fact that just one account can spread such controversial and important information to thousands of people is almost scary, but it led more and more people to post. This spread of information was instrumental to the success of this ‘twitter revolution’. Without it, the necessary information would have stayed put, only available to a certain class of people. But with it, it could be spread around both Saudi Arabia and the world, igniting the spark needed to catch the attention of the people. In response to the angry outcry on the Twittosphere, the Saudi Arabian government did almost nothing. Sure, they had officials patrol Twitter, shouting down requests for more information and the anger of the people. But in a surprising move, they didn’t censor Twitter. Many believe that allowing the ‘revolution’ to keep going online is the government’s way of letting the people blow off steam. But “Twitter has revealed a great frustration and a popular refusal of the current situation”, and the citizens are not going to let go of their emotions (“Twitter Gives Saudi Arabia…”). Twitter has opened the door for revolution for the citizens of Saudi Arabia, but it is up to them to choose whether or not to walk through it. 69

A similar but more publicized ‘Facebook revolution’ is the Occupy Wall Street movement. Originally based in New York City, the movement was started when people found out that one percent of wealthy people hold an extremely disproportionate percentage of the United State’s wealth. Obviously New York City, which holds the epicenter of America’s free market (Wall Street), was a starting point for protests. Hundreds of angry New Yorkers gathered in protest on Wall Street, holding signs and yelling their discontent about the American economy. The protestors quickly gave themselves a moniker: the 99%. “We are the 99%” was the chant heard around the world. And the reason it was heard round the world was because of Facebook and Twitter. " The demonstrators of ‘Occupy’ were already well known, but they needed to spread information far and fast within their community, and the way to do that was over social networking sites. They created more than 400 Facebook pages to gain awareness, and in total recruited over 170,000 active Facebook users and amassed more than 1.4 million ‘likes’ (Caren and Gabby). The efforts of these people taking the time to make Facebook pages and Twitter accounts greatly paid off. Because although “the focus of Occupy Wall Street is on mobilizing individual’s offline, online activities greatly facilitate these efforts” (Caren and Gabby). When someone is browsing their newsfeed and sees that their friend liked a page, they are likely to check out the page themselves. After they’ve looked it over, they’ll

have more information on the topic, and will possibly like the page. And thus the cycle starts again. Occupy Wall Street showed how powerful online communication can be, transforming from a one-state wonder to a movement being backed all over the world. This could never have happened without Facebook and Twitter, as there is no faster way to spread information than through the internet. Critics of the ‘social networking revolutions’ say that using technology and social media for political action is naïve. They think that supporters of the movements are blinded by the newness of it all, and are ignoring the fact that not all people in the world have access to computers and cell phones. But what the critics are ignoring is that information has always found a way to be spread. The only thing that Facebook and Twitter are doing is streamlining the process and making it easier to communicate. Like Johnny West says, A society’s exposure to a whole new universe of information—and by society we simply mean enough influential individuals in it, not a universality, or some flat percentage which ignores the kind of ‘social networking’ people did long before Mark Zuckerberg was even born: around the kitchen table, at the bus stop, at your cousin’s wedding—sooner or later affects their self-identity, their aspirations and sense of place in the world (West).

People have always communicated their ideas, but with the innovations in technology that have been made it is much more effective to do it online. Those who are unimpressed with the new technologically advanced revolutions may say that they are just a phase, and that people will go back to using more traditional methods when they want to be taken seriously. This is not the case. Using Twitter and Facebook to further political and social causes is one of the great innovations of the twenty-first century. People are able to communicate and share information in ways never before possible. A young student can access the same information that a wealthy aristocrat can at the click of a button. With social networking, anything is possible. For all these revolutions, Facebook and Twitter weren’t just fanning the flames. They were the fire that started the uproar, giving voice to those who had never had it before.

Works Cited Almond, Mark. “Egypt Unrest”. BBC. 13 Feb 2011. BBC Online. Web. 18 Jan 2013. “Current Population Clock”. United States Census. 21 Jan 2013. US Census Bureau. Web. 21 Jan 2013. “Egypt News—Revolution and Aftermath”. New York Times. 27 Dec 2012. The New York Times Company. Web. 21 Jan 2013.

Fam, Miriam. “World News: Egyptian Political Dissent Unites through Facebook; Activists Make use of New Technology Across Arab World”. Wall Street Journal. 5 May 2009: A9. Proquest National Newspapers Core. Web. 16 Dec. 2012. Guynn, Jessica. “Twitter Censorship Policy Stirs up a Storm”. Los Angeles Times. 28 Jan 2012: A1. Proquest National Newspapers Core. Web. 16 Dec. 2012. “Hosni Mubarak”. New York Times. 20 Jun 2012. The New York Times Company. Web. 21 Jan 2013. Kirkpatrick, David. "Does Facebook have a foreign policy?" Foreign Policy 190. 2011: 55. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 2 Jan. 2013. Caran, Neil, and Gabby, Sarah. “Occupy Online: Facebook and the Spread of Occupy Wall Street”. SSRN Working Paper Series. Oct 2011: A1. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 4 Jan 2013. Parsa, Misagh. "Revolutions: A Worldwide Introduction to Political and Social Change." Contemporary Sociology 35.4 (2006): 415-6. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 5 Jan. 2013. Phillips, Sarah. “A Brief History of Facebook”. The Guardian UK. 25 July 2007. Guardian News and Media Limited. Web. Jan. 5 2013. 71

Picard, André. “The History of Twitter, 140 Characters at a Time”. The Globe and Daily Mail. 20 Mar 2011. Phillip Crawely Publishing. Web. 5 Jan 2013.

Worth, Robert F. “Twitter Gives Saudi Arabia a Revolution of its Own”. New York Times. 21 Oct 2012: A6. Proquest National Newspapers Core. Web. 15 Dec. 2012.

Ratner, Ari. “This Year in Egypt”. Los Angeles Times. 6 Apr. 2012: A19. ProQuest National Newspapers Core. Web. 5 Jan 2013. “Social Networking Statistics”. Statistic Brain. 12 Nov 2012. Statistic Brain. Web. 20 Jan 2013. Takaragawa, Stephanie. “The 2008 U.S. Presidential Election and New Digital Technologies: Political Campaigns as Social Movements and the Significance of Collective Identity”. Tamara Journal of Critical Organization. Dec 2012: 73-89. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 5 Jan 2013. “Twitter, History & Modern Revolutions”. Chatham, United States, Chatham: Newstex, 2011. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 5 Jan. 2013. West, Johnny. "Social Media Ignited the Arab Spring." The Arab Spring. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from "Digital Technologies and the Arab Spring, Part One." 2011.Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 2 Jan. 2013.

William Hunscher

Should we as a community take Internet privacy seriously? The advantages and disadvantages of a more open Internet. Internet privacy (or lack thereof) has been a growing issue over the past decade. Because many people donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t understand the extent of the threats to privacy on the Internet and other technologies that are becoming part of everyday life, they are not sure what side of the debate they should be on. Should there be more laws restricting access to private online information,

even if that information is illegal or poses a potential threat to our national security? Or, should we allow more access to our private information in the name of national security? Though there are many opinions on the subject, the issues surrounding online privacy are enormous and should be more understood and debated by the users of the Internet. As currently there exists many problems that need to be addressed, most of which many people donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know about. The Internet has been adopted by a large percentage of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population as a necessary tool to communicate, share information, and spread ideas. At the same time, many governments and businesses have set up ways to track and record what Internet users do online. Some of this information is used to try to sell us things based on our likes, dislikes and online shopping patterns. Some of this information is used to determine if we represent a threat to national security. Both examples represent an intrusion into our private information. While circumstances do exist where collecting data makes sense for the greater good, such as tracking the activities of known criminals and/or collecting general demographic information and trends, it should be a practice that is limited in scope, as the potential for abuse is rampant. For a truly democratic nation to be successful, all matters affecting the citizens of that country should be debated and agreed upon by the majority.

While there are methods that exist where data is collected with the approval and knowledge of the people, such as surveys, this process is often neglected entirely for more lucrative ways of getting information. With regard to the internet, one of the ways that this practice is being abused would be plug-ins like “cookies”, which are small files that some companies automatically load onto a user’s web browser that allow the companies to track, without the user’s approval, which websites are being visited. This practice is called “cross site profiling” (Brain Marshell). Cookies and cross site profiling can be used to affect the price of some items such as airline tickets. Because the airline website can detect how many times a user has viewed the site (and others like it) As a result, determine that the user wants to buy a ticket and therefore the airline can raise the price slightly. Another concern regarding cookies would be what happens to the data obtained by the company inserting the cookie into a user’s web browser. When a company would like to know more about a person through their browsing history, there are companies that will “sell your cookie data to other companies” (Brain Marshell). Though this may not seem that bad on the surface, many companies are doing this without the consent, or knowledge of the user. Adding to this problem would be the fact that not many people know about cookies, or what they do. Though it is possible to erase a user’s cookies, the cookie “must be manually deleted” (The oracle) from the user’s browser. Though this may not be that inconvenient, for

many who do not know about cookies or what they do they may never delete it, and their data unknowingly sold over and over again to other companies. In addition to cookies, there are many ways where companies can collect your Internet data. One way would be the collections of “payload data”, within the context of Internet Privacy “Payload data” refers to “The essential data that is being carried within a packet or other transmission unit” (Margaret Rose). The collection of this data is sometimes used by companies like Google collect (The Oracle). Through cookies and payload data, it is possible for many companies to learn a lot about the user. Companies like Facebook can learn about a person even if this person does not have a Facebook account. If someone is mentioned in a Facebook users post, that person becomes part of the Facebook database (Andrew Philips). As many people are becoming more aware of Internet privacy, cookies have come under allot of pressure. People within the online privacy field have compared the use of cookies to “their privacy being breached” (Brain Marshell). As users understand how cookies work, cookies and companies that use them have come under intense criticism, sparking a change in how web developers construct websites to handle these tools. The awareness of cookies and how users and developers are dealing with them represents an emerging awareness in people’s opinions on Internet privacy. Though there are downsides of using cook74

ies, benefits do exist around implementing cookies in websites. One of the main benefits of using cookies is when a user visits a website frequently that requires a password and user-name. By saving the password or user name through cookies, the process of signing in to a website is easier. The question remains whether the benefits of tools such as cookies outweigh the potential for unwanted personal information being obtained without our approval. Other issues surrounding privacy are reflected by “grey area” around the 4th Amendment and its impact on how we view the Internet. The 4th Amendment to the United States Constitution is the part of the Bill of Rights which “guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause.” (Bill of Rights) As time progresses, laws must be re-examined and potentially re-written to include advancements in technology and changes in society over the 240 years of our country’s existence. A “gray area” in today’s technology based society would be the definition of what is considered property, and therefore what falls under the 4th Amendment. An example of a potential issue around the definition of property would be “cloud” services. As stated in the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, “the law treats cloud data the same as draft emails – authorities don’t need a warrant to get it” (No warrant, No problem) In addition, when a user submits a file to a cloud-based storage platform, according to current

laws, this file is no longer considered to be the property of the user after 180 days as it is considered to be “abandoned property” (No Warrant, No Problem) and do not require a warrant if and when they are searched for and accessed by government agencies, such as the CIA, FBI, etc. This practice causes concern as it negates the need for a warrant, and therefore circumvents the idea behind the 4th Amendment as a user’s property is seized without due course. Other shortcomings of cloud services are the lack of security as “many companies are building private servers to keep their data more secure” (Brain Marshell). In a recent poll of IT technicians judging how secure “cloud” storage sites are, many received low scores, with “data privacy” of some sites being as low as “56%” (Bill, Security Issues That Impede Cloud Adoption), out of a possible 100%, the later indicating that the site is very secure. Also many companies use the same authentication process, so if and when it gets cracked, the whole network could be compromised. Some examples of how laws need to be enacted limiting the reach of government agencies and businesses have on the online community relates to ease of access by government agencies. At present, the FBI can “order private companies to turn over data on a person” (Breaner Bill). Although in order to do this the FBI would need to convince two outside agencies that the data is relevant to the case that they are working on, there is no need for the FBI to inform the user it is doing this, nor do they need a warrant. All these circumstance raise the 75

important issue whether the 4th Amendment is being undermined and illustrates how these laws need to be re-written to include a broader spectrum of information and property rights. Many people are becoming concerned about how accessible their data is to a variety of government and private entities and are developing methods to view the Internet without being tracked in some of the ways mentioned above. At the most basic level, one should download and install “use https:// everywhere” a program that defaults to the secure version of every website. Users should also disable cookies to prevent companies from tracking their Internet use without the user knowing it. This combination of safeguards makes it very hard to view exactly what users are browsing on the Internet. Although the servers will recognize you are online they won’t know exactly what you are doing. One other thing that a user could do would be to download a “Proxy” web browser. A proxy web browser uses an “intermediary” device while you are online, this along with the two above mentioned procedures, will make very hard for people to see what you are doing online. For the proxy web browser it is essential that you trust it, pick one with good reviews, also one that is outside of the United States. Proxy servers in the United States are sometimes less secured and are within the FBI’s jurisdiction. Some downsides to using a proxy web browser would be that it is often slow, as the information is being bounced off multiple servers, sometimes in different countries. Final try to avoid cloud services, they should only be

used for less important documents, such as school or work projects. More and more, Internet users are employing the processes described above as Internet privacy is becoming something that is being taken more seriously." One of the main threats to online users today would be hackers, or as some would like be known, crackers. Sense the 1980's, hacking has increased significantly, so much so that the very act has almost become “a mainstream type thing” (how the game has changed). Sometimes, “hacking” or “cracking” is beneficial as websites, schools, and businesses strengthen their online security by hiring programmers to find potential loop holes in their systems and code. In fact, many tech savvy companies, such as Google, issue award money for finding and fixing bugs that they might not have found otherwise. However, for the most part “hackers” and “crackers” cause allot of damage and represent a huge threat to online Security. Since the 1980’s, many companies have started to recognize the threat “crackers” can have on the security of their data and have been implementing newer ways to thwart attackers. Though businesses have spent billions of dollars upgrading their security, many casual users of the Internet are not aware of the threats that they could face and as a result of being hacked. Hackers are becoming more and more sophisticated with their methods and the economic incentive to hack is huge – billions of dollars worth of data are stolen every year around the world. With the increase in the number of hackers around the world it is becom76

ing easier for people to hack into banks, and other institutions. As with a larger community more people can hack into one network, making it easier than if they were along, (How the game has changed). As a result of the explosion in the number of “hackers”, many new laws have been put into place to battle this activity, but currently the “U.S. is ill-equipped to cope with an Internet assault on the computers” (Why congress hacked up a bill to stop hackers). For the future of the Internet, legislation needs to be created that is sophisticated enough to address the ever increasing sophistication of those trying to steal data. This difficult to do and any laws will be have a hard time keeping up in the fight to protect privacy. In addition to the issues surrounding online privacy, there is an equally important issue around privacy of cell phone data and cell phone conversations. Like online data there exist many loopholes for collecting the data from these two sources without the user’s knowledge or consent. Section 215 of the FBI rules and regulations provides far more control and ease of access over cell phone data. Experts within the field of cell phone privacy have called this section “too broad” (Benjamin Mark) as it undermines the 4th Amendment rights around unlawful search and seizure. Also within the United States there exist rooms such as “Room 641A” in which cell phone companies such as AT&T use to monitor and record cell phone data. It is thought that many of these exist in the United States (AT&T WhistleBlowers Evidence). This breach of personal privacy under-

mines the very foundation of the United States, giving people the ability to take personal data without the consent of the person. Though it is a controversial issue there should exists more laws limiting the ability and reach that governments and private business have over the personal data of the User, as well as making sure that any and all loopholes are removed. Along with this there should be ways in which controversial issues, such as cookies the collection of Payload data, can be eliminated, or at the very least modified so that it does not breach on the users privacy. Through this the Internet will prosper as a melting pot of new ideas advancing civilization further in a way that it cannot currently do.

Work Cited "AT&T Whistle Blower's Evidence." Wired.com. Conde Nast Digital, 17 Mar. 2006. Web. 04 Jan. 2013. " Benjamin, Mark. "Is Washington Collecting Your Cell-Phone Data?" Is Washinton " Collecting Your Cell-Phone Data. Time US, 24 June 2011. Web. 6 Jan. 2013. " Brain, Marshell. "How Internet Cookies Work." HowStuffWorks. How Stuff Works, n.d. Web. 07 Feb. 2013. Meyer, Theodoric, and Peter Maass. "Donate." Top Stories RSS. Pro Puplic, 4 Dec. 2012. Web. 06 Feb. 2013. 77

Rose, Margaret. "Payload." What Is ? Search Security, Apr. 2005. Web. 06 Feb. 2013. Philips, Andrew. Personal interview. 18 Jan. 2013 Wikipedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Feb. 2013.

Ali Imperiale

You wouldn’t understand! #Parentingproblems Dear parents, if you have a teen, this story will affect you. Despite parents’ good intentions for their teens, parents without knowing it, negatively affect their children by judging their teen’s choices, comparing them to others, snooping around their technology, and setting standards that their teens does not feel comfortable with. Communication between teenagers and their parents is a complex issue that can evolve into a major setback if left not talked about in a family. Parents sometimes do not trust their teens; however, some teens do not trust their parents. Adults sometimes will assume their teen trusts them, but if parents take a step back, do teens talk to their parents about drugs, insecurities, peer pressure or sex? These 4 topics are unavoidable when a teen. Even if a teen is drug free and don’t have any interest in being sexually active, these topics still surround teen’s every day. Parents tend to forget that there is a to way street with trust. Teens might dis-

respect their parents trust, as well as parents might not gain their teens trust. These pressures teens are faced with today make communication extremely complicated because the pressures our parents grew up with is nothing like what we are going through. “You wouldn’t understand!” The famous cop out for teens avoiding talking to their parents. Teens use this line for numerous reasons; however the main idea behind this line is age difference. Parents sometimes forget how times have changed for the better and worse for their teenagers. Now we have over 500 different T.V. channels, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr…etc. In the 60’s our parents had roughly 3 T.V. station, no access to internet and roughly 300-400 songs came out a year that teens would listen to in their free time. There was no diet soda and Homosexuality was rarely talked about. ("BBHQ: The Sixties Then and Now.") Most teens play over 2 sports after school, try to excel in receiving A’s, to be a man teenage boys should be strong, to be a teenage girl girls should be skinny to feel pretty, be popular, get good SAT scores, have teens make their family proud and have over a sustain amount of friends. Teen population in the 60’s mostly never worried about any of the problems today’s teens face. When daddy’s little girl or mommy’s little man transforms into a teen, family will go through a transition which is unpredictable. Teens start seeking out independence and looking for interests 79

outside the home, which causes tension. When conducting a interview with a family therapist/ teen philologist, Ethan Ornstein stated “Teens want more independents and freedom but parents do not think they are ready. So there is this push pull relationship between teens and their parents.” Some parents do not trust their children to make responsible choices and on the other hand some teens have proven that they should not have been trusted in those situations. Teens demonstrate they are trustworthy, and some parents are afraid the world of the internet and in a way we can know more about each other. Parents unknowing can affect their teens, but how do parents know when they are negatively affecting them for the rest of their lives? If parents show their teen most affection when they show good grades, earned money, did well in a recital or game, these parents teen will most likely suffer from low self esteem. (Birgitte”) This makes teens want to get money, grades, do well in sports or recitals only for their parents, not themselves anymore. Teens do not feel accepted for who they are, but simply for what they do in the materialistic world. Some teens are use to “earning” their love and living up to specific standards, with this teens can suffer from lack of basic trust in people. Teens will sometimes only get affection when reaching something above and beyond, when someone shows a teen who has suffered from low self esteem, they become suspicious of the persons intentions. What are they trying to accom-

plish? (Brooks, "How Can Parents Foster Self-Esteem in Their Children?") They might continue in life thinking that people have a busy schedule, too busy for a person with lack of trust. Although parents tend to have the best intentions for their teen, they might not always have the best outcome. Ethan Ornstein says “When I was growing up to be successful we would do things after school but we had a lot of free time every day to do what we would like. I did a lot of sports back then, but now and days every kid is doing everything and there is a ton of more homework then there was awhile back and it could be more difficult to be a teen today. There is too much emphasis on certain type of success that teens can only get to with grades, SAT scores or what college teens get into.” But what really makes people successful is how they relate to one another. Although parents can’t physically keep their little girl or boy free of sexual activity forever, parents do play a rule in postponing or starting sexual activities for their teens. Mothers who believe firmly in abstinence for their teen, their teen could be sexually active before others. When mothers state that sex is bad, they shut down the opportunity to talk to their teen as well as making sure their teen is being safe. Teens who do not communicate with their mothers about sex can become pregnant a year before a teens whose mother is more liberal when it comes to sexual activity. Teen girls as well who have better communication with their fathers will be less sexual active with teen boys. 80

Some parents do themselves a favor by being liberal and open to discussing sex, however some stricter parents can push their kids to do that opposite of what they say. (Kim) Teens need to recognize their parents want to protect them. A misconception teens have about their parents is that they purposely are trying to ruin their social life. Parents who play an active role in their teen’s life can contribute to their teen’s successful future. There is compromise between helicopter parents and peer too peer parenting. This happy medium will lead to open mind set and open communication with teen and their parents. With a growth mindset it will be easier for parents to adapt to their teens needs when growing up because they parents will be understanding and flexible while the teen will respect their wisdom and approach their parents when they desire. Jana Parker, a teen physiologist confirmed “Each kid is different and has different needs, generally being a teenage puts a kind of stress on the family, it’s whether the family can adapt to the different needs each child needs.” It is very difficult for parents to realize their baby girl or baby boy is not a baby anymore. Their kid wants to seek independence and be treated maturely, however if teens want to be treated mature they need to understand that parents want to protect them. When parents aren’t being communicated with they are tempted to start to spy on their teen, little do parents know this encourages the teen to not communicate with their parents.

Jana Parker believes “At a certain age parents shouldn’t have access to their kid’s passwords.” (Jana Parker) Their really should be a conversation about what their kid is using this media for and having a since of who their kid is. I think spying does not help and ultimately pushes kids away. Inviting a conversation about what teens are interested in and who are they are separate person is key. When parents go into cop mode they are enforcing the exact same behavior they do not want. Generally speaking I think there should be some privacy if a teen is making a phone call or texting someone. I think parents want to know that their kid is being safe. Ideally we should know each other well enough that if something was wrong, we would communicate without having to look at their email or text” Privacy is very important to teens because being a teen is 1 step before being an adult. Teens want to seek independence so they slowly will stop to share information about their parents. When parents spy on their teens, all parents are getting the content when snooping around teens not the context. That leads to a lot of miss understating. Although communication with teen and their parents is a complex issue there is a way to better the relationship between one another. Teens and parents should communicate face to face as well as learn to be flexible and adapt to one another. Teens and their parents should communicate though clarity with expectation. The parental team should be very clear amongst each other with what they expect from their teen, and to make sure that 81

gets communicated to their teen with some flexibility. When delivering expectation or even discussing a semi serious topic face to face conversations are key when creating or trying to rebandaging a healthy relationship. Also have the parent be the authority, however make sure that the teen feel comfortable talking to their parents. It should be clear the parent is the parent and the kid is the kid, but kids change over time and parents need to adapt and be more flexible. Teens want to go explore the world so they need a different structure from when they were younger kids. Good parenting is about adapting to changes that naturally accrue in the family. The number one thing to help improve communication between teens and their parents is for parents to realize their teen is more than just an extension of themselves. Their teens are individual with their own interests and passions. It is huge for parents see their child as separate person. The last step to having good communication is for teens to not only express themselves though actions with their parents but though open face to face verbal conversations.

Work Cited "BBHQ: The Sixties - Then and Now." BBHQ: The Sixties Then and Now. A Special Feature of Baby Boomer HeadQuarters:, n.d. Web. 17 Jan. 2013. Birgitte. "The Essence of the Authoritarian Parenting Style and the Long Term Effects of Strict Parenting!" Authoritarian Parenting and Strict Parenting. Practical Advice & Deep Insights, n.d. Web. 14 Jan. 2013. Brooks, Dr. Robert. "How Can Parents Foster Self-Esteem in Their Children?"GreatSchools. GreatSchools, 2013. Web. 14 Jan. 2013. "IKeepSafe Blog." IKeepSafe RSS. IKEEPSAFE BLOG, JulyAug. 2012. Web. 14 Jan. 2013. "It's My Life . Family . Sibling Rivalry . Comparison | PBS Kids GO!" It's My Life . Family . Sibling Rivalry . Comparison | PBS Kids GO! PBS Kids, 2005. Web. 15 Jan. 2013. Kim, Christine. "Send This Report to a Friend." The Heritage Foundation. The Heritage Foundation, 7 Oct. 2008. Web. 25 Jan. 2013.

Bryant Lui

Smart Art

courses in art (Baker). Along with academic scores, a student’s confidence and motivation are also increased from experiencing art (Moorefield). Art allows students to interact and collaborate with their peers, parents, and teachers (Baker).

“The situation is likely to worsen next year if the city goes through with its plans to lay off 4,100 teachers to save $269 million” (Phillips). Many principals have chosen to cut crucial positions in their staff such as art teachers from their budgets. “Estimates released in February project that 350 of those let go will be arts teachers, which would be a 15 percent drop in art, music and performing arts teachers” (Phillips). Since the early 1930s, art has been a crucial part in the learning environment. Many schools have art classes for their students once or a week or sometimes even none. The arts are declining in many schools due to budget cuts and having the curriculum focused on grades. Without art, students Art must be heavily emphasized in schools to improve a student’s overall academic and creative career.

Unfortunately, incorporating art programs into schools is expensive. By spending funds to build art programs, schools may be sacrificing improvements to the other subjects. Even if art programs are successfully incorporated into elementary schools, students may not even spend over two hours a week making art. An art program may lock in a student’s mindset of wanting to be perfect and work to please the teacher and peers rather than themselves (Steals).

There are many benefits to integrating art into a school’s curriculum. Art is used to “refine cognitive and creative skills” in school (“Benefits of Art Education”). According to Beth Baker, a writer and editor that has written for the Washington post, CQ Researcher, and Kaiser Health News, academic scores are improved across the board due to art, and studies have shown that colleges with the highest graduation rates offered the most

Art is becoming less and less prominent in many schools today. Many schools focus around the major subjects such as Math, English, and Science. Grades are one of the only things schools try to improve, rather than focusing on a well-rounded student, schools invest their energy into improving test scores and academic achievements (“Benefits of Art Education”). Budget cuts to schools also have drastically decreased the amount of time and effort schools spend on their arts curriculum. With shrinking school budgets, art programs are usually the first to go, and along with that the teachers and staff that are involved in it (“Benefits of Art Education”). Talented and devoted teachers are laid off and many art programs are closed, especially in public elementary schools. With the arts rapidly de83

clining, children are being deprived of the benefits that art offers. Many art programs are being cut from the curriculum due to the lack of financial aid from the government and the lack of importance the government puts on art (Baker). Art education in schools is not emphasized enough to allow students an opportunity to take advantage of the benefits that art offers. Students in elementary school who are uninterested in the subjects, shy, or unable to express themselves are losing the chance to benefit from art classes. Children and art educators are both affected with the decline of art in education (“Benefits of Art Education”) Student engagement and confidence increase as a result of art education. As students begin to practice art their confidence in them, their work, and around peers improve. In an art class, everyone can feel equal, no matter socio-economic background, academic or physical achievements. Art can help a student feel proud of something and continue to put time and effort into their work. It allows them to express themselves in other ways a student’s can’t (Steals). If students are shy, they can use their work to show how they feel and allow others into their world. While working on art in class, sometimes the need for critiques and group work arise. Although this might feel uncomfortable at first, students will grow to enjoy discussion and collaboration among peers (Moorefield). When a student begins to delve deeper into art, their enjoyment and passion for art tend

to increase which increases their engagement during class and gives them something to look forward to everyday, or a certain day of school (Baker). Along with confidence, a student’s motivation in school also is improved. When a student is in an art class, there is no competition. Art is different to every viewer and a “good” or “bad” piece is indistinguishable in a creative art class. Art can increase a student’s motivation in school by giving something for them to look forward to and make school less boring. Art can be a portal for the student to feel successful if they are failing in other areas of their life. Whenever a student pursues something they are passionate about, improved behaviors, attitudes, motivation, and confidence come along with it (Legon). A student begins to dedicate more time into working and apply studio practices outside of class, students can be proud of their work and build selfesteem for each piece they feel is successful. According to Heather Moorefield-Lang, a librarian for Education and Applied Social Sciences at Virginia Tech, students that have attended art classes say that art “pushes me to keep going and study” while others say that “learning and succeeding could payoff” (Moorefield). Instead of the everyday stress that peers, parents, and teachers can put on a student’s shoulders, the art studio is a place for students to be free from the need to please others. In the art studio, students don’t have to be stressed or embarrassed from reactions of peers because, unlike like grades, making artwork is for the pleasure of the artist and allowing 84

viewers to enjoy the work or give their opinion. The canvas can help children let out their emotions and problems in their life (Moorefield). Art can also benefit students outside of school and throughout life. While working on paintings or art projects, students can understand process and steps it takes to complete a project. This can influence how students work on projects in and out of school. Feeling successful not only improves the student’s confidence in them, but it can branch to all aspects of their life and overall remedy their feelings and emotions. An artist learns to be creative, problem solve, and be open minded. Art can be a vehicle for innovation. Painting teaches children to take risk and try new things which can translate into their futures for an extra edge for creating new ideas (Baker). Having art courses help stimulate creative thinking in students and help the curriculum be more interesting. Art can help develop imagination and creativity in students which allows the student to think and look at the world around them in many ways. Having the ability to think critically can greatly benefit a student during projects and problem solving. Creative thinking helps children with different thinking and learning styles so that they can understand the material more easily. Art is the “natural vehicle for expression of hidden feelings” (Legon). With just pencil and paper, a student has an infinite amount of ways to reveal their thoughts and emotions that otherwise would never be ex-

pressed. In Painting 1B at Bay, the art teacher asked students to think of two spaces, an interior and exterior space that were special to them. Students were able to be more interactive with the smaller things in life that would not be noticed if not for this project. Some students felt that the inside of a pair of glasses was interesting while others appreciated the beauty of the ocean and sunset. Art helps students sit back, and experience the tiny surprises that arise in their everyday lives. Incorporating art into academic lessons and projects is shown to help improve grade as students can have fun adding their creative flare to the information given out in class (Baker). In the art studio, students learn to collaborate with peers and be organized. Learning to plan is important for the children of the future because brainstorming, discussing, planning, preparing, working, and critiquing can help a students with papers, projects, and work in general. As students become more serious about their art, a “sense of quality task performance and goal setting” is developed (“Benefits of Art Education”). A “commitment to task and gains in personal development” is also acquired when students practice art (Moorefield). Students begin to understand the working style that best suits them and an expectation for themselves throughout all their work in school, not only in the art studio. Painting and drawing is the perfect way to “articulate [their] vision” in other ways students might not be able to. Group work can also be prominent in many art studios. This can teach students to accept responsibility and accept the 85

view points of others and “awareness of different cultures” (“Benefits of Art Education”). In the art studio, artist learn to collaborate with others while they are offering critiques or receiving feedback from peers. According to Elana Lutz and Elsa Murray, art instructors at Art Works Fine Art Studios, the major benefits of art are that it improves a student’s confidence and teach them to think critically. From age 4-18, as their students’ progresses through the program, they see them develop their perspective towards the world and their problem-solving skills. When art is taught technically, students learn to gage for a goal and feel a sense of accomplishment when they succeed in either creating the perfect color, drawing the perfect shape, or finish their painting. When students are challenged by what they are making, Elana and Elsa ask questions and have the students try to solve the problem on their own. Art offers a different form of expression; it does not define a student to standards and overall, helps them feel more successful. At the studio, the goal of the teachers is to create proud and confident artist. When art is implemented into school curriculum, a range of benefits gradually appear. Many elementary schools have art and music lessons weekly, and having credit in an art class is a mandatory requirement for graduation in high school. With this in mind, students are able to maximize their artistic experience with highly qualified and devoted teachers. If the art programs

successfully make it into schools, truancy and tardiness go down, while test scores and enjoyment in schools go up (Baker). Art classes can act as place “to succeed while they may have failed in other subjects.” Art is more interesting than other subjects; it can be fun, challenging, and expressive (Moorefield). Having something to look forward to everyday makes the whole academic experience more appealing. Along with reading, writing, and math, the addition of art balances students’ academic schedule to mix in creativity. Academics seem less boring and daunting with the extra time to relieve stress and let out everything. Increased motivation in schools leads to improved test scores, attendance records, and behavior (Baker). If art programs continue to shrink in schools, many students will lack the ability to think critically, creatively, and freely. The government, schools, and parents all need to be aware if their art programs are lacking or if the students do not seem to enjoy the class. It is crucial to have art programs in schools in order for students to receive all the major benefits that come along. Schools must prioritize their budgets to effectively incorporate art into their curriculum. The school can work with parents to hold fund raisers for art programs or create student exhibits to attract the interest of donors. The government has to increase their emphasis on art by helping fund more programs and putting more money into schools. 86

Advantages of trying to raise funds inside the school community can help bring awareness to the importance of arts to the whole community including family and other schools. Disadvantages would be the limiting amount of money that would be raised and that only a single school or the schools that are holding fund raisers would benefit. Advantages of having the government pitch in on funds to emphasize art more would drastically affect a larger amount of schools and teachers to be hired, while having the government to pass bills that would allow such funds would be difficult.

I would like to acknowledge Lia and John Henry for proofreading my paper.!

Many art programs are beginning to shrink in schools due to lack of funding and value that is placed in arts in the time of technology. Without art, students will find it hard to express feelings from their heart and stay behind a screen or unreal personality so that they can “fit in” with the rest of their peers. Art brings variety to a student’s curriculum, whether it is helping them to improve memory, boost confidence, or create a portal for self expression, without art, schools are not as appealing. Art can develop work ethics, a sense of time management, and respect for others perspectives. It is crucial for principals to leave art teachers and the art programs within their budgets and use fundraisers to gather the remaining amounts. Without the arts, schools are plain black and white, but by adding art, a whole spectrum of colors can fill the schools.

Heather, M. Moorefield. "Arts Voices: Middle School Students and the Relationships of the Arts to their Motivation and SelfEfficacy." The Qualitative Report 15.1 (2010): 1-17. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 14 Jan. 2013.

Works Cited Baker, Beth. “Does arts training improve social and academic skills?” Art Education. 22.11(2012).CQ Researcher. Web. 17 Dec.2012. “Benefits of Art Education.” Americans for the Arts. Americans for the Arts, n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2013

Legon, Jeordan."Inner City Art Center an Outlet for Creative Talents of Needy Youngsters Series: Our Schools. Innovative Educational Programs. One in a Series." Los Angeles Times (pre1997): 11. Apr 12 1990. National Newspapers Core. Web. 14 Jan. 2013 Phillips, Anna M. “Even Before Layoffs, Schools lost 135 Arts Teachers.” Nytimes.com. The New York Times, 9 Jun. 2011.Web. 2 Feb. 2013 Steals, Shanna. “The Pros and Cons of Formal Art Classes for Children.” Helium. Helium. 15 "Mar. 2007.Web. 30 Jan. 2013 87

Jameson McQueen

Abuse and MalPrescription of A.D.D. Medications amongst children and teens A.D.D. Medications have worked wonders for millions of students and adults with A.D.D. /A.D.H.D. in all types of environments: work, school, social, home, etc. These drugs have caused patients to have both improved long & short-term attention and have an increased productivity level. Use of prescription A.D.D. Medications have also helped with improved impulse control and memory skills. Many A.D.D. medications use their stimulant properties to streamline patients thought process, which increases concentration and makes them more productive. The stimulant properties also cause a decrease in impulsivity amongst patients with A.D.D. These effects will often be much stronger and intoxicating when taken by a person with-

out A.D.D. Other proven benefits of prescription A.D.D. medications are an improvement in long term academic/A.D.D. coping skills; seen even after a student has stopped consuming these medications. (Grandison) Many consumers of A.D.D. Medications experience an increase in motivation and engagement academically and socially. Studies have shown that children taking these medications have had an improved self-image, lower chance of depression and at times an actually increase in mood. Some patients have had improved relationships and interactions with peers, parents, and teachers. Children, teens, and adults who suffer from A.D.D and are properly medicated have also been seen to have a lower chance of substance abuse compared to individuals who are not medicated and have A.D.D. (Snow) A.D.D. Medication Abuse in schools is a serious issue thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s root can be traced back to doctorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s missdiagnosing the learning disorder and loosely prescribing these powerful stimulant drugs. These drugs being miss-prescribed can lead to adverse and intoxicating effects on students who are not in need of these medications and can lead to illegal distribution, abuse, and even addiction amongst students who have or have not been prescribed these drugs. The first stimulant used to treat A.D.D. was a prescription amphetamine called Benzadrine, which was released in 1933. (Jacobs) The drug was not solely created for the intention of treating A.D.D., but doctors found that it did help the side-effects of 88

the learning disorder. Benzadrine is a stimulant, similar to today’s A.D.D. drugs like Aderall or Ritalin. Quickly after the release of Benzadrine and other stimulants, these prescription drugs began to be abused. Between the 1940’s and 50’s an abundance of reports of illegal distribution, overdose, and smuggling of this drug became prevalent. Twenty four years after the release of Benzadrine, the A.D.D. medication Methylphenidateor commonly known as Ritalin, was released in 1957. (Jacobs) The issue with prescribing these medications to kids of an appropriate age is not seen among children who have been properly assessed and diagnosed with A.D.D., and who have the appropriate type of symptoms and are struggling severely when not medicated. (Willingham) The issue is seen with children/ teenagers who have been prescribed this drug while lacking the necessary neuropsychological assessment to prove that they have A.D.D., but are still given this drug as a generalized attempt at improving their academic performance. (Grandison) The reason that this common occurrence is unwise and potentially harmful is that when a child does not have A.D.D. but is taking prescription A.D.D. stimulant’s, the medications which are often amphetamine based and are designed to affect and interact with person suffering from A.D.D., (like Aderall or Ritalian), will experience adverse effects. (Neuger) For example; Adderall, an amphetamine based medication can produce the following effects when abused; euphoria, increased libido, concentration, energy, self-esteem, self-confidence, soci

ability, irritability, aggression, dizziness, twitching, insomnia, and anxiety. (Warner) A person abusing this drug will experience some or even all of these affects, and appear to be extremely giddy, hyperactive, and appear to be in a euphoric state. These potential effects are often unknown and unpredicted by consumers, and are especially common amongst people who have been wrongly prescribed these drugs which are designed to interact with someone suffering from A.D.D. A teenager or adult, especially one pre-disposed to drug abuse, can easily fall into a routine of abusing these drugs when they first discover the adverse affects. (Grandison.). A separate but related occurrence is the illegal abuse of A.D.D. medication. Students all over the country have admitted to illegally buying or distributing their or other’s medications to people who do not have A.D.D. The most common reason for students to purchase these drugs is academic enhancement, but some use it recreationally. The mal-prescription of A.D.D. medications from psychiatrists to student’s who do not have A.D.D. is a root cause of these drugs being abused illegally. The malprescription of prescription A.D.D. medication allows access to these drugs for people who do not suffer from A.D.D. and should not be taking these medications. The mal-prescription increases recreational abuse, which can easily become sharing these drugs. Once an individual begins to discover the adverse effects, whether or not they continue to abuse the drug, are enabled to illegally distribute them. (Grandison). A.D.D Medication 89

being abused causes the effects listed in the previous paragraph, and can be risky for many reasons. A.D.D. medications are a controlled substance; therefore dosage can vary from person to person. If an individual takes Ritalin or Aderall that is prescribed to another person, they may be taking the wrong dosage and not only will they feel an increase in the already intoxicating affects, but they will be at higher risk for overdose, and long term damage from the usage of an amphetamine drug. Many people do not make the connection between A.D.D. medications being an amphetamine drug. While the short and long term effects are not a severe as abusing an illegal amphetamine, such as methamphetamine, the dangerous amphetamine compounds do become clear when this drug is abused. Long term effects of abusing this drug can manifest into delusions, physical ticks/urges (such as picking one’s face or body), and in extreme cases, amphetamine psychosis can be induced after heavy and long term abuse of A.D.D Medications." (Schwarz) The root causes/enablers for this issue are complex and varying depending on the situation. The cause/initiation for abuse can come from miss-diagnosis of the learning disorder and therefore mal-prescribing the medication, which can cause adverse effects similar to abuse of other amphetamine drugs. More often and more crucial of a factor for this issue is psychiatrists prescribing these medications, intended for A.D.D. /A.D.H.D. and rarely to treat the sleep disorder Narcolepsy, to children with no valid neuropsychological assessments per-

formed to determine if the student has Attention Deficit Disorder. Doctor’s all over the country are prescribing the drugs to many young adults merely with the reason for “they are doing poorly in school”, or “they are having a hard time concentrating”. (Grandison). The decisions to prescribe these drugs without proven assessments are often a mistake, leading to adverse effects. Although majority the majority of abuse of A.D.D. medications stem from mal-prescription and discovery of adverse effects caused by amphetamine components, many students have turned to A.D.D. medication as a tool for academic enhancement. " Abuse of A.D.D. Medications for academic enhancement is an issue that’s underlying cause is seen within the fabric of many American families and school’s expectations for students. (Neuger). The notion of one’s academic performance for their own personal benefit/enrichment no longer exists in many American households. “It’s not healthy.” Says Mitch, currently a learning specialist at San Francisco Friends School with a background of working with High School and College student’s with A.D.D. “Kids need to be living their lives with balance, in order to be able to compete to get to the next level; I think it’s really not healthy.” (Neuger) Students will turn to taking these drugs to possess an academic edge at their most desperate time. Many college students use these drugs when studying, usually when they are desperately trying to work all night. This form missusing these drugs can also form a different kind of dependence; 90

many college students who somewhat regularly use A.D.D. medications as a form of academic enhancement can become mentally dependent on these drugs when studying; feeling they can sufficiently complete the task at hand without some form of A.D.D medications. (Neuger) When a disciplinary matter surfaces related to abuse of A.D.D medications, the individual’s intents and strategies for coping with academic stress and performance should be examined (Neuger). Unfortunately, the manner and regulations in which they are distributed sets up many for mal-prescription and adverse effects from taking these drugs. Regulations for the distribution of these drugs should be examined and subsequently changed. (Warner) With a necessary neuropsychological assessment or similar test conducted by a learning specialist, a patient is much less likely to be missprescribed these drugs and therefore receive adverse effects. (Schwarz) Neuropsychological assessments are not required to get a prescription to A.D.D. Medications. If they were, the occurrence of mal-prescription of these medications would decrease significantly. This is one the biggest ways in which this issue can be fought. (Warner) This issue has been caused by parents and professionals and is enabled by them as well. A.D.D Medications should not be used in patients, many which are children, who do not have A.D.D. to treat symptoms of another disorder to just control them. A.D.D Medications need be prescribed for A.D.D. and assessments to prove the condition

should be required in order to sufficiently prevent malprescription and abuse of these drugs.

Works Cited Jacobs, Alan. “The Lost World of Benzedrine.” The Atlantic. www.theatlantic.com . April 15th 2012. Web. February 11th 2013. Willingham, Emily “Should Children Take ADHD Drug – Even If They Don’t Have The Disorder?” Forbes. www.forbes.com. November 9th 2012. Web. February 11th 2013. Warner, Judith. “Parents Created This Problem, and Must Address It.” The New York Times. www.nytimes.com. June 11th, 2012. Web. February 11th 2013. Schwarz, Alan. “Drowned in a Stream of Prescriptions.” The New York Times. www.nytimes.com, Febuary 2nd, 2013. Web. Febuary 3rd 2013. Vedentam, Snow “Millions Have Misused ADHD Stimulant Drugs, Study Says” The Washington Post www.washingtonpost.com 25 Feb. 2005. Web. 15 Jan. 2013 Warner Judith, “Parents Created This Problem, and Must Address It” The New York Times. www.newyorktimes.com 11 Jun. 2012. Web. 15 Jan. 2013.

Schwarz, Alan â&#x20AC;&#x153;Attention Disorder or Not, Pills to Help in Schoolâ&#x20AC;? New York Times. www.nytimes.com. October 9th 2012. Web. February 17th 2013. Neuger, Mitch. Personal Interview. 20 Dec. 2012 Grandison, Carina. Personal Interview. 18 Jan. 2013

Leila Meraz-Baca

Can Horseback Riding Help Autistic Children? In the United States alone, more children are diagnosed on the autism spectrum disorder than AIDS, cancer or juvenile diabetes combined (“What is Autism?”). Although a definite cause or cure is still being researched, science has found not found a way to treat or prevent this brain disorder. Therapy has been a main form of treating autism for years, helping children with learning social skills, something that many people with autism have troubles with. Although controversial for its lack of scientific research on how it works, equine therapy is a new-found, promising way to help children with varying forms of autism because it has shown to improve their social, interactive, cognitive and verbal skills. Autism is highly variable brain development disorder that obstructs the developmental and social interaction part of the brain (“Therapeutic”). Difficulties with communication, attention span, concentration, social skills, group activities, eye contact, and other basic skills such as dressing and eating are often

signs of autism (“Equine”). Autism begins to show itself in the child’s first two to three years, and affects boys four to five times more than girls (“What is Autism?”). Around one in every fifty-four boys and one in every two hundred and fifty-two girls are diagnosed with autism in the United States, and this number has been steadily increasing (“What is Autism?”). It is estimated that 2 million people in our country have a form of autism, a 10 fold increase compared to rates from 40 years ago and an estimated rise of 10 to 17 percent in the past few (“What is Autism?”). No cure or prevention has been found by scientists yet, and scientists have no clues to why the autism diagnosis has gone up recently, however environmental surroundings, genetics and an improvement in the diagnosis are both factors being considered (“What is Autism?”). There is no medical test that determines whether or not someone is diagnosed with autism. Often times, if symptoms are noted in a child, they are brought in to a physician who utilizes a variety of tests to analyze the child’s behavior and if it falls in line with the symptoms of autism. Because of the range in how autism affects each person, autism is called ‘autism spectrum disorder’. Where the child falls on the ‘spectrum’ determines whether the child is considered “high-functioning (autistic traits, but relatively strong verbal, social, academic and life skills) to low-functioning (autism traits, little to no verbal, social or academic skills)” and anywhere in between (“Therapeutic”). There 93

is not a known treatment for autism, and because autism affects every person differently, it’s difficult to develop one form of therapy for everyone with an autism diagnosis. Researchers and scientists have looked into different, alternate forms of therapy (such as animal therapy) in addition to more conventional therapy (such as occupational therapy, medication, sensory integration therapy) but so far, they have don’t have enough evidence to arrive at any conclusions, leaving the parents of children with autism to see what works for their child individually. Portia Iversen, co-founder of Cure Autism Now, a non-profit organization that funds global biomedical research, says “We don’t know what autism is yet. We don’t know how many kinds there are. For that reason, we don’t know what treatments will work on what kids, and we certainly don’t know why they work” (Parker-Pope). Animals have been “therapists” since the first human groupings in history. The ability an animal has to calm a person a way no human can has been appreciated by people for thousands of years. In 1796, Quakers created The York Retreat, the first mental health establishment to use animals (particularly dogs) as a legitimate form of therapy for dealing with a variety of mental disabilities and conditions (Cognitive Behavior). Animals are undoubtedly somehow able to feel emotions of a patient differently, in a ways human therapists could never do.

Horses have often been thought of as having a “sixth sense”, which may be true. “Horses look to their riders for a companionship and are able to sense human emotion, movement and attitude which they respond accordingly to” (“Therapeutic”). Essentially, horses are companion animals that want to form a trusting bond with their rider, and they act accordingly to the way their rider is feeling. According to studies performed by Carol Sankey of the University of Rennes, who lead a research team as they studied loyalty in horses towards humans. She concluded that the bond horses are able to form with humans is most likely a extension of natural horse behavior in the wild, in which horses value their friends and relatives and are also open to new acquaintances. Her research team discovered that “equine social relationships are long-lasting, and in some cases, life long.” They also found new evidence through a variety of tests to suggest horses are able to understand human words quite well, and have outstanding memories (Viegas). Therefore, appropriate interaction and communication is needed to form a bond with a horse, and openness and willingness to do so are essential parts of equine therapy (“Therapeutic”). The features of equine therapy can especially be helpful for children diagnosed with autism. Communication, both verbally and physically can be a struggle every day, in ways that may come naturally to children without autism. Using horses forces the child to use appropriate ways to communicate and the results are immediate (“Therapeutic”). Trying to get a horse to walk, 94

children may begin to kick, scream or yell at the horse with no results. However, once the child begins to speak gently to the horse and ride it properly, the horse obeys. In addition to communicating with the horse, the children learn to communicate properly with their instructor, who gives them verbal cues and encouragement while they ride the horse (“Therapeutic”). At Giant Steps, a therapeutic riding center in Petaluma, a young rider with autism had been participating in equine therapy for years. She had a great vocabulary in sign language, but did not communicate orally. For weeks, she had wanted to switch horses, and instead of riding her black horse wanted to ride the brown horse, whose stable she passed every day on the way to the one of her own horse. She pointed and yelled at the brown horse every lesson, and her instructor told her ‘say brown horse’ and tell her, using her words, she wanted to ride the brown horse. After two months, the girl spoke her first words, ‘brown horse’. Her instructor believes that her love of horses lead her to speak these first words, and since then, her communication skills in general. These communication skills learned through equine therapy can then be expressed and integrated into the life of the child outside of the sessions. Using a horse as therapy encourages a child with autism to interact with a world outside of themselves, something they otherwise might struggle with. The bond that is formed between the rider and horse is unconditional and has no judgment, a relationship that a child with autism might have never experienced be-

fore (“Equine”). This attachment can later be translated into building relationships with teachers, family and friends (“Equine”). According to the Aspen Education Group, a group dedicated to providing clinical psychological care to youth, the bond between a horse and a child gives the child “a sense of themselves, their bodies, and increased contact and interaction with the surrounding world”, hopefully opening up the eyes of the child to the possibilities of relationships around them (“Equine”).Equine therapy can provide the stimulation that many children with autism crave, for riding a horse and moving their body can help their mind to settle down and focus on the exercise at hand. The Aspen Education Group also suggest that riders “are able to learn about their bodies in a space, integrating their senses and how their bodies respond to stimuli”, focus on a world outside of themselves and interact properly with a living being (“Equine”). Motivation to learn in equine therapy can also lead to a newfound self confidence in the children. While the child is learning skills to help them cope with their autism, they are also learning how to groom and ride their horse, giving them a new motivation to continue with therapy. Giant Steps head instructor Julie Larson believes that children who become bored with occupational or physical therapy are often good candidates for equine therapy, for the games and riding techniques they learn that also provide proper therapy are motivating and fun for the children. “Self-confidence is increased and a sense of competence 95

is formed when they learn to interact and work with the horse”, which also works to the advantage of the children, who may suffer from self-esteem issues (“Equine”). However, proving results through equine therapy has been a struggle. With almost no scientific research or studies, it’s hard to say scientifically that equine therapy helps children with autism, at least compared to other forms of therapy. Autism itself is still a mystery, therefore a definite cure or treatment is impossible to prove. With all the treatments and therapies that are available for helping autism, there is no general agreement on which is most effective (The Effect). Paul Offit, author of “Autism’s False Prophets: Bad Science, Risky Medicine, and the Search for a Cure” and chief of infectious diseases at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, says, “Maybe with horse riding, it’s not to say it doesn’t help. But the notion is, in any sense, getting to the fundamental cause or problem of autism, and will ever make that go away, is a false hope, and I think false hope is always bad. It’s misleading and expensive.” Professionals are definitely hesitant to advertise or promote treatments, for the lack of proof they have and equine therapy is no exception. However, many do believe there is no hurt in trying. Dr. Lawrence D. Rosen, pediatrician and founder of the Whole Child Center in Oradell, New Jersey says, “You have to be careful- you don’t want to say that all children are cured by riding horses, but there are some interesting lessons in this. Working with animals is certainly something that children respond to.”

One of the first studies done to test how equine therapy affected children with autism was done by Margaret M. Bass, Catherine A. Duchowny and Maria M. Llabre. They tested equine therapy over a 12-week period, with a hypothesis that those that participated in equine therapy would show an improvement with “greater sensory seeking, sensory sensitivity, social motivation, and less in attention, distractibility, and sedentary behaviors” compared to a group of children with autism not participating in equine therapy, although many did participate in other forms of therapy. In their study, the results were compared between the experimental group (2 girls and 17 boys ranging from 5-10) and the control group (3 girls and 12 boys ranging from 4 to 10). None of the children had previously experienced any form of equine therapy, while almost all of them had gone through occupational or “conventional” therapies. Two tests were done to analyze the social functioning of the children, before and after the 12-week period. The Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) and Sensory Profile (SP) were performed by parents or teachers to “measure the severity of the autism spectrum disorder” as well as the social functioning in each child. Through the two tests, the children were rated on their “social awareness, social cognition, social motivation, social communication and autistic mannerisms” as well as “sensory seeking, emotionally reactive, low endurance/tone, oral sensory sensitivity, inattention/distractability, poor registration, sensory sensitiv96

ity, sedentary and fine motor/perception” (Bass). The child then spent one hour a week (12 hours) in their equine therapy sessions. The sessions consisted of five minutes of mounting, which encouraged the child to communicate verbally with the instructor. This was then preceded by ten minutes of stretching, in which the instructors assisted the riders with physical and verbal prompts. Then there were fifteen minutes of riding skills, in which the riders learned how to properly ride a horse, as well as exercised their verbal communication, sensory seeking and motor skills. For the next twenty minutes, the rider played games on the horse such as simon says, red light green light, etc. While playing, the riders verbal communication and motor skills were being worked on. For the last ten minutes, the riders groomed their horses, learning the anatomy of a horse and relating it to their own. Throughout the session, the instructors constantly gave back positive feedback to the child, both verbally and physically (high fives, hugs) and tried to keep eye contact when speaking (not something autistic children usually feel comfortable doing) (Bass). In the end, the results were undeniable. When compared to the control group, using the same tests as before, the experiment showed that “sensory seeking, attention and distractibility, sensory sensitivity, and sedentary, sensory integration, social motivation, directed attention and focus all improved in the experimental group, but there was no motor skills, social cognition or social awareness improvement, however it is possible that

these could improve if the experiment lasted longer” (The Effects). It was also noted that the ability to break freely away from routine (a struggle for autistic kids) seemed to be easier for those in the experimental group after the sessions of equine therapy. Although not all characteristics of autism are helped through equine therapy, many of them are, and the significant difference between those who completed only twelve hours of equine therapy was vastly different than those who hadn’t. The results led the researchers to believe that equine therapy is a legitimate alternate form of therapy for helping autistic children (The Effects). Although there is no cure for autism, there are many forms of therapy out there to suit the needs of the individual person. Equine therapy has shown that it is an alternate, legitimate form of therapy that is helpful for an autistic child, for it helps them learn to cope with their struggles and hopefully learn the communication skills needed for our world through riding and caring for a horse. So far, unfortunately, science has no explanation for this disease, and while many scientists focus on the root of the disease, there is very little being researched for how to treat it. The answer for helping an autistic child may very well be on the back of a horse.

Works Cited Bass, Margaret M., Catherine A. Duchowny, and Maria M. Llabre. "The Effect of Therapeutic Horseback Riding on Social Functioning in Children with Autism." Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 39.9 (2009): 1261-7. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.

Viegas, Jennifer. “Horses Never Forget Human Friends.” Discovery News. Discovery, 17 Mar. 2010. Web. 31 Jan. 2013 “What is Autism?” Autism Speaks. Autism Speaks, Inc, 2013. Web. 5 Jan. 2013

Eggiman, Janet. “Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: A Case Report -- Animal-Assisted Therapy.” Medscape Today. Medscape, 12 Oct. 2006. Web. 21 Jan. 2013. “Equine Therapy for Autistic and Asperger’s Syndrome Kids.” Aspen Education Group. 2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2012 Horse Therapy Helps Children with Autism. Anne Herbst, 2012. Children’s Hospital Colorado. Web. 4 Jan. 2013 Larson, Julie. Personal Interview. 12 Jan. 2013. Masini, Angela. "Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy in Clinical Practice." Journal of Psychosocial Nursing & Mental Health Services 48.10 (2010): 30-4. ProQuest Research Library. 5 Jan. 2013 . Parker-Pope, Tara. “Healing Autism with Horses.” Well. The New York Times, 14 Apr. 2009. Web. 4 Jan. 2013. “Therapeutic Horseback Riding as Autism Treatment.” Regarding Horses. 11 Mar. 2008. Web. 18 Dec. 2012 98

Cole Mogan

Do You Like it Big or Small? One big question facing people today is the decision whether to spend money with small businesses or the trusted big names. Offering more variety and discounts than private and local businesses, large chain stores can be the most visited. But local businesses should be considered when buying products; spending money with these businesses that make up the community can create sustainability. Addressing the different issues facing retail businesses is a complex one. This investigation involves interviewing two small local retail companies to find out how they approach the larger competition. Retail businesses today are up against tough competition. Consumer products across the board are marketed to clients by retailers using a range of strategies. In today’s struggling economy, the small specialty shops must offer their customer’s unique services and experiences in order to survive. Big names like Amazon, Ebay, Zappos and others of the like not only have the ability to reach more consumers, but almost always offer discounted prices small specialty stores cannot. How do small businesses keep up? It is amazing to see how some small busi-

nesses are able to not only keep up with the big guys, but also grow and thrive in a struggling economy. What is the future of the small retailer? Will the conscious consumer determine the fate of the small specialty shop or in the end will the corporate giant squash the small retailer for good? There are three factors that entice customers to choose particular retail destinations. First off: is the store type. What kind of store is it? Is it a store that the customer feels they need to go to in order to make an informed product selection? Does the store type add value to the shopping experience? Investigating two popular, successful and local stores, I was able to see that the type of store affected the sales. San Franpsycho, one the stores, I chose to investigate felt to me like a life-style company. A life-style company is a retailer who offers the consumers a variety of products related to the consumer’s life-style. San Franpsycho, is a local, San Francisco based company that manufactures clothing, accessories such as watches and jewelry and hats along with skateboards and home décor as well. They compete with larger companies like Zoo York, Upper Playground, and LRG. Andy Olive, the owner of San Franpsycho, , shared with me his thoughts on how his business competes with these big names. Olive believes that he is not really competing with these big names, quite the opposite in fact sharing the same customer base. He feels that he has a unique enough product that customers at99

tracted to those big names will shop in his store to find product that is not as main stream. How he does this is by offering his customers some of the big name brands, along with his signature brand products. His attitude more or less is, one of abundance, he feels confident that the shopping environment that he has created for his local followers is enough to keep the folks coming back to shop at his very cool store (Olive). Here is where Product type comes into play. By offering familiar brands and products to customers, is able to attract shoppers by using the big brand names to his advantage. Once a shopper is enticed to come in the store, Olive has a chance to show how his specialty handmade in San Francisco line, offers the customer a cool made in America product that the big brands don’t always offer While the brands between small retail stores and big companies might look the same, there may be other factors like made in the U.S. or even more relevant, an offering of locally made products like Olive’s San Franpsycho brand . Another motivating factor in determining consumer spending is the issue of giving back. One way a store can attract business is to link its name to a charity. Consumers can be enticed to buy from stores or corporations who are vocal about donating to charities. Is there a charity organization that is benefited from the sale of a certain product? This can influence consumer habits. Olive an avid surfer says that giving back to

some of the local clean up the beach programs is one way he shares with his customers his involvement with the environment. Olive says that is just one way to get people tuned into his brand and store, he knows that in order to develop a following he has to continue to have fresh products stocking the shelves. In order for a small store to gain a following of customers, it is necessary for the store to continue to bring in new and fresh merchandise on a regular basis. Having unique product that stands out from the products of other stores, consumers will stop by more often. In the end, it’s not just product type that influences how often a consumer visits a store like San Franpsycho, it’s the store vibe and freshness of product that keeps a customer coming back. In Olives small store, the vibe is there, good tunes and entertaining staff makes this destination a place where you may want to hang out all day. Store vibe is probably one of the single most important factors in giving small retailers an edge over the big guy. After all, if the customer forms a friendship with the staff and owners of a local retail store, it is more likely that he will want to spend his hard earned money in a store with a good vibe and excellent customer service. Proof Lab, located in Mill Valley on the way to Stinson Beach just off the 101, is a store where everything needed for an active life-style can be found. This active lifestyle company offers a unique store atmosphere, where the 100

staff not only lives the life-style being sold, but also are part of the extended Proof Lab family. From surf boards to skateboards and life-style clothing that goes along with those activities, Proof Lab is one stop shopping. But it’s not Proof Lab’s elaborate selection that keeps the place filled year round, it’s the vibe that keeps it’s loyal following coming back on a regular basis. Proof Lab is a business, started by two best friends out of the back of a tiny store 8 years ago that has now grown into three stores that encompass more than 5000 square feet. It feels more like a village than a retail store. Complete with a complementary indoor skate ramp, this is more than a shopping experience, it’s a destination! This store offers its customers a unique experience where not only do you get to work with the same sales staff again and again; one is educated about the products for sale without pressure to buy. Unlike shopping at Tilley’s where the same tee shirt is available for less, the selection and shopping experience cannot measure up to what one finds while frequenting a family run business. Store vibe is what makes or breaks any small business (McCarthy). All small businesses face competition from other retailers. Small retailers usually compete with each other or if they get big enough they will compete with big chain companies. Online shopping has steadily increased, small companies now have to add web-sales to their customers if they want to keep up with the bigger chains. Small companies are continually challenged to offer the same services as the big guy, which include in-store

events, fair return policies and discounted product. Building that customer relationship is paramount to the success of any retail business, small or large. According to Nate McCarthy from Proof Lab, his company doesn’t really compete with other small companies on purpose McCarthy is more focused on building the existing relationship with his customers rather that keep up with what is going with the big guy. McCarthy is pretty relaxed about the word competition, he said that they don’t intentionally compete with other local businesses, they just see that their customers are attracted to both their products and not their competitors. If a customer is interested in two companies and one company has something else that the other company does not have, the customer will go for what they want. For instance, Proof Lab utilizes other items and events to bring in more business (McCarthy). McCarthy made a risky move by renting the entire 2500 feet of Tam Junction for his once small surf shop. He and his Partner Will Hutchinson realized this would be a great way to involve the community in their organization. With the extra property, now they have a community garden and put up temporary displays such as Pumpkin patches and Christmas tree farms which is seasonal but still helps to draw customers to their small business. They should also try to have 1 to 1 relationships with their customers, maintaining the value of a 1 to 1 relationship with their customers is huge(McCarthy). As 70% of Americans will spend 13% more on businesses that offer better 101

customer service than those that don’t, they will then out do their competitors (“How Small Businesses Compet."). Small Companies struggle drawing customers that shop with big companies to them because customers that shop in the bigger companies are usually swayed by more competitive prices. Big companies once started out small and were once like your local retailer. They have a bigger buying power and usually have their products made in other countries which is cheaper which grants them greater buying power. One way small companies can compete with bigger companies is by having a variety of items and events that will bring those customers in. One big bonus for small businesses is that they usually have the ability to offer better customer service. Typically, big companies tend to have numerous low-paid employees are not invested time in getting to know the customers. Most store owners think “The general feeling of 60% of customers is that most businesses neglect to improve their customer service” (“How Small Businesses Compete."). One of the most difficult challenges facing a business is trying to over good customer service through their on-line business. Most on-line companies have a hard time with customer service, which gives a step for the small companies over the big companies. Depending on the business, buying locally and dealing with independent owners will usually take out the online company because you are going straight to the company (“How

Small Businesses Compete.") The one thing they could have over the online companies in this competition is when the small companies get featured on the big companies or have an online shop of their own. Every small company has its own strategy of how they draw in customers or separate themselves from other companies. For instance San Franpsycho, which is a retailer/ clothing company on divisadero in San Francisco. One way they draw customers is by having art showings every month. They show support to their local artist by awarding him/her the opportunity to design tee shirts. This will make their products diverse compared to other main stream companies (Olive). Olive is proud that all his products are manufactured in the US using all of their own original silk-screened designs. Proof Lab’s strategy is little bit different. By offering three different stores on the same property, they attract a variety of clientele. They have an outdoor store on the same property as the main shop. This attracts other people who might not like the stuff in the main shop, but still will shop at the outdoor shop. There is also a diversity and cycle in product so they keep customers coming in each month to see what is new in store. Most company’s try to draw attention to their company in different ways. Advertising is the most common way to draw attention. Advertising, defined by Merriam Webster is “the action of calling something to the attention of the public especially by 102

paid announcements.” According to Proof Lab, currently, they do not advertise publicly. They used to have bus stop ads across the street from them. These ads had arrows to point towards their shop so they could be noticed by people who don’t know about proof lab. “Word of mouth” is what has been the best form of advertising says McCarthy. This has been the seed for his successful business. Advertisement is one of the key things in a local business. If a company does not advertise then no one will know about them company. If no one knows about that company their sales will not come in. Without cash flow, businesses cannot succeed. With digital and social media growing, “word of mouth” is now more important than ever. Proof Lab’s tremendous success is an example of how just “word of mouth” alone can have very positive consequences. McCarthy has used this “word of mouth” type of strategy to advertise for his skate contests (McCarthy). Contests bring in serious skaters who end up participating in the contests as well as purchasing boards and other accessories from them. Not only do big companies have larger buying power, they also have bigger budgets when it comes to advertising. Advertising methods that bigger companies use are similar to smaller companies marketing strategies. Advertising on the side of automobiles is one method San Franpsycho, has employed as a way to get some brand exposure. (Olive). San Franpsycho, has a

large delivery truck that has their logo on it. Having that exposure on the roads is important for Olive, as motoroist in San Francisco are continually exposed to ads from the bigger companies on the sides of buses and taxi cabs. Like San Franpsycho, , Proof Lab is also trying to get the attention of motorist by using bus stop advertisement for their store. Most big and small companies use the same advertisement strategies, but they smaller companies don’t have the budgets like the bigger companies. Those big budgets, buy more ad space at the bus stops an on cars. Although the small companies might have the same advertising plans as the big companies have, they simply cannot compete with the amount of exposure the large companies can purchase. Small businesses inability to keep up with the big advertisement budget, can be a big factor in staying competitive. Creating solution programs that help these local business are important. The SBSC is a company that helps local business startup or progress. The SBSC is to “To provide quality management and technical assistance for small businesses, resulting in business growth and sustainability for our clients, and economic growth and prosperity for the communities we serve”( Smith). Blogs on the internet are a great resource for small start up companies. These blogs offer great advice to companies just beginning. This advice is usually directed towards basic start up but you can get some ideas from these different blogs (Eridon). 103

In conclusion, I believe that one of the best things a consumer can do for the economy is to shop with local business. Contributing to the local community gives the consumer a sense of conscientious spending. This conscientiousness has a domino effect in the community, by adding to the growth of small businesses and jobs for folks in the community. Although large chain stores can be the most visited along with sometimes offering more variety than private and local businesses, local businesses, too should be more in consideration when buying products. Acknowledgements Stacy King and Richard Mogan for proof reading Reika Goh for Thesis Ideas

Works cited

Eridon, Corey. "HubSpot's Inbound Internet Marketing Blog." 10 Ways Small Business Marketers Can Crush Big Competitors. N.p., 3 Jan. 2012. Web. 03 Jan. 2013. "Small Business." Business Bloomberg. N.p., Winter 2012. Web. 26 Dec. 2012. Goltz, Jay. "Why Small Businesses Fail to Grow." Youre the Boss Why Small Businesses Fail to Grow Comments. New York Times, 10 Apr. 2012. Web. 03 Jan. 2013. "How Small Businesses Compete With Big Brands." How Small Businesses Are Competing with Big Brands. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Jan. 2013. Olive, Andy. Personal Interview. 22 Jan. 2013. McCarthy, Nate. Personal Interview. 6 Jan. 2013.

"Ecommerce versus Brick and Mortar Business." Ecommerce versus Brick and Mortar Business. Business to Business Vualt, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. "Online Only or Brick and Mortar Store?" Washington Post. Washington Post, 23 Sept. 2012. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. Smith, Rich. "Who Pays Better: Big Companies or Small Companies?"DailyFinance.com. N.p., 17 Oct. 2012. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. 104

Tucker Morris

Living with (Central) Auditory Processing Disorder: Can We Succeed? Auditory Processing Disorder, also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, (C)APD, is a neurological condition effecting an estimated 2-3 percent of the population (Schminky 2), that impacts the way auditory information is absorbed, processed, and analyzed in the brain. The American SpeechLanguage-Hearing Association (ASLHA) defines (Central) Auditory Processing [(C)AP)] as the “the efficiency and effectiveness by which the central nervous system (CNS) utilizes auditory information” (ASHLA. “Working Group” 3). Perhaps the most useful definition of Central Auditory Processing (CAP) was made by neurologist Jack Katz: “it is what we do with what we hear” (qtd. in Stecker 1). Central Auditory Processing Disorder

is a physical hearing impairment, but not one which involves hearing loss. This disability, subject to protection by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), makes it difficult to organize information, understand and comprehend sounds and speech, and read complex texts. People who have (C)APD, including myself, often are embarrassed because they may feel out of sync with other people when they process incomplete auditory information (Paton. “Living”). (C)APD often coexists with other learning differences such as speech and language disorders, dyslexia, and attention deficit disorders, which can make diagnosis tricky (Schminky 1). While researchers’ understanding of the neurophysiology of (Central) Auditory Processing Disorder is both developing and limited, and while there is no known “cure,” through successful management and therapies, the impacts of APD on the individual can be overcome with time. There are many possible causes of (C)APD which are still being investigated. Occasionally (C)APD is acquired as a result of a traumatic event: a head trauma, a tumor, stroke or damage of the nerve cells are examples. In the absence of trauma, and in the case of children, causes are less clear: Some possible causes are infant chronic ear infections, lead poisoning or a difficult birth in which the baby didn’t get enough oxygen, damaging some of the brain cells. More likely (C)APD is simply hereditary, as it tends to run across generations in families (Morlet 2).

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There are a number of aspects of Auditory Processing which are essential to gaining full comprehension of auditory information. They consist of: sound localization and lateralization, auditory discrimination, temporal aspects of audition, and auditory performance with competing and degraded signals (Schminky 1, ASHLA “Working Group” 18). “Sound localization” enables us to locate the direction the sound is coming from so we can pay attention to it and filter out noise from other directions, enabling us to focus on what is important. “Auditory discrimination” is the ability to identify and distinguish between different sounds. This is important as children learn to read; for example, hearing the difference between a “D” and a “B.” “Temporal aspects of audition” refer to how fast one can process auditory information and whether the information comes so fast that it becomes garbled. An example of this is as one processes the meaning of the first part of a sentence, the second part of the sentence can be missed, resulting in a loss of comprehension. “Auditory performance” refers to filtering speech from background noises. “Auditory performance with degraded signals” refers to comprehending sounds under less than perfectly clear circumstances. Persons with (C)APD typically have challenges in one or more of these aspects of audition (i.e. the sense, capacity, or process of hearing). While these challenging aspects of auditory input certainly effect “what we do with what we hear,” it is also true that higher level thinking such as language, attention and memory

(our “smarts”) can compensate for ineffectiveness in auditory input (Bellis, Assessment 54). Early investigations into auditory processing were enabled by the study of “site of lesion” brain defects. A patient with a known and localized brain defect (for example to their brain stem) was given auditory tests and those results were compared to a patient with normal brain function. Through tests such as these, neurologists were able to associate particular auditory functions with individual parts of the brain. Today electroencephalograms (EEGs) and functional Magnetic Resonance Images (fMRI) are more sophisticated tools for tracking neurologic activity and functionalities. With electroencephalograms, electrodes are placed on the head to track wavelengths and map out what parts of the brain are active for certain processing demands. The EEGs of normal people can be compared to dyslexics or persons with (C)APD to see where the differences occur. Similarly, functional Magnetic Resonance Images are being used to track where blood circulates in the brain as you process information. This too can be used to localize auditory processing activities in the brain so that researchers can refine their understanding of what parts of the brain are involved with what kinds of auditory processing and if someone has challenges with auditory processing, where is it occurring? (Paton, Interview). Auditory information is processed in the central nervous system (CNS) where incoming auditory signals and sounds are identi106

fied by their differing characteristics (pitch, duration and loudness). These acoustic signals are transformed into neural signals (electrical brain currents from neuron to neuron) as they pass through the ear, to the auditory nerve and the brain stem where the information is analyzed (Schminky 1). Once the brain completes its full analysis of what the sounds are, where they are coming from, and when they took place, it creates an image from the signals and compares it to stored images from past experience in the brain. If a match between the incoming message and stored image occurs in the higher levels of the brain, recognition and comprehension of the sounds take place. People with (C)APD have challenges because some of the information is lost before it reaches our higher levels of cognitive thinking (Paton, Interview). As I emphasized earlier, people with (C)APD, such as myself, don’t have hearing loss. The information that is sent into the brain is clear. Although we may not have trouble with hearing, we still have trouble with auditory difficulties that affect the ability to communicate effectively, follow complex directions, and learn new vocabulary. A full understanding of how auditory processing takes place is not possible until one knows which parts of the brain are involved and how. The anatomy of the auditory nervous system consists of the following: peripheral hearing (the ear, cochlea and auditory nerve), the brain stem and the auditory cortex. People with (C)APD don’t have problems with peripheral hearing, the information that is sent from the ears into the brainstem and on to

the brain is clear. Problems for people who have APD starts with the brain stem. The brain stem must send up clear information to the cortex (the “intellect,” where you think). If a message gets lost along the way, as occurs with people with APD, then the information that is received in the auditory cortex becomes “mush,” making interpretation of the sounds difficult. It is the job of the brainstem, for example, to filter out unwanted noise from the important acoustic messages (such as speech) it sends up to the cortex. If this filtering does not take place we have difficulty making sense of what we hear (Paton. “Central” 1). Individuals who are thought to have (C)APD before diagnosis, often share a number of difficulties. Examples are difficulty with taking notes, hearing in noisy situations, maintaining concentration when other sounds are intervening, following multistep complex directions, reading and or spelling (mostly at early ages), learning songs or nursery rhymes, hearing conversations over the telephone and putting thoughts into writing. It is important to keep in mind that these common behavioral characteristics that are often identified in people who have (C)APD, also occur for people with other types of disorders or deficits like a learning disability, language impairment, ADHD or Asperger’s syndrome (ASHA 10; Baran 328). A person with the above characteristics may be considered at risk for having (C)APD and preliminary screening can be administered by general educational therapists, neuropsychologists, 107

and educational psychologists. The most accurate way, however, to definitely diagnose (C)APD is clinical audiologic tests of the central nervous system’s function by an audiologist (Paton. “Living” 1). The first step is a routine hearing test to rule out hearing loss as the source of lack of auditory comprehension. If the hearing is fine then the audiologist will administer a series of auditory tests designed to assess auditory function in various areas of the brain. These tests fall into two categories: electophysiologic and behavioral tests. Electophysiologic tests involve placing electrodes on the skull to measure the electric current in the brain in response to auditory stimuli (sounds and words). These tests can be used to evaluate both processing in the lower (brainstem) and higher (cortex) parts of the brain. The results are compared against age appropriate norms. The second battery of tests, behavioral tests, consist of sounding different tones, numbers or words through earphones into the subject’s ears and asking questions for comprehension. These tests can identify a number of important auditory challenges for people with (C)APD. For example, the •" “Monaural Low-Redundancy Speech” test identifies a person’s ability to achieve “auditory closure” (that is filling in the blanks when only part of a sentence is heard),

•" “Temporal Patterning” tests are designed to test a person’s ability to identify and process a sequence of sounds that aren’t language. •" “Dichotic Speech” tests are when the patient is given different sounds in to each ear and needs to tie them together into one idea. This listening requires communication between the left and right hemispheres of the brain (Bellis, Assessment 56, 123, 204), •" “Binaural Interaction” tests present different parts of a speech signal to each ear separately at different times to assess the lower brain stem’s ability to integrate them into a whole. For example, if the speech signal was, “the raccoon knocked over the cantaloupe,” it would be administered as follows: the right ear would hear, “the ra/ ked- o/ cant” where as the left ear would hear, “coon-kno/ ver-the/ elope” (Schminky, 45). Through these tests the nature of a person’s auditory processing difficulties can be identified so a plan of interventions can be made. As mentioned above, (Central) Auditory Processing Disorder is a neurological condition that doesn’t have a “cure,” still it can be overcome overtime through management and remediation. In order to improve auditory perception, a number of environmental modifications can be very helpful. For younger primary 108

school children, preferential seating (to improve access to the teacher’s speech and decrease background noise), multimodality cues (for example, supplementing spoken direction with visuals) and hands-on demonstrations, positive reinforcement and getting the students’ attention prior to speaking, provision of a note-taker and repetition and rephrasing are all helpful (Bellis, Assessment 332-333). For adolescents in high school, the following academic modifications are helpful: provision of tutoring services, lecture notes or guidelines prior to class presentation (so that the student can come prepared), careful planning of academic course load (to evenly distribute the demands) and possibly preferential seating (Baran, 330). It is important that teenagers become self-advocates, reach out to their teachers in new and difficult situations and be strategic with their work. Finally, a number of technological aids can be helpful to succeed in school such as organizational software like Inspiration, using a Smart Pen or other gadgets to record lectures to listen to at a later time. Besides environmental modifications, a number of remediation techniques can be used to improve auditory processing and specifically neuro-auditory functioning. In the scientific literature, “neuroplasticity” refers to the central nervous system’s ability to make organizational changes as a result of internal and external training (Bellis, Assessment 132). While it’s well known that infants and children are capable of forming new connections and pathways in their brains, neuroplasticity does not stop

with young people. Author and audiologist Terri Bellis, who experienced adult onset (C)APD following a car accident, notes that “the ability of the auditory cortex to reorganize continues throughout life and reflects the ability to acquire new skills and behaviors (Bellis, Assessment 135). A number of remediation programs are designed to create these new connections. For example, Auditory Integration Training (AIT) can help an individual block out background noise or increase noise suppression. This is training specifically targeted to enhance the work of the brainstem. LindaMood- Bell’s “Visualizing and Verbalizing” program is effective in helping people translate acoustic information into pictures and computer assisted therapies like Fast ForWord help increase processing speed, attention stamina, working memory and sequencing. Finally compensation strategies can be used to increase auditory processing like self-reflection and journaling or step-by-step reauditorization (repeating back what the speaker said). In my own experience, I underwent many of these remediation techniques as a young student with (C)APD and some were more helpful than others. For example, the training in LindaMood-Bell’s “Visualizing and Verbalizing” to translate readings and speech into visuals enabled me to retain information in such a way that sticks in my brain. Prior to doing this research, I never thought much about (C)APD as a learning disability that makes processing information different or a challenge for me. Now it has become clearer to me how I can get the help I need 109

to succeed and I have learned to accept that I just need to work harder and longer than a student that doesn’t have (C)APD or some of the brain function inefficiencies like me. I am in the process of learning how to advocate for myself and I am learning how to set up my life to avoid those circumstances that make auditory processing difficult, such as being in environments where there is a lot of disruptive background noise and putting myself under unrealistic time constraints. I am learning how to work best with my learning differences and it’s important that I express my ideas, beliefs and questions to help make my communication strong.

Bellis, Teri James. Assessment and Management of Central Auditory Processing Disorders, in the Educational Setting From Science to Practice. 2nd ed. San Diego: Plural Publishing Inc., 2011. Print.

Works Cited

Chermak, Gail D.; Musiek, Frank E. Central Auditory Processing Disorders, New Perspectives, San Diego and London: Singular Publishing Group, Inc., 1997. Print.

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, (Central) Auditory Processing Disorders, Working Group on Auditory Processing Disorders, 2005. Web. Dec. 30 2012, http://www.asha.org/docs/html/tr2005-00043.html Baran, Jane A. Managing Auditory Processing Disorders in Adolescents and Adults. New York: Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 2002. Print. Bellis, Teri James. “Auditory processing disorders: It’s not just kids who have them,” The Hearing Journal, Vol. 56, No. 5 May 2003: 10-19. Print.

Bellis, Teri James, Understanding Auditory Processing Disorders in Children, Reading Rockets.org. Web. Dec. 30 2012, http://www.readingrockets.org/article/15835/ Bellis, Teri James. When the Brain Can’t Hear, Unraveling the Mystery of Auditory Processing Disorder. New York: Atria Books, 2002. Print.

Masters, M. Gay; Stecker, Nancy A.; Katz, Jack. Central Auditory Processing Disorders, Mostly Management. Needham Heights: Allen and Bacon, 1998. Print. Morlet, Thierry, Reviewer, KidsHealth.org, Auditory Processing Disorder, January 2011. Web. Dec. 30 2012, http://kidshealth.org/parent/medical/ears/central_auditory.html# Paton, Judith W., “Central auditory processing disorders, (CAPD’s).” The Gram, Vol. 25, No. 1 February 1991. Print. Paton, Judith W., ldonline.org, Living and Working with a Cen110

Alex Oh

Influences of Computers on a Child’s Mind Computer technology has been an ever changing tool we have used over the years, they assist us in our work, helps us learn, and create connection with one another around the world. Computer technology has not only been used in the work force, but also in our classrooms, as students and children all around the world use computers and other electronic devices in their daily lives. With the fast development of computers, children have more opportunities to experience the world around them, but with many mysteries surrounding the topic of computer use in children, many parents and teachers are skeptical, but in reality, computer technology is the answer to teaching our children in the most effective way possible, and setting the pace for the new generation. " Computer technology is being developed by humans as we speak, and the technology world is here as we know it, but are children really getting the benefit of the doubt when it comes to being able to use these new devices. “Children in the

modern world have been exposed to media and computers far earlier than before” (Steve). 10% of children around the age of one, 39% of two to four year old, and 52% of five to eight year olds are all exposed to mobile media (Clemmit ). In other words almost every child around you, by the age of eight or nine have already been exposed to the world of technology, more specifically computer technology, and now the younger generation is more familiar with modern computer technology than their previous generations (David Elkin). " Computer technology ranges from the use of the computers, IPads, phones, to watching television. As children use these devices how will their capability to learning be affected and how will they be hindered or benefited through the use of these devices? What are the consequences and what are the benefits of actually introducing computers to children? There are many opinions generated in the topic of computer use in your everyday household, and in schools. Most parents take a negative side when it comes to computers, when a parent hears the word computers, most likely they will think of video games, and addiction, this comes with a negative response. “When it comes to video games I feel it has taken a negative side as it has been misinterpreted as only violent games as shooters and other action based game, but I think there is a way to teach through the use of games” (Wild). As parents see their children use computers they start to limit their chil111

dren to a certain amount of time to use the “screen”. But is this really helping? Does this really affect your child? Well one thing is for sure, if you don’t know what your child is doing for the last 30 minutes then it is no different than leaving a stove on with a adolescent child left at home. It does not matter if you are coming back in ten to twenty minutes it would be dangerous (Wild), and this creates uneasiness in parents as they begin to ban their kids from computer use, and using the computer becomes a once long time thing. If you let your child use a computer, moderation is the best, but at the same time creating an environment where a child does not have to feel rushed to use a computer must be created, in order to let them explore, and learn new things. When teaching a child how to use a computer it is always good to moderate, but to not restrict to much or else the learning benefit can be thrown out, also with some teaching and speculation you can still create a safe environment for your child to explore through the internet (Steve). Of course there will need to a limit somewhere of how much they use the device, no matter how good or beneficial computers may be, we all need to take a break (Rushkoff). What parents must do to let their children get the full benefit from computer use in their early stages of life is to moderate and create a “middle path” where you balance out how much computer time they get and how much “play” they get with their friends outside of the digital world (Wild).

Using a computer opens many opportunities for a young child but, there are other skills that one must learn to do early. One of which is called spontaneous play, and this ranges from creating a fantasy world like playing house with friends, to building blocks, and legos (David Elkin). Computers however seem to dissuade spontaneous play within children, as David Elkin state that “Game Boys and other electronic games are so addictive they dissuade children from enjoying the traditional games.” As this is true in certain cases there are certainly ways to implement spontaneous play with computers and video games as well. A school in Marine, named Waldorf took use of technology in a very serious way, generating their mission statement around that, children must focus on developing their mechanical skills first. For example, building blocks and having this creative type of play can help their brains develop properly, and it is the traditional way to teach children as well. Continuing their philosophy they are “one of around 160 Waldorf schools in the country that subscribe to a teaching philosophy focused on physical activity and learning through creative, hands-on tasks” (Matt Richtel). The school bans from use of computer technology not only in the school, but in homes as well. Through the agreement of parents and teachers, the student is unable to access the use of computers or any other electronic devices. In helping to develop children’s mechanical skills the Waldorf creates a sense that it is ok to not develop any skills in computer in the earlier 112

stages of life as they say “computers are getting easier and easier to learn about so why not hold it off and teach children about other things” (Matt Riichtel). It is right than children should learn their mechanical skills first as it is very important in the development of their brains, but with some computer influence children of this generation can learn faster and even more than before (Steve). Computers have very beneficial factors, but there have been multiple studies on subject like television use and video game addiction. This is a very prevalent factor in the negative response to computer technology, but this can also be corrected very easily. Even though technology related to screens have been proven to damage eyesight and sometimes your brain as you use it too consistently, moderation can keep children from taking any negative feedback from these devices. Unfortunately many children and teens produce an addiction to computer technology early on and sometimes this addiction can hinder the development of a child’s mind (Valerie Strauss). When conducting an interview with Steve his son was present at the time, and all he could think or talk about was how much he wanted to use my computer to play games. Through this you could see he was exposed to computers and other devices at an early age, and is very enthusiastic to use these new devices. The only problem was that he looked at computers as a very fun toy and not a device to do “cool things”, for example explor-

ing the world and discovering new knowledge (Steve). As this opinion may not be in every child’s mind, but it give a perfect example of someone who may start to create an addiction, but once again this can be easily prevented through moderation. Some negative views of technology have been partially the faults of the teachers in classrooms. When a teacher is unable to comprehend how to use computer technology is the classroom then it becomes a liability and because of this the students don’t learn as efficiently as they could. One major reason to this is because many teachers are not trained to teach with computers and this has a very negative effect on the learning capabilities a student could have (Clemmit). Through this many parents and adults have had a negative impression when viewing technology in the classroom and at home. Many first impressions of computer technology have been seen negative towards the common household, but “no one can dispute that the development of the internet spawned a whole new level of communication and interactivity amongst the younger set” (Samantha Kemp), as there are many new options for a child to explore than ever, from video games to new learning devices. Unfortunately these utilities, as video games, are not implemented well in today’s classes, as teachers are unprepared and unable to implement them into their classes in effective manners, as the teachers themselves are unable to use these de113

vices. Due to this change teachers are unable to use modern technology to be beneficial to the classroom and it ends up becoming a liability, as education specialist worry that teachers aren’t receiving adequate training to function in this new, digitally dominated world (Clemmit ). Many teachers in public schools today have yet to catch up to the “new” teaching standard with the new devices that we have. Therefore using computers and games in a classroom can become a risky factor if the teacher him/herself does not know how to use it, as inevitably the device will be abused in the class. In order to avoid this it is very simple as we must reteach the teachers in schools today to help them adjust to a new way of teaching and teach them the use of a computer in a class. If implemented correctly the use of video games, for example a science mystery game, can be far more beneficial than an average lecture on biology, as kids are more engaged and is far better than lecturing a class and making them remember the subject and then, quizzing them, as this sticks to the kids, and makes learning fun (Wild). Computer games not only help kids learn, but it is also fun, tapping into the determination kids have towards video games and redirecting that into learning. Not to mention studies have been conducted, showing that computers help develop cognitive skills in young children, as they learn how to share and socialize with one another (Knowledge Enterprise). Also computer use, as I said before expose children to the world letting them experience things an average student

wouldn’t be able to other wise in a classroom in the past. With minor moderation and balance between computer use and other activities a child can benefit greatly from the use of computers. A computer implemented correctly in schools can help learning greatly. Likewise a school in Idaho has adopted a digital heavy curriculum where a student must complete two online courses in order to graduate. Also in New York they spent five hundred million dollars in order to improve internet access in public schools. We are currently starting to switch our teaching styles in schools, and this is not a new thing as in the past we have switched our school’s educational system, and it only took us about 5 years (Clemmit ). Right now I strongly believe it is still the transition state in which some people are conflicted with the idea of switching and some are eager to. With This transition is much like the reaction people had when the printing press was coming out in around the 15th to 16th century, but printing has also been around a lot longer than you think, as the printing actually has been practiced even in ancient Roman times. When printing became a reality, in the earlier ages when Socrates was alive he stated writing is negative to the mind “because it would create forgetfulness in the learners' souls, because they will not use their memories." Then around the 18th century when the printing press came about

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“A French statesman railed against the fashion for getting news from the printed page, arguing that it socially isolated readers and detracted from the spiritually uplifting group practice of getting news from the pulpit. A hundred years later, as literacy became essential and schools were widely introduced, the curmudgeons turned against education for being unnatural and a risk to mental health” (Vaughan, Bell).

nology age it is definite that “technology also has the opportunity, when used appropriately can extend learning in ways that can increase the educational opportunities for children in the future” (Mary Young).

Just like in the past we humans have been very negative to change and new technology in general seems to create a negative feedback in people’s minds, but in reality we print everything and it is accepted all around the world. Now we are creating a digital age where we are digitizing storing books and a lot of people are always stating “oh if we digitalize all these books what will happen to reading?” We as a society are not taking away this ability to learn from reading, but improving it in a modern way to sway out children into the future.

" So what is this appropriate use of computer technology? What we must do, is to not limit children to a certain amount of screen time, but instead, teach them the proper way of using computers and other electronic devices. This greatly differs from parent to parent, as an older parent will be more familiar to the traditional ways of teaching their kids, while on the other hand younger parents have gone through some of the technology age and they know what their kids should and shouldn’t do with computers. On the flip side computers and electronic devices are mostly a mystery to the older generation therefore creating this “gap” in our society, where one side is all about technology while the other is not” (Steve).

" What we must do, as a growing society for our kids, is to teach them the way of the future, and not the past, as the world will only move forwards, and the kids must also in order to get the most out of learning in schools, and developing a healthy mind for the future. With a huge generation gap in our society the idea of computer use differs from family from family but, “Without the use of technology kids could be left behind in our society as technology moves forward the next generation must keep the same pace” (Steve). Because we are living in a tech-

" The development of children can be greatly enhanced by the use of technology, but this factor all depends in the parent as well, as parent who limits their kids can be limiting their potential to learn, and computer time becomes only fun time, as for example, the thirty minutes would be their only time to use this interesting device. What a parent must do is to free computer technology to their kids and instead of limiting it moderate their children. When you limit a child you create a set time limit, but when you moderate a child’s activity you create a period of 115

time that seems unlimited to a child’s perspective, but in reality all moderation does is letting your child go as long as he / she wants, but with a bit of consideration on how long they have been on their devices. Education of this topic greatly helps a child become more aware of computers and this tends to lead children in the “right” direction to learning how to use new technology (Wild). With moderation and free us of computer technology, we can improve our children’s learning more than ever before, as risks would be reduced to a minimum and benefits would be maximized. As concluded computers greatly benefit our children than it can harm them, but it of course differs from child to child.

Works Cited Clemmitt , . “Digital Education.” CQPress.com. CQ Researcher, 2 Dec. 2011. Web. 14 Dec. 2012.

Linda, Starr. “Technology Integration.” Educationworld.com. Education World, 14 Jun 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2012. Mary, Young. “Technology and Early Child Development.” Techknowlogia.com, Sep. 2001. Web. 21 Jan. 2012 Matt, Richtel. “A Silicon Valley School That Doesn’t Compute.” Nytimes.com. The New York Times, 22 October 2011. Web. 5 Jan. 2012. Mr, Wild. Personal interview. 22 Jan. 2013 Samantha, Kemp. “Seven Way Technology is Affecting our Children.” Huffingtonpost.ca. Huffpost living, 5 Jul. 2012. Web. 16 Jan. 2012 Steve, Brown. Personal interview. 2 Jan. 2013.

David, Elkin. “Technology‘s impact on child growth and development.” Cio.com. CIO, 22 Sep. 2003. Web. 14 Dec. 2012.

Valerie, Strauss. “Is Technology sapping children’s creativity.” Washingtoppot.com. Post Local, 13 Sep 2012. Web. 6 Jan. 2012.

Rushkoff, Douglas. “Young kids and Technology at Home.” edutopia.org. Edutopia, 4 Jan. 2013. Web. 17 Jan. 2013

Vaughan, Bell. “Don’t Touch that Dial.” Slate.com. Slate, 15 Feb 2010. Web. 29 Jan. 2013

Knowledge Enterprise. “Technology and Young Children.” Techknowledgia.com. National Association for the Education of Young Children. Web. 8 Jan.2012.

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Savannah Owens

Preschool vs. Playschool In the past 40 years, the enrollment rate in preschools around the country has risen almost 59% (Kusz). With this extreme increase in students, research is being conducted on what the best learning environment for a young student is. One style of teaching early education is a strict, highly academic method, while the other is a more hands on approach to teaching the children in a stimulating way. Both ways of teaching are taught all around the country. Studies have shown when parents put their child in rigorous early education they are severely damaging certain aspects of their child’s learning, without intending to (Curwood). The pressure to succeed in academics, when applied at a young age by parents, is detrimental to the development of a child, as it keeps them from fully developing social skills and adapting a healthy outlook on education. When a parent is looking for the best possible school to start their child’s education, the initial reaction is to be drawn towards a school with a high performance curriculum. Although most parents feel as though they are making the best decision for the

wellbeing of their child, they do not realize the damaging effects this will have on their child. David Elkind, who studies child development at Tufts University, states that the average parent feels like, “they are depriving their child unless they are putting them in a high-pressure environment”. Especially in our society today where college admissions are increasing more competitive and jobs are hard to come by, parents feel that they need to give their child a leg up on the competition as early as possible. Elkind also has introduced the idea of “ peer pressure from parents”, meaning that parents feel pressure from other parents to have their child enrolled in the most competitive school. This is where some parents tend to stray from the best interest of the child (Elkind). In this day and age parents feel that their child must be untouchable. That they must possess qualities and skills that make them indispensable in the work force. This is what usually drives parents to want to start rigorous education early in their child’s life. Dr. Maureen Katz, a child and adolescent Psychiatrist, states that, “a ridiculous amount of pressure is put on kids these days, due to economic standings and globalization”. Parents build anxiety around their kid not succeeding in life so they feel the need to push them to their limit, thinking they are only doing what’s best for their kid. With the building pressure of competing countries, this is a prominent worry in today’s society. 117

When children are sent to pre-schools or kindergartens that don’t foster a stimulating and creative learning environment, they do one of two things: shut down to the idea of learning being fun, or they dedicate themselves fully to schooling, which can be dangerous. When a child doesn’t learn an appropriate balance between school, extracurricular activities, and a social life it can be very harmful to the development of a healthy child (Geiser). More and more people around the country are pushing for exciting and productive ways to teach preschool in a less stressful way. As part of creating a stimulating preschool environment, schools are being opened that are labeled, “play schools” (Curwood). “Play schools” are early education schools that believe, “ [a child will] learn self control, taking turns, following directions, make believe, making friends, and making messes (Rochman). This approach is also called the progressive learning method, where academics are thought of as an umbrella, working to teach the whole child instead of just scholastics. I believe this a highly effective way to teach a young child because they get the chance to develop and learn at their own pace. The other main idea behind progressive learning is that a child learns gradually through discovery and experience. Kathleen Gallagher, a research scientist and director of childcare at Graham Child Development Institute stated, “Play is the best context in which a child can learn”. Although many parents are worried that the schools have lax attitudes, research has shown

these preschools tend to raise some of the healthy learners (Rochman 2). One problem that is arising is that parents are pushing their children into school before their child is developmentally mature enough to handle this new environment. Child development specialists labeled this epidemic, green shirting, enrolling a young child too early. Redshirting also exists, a parent delaying their child’s entry into preschool (Geiser). Green shirting is common in parents who believe their child’s mental capacity is beyond other children their age. When a child is put into school too young, they can easily feel overwhelmed and over stimulated. This child also commonly ends up behind the rest of their class academically and this can lead to teacher labeling them “failures”. All of this lowers a child’s self esteem and overall confidence. The other side of green shirting is red shirting; where a parent feels the need to hold their child back from entering school. The idea behind red shirting is keeping a child at home to continue to develop their confidence without having other children around to be compared to (Geiser). Most advocates of progressive learning are of the mindset that red shirting can be useful when a child just needs more developmental time without the pressures of school. Holding a kid back for a small amount of time has little detrimental effects, while pushing a child into school too early can lead to colossal problems discussed above. (Preschool Choices). 118

One issue parents tend to bring up when first visiting preschools is the worry that their “gifted” child will become bored in a preschool environment. When this question comes up, the “play school” response is; what’s wrong with being bored? Preschool is the ideal time for a child to be learning about themselves and developing a deeper understanding of one’s self ( Tunder). Self reflecting is key a step in the developmental growth of a young person (Katz). One of the steps that needs to be taken in furthering the movement towards progressive learning and away from high pressure preschools is educating new parents. More and more research is being uncovered about the varying effects of each method, so this newfound information needs to be easily accessible to new parents looking into preschools. Since such a dramatic increase in preschool enrollments has occurred, people are still working to discover the best ways to teach young children in a healthy and successful way (Preschool choices). Parents need to be aware of this problem before they start looking for preschools to educate their child.

I would like to acknowledge Lucas Borden and Aaron Schlier for helping me revise my paper.

Works Cited Allen, J.S., & Klein, R.J. (1996). Ready, Set, R.E.L.A.X.. Watertown, WI: Inner Coaching. Curwood, Jen Scott. "TEACHERS." Scholastic Teachers. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Jan. 2013. Diamond, Jared M. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking, 2005. Print. Frank, K. (2003). The Handbook for Helping Kids with Anxiety and Stress. Chapin, SC: Youth Light Inc. Garf, Lary. "Hey Quit Pushing." Hey Quit Pushing. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Jan. 2013. Geiser, Traci. "High-Pressure Preschools: How Much Is Too Much?" Education.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Dec. 2012. Katz, Maureen, MD. Personal interview. 23 Jan. 2013. Kusz, Marcy L. "Stress in Elementary Children." N.p., 29 Mar. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2012. "Preschool Choices." Education.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Jan. 2013.

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Rochman, Bonnie. "In Preschool, What Matters More: Education or Play? | TIME.com."Time. Time, 23 Mar. 2011. Web. 13 Jan. 2013. "Students Under Stress."Â The CQ Researcher.Â Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1996. N. pag. Print. "Preschool Environments Talk with Peggy Tunder." Personal interview. 7 Jan. 2013.

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Nori Patterson

Depression: Not Another Illness! In their lifetime, nearly fifty percent of Americans suffer from a chronic disease, which is an illness that does not necessarily kill a person, but they'll have it for a long period of time, or even for the rest of their life. Many chronic illnesses, though, can lead to death. Chronic illnesses are the reason for 7 out of 10 premature deaths (Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion). A chronic disease can come at any time in a person's life and can be adapted for multiple different reasons. For many people chronic diseases are inherited through genetics, meaning that their family bloodline contains a history of the illness. The diagnosis of a chronic disease can be stressful and confusing, especially if diagnosed as a child. Children with chronic diseases may change the whole way that they operate on a daily basis, starting with medicine and going to the doctor's more frequently. All of these sudden changes can add pressure to the child's life and can drive them into a depression, therefore precautions should be taken before it becomes a serious, and possibly permanent, risk.

An important part of a child's life is their education, so their illness should never change their learning environment. Students with chronic illness should carry around any necessities that deem necessary to control their health. Schools should adjust and make students with chronic illnesses feel welcome and comfortable. A way of doing so is to provide designated places where students with chronic illnesses can store backup medicine in case of an emergency such as a fire or earthquake. Not only can a chronic illness affect a child's education, but it can also affect their social life, in and outside of school. In school, a child can feel different due to their disease because they have less energy, have to devote a lot of time to their health, and have to continuously take medicine. This can make them feel uncomfortable and awkward, thus lowering their self esteem. Outside of school children with chronic illnesses stop going to gatherings with friends for the fear that their illness may get in the way of other people's fun. When this occurs many children find ways, sometimes unhealthy, to cope with their sadness. They start using drugs, drinking, and skipping class, and isolate themselves from others. This could be a call for help or a sign of oncoming depression. People with chronic illness are more likely to become depressed than the average person. Dr. Jean-Marie Bruzzese, an associate professor at the New York university Langone Medical Center in New York, wrote in an academic study wrote 121

"while only 1% to 3% of teenagers in the general population are diagnosed with depression, adolescents with a chronic disease have a much higher rate of depression. For example, depression is found in 15% of teenagers with asthma and more than 25% of children and teenagers with inflammatory bowel disease" (Bruzzese). In order to lower the risks of having depression you must take certain precautions. The first type of support that should be sought out is family support. Family members are one of the closest groups of people that a child knows. When that a family member should do, as well as the child, is to become more informed about the child's disease. This is essential because it makes the child as well as their family more aware of the situation. Also, it is not necessary to tell everyone about the child's illness. This is a personal matter and shouldn't be taken lightly. The American Psychological Association advises families to "be selective. Everybody under the sun doesn't need to know about your illness or your loved one's illness. Choose who you care to share your news with carefully. Some relationships will prosper and some will become strained. What's important is that you feel that sharing the information with an individual will provide a stronger sense of support and strength" (American Psychological Association). Although family members may feel helpless about assisting the child and can't take away their illness they should still be there to show support and encouragement. "Put an end to family secrets. In other words, honesty is still the best policy. We often

try to protect our families and loved ones from bad news, but hiding a person's serious illness from the rest of the family can backfire. Communicate directly and be open with family members" (American Psychology Association). An important factor in anyone's life is their friends. They are a child's resource to being social and are just as important as family. As a friend there is not much to do but to support your friend. No matter their circumstance it is important to make that person feel like a part of the group and that they are just the same as any person. Making a child with a chronic illness feel as if they were just like any other person in the group makes them feel as if there is nothing wrong with them and that they are actually normal. This can relieve some of the child's pressure, stress, and worries that they may have. Getting them to open up about the topic of their illness and for them to become more comfortable with their surroundings can be beneficial and reduce the chance of having depression substantially. One step to prevent depression is to join some sort of team or club. Joining a sports team can be beneficial because it can positively affect the child's health. Playing a sport can also take their mind off of their illness. A beneficial factor of playing with a team is that it is group oriented, meaning it is not something you can do alone. Playing with a team is much like a group of friends coming together to do an activity simultaneously. Within the sports community common chronic illnesses found are 122

asthma, epilepsy, and diabetes (Brown). All of these are diseases that would be assumed to be hard to play a sport with because you can have a medical emergency on the field at any moment, but there are people who are there to monitor all of the player's health and to make sure that they are physically adept to play. These people are called Athletic trainers. Their job is to educate sport's players and to assist them in staying well so they can play. When an athletic trainer does is make sure that the player checks in with their regular physician to make sure that they are physically enable to play (Brown). After the sign of approval the players are free to play. If a child's illness seems to get in the way of them playing, they should sit out, which can be saddening because their disease is the reason that their playing skills are worsening. . Players who have chronic illness work twice as hard as other players because they don't want their illness to be the reason for them failing (Brown). Despite if a player with a chronic illness has to sit on the sidelines, whether or not if because of their disease, they should still feel included in the group. This should also go for teammates without a chronic illness too. In order to reassure the sense of teamwork and inclusion the players should have outside team gatherings unrelated to sports matches or practices, such as pizza parties and picnics. Even in this environment, just like with friends outside of sports playing, it is important to make players with chronic illnesses feel normal and just like any other member of the group. Identifying a player with a

chronic illness and making them feel like they are a special circumstance can make them feel uncomfortable and awkwardly different (Brown) . Even if the teammates are already aware of their illness it is not important to stress the idea of their illness and publically express your awareness. If and when the child is comfortable with sharing their illness publically then it may be acceptable, if they find it appropriate. Sports can cause a lot of stress on a child's life socially, physically, mentally, and educationally. Adding a chronic illness can, on top of that, add even more pressure. People traditionally play a sport because they are passionate about it, have a sports scholarship, or just enjoy playing it (Brown). If a person was forced to stop playing a sport or have to reduce their playing time due to their illness that would deeply upset them and possibly drive them into a depression. This is why it is important to be cautious about what steps a person takes to prevent depression because the thing that was supposed to prevent their depression can now cause their depression. An example of this is people with asthma. Overtime, the lung capacity of asthmatics decreases, therefore meaning that they cannot obtain enough oxygen to breathe (Brown). This can cause them to have to sit on the sidelines for long periods of times. Teammates and coaches should support them and understand their special circumstances because the player can feel as if they are letting the team down due to their illness, therefore it is important to make sure that they know that there is nothing wrong 123

with them and to reassure them that they are still important to the team.

These different types of therapies can be beneficial, but the most comfortable form must be sought out for prevention.

If playing a sport does not seem to be helpful or if a child wants more protection, then a different action must be taken. Counseling can be helpful because the child is able to relieve some of the pressure that they may have by talking to someone who will understand their situation. One version of counseling to start with is individual therapy. Having a one on one conversation with a person seems less intimidating because there are less people to judge and question them. There are also less costly ways of receiving information and talking to other people with chronic diseases, which can be found on multiple different websites dedicated for people with chronic illnesses to contact other people with chronic illnesses. These sites can be informative, but also unofficial, so there is also the option of group therapy.

After taking different steps of prevention and yet still the child has grown into a depression there is still hope of recovery. "More than 80% of people with depression can be treated successfully with medicine, psychotherapy, or a combination of both. Antidepressant drugs usually begin to have a positive effect within a matter of weeks" (Coping with Chronic Illnesses and Depression).Of course there is a risk with taking medicine, especially with a child. Easily a child can forget to take their medication because their brain is not fully developed. Also, with all medicines there are bound to be risks that could affect the patient psychically or mentally. Common risks are that the doctor may prescribe too much or too little of the medication, skin rashes, drowsiness, and a rapid heartbeat. On occasion depression medication does not actually stop the depression, but does the exact opposite. It can deepen or not affect the amount of depression. Although the medications don't seem worth all these side effects most of the time they go away after a short period of time, or can be managed (Mental Health Medications).

There are multiple different types of group therapies. One sort of group therapy is broad, meaning all different types of subjects. There are also therapies specifically for people with varying chronic illnesses, and even a particular chronic illness. Along with these vocal therapies there are also psychical ways of receiving therapeutic relief. "There are many different types of treatments available.Â For example, auditory training, discrete trial training, vitamin therapy, anti-yeast therapy, facilitated communication, music therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, and sensory integration" (Autism Spectrum Disorders).

There are important things for a person should know before they should start panicking, signing up for sports teams and therapy. If the child has had a chronic illness for a long period of time, then the risk of depression is slight and is unrelated to their chronic illness. This is because depression caused from a 124

chronic illness can only occur within the first two years of diagnosis. There is still, of course, the chance of becoming depressed based on an chronic illness unrelated diagnosis.

Bruzzese, Jean-Marie. "Depression in Children and Adolescents with a Chronic Disease." About our kids. NYU Child Study Center. Web. 24 Jan 13.

Prevention of depression is essential. Even if there is no family history of chronic illnesses or depression. Children need healthy, positive influences around to support them during this tough time and rough transition into a new and different lifestyle. Along with the encouragement and support of one's peers they can lower the possibility of ever having not just chronic illness depression, but other types of depression as well.

"Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 13 Aug 2012. Web. 6 Jan 2013.

Bibliography "Autism Spectrum Disorders."Center for Disease Control and Prevention. 24 May 2012. Web. 6 Jan 2013." " Brown, Kishana. Personal interview. 6 Jan 2013. Borchard, Therese J. "5 Rules for Living with Chronic Illness and Depression: An Interview with Elvira Aletta." Psych Central. Web. 6 Jan 2013. Boyse, Kyla, Boujaoude, Linda, Laundy, Jennifer."Children with Chronic Conditions."University of Michigan. 2012. Web. 19 Dec 2012.

"Chronic Illness." American Psychological Association. 2013. Web. 6 Jan 2013. "Coping with Chronic Illnesses and Depression." WebMD. 12 Feb 2012. Web. 6 Jan 2012. Institute of medicine. Living Well with Chronic Illness a Call for Public Health Action. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, Jan 2012. PDF file. "National Institute of Mental Health." Mental Health Medications. Bethesda: U.S. Department of health and human services, 2012. PDF file. "Pervasive Developmental Disorders." WebMD. 28 May 2012. 18 Dec 2012. "Saving Lives and Protecting People from violence and Injuries" CDC. 27 Nov 2012. 18 Dec 2012.

125

Danielle Rosenthal

Shattering the Glass Ceiling: The Status and Issue of Women in United States Politics Having freedom is one thing, but utilizing it is another. The United States of America is known for its emphasis on ‘liberty and justice for all’; however by observation this would not seem to be the case. Unlike many nations in the modern world, the United States has yet to see a female as president, which is bizarre considering the popular American value of freedom. Due to a lack of relatable role models, the media, and tradition of male dominance in politics, women in the United States are hindered from pursuing politics, causing a severe lack in female representation in government. As the “country that’s the model of democracy in the world” (Davidson 70), it is worrying that so few women actively partici-

pate in U.S. politics. Out of forty-three presidents of the U.S. so far, only nine have held women in their cabinets, and twentytwo states have yet to have a female governor (“Center for American Women and Politics”). Additionally, out of all the countries in the world, the United States has the 80th most women in positions of political power, Rwanda being first in the rankings (Sedghi). Despite these rankings, the distribution of power across genders worldwide is not equal or even approaching such a state as only 20% of the world’s political power is held by women. These massive inequalities are caused by a variety of factors depending on the nation, and the local attitudes toward women as political leaders. The factors that prevent women from reaching leadership positions in politics are often referred to as the ‘glass ceiling effect’. The United States Department of Labor has defined this term as, “those artificial barriers based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevent qualified individuals from advancing upward in their organization into management-level positions” (The Glass Ceiling Commission). The analogy implies that as women move up into higher level positions in politics or other fields, the prejudice becomes more common and intense. The glass ceiling can be partially described as qualities such as race and gender, which a person cannot control, but can, give them either a positive or negative edge (Cotter). As women look up to, and reach for higher ranks in politics, they suddenly find 126

themselves stopped by a glass ceiling of inequality and discrimination. In order to shatter the glass ceiling, and eliminate this prejudice from a supposedly equal society, we must work from the ground up to ensure that when women aim for high level positions, they are armed with a sledgehammer. Some of the most common reasons why women in the United States do not pursue political careers have to do with harsh traditions and stereotypes. One of these hindrances is a lack of relatable role models for girls in the political world. For example, it is easier for a young boy to imagine himself as Barack Obama, than for a girl. Without a woman with political power to look up to, girls have a difficult time seeing themselves in such positions. This continues a cycle of a lack of women in politics, due to traditions such as lack of role models, or male dominance. Most religious, cultural, or social groups have had a period of male dominance, often leaving lasting effects on their communities. In the United States, such dominance has become a tradition in politics, as exemplified by a long line of male presidents. These traditions are difficult to break, as the structure of our government seems to be working, so it would not make sense to make drastic changes to it. Helene Imperiale, a graduate student in Public Diplomacy at the University of Southern California, notes how it is tough for a country like the U.S. to examine their own inequalities, because we work so hard at ensuring equality for others, and want to feel like we are doing everything right (Imperiale). The issue is, however, that the U.S. is far from

doing everything right. It is difficult to break harsh traditions of male dominance in such a public field, and is made even harder by the media. Observing any U.S. based news source, some obvious themes emerge as far as how gender is represented, and what the media chooses to highlight for different genders. Looking through various media articles on female politicians, an obvious theme emerges of more focus on platform shoes, than platform on issues across women. As Doug Sweet of the McGill Reporter notes that during the 2008 election, “I can’t recall lengthy discussions about the cut of John McCain’s suits or the unnatural crispness of Barak Obama’s luminous white shirts. But there has been much written and said about Hilary Clinton’s pantsuits and Sarah Palin’s eyeglasses, hair, wardrobe and, according to one CBC blogger, ‘porn-star looks,’ whatever those are” (Sweet). Sweet’s observations of gender representations in the media heavily influence a politician’s career. As girls mature, and begin to see this ridicule of female politicians, they cross off politics from their lists of perspective career paths. Why would anyone want to take on a career that involved every aspect of your life, from what you wear to what you say, being broadcasted and judged by the entire United States? It’s just one part of politics and the hardships that have always been attributed to the field. As San Rafael city councilwoman Kate Colin puts it, “the media is a very powerful tool…. [and can be] terrifying when it reinforces negative ideas” (Colin). The media is a major 127

part of the daily life of almost every American; therefore its messages are heard loud and clear whether they are negative or positive. The potential terror of the media must be combated in order to break down gender stereotypes and revive a positive stigma for women in politics. In order to break down this cycle, we must start in the first place these stereotypes develop: childhood. Through media analysis courses and units, middle schools, high schools, and colleges can teach students about the inaccurate stereotypes established by the media, and how to change the stigma they place on women. One organization that strives to break down these stereotypes is The White House Project, an advocacy group for female leaders. In regard to the influence of the media, The White House Project notes, â&#x20AC;&#x153;those who determine the content and delivery of the news have an enormous and powerful influence on the American public- and this is particularly true in the portrayal of women leaders.â&#x20AC;? Through blogs, discussions, and other public forums, The White House Project promotes media literacy to women and men across the United States. As such an influential tool in politics, the media needs to be held responsible for equalizing representation of female politicians in order for women to be judged based on their polices and agendas, rather than gender stereotypes. In respect to this goal, schools should also integrate media analysis into their curriculum, in order for

students to become critical of gender representation in the media and question their sources. This sort of education helps break stereotypes, which leads to more balanced representation and expression in the long term. A variety of nations have worked to close the gender gap in media representation on many levels. Timor-Leste became an independent nation in 2002, and has since then heavily stressed equal representation and participation in government (UNDP). The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) has worked in Timor-Leste since prior to its independence to promote equal representation through a variety of means. UNAET have immense support to various media outreach strategies for female candidates across Timor-Leste, noting that the media is essential for reaching out to voters and gaining support (UNDP). Women were provided with air time on television and radio, along with space in print sources (UNDP). This specific attention to women in the media has been incredibly beneficial to Timor-Leste and their goals for equal representation and participation. The United States can learn from these measures in Timor-Leste, when trying to mediate unequal representation of women in the media. Perhaps the U.S. can institute a system of analyzing and recording gender representation in the media, and then reporting this to the various media stations, encouraging them to improve their impact on such statistics.

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A second main factor that leads to a lack of women in politics is a lack of relatable role models, which leads to a cycle of male dominance. Women need to identify with leaders already in power in order to see themselves in such positions later in life. The New Agenda is an organization that is “dedicated to improving the lives of women and girls by bringing systemic change in the media, at the workplace, at school and at home (The New Agenda). One of the founders of The New Agenda, Amy Siskind, notes that one of the main messages of the organization is to get women to understand that it is “important that you make mistakes, and take risks, fail and that that you pick yourself up again… [but] know that when you fail there will be other women to support you” (Siskind). One way which The New Agenda provides such support networks in through The New Agenda is their Mentor Exchange program, which connects women based on their fields and interests. These connections help women connect to role models, and cultivate skills to help them pursue leadership opportunities in the workplace and in their communities. Mentorship programs like those established by The New Agenda can be instituted across middle schools, high schools, and colleges in a certain area. A program like this can institute relationships between younger and older girls, allowing the elder to take on a leadership role and the younger to receive a mentor and role model. The White House Project stresses the need for a ‘critical mass’ specifically in politics, to ensure a sustainable line of women

leaders. This critical mass is when an amount of something becomes large, prominent, or powerful enough, that it is self sustainable. Once women have prominent roles in politics and in sufficient numbers, the cycle of a lack of female politicians will break down. However, this critical mass alone is not enough, as these women require specific skills and training to run an effective campaign. One of the most important aspects of empowering women to pursue politics is providing them with the resources and skills to run for office. By having funds and programs specifically for women candidates, women feel that they have a place to be a leader, and that there are others backing them up. The New Agenda on Campus, an extension of The New Agenda, which helps establish support and discussion groups on college campuses across the United States. This program organizes speakers and discussion on topics regarding women’s empowerment and leadership opportunities (The New Agenda). The goal of this program is to promote young women to pursue their full potential as they leave college and to reach for leadership opportunities in the workforce, no matter what field they pursue. In order to have a successful campaign, women must have the resources and skills to run for office with confidence and efficiency. By providing women with the specific skills they need to run for office, such as public speaking, dealing with the media, and gaining support, they are able to run more successful cam129

paigns. One organization that provides women with the skills and funds to hold an effective campaign is EMILY’s List’s Political Opportunity Program or POP. The goal of this program is to provide training and funds to women across the United States so that they can run for and hold local and national political positions. Since the founding of POP in 2001, they have held over 180 training sessions across 36 states and have worked with over 6,000 people (EMILY’s List). They are also one of the largest financial contributors to minority women looking to take part in federal positions. Due to their training and funding programs, POP has been able to help elect 100 women to Congress, 10 governors, 19 senators, and hundreds of other women to local and state office (EMILY’s List). Although funding programs such as these are difficult to establish, the training programs provided by POP can be easily integrated into school curricula, or brought to a variety of communities across the United States. The Kingdom of Cambodia’s San Ralnsy Party’s women’s wing has done much successful work regarding campaign assistance and training for women. This women’s wing has worked to set up and internal party fund for such programs, which greatly support women candidates (UNDP). Prior to the commune elections in 2007, the women’s wing distributed a variety of resources to women candidates including appropriate clothing and public speaking training (UNDP). The women’s wing has also used such funding to start an impartial radio program known as “Women’s Voices – Women’s Choices” (UNDP). In ad-

dition to a variety of speakers on different topics relating to empowering women, Women’s Voices – Women’s Choices offers a call-in show for women to ask questions or give support to other women pursuing politics. Radio and media stations within the United States can mimic such programs to reach out to women through means that they utilize often. One method adopted by many nations today to bring more women into positions of political power is quotas, which reserve a certain percentage of seats in government for women. One nation that has had immense success with this type of program is Rwanda, with 56% of their lower house of parliament being women (UNDP 95). After the mass genocide in Rwanda, which left 70% of the nation’s population female, women represented the majority of survivors, and thus took on a variety of leadership roles in their communities (Davidson 72). Many of the rebuilding initiatives put in place in Rwanda after the genocide was set up by women, giving them a prominent role in shaping the future of the nation. Due to their heavy involvement in rebuilding the nation, the women of Rwanda pushed for a quota system in their new constitution, which “mandates women’s participation at the level of 30 percent in all decision-making bodies. The quota applies not only to parliament, but also the president’s cabinet, the judiciary and local government” (UNDP 97). In addition to these constitutional quotas, national parties and groups opted to establish their own quotas to reflect the nation’s movement for equal representation. The combination of 130

these quotas has brought about tremendous results for Rwanda. The number of women in seats of government in Rwanda has risen steadily over the past few elections, with 48.8% in 2004, and 56% in 2008 (UNDP 97), proving these methods overall effective in achieving their goal. In 2009, a women’s activist noted, “Rwanda has come to respect women’s authority… In all the institutions that are really at the heart of this country, we find women” (UNDP 97). Quotas have been noted to improve the status of women in a variety of sectors in a multitude of societies and cultures. The success of the quota system has been noted around the world, and continues to gain popularity in the political and business worlds. Judith Schwentner, a member of the Australian parliament as of 2008, supports the implementation of quotas for any nation which seeks to improve female representation in government. Schwentner states, “There is always the cliché that women who have been given a job to fulfill a quota are less qualified…. But this is nonsense” (Davidson 72). According to Schwentner, women work equally effectively as men in the political world and quickly accumulate experience and confidence. Another supporter of quotas as a means of increasing women’s political power is professor of economics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Esther Duflo. Duflo has analyzed a variety of data from around the world with a goal of discovering if quotas were effective in the long term, and if they were effective. She analyzed the situation in India, where one third of village

chiefs must be women. One of Duflo’s main observations was the investment preferences of the villages governed by women. She noticed that women leaders tended to invest more in wells, and other home necessities, while men focused their budgets on things such as roads (Davidson 72). In addition to this observation, Duflo noticed that villages that had been governed by a woman at one point, tended to elect another woman, even when a quota was not in place. In this sense, a quota is used as a means of ‘jump-starting’ the process of getting women in power. In the words of Duflo, “Having a woman leader affected the view of women’s competency almost instantly” (Davidson 72). While quotas have gained much support across the world, the United States has no plans to implement such programs. In the words of journalist Amy Davidson, The United States Supreme Court notes, “that strict quotas aren’t OK but goals are, and so is an effort to meet a goal- which may end up giving a certain candidate an edge” (Davidson 74). Many feel that placing a quota in the United States contradicts the idea of equal opportunity, and instills the idea that women need a quota to get into office. In reaction to the idea of quotas in the U.S., Councilwoman Kate Colin states that she hopes our country is beyond such means, and that there are plenty of qualified women out there, we just need to get them to run (Colin).

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The best way to get women to participate in politics within the United States involves active mentors and role models, media analysis, and ample leadership opportunities. While these strategies may not yield results as quickly as quotas appear to, the results are sure to be sustainable and effective. Helene Imperiale notes that it will truly take 2-3 generations to reach full equality across the field of U.S. politics, but this does not mean progress isn’t being made (Imperiale). As women become more active members in the workforce, not necessarily in politics, the general stigma of women as leaders will evolve to encompass values of tolerance and diversity. Countless organizations and initiatives aim to make the world a more prosperous place through gender equality, specifically through leaders. The prospect of a woman as president of the United States still makes both men and women uneasy; however through various programs we can prepare both a candidate and a society for such a development. Gender equality, particularly in politics, is the “big issue of our time” (Imperiale) across the world, but particularly within the United States. In an address to a group of women at Wellesley University, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton remarked, “you are among the young people transforming a region and inspiring the world… We are looking to you for your leadership to turn the promise of change into real and lasting progress” (Allen). It is up to the next few generations to determine the future for women the United States, as individuals and as leaders of the nation.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Alex Ahrens, Sammy Shea, and Craig Butz for their edits and feedback on this paper. I would also like to acknowledge Helene Imperiale, Kate Colin, and Amy Siskind for their valuable insight and stories, as well as passion for the issue.

Works Cited Allen, Evan. “Hillary Clinton urges women worldwide to enter politics as institute opens at Wellesley College.” Boston.com. Wellesley, 11 Jun. 2012. Web. 20 Jan. 2013. “Center for American Women and Politics.” Center for American Women and Politics. Rutgers, 2013. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. Colin, Kate. Personal interview. 20 Jan. 2013. Cotter, David A., et al. The Glass Ceiling Effect. North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, Dec. 2001. PDF file. Davidson, Amy. “Just add women: when quotes require that legistlatures and businesses include more women, remarkable things can happen.” More Magazine. Dec. 2012: 70-74. Print. “Glass Ceiling Commission.” Cornell University ILR School. Cornell University, 2008. Web. 23 Jan. 2013. Imperiale, Helene. Personal interview. 9 Jan. 2013. 132

Sedghi, Ami. “International women’s day 2012: women’s representation in politics.” Datablog. The Guardian, 7 Mar. 2012. Web. 5 Jan. 2013. Siskind, Amy. Personal interview. 28 Jan. 2013. Sweet, Doug. “Fashion Victims: female politicians face different criticism than men.” McGill Reporter. McGill Publications, 18 Nov. 2008. Web. 15 Jan. 2013. “The New Agenda.” The New Agenda. The New Agenda, 2013. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. The White House Project. The White House Project: Benchmarking Women’s Leadership. New York City: The White House Project, 2009. PDF file. United Nations Development Program (UNDP). Empowering Women for Stronger Political Parties. New York: UNDP, Feb. 2012. PDF file.

133

Thomas Ryan

A Deep Sleep, A Small Leap “The nation’s early high-school start times, increasingly common, are tantamount to abuse” says Siri Carpenter, of the American Psychological Association. Sleep deprivation among students has many negative side effects, not the least of which are the health risks associated with it. The estimated costs of direct and indirect problems caused by sleep deprivation are around $30-$35 Billion every year (Chilcott). These health problems, often found in adults, also widely affect teenagers, for whom it is worse, as they need more sleep than adults. Because of this, it is essential to correct the nation’s problem with sleep deprivation as soon as possible, before today’s teens carry on the cycle of health problems due to sleep deprivation. To fix it, the root causes of the problem must be addressed. Teenagers should be getting eight and a half to nine hours of sleep a day (Aubrey). However because of their circadian rhythm, “…many teenagers are not physiologically ready to sleep until 11:30 pm or later” (Lamberg). Combined with high school’s often early starting time, around 8 am, this becomes a problem, leaving most students with less than 7 or 6 hours of

sleep. This lack of sleep leads to worse performance in many areas, such as academics, as well as the aforementioned health risks. Although it may be costly and difficult to change a school's schedule, because of the detrimental effects of sleep deprivation students naturally incur on a regular basis it is worth it to try and match, or come closer too, the average teenager's natural sleep cycle. Sleep deprivation is caused by a great number of things. However one of the most prominent issues among teens, above entertainment and stress, are natural hormones. As teenagers grow older Melatonin stays in production later in the day causing a circadian rhythm shift (Carpenter). Melatonin is the chemical that controls the circadian cycle, as well as a few other biological functions. It isn’t isolated from outside variables, it’s based on light, light suppresses melatonin and darkness causes it to be produced again, causing sleepiness. However, studies have found that in the morning, in “physically mature teens, melatonin production tapered off later than it did in less mature teens” (Carpenter). When it remains late into the morning like this, it is much harder for a person to feel active and awake. Later on, once Melatonin stops being produced, they feel more energized even though it’s getting closer to night time causing them to stay up later. Besides the natural hormones in teens that make them fall asleep later, there are many other factors that can cause or con134

tribute to sleep deprivation. Caffeine, mostly from soda that teenagers drink, has been shown to have a negative impact on sleep duration and quality (Pollak). In a study conducted by Chang- kook Yang on Korean teenagers, it was found that 5th to 9th graders mostly reported entertainment, such as the internet and television, as well as school demands to be the biggest detriment in getting enough sleep (Yang). So stress and electronics can have a very serious impact on the quality of sleep. However from 10th grade and onwards early school start times were reported by most (Yang). It makes sense that as time went on early school start times became more of an issue because although teen’s schedules are naturally changing, the school’s schedules are not changing to accommodate them. So the real problem, once again, seems to be uncontrollable chemicals. All of these issues, combined with the fact that teens require more sleep than children or adults to perform optimally, often lead to some very harmful effects (Carpenter). Due to sleep deprivation, many students face health and behavioral problems, often the cause of worse performance in class. Sleep Deprivation has been linked with health issues ranging from obesity to depression and substance abuse. The amount of sleep you get changes metabolic hormones that affect appetite and energy expenditure (Taheri). This means that while staying up late, you will not only have more time to be eating, but also will feel more inclined to overeat, causing obesity. This, later can, of course, turn into diabetes and cardiovascular dis-

ease. The mental problems that can be caused by sleep deprivation are quite striking as well. According to a study done at Columbia University, 24% of teens that went to bed past midnight were more likely to be depressed than teens that went to bed at 10 pm, and 20% were more likely to have contemplated suicide (Sleepy Teens). This means that one out of every four students that went to bed at midnight instead of 10 would often be depressed and one out of every five would often be somewhat suicidal. Insufficient sleep is also linked with substance abuse (Lewin), which also relates to many behavioral problems observed in Insomniacs and others who don’t get enough sleep. Lack of sleep can cause disciplinary problems in class, as well as worse concentration (Carpenter). These symptoms are similar to those of ADHD which, not surprisingly, is also linked with sleep deprivation. Stress can take a worse toll on someone who is deprived of sleep, through impaired judgment and impulse control many subsidiary problems are caused (Sleepy Teens). Of course there is a range of how badly it affects someone, but it is best to try and avoid it if you can, not only for your health, but for your academic performance. Studying late into the night, for example, can cause worse academic performance overall, even though you are spending more time with the material (Aubrey). This worse performance is generally a symptom of other basic health problems caused by sleep deprivation. Chilcott and Shapiro of the University of Toronto write that less sleep leads 135

to worse memory and cognitive abilities (Chilcott). Skills essential to any type of problem are being eroded in our culture that says to do work now, and sleep later. These are serious ramification for just a small amount of less sleep and should be dealt with as such. Contrary to people who are sleep deprived, those who get enough sleep have been shown to: contribute more, miss fewer days, visit nurses and counselors less often, be less depressed or irate, and have fewer automobile accidents (Lamberg). So it definitively seems worth it to try our hardest to stop being sleep deprived. The question is: what should we do about it? There are a great number of small thing that Teens can do to help them get enough sleep. However those aren’t always effective. Two main approaches are either a life style change or a change in school scheduling. Perhaps the most common solutions to short term sleep deprivation are small “quick tips”. That while legitimate, may fall short of the actual goal. Things like keeping a strict routine and having a good sleeping environment help (Taheri). But if the underlying issue is not addressed, most likely there will be minimal change. On the other side, if something like a school schedule isn’t the problem, but really bad sleep habits are, then these tips are very useful. Unfortunately it is often hard to tell where the problem really lies, so the closest thing to a “one size fits all” solution would be to change the school schedule; in doing this, everyone will be helped whose problem lay with fighting against their natural cycle. This

solution would be opposed to only helping the few that took initiative and were in a position where tips like these helped them. Most teens are chronically sleep deprived (Carpenter). Does it seem more likely that the blame lay with the majority of students, in that they have bad habits? Or is it the school system that is the problem, actively interrupting teens natural sleep schedules? There are many great tips like not looking at bright lights before going to bed, not doing any awakening activities, and not sleeping in too much on the weekend (Taheri). However, it seems if anyone was really having trouble with sleep deprivation due to their own bad habits they would eventually fix it, save for a few who would simply ignore it. However, that group would most likely be a small minority, rather than the large majority we have today. So if we were to fix it, it seems like changing the environmental factors, like school schedules, would be the best solution. School schedules have been set in stone for a long time. Even when a new school comes around, it is difficult for them to deviate from the standards, as they would be out of sync with other schools. However it may be worth the complications to change their schedule to a later time, even if only slightly later, as shown by many other schools that have made a change. Most US schools start at around 7:30 am, often considered too early (Lamberg). Again, as mentioned earlier, many teens naturally have great difficulties falling asleep before 11:30 pm, so the obvious decision is to change it. However changing a schools 136

schedule is something that takes a lot of effort and time, not to mention a good deal of money so many instantly do not like the idea of it (Carpenter). But looking a little deeper the costs aren’t permanent. In fact, a district could end up saving some money by changing their start times simply due to the reduced amount of health risks that a usual lack of sleep would cause. Around 80 other school districts have changed their schedules, and according to Dr. Kyla Wahlstrom, Director for Center for Applied Research and Education Improvement at the University of Minnesota, not a single one of them has changed back (Lamberg). The difficulty in this is that it is a whole school district changing their schedule, one school by itself would probably have a much harder time. A singular school would have to contend with a couple very prevalent issues, interacting with other schools, usually for sports. If only the one school changes its schedule, then of course students will have to leave earlier from classes to play at a competition, or they might not even be able to go to one. While there isn’t any easy solution, weighing each side might make it clearer. On one side, there are sports, either not going to them or missing more class time. On the other side, there is sleep, which as a result of getting more would generally increase grades, make students contribute more, and be less depressed (Carpenter). How reliable would that be in practice though? Dr. Claman of the UCSF Sleep Disorders Center says it can be difficult to know and that it’s very possible that students may just stay up later when the schedule is changed.

However, of the 80 school districts in which it has been tried, in none has this been the case (Lamberg.) So is it worth it to change the schedule? It depends on if it’s a school district, if so, then quite possibly yes. If it’s a single school, then it might simply be better to stick with the old schedule for the time being and advocate for a group of schools to all eventually change their schedules together. But, it is very possible that even with some more class time being lost, more sleep is more important than that and will overall get better grades in the long run. Combined with better health and more time spent in class concentrating, the time lost could be insignificant enough to justify a change.

Works Cited Aubrey, Allison. “High School Daze: The Perils of Sacrificing Sleep For Late-Night Studying.” NPR. NPR, 21 Aug. 2012. Web. 6 Jan. 2013. Carpenter, Siri. “Sleep Deprivation May Be Undermining Teen Health.” American Psychological Association 32 (2001): n. 42. Web. 6 Jan. 2013. Carskadon, Mary A., et al. "Adolescent sleep patterns, circadian timing, and sleepiness at a transition to early school days." SLEEP-NEW YORK- 21 (1998): 871-881.

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Chilcott LA, and Shapiro CM. The Socioeconomic Impact of Insomnia. An Overview. Bethesda: NCBI, 1996. Web. Dahl, Ronald E., and Daniel S. Lewin. "Pathways to adolescent health sleep regulation and behavior." Journal of Adolescent Health 31.6 (2002): 175-184. Lamberg, lynne. “High schools find later start time Helps Students Health and Performance.” The Journal of the American Medical Association 301 (2009) n. 21 Web. 30 Dec. 2012. Pollak, Charles P., and David Bright. "Caffeine consumption and weekly sleep patterns in US seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-graders." Pediatrics 111.1 (2003): 42-46. “Sleepy Teens May Be More Prone to Depression, Study Says.” Editorial. The Washington Post 2 Jan. 2010. Web. Taheri, S. "The link between short sleep duration and obesity: we should recommend more sleep to prevent obesity." Archives of Disease in Childhood 91.11 (2006): 881-884. Yang, Chang-Kook, et al. "Age-related changes in sleep/wake patterns among Korean teenagers." Pediatrics 115.Supplement 1 (2005): 250-256.

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Aaron Schlier

The 64 squares of life What simple board game can you play that can teach many valuable life skills, be fun, strategic, and competitive all at the same time? Chess can. Chess has been played in hundreds of countries all over the world for over two thousand years. It was thought to have been first developed in India. Millions of people from every corner of the earth play chess today. Recently, chess has acquired a reputation in some places as being a game for geeks and losers who have no social life. This is a huge misconception handed down through social interactions and is completely untrue. Many people who avoid chess do so because they think for the amount of time spent playing and learning it’s just not worth it to learn. On the contrary, chess, as well as being fun for many who play it, can provide long lasting life lessons and benefits to its players. There are three main reasons people avoid playing chess at all. The first is, people think the game is too time to consuming to really get into. Chess takes hard work and that doesn’t interest many easy going people. Second, they say it is a boring game and it’s not exciting enough to keep them engaged. They believe it is a repetitive

game. And the last reason people avoid chess, especially young people, is they think it gives them a reputation of being a geek or nerd. It doesn’t appeal to them because it doesn’t appeal to anyone around them; it’s a self perpetuating cycle of distaste for the game. One of the main causes could be our newfound technologies. New Videogames are being released rapidly while chess remains the same. In a sense, our generation may have lost some patience as videogames, movies, and social networking sites are constantly updating and changing. Despite the current distaste for the game there are many great reasons to play chess during some part of your daily routine; it can teach many valuable life lessons and provide many social benefits to its players. One reason people decide to avoid playing chess is they believe it takes up to much of their valuable time. What they do not realize is chess can teach many valuable life skills. Playing chess can greatly increase a person’s concentration and patience over time with more and more play. When playing a game of chess you must be concentrating at all times or else your opponent will defeat you. There is no room to think about anything but the game in front of you; your focus must be on the board alone. Current chess world champion Viswanathan Anand supports the notion that playing chess greatly increases a persons concentration allowing them to perform better academically, "During the game you are focused on only one main 139

goal — to checkmate the opponent and become the victor; thus, it improves your concentration levels too. Improved concentration helps students learn more and perform well academically," (Viswanathan). All the information is right in front of you, but you must find it; there are no secret moves in chess, everything is black and white but you must concentrate in order to understand it and apply it to your game. While waiting and concentrating on the game at hand, you begin to improve your patience. Dr. Robert Ferguson explains how chess tests its players will. “Chess is a test of patience, nerves, will power and concentration. It enhances your ability to interact with other people. It tests your sportsmanship” (Ferguson). This patience teaches players to wait and assess other situations in their lives without making hasty decisions. After you have made a move in chess, it cannot be taken back, just like decisions you make in life. It is very important to wait patiently until you have found the best move. Concentration on the board means you have to be able to remember and recognize past positions; you can’t just stare at the board blankly. You have to remember to protect your king and develop all your pieces. You’ll have to memorize key concepts in chess in order to thrive. In order to memorize these concepts, it takes time and practice which many people are not willing to give. " Chess increases memory with more play. There are many different openings, tactics, and positions a player can learn to improve their strategies. Players are not allowed any aids when

playing a game so remembering your tactics is key; if you can’t remember your tactics, you aren’t allowed to use them. Chess requires players to memorize past experiences and apply them in game against their opponents, similar to students who memorize content for a math or science test. “Chess players know — as an anecdote — that playing chess improves your memory. Being a good player means remembering how your opponent has operated in the past and recalling moves that have helped you win before” (10 Big Brainy Benefits of Playing Chess). As you play chess more and more often you start recognizing patterns in certain positions you come across. The ability to memorize chess games and or positions could help a student develop a strategy to remember content for any type of test. Assessing the key points in chess positions eventually becomes second nature to its players. Being able to recognize and memorize things in chess is the key to success. The more games you memorize, the better you’ll become. Chess can also teach valuable social skills and life lessons. Chess teaches its players good planning and foresight skills. Having a set plan during a chess game is a necessity. Players are constantly thinking about what moves they can make that will benefit them in the future. Benjamin Franklin, as you may or may not know, was an avid chess player as well as an inspirational figure in U.S history. Franklin wrote an essay on the benefits of chess in his free time; in one part of his essay he wrote about how planning and foresight is applied in every chess 140

game. The repetition of this planning in chess improves its players planning skills in life, “Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend an action; for it is continually occurring to the player, 'If I move this piece, what will be the advantages or disadvantages of my new situation? What use can my adversary make of it to annoy me? What other moves can I make to support it, and to defend myself from his attacks?’ (Franklin). This foresight teaches us to wait and think before we act, not to make hasty decisions. This skill can be applied to other areas; the ability to carefully assess a situation before judging it is an invaluable skill to possess. Even though chess may offer many benefits and skills such as foresight and planning, many people may still not be convinced to play. Despite the many benefits chess can offer, people who avoid it generally think it’s too boring and that it is slow to learn and play which is a major reason for their avoiding it. It’s true that chess can be boring just like any other game can, but many people don’t realize what chess has to offer as a game of strategy and battle. One aspect that attracts many chess players is that the game is very competitive. As stated before, you are all on your own during the game; you have to call the shots. Chess is a player versus player battle; it’s a test of wills, memory, concentration, and creativity between players. It’s essentially physiological warfare between the players. And these players put so much effort into winning each game that winning is a

huge gain in their confidence level and losing is a great benefit to the loser as well; losing means you can study your loss and refine your own chess techniques. Losing gives you the chance to become a better player strategically while winning helps you to become a better player mentally. “Chess brings out latent abilities that have not been reached by traditional educational means. It promotes logical thinking, instills a sense of self‑confidence and self‑worth, and improves communication and pattern recognition skills. It teaches the values of hard work, concentration, objectivity, and commitment.” (Chess Improves Academic Performance). As you play more chess you become better strategically and start to develop better creativity on and off the board. Chess improves strategic thinking and boosts creativity. As you play chess more and more often you begin to develop a strategic way of thinking. In chess you’re always looking to progress your position. You start to form your pieces in a way that they are all in a harmony with each other. Each player sees the board differently as number one chess player Magnus Carlson explains, “When I found that idea I simply couldn’t resist playing it. And look, people talk about me as a player who doesn’t care about beauty. That’s not true. It’s simply that during the game each person sees beauty in different things. I like the beauty of the endgame, but I also get pleasure from finding ideas like those against Grischuk” (Carlsen). There are too many possible chess games to count so being creative with your moves is 141

something that each player must do in order to thrive. Playing chess inspires players to develop their own strategies and ways of thinking. It teaches them how to be original of themselves. As you play more and more chess, you are given the opportunity to meet new people from different backgrounds all the time. You can learn new techniques from these people and form lasting bonds. You combine their techniques with your own and become even stronger! Chess has the ability to connect everyone on the planet. The game is a universal language; you can play with anyone despite their religion or ethnicity. Learning chess does not require you to learn any new languages. When players who speak completely different languages complete against one another, they speak to each other through their moves on the board. International master John Donaldson explains his view on chess diversity, “The mechanics institute and chess gatherings in general are some of the last places on earth I’ve seen that can still connect every culture, other than Bart” (Donaldson). Chess is one of the few things that can still bring people from every area of the world together. Each area has vastly different cultures and living conditions but chess is a part of them all. Young aspiring chess players can play old experienced chess players and both can learn from each other. There is no segregation in chess; chess is a utopia of diversity. It is a game that creates friendships as well as rivalries among opposing players.

People may acknowledge all of these benefits but continue think that chess is too difficult to learn. Most people wouldn’t know where to start investigating. Each and every chess player starts out completely oblivious to the game as a baby. No one starts out a good chess player from birth. Everyone must start a beginner. Some may pick up the game faster than others but from personal experience I can tell you chess may be a complex game but learning the basics is just as easy as learning your ABCs. There are many chess groups and clubs with friendly players and teachers that can help you learn. Having a friend to play chess with often can really improve the learning experience as the two friends develop a rivalry with each other. The internet also provides nearly unlimited chess resources. But don’t be intimidated, start with the basics. With the many benefits chess can provide, all of them combined will make any person more observant, a more in depth thinker, and will overall sharpen their mind because of these new found skills. My goal with this paper was to actually inspire a reader to go out a play chess because learning and playing chess can be a great benefit to anyone who has a or strategic sprit. Chess is life, and should be played by everyone around the globe young and old, despite gender, race, or religion.

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Works cited Carlson, Magnus. “Beauty.” Chess Quotes. Chess Quotes, 2013. Web. 1 Mar. 2013. “Chess improves academic performance.” Chess House. Chess House, 2012. Web. 1 Mar. Donaldson, John. Personal interview. 2 Feb. 2013. Ferguson, Robert. Quad city chess. Quad city chess, n.d. Wed. 1 Mar. Franklin, Benjamin. “The Morals of Chess.” Angelfire. Chess Odyssey, n.d. Web. 1 Mar. 2013. Viswanathan, Anand. “Chess stimulates, concentration say Anand.” Times of India. Bennett, Coleman and Co, 2013. Web. 1 Mar. 2013 “10 Big Brainy Benefits of Playing Chess.” Chess Vibes. Chess Vibes, 2 Apr. 2012 Web. 30 Jan. 2013.

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Sydney Shafer

A Global Search: the Place of Geocaching in National Parks From over a hundred meters below sea level to over 400 kilometers above Earth, on the International Space Station, one can find geocaches, part of a global treasure hunting game with over 5 million players worldwide. Most caches are weatherproof containers with a logbook to sign and most include items for trade, making the search a real treasure hunt. The coordinates of these caches are posted online so players can load them into their GPS or smartphone. Geocaching.com, the official database for the game, has records of nearly 2 million caches and counting. Geocaching combines an online community, where people can write about and post pictures of their finds, with a real life game that encourages a love of nature, history, and adventure (“Geocaching 101”). While the National Park Service (NPS) has taken an interest in Geocaching and similar activities because of their potential educational, health, and recreational

benefits, they are concerned about the possible negative environmental impacts that such activities might have (National Park Service Policy Review). Through collaboration between the geocaching community and park authorities, National Parks can develop geocaching programs that encourage education and preservation of the environment. GPS technology became capable of supporting a game like geocaching fairly recently, but the history of adventure and treasure hunting games is much older. In,1854, guide James Perrot left a small glass bottle at the end of the long walk to Cranmere Pool in the Dartmoor wilderness near Devon, England. Visitors could leave their calling cards in the bottle as evidence of their completing the hike. The original bottle was eventually replaced with a small box, other boxes were hidden, and the game of letterboxing was born. The locations of letterboxes were spread by word of mouth or through maps (“The History of Letterboxing”). People all over the world have enjoyed games that combine a love of nature with a way of sharing accomplishments. Communities built around these accomplishments share many values with the National Parks, which were formed to preserve areas of natural beauty “for the enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this and future generations,” (“Mission”). It is this same love for natural beauty that has created these communities built around sharing unique areas.

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These communities were quick to take advantage of the opportunities provided by GPS technology. For several years GPS technology use by civilians was greatly limited by Selective Availability (SA), the “intentional degradation of public GPS signals implemented for national security reasons” (“Selective Availability”). On May 1st 2000, the Clinton administration announced the suspension of SA, which was expected to make civilian GPS units 5 times more accurate, from within about 100 meters to within 20 meters (“Civilian Benefits of Discontinuing Selective Availability”). Potential recreational benefits were among those acknowledged in the decision, and it wasn’t long before online communities began to expand on these ideas. By May 3rd 2000, the day after SA was suspended, Dave Ulmer created the “Great American GPS Stash Hunt.” He hid a bucket with a log and some items for trade in the woods and posted its coordinates online, with the rules “Take some stuff, leave some stuff.” The term “geocaching” was created by Matt Stum to avoid the negative drug related connotation of the word “stash” and represent the combination of “earth, hiding, and technology” created by the game. In September of 2000, geocaching.com was started by Jeremy Irish to standardize the growing number of geocache listings and store them all in an online database (“History of Geocaching”). The site is now the official geocaching website, with nearly 2 million caches and counting.

As geocaching grew in popularity, it became clear the simple rules of “Take some stuff, leave some stuff” were not sufficient. There are now extensive rules posted on geocaching.com concerning the appropriate placement of caches, including rules specific to over a dozen cache types. In general, all cache owners should obtain permission from property owners, caches should be clearly labeled as such with the owners contact information, and they should not be placed in a way that could cause damage to wildlife and property (“Geocache Listing Requirements / Guidelines”). These rules grew out of a growing number of concerns regarding cache placement. A quick look at an archived caches bookmark list compiled by David Brierley shows hundreds of violations to geocaching rules that have resulted in dangerous situations, including caches placed on private property or high security areas. Many of the caches hidden without permission were destroyed after being mistakenly identified as bombs (dbrierley). The fact that this list of nonconforming caches exists shows that the geocaching community works hard to make sure caches are well placed. The collection serves as a warning to people who might carelessly place a cache, and, in an unfortunately small number of cases, as an example of how communication with authorities can turn a poorly placed cache into a successful one. There are many reasons why these caches might be poorly placed. Communication with authorities is one of the biggest obstacles in the way of successful geocaching on public land. 145

With geocaches all over the world, a standard policy that could account for all regulations would be impossible. Within the U.S., policies controlling Geocaching activities vary depending on which public land managers, such as the Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management or the National Park Service, are in charge of the area (Frawley, Jeff). These organizations have not created a universal policy regarding GPS-based Recreational Activities (GPSRA– a term encompassing several variations on traditional geocaching) on their land because determining whether or not it is appropriate for an area depends on so many specific considerations (National Park Service Policy Review, National Wildlife Refuge Service Guidance on Geocaching). As authorities have grown more aware of geocaching, several organizations have called for better communication with the geocaching community. Program analyst for the Park Service policy office Marcia Keener commented, "the more communication about a proposal and work that can be done to make the activity acceptable, the better. Talking with the park staff is absolutely key" (qtd. in Frawley). A National Park Service paper on providing alternatives to traditional geocaching wrote "One of our biggest challenges is communicating NPS policies and regulations to the recreational GPS user community… One outcome of park-by-park decision-making is that the geocaching community perceives inconsistencies; this, in turn, creates a challenge for NPS employees who must explain their rationale for allowing or not allowing the activities” (Reams and Stuart). Another

communication challenge is the anonymity and secrecy of geocaching. Online, cachers can remain fairly anonymous, and in person the game requires stealth so “muggles” – nongeocachers – don’t disturb caches. NPS authorities recognize that geocachers “value their anonymity,” and that they will need to build a trusting relationship with cachers to effectively regulate caching in National Parks (Reams, Virginia and West, Stuart). Both NPS authorities and the geocaching community will benefit from more communication on policy measures. The National Parks Service strives to adapt to new technologies to help serve its mission of preservation and education (“Mission”), and GPS-based recreational activities already have active communities of people who share these values and have promoted them using these new technologies. However, the overarching topic of discussion between the caching community and the NPS so far has strayed away from common values and been more focused on the relevant policy and regulation of geocaching in the parks. The need for National Parks policy concerning GPSRA comes from the potential for destruction of parks’ natural and cultural resources. These resources include sensitive archeological sites and natural habitats. Geocaching can cause the development of social trails – unofficial paths that stray of the established ones – in sensitive areas, and vegetation and rocks are often moved to hide caches or while looking for them. To ensure the safety of both the environment and visitors, parks cannot allow unregulated caches. Many of these 146

concerns are covered by portions of existing regulations on recreational activities in National Parks not specific to geocaching. Policy states that regulation of recreational activities should be as uniform as possible, but in the case of geocaching specific regulations based on the resources of the area are necessary (NPS Policy Review). While it’s important that these rules be in place and boundaries be set, future communication between parks and the caching community should focus more on the common goals and values of the NPS and the geocaching community, so they can work towards creating new caches that meet the guidelines and serve these shared goals. Many parks have already acknowledged the potential for collaboration with the caching community and have individually created their own successful GPSRA programs. Cacher Brian Sniatkowski is quoted at the top of the geocaching.com cache placement guidelines: "When you go to hide a geocache, think of the reason you are bringing people to that spot. If the only reason is for the geocache, then find a better spot" (briansnat). Many geocaches are placed in areas of natural beauty, building visitors’ appreciation of the outdoors and nature. This can encourage both the cache owner and the visitors to care for the environment and clean up litter in the area. Geocaching can be used in many formal and informal educational applications, on topics ranging from ecology and environmental science, to caches placed historically important locations, to the mathematics of GPS and solving puzzles to find coordinates. These quali-

ties, which make geocaching such a great resource for National Parks, can be preserved through variations of the game which don’t require physical caches to be hidden, or which communicate more effectively with Parks’ authorities. One alternative to traditional geocaching is the EarthCache program, developed by the Geological Society of America (GSA) and the National Parks Service (NPS). The main purpose of EarthCaches is education, specifically earth sciences. There is no physical container, but instead cachers must log their find by observing a physical geological phenomenon and submitting some sort of analysis of the site with the information provided, to prove they visited and learned something. EarthCaches go through a much more extensive review process compared to other forms of geocaches. They must meet all the usual geocaching requirements, plus follow additional guidelines to make sure the lesson they are teaching is accurate, unique, and appropriate to the area. Like any cache, permission must be obtained from the land manager prior to publishing an EarthCache, even though they do not include a physical container. This ensures good communication between cache owners and land managers, who may be more than willing to help guide the placement of caches or recommend logging requirements (Geological Society of America, Earthcache). The NPS has partnered with the GSA to sponsor EarthCache programs across several parks. As of September 2012, nearly 75 EarthCaches had been approved on land managed by the NPS (Schudiske). 147

EarthCaches organized through the NPS allow more control over cache placement and content, but all EarthCaches go through a thorough review process so there are no unofficial EarthCache placements. Overall, EarthCaches use high standards to provide an educational experience with the same sense of adventure and accomplishment attractive to geocachers, but without the negative impacts on park resources. Another form of geocaches that can avoid negative impacts on National Parks are Puzzle, Multi, or Offset Caches. These involve multiple locations which use either clues or coordinates to locate the final location where a physical container is hidden. The puzzles solved to find the final location are often educational. Those that require coordinates to be found at the first location can include tasks such as solving math problems or using dates from historical plaques and monuments. National Parks are interested in geocaching programs with the potential to provide an in-depth adventure that doesn’t require a lot of continual staff time, and draws attention to already existing exhibits and signage (Reams, Raffa), and multi-caches and puzzle caches fit the bill. They help serve the Parks by bringing people to unique areas and encouraging people to learn about and protect them, and they can still provide the thrill of a treasure hunt with a prize at the end without violating existing regulations on physical caches left in the Parks. Virtual caches, more environmentally friendly and appropriate for National Parks (Reams), can be hidden within the park, with the puzzle or off-

set location leading to a physical container outside the park. Offset caches can combine the best of both worlds by providing an educational experience within a National Park, and including a physical box in a more appropriate area outside of the Park. Geocaches are a great way to bring awareness of areas of natural beauty to the community, and once seeing these areas people realize what a valuable resource they are and want to protect them. To help keep these areas beautiful the geocaching community has created Cache In Trash Out (CITO) events, one of many ways they give back to the larger community and can help National Parks. The CITO program has included a series of events organized by volunteer geocachers dedicated to improving and preserving parks and other caching areas through picking up litter, helping with habitat restoration such as clearing non-native plants or replanting natives. The program also encourages cachers to bring a trash bag with them whenever they’re out caching so they can pick up trash as they go (“Cache In Trash Out”). As with a physical cache, communication with land managers is the key to a successful CITO event. Many successful events have been organized within National Parks, and by collaborating with the local authorities organizers can gain publicity and supplies for their event. CITO events have been a very useful way to introduce NPS authorities in an area to the geocaching community in a positive way. The few concerns regarding CITO events, such as disturbing archeological resources when trying to pick up trash (Frawley), are un148

usual in practice because of the rigorous community approval system planned events must go through, which ensures proper communication with land managers. CITO events are a great way for cachers to begin communication with local authorities, help spread positive awareness of geocaching, and preserve the areas that are important to them. Geocaching can help National Parks by bringing attention to the areas of natural beauty that need protection. The ideas behind it have a long history that has encouraged preservation in the past – it’s not fair to geocaching or the games that came before it to label it as some new secretive group that causes trouble. Just like the games before it, geocaching has brought people to unique places they might not otherwise visit and has the potential for educational and environmental benefits. Communication between authorities and the geocaching community is essential for any plans to bring these benefits to National Parks. In some cases, authorities and cachers may decide that physical caches are not the most appropriate way to help the Park, in which case there are many possible variations that can still help the Park in a fun and inventive way. The geocaching community is eager to help preserve the places they love. With luck, communication between cachers and authorities will serve as an example to future adventure games.

Works Cited briansnat [Brian Sniatkowski]. Geocaching.com – The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site. Groundspeak Inc., 2013. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. “Cache In Trash Out” Geocaching.com – The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site. Groundspeak Inc., 2013. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. “Civilian Benefits of Discontinuing Selective Availability” GPS.gov. National Coordination Office for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing, 2012. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. dbrierley [David Brierley]. “Bad Ideas, Bomb Scares, etc.” Geocaching.com – The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site. Groundspeak Inc., 2013. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. Frawley, Jeff. "Geocaching." FSEE: Forest Service Employees for Environmental Ethics."Forest Magazine, Spring 2005. Web. 16 Dec 2012. “Geocaching 101.” Geocaching.com – The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site. Groundspeak Inc., 2013. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. “Geocache Listing Requirements / Guidelines.” Geocaching.com – The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site. Groundspeak Inc., 2013. Web. 19 Jan. 2013.

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Geological Society of America. EarthCache. GSA, 2013. Web. 23 Jan. 2013. “Mission” National Park Service, 2013. Web. 31 Jan 2013. National Fish and Wildlife Service. National Wildlife Refuge System Guidance on Geocaching. National Wildlife Refuge System, 2009. PDF. National Park Service. Policy Review: GPS-based Recreational Activities in National Park Areas. National Park Service Office of Policy, 2009. PDF. Raffa, Damien. Personal interview. 25 Jan 2013. Reams, Virginia and West, Stuart, "Agency-Sponsored Treasure Hunts: Providing" Alternatives to Traditional Geocaching" (2008). U.S. National Park Service Publications and Papers. Paper 33. PDF. Schudiske, Eric. "Tips on Developing EarthCaches in U.S. National Parks." Latitude 47. Groundspeak, Inc. 14 Sep. 2012. Web. 16 Dec 2012. “Selective Availability.” GPS.gov. National Coordination Office for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing, 2012. Web. 19 Jan. 2013.

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Sammy Shea

Street Art: Making Change A kid walks up to a wall with a can of spray paint and starts to paint. Is he vandalizing? Is he professing his ideas? What is he doing? For some graffiti is vandalism. For others it is a true art form. And others think that it is both. It does not matter because it is embedded in our culture. Youth identify with street art because it was created by youth for youth, making street art a means for sending positive and moral messages to youth, both through participation and interaction with the art. Street art has evolved greatly over time from gang graffiti to a form of activism. Modern graffiti began with Cholo Writing, a form of territorial gang graffiti, became popular in the 1940s (Chastanet). In the mid 60’s modern graffiti was beginning to become popular with a linear typestyle with the work done mostly with pens because spray paint was not yet widely available (Graffiti). On February 17th, 1967 graffiti was first mentioned in the New York times, marking a spike in public interest. 1970 was an important year for graffiti innovation, there were many first uses of : spray paint, pictograms, railcar tags, and

bubble letters. In 1973 the first full color piece was done (Graffiti). Street art culture did not arrive to the Bay Area until 1983. The 1989 earthquake gave way to an explosion of art in the Bay Area because pits caused by demolition were available to paint on, opening up a whole new world of canvas. In the 1990s San Francisco Police shut down a legal graffiti site, Psycho City, near city hall, which lead to an expansion of illegal graffiti everywhere (Piece by Piece). The year 2011 brought an important 21st century benchmark for street art; the Museum Of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles hosted Art in the Streets, the first ever gallery exhibition comprised of only street art (Outside In: The Story of Art in the Streets). It is important to note how there is a constant evolution, and how graffiti and street art is ever-changing. Each artist builds off of his or her predecessors and peers to create the best most innovative piece. This core foundation is one of the reasons youth feel so connected to graffiti and street art. However not everyone agrees with the premise of street art. Graffiti is not thought about the same way among different communities and can result in destruction of property. The negative effects of graffiti and street art are often over exaggerated because of preconceptions. Many artists agree that “all you’re doing is changing the color of a surface” (Piece by Piece). Others argue that it is just part of urban life. Señor 1, a local street artist, believes: “A lot of people want to call this [street art] vandal151

ism; vandalism is throwing a brick through a windo; this is a study; it’s a craft; it’s a science. Every piece has a structure to it; it has a form; it’s got a flow…” (Piece by Piece). This philosophy is true. There is craft and care put into it, the same as any other art form. However the San Francisco Board of Supervisors states that: “Graffiti is detrimental to the health, safety and welfare of the community in that it promotes a perception in the community that the laws protecting public and private property can be disregarded with impunity. This perception fosters a sense of disrespect of the laws that results in an increase in crime; degrades the community and leads to urban blight; is detrimental to property values, business opportunities and the enjoyment of life (San Francisco). Graffiti is classified by the city as a quality of life crime, but it is arguable that it is the complete opposite. It can be used to enhance rundown areas and get all types of messages across. In the year 2000, Proposition 21 mandated that graffiti or street art causing more than $400 worth of damage is considered a felony, and if three or more artists are working together, they can be prosecuted as a street gang because criminal street gangs are defined as having one of their “primary activities the commission of one or more of the criminal acts” (California). These repercussions are harsh and unnecessary, as there are more prevalent and heinous crimes. However graffiti and street art

cleanup cost San Francisco over $20 million dollars. These funds could be out towards other programs within the city. Some communities do not understand street art and solely think of it as destruction of property and vandalism instead of looking at the positive effects it can have on a specific place. Some people say that it is lewd or insulting, because there is no way of controlling it. It is important not to make assumptions about street art culture and rush to judgment, but instead take a moment to learn about it and expand your knowledge. Although not prominent, violence is a small and horrible aspect of graffiti culture. In some areas taggers have become so possessive that they turn to violence to protect and preserve their artwork (Drummond Ayres Jr.). This violence reflects badly on all the street art that is attempting to do good. These “tag bangers” carry knives, guns, and clubs in addition to their paint and markers. The LA Times reported that in some cities “there are frequent beatings over tagger turf and, worse, periodic shootings and stabbings…” (Drummond Ayres Jr.). Also some taggers progress to felonies such as burglary and robbery (Drummond Ayres Jr.). There is a preconceived notion among many people that all artists are felons; however escalation to these felonies is rare. Street Art is considered part of the biggest art movement ever and artists across the globe are making street art meaningful through their messages embedded within the artwork. David 152

Young, also known as DYV, a local street artist believes “it works well for the community; generally people are happier, especially in a place like the Tenderloin… it makes locals happier.” Simply bringing a smile is enough for some artists, while others want to get the viewer to question their way of life and thinking. Artist CHASE, a Belgium emigrant living in Los Angeles, has two influential art campaigns in progress: the first is the “Remember Who You Are” campaign for which “the intent is to stimulate the public to reconsider and remember their inner child, the second is the “Awareness Geezer” campaign which shows “colorful characters who have stumbled upon spirituality and self-awareness, not following their suggested path, but guided by their sense of adventure” (Blackshaw, Rick). These campaigns inspire people to look within themselves and really see who they are, and what their beliefs are. Art is a great way to connect with people and spark thought. Also the artwork that gets put up in a public place is seen by tens of thousands of youths across the country and has a wide range of impact (Piece by Piece). It also opens up a conversation between the artist and viewer, because the artist is able to express his or her opinion on any issue and the viewer can interpret the works personally. Street art is the only art movement ever created by youth in the history of art, and this is why there is such a strong connection manifested in the history (Piece by Piece). Locally a street art campaign has been implemented in the Central Market Area to make the street a more inviting place to hang

around and visit (Fowler). Artist TWICK paints because of his belief that “we [the artists] stand for our families and our cultures, inspiring young minds through art—not violence” (Krumper). There are many artists like him who oppose violence and paint to combat it, not to encourage it. Rafael Landea, another local muralist, notes that “People are a lot more interested in art than we believe. But some people don’t feel that they can go into a museum or an art gallery” (Fowler). There are not any fees to view street art, which the accessibility to it is equal among all people of all socioeconomic backgrounds, very different from all other forms of art. According to Ronzo street art is “not about intellectual elites who study conceptual art; it’s kids who express themselves with spray pain, and its having fun…” (Blackshaw, Rick). It is a means of fun and self expression, but also contributes the artist’s views on the world as we know it. The origins, process, and structure of street art all come together to contribute to youth culture. Street art is already being used by activists to put their opinions out there and have their voices heard. Artist Above is a good example of personal activism because of the dual meaning of his tag, which is an up arrow that symbolizes both his name and a philosophy to rise above (Matheison, Eleanor). Youth cling to street art because it is “the last true free speech,” that is not controlled by the media or any other governing party (Piece by Piece). An unknown artist prefers the freedom because he “could walk up for free and put [his] art out there” (Piece by 153

Piece). Jorge Rodriguez was greatly opposed to the advertisement of alcohol and cigarettes in lower income neighborhoods and launched his “Culture Jamming” campaign, where he defaces those billboards and writes the truth about the negative effects of the substances (Blackshaw, Rick). Graffiti and street art gives artists the ability to share their voice in ways that they could not attain using any other method. This trend of activism through street art is appearing all over the globe. In 2005, Alexandre Órion pioneered reverse graffiti to raise awareness about pollution in Brazil using a simple skull icon. The Ossario tunnel in Sao Paul was covered in soot from car pollution, and to take his stand removed soot to create a skull pattern within the tunnel. The government could not punish him for “cleaning” the wall and thus his point was made. Banksy, a British artist, is known worldwide as the “most influential, provocative, and inspiring artist from the street art scene” (Matheison, Eleanor). He is constantly being tracked by the police, but his works move people and get them to think about the world that we live in. All of these artists work to create a more knowledgeable people to inspire change and bettering of the world. Participation in any art form is beneficial to youth, and through street art these kids feel that they can take a stand. Bob Bates runs his youth art program because he wants to “show them [the kids] that they can be artists that they have talent” and “art motivates the children and helps them to do well in their schoolwork” (Legon). For many students art is a stress reliever and

helps them work out issues that they cannot or do not want to express otherwise. Students involved in art programs of some sort have shown that their participation has led to motivation to study and excel in their classes (Legon). The classroom is not always the only place art can be done, and some youths connect more with a spray-paint can and a wall; however all of these positive effects are still true. There are already many talented artists participating in street art across the globe, but some are doing so at the expense of others. When illegal street art is painted on a building, the city of San Francisco mandates that, at the owner’s expense, the art must be taken down (San Francisco). There are also many benefits to the way street art is being portrayed. The Director of the Museum of Contemporary Art Los Angeles sees a “positive energy that comes out of graffiti, that its note something by definition is vandalism and destruction; it’s the way some great talents begin” (Art in the Streets). If more locations are opened for street art, there will not be a need for young artists to hide lktheir ability behind worries of a felony, or endangering their lives. The feeling of rebellion that comes out of street art motivates the youth to participate, evolve, learn, and create. This positive energy gives purpose to the youths and may push them to better their lives and rise above their downfalls, which overall outweighs the negative effects.

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Street art is becoming accepted into our society, and now there needs to be a way of eliminating destruction of property and community unhappiness. In San Francisco, a program called Wall Space has been started to connect artists with businesses that would like artwork on their buildings, with part of their mission being “to provide artist from all over the world a stage to express their ideas and abilities…Wall Space wants to allow these artists the time to perfect their art in a legal manner on the most advantageous public viewing areas” (Special Place). Street art is now a legitimate form of art, even though there are many legal obstacles, and thus can be used to positively influence those through participation and viewing. It speaks to people directly, without interference, to move them and really consider their lives, circumstances, relations, and their place within this global world we live in. I would like to acknowledge Alex Ahrens, Elisa Cooney, Tess Tanaka, Harrison Welsh, and Craig Butz for assisting in editing this paper.

Works Cited Blackshaw, Rick, and Liz Farrelly. The Street Art Book: 60 Artists in Their Own Words. New York: Harper Collins, 2008. Print.

Drummond Ayres Jr. B. “In a City of Graffiti, Gangs Turn to Violence to Protect Their Art.” The New York Times. The New York Times Company, 13 Mar. 1994. Web. 17 Jan. 2013. Fowler, Geoffrey A. “San Francisco Takes Art to the Streets--Painters and Sculptors Transform Neglected Storefronts as Part of Effort to Revitalize Central Market Neighborhood.” The Wall Street Journal. 05 May 2011: n/a. Proquest National Newspapers Core. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. Outside In: The Story of Art in the Streets. Alex Stapleton, 2012. Vimeo. 2 Jan 2013. Piece by Piece. Dir. Nic Hill. Nar. Senor One. Underdog Pictures, YouTube, 2005. Web. 19 Dec. 2012. Matheison, Eleanor, and Xavier A. Tápies. Street Artists: The Complete Guide. London: Graffito Books, 2011. Print. San Francisco. Public Works. Public Works Code Article 23. Public Works, 14 Jan. 1994. Web. 8 Jan 2013. “The Special Place in our Heart for Wall Space!” White Walls: 6, May 2011. Web. 12 Jan. 2013.

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Malik Sy

Teens and Sleep Deprivation At The Bay School if you take the entire student population, only eighteen of the students will get the medically recommended amount of sleep. In high schools today many teens are getting less and less sleep because of outside school commitments, school starting times, or homework loads. This is causing sleep deprivation among teens around the world. The biochemistry of teenagers also plays an effect on teen sleeping patterns. Because teenagers have a different body clock than children and adults, students in high school tend to get less sleep. And because of that lack of sleep they are performing less than their potential in class, and starting to develop health problems at an early age. Many students have after school activities to do. These students have things like sports, plays, or other after school activities that they participate in until late at night. Cole Mogan, a Bay school sophomore, says after basketball practice he normally does not get home until eight o’clock. This is due to him having to take the bus from the presidio to Marin. After Cole gets home

he has to eat dinner with his family which on a normal night lasts till nine or nine thirty. Cole still has two hours of homework to do, which leads him not to go to bed until around eleven thirty. Another Bay school student Seline Zhao does gymnastics outside of school. Seline has gymnastics from seven to nine but has work to do around her house until then. After her gymnastics Seline has two hours of homework just like Cole and also doesn’t finish her homework until eleven o’clock. After they go to bed they both have to wake up at six in the morning to get to school only getting about six hours of sleep. These students have this problem because of the planning of schedules and the workloads given by the school. Given that most students have extracurricular activities after school and that most have to take public transportation to get to their houses, it is extremely hard to get the required nine hours of sleep. Without these nine hours teens cannot properly function in school or in their extracurricular activity. According to the national sleep foundation teens need 9 ¼ hours of sleep and only 15% of students achieve that. “Teens need about 9 1/4 hours of sleep each night to function best (for some, 8 1/2 hours is enough). Most teens do not get enough sleep — one study found that only 15% reported sleeping 8 1/2 hours on school nights” (National Sleep Foundation), and because of that teens are stressed, tired, and their grades dropping.

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A teen’s lack of sleep is also blamed on puberty, body clocks specifically. Teens have different body clocks than adults (WebMD). A teen’s body runs on a 25+hour body clock while an average adult’s body clock is 24 hours because of the hormones teens feel going through puberty. For example on a Saturday night a teen will still be up around midnight while adults are sleeping and wouldn’t be tired, and while in the morning adults are more awake than teens. This is all do to puberty, something teens cannot control, which is why parents shouldn’t be angry at their child it isn’t the child’s fault if he or she is awake in the morning. They have to deal with the social stresses and school work that comes with being a teen. The Wall Street Journal states that “Coupled with a trend toward predawn school start times and peer pressure to socialize online into the wee hours, the result can upset kids' health, school performance—and family peace” (WSJ). Only 7.6% of teens around the world get the recommended 9 ½ hours of sleep they need to function throughout the day (WSJ). The effects of not achieving this time of sleep is decreased performance and alertness which means that your reflexes are slowed down and you cannot think and process information as well as you could with a good night’s rest. According to Web MD “Reducing your nighttime sleep by as little as one and a half hours for just one night could result in a reduction of daytime alertness by as much as 32%” (WebMD). The extreme effects of not getting enough rest

are heart attack, obesity depression and acne, the one most dreaded by teens (Web MD). Schools should help their students manage their schedules and parents should be more understanding of their child’s predicaments, for example parents shouldn’t discipline their child for bring tired and slow in the morning because majority of the time it isn’t the child’s fault. The majority of the time they are studying for a test and it has been proven that late night studying isn’t beneficial to you, its better if you study in the morning rather at midnight. “All night study binges can be effective for a last-ditch recourse to pass a test but should not be used as a consistent crutch” (University of Alabama). For student athletes it is even harder to manage their schedules. Given that the athletes have sports right after the school day until six or seven homework is a strenuous chore. There’s a lot more stress when you are an athlete because you have to balance your grades, your sport, and your sleep. For example an athlete might have to write a humanities paper and study for a biology test but will also have a game the next day. Steve Glass, a former Major League Baseball player and current athletic director for The Bay School states “…getting enough rest is very important for athletes to perform their best in games” (Glass). Without enough sleep the athlete may not be able to react quickly enough and risk injuring himself or his teammates. Also most athletes find it stressful that after hours of running 157

and the physical exhaustion accompanying that, which they have to work on two hours of homework and do their studies too. All athletes find that they have to push themselves late into the night to finish their work which leaves them mentally drained and physically drained. “Student athletes, in particular, should be wary of upsetting their sleeping schedule because of the potential for the injuries they could sustain” (University of Alabama). Athletes are more likely to get injured playing sleep deprived than normally and it is extremely not healthy for the athlete. All of these medical effects, and the stress could be blamed on the homework loads given by schools. An interview by the Wall Street Journal on Jeremy Kern a 16 year old high school students states that “because of a heavy load of homework and extracurricular activities, including playing saxophone in his school marching band and in a theater orchestra, often keep him up later” (WSJ). The workloads given by schools can be debated that it is too much for teens to work with. For example if a student athlete has practice from 4-6:30 and doesn’t get home until 7:30 and also has to eat dinner and speak with his family two hours of homework would be too much for teens and also teens take naps when they get home or on the ride home because of the fatigue they feel throughout the day. Naps have been proven to be beneficial to teens and adults. Naps for 3055 minutes can bring about a natural alertness in teens and adults and helps relieve stress (Asap Science). Since schools

are starting to realize that they have to accommodate for their students not being able to get enough sleep, they are starting to have schools start later and have flex periods similar to the ones at Bay so students will not be stressed when they get home. The counter argument for schools and homework is that you just have to suck it up and tough it out. Majority of parents say to their kids that school should come first before anything. I agree with this but their needs to be balance between schools and sleep because in the end your health is more important. If parents make their child study into the night because they have a test the next day it isn’t healthy for the child because one, studying in the middle of the night isn’t beneficial two his or her grades will start slipping and three they will fall asleep in the class because of the fatigue. It has been proven by researchers at Harvard that teens are ready to learn at around 10 o’clock because that’s when a teen’s brain fully wakes up from the affects of sleep. Because teens have to comply with school starting times many of them rely on energy from caffeine. The energy drinks teens use to stay awake are very unhealthy for teens to consume. According to MSMBC “The potential harms, caused mostly by too much caffeine or similar ingredients, include heart palpitations, seizures, strokes and even sudden death, the authors write in the medical journal Pediatrics. They reviewed data from the government and interest groups, scientific literature, case reports and articles in popular and trade media” (MSMBC). Many teens 158

rely on Monster or Amp’d to keep them awake during the day. The drink isn’t harmful because of caffeine, caffeine can be beneficial but it is harmful for the other items in the drinks. For example coffee is very beneficial for humans. In the video in the works cited explains how coffee can be beneficial for humans. For example coffee is a stimulant instead of a depressant so it can brighten your mood. Another drink that can help teens is tea. Tea has the same benefits for you like coffee but it has less calories. It is better for teens to drink tea and coffee rather than energy drinks because of the health risks of energy drinks. In conclusion schools should help their students manage their times and be more understanding toward their student’s problems. Similar to the Bay school other schools should try to have periods in where they can study and finish their work so they wouldn’t be up all night doing work. Also parents should be more understanding of their children’s problems, they should try to help their children manage their schedules like the schools and calm them down when they are stressed.

Works Cited ABC News. "Sleep Deprivation Creating 'Nation of Walking Zombies'" ABC News. Ed. ABC News. ABC News Network, 08 Nov. 2006. Web. 17 Dec. 2012.

Asapscience (YouTube science channel) ASAP Science. "The Scientific Power of Naps." YouTube. YouTube, 24 July 2012. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. BBC. "Clock Change Could Leave Teenagers More Sleepy." BBC News. BBC, 18 Apr. 2012. Web. 06 Jan. 2013. Cline, John, Ph.D. "Sleepless in America." Sleep and Teenagers. John Cline Ph.D, 5 Apr. 2009. Web. 06 Jan. 2013. Evans, Williams. "College Students among Most Sleepdeprived in Nation." The Crimson White. University of Alabama, 29 Sept. 2011. Web. 06 Jan. 2013. Feature, Michael J. Breus, PhDWebMD. "Chronic Sleep Deprivation and Health Effects."WebMD. WebMD, 16 Mar. 2006. Web. 06 Jan. 2013. GCP Grey. "Coffee: The Greatest Addiction Ever." YouTube. YouTube, 22 June 2011. Web. 25 Jan. 2013. National Sleep Foundation "Teens and Sleep." National Sleep Foundation. Ed. National Sleep Foundation, NSF. The National Sleep Foundation, Aug. 2006. Web. 17 Dec. 2012. Peters, Brandon, MD. "What Are the Physical Effects of Sleep Deprivation?" About.com Sleep. About.com, Sept. 2011. Web. 04 Jan. 2013.

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Reuters. "Sleep Deprivation Makes You Work Slower: Study."Â The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 30 July 2012. Web. 06 Jan. 2013. Rubin, Rita. "How Much Sleep Do Teens Really Need? Maybe Less than You Think."TODAY Health. MSMBC, 8 Sept. 2010. Web. 06 Jan. 2013. Tanner, Lindsey. "Energy Drinks Can Be Dangerous for Teens, Report Says."Msnbc.com. Msnbc Digital Network, 14 Feb. 2011. Web. 25 Jan. 2013.

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Tess Tanaka

The Magical World of Disney Movies: A Gender Fantasy? I slip on a pink, sparkly, sequined dress and a pair of my Mom’s high heels that I could barely walk in. I take a fat tube of red lipstick and smother it on my face. In that moment, as a young 5 year old, I felt so lady-like and perfect. I was helpless and weak in the high heel shoes, but it did not matter to me because I felt so grown up and feminine. Disney is one of the most successful entertainment enterprises in the world and influences many people, especially impressionable young children. For several decades, Disney movies have enchanted children with fantastic stories about heroic princes and fairy tale princesses. However, because these movies are so captivating, children do not recognize the questionable stereotypes that define gender roles. Although Disney movies can be magical to young children, they can also have a negative effect on how they learn about gender roles. There are many negative impacts that children can learn by watching Disney movies. Disney movies can negatively affect

children through gender misrepresentation. In addition, they can be affected through the way Disney films portray masculinity, femininity, and overall both sexes. Every Disney princess movie usually features “a central female character, the princess, and a male character who is romantically linked with the princess” (Collier-Meek). The portrayal of women in Disney movies is completely unrealistic. They are always shown with curvy bodies, tiny waists, fluttering eyelashes and perfect hair. In fact, they are usually the seductress; even in animal form. Clothing wise, it’s just usually inappropriate and revealing considering that these characters are supposed to be played by young female roles. For example characters such as Ariel, Jasmine, and Tinkerbell barely wear any clothing on their bodies. Ariel wears clam shells as her top, while Jasmine wears a top cropped over her belly button. Little kids today are always wondering what they should look like when they grow up or what it is like to be a woman. When kids look up to these characters and gender roles, they put a fixed image inside of their heads and immediately think that they must look like that when they are older. Dr. Mary Burke, a Child Psychiatrist said that “because visual images are so intensely powerful, it does shape how people think of others. The concepts are stored partly through visual images in our brains. To the extent that we make our own visual images that allow us to have flexibility and use imagination to solve difficulties in life” (Burke).

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These women are not only portrayed with these unrealistic images in Disney movies but they are also shown as weak or damsels in distress. However strong or powerful a female character is, they are always being rescued and saved by a heroic male character. They’re always suffering or asking for assistance. This simply shows that they lack the ability to save their own lives. The idea of women being “damsels in distress” brings up stereotypical roles that women in our society should be inferior to man and that the idea of a woman not being equal with man is a prevailing thought. In the movie Hercules, the character role playing as the seductress is Megara. In the movie, Meg act’s as a prostitute for the villain in the movie, Hades. She is used as a pawn of Hades, “forced to use her feminine whiles to distract Hercules and bring him to self-destruction. Acting for all intensive purposes as a prostitute pimped out by Hades, Meg represents some men’s need to have ownership over women and control their actions; to use them as tools to gain assets” (Ryan). Women in Disney movies always want to win the heart of the prince. They’re always falling in love with the men instantly and they would do absolutely anything to make the prince or male character fall in love with them or marry them. Most of the time, they’re adjusting their physical appearance to impress or draw attention to it. For example, in the Disney film called The Little Mermaid, Ariel sells her voice to a sea witch, Ursula, and get’s a pair of human legs in exchange to win the heart of Prince

Eric. She does not need her voice, because she has her beauty to win the prince (“Gender and Disney”). Lastly, women in Disney movies tend to show their emotions strongly. They’re always feared from evil or ashamed of painful emotion. Most of the time, collapse when they cry so that their face is no longer visible. A movie that exemplifies this would be Cinderella. Cinderella’s mean step sisters ruin her dress for the Ball, and she is not able to go. She runs outside and begins to cry, kneeling on the dirt ground, with her head collapsed on her folded arms. These are the many examples and images of how women are portrayed. Just like femininity and the portrayal of women, masculinity and the portrayal of men is also shown negatively through Disney films. The Disney definition of masculinity has not always been a realistic one (Sirik). Disney defines masculinity in their movies as being a strong, attractive hero with a dazzling smile. Most of the time, men are seen as being scary and frightening towards others. They usually cause sub characters to respond in fear or fright. In the Disney classic film Beauty and the Beast, “Gaston, the local braggart hunter who will do anything for Belle's hand in marriage, including killing her true love. To him, being a man was having everyone fear him, to have them obey him. He felt he deserved anything he wanted and would go to unscrupulous lengths to gain it” (“A look at masculinity in Disney films”). Men are physically strong because they’re always hitting or moving 162

something. They’re shown as being buff, strong and very large figures and have a sense of athleticism. Gaston from Beauty and the Beast, Hercules, and majority of the Princes are a few examples of this stereotypical image. Being so physically attractive and strong, men are always “saving the day” because “that’s what men do” (Sirik). They are always saving the lives of the weak female characters. Men are brave and daring. In most films, they are shown as doing right and never needing to improve, grow, or learn. Because of this, they have a strong characteristic of leadership and are always shown as the commander. Being the commanders in most films, they give advice and provide suggestions for others. Unlike the women in Disney films who dramatically show their emotions, men rarely show any emotion at all. They usually don’t react to pleasure, pain or death because apparently, men never cry. There is a dramatic difference between the two sexes and it has a huge impact on the way kids perceive themselves and others. While Disney may receive various criticisms and remarks for their portrayals and imagery, these films have many effects on young children today. Disney movies actually cause children to think about a particular group differently than how the rest of the society perceives these groups. Disney does not purposefully create these sexist images and stereotypes; they simply reflect them. There are many reasons as to why young children should be watching Disney films. First, is it teaches them about the love for nature and animals. Second, it teaches them to em-

brace the power of love. Also, it influences them to be kindness and generous. In addition, it teaches them to go after your dreams and just be yourself. Finally, Disney films teach children to have their own imagination. These are the many beneficial factors as to why children must be watching Disney films. It is difficult to teach kids the concept of having love towards nature and animals because they are always so preoccupied with the things brought by modern gadgets and electronics. Disney movies show the lives of animals and how nature must be protected. The Pixar animated film, Finding Nemo tells the story of a young clownfish who is separated from his father when a scuba diver took him away. This movie teaches children that animals have lives and families as well, so humans must not do things to hurt them. Respect the animals. Another positive affect that ties in to this idea of having love towards nature and animals is just respecting your environment and surroundings. Having environment awareness is absolutely crucial for keeping our world clean and green. The overall message is that children need to lean toward environmental awareness. Embracing the power of love is another reason why kids should watch Disney movies and is something that is hard for them to see. Many kids now days don’t believe in fairy tales because they are hooked on technology. Children will begin realize that there is nothing impossible when one does things for love. Disney movies also teach young children the true meaning of 163

beauty. They tend to pay attention to only the physical attributes rather than the inner assets of an individual. It is said that “you can point out that one cannot gauge beauty with more physical assets. Most of the time, the inner beauty of a person through kind deeds is what matters” (“What can kids learn from a Disney Movie”). Beauty and the Beast, for example, is a story of a beautiful young lady named Belle who falls in love with a frightening Beast. She did not know he was a handsome and kindhearted gentleman until she saw his true beauty. Disney also instills a strong value of kindness and generosity through their movies. Although kindness is something that comes naturally to most children they “sometimes don’t develop it because of so many factors such as proper guidance from the parents and influence of other kids” (“What can kids learn from a Disney Movie”). Mary Poppins, for example is a genuine kindness movie about a nanny who uses her magical powers to transform the ordinary lives of two young children living in London into something more extraordinary through her generosity, compassion and kind ways. Another reason why kids should watch Disney movies is because Disney films encourage children to go after their dreams and to never let go of them. In fact, “for children, dreaming is innate. But as they grow older, they tend to forget how to hold on to their dreams” (“What can kids learn from a Disney Movie”). To keep the value of having a dream and going after it instilled

into children’s minds, they should watch Disney movies to learn the power of dreaming. The man himself once said that “all your dreams come true if you have the courage to pursue them” (Walt Disney). Not only do his movies encourage young children to pursue their dreams, they also teach them to just be themselves. In the Disney film, Aladdin, the Genie is transformed into a bee and tells Aladdin, who is pretending to play the role of a prince, to “Just-Bee-Yourself.” These movies teach children the importance of being themselves and fulfilling their responsibilities in life. It shows children that they don’t have to be someone they’re not. They will know that people will like them, for who they are, not who they pretend to be (Pettinato, “Disney’s Positive Effects on Children”). Finally, the most important reason as to why kids should be watching Disney films is because it allows them to be imaginative. Too many fairy tales can mislead children; however, the lack of it may also dry him or her out of imagination. It is said that “all Disney movies are made to make its viewers imagine things that are beyond the usual” (“Why Let Children Watch Disney Movies”). Aladdin, for example, is about a young man who is considered a “street rat” and he falls in love with a princess named Jasmine. They cannot get married because Jasmine has to marry someone of royalty and high class. Everything turns out just fine in the end when a Genie comes into the picture and grants Aladdin 3 wishes. The movie also features entertaining characters such as the flying carpet as well. In most of 164

these Disney films, Disney movies do have its positive effects and can really inspire young children in many ways.

teachers. They also believed that helping and sharing were the characteristics of girls.

Children are influenced and inspired by these stereotypical images and character roles by watching Disney movies, and affect the way that they perceive others around them. An average child gets a daily dose of 3-4 hours of electronic media entertainment or television every single day (Echuryan, etal.). This causes a problem because “Disney occupies leading spot in children’s television and it provides a routine dose of gender stereotype, it helps in limiting children in restrictive sex-roles, prunes their ability to explore all possible occupations and constricts their chances for equality of opportunity” (Echuryan, etal.). It is a very common experience for young girls to look up to Disney Princesses and soon become immediately attached of wanting to become a Princess. They want their lives to be completely magical and everlasting. In fact, all of these little girls “want to look thin, voluptuous and beautiful and they learn to rely on their physical appearance more than on other talents that may demand hard work and perseverance” (Echuryan, etal.). At an early age, girls learn to wait for that magical kiss to change their life. When girls and boys watch these Disney movies, they automatically create an idea of what the opposite sex must behave. Girls believe that boys could be physicians and judges. They also believed that boys had the characteristics of boasting and swearing. While, boys believed that girls could be

Although these movies do exemplify both strong positive and negative effects on children, there are solutions that children and Disney can use so that children will not compare themselves to these unrealistic roles. One is to encourage Disney to approach their films with a more critical mindset. Another possible solution is to educate children so that they “absorb a film’s guidance on interpreting those beloved stories” (“Are Disney Movies Good for Kids?”). As children mature into adulthood, it is possible that they may bring with them these questionable stereotypes of the gender roles. As a result it could impact how they perceive themselves and others, and how they interact with them. Without realistic views of how mature people interact with each other, a person may have difficulty forming strong relationships. Disney, with its immense influence over children, can do the right thing and develop stories that are more positive in the portrayal of gender roles. It might be up to us young Americans to remind Disney that through change, they can play a constructive role in this very important issue. I would like to gratefully acknowledge Bryant Lui, Lia Carver, Sammy Shea, and Craig Butz for peer editing and revising my Research Paper. 165

Works Cited Burke, Mary. Personal Interview. 26 Jan. 2013. Collier-Meek, Melissa. Descartes, Lara. England, Dawn Elizabeth. “Gender Role Portrayal and the Disney Princesses.” Link Springer. Springer Link, 1 Apr. 2011. Web, 15 Dec. 2012. Echuryan, Sylvia. Lim, Youra. Nuth, Susan. Sabnis, Preeti. “Disney and Gender group.” Disney Gender. Disney Gender, 8 July. 2007. Web. 19 Dec. 2012. “Gender Stereotypes in Disney Movies.” Gender Stereotypes in Disney Movies. Gender and Disney, 30 Nov. 2012. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. Pettinato, Minot. “Disney’s Positive Effects on Children.” eHow. N.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2013. Ryan, Pam. “Disney’s Sexist Messages.” Film Jam. Film Jam Blog, 6 Dec. 2012. Web. 3 Jan. 2013. Sirik, Breelyn. “Masculinity in Disney Movies.” Yahoo Voices, 11 Feb. 2010. Web, 5 Jan. 2013. “What Can Kids Learn From A Disney Movie.” Edu. 23 July. 2010. Web. 12 Jan. 2013. “Why Let Children Watch Disney Movies.” Edu. 25 July. 2010. Web. 12 Jan 2013. 166

Nolan Van Dine

The Robot in the Room: Artificial Intelligence in Medicine

Assistive technologies, which give information to doctors, tend to be safer, because they allow the doctors to make better informed decisions. Because these are assistive technologies, the end decision is still up to the doctor and thus the patient is not exposed to any more risk. Helping plan a body scan, aiding in performing a scan, helping doctors analyze a scan, and assisting in finding a diagnoses are some of the ways artificial intelligence can help with image recognition and interpretation. Artificial intelligence can also help with alerting medical personal of patient health, and help in surgery.

Every day people put their lives in the hands of doctors. If computers could replace functions performed by doctors, would that jeopardize or help save lives? Artificial intelligence should be used aid in many functions around a medical facility doing anything from helping in surgery, processing body scans, or assisting nurses in deciding which patients need priority. Artificial intelligence is defined as “the capability of a machine to imitate intelligent human behavior”. Although the benefits of these technologies could be extremely valuable, their lack of humanness could mean a patient might be harmed without the computer knowing. This brings ethical issues, such as, when it is safe for a computer to perform a task, or if a human should have to supervise. Artificial Intelligence should be used to help in the medical field as long as it doesn’t put someone’s life at risk.

A concern with scans is the increase in cancer risk caused by radiation received during the process. With an estimated 70 million CT (computer tomography) scans performed each year in the US alone (Harris), a lot of man hours are put in for setup, adjusting settings, and scan analysis. The scans can provide the patients with a lot of radiation but using artificial intelligence can reduce radiation by a factor of ten. This deduction is done by scanning small areas, that are separate from each other and then adding in what is missing in between the points. Once the scan has been completed the computer can turn the raw data into a three dimensional model that radiologists and doctors can interpret. Currently, the doctor has to look at the scan to try and figure out why a patient is sick, as there is very little to help diagnose the problem. The current computer processing programs require the doctor to manually put in information and 167

then go through a long and complicated process to try and figure out what the problem is, however there will be future technologies that will make the whole process much easier (Sirc). The amount of radiation in a normal CT scan is 10 millisievert, three times more than the normal background radiation a person would receive in a year. Dr. Behr, M.D. a radiologist at UCSF explains that "Because of [artificial intelligence] technologies radiation is one tenth of what it used to be"(Behr). The computer can predetermine how much area of the patient’s body needs to be scanned, and then break that up in to small sections leaving purposefully unscanned areas in between. The computer can then piece these slices together and figure out how to fill the unscanned areas. This greatly decreases the amount of radiation exposure needed (Behr). Once a scan has been done on a patient the doctor has to look over the scan and identify the problems in the different parts of the body, this is called CAD, short for Computer Aided Detection. This software is some of the most complex in the whole process and is only really available for liver and brain scans as it differs the least from person to person (Behr). Each separate cell group is registered so the doctor can tell where each cell group is located. Sometimes, such as in the lungs, there is a 3mm void then a 3mm piece of tissue, then another 3mm gap. That can be hard for a computer to pick out. Although the program does this the doctor always reviews the result:

My first question is, is this a real artifact?..We can get this thing like the aorta which can look like a lesion in the liver…your job is to go though and always scrutinize, is it telling me something true or false?(Behr) After a lesion has been detected, the doctor has to figure out what is wrong with the patient. This is the most important process because there are many options that may not always be clear. “The whole process for the radiologist is telling when something isn’t normal, but then they have to figure out what it is, that’s the difficult part” (Sirc). Programs like StatDX which stands for Stat Diagnosis help the radiologist diagnose the patient, “you have to manually input what the lesion is, and then it searches that and tells you possible results, hopefully you eventually figure out what it is” (Sirc). But right now the technology is very primitive. " To be able to click on a image, and have it search a bank of thousands of images and say this matches like, x, y, and z, that would be nice" (Sirc, Behr). Even though these technologies sound almost impossible they really aren’t, "It's really pattern recognition…once you have the trend set of the data, you know the patterns, and that’s how it works" (Seo). These technologies could help provide faster, safer, and more accurate medical scans in the not so far future. Besides the medical imaging field, artificial intelligence has many other applications, one of those is aiding and alerting nurses of a patient’s condition. Certain technologies can help 168

record data on a patient such as heart rate, movement, blood pressure, and other bodily statists. “The analytics could support a kind of dashboard for nurses, with alerts to help them know whether treatment plans are working, to warn of potential issues, help them know when to reach out and engage with the patient or their family, and more quickly understand the implications and the context, and diagnose and to adjust treatment” (Lund). These assistive uses could make nurses jobs a lot easier. Because surgery can be very long, tiring, labor intensive, and damaging to the patients, artificial intelligence can help surgeons be more precise, and be much less invasive. “[The surgeon views a magnified, high-resolution 3D image of the surgical site. At the same time, state-of-the-art robotic and computer technologies scale, filter and seamlessly translate [the] surgeon's hand movements into precise micro-movements of the da Vinci instruments. The System cannot be programmed and it cannot make decisions on its own. The da Vinci System requires that every surgical maneuver be performed with direct input from [the] surgeon” ( “The da Vinci® Surgical System”) Because the machine is not doing anything on its own it is perfectly safe and can increase the precision of the surgeon.

Although all the advancement in Artificial Intelligence could greatly help people, there are certain risks that must be considered. The functions that pose the most risks are ones in which the machine is performing tasks on its own without a human checking. One example is performing image recognition without a human inspecting in which case the machine could completely misidentify a region and the patient could receive the wrong treatment. Another is performing diagnostics autonomously, where once again the patient could get the wrong treatment. A final example is having a machine perform surgical procedures autonomously, this is a much greater risk because the machine could cause immediate irreversible damage to the patient. These functions are dangerous to the patient and should never be performed. Performing image recognition without humans examining the results is like letting a 12 year old drive a Ferrari, they can have control of their functions, but they may not think their actions through in the same way as a fully trained adult. Either the machine or the child might be able to do it but if they make a mistake results could be tragic. Dr. Bryson of the University of Bath in the UK , a leader in the field of artificial intelligence and society says “Computers can accelerate and magnify our mistakes to do more damage than an unaided individual, yet the same could be said of levers, pulleys and organized government” (Bryson). Leaving these decisions up to machines could be hazardous and potentially fatal. 169

A Medical diagnosis is “the determination of the cause of a patient's illness or suffering by the combined use of physical examination, patient interview, laboratory tests, review of the patient's medical records, knowledge of the cause of observed signs and symptoms, and differential elimination of similar possible causes” ("Medical Diagnosis"). Being able to diagnose patients takes years of experience and sometimes can’t be reduced to a set variables that can be answered with yes/no questions or 1s or 0s. Letting a machine perform surgery autonomously is extremely dangerous. All human bodies are different. The machine looks for patterns from a set of data and then makes assumptions from that (Seo). “By the time you’re in your sixties at some point in your life something in your body has been mucked with”(Behr), and if the robot can’t find what it is looking for, or confuses something for something else that could possibly be fatal. Artificial intelligence should be used in medicine as long as there is no risk to the patient. The danger is too high for it to be any other way not only because of the risk to the patients but also the technologies aren’t up to it and may never be. "Technology won’t replace human experts. AI could help the medical experts to extract information from other solved cases and take into consideration the results of the last researches, but the human judgment can’t be replaced. The final decision has to be

made by a human expert" (Rogozea). Having humans and computers work together does and will allow for safer more efficient medical treatment.

Works Cited “Artificial intelligence”. Merriam-Webster. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Behr, Spencer. Personal Interview. 15 Jan. 2013 Lund, Arnold. GE Research. 7 Oct. 2012. “Medical Diagnosis". Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition. 2009. Elsevier 5 Feb. 2013 Rogozea, Lilana. Towards ethical aspects on artificial intelligence. Transilvania University of Brasov Seo, Young Ho. Personal Interview. 15 Jan. 2013 Sirc, Evan. Personal Interview. 15 Jan. 2013 “The da Vinci® Surgical System”. Da Vinci Surgery. Web. 4 Feb. 2013.

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Aidan Van Runkle Olden

When Push Comes to Shove: Stress in Students More than one in four adolescents report common daily hassles and chronic stresses that are academically or socially related. Stress, as defined by the National Library of Medicine is “the abnormal mental and emotional state in response to a physical or physiologic stressor.” Many people face intimidating stressors everyday but none more so than students. Today’s educational system is centered around the production of ample minded individuals ready to take on the world. The methods, by which this is accomplished however, are becoming increasingly strenuous. Schools are becoming focused and indeed centralized, on distributing larger workloads in an effort to prepare students for the levels of work in the real world, more so than ever now. The number of visits to psychologists by children and adolescents during which depression was reported more than doubled from 1995–1996 (1.44 million) to 2001–2002 (3.22 million) (“Depression”). With increasing stress and pressure on students, it is necessary that high schools understand students’ mental capac-

ity for maximum productivity and health among students. This means that schools and the educational system must realize the limits of students while also acknowledging what they are capable of. Stress is a simple reaction of humans. It’s not a bad thing, quite the opposite in fact. Because of our survival instincts, stress helps us stay aware of surroundings; it keeps us on our toes and our wits about us. Stress encourages light competition, urging us to do our best. It provides that extra boost of motivation. In students, stress can be a tool for success. When you don’t want to leave your comfort zone, stress will do it for you. And as a result, you grow. It gives us that little push when we’re unsure about something. But what happens when push comes to shove? Unfortunately, stress can develop too much too quickly. It can become an overwhelming mental curtain. When a situation begins to go downhill, stress easily becomes our enemy. Temperamentally, we become irritable and short tempered, easily agitated, depressed, and experience general feelings of isolation (Stress Symptoms). Cognitively, stress results in worrying, poor judgment, and even memory problems. Stress can affect our behavioral patterns too. Under tense conditions, some experience sleep loss, habitual anxiety releases (such as the biting of nails), and the abuse of substances as a means of escaping pressure. Stress can even turn into physical pains, such as 171

aches, nausea, and colds. In this day and age, 2-8% of children and adolescents are affected by depression (“Depression”). Students, specifically teenagers and adolescents, are in general, much more vulnerable to stress and its consequences. This has to do with the changing neuro-chemical reactions of the brain during this time of growth and change (“Adolescents”). A lot of this stress comes from academics. This has to do with the way our society is orientated. According to Philip Hall (PhD), “Students are put in a position of feeling they just must not stop. They are not given a sense of support. They are put in an environment where they are not accepted for themselves but only for what they are going to achieve. All this builds stress." Part of the problem lies in the parents. While it is obvious that not all parents treat and react with their children in such a way, many parents have become obsessed with having their child get into the best college in the country and nothing else, often throwing learning, out the window. Daniel DeNoon (MD), claims in a recent article that parents are growing obsessed with pure excellence and preoccupied with nothing but absolute perfection from their children. To start somewhere, parents must learn to accept defeat and failure as growth, and understand that it is a tool for improvement. The other major part of it rests on the shoulders of our educational system. Kids are being assigned homework—and more

of it—earlier than ever (“Stressing Out Our Kids”). “According to the Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics, the number of high school graduates increased 24% from 1991 to 2004, and the number is expected to grow another 5% before 2017. That's an additional 700,000 high school graduates queuing up for college admission, while the actual number of colleges has remained the same.” (“Stressing Out Our Kids”). Stress can be caused by many, many different things. It can begin internally, within you, or it can be caused by external sources. Regardless of either, they are both amplified within teenagers and adolescents (“Symptons and Causes”). Some of the most significant internal causes include perfectionism and setting unrealistic goals for yourself. Basically, setting the bar too high for yourself and expecting to achieve that much more. Sometimes, the inability to accept uncertainty and always having the need for everything to be concrete can be really stressful. Additionally, pessimism can be a huge cause for stress. Constantly having a negative outlook on life and never understanding that there is light at the end of the tunnel makes everything worse. Finally, self put-downs. Put-downs from other people hurt enough but none hurt more so than the insults you give yourself (“Depression”). External causes are just as influential as internal ones. For example, feeling as if you have no time for anything; you are con172

stantly occupied and you begin to feel as if your life is dominated by your tasks at hand. Familial disruptions can cause large impacts on a teen’s mind, typically the younger they are the larger the after-effects. Another one, financial struggles, can be stressful, albeit not as much as others. Relationship struggles can also be extremely detrimental to an adolescent’s mental health. Having rocky close relationships with friends only encourages general feelings of isolation. And lastly, the largest external stress causer is too much work (“Depression”). Sometimes, more important than the causes of stress are the reactions. Men, for example react much differently to stress as a whole than women. There are two proposed reaction types in genders known as “fight-or-flight” and “tend-and-befriend” (“Gender Differences”). The former is typically utilized much more on behalf of males and resembles a hostile attitude towards stressful situations such as a mugging. Women’s responses on the other hand, usually represent much more the latter. When under stress, women are more likely to “to express affiliative social behavior, either to befriend the enemy - if there is an enemy who is causing the stress - or to seek social support from their family members or friends” (“Gender Differences”). Whereas men would release a large amount of norepinephrine and cortisol, women alternatively release endorphins and oxytocin. Norepinephrine triggers the release of glucose in the body, as well as increasing the heart rate. Cortisol is another stress hormone that increases the body’s blood pressure. Endorphins

and oxytocin on the other hand are much more relax-oriented drugs—quite the opposite of norepinephrine and cortisol. This means when under stress, women, who release more chemicals, but not quite so many stress hormones, are not as likely to react hostilely to an assessed threat, whereas males, with their heightened amounts of testosterone, cortisol and norepinephrine, would be much more inclined to respond hostilely to a threat. A reoccurring trend difference is that males view stress as less of a challenge then women. In a recent study done by the American Psychological study men don’t only view psychologists as less helpful then women (as a stress-relief method) but males also claim to focus less on managing their stress issues (“Stress and Gender”). To present some raw data: a." Only 52 percent of men say it is very/extremely important to manage stress, compared to 68 percent of women. And 63 percent of men say they’re doing enough to manage their stress, compared to 51 percent of women. b." One in four women acknowledge they are not doing enough when it comes to managing stress; only 17 percent of men feel this way. c." Women are more likely than men to report using a multitude of strategies including reading (51 percent vs. 32 percent), spending time with family or friends (44 percent vs. 32 percent), 173

praying (41 percent vs. 22 percent), going to religious services (24 percent vs. 17 percent), shopping (18 percent vs. 10 percent), getting a massage or visiting a spa (14 percent vs. 5 percent) and seeing a mental health professional (5 percent vs. 1 percent) to manage stress. These number are meant to indicate the differences between genders. These statistics importantly demonstrate how women are overall, much more reactive in terms of solving their stress issues than men In students, stressors that seem more approachable via problem solving ability as opposed to uncontrollability tend to have less of a negative effect (“Adolescents”). Academics for example, would represent less of a stressor than a familial conflict, because of its properties. One can’t apply mathematical equations to a problem with parents. This is easily understandable as any stressor even one might consider random, or at least, not predictable, much more intimidating than a stressor than can be approached with cool, logistical ease. According to Dr. Peter Grossman (MD), “the appraisal of a stressful event as more threatening has been associated with self-reported symptoms of anxiety, depression, and conduct-related problems following parental divorce.” Students who focus on their stressors, while attempting to eliminate their worries, are ironically increasing their problems and the mental burden that accompanies such issues.

And finally, the great question arises: what needs to be done? The majority of the solution can be found in various tweaks within schools. To start, schools desperately need a redefinition of the homework and testing policies that appropriately mediate the time students spend doing work at home—so they aren’t exhausting themselves in and out of school. Next, schools need to abolish the honor roll. This is an extremely important facet of the answer to stress in schools because much of this stress is originated in the honor roll publishing (“How Children Succeed”). It promotes fierce competition in students and even fiercer pressure from parents. Lastly, there must be a reassessment of teaching policies. Teachers need to understand their task at hand and more importantly, what their students are undergoing. Stress is a touchy subject. It’s sometimes difficult to determine just how much is too much but then again, sometimes it’s not. Not to students that is. Our modern educational system claims to encourage learning and learning only but this is not the case. It has become a vast competition encompassing the nation, a race to the death to determine who will succeed. There is no mercy for those left behind, unless we do something about it.

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Works Cited “Adolescent Girls Are More Sensitive to Stress Than Boys.” University Medical Center. 26 May 2010. Web. 28 Dec 2012. DeNoon, Daniel. “Your Child and Anxiety: School Stress Starts Early”. WebMD. WebMD, 2007. Web. 17 Dec. 2012. Levine, Madeline. “Teach Your Children Well”. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2012. Print.

Tugend, Alena. “Peeking at the Negative Side of High School Popularity”. New York Times. 18 June 2012. Web. 17 Dec. 2012. Wilde, Marian. “Are we stressing out our kids?” Great Schools. Great Schools, 2009. Web. 19 January 2013 Zimmer-Gembeck, Melanie and Skinner, Ellen. “Adolescents Coping with Stress.” Portland State University. 15.4 (Nov. 2008): 7. The Prevention Researcher. Web. 26 Dec 2012.

Maestripieri, Dario. “Gender Differences in Responses to Stress.” Games Primates Play. Psychology Today, 17 Mar 2012. Web. 1 Jan 2013. Simon, Michael. “The Approximate Parent”. California: Fine Optics Press, 2012. Print. Smith, Melinda and Robert Segal and Jeanne Segal. “Stress Symptoms, Signs and Causes” Helpguide. Helpguide, 2012. Web. 17 January 2013. “Stress (psychological).” Wikipedia. 25 April 2011. Web. 15 Dec. 2012. “Stress and Gender.” American Psycholgical Association. 2011. Web. 2 Jan 2013. Tough, Paul. “How Children Succeed”. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Co., 2012. Print. 175

Harrison Welsh

A City Forgetting Sacrifice San Francisco is one of the most unpatriotic cities in the entire country. From Lake Merced to Fisherman’s Warf, the people of San Francisco truly are anti-military. This is mostly due to the liberal nature of the city and the surrounding area which has caused a deep resentment towards the United States Military. This has in turn caused the city’s military recruitment rate to drop well below the national average and, in fact, is hurting its young people by denying them all the benefits that come with military recruiting. This below average recruitment rate might come as a shock to anyone familiar with San Francisco’s military history. During World War II, San Francisco was the largest military base of operations on the West Coast after the destruction of Pearl Harbor. In fact San Francisco was such a large repair station for damaged naval ships that people from all over the country came here looking for jobs in the ship yards. It maintained this status well after the end of World War II, through the Korean War, and up until the late 60’s.

During the late 1960’s a large portion of Americans were beginning to look at the Vietnam War less than favorably. This ultimately resulted in a great number of protest and draft-card burnings to be held all over the country. One of the largest of these protests was held in San Francisco on April 15, 1967 where over 20,000 people marched throughout the city. Protests like these lasted until finally, in 1973, Congress discontinued all military operations in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. After the Vietnam War, the national recruitment rate understandably dropped. This was mostly caused by there not being a war or imminent threat, except for the Soviets who we were never officially at war with. However after the September 11th attacks in 2001 the national rate sky rocketed with tens of thousands of young men and women all looking to defend their country. Even San Francisco pitched in sending 400 men and women to the different branches of the armed forces in 2001. However on February 15th, 2003 there was a collection of mass protests held all over the world against the imminent US invasion of Iraq. These protests were most apparent in San Francisco where almost 200,000 people took up the previous generation’s mantle and protested outside of city hall. After that San Francisco’s recruitment number were in decline, barely making an average of 30 enlistments per year compared to the national of average of 100 for a city of its size.(DoD)

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This low number is also shocking due to the great deal of effort legislature put into making a recruiter’s job easier. For instance the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was not only a bill that started education reform but, it also required high schools that receive federal funding to provide the contact information of their 17 or older students to local recruiters. This information is then used by the recruiters to see which students are most likely to join the military, so they can turn attention away from them and towards students who are less likely to join. Another bill that helps recruiters is the Solomon Amendment which prohibits institutions of higher learning from barring the Reserve Officer Training Corps or military recruiters from operating on their campuses or the Secretary of Defense is allowed to deny federal grants. However, these laws have done little to help the recruiters and Junior ROTC Instructors do their jobs. This is mostly due to the efforts of the San Francisco School Board (Burrelli and Fedder). Perhaps the biggest example of this meddling is when the board held a vote in 2006 to phase the JROTC out of the public high school curriculum over the course of two years. However, a group of concerned parents formed a group opposing the school board decision and was able to get a bill, proposition V, passed in November of 2008 which kept the JROTC up and running. (Youngblood, Stillwell) The Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps is an elective course offered in thousands of public high schools all over the country. It is funded by the Department of Defense and sponsored by

one of the four branches of the armed services (army, navy, marines, and air force). Its main purpose is to train potential recruits physically and mentally by drilling field exercises and teaching them about military history and its impact on American culture. One of the main benefits of taking this elective in high school is if you decide to join the military after you graduate high school you will be instantly promoted.(Army) To most people who participate in the JROTC this is one the reasons they join because in a study funded by congress an average 45% intend to join the armed forces. Unfortunately in San Francisco only 16% have even considered enlisting and the other 84% are only attending because it fulfills their P.E. requirement. Luckily everyone can have the mental benefits the JROTC offers which include better grades, increased confidence, and a less likely chance of dropping out of school. Unfortunately so many people are against it that it has become harder and harder to teach it.(Stillwell, Mavor and Sackett) JROTC are not only the ones who have it rough. A recruiter’s job is not any easier due to the low amount of recruiters and poor recruiting methods. Recruiters are enlisted men and officers who, after a certain amount of service in the armed forces, are offered jobs to bring in recruits, and if they accept they are transferred to the recruiting division of whichever branch they are enlisted in. While the West Coast’s battalions receive plenty of money, there are not enough recruiters, and so they become spread thin all over California and especially in the Bay Area, 177

making it so that they have to work harder to gain a whole lot of ground in particular area. Tactic recruiters use to recruit is to setup a table in a high school or college with pamphlets laid out on the table and have one of them sit there and talk to interested students about the benefits of joining. There is no forced conversation, solicitation, or lying as those who work against the recruiters have implied. Instead there is simply a friendly question and answer conversation between an interested student and a recruiter hoping the best for the aforementioned student. However, most students’ exposure to military recruitment is commercials showing soldiers fighting, or bravely rushing towards battle. These commercials have been proven to be ineffective due to the fact that they never talk about the benefits of joining the military, only the fighting. The commercials also help the people who are anti-military paint a picture of the military lying to potential recruits by giving them a notion “that nothing bad will happen to you”.(Beaver) The activists and city officials who oppose the JROTC and all military recruitment claim they do this to protect this generation from the trickery of the “imperialist” US military recruiters. They try to portray the young people who join the military as being victims of the US military, and to convince the public that recruiters focus their attention mainly on minorities when in fact 85% of the military is white(National Priorities). They also claim that recruiters lie to them by saying that they will never actually see combat, which is a blatant lie in that recruiters are required to

tell potential recruits of the dangers of enlist. These accusations are in themselves insults to the brave men and women who voluntarily fought and died defending America and her allies from their enemies. Cinnamon Stillwell, a reporter for The SF Chronicle, said it best in a 2005 article where she commented on the anti-recruitment activists motivations “The fact that all recruits today, whatever their race, are volunteers seems to mean little to anti-war activists, who insist on portraying American soldiers either as victims or butchers, depending on the case at hand. In this case, it’s simply opposition to the war in Iraq” (Stillwell). A way to counteract the efforts of the activist and raise the military recruitment rate would be for the military to offer rewards for schools that are more military friendly and for the advertisements to be more informative. A way for the military recruiter to get into schools more easily and possibly even talk to classes would be for the government or the military to offer special bonus grants to public schools who are more military friendly. Another way that could improve military recruitment is instead of showing commercials of how the Navy is a force for good or the marines are the bravest of all, they show interviews with people who joined the military and their lives improved drastically afterwards. These are just a few of the ways that military recruitment can be increased in San Francisco. In conclusion, while San Francisco played a key military role in World War II it has since become one the most anti-military cit178

ies in the country. This is mostly due to the strong liberal presence in the city which has been around since the 1960’s and has caused massive road block for the JROTC and military recruiters. However, by rewarding public schools who are more military friendly, and creating better ad campaigns, the military can gain more of a foot hold in San Francisco and ensuring its youth a brighter future.

Works Cited

“Military Recruitment 2010”. National Priorities Project. 11 Jun. 2011. Web. 3 Jan. 2013 “Population Representation in the Military Services”. Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness. Department of Defense, 2002. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. Powers, Rod. “Fiscal Year 2010 Military Recruiting Statistics”. . usmilitary.about. About.com, 2010. Web. 10 Dec. 2012.

Beavers, Emily. “Military Recruitment of High School Students”. slideshare.com. slideshare.com, 2010. Web. 11 Dec. 2012.

Stillwell, Cinnamon. “Opinion: San Francisco Declares Itself a Military-Free Zone”. SFgate. 2005. Web. 29 Jan. 2012.

Burrelli, David, and Feder, Jody. “Military Recruitment on High School and College Campuses: A Policy and Legal Analysis”. FAS. Congressional Research Service, 22 Sep. 2009. Web. 7 Jan. 2013.

“U.S. Army Recruiting Command Goals”. US Army Recruiting Command. US Army, 20 Sep. 2012. Web. 3 Jan. 2013.

Committee on the Youth Population and Military Recruitment, and Mavor, Anne, and National Research Council, and Sackett, Paul. Attitudes, Aptitudes, and Aspirations of American Youth: Implications of Military Recruitment. Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press, 2003. Print.

Watkins, Shanea, and Sherk, James. “Who Serves in the U.S. Military? The Demographics of Enlisted Troops and Officers”. Heritage. The Heritage Foundation, 21 Aug. 2008. Web. 13 Jan. 2013. Youngblood, Flagg K. “San Francisco School Board Allows JROTC”. Humanevents. 7 Jan. 2008: 21. Print. 17 Dec. 2012

Encarnacao, Jack. “Hard economic times makes military more appealing”. Patriot Ledger. 16 Apr. 2011. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. Khan, Huma. “U.S. Army Waiting List Near Record Levels With High Unemployment”. ABC. 29 Dec. 2010. Web. 8 Jan. 2013. 179

Arel Wiederholt-Kassar

All I Want For My Birthday Is A Big Booty Hoe: Misogyny in HipHop Culture “I got mo’ money than her, so she don’t mean shit”, YG sings in his recently released song, Million. This concept of women being inferior to men is a very prominent trend in Hip-Hop culture. That being said, misogyny’s massive presence in American culture is often overlooked. These two aspects of misogyny are very much intertwined, making the issue far more complex. Misogyny in hip-hop culture came out of a combination of a general exposure to the misogyny in American culture and its transfer in to hip-hop, as well as males’ desire for dominance leading to the objectification and mistreatment on women. Because of the connection to misogyny in American culture, this is a very

difficult and complicated issue to solve, but if enough people (both men and women) were to stand up, it could be done. Hip-Hop started as a way for African Americans and Puerto Ricans in the Bronx borough of New York in the 1970’s to express themselves and talk about the social and economic issues surrounding them. A large portion of this emerging culture was competition. This competition was between groups, usually neighborhoods, and was found in rap, dancing, graffiti, among other facets of hip-hop. Toughness was a valued trait in hip-hop culture and inner-city, ‘ghetto’ culture as a whole, and was another subject that was competed upon. Rap artists strived to be tougher than their peers, and used their music to exemplify this. As a result of this, rap began to become very oriented around violence and references to violence (Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes). Part of this desire for toughness was the fear of being soft or weak. In American culture, men are dominant over women: they hold most political positions, they dominate sports culture, and they stereotypically are the chief providers for their families. This translated in to hip-hop culture in a way that men feared that if they didn’t dominate women, they would be categorized as soft or weak (Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes). This fear of showing weakness extends to male artists not even being able to speak on the topic of misogyny. The Clipse, a now broken up rap group made up by Pusha T and No Malice, 180

couldn’t even look Hurt in the eyes when he asked them about misogyny. Dinok, a street artist in San Francisco refused to talk to me about the issue when I bought his mixtape. Nelly decided not to attend his bone-marrow fundraiser at Spelman College when women at the university asked him to address the issue of misogyny (Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes). This reluctance to speak on the issue shows not only a fear of showing weakness, but also insecurity. Sarah Jones, an American performing artist said, “the image of scantily clad women is supposed to affirm some image of masculinity…but in actuality what they show themselves to be is incredibly insecure” (HipHop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes). Male insecurity about this topic is yet another reason why it is so difficult to solve; if it isn’t spoken upon, it is highly unlikely that anything will be done about it. Misogyny is such a huge part of American culture that its presence in hip-hop was inevitable. What makes it so much more apparent in hip-hop is that it is presented in a much rawer form; in our everyday life, a younger woman married to an older man might be called a trophy wife, while in a hip-hop song, she would blatantly be called a gold digger. Professor Stephanie Sears, a sociology and gender studies professor at the University of San Francisco, said that “If I looked at 50 Cent and Hugh Hefner, I don’t see that much difference”. Byron Hurt says in his film Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes that “[American Culture] mythologizes and mass-produces hyper-masculinity, teach-

ing its boys that real men are tough, violent, control women, and cannot, under any circumstances, show weakness. HipHop in that regard is pure Americana.” This connection makes the situation far more complicated; misogyny in hip-hop can’t be solved unless misogyny in American culture is solved, and misogyny in American culture can’t be solved unless misogyny in hip-hop culture is solved. When hip-hop was just getting started, women were very much involved, rapping about the same issues that men were. Since then, for the most part, they have been yet another embodiment of the concept that women are sex objects. Old school artists such as Queen Latifah, MC Lyte, and Roxanne Shante rapped about the social and economic issues they faced. These female rappers, as well as more modern ones, don’t share their struggles as females. They are surrounded by misogyny and are directly affected by it, yet they don’t speak about those struggles for the same reason many male artists don’t: they don’t want to be perceived as soft or weak (Say My Name). Trinie, a female rap artist and protégé of Wyclef Jean, said in the film Say My Name that, “Females in the industry, they go through a lot of stuff, you know, with the men, and the things they supposed to rap about, they not rappin about it, and I wanna rap about that…they don’t wanna come out and say a nigga call em a hoe, because they wanna be that bitch… [they don’t want to say] that a nigga 181

smacked the shit out of them…or they getting really fucked in the industry, cause they don’t want nobody to look at them like they soft” –Trinie Hip-Hop is a tool for social change, and many female rappers have sizeable audiences. Because of the fear of being viewed as soft or weak, women hold back from speaking up. “Female rappers have an unconventionally large public arena to express their discontent with misogyny and sexism, yet fail to use this space productively as a liberating tool” (Young). This is a huge part of the issue. Many modern female artists seem to buy in to the misogynistic ideas. Artists like Nicki Minaj and Lil’ Kim perpetuate the idea that women are primarily sex objects; they dress like sex symbols, their music is about sex, and they don’t address the issue of women being looked down upon in hip-hop. In her article Get In Where You Fit In: Hip-Hop’s Muted Voice of Misogyny, Jasmin Young states, “Arguably, [female rap artists] perpetuate the dominate objectification of the hypersexual black woman, more so then their male counterparts”. In Hurt’s film, Dr. Beverly Guy Sheftall, a professor at Spelman University, said “It is true that these women appear not to be resistant, but what I would hope, however, is that these women understand the extent of which they are participating in a culture which commodofies women sexually” This concept of female participation happens mostly because of the already established misogyny in hip-hop culture.

These female artists believe that their music won’t be successful unless it is mainly sexual. Unfortunately, this is probably true. This again adds to the cycle of misogyny, as young girls look up to and get ideas from them. A third dynamic of this issue with females is the mindset that they are not being directly addressed. The problem with this is that if women don’t take personal offence, it is highly unlikely that they will do anything to combat the issue. In his film HipHop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes, Byron Hurt states, “It’s funny when I hear women say, when these rappers are calling, you know women, bitches and hoes, ‘they not talking about me’. It’s like yo, they are talking about you. If George Bush was to get on national T.V. and make a speech, and he start calling black people niggas, would you be like, ‘I don’t know who George Bush is talking about but he ain’t talking about me’”. What Hurt is getting at with this is that many women don’t see one of the most obvious problems with hip-hop: they as a gender, and indirectly them personally are being discriminated against. If women can’t see this, there is no way that they will say something and make a change. All of the previously stated factors contribute to the cycle of misogyny. The fact that misogyny does work in a cycle makes it difficult to get rid of, as the cycle is difficult to break. Boys and men look up to hip-hop artists with misogynistic lyrics and try to be like them. Also, girls and women are attracted to these art182

ists, regardless of their demeaning lyrics. These girls and women believe that since the lyrics aren’t directed at them specifically, there is no reason to be offended. The boys and men see that these girls and women are attracted to these misogynistic artists, giving them another reason to try to be like these rappers (Generation M). That cycle also provides a lot of demand for misogynistic hip-hop. This causes artists to make more of it in order to be successful, and artists even begin to believe that they won’t be successful unless they make misogynistic music (Generation M, Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes). This also contributes to the cycle, making it even harder to break. Again, the issue of misogyny extends far beyond hip-hop, and it would be impossible to eradicate misogynistic themes in hiphop until misogyny is eradicated from American culture. That being said, if efforts are made to take misogyny out of hip-hop, it will help the cause of taking it out of American culture. Both men and women play key roles in solving this issue. When talking about who she thought would play a bigger role in solving this issue, Professor Sears said that “In an ideal world, I would hope that men would stand up first. Because who is a man going to listen to more, a woman or another man…If more men resist it as a group, it’s going to have a stronger impact on other men”. Unfortunately, people only tend to fight against issues that are affecting them negatively. For this reason, it is most

likely that women will ultimately be the deciding factor in whether or not this issue is solved. For women to do their part, it is crucial that they realize that they are being directly addressed and that they should not approach these degrading lyrics passively. If women realize that they are being directly addressed, more and more of them will take a stand against misogynistic culture in hip-hop and America as a whole. Eventually, this would get to a point where these women could not be ignored and larger efforts would begin to be made against misogynistic culture. If an effort to solve this issue were to be made from a male standpoint, it would likely have to be done by a sizeable group of influential men. If one man were to stand up to the issue, he would be called weak, soft, a pussy, a bitch nigga, etc. If multiple major figures in hip-hop with a lot of “street cred” were to stand up, a positive impact could be possible. Unfortunately, it is highly unlikely that this would happen, for the previously stated reasons of a fear of being viewed as soft or weak or a fear of no longer being successful in the music industry. Misogyny in hip-hop came out of the culture’s exposure to American values, as well as men’s desire for dominance over other men. Misogyny is so prominent in American culture that it naturally translated in to hip-hop. Men in hip-hop want to be dominant over other men, and a big way that they show that is dominance over women. Both men and women play significant 183

roles in solving this issue, but realistically, women will ultimately be the difference makers because they are being directly affected. Misogyny in hip-hop influences young men and women, and efforts to stop it must be made by men, women, artists, and consumers. It is a complicated issue and not an easy one to solve, but if the right people are involved in the process, it can eventually be achieved.

Works Cited Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats & Rhymes. Hurt, Byron & Schmidt Gordon, Sabrina, 2006. DVD. Generation M. Thomas, Keith, 2008. DVD. Say My Name. Peled, Nirit, 2009. DVD. Young, Jasmin. “Get In Where You Fit In: Hip Hop’s Muted Voice On Misogyny” California State University Northridge Pan African Studies. Web. Feb. 7 2013.

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Seline Zhao

Private Schools: Are They Worth It? “It’s really hard, you know, being a poor kid in a room full of rich kids,” says Angela Xie, a student at San Francisco Friends School. Angela, being a low-income student in a private school, has had to face and conquer many challenges, both socially and academic, that her peers have not had to go through. Most students who have been through a similar situation as Angela would agree with this statement. Being separate from the majority has consequences, such as feeling left out and being excluded. However, there are also many benefits, such as being able to serve as an inspiration to others. Although low-income students often have trouble transitioning into an independent school environment, the abundance of resources and good learning atmosphere a private school provides makes the overall experience worthwhile for most of them. Socioeconomic status usually comprises an intersection between these four main components: education, occupation, income, and wealth (“Socioeconomic Status And Social Class” and Tse). It is a more modern term for “class,” because in the

past, there was not much flexibility in class mobility. However, as society has become more advanced, more opportunities have been given to people to move up from the class they were born into. Therefore, socioeconomic status is a more accurate way to label one’s standing and power in society at a certain point in his/her life (“Socioeconomic Status And Social Class”). America has now moved on past its history of being a country based solely on inherited privilege, and a new, supposedly better system, meritocracy has been implemented into the education system. Meritocracy is an approach to equalizing opportunities for all people in society by placing a high regard on merit, such as grades, test scores, and achievements, rather than other factors, such as race, family lineage, etc. In theory, it allows anyone to improve themselves through education, and eliminates the “glass ceiling,” an often unacknowledged obstacle hindering advancement affecting mostly minorities. Those who possess merit and demonstrate high abilities to be a productive member of society will eventually obtain power in the country, regardless of their background. However, in practice, “merit, it turns out, is at least partly class-based,” and if meritocracy is not regulated, all of power may end up in the hands of the elite again (Scott). The main purpose of meritocracy is to provide equal opportunities for all, but data measuring SAT scores and social economic status of the SAT test-takers shows otherwise. When this data 185

is graphed, a very direct correlation between SAT scores and social economic status becomes apparent: when the economic status of the student increases, the SAT scores also increase (Edsall). In 2009, a study showed that 80% of the high-income students scoring highly on the SAT or ACT attended college and attained at least a Bachelor’s degree, whereas only 44% of the low-income students who scored similarly were able to get college degrees (Edsall). The main idea of meritocracy is that it provides equal opportunities for all, but this data clearly does not support the main purpose. This occurs because high income-parents, who have more and easier access to resources, connections, and education, “cultivate in their children the habits that the meritocracy rewards,” and when these highincome students succeed, their achievements are seen as earned, rather than influenced by their environment (Scott). Now, instead of privilege being inherited from parents, America finds that meritocracy is being inherited (Leonhardt). Private schools have been trying to close this achievement gap by introducing different types of diversity into the school body, such as ethnic diversity, geographical diversity, etc. However, admission officers seem to be much more concerned about including racial and ethnic diversity, rather that diversity in economic statuses (Fisher). Colleges, both public and private, have shifted their priorities in recruiting students. A real situation demonstrating these changing priorities is in the incoming freshmen class at Harvard University. Last year, 12% of the freshmen

class was African American, which is proportional to the racial makeup of African Americans in the United States. At first glance, this is seen as a huge accomplishment. However, most people do not realize that the majority of these African American students come from wealthy families, revealing that diversity in economic status is often not a part of a school’s concerns (Fisher). Additionally, spending for students in different environments has changed. Although colleges in the U.S. have only slightly increased school investment in students from lowincome households, they have sharply increased investment in students from high-income households. Because of this, many low-income students are not able to attend forms of higher education due to the lack of scholarships and grants recently. Consequently, education private schools have been polarized, causing the student bodies of different colleges to have extremely different economic worlds. In community colleges, 80% of students are low-income. However, in competitive elite colleges such as Yale or Harvard, about 76% of the students come from a high-income family, and only 3% of the students come from the bottom quartile (Edsall). This raises the question, should the low-income students aim to attend private schools? Some say that the experience of attending a private school as a low-income student is not worth all the effort and time, mainly because students who are not part of the majority in the school body often feel excluded and helpless in a new environment. These feelings of vulnerability can have 186

both a positive or negative impact on the student. For example, when these emotions are conquered, the student may feel empowered and extremely proud of their accomplishments. In this case, identifying as part of the minority group may actually augment their satisfaction with themselves, because they are not like the others. However, can also have extremely detrimental effects to students’ overall high school experience and may even cause them to drop out. Evidence shows that, “especially for low-income students, identifying as part of the minority class in school provoked feelings of being excluded highly and thus increased intentions to drop out of school before graduation,” regardless of which minority group the student belonged to (“Education & Socioeconomic Status Fact Sheet”). In this situation, being part of the minority group will trigger the opposite consequence, resulting in a withdrawal from school, which contradicts the original intent of admitting low-income student into private schools. Aside from challenges socially, most low-income students, especially those who attended a public school before attending a private school, have confronted challenges academically. In 2008, data collected from a research conducted by the American Psychological Association demonstrated that students from lowincome schools entered high school 3.3 grades behind students from higher income schools (“Education & Socioeconomic Status Fact Sheet”). Therefore, when a low-income student who attended a public school previously suddenly transfers to a

private one, the transition can be extremely difficult and possibly even degrading to the student. Another factor that contributes to the difference in the level of academic ability between low-income students and high-income students is the variation in households and backgrounds. Examples of the impact of the environment on a student can be found in the rates of drop-out from school. For high income families, the highest drop-out rate in high school as of 2008 was 3.2%. In comparison, the highest drop-out rate in high school from lowincome families was more than 5 times greater, at 16.7% (“Education & Socioeconomic Status Fact Sheet”). These drop-out rates can be influenced by the family situation at home, such as family economic stress, and especially the involvement of parents/caretakers. Researchers find that only about 36% of low-income parents read to their child on a daily basis at a young age, contrasting to the 62% of parents in the highincome quintile, which is certainly a factor extending the achievement gap between the economic statuses. Moreover, a study shows that if low-income families are enrolled in a program that encourages support from adults, such as family members, the effort from the child towards academics increases, establishing the significant impact environment has on a student, starting from childbirth (“Education & Socioeconomic Status Fact Sheet”).

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In spite of these difficulties, attending a private school also has numerous benefits. The main advantage students gain from attending private school is the effective learning environment and abundance of resources, especially compared to public schools. An average high school classroom in a private school has about 15 students, compared to the class size of a public school, which has about 30 students (“CAIS Fast Facts”). The class size can tremendously shape the learning environment of a school, because the students are getting much more attention from the teacher. Not only do students in private schools experience a generally successful learning setting, private schools are more likely to have better access to more resources. In the 2010-2011 school year, the average private school student to computer ratio was 2.8:1, but the average public school student to computer ratio was 5.3:1 (“Educational Technology”). If students have already adapted to having very few resources, they are more likely to better utilize the resources and support system in a private school environment. Supporting this, evidence suggests that “low-income students especially valued personal support from guidance counselors, teachers, college alumni and college representatives in deciding where to apply” (Advocacy). Data suggests that 12th grade, private schools averaged about 11.5 more points than the average of public schools in the National Assessment of Educational Progress (Comparing Private Schools). Some say this is because graduation require-

ments at private schools are commonly higher than those of public schools. One of the most important advantages one can gain from attending a private high school is the extra assistance in applying to college that public schools often are not able to give much of. This is important because, although a college degree does not guarantee prosperity, it definitely gives the recipient a much higher chance of achieving or maintaining at least an uppermiddle class lifestyle. For instance, in 2007, workers with only a high school graduation made approximately 82.8% less than the amount a person with a Bachelor’s degree made, $57,181 (Fast Facts). Also, only 11% of students from the bottom quartile graduate from 4-year universities, but 55% of Bachelor’s degrees in the United States went to students in the top quartile (Fisher). As part of my research, I conducted one-on-one interviews with students in private school, the youngest students in the 6th grade and the oldest students in the 12th grade. Besides social economic status, my interviewee pool represented a variety of different, possibly connected demographics, including gender, race, and age. I was able to contact an organization called The SMART Program. SMART helps low-income students gain access to scholarships to attend private middle schools as well as give extra support to students during the school year. Through this program, I was able to learn about the personal experi188

ences of specifically low-income students in private schools. In order to get a broader view of the situation in private schools, I also interviewed students of other economic statuses from the Bay School of San Francisco. Information from the interviews reiterated the challenges that were already explained: such as exclusion, and possibly even discrimination. Many low-income students stated that the biggest challenge was trying to assimilate with the other students’ actions and conquering the feelings of loneliness, because a person of a minority class may feel separated and not want to connect. Because of these extreme emotions, Justin, a sixth grader at Marin Country Day School, feels conflicted about his experience at his school. He says that when he first came to MCDS, he absolutely really hated it. “There was no one like me, and I had never been in another school like it,” he says. Many other interviewees were able to relate to this experience of insecurity and vulnerability. Regarding the differences in money, he says, “I don’t envy [my classmates] because you can’t buy your way into life. But at the same time, I do because their money gives them a head start.” Aracely, a seventh grader at Presidio Hill School, feels similarly, but shows little concern about being a low-income student, since she is able to get the same chances that others are getting from attending an independent school.

In addition to experiencing loneliness, interviewees also felt a bit of resentment for their wealthier peers. Although Aracely is able to get along with her peers and has many friends at her school, she is still partially jealous of them because she thinks that sometimes they are not appreciative of what they have. She describes that her school is somewhat unfair because some kids don’t deserve the opportunity to have a good education as much as others. Linda, an eighth grader at Hamlin, agrees and says, “everybody wants to go to a good private school like mine, but many students my school don’t even care.” Surprisingly, one of my interviewees from a high-income family agreed with this statement. Jackson, a tenth grader at the Bay School, says, “money has never been a problem for my family. There are people here talking about getting good grades to get scholarships, and that kind of stuff never even comes up in my family. It kind of makes me wonder whether or not I should even be here.” Disparities in income may also cause awkward or embarrassing situations among friends. When Carmen and Sarah, twins at Marin Country Day School, were invited to a concert with some of their friends, they politely declined by saying that they were busy that day, even though in reality, they were not going to do anything the whole day. Often times, their friends would offer to pay for them two, after hearing about their concerns about money. Sarah recalls her friend acting like the concert ticket she paid for was a trivial amount of money, but for Sarah, the 189

amount of money was too high to be spending carelessly like her friend was. “I had to decline a lot of these invitations because I couldn’t afford it, but I lied a lot and found a lot of excuses to get out of the events so my friends wouldn’t think I’m poor.” Carmen says, “they’re my friends, I know that they would never try to hurt me on purpose. It’s just that they don’t have to worry about some things, like money, the way I have to.” Despite these hardships, there was an overwhelmingly solid agreement from every interviewee in favor of more socioeconomic diversity in independent schools. Most interviewees said diversity is important because, without it, the school would be too sheltered and would also not be an accurate representation of real life. Tamara, a senior at Bay, says, “everyone is really kind of ignorant to everyone else. When we are surrounded by mostly one type of person, it is easy to forget about the others, which is something we shouldn’t do,” extending the need for more diversity in all areas within private schools. Some interviewees mentioned that, although economic status is rarely discussed in public, it plays a large role in the way that people feel that they are able to connect to each other and also the level of comfort around certain people talking about certain subjects. When speaking about their successes and failures in school, they often do not regard money as a potential factor, even though it is a huge factor most of the time. In terms of academics, some low-income interviewees felt that they were not

equal academically when they first arrived at Bay. Chevalo says that when he first came to Bay, he was not up-to-par with his classmates in many subjects, causing him to feel embarrassed and frustrated with his studies. In addition, coming from a public middle school in Oakland, he wasn’t used to the new environment, which also contributed to his inability to do well in school. However, after two years of extremely hard work, he caught up with the rest of his peers and was no longer uncomfortable in class. Although Chevalo has been able to conquer the challenges that he faced, others who may not be as persistent may feel discouraged, and eventually end up dropping out, as mentioned beforehand.

Both the staff and students can also create obstacles, if the persons’ actions reflect assumptions that all the students they are teaching are part of the upper level socioeconomic status. Linda described an experience similar to this she had at in a current events class to me. “We were talking about poverty and low-income households in the United States as a current event. While everybody was in remorse and expressing pitying these households, saying things like ‘Oh my gosh, they make so little money!’ I was just sitting there awkwardly because my family made even less than the average low-income household.” Similar situations have occurred at the Bay School, as well. During a class discussion about matters regarding low-income hard190

ships, the teacher exclaimed to her class, “You will never know what it feels like to experience these hardships!” Although the student herself did not experience any of the hardships described by her teacher, she says that it made her think about the people in her class and whether or not they could have experienced these challenges.

equal education for all can only be reached, or at least advance us as close to true meritocracy as possible. Many minority students expressed that they would feel much more comfortable if there were more students like themselves, which only augments the need for more social economic diversity in private schools.

Although solutions to the issue of not fitting in will not be the same for all, one that proved to help many students is discussing their difficulties. Older students from low-income families who had been in private school for two or three years already, felt that they were already used to the indirect discriminatory behavior from their surroundings. They found ways to cope with the differences in socioeconomic status between them and their friends. One way students could cope with the stress of feeling excluded is simply taking about these issues with someone who had gone through a similar experience. Linda said that when she talked about her difficulties in school, she was relieved and felt that she could deal with her problems much more efficiently.

I would like to acknowledge the following people:

Although it is true that it is unlikely that independent schools will ever be as diverse as public schools, it is necessary for private schools to try to integrate as much diversity as possible into the student body. All schools should be striving to incorporate other types of diversity, rather than only the kinds of diversity that is easily seen by outsiders, such as race. By giving motivated students who normally do not have access to a good education,

Craig Butz, for editing my rough draft ! Aidan Van Runkle Olden, Angela Xie, Anni Wen, Aracely Ramierez, Blake Bengier, Carmen Lu, Chevalo Duckett, David Wu, Jackson Forman, Justin Chong, Kealey McKown, Kendall You Mak, Linda Liu, Sarah Lu, and Tamara Tanujaya, for participating in my interviews Sydney Shafer for peer-editing my research paper.

Works Cited “CAIS Fast Facts.” California Association of Independent Schools. California Association of Independent Schools, n.d. Web. 01 Feb. 2013. Comparing Private Schools and Public Schools Using Hierarchial Linear Modeling. Jessup: National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2006. PDF.

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“Education & Socioeconomic Status Fact Sheet.” Education & Socioeconomic Status. American Psychological Association, n.d. Web. 11 Jan. 2013.

Tse, Archie, and Ben Werschkul. "How Class Works." Class Matters. The New York Times, 2005. Web. 14 Dec. 2012.

“Educational Technology.” Fast Facts. National Center for Education Statistics, 2009. Web. 28 Jan. 2013. Edsall, Thomas B. "The Reproduction of Privilege." Campaign Stops. The New York Times, 12 May 2012. Web. 23 Jan. 2013. "Fast Facts." Fast Facts. Institute of Education Sciences National Center for Education Statistics, 2011. Web. 14 Dec. 2012. Fisher, Daniel. "Poor Students Are The Real Victims Of College Discrimination." Forbes. Forbes Magazine, 02 May 2012. Web. 14 Dec. 2012. "In U.S., Private Schools Get Top Marks for Educating Children." In U.S., Private Schools Get Top Marks for Educating Children. Gallup, Inc., 29 Aug. 2012. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. Leonhardt, David. "The College Dropout Boom." Class Matters. The New York Times, 24 May 2005. Web. 14 Dec. 2012. Scott, Janny, and David Leonhardt. "Shadowy Lines That Still Divide." Class Matters. The New York Times, 15 May 2005. Web. 14 Dec. 2012. "Socioeconomic Status And Social Class." The Chicago School of Professional Psychology. N.p., 2012. Web. 03 Jan. 2013. 192

Spring 2013

Research in the Community The Bay School of San Francisco

Quinn Barker-Plummer

Who are you suing now? Why Major Record Labels Aren’t All That Good for Artists Anymore In this day and age, no one should be under any illusions—corporations control the record industry. The music most people listen to can be traced through its label to a major record company. The term ‘major record company’ describes any largescale, corporate business that makes money by marketing, defending, and selling music on behalf of the artists they represent. There are currently three major record companies in the U.S.: Universal Music Group, Sony Music Entertainment, and Warner Music Group—each owning hundreds of labels. To-

gether, these “big three” record companies own about seventy percent of the music market worldwide. ‘Record Label’—a kind of slang term derived from the actual label on old vinyl records—describes the relationship between the artist and the record company. Essentially, the label is the branch of the larger record company that the artist belongs to. The individual labels are responsible for scouting talent, signing artists, marketing upcoming albums, and distributing records. The first big question about major record labels is the obvious one: why do they exist? What made the system this way? The short answer is money; artists needed large investments of money to record, market, and distribute their music. Unsigned artists would not be able to afford professional-level recording equipment, whereas signed artists could be offered a milliondollar advance to record their album (Love). Unsigned artists would not be able to afford the manufacturing costs of thousands of records, or even the more modern costs of $20-26,000 for even the smallest order of CDs, whereas signed artists could rely on their label to pay the manufacturing (Harris). Unsigned artists could hand out flyers or put up posters, but signed artists could count on radio promos and large-scale print advertising for their upcoming albums. Also, most major record labels have Licensing and Legal departments, partnered recording studios, and partnered distributors to assist with the business side of things. The list goes on. 194

So, in many ways, major record labels made sense; they were a necessity at the time. They allowed artists to spend time doing what they do best—making music—instead of having to multitask with handling business or scraping together finances to get studio time. However, Major record labels do have a few downsides. Chief among them is the loss of control over your own music; major record labels make huge investments in artists, and as such, they want a lot of control over what is released. Another major downside is the difficulty—getting signed by a major record label requires a lot of work, time, and luck. The third major downside is the financial situation artists can find themselves in after record sales—even if the album is a hit. Courtney Love, who was the lead in the band Hole and was regarded by Rolling Stone as “the most controversial woman in the history of rock,” said in her famous speech “Courtney Love Does the Math,” that Major record labels were as good as thieves in the record industry (Love). “Today I want to talk about piracy and music,” the speech begins, “What is piracy? Piracy is the act of stealing an artist’s work without any intention of paying for it. . . I’m talking about major label recording contracts” (Love). Love details a scenario in which a hugely successful band releases a record and, even with some generous rounding, ends up with nothing, while the record company makes $6.6 million (Love). Love is not far off here; Steve Knopper, author of Appetite for SelfDestruction said, when talking about recording contracts, that

“label executives had reputations for taking advantage of artists” (Knopper 132). Thus, despite the inordinate amounts of money signed artists are given to work with, the vast majority—if not all—of the profits go to the record label. So, is there a better deal for artists? Yes, in the form of independent record labels. Independent record labels tend to be much smaller, are sometimes owned by the artists themselves, and make up the other 30% of the world market. Now, independent record labels don’t immediately seem like a better deal; for example, they are often too small to offer huge artist advances. As opposed to the million-dollar advances given by major record labels, even successful independent labels can often only spend $15-50 thousand per artist (Harris). On this same strand of financial limitations, most independent record labels are started with a very small startup, like Dirrty Records, which was started with a $20,000 investment (McCrea). How, then, do these labels manage to pay for all of their bills and projects without going bankrupt? The internet, and the digital age as a whole, has a lot to do with that. There is argument about when the digital age really started catching up with music. Some, like Steve Knopper, author of Appetite for Self-Destruction, say it happened all the way back in 1991 with the invention of the MP3 (Knopper 117). Some say that it happened with the first removable-media file-sharing. Some say that it happened with the creation of sites like the 195

“Internet Underground Music Archive” and “Winamp” (Knopper 117-119). However, the first time the use of music on the internet really came into the foreground was with Napster, winning the award for the first cease-and-desist letter sent to a web company from a record label in 1997 (Knopper 120). While there had been “ripping” of CDs to MP3s for a while, Napster was the first peer-to-peer MP3-sharing service. For the technically uninitiated, that means it was a server that allowed users to share music files with each other en masse. This was of concern to the record companies, as they saw thousands of their copyrighted files flying around, and Napster was sued into bankruptcy (Knopper). Napster was not destroyed, however, before it changed the music industry forever. With the death of Napster, “many [record companies] figured they would simply win at the courts and the CD-selling business would go back to normal,” which it didn’t (Knopper 141). Instead, Napster pioneered a revolution in distributing music online, a practice which major record labels were slow to adapt to, losing “critical years before agreeing to a functional, legal, song-download service” (Knopper 141). Even in the early 2000s, record companies “failed to recognize that the new way of doing business was worth the effort” (Knopper 142). For a long time, “the record industry basically said no. They didn’t feel they were going to give anybody their content” (Knopper 119). In fact, the first record label to ever deal with the idea of digital distribution wasn’t until 2007—just over ten years

after Napster—when EMI finally contacted Apple to say “we understand our users want our music. . . on your store” (Knopper 229). So why is the internet good for artists? Well first of all, there were some artists who managed to achieve great success through services like Napster, using it as a sort of free advertising. One band in particular, Dispatch, released all of their music for free over Napster, growing their audience from practical nonexistence into a mass that sold out Madison Square Garden in 2007. Even so, most of the success and advancement of the digital age was not for the artists themselves but for the record industry. All in all, the digital revolution brought independent labels into the spotlight as a viable alternative. First and foremost, the rapid change brought with it waves of new technology; everything was represented: better and cheaper recording equipment, digital editing, and a whole new way of marketing. Before the turn of the digital age, studios were very expensive and full-time jobs to maintain, easily costing artists 500,000 dollars to record an album (Love). Nowadays, however, “new label owners can begin mixing beats for as little as five thousand dollars” (Harris). Anyone with “a computer, a couple of speakers, sound modules, and DRAM machines [is] in business” (Harris). The digital revolution also brought in Digital Audio Workstations (DAWs), such as ProTools, which assisted greatly in recording cleanly. Another thing 196

new in the digital age was live editing: a technique which made re-recording less necessary for almost-perfect takes. All of these new technologies made it cheaper and easier for an independent record label to get professional-level recordings. Along with this, the digital age brought the advent of the internet, and with it, a new way to sell music—one which major record labels were slow to take advantage of. Over the internet, the old costs of physical distribution—burning and moving the CDs—was gone; all it takes now is a website to download MP3s. There now exist websites such as Soundcloud and Beatport for independent selling and distributing of music. The internet and the digital age have made creating and selling music easier for independent labels and artists, but marketing is still an issue. Major record labels dominate the radio and most physical advertising; even internet advertising is now in large part sponsored by major record labels. Marketing has always been this way; “the biggest expense for new labels is marketing and promotions,” but its now to the point where “it costs more to promote and market music than it costs to make music” (Harris). This is not necessarily a bad thing; it means that record labels have to be more oriented towards marketing and promotion than towards actual music production, leaving more of the music to the artists. It does however leave some smaller record labels at an unfortunate financial disadvantage.

So what do independent labels do that major record labels tend not to? Well, most independent record labels allow artists much more control over their music than major record labels. Lunden De’Leon, the owner of Dirrty Records, says proudly that their “artists maintain full creative control over their work,” stressing that this has always been the only way to provide good content (qtd. in McCrea). Apparently, she knows what she’s talking about; Dirrty Records earned $3.5 million in 2004 (McCrea). This and many other examples—such as Hitman Records, with nine employees, making $900,000 in profits over the course of one year—prove that independent labels have as much potential for success as major record labels (Harris). Also, while major record labels go through huge boom-and-bust cycles from committing to trends—such as the huge disco industry crash that resulted from increasingly low-quality releases—independent labels are often more reliably profitable (Knopper 742). It all comes back down to the dreams and conditions of the artists; what do the artists want from signing on to a record label? Michael Murray, an independent House music producer who has worked with many independent labels around the globe, articulated quite nicely the goal of every artist, saying “I would sign a deal with anyone who could tell me ‘more people will hear your music’” (Murray). So what deal should you make to get the most popularity? The Major record labels are still probably your best bet in terms of raw number of listeners, but in actu197

ality, they are on the way out. In the age of the internet, the Major record label model doesn’t work anymore. Murray agrees, saying “it’s going to become ridiculous to maintain a building full of people” (Murray). Independent labels, taking advantage of the internet and everything it has to offer, are the way of the future.

Love, Courtney. “Courtney Love Does the Math.” 2000 Digital Hollywood Online Entertainment Conference. New York City, New York. 16 May 2000. <http://www.salon.com/2000/06/14/love_7/> Michael Murray. Personal Interview.

Works Cited "Getting the Right Mix: Independent Record Label Finds Success by Representing a Diverse Group of Artists." Black Enterprise. Auth. McCrea, Bridget. New York: Earl G. Graves Publishing Co., 2005. 66. Web. Greenblatt, Alan. "Future of the Music Industry: Will the Major Music Labels Survive the Digital Age?" CQ Researcher. 21 Nov. 2003: 989-1012. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Harris, Wendy. "Topping the Charts: Starting a Record Label Is Risky Business. but with the Right Mix of Music, Marketing, and Manpower You Can Hear the Sweet Sound of Success." Questia. Black Enterprise, Nov. 2005. Web. Apr. 3, 2013. Knopper, Steve. Appetite for self-destruction: the spectacular crash of the record industry in the digital age. New York: Free Press, 2009. Print.

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Ian Berman

Explaining a Modern Phenomenon: Live Electronic Music In the last five years or so, attending electronic music concerts has become more popular among teens and people in their 20’s, and the type of events have changed drastically from those in past years as the face of the music industry has changed. Starting in the 1980s with the acid house movement—a new, fairly modern subgenre of house—and evolving from disco, a new brand of music emerged: electronic dance music (or EDM for short) (Colombo). This genre of music is based around a 4/4 beat, deep bass, and catchy synthesizer or vocal melodies. While in the 90s and early 00s it was often called the “rave scene,” with illegal, drug-fueled all-night events, modern EDM concerts are commercialized and fully legal to attend. Modern EDM quickly made its way to the top of the charts starting around 2008, and suddenly millions were listening to it

across the world (Sherburne). For those uninitiated, this new movement may seem unexpected and many don’t know what the experience of attending an EDM concert is like: if it’s dangerous, whether or not the music is actually performed, etc. This gives it many misconceptions. Since there are illegal drugs used in these events, some may be worried about a potential danger at electronic music concerts, but so long as the attendee is responsible, there is little risk. Modern EDM concerts are essentially an evolution of the UK rave scene in the 1990s and early 00s. News of a concert was received via text, flyer, or (most commonly) word of mouth mere hours prior to the event. Then, hundreds of people would show up to a warehouse, underground area, or any other semi-public abandoned area. The music would start late at night, continuing throughout the night into the early morning (Colombo). These events were known as raves. It was essentially a music-based party, with the vast majority of the people on some type of drug, most commonly, marijuana, alcohol, and ecstasy (Sanchez). Usually, people danced for hours on end to a constant mix of electronica played by a DJ in his booth (Sanchez). This became commercialized and is now known as the modern electronic dance music movement (Yenigun). At this modern evolution of raves, expect a similar environment of a large room filled with thousands of people doing drugs, dancing to loud music late at night, and enjoying bright lights. The main difference between 199

the modern scene and the previous 1990s scene, is that companies have picked up on the potential profitability of these events, now holding them in common concert venues and making them legal to attend for all ages. In the modern scene, a lot of people don’t go for the music itself, since most of it is very similar to each other and it remains ambiguous how much is performed live or just “pressing play.” In any case, this is one of the largest rising cultural trends and it is imperative that people know the truths about it now that concerts and festivals attract millions of attendees every year. Throughout the 2000s, technology boomed and revolutionized the way we make music. The updated versions of software (called Digital Audio Workstations, or DAWs) like Reason, Pro Tools, Ableton Live, Logic, and others allowed amateur producers to create their own brand of electronic music, using the programs’ built-in synthesizers, effects, and drum machines (“Digital”). In addition, pop music began to incorporate more elements of electronic music, with auto-tuned vocals and clean background synths going mainstream around 2008 (Feinstein). Seemingly out of nowhere, genres like house and dubstep were revolutionized and became popular once again. Artists like deadmau5, Skrillex, and David Guetta developed a large following (Feinstein). In wake of this evolution, the past few years has seen the rise of modern EDM, attracting many people and proving to be extremely profitable—At a festival like Coachella, tickets are priced at $300-400 for a 3-day pass, and the festival at-

tracts over 100,000 attendees every year, which amounts to over $30 million—both for cities and DJs alike (Feinstein). " The modern EDM sound is fairly diverse, but no matter what genre—house, dubstep, trap, trance, or otherwise—they share some similarities: A consistent 4/4 beat, commonly with a kick drum on all 4 steps and a snare on the 2 and 4. In other words, it usually is a variation of the simple kick-clap-kick-clap sounding drums. EDM also is fairly pop-based, so its best songs use catchy synth melodies or vocal hooks to make the song recognizable (Sanchez). It’s been described as a “popdriven, mostly high energy, commercial strain of dance music” (Yenigun). During a live performance, extremely bright visuals on screens or simply just an assortment of lights are used. This is a central part of the experience, with the visuals hooked up to the DJ’s computer, so when certain sections of the song plays, the various lights are activated or pan around (Sanchez). Without the extremely loud sound system of EDM concerts, the flashy visuals, or the enthusiastic crowd, live performances of the music itself is often neglected. People go for the aforementioned experience rather than to hear their favorite artist play songs live because oftentimes producers don’t alter their songs in a noticeable way live and have their set planned out before the concert ever begins (Anderson). Deadmau5, one of the producers at the front of the EDM scene, was one of the first prolific DJs to admit that he doesn’t do 200

much live. He stated that anyone with a minimal knowledge of Ableton Live, a DAW, and music theory would be able to do what he was doing live (Deadmau5). After all, it’s extremely difficult for a single person to manipulate sounds on a laptop on the spot, whereas a real instrument like guitar or drums is built to allow the person to play whatever they can. The workflow of building EDM in a studio, on a computer, and the complex lightshow of concerts necessitates that producers don’t change their music much live, or at least plan out specifically what they’re going to do beforehand (Deadmau5). Thus, it’s uncommon for people to go simply to hear the music; people are usually just enthusiastic about experiencing the live atmosphere. Some other acts like Justice, a French house duo, embrace the live setting and provide alternate renditions of most of their songs previously made in the studio. Still, it’s somewhat ambiguous how much of the performance they planned and practiced beforehand and how much is improvisation vs. preparation (Raymer; Emmerson). However, there are ways of adapting the workflow of live electronic music to suit a more organic performance. Onstage, DJs usually have a MacBook or a similar laptop with a DAW, usually Ableton Live, playing all the music. If needed, there is hardware one can plug into the computer to make it easier to perform music live, such as a MIDI Keyboard (essentially a keyboard one plugs in to a computer and can sound like anything), a mixing console (which takes every individual sound in and mixes them

together, also including several options to change the sound), a 16-pad drum sequencer (this allows the user to play 16 different sounds from a beat by pressing buttons in real-time), or a larger and more complex sequencer designed to work with several different types of sounds (“Understanding”). To use one of these hardware components takes a lot of time and effort; building a beat on a 16-pad drum sequencer will likely be difficult and sound awful unless the producer goes into the program and assigns specific samples to each pad, introduces some form of quantization to correct off-time presses, and knows what all the smaller buttons do. For instance, a button that repeats the 4-bar pattern one just played is invaluable, but even when used correctly, the beat can simply turn into a dull progression if the producer doesn’t know exactly what he is doing. Things like MIDI keyboards and mixers are less abstract and function almost exactly how a real keyboard or mixing station does in real life (“Understanding”). Regardless, even the simplest of electronic dance music requires a lot of complex parts, and extremely busy, expertly timed fluctuations in energy and song structure. For one or two DJs performing this type of music live, it’s simply not practical to build or manipulate a song using a computer or various MIDI devices when there are so many individual parts. That process isn’t necessarily the workflow for all electronic music concerts: although the concept of simply “pushing play” and adding minor variations is a common practice at large, crowded EDM concerts, other less popular or less dance-inspired produc201

ers use a different style of performance. For instance, a band called How to Destroy Angels uses a mix of regular instruments and electronic percussion in their music, so for the live performance, several people appear onstage playing guitar, singing, playing on a synthesizer or a 16-pad sequencer, etc. (How). Although the complex electronic beat itself had little variation, the more traditional elements allow the music to have a unique sound live (How). The same is true for talented producers inspired by Hip Hop and electronic music, like Ed Smith of Blaktroniks: they spend a lot of time learning their way around a drum sequencer, various MIDI devices, and DAWs to build a beat and attempt to manipulate the tempo and key of the last song to transition well into the next (Smith). In addition, while several years ago producers in genres like turntablism relied on records to scratch, beatmatch, and manipulate songs, recent virtual vinyl software has allowed DJs to streamline the experience of doing these things by having a plastic record that behaves in the same way but plays songs off of a computer (Vosick). These aforementioned techniques are often used in a different style of DJ-ing, where the person onstage plays some songs that he made, in addition to songs from other artists, instead of creating songs from scratch. He can thus focus his entire time on manipulating the songs together. This also allows the DJ to play whatever songs come to mind or change the tone of the show impulsively, although the actual songs remain relatively

unchanged aside from changed tempos, pitch shifts, rearranging the sections, or blending into one another. Thom Yorke, the singer of the extremely popular British rock band Radiohead, began to DJ in this style in the last few years (in addition to working on Radiohead, Atoms for Peace, his solo work, and several other projects). Yet, he claims that he dislikes modern EDM culture: “I don't like this sort of, get paid a lot of money and the DJ comes and he just f**king does his set. Which is fine, 'cause he knows it works and he's worked hard at it . . . for a lot of DJs, it's their main source of income, so they'll do what works, 'cause otherwise they don't get booked. So they don't take risks” (Vosick). In the same interview, he and longtime Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich explain how electronic music is evolving in modern culture: “Electronic music is really weird right now, because it is bleeding into the mainstream, but, at the same time, it's fashion, you know? You have this sort of avantgarde end of it – the haute couture sort of thing he's talking about, especially in smaller clubs and smaller scenes, like the scene in L.A. around Low End Theory. But what you end up with in the mainstream is horrible – this distillation of the DJ thing.” (Vosick). Indeed, many people who have associated themselves with underground electronic music for years, like at Low End theory, don’t like the modern electronic music movement. Most of it sounds the same, and it’s all fairly conventional and pop-driven, forgoing experimentation for sounds that sell.

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The club Low End Theory is where popular underground acts like The Gaslamp Killer often perform sets, and where a similar electronic music scene began several years ago. It’s widely associated with the LA beat scene (a type of underground hip hop mixed with electronic music and some jazz influences originating in Los Angeles), and has been around for years, but only since EDM became popular have people started to associate their type of music with dubstep played at raves. Elaborating on this, the Gaslamp Killer said “That's what Low End Theory always did. And then all of a sudden, dubstep, there was a name for it. And then, there were festivals promoting it and clubs capitalizing on it, and promoters all over the world draining it dry of its gold. And I was being billed as ‘Los Angeles' take on dubstep, crazier than any stuff UK DJ will ever be’ . . . And I'm like, "No! You're not gonna pigeonhole me after 12, 15 years of hard work in hip-hop, you're gonna f**king throw me into this rave junk" (Cohen)? When faced with a choice, The Gaslamp Killer decided he preferred playing things he liked or having the freedom to play whatever he’s interested in at the moment, rather than join the rave scene and make more money because it felt like he would have been conforming to the rave scene, which would limit his creative energy (Cohen). This rave scene, the origin of the modern style of EDM concerts, began in the 1990s, mainly in the United Kingdom, as impromptu, exclusive, and illegal events. Usually, news of an upcoming rave was spread through word-of-mouth, and some-

times wasn’t even announced until the day of the event (Colombo). Surprisingly, they were still popular enough to attract hundreds of attendees, because this was an extremely unique type of event. Commonly held in a warehouse, underground room, or other semi-unknown private areas, raves were spread in this way due to their illegal nature (Colombo). The secret location and means of communication were designed to prevent the police from obtaining knowledge of the event, and shutting it down (Colombo). Raves themselves were an all-night party, starting late at night and continuing until the early morning, with a DJ playing extremely loud music and many people listening, dancing, or talking. Most of them were on some type of drug; rave culture is notorious for its widespread use of marijuana and ecstasy (Lin). The people there usually consisted of upperclassmen in high school or college-aged people (Sanchez). There was sometimes a lightshow to accompany the music, depending on the resources of the venue. In the 00s, the rave scene became much less popular due to increased police strictness and the music scene growing stale (Colombo). With the rising popularity of some forms of early electronic dance music like dubstep in 2008, the scene started to return. However, this time the scene was legal and commercialized, since event promoters realized how much money these events generate, with thousands of attendees and tickets priced anywhere from $30-250 (Sherburne). Over the last few years, top DJs around the world regularly attract tens of thou203

sands of people for music festivals and arena concerts: In 2010 Swedish House Mafia sold out Madison Square Garden for 20,000 people, proving the new-rave scene was here to stay (Sanchez). However, due to its ambiguous past, events began to be called Electronic Dance Music concerts, which have a safer, legal connotation, potentially allowing parents to let their teenage sons or daughters attend (Sisario). Although the name changed, the scene hasn’t as much. Concert promoters discourage drug use but simultaneously expect it, handing out free water at some events for people who overdose on ecstasy and crave water (Lin). Although marijuana or MDMA (pure ecstasy) are rarely lethal, their side effects occasionally force people to be hospitalized for a drug or heat-related illness (“MDMA”). At dance-oriented EDM concerts like Crystal Castles, it’s often difficult to maintain balance or prevent dehydration while sober, and the complex lightshow is undeniably enthralling (Crystal). The loss of awareness caused by being under the influence of a drug or alcohol makes the rowdy crowds at an EDM event potentially dangerous, since someone can fall in the crowd (Crystal). In addition, the physical activity in the crowd causes people to become dehydrated, and if they overdose on ecstasy, it is even possible that they will drink too much water and end up poisoning themselves or developing hyperthermia (“MDMA”). Most notably, ecstasy pills are notoriously untrustworthy, often containing traces

of methamphetamine or cocaine, since they are cheaper to produce than MDMA (“MDMA”). While concerts are fairly safe while sober and not especially dangerous even while under the influence, they are not completely harmless. In 2012 over a dozen concertgoers died after attending an EDM show from a single concert promoter in the US (Lin). The worldwide count is undoubtedly higher. While the deaths don’t come as a direct result of the concert itself, since it is simply loud music, bright lights, and a dancing crowd, the atmosphere generated by modern EDM concerts is often one of widespread drug use, promiscuity, and partying. Cities tend to ignore the illegality and potential harmfulness of concerts, since these events regularly attract tens of thousands of people and provide a substantial boost to their income (Lin). People likely underestimate the severity of an event which ultimately is a mainstream, commercialized, all-ages evolution of an illegal music party scene in the 1990s. Ultimately, the experience at modern EDM events depends on many things. Most directly, each band or DJ puts on a slightly different show. Most popular, standard EDM producers don’t deviate much from their music’s sound on the album, and instead focus on perfecting their set and utilizing a highly complicated visual accompaniment. Others, mainly in the underground scene, pride themselves on the live manipulation of sound and semi-unique sets. Although the specifics vary, most events 204

have a similar atmosphere. Concertgoers, usually aged anywhere between 15 and 25, go to these shows for the overall experience of the crowd, lights, and music. Many of them are under the influence of some type of inhibitor, which is the only real risk of an event like this. Thus, although the atmosphere or the music isn’t for everyone, at the end of the day, an event like this must be attended responsibly. It’s unlikely anything could go badly if someone knows what they’re doing.

"Digital Audio Workstation." DAW Computers. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 May 2013.

Works Cited

Lin, Rong-Gong, II, Paul Pringle, and Andrew Blankstein. "A Fatal Toll on Concertgoers as Raves Boost Cities' Income." Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, 02 Feb. 2013. Web. 01 Apr. 2013.

Anderson, Tammy L., Ph.D. "Rave Culture and the Contemporary Electronic Dance Music Scene." Udel.edu. University of Delaware, 2007. Web. 01 Apr. 2013. Cohen, Ian. "Interviews: The Gaslamp Killer." Pitchfork. N.p., 20 Sept. 2012. Web. 10 May 2013. Colombo, Ambrose, "From Disco to Electronic Music: Following the Evolution of Dance Culture through Music Genres, Venues, Laws, and Drugs." (2010).CMC Senior Theses.Paper 83.

Emmerson, Simon. Living Electronic Music. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2007. Print. Feinstein, Danny, and Colin Ramsay. "The Rise of EDM." Music Business Journal. Berklee College of Music, Oct. 2012. Web. 13 May 2013.

"MDMA." Drugs.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 May 2013. Raymer, Miles. "Justice: Access All Arenas Review." Pitchfork. N.p., 9 May 2013. Web. 10 May 2013. Sanchez, Maximilano. "Song Writing." Songfacts. Songfacts, n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2013.

Crystal Castles. By Alice Glass and Ethan Kath. Fox Theater, Oakland, California. 27 Apr. 2013. Performance.

Sherburne, Phillip. "The New Rave Generation." SPIN. BUZZMEDIA, 13 Sept. 2011. Web. 01 Apr. 2013.

Deadmau5. "We All Hit Play." Tumblr.com. N.p., July 2012. Web. 10 May 2013.

Sisario, Ben. "Electronic Dance Concerts Turn Up Volume, Tempting Investors." The New York Times. The New York Times, 05 Apr. 2012. Web. 01 Apr. 2013. 205

Smith, Ed. "Ed Smith Interview on Electronic Music Production." Online interview. 11 May 2013. "Understanding MIDI Interfaces."Â TweakHeadz. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 May 2013. Vozick-Levinson, Simon. "Q&A: Thom Yorke and Nigel Godrich on Atoms for Peace, the State of Dance Music and What's Next for Radiohead." Rollingstone.com. N.p., 23 Apr. 2013. Web. 10 May 2013. Yenigun, Sami. "Dance Music Looks Beyond EDM And Hopes The Crowd Will Follow."NPR. NPR, 29 Oct. 2012. Web. 01 Apr. 2013.

206

Jacob Bunker

Worth Its Wait in Gold Traffic congestion is a problem that has been around since the beginning of time. During Roman times the emperor banned private chariot usage during the day because the traffic was so slow. He quickly realized that this caused no one in Rome to be able to sleep because of the noise at night. Traffic does not have to be related to cars. People walking in a hallway create traffic. Ships in harbors create traffic. Traffic is everywhere, and not a very bad thing. Traffic congestion is something different all together. When the traffic is slowed to stop and go and creeps along is when it is congested. Traffic congestion costs more fuel from the constant stopping and going and can be very agonizing. Traffic congestion is a sign that there is an excess in demand for the road space and is a sign of economic growth. When a person decides to get into a car and drive to a location they will be in a certain amount of traffic, and when they repeat this every day they are making a decision: the amount of traffic slowdown that they experience is worth getting to the destination they desire. This person is a consumer of the road. If they decide that they cannot stand the traffic they have three possi-

ble solutions which are part of the “Law of Triple Convergence”. This states that the road consumer has three options. They can change their schedule, which could mean getting up earlier or start working later. They could chose a different route, one that is longer but has less people and allows the person to get there on schedule. The consumer has another solution which is to change the mode of travel. Instead of taking a car, which is more private and comfortable, a person could take a bicycle or a train. They could also walk. All of these changes make a person’s life harder but they deem them necessary to avoid the congestion. The multitudes of commuters each day vastly exceed the capacity of our road system. In the U.S. the majority of people tend to live in low-density areas or suburbs. This makes public transportation un-desirable because of the distance needed to travel to get there. The higher the income a person is the larger house they want to own. These houses are usually outside of large urban areas like San Francisco. Higher income households can also afford more comfortable vehicles which makes public transportation seem even worse. Owning a car is a sign of wealth. Along with the almost universal work hours that start and stop and the same periods of time this creates two peaks in the amount of traffic during the day. This peak is called Rush Hour. The Law of Triple Convergence is the reason that when road are expanded traffic congestion does not go away, this is be207

cause as soon as a new road is opened people will shift back to a more comfortable schedule, an easier route or go back to driving their car. Anthony Downs, the author of the article, “Why Traffic Congestion is Here to Stay ... and Will Get Worse” presents this argument clearly. If for example if the 101 highway was doubled overnight, traffic would flow very freely because there would be twice as much road space for the same amount of drivers that there were before. “But very soon word would get around that this road was uncongested,” Anthony writes, “Drivers who had formerly traveled before or after the peak hour to avoid congestion would shift back into that peak period. Drivers who had been using alternative routes would shift onto this now convenient freeway. Some commuters who had been using transit would start driving on this road during peak hours.” (Downs) Within a week the 101 would be the same as it was before it was doubled. This does not mean that there was no effect and the new road capacity is a waste. The new road improves the quality of life of everyone on it. The road also still has the new capacity no-matter how many people travel on it. New and larger roads are not the solution to traffic congestion. While traffic congestion could be completely solved with enough roads, nobody wants to live inside a city which is mostly pavement. The reason that cities have people living in them that need to commute is because they are attractive places to be and have cool things to do. If all of that is cleared away for road space then people would stop living and commuting there.

The rewards for driving in the area would be gone, not to mention building a road system like that would be unimaginably expensive. Nobody prefers to live within hearing and smell distance of a highway. Imagine a city which is only highways. Public transit ways are good for cities and traffic, but not a final solution. New methods of travel are good for the system and give the road consumer more choices, but most people will chose to take a car over BART or a bicycle. Buses only reduce the amount of people per vehicle space, which is good in the short term but the new space on the road will soon be filled by more commuters, just like a new road. Buses also are dirty and uncomfortable when crowded. Trains are different, but still not a final solution. Trains operate separately from other transportation methods, except when they have to cross. Trains still can become overcrowded just like a road and then when the train’s capacity is exceeded people will start taking cars again. More and more methods of transportation are only treatments for traffic congestion, not cures. There is only one physically feasible solution to solving traffic congestion, but it is politically unreachable in the United States. The solution to ending traffic is to tax travelers on roads during times when there is congestion. Make the cost of travelling so high that only a certain amount of people go on the road. Anthony wrote, “Congestion would plummet if people had to pay to enter major commuting roads during peak hours. If tolls were 208

high enough and collected electronically with “smart cards,” the number of vehicles could be reduced to the point that everyone could move at a high speed. That would allow more people to travel per lane per hour than do now under heavily congested conditions.” (Downs) Americans refuse to take this tactic. They refuse them for two reasons. The first is that tolls like that seem to favor richer people while causing hardship on the poor. The wealthy would be able to travel wherever they want when they wanted while the poorer ones would have to find other methods of travel. The second reason is because people do not like taxes, and tolls seem a lot like just another tax. People already think that gasoline taxes already pay for roads. These two reasons keep politicians from advocating for this solution which would make roadways extremely efficient and effective. The rise in global warming and other ecological issues has created an opening for these taxes, which do reduce the amount of cars on the street. Implementations in London and other major cities have been created, but the U.S. has yet to try anything on a large scale. A method like this has already been implemented in San Francisco, but on a smaller scale and on parking meters. These meters have sensors that can tell if a car is parked or not. They record the amount of people who park there and if the demand is high they will increase the price. Now it can cost anywhere between a quarter and six dollars an hour to park at the meters, which can now take credit and debit cards. In cities studies

have shown that, “As much of a third of traffic in some areas has been attributed to drivers circling as they hunt for spaces” (Cooper) The parking meter makes sure that there is always at least one empty space. In places with empty parking the price is lowered to attract more people. This has already shown new rewards, now people can actually find parking when they need to and if they are willing to pay. The rise in cost also serves to force people onto public transit. Not all of the policies to prevent traffic work. Rationing schemes have been implemented in Beijing where traffic congestion and air pollution was becoming a huge problem. Laws were enacted to make major roads inside Beijing only accessible by half of all cars every day. Cars that had an even number on the end of their license plate could travel one day and the next only odd numbered license plate cars could drive. There were harsh penalties for disobeying the law, and it has been generally followed. The only problem is that since the law has been enacted the purchasing of new cars has skyrocketed. On the day the law was announced, “What did Beijingers do? Take a taxi? The subway? No, they swamped the system” (Schmitt) Around 53,000 people applied for new license plates and have been continuing to apply since. According to professors at the Beijing Institute for Technology the effects of the policies will be negated within three years.

209

When people are stuck in traffic they become irritated and even angry. Most often people blame other drivers for causing the traffic. Having someone in front of you gives you a place to direct the anger caused by the situation. When you have to watch them non-stop to see when you can go forward just makes the anger worse. You can begin critiquing what they do, how they shouldn’t have let another person in front of them. If they actually are a bad driver, the people behind them can be enraged, honking their horns and yelling. In reality bad drivers cause only a very small percentage of slowdown. Gawkers, however, cause 12.7 percent of all excess congestion. When there is a wreck it is usually quickly moved to the side of the road, but for hours until it is cleared traffic will be slowed down. After the wreck the road is completely normal. This is because when people pass they will slow down to look at whatever is on the side of the road. The flashing lights of emergency vehicles don’t help, and people will even take their attention off the road for long periods of time to stare at whatever it is. It is human nature, animalistic even; it is the behavior of a monkey. The distraction causes even more wrecks, leading to even more traffic and further delay. The effect of gawking is dangerous and wastes the time of everyone on the road. This leads to one of the highest causes of excess traffic congestion which is accidents. Accidents happen because of people not being careful. 80% of crashes are caused by a person not paying attention to the road for three seconds or more. They

could have been texting, getting a tissue, looking at a map, unscrewing a bottle or looking back to talk to someone. Whatever the cause, it leads to injury, death, damage to the car, damage to the road and a buildup of traffic. People not paying attention is because of a false security. When people are driving home on a route more usually taken they get in more wrecks. People in SUV’s, which are considered super safe, get into more wrecks on average because the car gives them a feeling of safety. More people die from crossing at a crosswalk than while jaywalking because they are paying more attention to the road. When there is a hard turn or a tricky merging there are less accidents because people are more aware. People who have anxiety about getting in a wreck are much less likely to get into one because they will pay more attention. The results of all this traffic congestion is in the amount of fuel consumed. Nation-wide America loses over a hundred billion dollars in fuel a year to traffic congestion. The action of accelerating and then braking consumes more fuel than just continuing forward. When there is traffic congestion it is only when people have to stop that the problem begins. Even if everyone crawled along at three miles per hour, there would not be nearly as much fuel wasted than when drivers have to stop and go. Implementing a taxing system which makes the roads clear would not only make travelling faster, it would also make the air cleaner and less money would have to be spent on gas. 210

While it may seem in the short term that taxing the usage of major roads would be bad, it in reality clearing the roads of congestion would allow more people to get to their destination than before. Well over fifty percent of Americans drive to work every day, and they make up a huge number of voters who usually oppose anything to tax or prevent driving. There needs to be change in our system. What may seem like an aid to the wealthy would benefit everyone overall. We should have a congestion tax in every major city and the profits should only go into maintenance of roads and the building of the system itself.

Works Cited "Automated Roadway Pavement Marker System." Home. US Department of Transportation, n.d. Web. 04 Apr. 2013. <http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/>. Cooper, Michael, and Jo Craven McGinty. "A Meter So Expensive, It Creates Parking Spots." New York Times. New York Times, 15 Mar. 2012. Web. 14 May 2013. Dewar, Robert E., and Paul L. Olson. Human Factors in Traffic Safety. Tucson, AZ: Lawyers & Judges Pub., 2007. Print. Downs, Anthony. "Traffic: Why It's Getting Worse, What Government Can Do." The Brookings Institution. N.p., 2004. Web. 14 May 2013.

Mohan, Dinesh. The Road Ahead: Traffic Injuries and Fatalities in India. New Delhi: Transportation Research and Prevention Programme, 2004. Print. Moler, Steve. "Sept/Oct 2002Vol. 66· No. 2." Stop. You're Going the Wrong Way! US Department of Transportation, 7 Apr. 2011. Web. 04 Apr. 2013. <http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/02sep/06.cf m>. "Operations Story." FHWA Operations -. FHWA, Web. 29 Mar. 2013. Retting, R. A., B. N. Persaud, P. E. Garder, and D. Lord. "Crash and Injury Reduction following Installation of Roundabouts in the United States." American Journal of Public  Health 91.4 (2001): 628-31. Print. Cars. The Truth About Cars, 2 Apr. 2011. Web. 15 May 2013.  " Thailand: King of the Road Relents." The New York Times. The New York Times, 28 July 2012. Web. 29 Mar. 2013.  "Traffic Congestion Charges." Green Traffic Congestion Charges Comments. The New York Times, 9 Apr. 2007. Web. 29 Mar. 2013.

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Roth, Gabriel. Street Smarts: Competition, Entrepreneurship, and the Future of Roads. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2994. Print. Schmitt, Bertel. "53,000 Apply On The First Day Of Beijing's Car Rationing." The Truth About Vanderbilt, Tom. Traffic: Why We Drive the Way We Do (and What It Says about Us). New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008. Print.â&#x20AC;¨ Westerman, Hans L. Spirited Cities. Annadale: Federation, 1983. Print.

212

Brooks Carman

“I can’t do it,” Mental Aspect of Sports and Sport Psychology Have you ever noticed that the difference between a professional athlete and a non-professional athlete is a mental difference? Or as Janet Nelson says, “the difference between winning and losing for top-level athletes is largely a mental difference.” For example, when hall of fame baseball player Babe Ruth took a mental test that pertained to baseball, he did extremely well (Kornspan). There are many more cases like this, and sport psychology relates to all of them. Sport psychology is the way in which athletes deal with the mental part of the game, and how the mental part of the game affects their performance. Using the techniques of sport psychology, athletes can gain an advantage over their opponents, and every athlete can benefit from sport psychology (Rogow). Sport psychology has been proven to work in many different cases, and because of the research that has proven sport psychology techniques to be suc-

cessful, sport psychology, along with the physical part of the game, should be included in all sport programs. Sport Psychology is a useful tool in athletics, but there are some myths about it that are not necessarily true. Some of the myths are that, sport psychology is magic, and that it guarantees wins (Griffin). This is not true simply because having the physical skills has to come before developing any of the mental skills (Rogow). Another myth about sport psychology is that it is only for elite athletes (Griffin). This is not true; all athletes can benefit from sport psychology techniques. It is impossible to win a tennis match without knowing how to serve, or win a basketball game without knowing how to shoot the ball, etcetera. The first sport psychologist was a man named Coleman Griffith, who was hired by the Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley. However, Wrigley did not bother to listen to a word Griffith had to say about psychology as part of baseball. Despite this, Griffith is known as the father of sport psychology (Green). Griffith was around during the late 1930’s and early 1940’s, but sport psychology did not start to become popular until the late 1980’s, after people gave up the idea that asking for psychological help was a sign of weakness (Finn). Sport psychology is now becoming more and more popular, and as Janet Nelson, a writer for the New York Times, explains, “Sports psychology is the current 213

pop approach to improved sports performance, the talk of top athletes' locker rooms” (Nelson). So, what causes athletes to have psychological issues? What are the reasons for athletes to consult with sport psychology consultants? The number one reason according to Cheryl Rogow, Psy D, certified sport psychology consultant, is that coming back from an injury is a psychologically tough thing to do (Rogow). People whose jobs are to research sport psychology say, “There is often a great deal of anxiety surrounding the rehabilitation process and subsequent reintegration into the sport,” and, “[Athletes] fear that they are not prepared to return to competition because they believe their performance may be impaired or because they fear reinjury” (Williams and Roepke 834). Cheryl Rogow, who had experienced coming back from an injury before when she was in college, spoke at length about why it is hard to come back from an injury. The reasons were: 1."

Loss of confidence

2."

Fear of re-injury

3."

PTSD symptoms

4."

Non-contributing issues.

When coming back from an injury it is hard to regain confidence because there is no way of knowing how well you are going to play if you have sat on the sidelines for weeks, months, or even

years. This uncertainty can lead to anxiety. Also, athletes may become afraid of getting re-injured; this can limit their physical abilities to perform well. Then you start stressing out because you have not contributed to your team, and you wonder if you are still even part of the team (Rogow). All of these reasons can contribute to a delayed return. One athlete who has experienced this is Derrick Rose, a basketball player for the Chicago Bulls. Before he tore his ACL he was one of the best players in the NBA, but now, even though he has been medically cleared to return by the doctors for two months, he won’t return because he says he isn’t, “mentally ready.” There are many different ways to solve this problem but here are some of them. There are many different ways to cope with this problem of coming back from an injury; the first one is that it is necessary that an athlete manages stress when dealing with an injury. Ways to do this are “employing relaxation techniques, breathing techniques, imagery, and cognitive interventions” (Williams, and Roepke 832). Other techniques include goal setting and imagery (Williams and Roepke 833). In order for an athlete to be able to return, “the athlete must feel confident about his or her recovery and should be encouraged to discuss any fears or thoughts related to the return to the sport” (Williams and Roepke 834). " The second reason that makes athletes perform poorly, and eventually has athletes turning to sport psychologists is 214

mental blocks. Mental blocks are the situations in which, an athlete will suddenly not be able perform to their best ability—this even happens to Professionals. Mental blocks are a huge problem because, as Jeff Greenwald MFT, an internationally recognized sport psychology consultant says, “Athletes who are not successful fixing their mental blocks will often quit their sport at some point” (Greenwald). In other words, mental blocks frustrate athletes so much that they give up and quit. Some famous athletes who suffered or are suffering from mental blocks in professional sports are Andris Biedrins, a center for the Golden State Warriors, and Steve Sax who was an all-star second baseman for many MLB teams. Andris Biedrins used to be a very good center, but then one day he couldn’t make a free throw; this happened over and over again until the point where he was afraid to catch the ball because he was afraid of going to the free throw line. In the last season he averaged 9.3 minutes per game, (out of a possible 48) and had a free throw percentage of .308 %. That is tied for 447th worst in the league out of 469 players in the NBA. Steve Sax was also very good after overcoming his mental block. When Steve Sax started out in the league, he could not throw the ball with any accuracy whatsoever. It was not his physical ability that caused this; he had made the throw perfectly thousands of times before. It all started from one bad throw where he lost his confidence, and it all spiraled down from there. Loss of confidence is a big cause of mental blocks.

Unlike Andris Biedrins though, Steve Sax was able to block out his negative thoughts, overcome his mental block, and become a five-time all-star. There are other examples of mental blocks in baseball, as Doug Miller, a baseball analyst and writer says, “the reality is mental roadblocks have stalled the seasons of Willis, Greene and Votto, and their teams are looking for 21stcentury answers to getting these talented players through it” (Miller). Because mental blocks can ruin careers it is important that there is a solution to this major problem. The best way to fix mental blocks is cognitive behavioral therapy. This deals with thoughts, emotions, and behavior (Greenwald). The cognitive approach focuses more on thoughts that the athletes have, rather than the surrounding environment (HRSP 807). When an athlete has a mental block, they automatically think negative thoughts like, “I hope I don’t miss this free-throw.” In order to fix this, “you teach [the athletes] to become more aware of their thoughts so they can learn to let them go or "reframe" them” (Greenwald). " Another reason that athletes visit sport psychology consultants, which is similar to mental blocks, is because of low self confidence levels, or lack of self confidence. When an athlete has high self confidence they, “persevere even when things are not going to plan, show enthusiasm, be positive in their approach and take their share of the responsibility in success and fail” (“Psychology”). Therefore, when an athlete has low self215

confidence they do not persevere, show enthusiasm, stay positive, and take their share of responsibility; this can lead to poor performance. Signs of low self confidence include: 1."

Negative or doubtful thoughts

2."

Tense or dreadful feelings

3."

Focusing on non-relevant factors

4."

Lack of effort.

In order to improve confidence levels, “an athlete can use mental imagery to visualize previous good performance to remind them of the look and feel, and imagine various scenarios and how they will cope with them” (“Psychology”). When athletes visualize previous good performances, they realize that they do have what it takes to be good, imagining various scenarios helps the athlete be prepared. The last major reason that people visit sport psychologists is that they can’t deal with pressure and or anxiety, which leads to choking. As many people may not know, in sports terms, choking is a process, or a series of events which ultimately leads to poor performance and usually a loss. It is not a, “all of a sudden kind of thing” (Rogow). When all of the stress, anxiety, and pressure get to the athlete, they respond by choking, which is essentially performing so badly that you let the other team, or opponent win the game or match. Just the other night when the

Golden State Warriors were up by 16 points in a playoff game against the spurs with about two and a half minutes to play, the warriors choked, allowing the San Antonio Spurs to go on an 18-2 run which forced overtime. The Spurs eventually won in double overtime. There have been many theories related to choking but the best way to fix it is as follows. One of the best ways to deal with choking is simulation training. Simulation training is when you simulate a competitive event in practice, so that when you are in real competition you know how to deal with pressure. As Cheryl Rogow says, “competition should be an extension of practice” (Rogow). This is not the only way to be prepared to deal with pressure; “Cognitive appraisal, perception, and the hardy personality style theories offer more appropriate interpretations of athletes’ responses to athletic contests” (Rotella and Lerner). All of these techniques and solutions are useful but it is not as easy as it may seem. Jeff Greenwald explained this as the most important thing in sport psychology: “Practicing these skills is also essential. It is not magic. Just like physical skills, [athletes] need to remember to use these skills, set specific goals everyday and practice them under pressure in competition and training” (Greenwald). Something else that is extremely important is focusing on what you can control: not the referees, not the outcome, not the opponents, and so on. It is important only to focus on what you can control, or it is a waste of energy (Rogow). 216

With regard to the techniques used in sport psychology, it is important for the athlete to believe in the technique they are using, otherwise they will not be successful. " All of these techniques and strategies do not mean anything without any real examples. After Elizabeth Manley, a Canadian Olympic ice skater who consistently choked, met with a sport psychologist, she was able to use mental imagery and win a silver medal in the 1988 winter Olympics. Also, after 45 years of the Boston Bruins losing to the Montreal Canadiens in the playoffs, a sport psychologist helped out the Boston Bruins, and they won for the first time in a long time. " Many athletes may be wondering why they aren’t performing well in athletics, and they will have no clue why. If this is the case, sport psychology may be the solution to their problems. After all, around 15% of all athletes suffer from major psychological issues (Hinkle). Those are just the people who suffer from major psychological issues; there are many other small psychological issues among other athletes. If athletes, teams, and schools can be educated on sport psychology, they can use it to further expand their skills. Practicing sport psychology is, “Just like [practicing] physical skills,” and it should be employed in all athletic programs (Greenwald).

I acknowledge Craig Butz, Danielle Konovich, and Isabella Shmelev for proofreading my paper and giving me suggestions.

Works Cited “Andris Biedrins Stats, Bio, and Game Logs.” NBA. NBA, n.d. Web. 13 May 2013 Finn, Robin. “When Pep Talk Isn't Enough, Athletes Turn To Psychology.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 20 June 1989. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. Green, Christopher D. Psychology Strikes Out: Coleman R. Griffith and the Chicago Cubs. Toronto: The Educational Publishing Foundation, 2 Dec. 2002. PDF file. Greenwald, Jeff. Personal Interview. 26 Apr. 2013. Griffin, Joy. "Sport Psychology: Myths in Sport Education and Physical Education." Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance 79.8 (2008): 11-3. ProQuest. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Hinkle, J. S. "Integrating Sport Psychology and Sports Counseling: Developmental Programming, Education, and Research."Journal of Sport Behavior 17.1 (1994): 52-. ProQuest. Web. 3 Apr. 2013.

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"It's all in the Mind Oregon Track Athletes are Taking Lead in New Field of Sports Psychology." Los Angeles Times (pre-1997 Fulltext): 2. Apr 20 1986. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013.

Singer, Robert N., and Murphey, Milledge, and Tennant, L. Keith, eds. Handbook of Research on Sport Psychology. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993. Print.

Kornspan, Alan S. and MacCracken, Mary J. “The Use of Psychology in Professional Baseball: The Pioneering Work of David F. Tracy. (Articles).” Nine. 11.2 (2003): 1. Questia. Web. 3 Apr. 2013

Williams, Jean M., and Roepke, Nancy. “Psychology of Injury and Injury Rehabilitation.” Handbook of Research on Sport Psychology. Eds. Singer, Robert N., and Murphey, Milledge, and Tennant, L. Keith. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993. 815-839. Print.

Miller, Doug. “Players, Teams Learning to Treat Anxiety Clubs turning to sports psychologists as athletes open up.” Competitive Advantage. MLB.com, 24 June 2009. Web. 4 Apr. 2013 Nelson, Janet. "ON YOUR OWN; Sports Psychology Becoming the Locker Room's Latest Rage." New York Times. C.15. (Sep 11 1989): ProQuest. Web. 29 Mar. 2013. “Psychology.” BrianMac Sports Coach. BrianMac, 10 Jan. 2013. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Rogow, Cheryl. Personal Interview. 18 Apr. 2013 Rotella, Robert J., and Lerner, J. Dana. “Responding to Competitive Pressure.” Handbook of Research on Sport Psychology. Eds. Singer, Robert N., and Murphey, Milledge, and Tennant, L. Keith. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 528-541. Print

218

Chris Clifford

Deep Impact: We Have a Fracking Problem Here Fossil fuels power our cars and heat our homes, but for the billions of people who reap their benefits every day, very few know how natural resources get to their house. There are more than 800,000 oil and gas wells in America alone, harvesting the energy used to live life as we know it, but this convenience comes at a price. Oil and gas companies, most of who are amongst the biggest corporations in the world, are constantly looking for ways to get the job done more efficiently. A popular yet controversial method of resource harvesting used today, is hydraulic fracturing, or “fracking.” Fracking is performed by pumping hydraulic fluid into shale beds to fracture the rock and release deposits of fossil fuels. Fracking has been used for decades, but the modern technology, which involves horizontal drilling, the new part, as well as vertical drilling, was pioneered on the Barnett Shale Oil Field in 1998. Fracking has allowed the

US to tap into recently discovered natural gas pockets, which would be unreachable using other drilling techniques. This newfound gas buildup will greatly boost our economy, and reduce reliance on foreign energy. Recently, fracking has fielded a great deal of controversy, with most critics citing its danger and environmental damage. Since its inception, little information on fracking has been made available to the public, and most companies are secretive about their techniques and locations. Fracking can also cause pollution to both air and water, sometimes to such an extreme degree that people living near fracking sites say they can set their tap water on fire. Despite this controversy, fracking accounts for over half of the natural gas produced in the US, a feat which may be able to offset its potential dangers. Although fracking is not the ideal way to obtain energy, until there is a suitable alternative, it must continue to be done. Fracking, like many fossil fuel exploration techniques, has been criticized by those who fear its danger or prefer green energy to that of gas and oil. The main criticisms endured by fracking are pollution and danger. Those who oppose fracking say the increased vehicular traffic required to frack a well greatly increases pollution, especially in the wild areas in which fracking is typically performed (“American Public: Yes on Keystone, SoSo on Fracking”). Critics also claim that fracking inherently causes water pollution, and people who live near fracking sites 219

claim a link between fracking and water quality. Proponents of fracking say otherwise, such as the Maryland Petroleum Clinic’s Executive Director Drew Cobbs. “In Arkansas, the United States Geological Survey conducted a survey of 127 private or domestic [water] wells in an area that has been highly developed. Over 4,000 production [natural gas] wells have been put in this area over the last 6 to 8 years, and no damage done to the water in those areas” (“Debating The Pros and Cons of Fracking”). Supporters of fracking believe that the ways they are disposing of the waste water are safe, and have no correlation to contamination. It takes about 3 to 4 million gallons of water to frack a single well, about the same amount as used on a typical golf course over nine. Of that some 4 million gallons, 75-85% of it stays in the well, while the remaining fluid is extracted and becomes waste water days (Range Resources). This has historically been the perpetrator when it comes to water contamination, but supporters of fracking believe that this is myth, and the disposal techniques leave no room for runoff. A drawback slightly more obvious to the general public would be noise pollution. Fracking is loud, and the noise levels can easily exceed those which are common for rural areas. Machinery also operates around the clock, 24 hours a day and can be a nuisance for residents. "I'm not happy about it [the noise]. My 7-year-old son woke up about 3 a.m. and was wondering what

the banging noises were,” says Wendy Leonard, a Colorado citizen who lives near a fracking site. “So yeah, it's definitely keeping us up” (“What’s The Fracking Noise?”). Although Encana Oil, who is operating the Colorado sites, claims the noise level will decrease quickly over time, some families have already decided to take action. “We’ve decided to move” says Leonard, “We’re out of this house in two days” (“What’s The Fracking Noise?”). Encana is working with residents to manage the noise levels, but in Colorado and elsewhere, the noise associated with fracking will be an inherent drawback. Many critics also claim that fracking can cause seismic activity and earthquakes. This is not an unreasonable assumption considering the process required to frack a well, but many proponents and researchers disagree. “To our knowledge hydrofracturing to intentionally create permeability rarely creates unwanted induced seismicity large enough to be detected on the surface even with very sensitive sensors, let alone be a hazard or an annoyance” says the US Department of Energy (“Does Hydraulic Fracturing Cause Earthquakes?”). According to Stanford Geophysicist Mark Zoback, the amount of energy released from fracking a well is equal to that of a gallon of milk falling off a counter (“Does Hydraulic Fracturing Cause Earthquakes?”). According to Mackenzie Davis, the confusion about fracking’s effects on the earth may be due to the limited amount of formal research studies, as many articles on fracking speculate. 220

In reality, fracking can be practiced safely and the danger of earthquakes is the most fictional of all the problems it can pose. Although fracking is not the ideal way to obtain energy, it is currently the best way to recover fossil fuels, a necessary form of energy for modern society. Forms of green energy are not suitable replacements for gas and oil, due to many reasons. Alex Klein, the research director of IHS Emerging Energy Research, points to the unreliability of green energy at the moment. “There is plenty of room for wind and solar to grow and they are becoming more competitive, but these are still variable resources — the sun doesn’t always shine and the wind doesn’t always blow” (“Life After Oil and Gas”). When the solar and wind energy is not needed it can be stored for use later, but the plants which manage its storage are powered by fossil fuels. Gas and oil do not need any energy to be stored, and can be contained in barrels. These resources can also be harnessed 24 hours a day regardless of weather conditions; when the sun isn’t shining and the wind isn’t blowing, oil and natural gas can continue to be harvested non-stop. Another downside if green energy is its price. Green energy costs significantly more than fossil fuels. This setback may be the least significant though, as experts believe green energy and natural gas prices may reach parity by the year 2020 (“Life After Oil and Gas”). The pursuit of green energy as a full time resource could also result in drastically changing our current power systems. Fatih Birol, chief economist at the 28-nation In-

ternational Energy Agency, warns that the full time replacement of fossil fuels by green energy could require the remapping of national power grids. Since fossil fuels can be physically transported, they can be moved to any power plant in the country before being burned for energy. Green energy, however, requires that the power plants be located where the energy is produced, but not necessarily where it is needed. For example, windmills must have a power plant onsite to convert the wind into power, and the full-time pursuit of this could result in having to re-map our main sources of national power. When green energy grows, perhaps it will flourish and these problems will be defeated, but for the mean time, fossil fuels are necessary. Although there are many reasons fracking would be a second choice to different methods of harvesting energy, it too has merits which make it stand out even against “cleaner” means of power. Since the popularization of fracking, huge deposits of natural gas and shale rock beds have been discovered; resources which would have been unreachable only a few decades back (“Life After Oil and Gas”). Until recently, it was assumed that the US was running out of natural gas which could be accessed, and there were plans to hastily build import terminals. Now, we have found an estimated 100 year supply with plans to export our gas (“Fracking Called Both a Savior and a Scourge”). This new finding will greatly increase US energy independence, boost our economy and decrease reliance on the Middle East. This new industry will also serve as a job opportu221

nity, combating unemployment as well as our GNP. Natural gas, which is a hydrocarbon, also releases far less C02 than other fossil fuels such as coal, which often pollutes the atmosphere with non-C02 pollutants as well. As fossil fuels are currently the necessary evil, the use of natural gas can help combat pollution.

Bozzo, Albert. "Fracking Called Both a Savior and a Scourge." NBC News. NBC News, n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2013.

Fracking is a controversial yet important source of energy, accounting for over half of our nation’s power supply. Although this method is not the best way to obtain energy, until there is a viable alternative, it must be used. Although green energy has been presented as an alternative, it cannot provide sufficient amounts of energy to replace fossil fuels at this time. We need to pursue green energy as a full time solution, but the process of obtaining a new main energy source is not instantaneous. We need energy in the mean time, which has to be provided by fossil fuels. Going forward, green energy should continue to be explored as a full-time alternative, and companies can be more transparent about the process of fracking. Currently, fracking is our best solution, but eventually it can be phased out by cleaner means of obtaining energy.

Gasland. Dir. Josh Fox. 2010. DVD.

Works Cited Ben-Achour, Sabri. "Debating The Pros And Cons Of Fracking." WAMU 88.5. American University Radio, 1 Feb. 2013. Web. 03 Apr. 2013.

"Does Hydraulic Fracturing Cause Earthquakes?" Colorado Oil & Gas Association. Colorado Oil & Gas Association, n.d. Web. "Frack On." The Economist (US) 26 Nov. 2011: n. pag. Print.

Handley, Meg. "American Public: Yes on Keystone, So-So on Fracking." US News. U.S.News & World Report, 02 Apr. 2013. Web. 03 Apr. 2013. Hobson, Katherine. "Health Questions Key to New York Fracking Decision, But Answers Scarce." National Geographic. National Geographic Society, 01 Apr. 2013. Web. 03 Apr. 2013. Howard, Jordan. "Fracking Pros And Cons: Weighing In On Hydraulic Fracturing." The Huffington Post. The Huffington Post, 10 Nov. 2011. Web. 03 Apr. 2013. "Is Fracking a Good Idea?" US News. U.S.News & World Report, n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2013. McGraw, Seamus. "Is Fracking Safe? The Top 10 Controversial Claims About Natural Gas Drilling." Popular Mechanics. Popular Mechanics Magazine, n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2013.

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"Natural Gas Extraction - Hydraulic Fracturing." EPA.gov. US Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2013. Patzek, Tad W., and David Pimentel. "Thermodynamics of Energy Production from Biomass."Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 2005th ser. 24(5-6).327-364 (2006): n. pag.The University of Texas at Austin. The University of Texas at Austin. Web. 27 Apr. 2013. "Range Resources - Hydraulic Fracturing: A Safe, Proven Technology Studied for Decades by Multiple Agencies." Range Resources. Range Resources Corporation, n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2013. Rosenthal, Elisabeth. "Life After Oil and Gas." The New York Times. The New York Times, 24 Mar. 2013. Web. 08 May 2013. Settles, Ken, and Mackenzie Davis. Personal interview. 29 Apr. 2013.

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Tucker Coad

Safe and Economical Power for the People Introduction Nuclear power has been the subject of tremendous controversy worldwide for decades as governments and protesters have battled over the energyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacities for both generating relatively cheap and plentiful power, as well as its dangers from accident and misuse. Inadvertent damage to nuclear power plants through nature, as in earthquakes, or through terrorism, could unleash devastating destruction to communities located near and distant from the plant. Internal malfunctions, such as meltdowns resulting from human error, are also a major safety concern. Critics also point to use of nuclear materials in weapons of mass destruction, another source of peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s great fear of this energy. This paper asserts that, on balance, nuclear power is a highly positive asset to California because it cheaply and safely produces vast amounts of energy for the stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s citizens. Production of equivalent energy through other means would impose even greater financial and pollution costs on Californians.

In support of these arguments, this paper will examine how nuclear power is created before considering its economic feasibility as well as safety and environmental issues.

How is nuclear power created?! Nuclear plants in California produce atomic, clean energy for its citizens throughout the state. Clean energy is measured by how much CO2, or waste byproduct, is generated by the plant. Nuclear energy is considered to be clean energy because the production process passes relatively little pollution is into the air or water. This process initiates when radioactive uranium inside the reactor core heats the secondary coolant into steam. The steam shoots out of the reactor core powerfully and fast enough to turn the turbine and thereby generate electricity. The electricity travels through many hundreds of miles of power lines and cables, and Californians receive the benefit of this power production through their wall sockets. In understanding the production process in more detail, it is evident that nuclear power plant safety is very carefully built into the process as the water in the reactor also serves as a coolant for the radioactive material, preventing it from overheating and melting down. Nuclear power is created as uranium dissolves into energy, with the atomic reaction releasing all the heat. During this process, the uranium becomes extremely hot. To enhance safety, scientists built a primary coolant, which also gets 224

so hot that the engineers created a secondary coolant in order to cool down the overheated primary coolant. This secondary coolant is still so hot that it blasts out of the chamber in the form of water vapor so powerful that it turns a turbine connected to a generator that then creates the electricity. The electricity is transmitted to a transformer, and then is distributed throughout California’s cities.

Is nuclear power economical? Nuclear power is economical on many levels. Although the initial investment in constructing nuclear power plants is extremely costly, the maintenance of plant operation is relatively inexpensive. In addition, nuclear power is significantly cheaper to generate than production of energy through more traditional sources, such as fossil fuels. Nuclear power is also comparatively economical because its manufacture, requiring primarily water, results in minor traditional pollution byproducts, though it does create nuclear waste issues which engineers must address. A major problem concerning nuclear power’s cost is disposal of nuclear waste. Nuclear plants produce huge amounts of radioactive waste, which are stored in very large underground fortified concrete structures. In addition to preventing seepage, storage issues include protection of the materials to prevent them from being stolen by terrorists and other hostile groups. Although construction and constant oversight of these underground storage spaces require significant expense, nuclear en-

ergy is still cheaper than other energy sources since the plants’ operations, once the preliminary costs are covered, consistently over the years produce so much inexpensive energy. The nuclear energy industry has faced challenges as plants in other countries experienced costly accidents. For example, following the tsunami disaster in Japan, nuclear scientists gained new insights into plant safety. These added protections brought new costs in both construction and monitoring, yet nuclear production and operating processes remain less costly than other energy sources, such as fossil fuels. For example, as nuclear power emits almost no carbon dioxide, nuclear energy is more economical than coal or natural gas power.

Is nuclear power safe? Nuclear Power is considered by experts to be generally extremely safe. Engineers have learned from past mistakes. A major accident in 1986 in Chernobyl, Ukraine, released radioactive material that killed thousands of people. An earlier accident on a smaller scale occurred in 1957 in Kyshtym, Russia, when poisonous radioactive material was released into the air. Also in 1957, the nuclear reactor core in a plant in Windscale, England, UK, suffered severe damage and exploded with blasting power equivalent to a small uranium bomb. These failures have led scientists to successfully develop greatly improved safety in nuclear power plants so that the current generation’s technology is substantially safer than in earlier years. Scientists have inno225

vated such safety features as advanced control rods, and improved backup power and coolants, in the event of mishap. Yet engineers have not yet instituted fail-safe measures guaranteed to prevent harms from all potential nuclear accidents. Scientists have not found a perfect solution for nuclear meltdowns, in which the power plant’s reactor core does not proper cool, overheats, and then melts through the containment walls. Once the containment is compromised, the primary highly radioactive and heated coolant will evaporate. This dispersion of hot steam into the air is extremely dangerous to anyone in widespread areas breathing without special protections. People in many cities could suffer catastrophic health consequences. In addition, the reactor is so hot that it could possibly even melt through the crust of the earth. Other safety concerns involve possible power plant explosion brought about by reactor core uranium reacting with each other. In assessing all these risks, nuclear experts always consider the generally excellent record of nuclear power plants in operation worldwide for many decades. Most experts have concluded that nuclear plants are a safe energy option when compared with other available energy sources.

Is nuclear power good for the environment? Energy scientists agree that fossil fuels cause more damage to the environment than are created by nuclear energy. Experts also agree that nuclear energy production improves the environment since power plants prevent substantial amounts of carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere each year. Scientists have determined that this prevention of emissions equals the annual exhaust from 100 million cars! Some people might view nuclear energy as a dangerous option, but they might reconsider their opinions if they knew that the plants do protect the environment through significant reductions in carbon dioxide emissions, while America’s 104 nuclear power plants safely produce 20 percent of the nation’s electricity.

Conclusion Nuclear energy has been for decades a highly controversial source of energy. Protesters have cited dramatic accidents in arguing that the benefits of nuclear power are outweighed by the potential for disastrous mistakes that may cost huge loss of life and long-term damage to the environment. However, examination of the historical record demonstrates that, in reality, nuclear power has been a tremendous positive for society. Californians benefit every day from energy created safely and cheaply by nuclear power plants. While some major accidents have 226

taken place, both recently in Japan and years ago in Chernobyl, the nuclear safety record has been generally excellent. Engineers have learned from these events, and continue to improve plant safety and find solutions for still unresolved issues, such as waste disposal. Environmental concerns are also overstated since nuclear plants actually help the environment by reducing carbon dioxide emissions. In weighing the relevant factors of affordable economics, generally excellent safety record, and net positive impact on the environment, it is evident that nuclear power is a highly desirable and beneficial option for the 38 million Californians who rely on this source for their affordable and safe energy needs every day.

Works Cited Asmus, Peter. Introduction to Energy in California. Berkeley: University of California, 2009. Print.

http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/i ssues/policy/us-nuclear-policy/strategy/nwccpn-report-2009040 1[1].pdf Grotto, Andrew. "Orienting the 2009 Nuclear Posture Review." Nuclear Files. N.p., Nov. 2008. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. <http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/ issues/policy/us-nuclear-policy/strategy/nuclear_posture[1].pdf> . Irvine, Maxwell. Nuclear Power: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2011. Print. McKenna, Phil. "Fossil Fuels Are Far Deadlier than Nuclear Power." - Tech. The Nuclear Age, 23 Mar. 2011. Web. 08 May 2013. <http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20928053.600-fossil-fu els-are-far-deadlier-than-nuclear-power.html>

Civiak, Rovert L. "Key Issues: Nuclear Weapons: Issues: Policies: US Nuclear Policy." Key Issues: Nuclear Weapons: Issues: Policies: US Nuclear Policy. N.p., Apr. 2009. Web. 02 Apr. http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/i ssues/policy/us-nuclear-policy/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu /key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/policy/us-nuclear-policy/

"Nuclear Files: Timeline of the Nuclear Age." Nuclear Files: Timeline of the Nuclear Age. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, Apr. 2010. Web. 02 Apr. 2013.http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/timeline/timeline_decade .php?decade=2010

Civiak, Robert L. "Transforming the U.S. Strategic Posture and Weapons Complex." Nuclear Files. For a Transition to Nuclear Weapons-Free World, Apr. 2009. Web. 3 Apr. 2013.

"Nuclear Weapons in 21st Century U.S. National Security." Nuclear Files. N.p., Dec. 2008. Web. 2 Apr. 2013.http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weap 227

ons/issues/policy/us-nuclear-policy/security/Nuclear%20Weapo ns%20Report_FN[1].pdf

<http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/ issues/policy/us-nuclear-policy/weapons/RL31623[1].pdf>.

Perry, William J. "America's Strategic Posture." Nuclear Files. N.p., May 2009. Web. <http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/ issues/policy/us-nuclear-policy/strategy/strat_posture_report[1]. pdf>

"WMD REPORT CARD." Nuclear Files. N.p., May 2005. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. <http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/ issues/policy/us-nuclear-policy/security/ReportCard%208-25-08 [1].pdf>.

---. "US Nuclear Weapons Policy." U.S Nuclear Weapons Policy. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Apr. 2013."The CQ Researcher Online." CQ Researcher by CQ Press. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Mar. 2013. http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/i ssues/policy/us-nuclear-policy/weapons/Nuclear_Weapons_TF R62.pdf Wermuth, Calin T. "US Nuclear Security Strategy After The 2008 Presidential Elections."Nuclear Files. N.p., Aug. 2008. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. <http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/ issues/policy/us-nuclear-policy/strategy/US_nuclear_security_st rategy[1].pdf>. Woolf, Amy F. "U.S. Nuclear Weapons: Changes in Policy and Force Structure." Nuclear Files. N.p., Jan. 2008. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. 228

Sarah Fay

Is Medication Always the Best Treatment? Schizophrenia in the homeless community in San Francisco is a common issue due to sleep deprivation, isolation, drug abuse, and unstable social environments. Schizophrenia is such a large issue because those who have this mental illness can not afford the treatment they need. The drugs that are prescribed to those with schizophrenia are harsh and expensive; also the intense therapy that goes along with this disorder can be costly. Many therapists and doctors believe schizophrenia is untreatable without the use of harsh antipsychotic medications while others feel there are strategies in therapy that can be improved to help cope with schizophrenia. Deciding which medications to put patients on is difficult even the diagnosis of schizophrenia is tricky. Unfortunately there is not much research, but doctors and therapists are working tirelessly to regulate the behavioral problems that come with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a difficult mental illness to quickly define because it can be brought out in dramatic episodes or can be mild

and very internal. People with schizophrenia will often start talking to themselves which is the most common type of hallucinations that occur however visual hallucinations can happen as well (Bethel). These people will often times have a voice inside their head telling them to hurt others or hurt themselves (Randall). These voices are mostly from people from the patients life such as their mother saying something negative to them, other times it is voices saying how the patients is feeling which could be things like depression or anxiety. Local psychologist Robin Randall describes other hallucinations that occur such as visual where the patient will see things people or figures that are very realistic but are not always there. Visual hallucinations can occur with schizophrenics however it is not as common as auditory ones, a patient can also have a mixture of both types of hallucinations if they have severe schizophrenia. Schizophrenics who hear or see things that arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t real are most likely to commit suicide if they are not already seeking medical attention because they cannot clear their thoughts, sleep, and realize that what they are experiencing isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t real. Also if someone is experiencing antisocial behavior such as withdrawal from family and friends is one of the most prominent symptoms of schizophrenia and is the easiest to detect (Randall). If someone is not talking their usual amount and they are retreating from their normal life this can be a sign schizophrenia might be a problem. Schizophrenic patients do not feel the need to interact with others and have trouble acting in a rational manner in social situation. Fam229

ily and friends will want to get them help but it is difficult and sometimes impossible to get through to schizophrenics without medication helping them clear their thoughts. Often times these symptoms are ignored until an “episode” occurs after to the patient is having little to know symptoms (Bethel). These episodes are what lead people to be institutionalized and begin therapy. According to Lesley Bethel a marriage and family counselor these episodes can be extremely violent, they are typically caused by the hallucinations these schizophrenics are experiencing where the voice inside their head tells them to harm others or themselves.

how to seek help so they revert back to their old ways of taking illegal drugs such as heroin to make the hallucinations better or stop and to help fight through their depression. Other people surrounding them usually don’t know how to react when someone is having an “episode” so schizophrenics are left alone with their own thoughts for a while before they can get the proper treatment. When put in this situation people around a schizophrenic panic and avoid when someone is having a manic episode; when this happens the best thing to do is to remain calm and reassure them firmly that what they are experiencing isn’t reality.

Although schizophrenics experience manic episodes in front of others their lives are often isolated and detached from the rest of society. Since schizophrenics suffer from loss of sleep and depression they turn to heavy drug use to self medicate and to make all of the horrible hallucinations go away (“Prison Health Care”). Because of illegal drug abuse schizophrenics often end up in jail, not in a hospital where they can get proper treatment (“Prison Health Care”). In prison sometimes they are sometimes given psychiatric evaluations with a therapist who is not as emotionally invested in them because they have to deal with so many other patients on a daily basis. When schizophrenics are in prison they are sent in for few evaluations if any at all, and if they are lucky they get prescribed medications immediately instead of working with a private therapist and being evaluated professionally. After they get out of jail they don’t know

Therapy would be the better option for people with mild schizophrenia because they are able to process their thoughts better than a patient with severe schizophrenia (Bethel). Mild cases of schizophrenia are rare and most cases are severe and have to be treated with harsh prescription drugs that can sometimes poisonous to the blood. Although therapy would be the better option physically, it is deemed impossible by many doctors and therapists (Carey).Therapists want their patients to develop rational ways of thinking through hallucinations rather than just prescribing medications (Randall). The goal for most therapists is to have their patients be functioning member of society that are not just in a mental institution for the rest of their life. Since schizophrenics have trouble struggle with antisocial behavior, the therapists help them interact with others by working through the patients social anxiety and hallucinations. These goals are 230

tough to reach without help from medication, which are harmful to most patients (Randall). Dr. Robin Randall states “only a handful of patients can do just therapy” here he is talking about the mild forms of schizophrenia where it is mainly emotional problems and less detachment from society. Although some cases can be handled with therapy alone, the majority of cases require harmful prescription drugs. Therapists and doctors would like patients to use as little of these harsh antipsychotics as possible, however many cases require a high dosage. Some of these medications can cause serious side effects such as poisoning of the blood and failure to vital organs such as the liver (Randall). These medications help with depression, hallucinations, and the anxiety that comes along with schizophrenia which is a vital component to the patients treatment. Dr. Randall thinks the best way to go about treating schizophrenia is to have a combination of medication and therapy, even though there are ways therapy can be improved.

treat the “manic” symptoms such as depression within schizophrenia, it does not however make audio or visual hallucinations disappear (“Geodon Information”).Clozapine works better when coping with severe hallucinations and the overall symptoms of schizophrenia, however since it is extremely harmful to vital organs and especially some patients aren’t willing to take it. Most patients are so desperate they will do anything to make the voices go away and to finally sleep peacefully again so they will risk getting blood poisoning for their emotional and mental well being. Clozapine is completely different from Geodon because it is much more powerful and effective on the brain but it has harsher side effects than most antipsychotics (“Clozapine”). The drug Clozapine is used as a last resort but since so many patients with schizophrenia have severe cases, it is most likely that it will get used. With Clozapine the patients’ blood must be drawn every week by a doctor to make sure it isn’t poisoning the blood (“Clozapine”).

Strong medications such as Clozapine and Geodon are used to help with the treatment of schizophrenia although they can be extremely harmful to the body, they help clear the patients mind and use cognitive thinking (“Clozapine”). Geodon is a milder antipsychotic that isn’t as harsh on the body however it does not work for most patients. This drug is not prescribed often because most patients with schizophrenia have severe cases where the hallucinations and detachment from society is always present (Randall). Geodon reacts with chemicals in the brain to

Although the research of schizophrenia is ongoing, there are ways in therapy that can be improved so that such invasive antipsychotics don’t have to be used. Since the effects of schizophrenic medication are so harsh new prescription drugs are coming out that are less harmful and more effective on the brain. Different tactics can be used in therapy such as cognitive training that can help schizophrenic patients work rationally through their thoughts with little to no help from medications. Along with new methods of therapy being put in place for treat231

ment, there needs to be doctors working on schizophrenia from a neurological standpoint and monitor the levels of different chemicals being released when schizophrenia occurs. When schizophrenics are put in prison they are not ever really getting the proper treatment for their disease because the therapists in prison have to meet with a larger amount of people than independent therapists do so schizophrenic patients do not get the personal attention they need and deserve. Although medication is a key part of treatment for schizophrenia, the medications such as Clozapine are overprescribed and often times the dosage for these drugs is too high which makes the patient seem normal however it is not curing the emotional side of the disease. Since Clozapine is such a powerful and harmful drug to the blood and other vital organs such as the liver the best solution would be to prescribe only what is necessary and to do intensive therapy to make sure not only the hallucinations are under control but to make sure the patients emotional well being is being taken into account.

Clemmitt, Marcia. "Prison Health Care." CQ Researcher 5 Jan. 2007. Web. 28 Mar. 2013.

Works Consulted

Tanner, Jane. "Mental Illness Medication Debate." CQ Researcher 6 Feb. 2004. Web. 28 Mar. 2013.

Calton, Tim. "Schizophrenia Can Be Successfully Treated Without Medication." Mental Illness. Greenhaven Press, 2012. Web. 21 May. 2013. Carey, Benedict. “From the Elusiveness of Schizophrenia, New Clues to Treatment.”The New York Times. New York Times, 13 Jun. 2008. Web. 29 Mar. 2013.

Clemmitt, Marcia. “Sleep deprivation”. CQ Researcher. May 24. 2013. Richard Kapit, Ruth A. Wienclaw, Laura Jean Cataldo. "Clozapine." The Gale Encyclopedia of Mental Health. Web. May 21. 2013. Siebert, Al. "A Critique of Psychiatry's Treatment of Schizophrenia." Schizophrenia. Greenhaven Press, 2002. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. "Schizophrenia." World of Biology. Gale, 2006. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. "Scientists at Federal University Report Research in Schizophrenia." Mental Health Weekly Digest 30 Jan. 2012. Web. 4 Apr. 2013.

Wong, Jason, and Nicholas Delva. "Clozapine-Induced Seizures: Recognition and Treatment." ProQuest. Web. 28 Mar. 2013.

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“You Have Treatment Options Beyond Daily Pills.” Treat Once Monthly Club. Janssen Pharmaceuticals, 24 Sep .2012. Web. 4 Apr. 2013.

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Samantha Forman

Adolescent RiskTaking Introduction The risk-taking behavior of an adolescent has the ability to be taken both negatively and positively. Negative risks can be considered things like alcohol abuse, drug use, or unsafe sex. Positive risks could be seen as things like getting a job, or even exerting yourself in a different friend group. For different people, the line between the two different types of risks can be drawn at different places. The main source of adolescent risk-taking is the brain’s cognitive control network not being fully developed. Providing teens with an education of the topics surrounding negative risk, as well as improving relationships between adolescents and their parents is very important and taking into account truma that the teen could have dealt with in the past. In order to further prevent teens from taking harmful and even deathly risks, while not completely relying on education and relationships, it is necessary to make the risks they are taking less accessible. Adolescent negative risk- taking can also be due to their relationship with parents or even situations they have had to deal with in their past. Positive relationships would give par-

ents the ability to communicate with their teens and talk about taking positive risks.

Definition Risk taking is a product of both logical reasoning and psychological factors (Temple 56). Typical negative risk taking is often seen as alcohol and drug abuse, abuse with cars, as well as risky sexual behavior. When taken too far, it can be dangerous with negative results. Often it becomes a pattern rather than a single event and becomes considered a “behavior” (Ponton 19). All decisions weigh the risk of the specific situation against other factors. These other factors would be different in every situation. For example, how fun it is, and even how the individual could gain attention by doing it (Greene 441). Although it can be dangerous, risk taking is necessary and important for a teen’s rapid development and growth (Ponton 52). It is important that teens moderate their behavior and learn how they are able to avoid long-term negative consequences. Learning this will keep an adolescents risk taking within the range of healthy instead of unhealthy (Risk Taking Adolescents). Teens that are given the chance to take healthy risks show themselves to be more self-confident and feel more accepted (Risk Taking Adolescents). Adolescents that take successful or healthy risk are able to weigh dangers and benefits. They understand how their own personal strengths, weaknesses and bi234

ases may affect the consequences of the specific activity (Ponton 52). The benefits from risk taking are that teens are able to explore more mature and adult behavior, they learn to accomplish continually more challenging developmental tasks, and their own self-esteem is reinforced (Risk taking adolescents). One of the main issues that leads to dangerous risk taking is that adolescents often do not weigh the risks in decision making (Greene 439). In addition, teens have complete availability to serious risks; such as, cars, sex, and drugs. Alcohol abuse, drug use, and harmful use or cars are very popular go- to options for negative risk taking (Ponton 52). Because of the development of the adolescent brain, it is important that studies focus on how age differences effect decisions (Temple 55). The brain of an adolescent shows an exaggerated or amplified response to stimuli (Risk taking adolescents). Adolescents have the same ability as an adult in estimating their own vulnerability to the risk of their own actions (Temple 55). When decision making is assessed under conditions that are associated with lower activation of brain systems responsible for emotional reward and social processing, a difference in age did not seem to affect the results (Temple 57). The “logical reasoning abilities of 15year-olds are comparable to those of adults” (Temple 55). All ages reason risk in the same way (Temple 55). Researchers at Temple have concluded that adolescents are as competent decision makers as adults are. This conclusion would be true if the influence of psychological factors was minimized (Temple 56).

Because adolescents have an understanding of their own risk going into a situation and they reason the same as an adult would. “Researchers have posited that age differences of risk taking are due to differences in the information that adolescents and adults use when making decisions” (Temple 55). Professionals studying the topic think that teens do not understand the risk they are getting themselves into, and that they are not aware. This is not true; teens in fact overestimate risk, not lowball them (Why the Teen is Drawn to Risk). Agnieszka Tymula, a postdoctoral student at New York University, says that “Relative to adults, adolescents engage more in unknown risks than they do in known risks”, teens love the unknown (Why the Teen is Drawn to Risk). When the risks of a particular situation are known, Adolescents risk take less than adults. If risks are unknown, adolescents risk take more (Why the Teen is Drawn to Risk).

Parental Behavior Some issues resulting in risk-taking behavior arise from an adolescent’s relationship with their parents, for example, the buddy dilemma. The buddy dilemma comes from parents not wanting their own children to have an unhappy childhood like they possibly did themselves (Ponton 182). Unhealthy relationships with parents could possibly interfere with a mother’s or father’s ability to do his or her own part. It is necessary that parents teach their children how to take on risks and what they should try to 235

avoid (Ponton 101). “For any parents the ability to look at their own backgrounds and actions and see how these affect their relationship with their child is vitally important” (Ponton 183). This idea relates back to parents whom have a buddy system relationship with their own child, it often comes from a parents own past. The parent might have had a bad childhood themselves and do not want the same for their own child. In addition to the buddy system, teenagers could also take after their own parent’s bad behavior. If adolescent’s parents model risky behavior it has serious consequences for the teen. It results in the teen thinking that this behavior is normal and that they should be doing the same thing (Ponton 177). Instead of negative and harmful behavior, parents must model the behavior they want their children to reflect. This is preferable to telling their teen how to act and doing the opposite themselves (Ponton 186).

Past Trauma In addition to bad behavior modeled by parents, teens might also take risks because of past trauma that they are personally dealing with. Adolescence is a developmental period. It is likely that troubling psychological issues from one’s past or their early childhood could be reactivated (Ponton 42). Past traumatic experiences such abuse, family issues like divorce or trouble between the parents or even molestation can place a burden on the everyday life of a teen and could possibly cause great pain

(Ponton 37). Christa Santangelo PHD, a psychologist, and one of my interviewees states that teens with past trauma might take greater risks because it has a numbing effect on the emotional system. Therefore, in this situation, sexual abuse and substance use becomes more tempting (Santangelo). Taking risks now repeats the past abuse (Ponton 37). Most teens are never aware that their past is taking a toll on them in this way. It usually remains unconscious and unrecognized (Ponton 42). In addition, serious depressive illnesses are significant contributors to the bad behavior (Ponton 37).

Socio-emotional Network In the human brain, there are certain psychological capacities that improve decision making and lower the level of risk taking, for example, impulse control, emotion regulation, delays of gratification, and resistance to peer influence. These capacities do take more time to mature, only completely maturing well into adulthood (Temple 56). Another more specific example of this would be the socio-emotional network. This network is sensitive to social and emotional stimuli which is important for reward processing changes during puberty (Temple 56). The brain of an adolescent mainly relies on the socio-emotional network. Teens do not have as much of the interaction of both necessary networks throughout their brains like an adult would, due to the further development of an adult’s brain. Therefore an adolescent mainly reacts on gut feelings (Temple 57). Risk taking 236

mainly stems from the interaction between the socio-emotional network and the cognitive control network shown in the diagram below. The Socieoemotional network regulates impulse where the cognitive control deals with ones decision making.

The socio-emotional network mainly relies on impulse, where the cognitive control is mainly based off order and what is in the specific person’s best interest. The impulse of a person is sometimes not in their best interest because there is no time for the idea to be thought out (Temple 56). In adolescents the socioemotional network is more assertive because the cognitive control network is not completely developed. When the cognitive control network becomes fully developed during adult years,

one is able to better make decisions without the same level of risk. In the brain, the processing of emotional information, social information and reward are closely related and connected (Temple 56). An adolescent focuses on the possible rewards of a situation and ignores the consequences, whereas an adult would focus more on the end results and consequences (Why the Teen is Drawn to Risk). In the brain, the regions that activate during social and emotional stimuli overlap with regions that are shown to be sensitive to variations in reward magnitude (Temple 56). The “reductions in adolescents health – compromising behavior are more strongly linked to changes in the contexts in which these risks are taken then to changes in what adolescents know or believe” (Temple 55). Because of the need for stimuli, adolescents choose smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed ones. Immediate rewards are more emotionally arousing. The graph below shows the development of logical reasoning abilities versus psychological maturation. By the age of 16, the logical reasoning abilities of a teen reach adult levels. The problem is that psychological capacities like impulse control, future orientation, or resistance to peer influence take a much longer time to develop and are not complete until young adulthood.

237

of risky situations more salient by activating the same circuitry that is activated by exposure to non-social rewards when individuals are alone” (Temple 56). In a study focused on teen distraction, the presence of peers more than doubled the number of risks teenagers took in a video driving game. It increased risk taking by 50% among college undergraduates but had no effect among adults (Temple 57).

" "

(Temple 57)

One pattern seen in adolescent risk taking is that it is often seen while the risk taker is in a group setting (Temple 56). The socio-emotional network is largely activated in the presence of peers or under conditions of emotional arousal. The highly activated socio-emotional network diminishes the normal effect of the cognitive which is incompletely developed (Temple 56). Extensive amounts of time that a teen spends with their peers could heighten the amount of risk taking for a single individual (Temple 56). Vulnerability to peer pressure increases between pre-adolescents and mid-adolescents mainly due to the timing that one goes through puberty (Temple 57). The peak at midadolescence is due to the largest imbalance between sensitivity to socio-emotional arousal and capacity for cognitive control (Temple 57). The “presence of peers makes rewarding aspects

Another cause for risk taking due to the socio-emotional network is egocentrism which is found mainly in adolescence. It is during the transition between concrete thought to formal operational thought (Greene 442). Teens’ main focus is on themselves, their own ideas and their own thoughts. They assume that others think about the same things as themselves (Greene 441). Some people could have a higher or lower sociobiological need for stimulation (Greene 440). Increase in sensation seeking goes along with pubertal maturation, not chronological age (Temple 57). Sensation seeking is not particularly useful as a message design tool (Greene 440). Specifically, sensation seeking is “the seeking of varied, novel, complex and intense experiences and the willingness to take risks to obtain those experiences” (Greene 440). One form of risk taking is called “non deliberative”r. This risk taking is from the lack of awareness that one must decide how to act and the inability to see risk that could easily be seen by others (Greene 441). They do not see that their own judgment is needed in particular situa238

tions. Instead, they are controlled by feelings of invulnerability (Greene 441).

Cognitive Control Development The cognitive control part of the brain mainly deals with planning and thinking ahead. This type of self regulation matures gradually (Temple 56). This control contributes to making the emergent property of conscious will (“Neurevolution”). The network is necessary for brain functions or processes needed for goal-directed thought and action (“Neurevolution”). In addition, it is needed for shifting attention and making decisions (“Neurevolution”). Anything that is outside routine for a human, for example, any decision making, the cognitive control network is needed (“Neurevolution”). Risk taking can be seen as both normal in development and as a negative result of the cognitive control network’s development (Greene 441). During teenage years and early adulthood, frontal brain regions become more in sync with, or more integrated, with other brain regions (Temple 57). Studies show that adolescents use the cognitive control network less than adults, possibly overtaxing the capacity of a more limited number of regions they activate (Temple 57). Often “when individuals are not emotionally excited or are alone – the cognitive control network is strong enough to impose regulatory control over impulsive and risky behavior, even in early adolescence” (Science Daily). Cognitive control in adults can be more effective because their

brains distribute regular responsibility across a wider network of linked components (Temple 57). Regions in the brain that make up the cognitive control network show gradual structural change during teenage years and early adulthood. Therefore, the cognitive control and socieoemotional network are only completely functioning together when one reaches adulthood. (Temple 57).

Cognitive Control vs. the Socioemotional Network In any human, when the socio-emotional network is not highly activated, the cognitive control will be strong enough to impose on the socieoemotional (Temple 56). In adults, the socioemotional network is able to have better control because of further development in the cognitive control (Temple 56). As skill with the cognitive abilities increases, the egocentrism of an adolescents decreases. They begin to think more about others and how their own decisions will affect not only themselves (Greene 442). In a study, when adolescents were asked if obviously dangerous activities were good ideas, they took longer than adults to respond. They also activated a less narrowly distributed set of cognitive control regions (Temple 58).

Prevention It is important that adults find ways for teens to avoid the most dangerous risks while not taking them all away. Christa Sanan239

gelo PHD, states that risks are important to teens because they give them an opportunity to grow. It lets them become more grown up and enter into adulthood. It is important to help adolescents to avoid the harmful side of risk taking while giving them opportunities for healthy risk taking (Santangelo). It is the obligation of every parent to educate their own children about risk and make it so that their teens know what they are getting themselves into (Ponton 52). They should be giving information which will result in improved thinking about risk. However, this does not often change behavior, therefore, in addition to making their children knowledgeable, other action must be taken (Temple 56). Reluctance for a parent to communicate clearly on certain subjects leads to possible misconceptions. It is vital that parents and kids learn how to communicate (Ponton 77). If a adolescent has dealt with past trauma, positive factors like supportive parents in their life can help them move on or avoid the experiences coming out in risky behavior (Ponton 42). Educational interventions have proven to be more effective in prevention than educational and prevention programs that work to persuade teens (Science Direct). Parents should “limit opportunities for immature judgment to have harmful consequences” (Temple 58). In addition to educating teens, something should be done to limit the opportunities that teens have for unhealthy risk taking. In a particular situation where teens are mimicking their own parents’ bad behavior, the parents should change their actions so that they demonstrate healthy risk taking for

their children (Ponton 56). In addition, “learning how to access risk in a thoughtful manner is one of the most important developmental tasks of adolescence” (Ponton 52). Attempts to prevent risk through intervention have been proven to be disappointing. It is important that dults do something else in prevention rather then only straightforwardly telling the teens what not to do (Temple 55). Limiting opportunities could be done by rising the price of cigarettes, stricter enforcing of laws governing the sale of alcohol, more access to mental health and contraceptive services, and raising the driving age (Temple 58). Adolescents are more sensitive than adults to variation in reward. They are equally or possibly even less sensitive to variation in costs (Temple 57). In order to get points across to adolescents for prevention, media messages must be very direct, young adolescents are not developed enough for abstract thought. In addition, they will more clearly understand that the message was meant for them (Greene 441).

Conclusion Risk taking is very important for a teen’s development. Risk gives teens the opportunity to develop mentally. They mature and gain the ability to make their own personal decisions and find out what is best for them. In addition, teens get the opportunity to find themselves and figure out what life is all about. Without risk, teens would not get the chance to grow into themselves and take on a certain amount of responsibility. While giv240

ing teens the ability to do grow and mature, it is also important that they are kept away from certain situations that they could possibly put themselves in. It is the parents’ job to help their teen take helpful and safe risks while avoiding the negative ones that might even end in death.

Works Cited “Earlier Development of the Accumbens Relative to Orbitofrontal Cortex Might Underlie Risk-Taking Behavior in Adolescents." The Journal of Neuroscience . N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2013. Electroencephalography, using a methodology known as. "Human brain - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia."Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 May 2013. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain>. Greene, K. "Targeting Adolescent Risk-taking Behaviors: The Contributions Of Egocentrism And Sensation-seeking."Journal of Adolescence 23.4 (2000): 439-461. Print.

formation resource on primary care. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr. 2013. "ScienceDirect.com - Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews Risk-taking behavior in adolescent mice: psychobiological determinants and early epigenetic influence." ScienceDirect.com | Search through over 11 million science, health, medical journal full text articles and books.. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2013. Steinberg, Laurence. "Risk Taking in Adolesence: New Perspectives From Brain and Behavioral Science."Current Directions in Psychological Science. 16. Philadelphia: 2007. <www.temple.edu>. "Why the teen brain is drawn to risk - CNN.com." CNN.com Breaking News, U.S., World, Weather, Entertainment & Video News. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr. 2013.

"Neurevolution » Blog Archive » The Cognitive Control Network."Neurevolution . N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr. 2013. Ponton, Lynn E.. The romance of risk: why teenagers do the things they do. New York: Basic Books, 1997. Print. "Risk taking adolescents: When and how to intervene — The Journal of Family Practice ." The Journal of Family Practice - In241

Elena Freiwald

Cultural Effects from Russian Immigrants in San Francisco Many Russian immigrants have come to San Francisco, where more than 200,000 Russians live today, throughout the course of history. Most of the immigrants were not doing well economically in Russia and wanted to leave to find a better life. Some were fleeing persecution from radical regimes. For many reasons, such as economic problems and political tensions, Russian immigrants have come to San Francisco and shaped our culture. The 20th century was a particular period in time when many Russian immigrants came to San Francisco and adjusted to our culture while at the same time adding some of their culture here. During the 20th century, many Russians came to San Francisco and started a legacy of Russian Culture that Russians today are continuing.

(Trumbauer 48).

Russians immigrated to the United States for a variety of reasons. One of them was the Bolshevik Revolution, which occurred after the last Tsar of Russia (Nicholas II) was overthrown. When the Bolsheviks started to form their communistic regime in Russia, the citizens were concerned because they did not want their country to Immigration from Russia into the United States came in four waves. The first wave, which came here from the 1880s to 1914 were looking for better economic conditions. The Russian Empire was very poor and the only place Jews could live was in a place called Pale, which is why many Jews came to the United States during the first wave. There were also a lot of attacks on Jews â&#x20AC;&#x153;that occurred sporadically in the Russian Empire from the 1880s through the first dec242

ade of the twentieth century,” (Magocsi). The reason why many Jews left was because they feared attacks and wanted to escape to a safer country. The second wave took place during the first years of the 1920s. The second wave was “directly related to the political upheaval in the former Russian Empire that was brought about by Bolshevik Revolution and the Civil War that followed.” (Magocsi). The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Lenin, who wanted to make Russia a communistic country from a former country that was ruled by Tsars (one of them was known as Peter the Great). Many people didn’t support this new regime so when they revolted and lost the Russian Civil War, they had to leave Russia “because they lost the war and they were being persecuted,” (Bogdan). Those who left Russia during the second wave were known as the White Russians because they didn’t support the Red Communist regime the Bolsheviks were forming. The third wave of Russian immigration (from 1945 to 1955) took place during the aftermath of World War II. “Large portions of the Soviet Union had been occupied by Germany and hundreds of thousands of Russians had been captured or deported to work in Germany” (Magocsi). After the Germans lost World War II, a lot of Russians were in displaced person camps in German territory (including Austria) until they could come to the U.S.

“During this period, approximately 20,000 of these Russian displaced persons, the so-called DPs, arrived,” (Magocsi). The numbers of people leaving Russia were so high that the government in Russia had to limit the number of emigrants. "In 1885 the imperial Russian government ….....prohibited all emigration except that of Poles and Jews, which explains the small numbers of non-Jewish Russians in the United States before World War I,” (Magocsi). Because of the immigration laws, only Jews were allowed to leave Russia (however, many Jews came to America). Despite the fact that the government tried to limit the amount of emigration from Russia, there were still many emigrants. However, in “the early 1920s, the Bolshevik/ Communist-led Soviet government implemented further controls that effectively banned all emigration. As for the secondwave White Russian refugees who fled between 1920 and 1922, they were stripped of their citizenship in absentia and could never legally return home,” (Magocsi). People from Russia who lived in the Displaced Persons camp after World War II could not return home to Russia because they were “viewed as Nazi collaborators and traitors by the Soviet authorities,” (Magocsi). However, during the time of the fourth wave, people were legally allowed to emigrate from Russia. Legal immigration used to just be “limited to Jews, who were allowed to leave the Soviet Union for Israel as part of the agreements reached between the 243

United States and the Soviet Union....... In return for allowing Jews to leave, the United States and other western powers expanded the economic, cultural, and intellectual ties with their communist rival.” (Magocsi). Although the Russians were only allowed to go to Israel, their ideal destination was the United States, “and by 1985 nearly 300,000 had reached the United States,” (Magocsi). When Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet government, his policies, which were more liberal than Vladimir Lenin’s, “allowed anyone to leave the Soviet Union, and thousands more Jewish and non-Jewish Russians immigrated to the United States” (Magocsi). This change took place after 1985, which was a more democratic system that let the people vote for members of the government, which slowed down emigration from Russia because “newcomers cannot justify their claim to emigrate on the grounds of political or religious persecution,” (Magocsi). The number of Russian immigrants coming to the United States was greatly reduced after the dramatic change in the government. Because the situations the immigrants were fleeing from were so grim, there was a lot of paranoia among the citizens of San Francisco. Nina Bogdan, who is the coauthor of the book, Images of America: Russian San Francisco said, “others tended to have this idea: well they’re Russians so we need to watch them,” (Bogdan). There was a lot of paranoia about the new Russian immigrants because they were fleeing from a Communist country being formed by the Bolsheviks. This paranoia is

reflected in films in America, which always portrayed Russians as villains. “my main sort of pet peeves is that in American culture especially in pop culture like in the movie industry and the Hollywood blockbusters there are very few very positive portrayals of Russians there’s really kind of a sort of a negative trend. I mean sometimes it’s really amusing but it’s still kind of disconcerting if you are of Russian Background because there’s no positive Russian role models,” (Bogdan). Nina Bogdan also mentioned that she would be happy if the Hollywood film industry would make more movies about Russian immigrants that have contributed toward society like Igor Sikorsky, a scientist who developed airplanes and helicopters or Alexander Poniatoff who “developed a lot of technology relating to our VCR’s and recorders,” (Bogdan). The response to the Russian immigrants fleeing a communistic country was filled with paranoia and caused many negative stereotypes about Russians in Hollywood films. Russian immigrants responded to the paranoia in very different ways. Nina Bogdan’s family changed their name from Bogdanov to Bogdan to avoid being targeted as Communists and to fit in to American society. Russian immigrants tended to keep to themselves because of this negative portrayal of them in the media. They didn’t start to advertise their culture until the time of the Russian Center, which disproved some of the negative stereotypes and calmed the paranoia. 244

Russian immigrants made quite an impact on San Francisco through dance, theater, opera, and music. Natalia Borisova was a talented dancer from Russia who died not very long ago. Nikolai Massenkoff was also a talented dancer who was from Russia. A well known actress, Natalie Wood, whose given name was Natalia Nikolayevna Zacharenko, “was born in San Francisco of Russian émigré parents on July 20, 1938”. Natalie Wood is a second generation Russian immigrant who has affected the culture of San Francisco and the rest of the United States. She “appeared in her first film when she was just four years old and went on to a successful film career that included classics such as Miracle on 34th Street, Rebel without a Cause, Splendor in the Grass, West Side Story, and others.” (Zaverukha and Bogdan.) Natalie Wood played roles in classic movies that are still loved by generations today. In the 1950s, Russian immigrants “would actually stage their own plays at the Russian Center,” (Bogdan). In that time, theater, along with music and art, was an extremely significant part of Russian culture. Nina Bogdan said, “My mother was an amateur actress and she performed in plays where she lived and she performed here at the Russian Center,” (Bogdan). Theater was important to Russian immigrants because they were leaving Russia as outcasts, who “were so cut off from the motherland. They had left and they were considered outcasts in the sense that they were not, you know, supporters of the Soviet Regime. So they were sort of cut off and they had to like recre-

ate their own little Russian world here” (Bogdan). The Russian immigrants embraced their culture in the form of theater to spread awareness to other non-Russian people by performing Russian plays at the Russian Center. Aside from using plays, Russian immigrants put on operas and had performances for different types of music. At the Museum of Russian Culture at the Russian Center, there were many fliers for operas. The fliers were for operas called Zaporojetz and Halka. Russian immigrants were also musicians that played different kinds of music including folk music. Russian immigrants advertised all of these aspects of their culture to try to dispel paranoia from the Americans who feared the immigrants that were fleeing from a Communist country. Russian food is a prominent part of Russian culture in San Francisco. If you go to the Russian Center, or the Richmond district (particularly on Geary Street), and eat at a cafe then you will probably see a type of Russian food called a blini. A blini is a type of Russian pancake that is very thin and usually has a topping like sour cream on it. Other types of Russian food that are harder to find but can be found in russian delis are Pirozhki, which consist of fried dough around meat, similar to a hot dog but with a circular dough covering. There’s also this type of Russian dumpling called Pelmeni that are “like meat-filled ravioli” (Bogdan). Russian pastries like Russian Coffecake, which is

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“laced with chocolate and sour cream,” (Rotella), are also very common in Russian bakeries. One of the benefits of trying to find an authentic Russian restaurant to eat Russian food in San Francisco is that it will make you a more adventurous eater. It will also expand peoples’ cultural tastes and be an introduction to a new aspect of Russian Culture. However, the problem is that the restaurants are very hard to find, except for in the Richmond district. If someone is fortunate to find one then she must wait for a long time because authentic Russian food “takes a long time to prepare. There is really no such thing as Russian fast food.” (Bogdan). However, there are good Russian delis and restaurants if people look in the right places. It’s difficult to draw a conclusion on whether all Russian immigrants have considered returning to Russia. Most immigrants would not go back to Russia because it was hard enough to get here and start a new life. Olga, a first generation immigrant, said she wouldn’t go back because scientists couldn’t get jobs in Russia (her husband was a scientist). She also mentioned that going back to Russia would mean her kids would have to go through a lot of changes. “At present, Russian economy is based on the export of natural resources, and there is no significant interest in the development of science and technology. Another reason is our children who were born in the US, grew up here and would have very difficult time to adopt to [the] Russian

system of education,” (Mirzoeva). Only a few immigrants decided to return to Russia when the United States went through that recession a few years ago because their economic situation was not getting better. Some second generation immigrants consider going back to Russia when they’re old enough to get jobs or study on their own. Nowadays, it is easier to visit foreign countries now than it was when these immigrants first came here. It is easier to go visit your family in Russia or bring them here for a visit without having to change countries that you live in. It is easier to go to new places temporarily. Russian immigrants came to San Francisco fleeing persecution, bad economic problems, and seeking a new life for themselves and their children. When they came here, they able to adapt thanks to the achievements that the previous wave of immigrants managed to accomplish. It was easier for the immigrants to adapt with all of the Russian delis and bakeries, which were formed by Russian immigrants who came to advertise their culture despite the fact that other people living in San Francisco were paranoid of the Russian immigrants coming from a country that was becoming communistic. At the Russian Center, there were many ways that Russian immigrants advertised their culture in order to disprove the negative stereotypes of Russian people in the media. The immigrants advertised their dance performances, song performances, theater, and music. With every 246

new wave of immigrants from Russia, they'll be able to adapt to San Franciscan culture. These immigrants and their stories have shaped the culture of our city and will continue to do so as more immigrants come to San Francisco to add their stories and their cultural perspectives to the history of the city.

Works Cited Bogdan, Nina. Personal interview. 20 Apr. 2013. Magocsi, Paul Robert. "Russian Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America. Ed. Jeffrey Lehman. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale, 2000. 1520-1533. U.S. History In Context. Web. 28 Mar. 2013. Mirzoeva, Olga. Personal interview. 5 May. 2013 Rotella, Mark. "Pastries from the La Brea Bakery." Publishers Weekly 247.34 (2000):" 69. ProQuest. Web. 16 May 2013. Trumbauer, Lisa. Immigration to the United States: Russian immigrants. New York, NY:" Facts " On File, inc, 2005. Print. Zaverukha, Lydia B, and Nina Bogdan. Images of America: Russian San Francisco."Charleston SC, Chicago IL, Portsmouth NH, San Francisco CA: Arcadia" Publishing, " 2010. Print.

Bibliography Bogdan, Nina. Personal interview. 20 Apr. 2013. Goldstein, Darra. "Russia." Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. Ed. Solomon H. Katz. Vol. 3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2003. 214-221. U.S. History In Context. Web. 28 Mar. 2013. "In San Francisco, Moscow on the Bay." The Washington Post: 0. Jan 06 2002. ProQuest. Web. 1 Apr. 2013 . Magocsi, Paul Robert. "Russian Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America. Ed. Jeffrey Lehman. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale, 2000. 1520-1533. U.S. History In Context. Web. 28 Mar. 2013. Mirzoeva, Olga. Personal interview. 5 May. 2013 Rotella, Mark. "Pastries from the La Brea Bakery." Publishers Weekly 247.34 (2000):" 69. ProQuest. Web. 16 May 2013.

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Strebe, Amy Goodpaster. "Russian America: San Francisco." Russian Life 2002: 56-60." ProQuest. Web. 21 Apr. 2013. Trumbauer, Lisa. Immigration to the United States: Russian immigrants. New York, NY:" Facts " On File, inc, 2005. Print. "West." Russian Life Sept.-Oct. 2010: 16. General Reference Center GOLD. Web. 28 Mar. 2013. Zaverukha, Lydia B, and Nina Bogdan. Images of America: Russian San Francisco. Charleston SC, Chicago IL, Portsmouth NH, San Francisco CA: Arcadia Publishing, 2010. Print.

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Bianca Galarza

The Consequences of Living in a Selective Society: Media’s Impact on Body Image We are exposed to over 3,000 ads a day and the average teenage girl views 180 minutes of media daily; the fact that media is accessible and universal makes it impossible to avoid (Huebeck). Media is the most popular source that reveals society’s culture and standards. The amount of media and entertainment we are exposed to everyday has an enormous effect on today’s girls and women. Given that most of the media we see are negative images of women and is confined to a certain image of what is beautiful, we are now seeing the results of negative media on many women and girls in America. Media’s effects is a much larger issue than it is conveyed to be throughout society; and the ultimate impact media has on a girl’s body image can

be harmful and tragic. From magazines, TV shows, and movies girls get the impression that the only thing that matters is their appearance; causing them to be more conscience about the way they look. The media is constantly using “beauty” and sex appeal to sell a product, and more commonly, what are represented as “beautiful” in the media is young, white, thin, and tall women. Media’s definition of beauty causes girls to strive to look like that “ideal” woman. The fact that most of the images we see in media are digitally altered and edited several times makes it physically impossible to be that “flawless.” Girls strive to become something that is impossible to attain, resulting in girls having a low self-esteem and body dissatisfaction. The media’s definition of “beauty” is confined to a certain image, causing American women and girls to feel pressured to conform and go to extremes to look like the perfect woman. This pressure to maintain a certain look is highly relevant throughout advertisements we are exposed to on a daily basis. Ads have always and are still emphasizing the importance for women to look attractive. 56% of commercials aimed towards women used beauty to sell the object while only 3% of commercials are aimed at men by using attractiveness to sell the product (“Body Image and Nutrition”). Ads and articles about physical appearance take up three-fourths of popular women magazines (“Portrayal of Women in Popular Media”). Clearly, media has been altered to target women and what is considered beau249

tiful. We are constantly seeing things going in and out of fashion, things that were labeled chic one year and then out of style the next. Even though the “ideal” look and what is considered to be beautiful is constantly changing, we see a pattern that media places on women to maintain a certain body type or appearance. For example, in the 1920’s the iconic woman was Mary Louise Brooks who was thin and angular. In the 1940’s-50’s Marylyn Monroe was considered to be one of the most beautiful women in America. The look back then was to be more curvaceous and plump and from the 1960’s and beyond the women have been thin and tall (Derenne). This inconsistency of trends constantly changing and us changing our ways to conform to what is “hot” in society reveals how vulnerable we are. Literally if one year a clothing piece is in style and everyone is raving about it; the next year when it is out of fashion we are throwing it out of our closets and saying “I can’t believe I thought that was cute”. The question of what made them decide that clothing item was suddenly an undesirable item in less than a year arises. The truth is that media and society is what made us want to throw it away because it was no longer up to their idea of beauty. I think it is important to stand firm to your beliefs and opinions because if you don’t you could get lost in the mix of media and lose your values. This is relevant in the way women are altering their appearance to accommodate to media’s definition of beauty.

Recently since the 1990s, we have seen a sudden surge of dieting ads in women’s magazines. Popular women magazines are 10 times more likely to have dieting ads than in men’s magazines (Kovar). Advertisements are having large impacts on women causing them to feel like they are not good enough, leading them to take up opportunities to change the way they look. Lately there has been an increase in plastic surgery among women. 91% of cosmetic procedures are done on women (“Killing Us Softly 4”). It is clear that ads and media sell products causing women to believe that if they buy it, they will be prettier and happier; but really they send the message that we must spend time, energy, and money to achieve the “ideal” look for a woman, causing body dissatisfaction. Along with making women feel that their sole purpose is to maintain their appearance, media selectively defines what is beautiful. What is considered beautiful in the media is confined to a certain image excluding more ethnic looking and heavier sized women. What is considered to be the “ideal” woman is being thin and having the features of a white female. To start, there is an overwhelmingly lack of diversity in the modeling/ fashion industry. In the most recent study of this year’s New York fashion week out of 4,479 models that walked the runway this year, 3,706 of them were white meaning that only 773 models were of color including Blacks, Latinos, and Asians (Sauers). Thirteen companies including Calvin Klein, J Brand, and Juicy Couture had absolutely no models of color (Sauers). The fact that 250

only 17% of the models at NYFW were of color is concerning; what’s even worse is that the models that are not white have Caucasian features such as light skin, straight hair, different colored eyes, or a fine nose (“Killing Us Softly 4). One rarely sees dark-skinned models with African features, which give the impression that having more ethnic lineaments is not beautiful. Another selective quality that the media finds “beautiful” is thinness. Ironically the typical body size of women in media has decreased while the average size for an American woman has increased. The fact that our society rarely shows overweight women in media while almost always showing underweight women is a problem because being underweight is just as, if not more, unhealthy as being obese. In fact a recent study showed that the majority of models met the body mass indication benchmark to being anorexic or extremely underweight (Kovar). Today the average model weighs 23% less than the average American woman (Lovett). The BMI of models decreases each year. In a study that asked teenage girls to specifically identify what was beautiful by what they saw in most fashion magazines they identified the “ideal” female to be in her early 20’s, 5’7, weigh 100 pounds, has long blond hair, and blue eyes (Thompson). Our society praises certain looks while excluding others and more importantly what is seen as “beautiful” is shallow focusing on appearance rather than personality or health. In the last couple of years we have noticed that girls who are affected by media are getting younger and younger. Given that

adolescent girls are the most at risk for body dissatisfaction when young girls develop a low self-esteem it can be the most harmful. Consciousness of your appearance can begin as early as age 5, and 53% of 13 year old girls find themselves unattractive (Trice). By the age of 17 more than 78% of girls do not like their body (“Mind on the Media”). These statistics show how powerful media is that even young girls have concerns about their appearance and the way they look. Constant exposure to media’s idea of beauty can lead to unrealistic expectations in regard to one’s appearance. The images we see of models are photoshopped and digitally edited on an average of more than 20 times (“Killing Us Softly 4”). Media leads viewers to believe a certain look is attainable when realistically it is electronically altered to be made to look literally perfect. A study done by Gonzalez-Lavin and Smolak showed that girls who watched more than 8 hours of television a week were significantly dissatisfied with their bodies than girls who viewed less (Thompson). Adolescent girls who frequently read magazines and who were highly exposed to media’s portrayal of women developed psychological problems 5 years later (“Educate Yourself”). Ultimately, overexposure to misconceptions in media can have serious consequences. With an increasingly thin “ideal” across media for women to attain there has been a surge in eating disorders among girls. The main drive of developing an eating disorder is poor body image and this is relevant with the pressure media places on 251

girls to be thin and tall. The National Eating Disorder Association proved that over the past couple of years there has been a massive increase in eating disorders (Kovar). Multiple studies have shown that low self esteem and a negative confidence puts girls at the highest risk of developing an eating disorder. Girls are constantly shown models that are typically 13-19% below the healthy weight. To reach the level of thinness that models are today, one would have to take extreme measures (“Educate Yourself’). Given that teenagers are the most susceptible to media we are seeing higher rates for adolescent girls developing eating disorders: in fact more than 90% of people diagnosed with an eating disorder are between the ages of 12-25 (“Body Image and Nutrition”). In a study done with girls between the ages 9-10 it was revealed that 40% of them have tried to lose weight (“Body Image and Nutrition”). As the girls that are affected continue to get younger and younger we realize that the frequency of eating disorders increases with exposure to media. One of the most provoking studies of this hypothesis was done in Fiji. After Fiji began exposing their island to western media there was a drastic surge in eating disorders and depression; more than half of the teenage girls on that island experienced feelings of body dissatisfaction (Spettigue). It has been proven multiple times that media is a factor of negative body image which could lead to developing an eating disorder. The lack of power women have in deciding what type of media is represented to the public has a lot to do with the misrepresen-

tation of women in media. Women only own 5.8% of all television stations (“Miss Representation”). That means that the majority of media we watch is all run through by men. While there may be some men who are sensitive to showing all kinds of women the majority are inconsiderate not knowing the consequences it can have on the average women. Aside from television women only hold 3% of high positions of advertisement and entertainment companies in the US (“Miss Representation”). Almost all of the media we are exposed to on a daily basis is not run through by women. Only 7% of directors, 13% of writers, and 20% of producers are female (“Miss Representation”). Men would have the same complaints if women were conveying them in their “ideal” way. It is the same as a man representing women in media instead of showing different kinds of women they will only show the “ideal” and “beautiful” woman. There has not been much improvement in fact, in some areas of media the amount of women in charge has decreased. The number of female directors has decreased by 9% after 1998 (Batyzel). Currently males hold 92% of high positions in television shows (Sedghi). Ultimately it is unfair that there is such a high percentage of male authority in media. There should at least be an equal amount of representatives of both genders. Even though we are surrounded by media every single day and it may seem impossible, one can take action to eventually change media’s image of women. A simple action one can take is boycotting media that degrades women such as not watching 252

movies or buying magazines that don’t show positive images of women (“Take Action”). A more extreme way to take action is to write an email, letter, or sign a petition to express your complaints about any company’s portrayal of women (“Take Action”). Lastly, one can read and support blogs, magazines, and companies that are working to display a more positive image of a variety of women that doesn’t confine to a certain image. If one is uncomfortable displaying complaints for certain companies you can work within yourself. First, one can become educated to offset the media and more importantly raise awareness to those around them. Try removing as much entertainment and ads as much as you can to build up confidence. One of the most effective ways to maintaining a good self esteem is to eat healthy and remain active (Huebeck). In larger groups of people, organizations are providing intervention and raising awareness among girls because learning at a young age that you can be happy at any size can boost body image when they become older (Huebeck). Other methods include group therapy which is one of the treatments Krissa Lebacqz uses at the Bay School of San Francisco to help girls that struggle with body dissatisfaction. She believes that speaking up and hearing other people’s story is very therapeutic. She provides a girls group at Bay after school in hopes of providing a safe space for girls to express their feelings and talk without feeling judged. Ultimately if one can understand that the images in magazines are digitally altered they will be able to feel better about themselves. It is im-

portant to keep a positive outlook in hopes that media will stop sending the message that beauty is a woman’s primary existence, that a certain look or weight is a source of happiness, and that a women should feel ashamed about her appearance. One of the causes of this problem is that media’s image of what is beautiful is limited to a certain image which is being young, white, thin, and tall. The fact that the media rarely associates people of color as what is beautiful is concerning, causing the average women or girl to feel bad about the way she looks, and take extreme measures to confine herself to what is considered beautiful. Recently a problem that has emerged as a result of body dissatisfaction and what is shown in the media is a high percentage of girls developing eating disorders. The BMI of a typical model is significantly under the healthy benchmark and is considered to be anorexic. As the rates of women and girls developing eating disorders increases collectively we need to help find a solution. In order to solve this problem, girls need to realize that the images we see in media are digitally altered so many times that it is no longer even the model we are seeing instead it is a man made image of what is considered to be “perfection.” If we continue to advocate and speak up about our concerns in media, we may be able to see a change in media, showing a broader spectrum of what is considered “beautiful” that includes all types of females. One of the most powerful statements explaining the root cause of body dissatisfaction is what Connie Sobczak stated during an interview that I con253

ducted with her. Connie Sobczak is the co-founder of the Body Positive which is an organization that trains girls to be confident in their bodies. When I asked her what she thought the root cause of media causing body dissatisfaction was, she replied by saying “fear, because we live in a fear based society; fear separates us and makes us afraid of people judging us if we look different, causing us to do anything to fit the norm” (Sobczak). Even though I had never considered fear to be one of the main factors to a low self-esteem, I realized that fear is ultimately the main cause to almost all problems in society. We are afraid of not fitting in, and sadly we compromise our principles to conform to media’s standards. Until we can accept ourselves for who we are and learn to love and appreciate life and our bodies we will be able to overcome the pressure media or anyone in particular places on us.

“Educate Yourself.” About-Face. About-Face. Web. 21 Mar. 2013.

I would like to acknowledge Jane Uyeda, John Ludeke, and Sidney Johnson for editing and reviewing my paper.

“Portrayal of Women in Popular Media.” World Savvy. World Savvy Monitor, May 2009. Web. 1 Apr. 2013.

Works Cited

Sauers, Jenna. “Fashion Weeks Models are Getting Whiter.” Jezebel. Jezebel, Web. 1 May 2013.

“Body Image and Nutrition.” Teen Health and the Media. University of Washington, Web. 23 Apr. 2013. Derenne, Jennifer. “Academic Psychiatry.” Psychiatry Online. Psychiatry Online, 01 May 2006. Web. 21 March 2013.

Huebeck, Elizabeth.“Helping Girls With Body Image.” Healthy Beauty. WebMD, Web. 23 Apr. 2013. Killing Us Softly 4. Jean Kilbourne, 2010. DVD. Kovar, Allie. “Effects of the Media on Body Image.” Health Psychology Home Page. Vanderbilt University, 30 Apr. 2009. Web. 17 Apr. 2013. Lovett, Edward. “Most Models Meet Criteria for Anorexia, Size 6 Is Plus Size: Magazine.” Nation. ABC News, 12 Jan. 2012. Web. 14 May 2013. Miss Representation. Jennifer Siebel Newsom, 2011. DVD.

“Shocking.” Mind on the Media. Mind on the Media, 2013. Web. 14 May 2013. Spettigue, Wendy. “Eating Disorders and the Role of Media.” NCBI. PMC, Feb. 2004. Web. 16 Apr. 2013. 254

“Take Action.” About-Face. About-Face. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Thompson, Kevin. The Media’s Influence on Body Image Disturbance and Eating Disorders: We Reviled Them, Now Can We Rehabilitate Them? University of Southern Florida, 1999. PDF file. Trice, Dawn. “Miss Representation film addresses negative media images of women.” Chicago Tribune. Chicago Tribune, 29 Aug. 2011. Web. 22 Mar. 2013

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Sidney Johnson

The Effect of Racial Stereotypes on our Everyday Mindsets and Values: Our Silence is Consent We begin life with no say in who we are. It is completely out of our control. We cannot decide what color our skin is, what our parents believe in, or who we love, yet those are the factors that shape our very being in this country from day one. “We don’t question our identities at this point. We just are who we are” (Adams 16) and these are the moments to cherish. The moments when just because your skin is a darker brown doesn’t mean you can “automatically run faster than anyone else” or that “you’re a gang member” or just because your eyes are blue and your hair is blonde you’ll have more opportunity in

this world. In this one moment, none of these socially restricting phrases matter. “…for all races are simply variations of a single human species of common prehistoric ancestry” (Adams 23). We are no different than one another, but the second we are set free into this world we are labeled with invisible tags pinned to our sleeves, called stereotypes. Stereotypes subtly find their way into our lives and without our awareness, they shape who we are, who we become, and many of our values. Racial stereotypes have been a part of American society for almost 400 years. They are built upon history, habit, tradition, prejudices, myths and early 20th century media (Adams 17, “Ethnic Notions”). The first stereotypes emerged from early 17th century America when the Americans encountered the Native Americans and attempted to wipe out their kind immediately upon their arrival with a mindset that all Native Americans were savages and showed a threat toward the power of the nation. “’In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue’. . . and made the first contact with the "Indians" (Trabich). For Native Americans, the world after 1492 would never be the same. This date marked the beginning of the long road of persecution and genocide of Native Americans, our indigenous people…” (Trabich). It is ironic that this country lives off of the phrase “liberty and justice for all” when our nation was built off of a slave system and an attempt to annihilate an entire population of settled people (Zuñiga and Castañeda). Eventually, the white man prevailed 256

and created opportunities for themselves – that supposedly provided opportunity “for all”. As time progressed, so did the demand for African slaves, which lead to a rapid African population increase. During this time, “Clergy preached that slavery was the will of God. Scientists ‘proved’ that blacks were less evolved – a subspecies of the human race” (“Slavery in America”). This is how the biased views of blacks all started. This social history of the United States has become and shaped the system of white privilege that continues to shift into American society today. “Privilege exists when one group has something of value that is denied to others simply because of the groups they belong to, rather than because of anything they’ve done or failed to do. Access to privilege doesn’t determine one’s outcomes, but it is definitely an asset that makes it more likely that whatever talent, ability, and aspirations a person with privilege has will result in something positive for them” (McIntosh). It is also important not to forget that “Whiteness would not exist without blackness to define its superiority” (“Zuñiga and Castañeda”). This country was built to benefit the white man. Simply the lighter shade of one’s skin opens so many doors of opportunity. “Most white men don’t need to look very far into their own lives to see how [they] have benefitted from the opportunities available to [them] and denied to all others” (“Zuñiga and Castañeda”). This is an advantage that that whites rarely realize they have. They do not have to deal with any identity contingencies – “the things you have to deal with in

a situation because you have a given social identity” (Steele). There is such an imbalance of power and it shows if you really look for it. It’s not surprising that many whites do not notice the existence of stereotypes and how they work in their favor. Because the powerful are not negatively affected by stereotypes, most fail to recognize just how powerful they can be (Fiske 625). “Subordinate groups” have the least known about them and it leads to the exploitation, victimization and discrimination through common phrases that are assumptions about entire groups (stereotypes) (Fiske). “The powerless are stereotyped because no one needs to…or wants to be detailed and accurate about them” (Fiske 623) As mentioned above, because stereotypes do not affect the powerful negatively or impact their lives greatly, the messages sent from stereotypes go unnoticed because power is gained from the often untrue statements (Adams 18). White man is very defensive when it comes to racism, all white men are, “…to some extent, in denial about the ways that racism continues to benefit [white men] and hurt people of color” (Zuñiga and Castañeda). But what is the real proof that white privilege actually exists?

Examples of Privilege   According to “What is White Privilege, being able to… 257

• assume that most of the people you or your children study in history classes and textbooks will be of the same race as you are • assume that your failures will not be attributed to your race • assume that if you work hard and follow the rules, you will get what you deserve • success without other people being surprised, and without being held to a higher standard • go out in public without fear of being harassed or constantly worried about physical safety • Not having to think about your race on a daily basis... (“What is White Privilege?”). These are not common thoughts running through the minds of the everyday white individual. McIntosh states, “I think whites are carefully taught not to recognize white privilege…” (Mcintosh). However, this is not the fault of the white individual, it is the chain effect that was formed many generations ago. Essentially, white privilege is an unconscious privilege, “much of their oppressiveness was unconscious” (Mcintosh). It seems normal to have such opportunities in life often coming from families of such success. “White privilege is like an invisible weightless

knapsack of special provisions, maps, passports, codebooks, visas, clothes, tools and blank checks” (Mcintosh). The reasons that stereotypes have remained in our society for so long are simple. Prejudice can be used by dominant groups to maintain power and control, although not always knowingly (as mentioned above), some people are aware of their prejiduce. Because stereotypes help to maintain power, some people who directly benefit from stereotypes continue to support them because it keeps them where they are in social hierarchy, which is at the top. Many parents in our modern day society continue to pass these values down to their children which only adds to this cycle of never ending privilege and the idea of racial superiority. “Power encourages stereotyping…they exert control…maintain and justify the status quo” (Fiske 621). Now, how might the powerful being seeing these facts? The powerful often see the above statements as attacks. These are some common responses when subjects such as stereotypes are brought up… “Today they give everything away to anybody, and they don’t deserve it…” says a Caucasian-American man. “How long will white men have to pay for the sins of slavery?” says another Caucasian-American man.

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“Minorities cannot categorize all whites and say that they are 100% the cause because by saying that, they are being hypocrites and doing it right back” says yet another white male. Stereotypes are a “poorly understood part of social reality” and it isn’t fair that we are “…born into a world where all of the mechanics, assumptions, rules, roles and structures of oppression are already in place and functioning…[we] are falling into an already established system” (Adams 16). Not all whites believe the statements stated above, but the existence of such attitudes prevent the stereotype system from coming to an end. And one might ask, “Why don’t we just ignore the messages that are being sent through stereotypes?” The response is, “Well because not only do the messages exist, but they are enforced” (Adams 19). Now what exactly are the effects of stereotypes? Who do they really affect? Stereotypes are hurtful, whether they have originated from truth or not, and the fact that so many people in this world live by these ideas makes it all even harder to rid of. Stereotypes have become so imbedded in our society that prejudice, racial discrimination and inequality have become a part of the “American Experience” (Zuñiga & Castañeda). We use a biased version of intersubjectivity to maneuver around our society and we use it to judge people. Intersubjectivity is defined as “the fact that as members of society we [think we] have a pretty good idea of what other members of our society think about lots

of things (including major groups and identities)” (Steele 5). This is just a single way of how stereotypes are enforced around us. We let our social identities define us and our actions; from the classroom to standardized test performance, to athletic performance to the pressure that comes from the customs (Steele 4). This inter-subjectivity has caused stereotypes to become a “starting point when meeting new people” (Fiske 623). This is one of the unfair advantages that people of color must constantly experience. Let us take a scenario when a black man is interviewing for a new job, that man will automatically have something to prove to his boss just because of his skin tone. “Once a stereotype is present, we notice the behavior that supports it rather than rejects it…when stereotyping occurs people tend to overlook all other characteristics of the group” (Adams 23-24). This means that any person of color is forced to break the stereotypes that have already been set for them, stereotypes such as they aren’t “qualified” or they “don’t work hard” or “they’re thieves”. Yes, there are black men and women who aren’t qualified, don’t work hard and are thieves, but there are also Asians, Latinos and whites that are just the same… “if one black person does something, we all suffer. Every last one of us” (“Skin Deep”). In our current society, even with a black man as our president, people of color continue to constantly have to break barriers and prove that they are capable of everything and anything the white man can do. Nowadays, the term “un259

qualified” has become a subtle way of calling someone inferior. It has become an updated and socially acceptable way of referring to people of color (Fiske) and is a common term used to explain a reason someone may not receive employment. This is one of the more subtle ways of how stereotypes affect our everyday lives and this mindset is unacceptable. People don’t want to be stereotyped because it limits their freedom…it “anchors the interaction, weighing it down and holding it back” (Fiske 621-623). Steve Morris, head of The San Francisco School, is a bi-racial man. He is of both African American and Caucasian descent. “My race has definitely gotten me into places, and it has certainly kept me out…I hate the idea of this system…” He recognizes that his white privilege has helped to benefit him and so has his blackness. But he is also aware that his African American descent has limited him in other parts of his life. Speaking up as a person of color takes courage and it is very easy to be misjudged in the process. “Black people are always known as complainers when they speak up” (“Skin Deep”) especially when it comes to simple everyday things. Stereotyping haunts our present and past as human beings, without them, there would be so much less of a need to exclude and hate (Fiske 621). So what can we do to change? It all begins with what we teach our new generations and what we expose them to. Our families and the adults who raise us are the ones who shape us the most, and that is where we start. (Do

not forget that parents cannot be blamed…as stated earlier, we are “…[we] are falling into an already established system” (Adams 16).) At this point in American society it really is no one’s fault but our ancestors, they shaped our current culture and we follow it because it’s all we know. But that is what we need to change. Education is the key. Education and open mindedness. Steve Morris, whose school has a mission to promote diversity discusses the importance of exposing children to diverse environments at a young age. “We must build coalitions with people who are like us and people who are different from us” (Adams 21). It will inform children that we are no different than one another because of race or skin tone and as they grow up, they won’t remember that one black girl as “that black girl” they’ll remember her as a friend, just like any other kid in their class. What makes it most difficult to solve stereotype issues are that people are scared, no one ever wants to be the first to speak out, but it must be done. If you aren’t trying to make the change, then you’re just accepting it (“Skin Deep”). “Many of us choose to do nothing because it is easier to stay with what is familiar…until our discomfort becomes larger than our comfort, we will probably stay in this cycle” (Adams 20). There have been numerous attempts to end racial discrimination in the U.S., but what is needed most is the support of the people. It is virtually impossible to end the long history of stereotypes by just telling people to stop what they’re doing, racial stereotypes and 260

prejudices are too deeply “…embedded in the history and culture of the U.S. to be eliminated simply by changing a law” (Zuñiga & Castañeda). It takes the complete cooperation of the people who make up the society to change the ways of the society. The first step that needs to be taken is the education of both adults and the youth, as Steve Morris mentions. The next step is getting the attention of the powerful by reminding them of the “equality” values of American society (Fiske 627). We have to raise awareness, especially to the powerful and their attention must be brought to these issues so that they are knowledgeable of the problems. If people just “pay attention” they are less likely to stereotype (Fiske 627). None of us want to be responsible for what has happened in the past. We were not there and we cannot change or control what was believed and who was discriminated against. But it is now 2013 and it is time to embark on the journey for change. We can, and must make a difference. “All men are created equal…” says the constitution, so let’s make it happen.

Acknowledgements: I would like to acknowledge Jane Uyeda, Summer Johnson, Bianca Galarza, John Ludeke, Sylvia Johnson and Brendan Dunlap for contributing ideas to, editing and/or reviewing my paper.

Works Cited Adams, Maurianne. “Conceptual Frameworks.” Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. ET.PA. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print. Almaguer, Tomás. Racial Fault Lines. Berkeley. University of California Press, 1994. Print. Color Adjustment. Kleiman, Vivian & Riggs, Marlon, 2004. DVD. Ethnic Notions. Riggs, Marlon, 2004. DVD. Fiske, Susan. The Impact of Power on Stereotyping. American Psychological Association, 1993. PDF. Mcintosh, Peggy. “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack.” Wayne State University. Wayne State University, 1990. Web. 5.14.2013. Skin Deep. Reid, Frances, 1995. DVD. “Slavery in America.” Ferris State University. Ferris State University, 2012. Web. 5.14.2013. Steele, Claude. Whistling Vivaldi And Other Clues to How Stereotypes Affect Us. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2010. Print.

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Thomas, Paul. “The Corrosive Power of Stereotypes in Politics and Education.” National Education Policy Center. Regents of the University of Colorado, 2012. Web. 3.27.2013. Trabich, Leah. “Native American Genocide Still Haunts United States.” iEARN. iEARN, 2005. Web. 5.14.2013. “What is White Privilege?” White Privilege Conference. The White Privilege Conference, 2013. Web. 5/11/2013. Zúñiga, Ximena, and Castañeda, Rosie. “Racism.” Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. ET.PA. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print.

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Danielle Konovich

Procrasti – eh. I’ll think of this title later Do you ever wonder why you can’t just sit down and focus on one thing? Most people say that it’s easy, to just sit down and get it over with. The theory is: you have two names, “present you” and “future you”. People always choose to relax their present self, and leave the unpleasant work for their future self. Even when they know their future self can’t be trusted. And be aware of the fact that you aren’t a bad manager of your time, but rather you are a bad consul in the war inside your head: Procrastination is easily and often misinterpreted. Although many parents believe that procrastination is a simple act of laziness, studies have proven that it is often caused by anxiety or perfectionism, hence scolding a student for putting work off only makes him/her less motivated and more stressed. When parents scold their teen for not starting work when they expect them to and labeling it as a teenage issue, they have forgotten that they procrastinate too. The fact is that everyone is prone to procrastination because it is human nature to avoid un-

pleasant tasks. Adults may sometimes know how to manage their time better because generally they have more life experience and aware of most consequences, or are motivated by their payment/responsibility to provide essentials for their family. No matter what circumstances, most humans procrastinate – even top economists and people you’d expect to be responsible and proactive 100% of the time. A few years back, an economist George Akerlof had to mail a box of clothes from India to his colleague in the United States. It would take a full work day to do this, so he put it off week after week. 8 months passed and the amount of clothes was becoming greater as he had to ship more to another friend. In the same way, work gets greater and more stressful as you keep putting it off. The moral of the story is, even Nobel Prize winning economists procrastinate! Most people do, instinctually, and Akerlof sincerely intended to get his clothes back to his friend. He didn’t understand what happened. He later wrote that he was always about to send it, but the actual moment never arrived. Akerolf became a central figure in behavioral economics. (“Later”). He realized that procrastination wasn’t just a bad habit, “It revealed something important about the limits of rational thinking and that it could teach us useful lessons about phenomena as diverse as substance abuse and saving habits” (“What we can learn”). An essay with his arguments was published and procrastination be263

came a significant field study in academia with philosophers, psychologists, and economists. Many arguments arose against the belief that procrastination is caused by only laziness – although laziness can be a factor, the reasons why people procrastinate vary. Behaviorists, people who study philosophy, methodology, and theory; believe that procrastination develops from the human preference for pleasurable activities and short term rewards. “Want” never goes away, and most of the time it beats “should”. If someone gave you a choice between giving you $50 now or $100 in a year, you would most likely choose $50 now because who wants to wait? And who knows what will happen in a year? Hyperbolic discounting is the tendency to think rationally when you are forced to wait. “Dismissal of better payoff later diminishes over time and makes a nice slope on a graph” (“You Are Not So Smart”). Hyperbolic discounting makes later an easy place to put off the unpleasant things you don’t want to deal with at the moment. The future is a “mysterious fantastical realm of possibilities” that you leave all the work to, because somehow there’s always more free time there than there is in the present moment. When you watch your favorite TV show and put off studying for finals, you may think you’re only slacking. If you dig deeply, you will realize you were actually “engaging in a practice that illuminates the fluidity of human identity and the complicated relationship human beings have to time”.

In other cases, people who base their self image off their academic performance and have a fear of failure use procrastination subconsciously as a strategy for protecting their fragile self esteem: “Levels of anxiety arousal can affect the extent to which individuals believe that they are able to handle threatening situations and vice versa (Bandura, 1986)” ("Procrastination in College Students: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Anxiety"). “The Thief of Time” is a collection of essays on procrastination which explores philosophical and psychological issues written by various scholars edited by Chrisoula Andreou and Mark D. White. One essay by George Ainslie argues that procrastination is a basic human impulse. That is probably true, but anxiety, one of the causes and effects, is an issue that ties into procrastination. It ties into that concept of basing one’s self image off of academic performance – students are often anxious about tests, large assignments and other school related tasks because of the chance they won’t do a good enough job. Some other common reasons include the inability to make decisions, the inability to prioritize, and sometimes a student could be rebelling against strict parents. Students who can’t make decisions take too much time trying to make decisions and never start their projects, which causes delay. People with the inability to prioritize find it hard to make a list of task in order from most important to least, and usually start with the least important/ easiest task because they know they’ll finish it quickly and have

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a break. When a student procrastinates only to go against their parents, they are not realizing how it could backfire. A well known consequence is quite obviously a disappointing report card. Students see bad grades because of late or incomplete assignments, bad grades because of their lack of studying for tests, bad grades because they weren’t doing what they were supposed to be doing. The external consequences include impaired academic and work progress, lost opportunities, and even strained relationships. Internal consequences include irritation, regret, despair, and self blame. That’s also not the only consequence, because procrastination does not only have to do with school work. The consequences are now endless, and one would be surprised, but this issue is also a costly one. Every year, according to statistics, Americans waste hundreds of millions of dollars because they don’t pay their taxes on time. Executives of the American auto industry often delay tough decisions, hence this industry is declining. (“Later”). According to Harvard economist David Laibson, American workers “have forgone huge amounts of money in matching 401k contributions because they never got around to signing up for a retirement plan” (Quoted in “What we can learn”). Many become at risk of job loss because of this bad habit. 70% of glaucoma patients don’t use their eye drops as often as they need to, and are at risk of becoming blind. A list of victims and consequences could go on forever (“Later”).

A present study proposes that “not all procrastination behaviors either are harmful or lead to negative consequences” ( "’Rethinking Procrastination: Positive Effects of ‘Active’ Procrastination Behavior on Attitudes and Performance”). Researchers have discovered that other than the common passive procrastinator – the type of procrastinator that comes to mind when pondering procrastination, there is the active procrastinator who prefers to work under pressure. They deliberately procrastinate at the same degree as passive procrastinators but have total control of time, self efficacy belief, coping styles, and successful outcomes in academic performance. An example of this is a student that perhaps procrastinates all night on the day the assignment was assigned, and wakes up earlier in the morning to start or finish the assignment. However this is a very rare case, and if it isn’t a student’s, the student has the potential to not only overcome the habit but turn it into something beneficial. The first step one would need to take to overcome this weakness and not deal with the pressures of parents and teachers scolding them is to stop thinking they’re amazing and that they can get things done no matter when they start. They most likely don’t have will power, they always choose then over now and want over should; but it’s okay, because they’re human. When a student thinks about his/her mindset and admits they have no will power because of human childish nature, he/she will realize that the next step is to eliminate all the distractions. 265

It would be an extraordinary and helpful idea to identify tools such as Cold Turkey and Freedom to block certain distracting websites for a certain number of hours, ask your parents to take your phone away (this one’s hard) – anything you need to do to get started. Sitting on social media sites and texting now seems more pleasant, but we all know this isn’t half as rewarding as the straight A’s on your report card you have the potential to see. After eliminating distractions, notice how you deal with your deadlines: Spread work out in an organized manner. Usually this is hard when you have no guidelines and you end up putting all the work for the last minute, so buckle down and put in the effort! Buy a daily planner or make a To Do list. When dealing with complex projects or big assignments that are overwhelming, you are vulnerable and extremely prone to procrastination. Break the project into small components, and then complete each component individually. Tackling tasks that aren’t appealing to you is painful, but the tasks need to be done, so implement a reward system. For instance, for every assignment you complete, you can reward yourself with a refreshing 15 minute break (Holly Gordon). Or, for every hour of work you complete you can have a 15 minute break, but don’t forget to set an alarm for yourself as to not get carried away. These guidelines to break this scary habit are

also included in over 600 books which guarantee to help you snap out of it. Although we live in the 21st century, procrastination remains a poorly understood phenomenon. “You’ll get around to it. You’ll start tomorrow. You’ll take the time to learn a foreign language, to learn how to play an instrument. There’s a growing list of books you’ll read one day” (“Procrastination – You Are Not So Smart”). Then you find excuses and other things to do that would individually take little time, but compiled together could take up a whole life. Present you is not facing consequences and uncomfortable situations – present you isn’t stressed or worried. Future you will be.

Works Cited “Beating Procrastination.” Mind Tools. April 2011. Web. March 26, 2013. Cain, David. “Procrastination is Not Laziness.” Thought Catalog. February 26, 2013. Web. March 3, 2013. Edwards, Jonathan. “Procrastination.” The Mountain Retreat. March 3, 2013. Gold, Karen. “At the end of the day, do we really need homework?” The Independent. September 21, 1995. Web. March 3, 2013. 266

Gordon, Holly. Personal interview. April 20th, 2013. Jane B. Burka; Lenora M. Yuen (2008). Procrastination: Why You Do It, What to Do About It Now. Da Capo Lifelong Books. Kasland, Karen. "Procrastination makeover: homework edition." Current Health Teens, a Weekly Reader publication Sept. 2011: 16+. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 4 Apr. 2013.

Surowiecki, James. “Later.” The New Yorker. October 11, 2010. Web. March 3, 2013. “6 Reasons Why You Are Procrastinating.” Life Hack. December 2013. Web. March 26,, 2013.

Knaus, Dr. Bill. “A Historical View of Procrastination.” Psychology Today. April 7, 2011. Web. March 3, 2013. Laurel, A. Haycock, Patricia McCarthy, and L. Skay Carol. "Procrastination in College Students: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Anxiety." Journal of Counseling and Development : JCD 76.3 (1998): 317-24. ProQuest. Web.29 Mar. 2013. Lee, Dong-gwi; Kelly, Kevin R.; Edwards, Jodie K. (2006). "A closer look at the relationships among trait procrastination, neuroticism, and conscientiousness". Personality and Individual Differences “Procrastination.” You Are Not So Smart. David McCraney, October 2010. Web. March 26, 2013. Steel, Piers (2010). The Procrastination Equation: How to Stop Putting Things Off and Start Getting Stuff Done. New York: Harper Collins. 267

Monica Lee

Why Should We Speak for the Trees? Imagine going down a street in San Francisco and not seeing any trees. Currently, the street tree population is decreasing and many people are unaware of this issue, so if nothing happens about it, there could be a treeless San Francisco. Every year, the city is losing more than 3,000 of its street trees because there are not enough planted to replace those that die. A few years ago, the city of San Francisco was not financially able to care for the trees on the streets and decided to turn them over to the homeowners, but some of those homeowners cannot cover the tree costs themselves and do not take responsibility for the tree. Trees may not always be appealing because of human allergies, leaves falling on the sidewalk, and damages caused by parts of the tree falling. However, the benefits of having street trees in your neighborhood would outweigh those issues because cleaner air, a safer environment, and visually improving the surroundings are worth paying for. In San Francisco, there is a decrease of the trees on the streets because of the city’s financial problems and although trees can

cause some issues through the costs and damages, planting more trees is a beneficial solution because trees are environmentally friendly and physically attractive. For the city of San Francisco, giving the street trees to homeowners saved money by lowering the budget, but it was not an easy process. From losing the responsibility of more than 23,000 trees, the city was able to save “$600,000 out of a $6.8 billion budget” (Garcia). To get the trees to the homeowners, the city first had to make sure that each tree was healthy with no problems and “each tree [was] evaluated by a city arborist and certified safe and healthy before it [was] moved to private care. Any problems found [had] to be dealt with at the city's expense” (Wildermuth). The city thought that trees were not important enough to maintain, but necessary enough to move them to someone else’s care. However, to the people who received healthy trees, it was not fair because the city planted the trees and should be responsible for them. Dan Flanagan, the executive director of Friends of the Urban Forest believes, “The city doesn't turn over the sewer system; it doesn't turn over the streets. It shouldn't turn over trees” (Gordon). When the city decided to plant the trees, there were no plans about the future of the street trees and it is San Francisco’s fault for not thinking ahead. After all, the city “planted thousands of new trees without any funding to maintain them” (Wiener “Saving Our Urban Forest”). In this econ268

omy, people want to save money and prioritize their needs causing things to be ignored. Therefore, the city giving the trees in front of houses to homeowners was just a way to save the city money and they should have thought more about the homeowners. Although San Francisco has many other responsibilities to take care of, there should be more priority to the tree care because even before the movement of trees to homeowners, the trees were not properly cared for. During the years when the city was still responsible for the trees, the money spent on the trees were not actually caring for all the trees, but just those that needed it the most. The city had “About 80 percent of the department’s spending on trees [was] focused on responding to emergencies and not regular care” (Riley). In 2012, the care for the trees was not meeting the suggested requirements and that was a big reason why the trees were given away. Gloria Chan stated, “we're in a 10- to 12-year pruning cycle now and the cycle will get longer and longer” (Wildermuth), but it is recommended “to prune most trees every three to five years” (qtd. in Wildermuth). The city’s funds were not enough to cover the costs of their trees because they spent most of the money elsewhere, prioritizing the citizen’s health and safety. Scott Wiener, supervisor of San Francisco’s District 8, said, “Trees never win during the budget ... We have a lot of important priorities and trees do not compete well with public health and public safety" (Riley). Since the city’s hands were too full, turning over the

trees to homeowners seemed like the best thing to do. Ed Reiskin says, “We’d really rather not have to do this, but feel it’s the responsible and equitable thing to do, given the state of our resources” (Gordon). San Francisco may have wanted to give the trees away for the right reasons, but there are solutions that could have solved the problem without involving homeowners. Some of the homeowners were very unhappy because they did not plant the trees and now have to care for them, but it is not because they can afford the tree costs either. The city had other things to think about before prioritizing problems that might happen in the future and just gave the trees away. The trees were given “even if the property owners didn't plant the tree, didn't want the tree, or didn't have the resources, desire or knowledge to care for them adequately” (Wiener “Saving Our Urban Forest”). San Franciscans who cannot afford the tree are then stuck with a tree, which then causes financial issues for them instead of the city. Therefore, the homeowners cannot care for the trees, so when the trees need help, they cannot provide for its needs. Commissioner Hisashi Sugaya says, “It’s expensive to maintain street trees so [homeowners] let them die” (Sabatini “Rules on street-tree maintenance may toughen”). However, many citizens do not know that not caring for the tree can cause more financial problems. They city has penalties for citizens who do not maintain the tree. Those “penalties can reach several hundred dollars in addition to the cost of replacing the tree” (Sabatini “Rules on street-tree maintenance may 269

toughen”). The city made it very hard for the citizens with a tree to take care of and financial problems because the city is going to reject a removal of a healthy tree. Other than the battle between the citizens and San Francisco, there are other issues that San Francisco street trees have caused in the past and cause people to dislike trees. People have had allergies to trees, trees blocking their view of the scenery, and physical damages of cars, people, and streets. In some situations, a neighbor’s tree causes allergies to another neighbor and that would cause problems every day, especially in the spring. The health of all the trees in San Francisco, including those that were previously privately owned, is not the greatest and “around 4 percent of our trees die every year because of age or lack of proper attention” (”S.F. needs to take care of its trees”). So more than 4,000 trees are dying and only around 1,000 trees are being planted and not fully recovering the number of trees. Some people are also very annoyed from the sap of their trees causing damage to cars and tree roots coming up and damaging the sidewalk creating a dangerous road. Trees may also grow up to block a pretty scenic view, which can decrease the property value. Overall, there have been many issues with trees on the streets politically and physically, but there are ways of improving the situation. Yes, trees have caused issues in San Francisco, but there are solutions to those problems that any citizen can do. To prevent

allergies, neighbors can talk to their neighbors before the actual planting and discuss any situations that might come up. When planting a tree with Friends of the Urban Forest, the organization tries to get the whole neighborhood involved" and talking to neighbors is a part of the whole process. For financial problems, getting together with other members of the community to plan a fundraising event for the trees is a great way to get to know the neighborhood and fund for the trees. Friends of the Urban Forest may also be willing to take care of a tree for a few years, but have in mind that they have another 3,000 trees to care for. For the city and homeowner issue, if there is still a problem, a big group of citizens can create a petition for the city to add a parcel tax (Riley). The environment for the trees is also not that great and “the urban environment is a harsh place for trees to grow” (Sabatini “Supervisor wants to revisit issue of tree maintenance”), but if enough research is done before the planting, the tree will be fine. Trees are one of the best things in San Francisco and there should be more in the city. Starting with some basics, trees are good for the environment because carbon dioxide is taken in producing more oxygen, which helps decrease global warming. The cleaner air is better for people with asthma and in general just better for everyone because every house has a road nearby that is driven on my vehicles, which cause air pollution (Freudberg). Multiple street trees in neighborhoods tend to have less crime rates because the trees make the community 270

seem more friendly and communal. Neighborhoods with trees or just greener landscaping give off good vibes. In addition, when a tree is being planted, neighborhoods often become closer and neighbors can build lifelong relationships with one another because one day they decided to plant trees in their neighborhood (Freudberg). If there are many trees between a house and a busy street or loud noises, the sound will decrease because the trees would be like barriers protecting the house. Dan Flanagan says “trees provide community benefits, like improved air quality, reduced storm water runoff and a home for birds and other small animals” (Wildermuth). If planting a tree in front of the house is not preferable, planting trees in the backyard still would be good. Trees in backyards could be more enjoyable because there is the option of building a tree house or tree swing from the branches. There are also ways to make street trees fun, such as lining it with Christmas lights and building bird houses. Friends of the Urban Forest is a non-profit organization based in San Francisco that plants 1,200 trees in San Francisco. For an interview, Michele Palmer, the education coordinator, talked about how FUF covers most of the costs and planning, but tree planting is really a community thing to do. Getting the whole neighborhood involved in planting trees is crucial and important. FUF has their own mapping of the pipes and things, but before digging a hole in front of a house for a tree, checking multiple times for piping and electrical wires is very important. People

from the Pacific Gas and Electric Company should also check with their records, just to make sure. When getting a tree through FUF, they will take care of the planting and care for the tree for two years. As the interview ended, Michele walked around the office and we talked to her co-workers. One of them told me about how people love to donate to Friends of the Urban Forest, so there are many donations and that is where they get some of their funds. FUF is also raises money through memberships and advertising. The organization requires a lot of volunteers and people to spread the word about them because there would not be an organization without their volunteers. Every so often, FUF will provide free tree tours, where a group of people will walk around a neighborhood in San Francisco and learn about the trees in that neighborhood from an arborist or tree expert. Friends of the Urban Forest has also expanded beyond trees and now helps build sidewalk gardens, which are basically a bunch of plants on the sidewalk. The gardens take up less space height-wise, but width-wise, the gardens are much wider than the trees. Being wider, the sidewalk gardens are better for when there are storms because they can absorb more of the run-off water (Palmer). However, trees also “allow for greater absorption of water into the ground instead of our flood-prone sewer system” (Wiener “Maintaining San Francisco’s Trees -- Lots to Do and No Money”). Friends of the Urban Forest is “like The Lorax of San Francisco because we speak for the trees” (Dan). 271

The trees in San Francisco have cause many problems in the past, but now it is time to start improving and fixing the issues. The city has given over their street trees for financial reasons, so since the homeowners have the trees, they should now find a way to keep the tree instead of not caring for the trees and letting them die. The other issues that trees have caused in the past have solutions and many have easy solutions such as talking to neighbors. Before planting a street tree, there are many variables that must be considered, but the most important one is communicating with other people, whether it is the neighbor next door or the PG&E map holders. Friends of the Urban Forest is good to look at if you want to have a sidewalk garden, street tree, or just become more educated about the trees in San Francisco. Without Friends of the Urban Forest, San Francisco might end up being treeless and it would not be the same. San Francisco without trees would create a highly air polluted city that would slowly hurt everyone. Overall, even though trees have been the cause of many problems, there should not be a decrease of the number of trees in San Francisco because of the lack of care from citizens. Trees in every community, even outside of San Francisco, are important and bring people together creating a better, greener world. The point is not to have everyone become The Lorax, but for people to make an effort to try and make the city a greener place because San Francisco is slowly losing its trees and that will have a great impact in the future.

Works Cited Flanagan, Dan. Personal interview. Freudberg, David. “Tree-lined Streets.” Humankind. Humanmedia. 19 May 2013. Web. 19 May 2013. Garcia, Ken. “Money doesn’t grow on SF trees – quite the opposite.” The Examiner. SFExaminer, 19 June 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. Gordon, Rachel. “Ed Lee plants to pass tree costs to property owner.” SFGate. SFGate, 2 June 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. Palmer, Michele. Personal interview. 2 May 2013. Riley, Neal J.. “Who should care for SF street trees?” SFGate. SFGate, 25 Oct. 2012. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. Sabatini, Joshua. “Rules on street-tree maintenance may toughen.” The Examiner. SFExaminer, 28 Feb. 2010. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. Sabatini, Joshua. “Supervisor wants to revisit issue of tree maintenance.” The Examiner. SF Examiner, 13 Sep. 2012. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. ”S.F. needs to take care of its trees.” SFGate. SFGate, 9 Nov. 2012. Web. 20 Mar. 2013.

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Wiener, Scott. “Maintaining San Francisco’s Trees -- Lots to Do and No Money.” The Blog. Huffington Post, 18 July 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. Wiener, Scott. “Saving Our Urban Forest.” The Blog. Huffington Post, 17 Dec. 2012. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. Wildermuth, John. “S.F. begins turning tree care over to residents.” SFGate. SFGate, 16 Jan. 2012. Web. 20 Mar. 2013.

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Rosalyn Lemmo

Special Education and the Art Classroom Art is a valuable tool to help children with special needs grow and develop. However, many school systems around the country hinder children from gaining the full benefits from visual arts. The necessary modifications are not made, the collaborations between the art teacher and the special education teacher do not occur, and paraprofessionals block the authentic creative process. Because of the many social, academic, physical, mental and emotional benefits art poses to children with special needs, the necessary modifications and collaborations should be made to make art accessible and beneficial to all students experiencing disabilities. Before special education existed, art classrooms were an oasis to many disabled children. If they were not attending special schools they were put in to regular education classrooms without any accommodations. Art helped these students survive the demands of schools that ignored their individual needs. Beverly Gerber, and art educator who became a special educator when

her child was diagnosed with Down Syndrome, wrote, “Art education reached students with special needs long before federal special education laws were passed in 1975 and long before we had the words ‘mainstreaming’ and ‘inclusion’” (Gerber). With the amendment of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was implemented in 1997, people with disabilities were slowly integrated into regular school systems. Special education monopolized the education of disabled children in public schools as disabled children were put in special education classrooms because it was the least restrictive environment for them (Derby). A least restrictive environment is a classroom were a child with disabilities can be placed into and learn alongside typical peers comfortably, if a child is unable to be included because of the severity of their disability, the special education classroom would be their least restrictive environment. The enrollment in special schools decreased as the number of disabled students increased, and soon the idea of inclusion was introduced to students, teachers, and parents. Dr. Michelle Kraft, an art educator who teaches studio art and art education theory, wrote that IDEA was implemented in order to include people with disabilities into mainstream society after they graduated (Kraft). Art classrooms were the first to welcome disabled students (Derby). It was agreed upon generally in the mid 1970’s that art for disabled students was “a remedial effort suitable for building self 274

esteem and for rehabilitation” (Derby). Along with the art classrooms’ therapeutic benefits, they also served as a test case for other inclusive classes. Students were included into art to see if they could “make it” and go onto other classrooms. (Derby). Julie Causton-Theoharis and Corrie Burdick, two women who studied art education, said special educators then began to see the opportunities art classes had to meet curricular goals for special education students. Art began to be seen as a teaching strategy (Causton-Theoharis and Burdick). Visual art was a way to “train and reinforce deficient perceptual, motor and academic skills” (Causton-Theoharis and Burdick).In 2004 the placement of students with special needs in art classes increased due to the legislative mandates of IDEA “for educating students in the least restrictive environment alongside of typical peers” (Causton-Theoharis and Burdick). The art classroom is another “least restrictive environment” because of its inherent flexibility. Because both special education and art education are untraditional ways to reach children, they offer a very promising partnership. The compatibility between art education and special education is the reason why art classrooms can be integrative. Art has been seen as “the great equalizer” (Causton-Theoharis and Burdick). Christa Germain wrote that both art and special education goals are to teach and design activities that accommodate all levels of kids. Special education has methods that can be transferred into art classes, like understanding the goals for each stu-

dent individually (Germain). Normalization approaches to inclusion can allow a disabled child to participate in class like their “typical” peers (Kraft). The interactions between disabled and non-disabled students can provide a pathway to diminishing stereotypes and building social skills. The inclusive art room provides a social context for regular interactions to occur that are not teacher directed and because the arts can be personal and meaningful, they provide a situation where both disabled and non-disabled students can share their beliefs (Dr. Derby). The law states that an “inclusive (art) class-one that educated learners with a variety of (dis)abilities-should seek to provide opportunities to develop the individual in these aspects of contribution through full participation and self actualization, for these are among the basis of the philosophy behind the special education mandate” (Kraft).The challenge of inclusive art education is in “regarding how to design a universal curriculum that accommodates the learning abilities of all students and to access them accordingly” (Causton-Theoharis and Burdick). Children with special needs can have very rewarding experiences in inclusive classrooms as long as there is a philosophical curriculum that meets the learning needs of all students. This curriculum is not easy to build; it takes a lot of collaboration and thought. Because it is recognized that no two children are alike, modifications to the curriculum are necessary for disabled students to benefit from art classes. Modifications made to the lesson help remove hindrances to appreciating and participating in art mak275

ing (Germain). It can be very complicated when art educators try to find the best way to make the curriculum accessible and give every student the correct support (Causton-Theoharis and Burdick). Ms. Karen Keifer-Boyed said that the art teacher needs to understand their own teaching philosophies while understanding each of their student’s interests and talents. They must not make a rigid curriculum without meeting and understanding their student’s first (Keifer-Boyed).That is why art teachers should be “thoughtful considering the reasons for how and why they are adapting their materials” (Germain) after taking into account each student’s needs. “A lesson can be designed to create the planned artwork while building in the skills the students can accomplish independently or with some support” (Germain). Students should practice fine motor skills and usually be able to accomplish the tasks individually. That means lessons should be planned so students can accomplish them by themselves or with a limited amount of help. “Noticing factors such as developmental level and emotional stability, however, will help the teacher meet students’ particular needs by creating a better fit between the physical skills, mental level and interests of the students” (Germain). For example students with behavior management or emotional disturbances should have activities that are geared to inspire pride in their work, develop social skills and express their feelings (Germain). A teacher who is thoughtful in modifying their objectives makes success possible for everyone in the art classroom.

It can sometimes be very difficult to keep a child with special needs engaged in creating art. “Ideally, the art curriculum should consist of artistic experiences with materials aimed at meaningful art-centered learning outcomes for all” (CaustonTheoharis and Burdick). It is an on-going struggle for art teachers to do that, while keeping the activities fun and engaging. Art activities must be enjoyable and the student should have gotten some time to prepare ahead of time for them to work. Overly high expectations can demoralize and frustrate students, thus the criteria should be attainable. (Gerber).Many materials such as clay, colorful paper, crayons, paint and other tools can be used in the creation of art. Giving a child a lot of different mediums of expression can help teachers see if and how a child can offer something valuable in art expression. In order for a student to have a meaningful creative experience, the art teacher must consider five things. One: the teacher should be prepared to have enough of the materials necessary, in order to equally distribute them to each student (to avoid conflict). Two: containers and lids should be easy to open in order to avoid frustration among the children. Three: there should be a clear goal for the project; each student should understand their individual goals. Four: the teacher should plan out their art program in order to either help kids express freely or make children more confident about themselves. And five: teachers should set a time frame for the projects (“Special Education Art”). However it is not so

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simple, it takes lots of collaboration to ensure successful art experiences for all children. In order for disabled students to have a rewarding experience in both the inclusive and non-inclusive classroom, there needs to be collaboration between each adult involved. “Only the combined efforts of the general (art) educators, special educators and parents can efficiently and effectively provide for the needs of students experiencing disabilities in the manner envisioned by IDEA” (Kraft). Many art teachers do not know that they have a legal right to access information about their students receiving special education services. As an art teacher you have the right to access information about your students with special needs, and even have a copy of their IEP (Individualized Education Program). If art teachers do not have enough information they will not know how to provide disabled students with their appropriate education. When special and art educators do not collaborate, the art teacher does not have enough information to develop strategies to ensure the child does not have difficulties. Building this communication will be difficult, the teachers must work together, plan together, and share information in order for students to have the most beneficial experience. Art teachers should also recognize the goals of other non-art professionals so they can make mutual goals (Germain). Working together can help art teachers make the appropriate modifications to their curriculum.

“In- service collaborators are natural bridges between art and special education teaching staffs” (Gerber), however they can also close the gate for authentic art production. Paraprofessionals have been placed in many inclusive art classes as a support for a student with special needs (Causton-Theoharis and Burdick). Paraprofessionals can help the art teacher with understanding what works best for each student. They can also help the art teacher make lessons that help the disabled students improve their physical abilities and assist them in expressing themselves (Germain). Studies show that paraprofessionals can either help a child’s creative exploration and growth or hinder it. Paraprofessionals open the gate by ensuring access (to materials, understanding of activities, getting to class), honoring and helping authenticity (helping children only with steps they cannot accomplish individually) and honoring the art curriculum. However paraprofessionals close the gate in many ways as well. They can change physical access (i.e. being late), they can make the authenticity of the art less concentrated (helping too much and controlling creativity), and they can change the artistic process all together (replacing materials, interrupting curriculum, lowering expectations)(Causton-Theoharis and Burdick). When any of these events occur, the student will be unable to obtain the full benefits of the art activities. Dr. John Derby compares paraprofessionals to paramedics, “some are businesslike, some seem to care, and some are just terrible” .Some paraprofessionals lack the people skills for their 277

job because they are not trained professionals because they have not undergone teacher training. They do not always understand that they are there only to assist a child, not to do the project for them. He said that “some paraprofessionals don’t know how to be an intermediate helper and think of themselves as mediate helpers”. He thinks that a reason might be that they feel like they are not doing enough so they take over the project. (Derby). It is important that paraprofessionals have the proper skills to assist children because they play such important roles in assuring a beneficial artistic experience for their students.

Art”). Students can also experience pride in completing projects in art class, especially if they have trouble in other academic classes. Having an outlet for their emotions can help them reflect on their feelings and beliefs. The many tasks involved in artistic expression teaches a child how to problem solve and build their motor skills. When a task is completed the child’s self-esteem will grow and they will appreciate the beauty of their work. Art making has transformed from “simply serving other curriculum, to a valuable contribution to the education and development of the whole student” (Causton-Theoharis and Burdick).

The reason special education departments have had a partnership with art education is because there are many compelling benefits art has on people with special needs. Art can help disabled children communicate with others, build confidence, understand emotions, learn how to finish tasks, improve their fine motor skills, learn how to problem solve, appreciate beauty and grow as individual (Germain). A students drawing or painting is a better communicator of the students educational level or “mental age”, rather than their age or grade.(Gerber). Teachers and parents can see more into a child’s thoughts by looking at their artwork. It gives students who are mainly non-verbal a medium by witch to express their feelings. Art is an “effective communication method and can target several learning areas like language, literacy, numeracy, communication as well as physical, emotional and mental aspects of children” (“Special Education

The art classroom is seen as “the great equalizer” because it is a least restrictive environment for many different types of students. Most students can benefit from visual art weather they are disabled or not. Dr. Derby points out that people who are academically gifted can also seek benefits in arts because “the arts can offer experiences that other classes can’t” (Dr. Derby). Ms. Karen Keifer-Boyed pointed out that art has no right or wrong answer and allows students to interpret assignments with their personal views and beliefs (Keifer-Boyed). The art studio is a truly unique environment. Because of its inherent flexibility, it offers a safe learning environment for people with disabilities. “The art room is a place where learning disabilities can turn into learning assets” (Gerber). All schools should take advantage of the amazing opportunities that the art classroom holds for children with special needs and strive to build the 278

proper framework so students will gain the full benefits from creative exploration.

Works Cited Causton-Theoharis, Julie., & Burdick, Corrie. Paraprofessionals: Gatekeepers of authentic art production. Studies in Art Education. Reston: National Art Education Association, 2008. Proquest. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.

Kraft, Michelle. (2006). Art education and disability: Reenvisioning educational efficiency. University Park: Caucus of Social Theory & Art Education, 2006. Proquest. Wed. 13 Mar. 2013. “Special Education and Art.” Special Education News. Special Education News, 2009. Web. Apr 25 2013.

Derby, John. Disability studies and art education. Reston: National Art Education Association, 2011. Proquest. Web. 12 Mar. 2013. Derby, John. Enabling art education: Recent books that explore the intersection of disability and art education. Reston: National Art Education Association, 2012. Proquest. Web. 12 Mar. 2013. Derby, John. Personal Interview. May 3 2013. Gerber, Beverly. “Art Education and Special Education: a Promising Partnership.” 2011 NAEA Lowenfeld Lecture. 2011 NAEA Lowenfeld Lecture, 2011. Web. Apr 25. 2013. Germain, Christa. "Art for special-needs students: building a philosophical framework." Arts & Activities.Gale, Apr. 2008 . Student Resources in Context. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. Keifer-Boyed, Karen. Personal Interview. May 16 2013. 279

John Ludeke

Unassisted: Advantages and Disadvantages of Sports and Physical Activity Physical activity and sports can positively influence performance and behavior in class. Â It can also improve life for children both inside and outside of the classroom. It helps with team building and interpersonal relationships as well as simple physical benefits. Physical education is an important aspect of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s school programs. However, opportunities for physical education and activity can sometimes be scarce, especially for high school students. Obesity in children in the United States is an increasing issue, and this lack of opportunity can be one of the main causes. Physical activity benefits children and adults in many ways. It can help with physical as well as mental health, relationship

skills, and academic achievement. The most obvious of these benefits is physical health. Studies show that regular physical activity reduces the risk of many conditions such as obesity and diabetes, and can even reduce risk of premature mortality in general. Some of these preventable conditions can be fatal. Regular participation in physical activity lowers risk of noninsulin-developing diabetes and has a significant inverse relationship with colon cancer risk (Physical Activity and Health 72). Not participating in physical activity for long periods can also be bad for the body. Most deterioration of physiological function occurs during prolonged bedrest and immobilization. Contrary to some rumors, physical activity is not associated with joint damage or development of osteoarthritis. Regular physical activity can also relieve symptoms of depression and anxiety as well as improve mood. Physical activity for children also decreases the risk of child obesity, (Biddle) an increasing threat in the US. Physical activity benefits cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems, as well as metabolic, endocrine, and immune systems (PA + Health 7). There are numerous health benefits associated with regular physical activity, and many people either are not aware of or simply do not realize the multitude of benefits that come with physical activity. A large benefit of physical activity in children especially is academics. Studies conducted by many different organizations, including the Center for Disease Control and other related estab280

lishments, show that there is a positive correlation between physical activity and academic achievement and efficiency (CDC). Physical activity can improve focus and fidgeting. Teachers report that students that participate in physical activity regularly in school tend to be less jumpy and their work is more thorough. An unnamed scientist involved with the studies reasoned that physical activity can calm down and focus children simply by tiring them out (CDC). When recess is implemented to a school’s curriculum, attention and behavior in class improves as well as grades (CDC 20). Physical activity is a very important part of a healthy life, but, in today’s society, opportunities for participation in physical activity have decreased. In both children and adults in the U.S., the statistics are a little bit discouraging in terms of physical activity. Scientists recommend at least one hour of physical activity per day, but in many schools in the U.S., that is not the case. Only one quarter of young people report engaging in light to moderate physical activity every day. On top of that, another quarter reports no physical activity at all (PA + Health). Daily participation in physical activity among high school students decreased from 42% from 1991 to 25% in 1995. Some individual problems in elementary and middle school are that some schools have either a short, non-structured recess or simply no recess at all. This greatly decreases opportunities for young children to stay healthy and active. Similarly, many public high schools around the U.S. have sports teams, but most of the children

that try out do not make the team. This leaves them discouraged, and once again less likely to participate in physical activity. In fact, nearly 80% of sports participants quit by age 12. Therefore, athletics is promoted less as an opportunity for physical activity due to its exclusive nature. Some schools, like the Bay School, have activities programs that kids can participate in instead of a sport, but this is not an option for many students. Some programs like “Walk to School Week” and “Walking School Bus” promote physical activity in young people, but participation is not very high because many children either live too far away from their school or simply don’t have the time to walk. Speaking from personal experience, I can never participate in bike to school week or walk to school week because I live all the way across the city. Many kinds of physical activity, especially sports, are great for kids to learn relationship skills and many other things such as teamwork and problem solving that will be helpful later in life. Playing a sport or just participating in physical activity in a group can improve individuals’ ability to work with others and compete respectfully. Elizabeth Cushing is an important administrator at PlayWorks, a program that creates recess programs in schools where opportunities for physical activity are lacking. She believes, along with many of her employees, that creating strong relationships with children and encouraging them to interact with their classmates. I visited Glen Park Elementary, a school near my house, to observe PlayWorks’ coaches in ac281

tion. Something I noticed right away was that the kids were all being respectful to each other. I only heard kids cheering each other on, rather than telling the other kids that they suck. A group of children doing a relay race on one side of the playground chanted “Go, _____!” not “Beat _______” or “_______ sucks.” In addition, when it was time to go in, all of the children lined up neatly and filed into their classrooms with surprising order. I noticed one child who was crouching in the corner of the playground near me. One of the coaches walked over to him and said in a calm voice: “I am sad that you are not in line. I know that you will have fun in class.” This simple use of language seemed to be effective, and I saw many instances of this strategy working for the coaches. However, there are also some issues with cooperative physical activity. Team sports are an effective way to improve both physical fitness and team building, however, playing sports or other community-related activities can be discouraging to people playing with very skilled competitors. Skill difference can cause less talented people to not make a team, and once they make the team, it can cause a type of hierarchy among players. For many people, sport teams are a source of strength in numbers, where everyone in a tight-knit group holds each other up and supports them. However, especially in college and professional sports, this group attitude is disappearing. In college, the more skilled players who want to play at a higher level tend to put down their teammates and try to make important people notice

them by hogging the ball and trying to showcase their skills in games. This is one of multiple disadvantages to sports as physical activity. A tight-knit team will look out for each other, support and encourage each other on and off the court. However, some things can get in the way of this team aspect of sports. Not only do some skilled players tend to hog the ball, but the less skilled players adopt a submissive attitude towards their teammates, and let this “star” do whatever they want. Phil Jackson, NBA player and a long-time coach of the Chicago Bulls and the Los Angeles Lakers, explained a few of these issues in his book, Sacred Hoops: Spiritual Lessons of a Hardwood Warrior. One of these issues pertains to the skill of the individual players. Phil Jackson coached during the golden age of Michael Jordan, winning six titles with the Bulls, three of which were in consecutive years. His analysis of the Bulls’ team attitude prior to drafting Scottie Pippen was that Jordan’s teammates would defer to him during games and practices, letting him take the lead and trusting him to take the big shots. This submissive attitude by Michael Jordan’s fellow Bulls did not help with their teamwork and chemistry. However, when the Bulls acquired Scottie Pippen in 1987, he changed the attitude of the whole team. Phil Jackson said that Pippen would voluntarily guard Michael Jordan in practices, sticking close with the superstar and trying to learn as much as possible from him. This unique relationship between the two created a dynamic team that would win the NBA championship three years in a 282

row in 1990 through 1992. Phil Jackson also coached the Los Angeles Lakers and had a similar issue with Kobe Bryant. In fact, Jackson wanted to trade Bryant because he was essentially the only player on the team and would not work with Jackson’s team-oriented offense. However, the Lakers’ management did not allow the trade, and Jackson left in 2011. These events only support one of Phil Jackson’s important philosophical lessons: self-motivated people will gravitate towards rolemodels, are not afraid of defeat, and take failure as an opportunity to grow. This attitude is a necessity to overcome the issue of attitude around sports.

from school. Physical activity is an essential part of youth, and teaches children skills that will be instrumental later in life. The many benefits that come with physical activity cannot be ignored by the US population any longer, and opportunities for physical activity must be created for children.

The time that physical activity takes up itself can also be beneficial to students. A survey conducted by my classmate Jonah Wooley revealed that among a small group of students at the Bay School, all of them agreed that when they got home from practice, they felt more motivated to do homework. In fact, one student wrote that after practice, “I don’t want to go outside or anything, just sit back and do something non-physical” (Wooley). This effect in combination with reduced time because of the practice can result in higher performance and time efficiency in homework.

Biddle, Stuart, Trish Gorely, and David Stensel. “Healthenhancing physical activity and " sedentary behavior in children and adolescents.” PubMed Web Of Science. 22. 8. (2/ 18/2007) 679-701. Journal Of Sports Sciences. Web. 3/27/13.

Physical activity is a great way to improve health and fitness, but opportunity for this is growing increasingly scarce in the United States. Sports are one of the best mediums for activity, but it is hard for everyone to compete in sports after graduating

Works Cited Beighle, Aaron and Melanie Moore. “Physical Activity Before and After School.” Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. 83. 6. (August 2012): 25-28. ProQuest.com. Web. 3/27/13.

Bouchard, Cloud. Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Google. Web. 3/27/13. King, Keith, Mark Dowdall and Donald Wagner. “Coaches Attitudes and Involvement in Alcohol Prevention Among High School Athletes” Springer Science+Business Media, (17 October 2009): Questia. Web. 3/27/13. Lorence, Barbara J. “The University’s Role Toward StudentAthletes: A Moral or Legal Obligation.” HeinOnline, HeinOnline, (1990-1991): HeinOnline.org. Web. 3/27/13. 283

Paleti, Rajesh, Rachel Copperman, and Chandra Bhat. “An empirical analysis of children’s after school out-of-home activitylocation engagement patterns and time allocation.” Springer Science+Business Media, (March 2011): ProQuest.com. Web. 3/ 27/13. Physical Activity and Health. World Headquarters. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Google Scholar. Web. 3/27/13. Satcher, Natasha Denise. "Social and moral reasoning of high school athletes and non-athletes" Dissertations. (2006). Aquila.usm. Paper 1473. Shields, D. L. L., B. J. L. Bredemeier. “Character Development and Physical Activity.” CabDirect.org, Human Kinetics Publishers, (1995). CabDirect.org. Web. 3/27/13. Stoll, Sharon. Moral Reasoning of Division III and Division I Athletes: Is There a Difference? Education Resources Information Center. Eric, 30 Mar 1995. PDF.

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Camden McMillan

To Zoo Or Not To Zoo Introduction People have been keeping animals in captivity since the beginning of civilization. Livestock and pets have been the most common animals kept in captivity, but recently zoos have started to take a more prominent place in human’s lives. This has raised the question of whether animals are living happy lives in captivity. The ethical debate of keeping animals in zoos has become a larger issue as more and more information on animal intelligence and emotions have come out. With this ethical debate has come the idea of improving animals lives through a thing called enrichment. Enrichment is anything that allows an animal to express natural behaviors. People who are against keeping animals in zoos mainly believe that it is against animal rights and not natural for the animal to live in captivity. On the other hand, people who are for it believe that zoos do more good than harm, and, with the proper implementing of enrichment, animals can live happy lives. Zoos can gauge the welfare of animals through blue ribbon emotions and stereotypies, and implement proper enrichment in order to have a happy animal.

Ethics People who are against keeping animals in zoos have the main opinion that it defies the animal’s right to freedom (“Animals for Entertainment”). No matter what zookeepers do, for some animals captivity is nothing more than “an enlightened San Quentin Prison” (Grandin 8). They believe that animals should not be used to achieve human end, and that the programs that are in zoos to aid the animals aren’t helpful enough. Achieving human end means doing anything that benefits humans over the animal that is being taken care of. An example of this could be making a larger paycheck for the zookeepers while spending less money on making sure the animal is living a happy life. Conservation programs are mostly run by zoos and wild life parks, with the goal of these programs being to increase the population of a species or to increase the size of their native habitat. Most conservation programs have extreme difficulties getting the animal to mate and introducing the baby animal back into the wild. They also take away the animal’s right to pick its own mate. Some conservation programs do work, but another question that arises is if it is better to take an animal out of the wild in order to be a part of the breeding program if the animal is less happy in captivity than it would be in the wild (“Animals for Entertainment”). Another problem with conservation programs is that if the species is extremely endangered,

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taking even a few out of the wild could be catastrophic to the ecosystem. According to some animal activist groups, animals do not have enough of what they need in captivity in order to keep them happy. Animals don’t have things like natural environments, possibly not enough space, and less socialization and social structure. They can also be forced to be near animals and humans that they don’t interact with in the wild, can become bored and depressed, may become imprinted on humans and have a longer, lower quality of life (“Animals for Entertainment”). Zoos restrict natural behaviors such as “flying, swimming, running, hunting, climbing, scavenging, foraging, digging , exploring and selecting a partner” (Animal Rights Uncompromised). According to Steve Martin, one of the most well known animal trainers and behaviorists in the world, “the captive environment can be rather sterile, and nonresponsive. It gives little back. For a wild animal, around every corner is a new experience, a chance for a new encounter, an opportunity to make a decision, and an opportunity to learn from the consequence of that decision” (Martin). From the other perspective, zoos help animals more than harm them. When animals are sick or injured, they are much more likely to die in the wild than in captivity. Amy Goodwin, a zoologist at the San Francisco Zoo, believes that “before zoos didn’t know how to treat their animals. People would just put them in

cages and assume it was fine. Nowadays, we know better, we know animals need stimulation and know how to give it to them” (Goodwin). Zoos taking animals out of the wild only happens when the animal is sick or injured and in need of help. If the animal is able to be released back into the wild, then it is normally sent back with its life improved. If it is deemed unreleasable, then the animal is living a better life in captivity than it would be in the wild, therefore, it is okay it keep it there. Animal Welfare, a group dedicated to making sure animals have good lives in captivity said, “it is wrong to keep an animal in a zoo if the animal has a less pleasant life than it would have outside the zoo” (“Animals for Entertainment”). Many conservation programs have helped bring critically endangered species back. One example of a successful program is the Western Pond Turtle Project at the San Francisco and Oakland Zoos and Sonoma State University. This project takes western pond turtle eggs out of the wild and raises the turtles until they are large enough to take care of themselves. Even though the baby turtles are taken from their nest, they are able to fully integrate back into the wild (Goodwin). The Oakland Zoo runs a butterfly sanctuary where Bay Area native butterflies have a place to live. These butterflies were close to becoming extinct and, with the efforts of the Oakland Zoo, many of the species have been able to make at least a partial recovery (“Butterfly Conservation Initiative”). 286

Welfare Indicators In order to have a happy life, zookeepers must look to blue ribbon emotions to gain insight into what the animal is feeling. Blue ribbon emotions are emotions that all animals share and must be paid attention to in order to maintain a happy animal. The four main blue ribbon emotions are seeking, fear, rage and panic (Grandin 7-8). Seeking is a mixture of looking for something that the animal wants and the curiosity animals have towards foreign objects. Predator animals’ most important BRE is seeking, as it is “always about something you don’t have yet, whether it’s food and shelter or a Christmas present or a way to understand animal welfare” (Grandin 7). It is believed that seeking and pleasure centers of the brain used to be the same. Fear is the most important blue ribbon emotion for prey animals. Prey animals live in constant fear of being caught and eaten, even when in an enclosure that no predator can get into, and zookeepers must keep this in mind (Grandin 265). Temple Grandin, an animal behaviorist, wrote that “animals and humans feel fear when their survival is threatened in any way, from the physical to the mental and social” (Grandin 8). Humans feel similar rage to animals. The feeling of rage comes from being captured and immobilized by a predator, and panic is the feeling felt when an animal’s caretaker leaves. “All baby animals and humans cry when their mothers leave and an isolated baby whose mother does not come back is likely to become depressed and die” (Grandin 8). There are three more

sub-blue ribbon emotions which are lust, care and play. These emotions are mostly found in mammals and only come out at certain times (Grandin 9). Lust only comes out during mating season, care only comes out when animals give birth, and play only comes out when animals are feeling safe and happy. If an animal is playing while in captivity, there is a good chance that it is happy.

Stereotypies Stereotypies are an animal’s coping method when they live in an environment that doesn’t allow them to express natural behaviors. Stereotypies are a combination of SIBs (Self-injurious behaviors) and ARBs (Abnormal repetitive behaviors). These two things are caused by the depression and stress of living in an environment that doesn’t give back (Grandin 4). When zookeepers do not pay attention to their animal’s blue ribbon emotions, they develop stereotypies. Animals in the wild are never seen with aggressive SIBs or ARBs, and stereotypies can often give a unique view into what is going on with the animal. When animals are left in cages that have nothing to give back to the animal, they are left in a state of permanent boredom and develop stereotypies as a coping method. 10-15% of all rhesus monkeys kept in solitude develop self-biting, head hanging and self-slapping. 75% of minks on fur farms have stereotypies. These 75% are much calmer than the 25% that don’t (Grandin 19). Stereotypies are seen in humans too. Humans pace when 287

nervous, which is what the animals are doing, except these animals are left in a state where they are nervous all of the time (Grandin 14-15). Wide ranging animals tend to have more stereotypies while homebody animals tend to do well in captivity. A homebody animal is an animal with less than a square kilometer of home territory. Since these animals are used to being in a smaller area, it doesn’t affect them as much when they are in captivity, while “the animals who don’t have a home or even a home territory…develop the most intense stereotypies” (Grandin 278). Ranging is how far an animal walks on average in a single day (Grandin 277-278). Polar bears can walk up to 5 miles in one day, and they are one of the most common stereotyping animals in captivity. Other high suffering animals are large prey animals. They are seen with more stereotypies in captivity. This is thought to be because they do not get the exercise they need because they aren’t hunting (Grandin 277). There are three main types of Abnormal Repetitive Behaviors. Oral ARBs, which includes biting, licking and chewing; pacing type ARBs, which includes pacing and circuit swimming; and other ARBs, which includes things such as rocking, jumping and head bobbing, (Grandin 15-16). Oral ARBs are most common in grazing animals such as cows and sheep. Pacing types ARBs are most common in predatory animals. This is normally

because predatory animals are wide-ranging and feel the need to walk throughout the day. ARBs can tell a zookeeper three different things. The first thing can tell them that the animal is suffering now. The second is that the animal was suffering, but is no longer suffering. The last thing that it tells zoologists is that the conditions that the animal is in aren’t good, but the animal is coping with what it has. There was a case of a woman who took wolves and tied them to trees in order to keep them from running away. One of the wolves in particular developed awful pacing stereotypies (Grandin 16). When the wolves were rescued, they were put into amazing cages and were being stimulated as much as possible, but the wolf still spent all of her time pacing. She would pace in the exact same spot until there was a rut where she walked. When they put obstacles in her path, she would just walk over them, not even pausing to look at them. This is a very extreme case of stereotyping (Grandin 20).

Enrichment Enrichment is used to combat animal depression and boredom by creating an environment that allows animals to express natural behaviors. The Enrichment Working Group of Behavior and Husbandry Advisory Group defines enrichment as “a dynamic process which structures and changes animal environments in a way that provides behavior choices and draws out their species appropriate behavior and abilities enhancing animal behav288

ior.” (Martin). The idea of enrichment was coined in the early 1900s and has been growing in popularity ever since (Martin). At the San Francisco Zoo, there is a whole committee dedicated to animal enrichment and a whole fund to get toys just for parrots, (Goodwin). Zoos with active and changing enrichment programs have been able to get their stereotypies down 50% in comparison to zoos with outdated or few enrichment programs. In experiments with rats, the rats with enriched lives did better on problem solving and intelligence tests (Grandin 10). Enrichment can help improve animal welfare, which in turn lowers veterinary costs, improves socialization and reproduction rates of the animals and decreases the need for new animals (Martin). Enrichment lowers the need for veterinary costs because the animals have less SIB and, therefore, have fewer injuries. Animals with enrichment programs also tend to be fitter because the enrichment normally involves them running around, which makes them generally healthier. It increases socialization and reproduction because most animals have an instinct which tells them only to breed when conditions are good. If an animal doesn’t feel safe, it won’t mate or express their natural behaviors. For example, even if a hen is “laying her eggs on a commercial farm inside a barn that no fox could ever get into…[she] has evolved to hide when she lays her eggs” (Grandin 2). The hen will not lay her eggs unless she is hiding, so farms must have a coop for their hens in order to get eggs. Enrichment decreases the need for

new animals because animals with enrichment normally live longer, happier lives. One common enrichment is having animals work in order to get their food. Making animals work for their food brings back some natural activities for the animals (Martin). One example of this type of enrichment is an armadillo at the San Francisco Zoo. Occasionally, the workers will fill a box with dirt and worms so the armadillo is forced to dig through the dirt in order to get the worms. Armadillos in the wild spend much of their time digging and looking for bugs for food, and so this type of enrichment provides them with a chance to behave based on their instinct (Goodwin). Another example of food enrichment is a snow leopard at the San Francisco Zoo. They created an ‘acoustic-prey’ system for her to play with. This worked by having a motion sensor set up on the top left corner of her cage. When the motion sensor was triggered, a recording of a bird song played. The sound of the first bird song triggered a second bird song a little ways away, which then triggered a third speaker, which then triggered a fourth speaker. Each speaker is a little ways away from the one before it so that the snow leopard has to move around with the noise. When she got to the last speaker, a motion sensor was triggered and food was released (Grandin 276). Training is another great form of enrichment. At the San Francisco Zoo, most of the birds capable of flying are flown in 289

shows, giving them a chance to do natural behaviors (Goodwin). Training uses natural instinct to make the animal feel like they are in a wilder habitat and can also provide more socialization for animals. Training also give animals a choice of what to do or not to do, and gives them an option to learn from their choices. Another way training helps animals is alleviating stress from medical procedures. Before zookeepers started training their animals to interact during medical exams, they had to either dart or restrain the animal, causing a lot of stress (Martin). Animals also learn to hate the veterinarians that dart or restrain them, making it almost impossible for them to do even the simplest procedures on them.

Enrichment is also good for zoos. Things such as keeper talk programs and training in front of the public keep the visitors interested in what is going on in the cage and teaches them more about the animals. “For some zoological professionals, the word ‘show’ is little more than a four letter word. However, to zoo visitors, the word ‘show’ means action, excitement, entertainment – the very reason they come to our facilities in the first place” (Martin). Zoos with programs such as these have much higher attendance rates. People learn about the animals much more if they can interact with them. As Confucius said, “Tell me and I will forget, show me and I may remember, involve me and I will understand.”

One example of training animals to help with veterinary visits is when Temple Grandin worked with pronghorn antelopes in order to teach them how to let veterinarians draw blood from their necks. Pronghorn antelopes are known as high stress animals and have been known to kill themselves while panicking. Grandin started by just getting the antelopes used to the boxes that they would be in, then slowly opening the door and getting them to go inside it, and eventually getting them comfortable with having their blood drawn. One of the most important parts of training is to not let the animal get past orienting stage. The orienting stage is when the animal makes the choice to study the object or to fear the object. If the antelopes had decided to fear the object, trainers would never be able to train the animal back to their non-fearing stage (Grandin 274).

Conclusion Zoos are doing their best in order to maintain happy and healthy animals. They create funds that are specifically designed to promote animal happiness and enrich them as much as possible. A lot of research has been put into developing habitats with happy animals in them. Curators, architects, behaviorists, geneticists, nutritionists and veterinarians have all come together in order to design and improve animal habitats. According to Steve Martin, “Enrichment may be the most important advancement in captive animal welfare in recent times” (Martin). New research is still being done and animals’ lives continue to be improved.

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Works Cited “Animal Rights Uncompromised: Zoos” Peta. Peta, 2013. Web. 27 Mar. 2013 “Animals in Zoos.” BBC Ethics Guide. BBC, 2013. Web. 27 Mar. 2013. Bostock, Stephen C. Zoos and Animal Rights: The Ethics of Keeping Animals. New York: Routledge, 1993. Questia School. Web. 27 Mar. 2013. “Butterfly Conservation Initiative.” Oakland Zoo. Oakland Zoo. Web. 10 May 2013. Foderaro, Lisa W. “As Species Vanish, Taking Up a Mission to Protect Birds and Beasts.” New York Times. New York Times, 1 Aug. 2012. Web. 27 Mar. 2013. Frans de Waal: Moral behavior in animals. TED, 2011. TED. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Goodwin, Amy. Personal Interview. 15 Apr. 2013. Grandin, Temple, and Catherine Johnson. Animals Make Us Human. Orlando, Florida: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009. Print. Martin, Steve. Enrichment: What Is It And Why Should We Want It? Lake Wales, Florida: Natural Encounters, Oct. 1999. PDF file. 291

Tait Morrison

The Power of Words Child abuse and the effects are never definite because each person is going to react uniquely to the situation. All ages will react differently to the abuse as well because of their emotional development and maturity (Judd 187). Because no case is exactly the same and each child is distinctive, there is no line or definite instances of verbal abuse from the outsiders’ point of view, because verbal abuse is directly related to the child’s emotions and response to the (potential) abuser’s actions, rather than a general and hard line of verbal abuse when every case is unique (Marshman). The impact of one word can control an entire family, generation to generation. This cycle will determine the fate of several lifetimes and generations. Victims go through several phases and stages of verbal abuse, reliving the pain and emotional scars that have been left behind by the abuser. Verbal abuse starts affecting children at a very young age and can continue throughout their lives without them realizing that they were drastically affected socially, educationally, and emotionally.

Psychological abuse is all about emotions and feelings of the child. According to Jeremy Marshman, a counselor at the Bay School, psychological abuse is defined as a non-physical way of controlling and/ or damaging an individual. Emotional abuse has been defined as using one’s emotional reactions to damage, hurt or control someone. Verbal abuse is defined as using words to damage or control a child or victim (Marshman). The objective of verbal abuse is to control the child or show the power the parent has over the child (Judd 107). Child Welfare Information Gateways has observed that verbal abuse occurs from because most parents were verbally abused themselves. Parents can also be abusing their children because of depression. A parent may feel out of control over their lives and feel like they need to control, so they start controlling the child’s life (Judd 36). There have been reports where verbal abuse starts because of stress from money, children, or pressures from a job (Judd 8). In a study done by National Coalition Against Domestic Violence, “children living with single parents may be at a higher risk of experiencing physical and sexual abuse and neglect than children living with 2 biological parents” (Goldman). This is because a single parent home has a higher likely hood of being a stressful home revolving around money, child behavior, and other common home related issues. However, some emotional abuse and especially verbal abuse can start in school environment from a teacher who is trying to suppress

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the child from crying or showing any extreme emotion, any emotion other than neutral or calm state (Ross 3). The Child Welfare group reports show that the costs on our society are “$13,000 per year per family” (Chronic Child Neglect). In our country, about 905,000 children were victims of abuse in 2006 (Judd 178). For those 905,000 children, 61% of those victims are maltreated, 7% of those children are victims to emotional abuse (Judd 186). From the ages, newborn to 17, 1,740 children died in 2008 because of neglect or emotional abuse, about 2.3 children for 100,000 (Judd 187). Of that, 1,740 children or 80% of them were three or younger, 10 % were ages 4 to 7, 8% of were 8 to 11, 4% were 12 to 15, and 2% were 16 to 17 (Judd 187). Regarding genders, women are more commonly the victim (Child Abuse 47). In a study done by Child Welfare group, 10.8 out of 1000 girls are abused and 9.7 out of 1000 boys are abused (Judd 186). Regarding ethnic groups, 16.6 out of 1000 African American children were abused, 13.9 out of 1000 Native American or Native Alaskan children were abused, and 13.8 out of 1000 multiracial children were abused (Judd 186). Although the percentages for non-Caucasian children have a larger percentage for being abused, the rate of death from emotional abuse or neglect is 39% for Caucasian children, 30 % for Hispanic for African American children, and 16% for Hispanic children (Judd 187).

Because victims are targeted at all ages (Marshman), and the maturity levels of each individual are not the same. A child verbally abused at the age of ten will not react the same way as a child at the age of sixteen. Younger children get the most abuse, and as the child grows up the abuse may reduce, however some teenagers do still get the emotional abuse until they are a legal adult or out of the abusers control. Younger victims are often a target of abuse because they can’t defend themselves and are easier targets than any other age group. For children less than 1 year old the number of children experiencing emotional neglect or abuse is 21.7/ 1000, for a year old is 12.9/1000. Children most affected are those who cannot even talk let alone defend or protect themselves. Then the abuse continues dropping until 16 to 17 year olds is 5.5/1000. As the victims gets older, they become more aware of what is happening and are able to fight back or get help. There is a significant drop, more than half, but several children per the thousand are being affected (Judd 187). Although each child will react differently and each age has unique patterns, there are some symptoms that all ages may show that then become bigger problems. Children will try to stay away from home and do as many after school activities as possible because they don’t want to be around the abuser. The victim may be cautious, careful, or expect the worst from any situation (Shannon 12) because the abuser always makes a small problem or mishap a bigger deal and abuses them. Most 293

children will show “fear, isolation, and an inability to trust” adults and peers (Shannon 65). Throughout their lives into high school and college those abused will choose to stay away from home, whether that means doing more after school activities (joining a club, team sport, or hanging out with friends) and then maybe choosing to go to a college or getting a job that will get the child further away from the home (Shannon 12). Victims of all ages will also show cautious and careful behavior because they are expecting the worse from a teacher, parent, or other adult figure (Shannon 12). The child may not do well in school, and may have learning differences (Shannon 11). Not only will the child have a higher probability of having a learning difference but also will have a higher chance of having bad study habits and are less capable to learn harder and new subjects in school (Judd 181). Teachers and peers will see the change in the student’s or friend’s behavior and will notice the lack of acknowledgement from a parent (Marshman). In school environments, a teacher may notice that a child’s well being doesn’t seem important, isn’t recognized, or cared about by the parent (Shannon 11). Although children’s maturity levels are different and the development of a child is different at each there are some constant signs of verbal abuse. At all ages, the child will be accused or shamed by the abuser for everything, including the abusing itself (Judd104). The child will in turn become an overachiever and strive to be or have the “perfect” image to please their par-

ents or the abuser (Shannon 12). Because they are an overachiever they often do take the criticism and blame themselves for all the problems that have happened to them. The child will take responsibility for the abuse, the learning problems, physical problems, social problems, anything that the abuser accuses them of. The exact opposite can happen too. The child can shut down and try to make no decisions and let the abuser make the decisions because the ideas and decisions the victim creates are bad/ wrong/ invalid (Judd 103). Then the child will become dependent on the parent because they believe they can’t make good decisions and feel that they can’t live on their own (Judd 181). The victim then feels even more “afraid, vulnerable, powerless, and isolated” (Judd 104) because they don’t have enough confidence in themselves. In a study done by the Nation Coalition Against Domestic Violence, socially, a child might be withdrawn or aggressive towards their peers or other adults other than the abuser, or they could also have “attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder” (Judd 181). The victims can also feel self hatred because of the blame and shame that is put on them by the abuser and themselves (Marshman). After several stages of emotions, the victim may become unemotional about the events because they learn to suppress their emotions and pretending to be okay (Ross 1). Then because they suppress those emotions the victim doesn’t know how to show the emotions later in their lives.

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“Child Abuse and Neglect Fatality Victims by Age, 2006”. Chart. CEU Fast. Web. 29 May 2013. Infants are more likely to experience emotional abuse, 70100% of infants show that they have “insecure attachments” to their caregivers (Shannon 65). Then, as the child grows up to ages 3 to 5, they become 2 times more likely to be violent and show more behavioral differences. As those 3 and 5 years olds go to elementary school and then middle school, they are violent to their peers and become more of an issue in the school environment (Judd 181). Some of the most dangerous things about being abused as a child or abusing as a child are that the victim doesn’t know anything is wrong. The victim may not be aware that the way the abuser is treating them is not normal for others. The child grows up with that abuse and doesn’t know anything else (Mather 13). Later on, in the adolescent year, most of the signs can be seen by peers and teachers. Teenagers are also more susceptible to the emotional and also respond and react to their emotions more than in any other stage in one’s life. The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence did a study, that showed that young adults can show signs of depression, eating disorders, anxiety, and suicide attempts or suicidal thoughts (Silverman, Reinherz, and Giaconia 181). Because of the physical and appearance related signs young adults are 25% more likely to have mental problems or disorders because they have been told that they aren’t good enough. Teens also are 25% more likely to have “low academic

achievement” and problems in school (Judd181). A study done by the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence stated that the problems in school lead to teenagers trying to escape more from the school life through drugs and alcohol, sex, and criminal activity (Shannon 88). With the increase of drug and alcohol, teens become addicted. Because of the increase in sexual risks and activity, there is a higher risk of getting pregnant or getting an STD. Because of the high criminal activity teenagers are more likely going to Juvenile Delinquent Center. Although verbal abuse is targeted towards the emotional, there are physical effects that will impact the child. These physical signs are panic attacks (Judd 181), headaches/ migraines (Judd 104), back, leg, stomach, and arm problems (Judd 104), and wetting the bed (Marshman). These signs are the body showing how out of control the child is (Marshman). If the child or parent cannot take care of the child’s physical needs, then the child is probably not getting the emotional support that they need. Although there are several abnormal physical changes that the victim shows there are outside appearances that are less related to physical and are social differences. Because social behavior is varied for each individual children will have no normal and exact reaction. The effects of abuse usually will create chain of effects in the child’s life. For example an abuser can kick a child and then they will not be able to walk, now they can’t do well in PE or get 295

to class, eventually they may not want to try because it hurts or doesn’t pay off to go to that class then the child will fall behind to a point where they cannot catch up. A similar domino effect can be seen in a verbally abused child’s behavior (Judd 178). Depression and anxiety can lead to smoking, alcohol abuse and other problems, starting having sex at an earlier age. These smaller effects lead into cancer, obesity, STDs, and pregnancy (Jud 178). Child will also not trust their adults or peers; that leads to the victim not able to grow attachments to their peers, children, and adult like figures, then not getting help or support from others (Shannon 65). For children that were dependent to their abuser, they will not leave their abuser, and if they do they will not be comfortable enough on their own. If the child was isolated, fearful, or had no trust in adults the child later in life have low self esteem, depression, trust issues, and problems with personal relationships (Judd 180). The affect of child abuse on an individual lasts for the rest of their life; the impact will always be there. In a study done it was determined that 80% of young adults meet the “criteria” for a psychiatric disorder at the age of 21 (Judd 180). Addicts in treatment centers have similar statistics, 2/3 of the addicts are reported to have been abused as a child (Shannon 89). Many of those adults showed low- self esteem, (Shannon 65) mental disorders (Shannon 67), trouble with empathy (Shannon 66), and not being able to control their emotions and actions when hurting someone else emotionally or physically (Shannon 66). Peo-

ple who have been abused also have a higher likelihood of domestic violence or other forms of abuse and more likely to go to jail (Shannon 67). Some obvious signs could be “substance abuse”, mental disorders, “poor coping skills”, violent tendencies (Shannon 67), strange sleep and eating patterns, and no meaningful relationships with other people (Shannon 66). The victim could have PTSD, post-traumatic stress disorder (Judd181), which could lead to criminal activity, violent outbursts, and alcohol and drug abuse (Judd 182). The relationship between the child and the parent can be very similar to the relationship between a married couple with the same abuse. At first the abuse will apologize and show the victim how much power they hold over the abuser, the honeymoon phase (Judd 9). According to California State Law, some of the signs of abuse could be threats to kill your family, friends, themselves, or the victim. The abuser says that the person that is responsible is the victim because they left the relationship and didn’t stop it from occurring. During the harsher parts of the abuse, the parent and child may not make any eye contact or physical contact with each other (Shannon 12). They also will say that the relationship is bad and see it in a negative way (Shannon 12). The child and parent could also admit that they don’t like each other in public (Shannon 12). Overall the relationship between the abuser and the victims is unsympathetic and unwanted. 296

Not only does the behavior of the child not change from the normal child but the parent also shows differences from the normal loving parent. In order for the abuser to really be abusing the must be aware of the abuse (Marshman). Most abusers will be a parent or guardian than any other adult or relative that a child knows (Judd 187). The average abuser is male and about 39 years old, but when the abuser is the abuser the age goes down significantly (Judd 187). There are many factors of why an abuser starts abusing. One factor is if the abuser was abused as child, 1/3 of abused child will abuse their own children (Shannon 89). Other factors could be stress, “parental stress is the single largest contributing factor to unconscious parenting,” meaning neglect or the parent not fully thinking before they speak or act towards their child (Emotional Child Abuse). Verbal abuse can be used as a first step to physical and sexual abuse (Judd 8). The first few times that abuse happens is called the acute battering episode (Judd 9). Part of what makes the abuse so dangerous and “scary” is that it is random to both the victim and abuser, because it is all based off of emotion (Judd 9). There are several forms of verbal abuse but, something that is very common today is sarcasm. The abuser uses it to make fun and leave a larger impact on the conversation (Judd 106). Abusers use sarcasm to also make it seem like a joke later even if it was hurtful towards the victim (Judd 107). Sarcasm can also be interpreted in several ways, so the abuser can use sarcasm to leave a deeper message under the silly

tone of voice (Judd 107). The victim also doesn’t know how to respond to the sarcasm and is left wondering what exactly the abuser was trying to say (Judd 107). If the victim reacts, the abuser can easily say that the wrong doing is the victim’s because of the rage (Judd 107) or just play it off like a joke. Abusers also will use foul language whether that is swear words or something as simple as stupid, idiot, disgusting, or that they are not good enough (Judd 104). The abuser uses swear words to feel superior or above the victim and keep the victim under their power (Judd 106). With that the abuser will use humiliation or stating that the victim is crazy in public or in a private setting to keep the victim under the abusers power (Haley 147). The abuser will often try and convince that the victim is mentally insane or that the abuse didn’t happen at all (Haley 147) and are successful at tricking the victim that the event never happened. The abuser will also try to convince the victim and themselves that they aren’t the problem and would justify the action of the abuse by stating someone else made him do it (Marshman). The parent will also use the intensity and volume of their voice and tone as a weapon against the child and make the child fear them even more (Judd 106). Some tones that the abuser can use are the firm/ “hostile”, yelling/ shouting/ screaming, and a hushed tone but firm voice (Judd 106). A parent may use their voice to frighten the victim and keep them from running away (Judd 104). The abuser can also make the tone seen sexual and use sexual references to intimidate the victim (Marshman). 297

Along with the tone of voice and language used in verbal abuse the parent will also have some physical signs. The California State Law says, some of the more physical signs of the parent could be demanding perfection from the child in appearances, academics, and social lives (Shannon 12), depriving the child of sleep (Judd 103), forcing the victim to work to exhaustion (Haley 147), threatens the child that the abuser will get physical (Judd 106), and takes time away from friends, family, etc (Judd 103). The parent will ridicule and criticize the child, but also blame the child for problem at home and at school (Shannon 12). In a study done by the National Coalition against Domestic Violence, once an abuser starts using verbal abuse often it will escalate to physical abuse (Marshman). The abuser becomes immune to the feelings of the victim and will ignore the victim’s feelings (Judd 103). The child is seen as worthless and doesn’t mean anything to the parent (Shannon 12). Although the parent is abusing the abusers may feel emotionally the same way as a victim, shame, guilt self hatred, not liking their appearance or personality (Marshman), which means they could show the same behavior as a victim of abuse (Marshman). The parent may also “exhibit extreme possessiveness and jealousy” (Haley 147). Women abusers who have been abused are more likely to not be sympathetic with their children and will not comfort the child (Ross 11). Although there is a definite relationship between the abuser and the victim, there is less of a relationship if one at all with the non-

verbal parent and victim. The nonverbal parents are the ones that the child may seek guidance or help, but if the spouse of the abuser just lets it happen the child may feel just as upset and angry with the nonverbal parent as the abuser (Marshman). The child may feel completely unprotected if the parent doesn’t speak up and go against the abuser or go to the police. The nonverbal parent may not speak up because they are scared of the abusing parent, denies the abuser is actually abusing, recognizes the abuse but doesn’t want the family to fall apart because of the abuse (Marshman). After several years of going through the verbal abuse and then continuing to experience the effects of the verbal abuse, some individuals will start seeking help and therapy for the trauma. At the ages of 14 and 15, a teenager may finally realize what has happened to them and start taking about therapy or other treatment to help with the effects of the abuse (Marshman). It is believed that there is no standard time for a person to get over the abuse but that in a certain point in people’s lives they may have to revisit therapy to help with a new situation that they are experiencing (Marshman). For example if a father was abused as a young child, he may have had therapy when he was around 16 to get over the initial trauma, but then when he is 30 and having a child himself he may revisit therapy and counseling to help him further understand or get over the reopened wounds. Most victims will go into therapy because although some victims take pills to help with the effects it doesn’t make the hurt, pain, and 298

effect fully go away, but with therapy there is a greater chance of that happening (Marshman). Therapy can also be an outlet and prevent parents from abusing their children before it becomes a major problem. The therapy will help break the cycle of abuse and therapy will also be able to prevent the abuse from starting. Therapy is both the solution and the protection for victims of emotional abuse.

I would like to thank and Jane Uyeda and Nathan Siegel for editing and reviewing my paper.

Work Cited Child Abuse. 2009. Web. http://francis.mcgill.ca/files/crdf/2009Dating Violence EmoAbuse.prf. 27 Mar 2013. Chronic Child Neglect. Child Welfare Information Gateway. 2013. Web. 14 May 2013.

Goldman, J. Kennedy, K. Salus, M. Wolcott, D. A Coordinated Response to Child Abuse and Neglect: The Foundation for Practice. 2003. Web. 4/25/13 Judd, Sandra J.. Domestic Violence Sourcebook. Print. Marshman, Jeremy. Personal Interview. 26 Apr. 2013. Ross, Rupert. Heartsong: Exploring Emotional Suppression and Disconnection in Aboriginal Canada. 2009. Web. http://www.support4northernkids.ca/uploaded/Heartsong%20Fi nal.pdf . 3/27/13 Rowe, Michelle M. and Sherlock, Holly. Nursing Management. 2005. Print. Shannon, Joyce Brennfleck. Child Abuse Sourcebook. Print. Sutton, Amy L. Adolescent Health Sourcebook. Print.

Dingwell, Health, Ph.D, Haley, John, and Stein, Wendy. DWJ Books LLC. The Truth about Abuse. 2010. Print. Doyle, Celia. Child Abuse Review. 1997. Print. Emotional Child Abuse: It May Not Be What You Think. http://www.teach-through-love.com/emotional-child-abuse.html. Web. 25 Apr 2013.

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Claire Murphy

Tell My Son That I— The Importance of Proper Holocaust Education Six million. What’s the first thing that comes to mind when you hear that number? For many people it reminds them of the six million Jewish victims of the Holocaust. But as generations grow more distant from the history, this shocking statistic could lose its meaning and return to being just another number. The Israeli band Hadag Nachash wrote the lyric “And stills the biggest number, until today, which holds hope but represents a disaster, is one that makes every sane person stand still - six million”. Unfortunately, not every sane person stands still at the mention of the Holocaust or even understands the reference made in the song. Across the country and around the world there is variation in Holocaust education leaving some students

with little understanding of the history. There are many life skills and other valuable lessons which students can acquire through proper Holocaust education. With carefully designed curricula and deliberate teaching methods, students can apply knowledge of the past to their lives today and tomorrow. There are many reasons that it's important for future generations to be properly educated about the history of the Holocaust. Students learn numerous life skills such as recognizing racism and standing up for minorities (USHMM). Through studying the causes of the Holocaust students become aware of how valuable diversity and pluralism are to society. The Holocaust offers an important insight into the dangers of being a bystander and the responsibility of citizens to stand up for what they believe. Looking at citizens' roles in the Holocaust helps students see the importance of knowing warning signs of genocides and how to react to such signs (USHMM). As the French historian, Jacques Sémelin said, "the purpose of education on genocides [is] to deconstruct the mechanisms of genocidal ideologies and representations of enemies" (“International Dimensions.”). Future generations can prevent genocides by gaining a better understanding of why and how they've happened in the past and by being up to date on current events (Blum). As long as there are leaders and governments in the world there is the potential for misuse of power. By finding patterns in history students understand the threat of rights violations and abuse of 300

technology (USHMM). According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, "the holocaust provides one of the most effective subjects for an examination of basic moral issues" (USHMM). Students gain the skill to analyze human nature and debate complicated moral issues. These abilities will help students in future classes and life experiences where they will need to argue an opinion (Blum). Holocaust education not only benefits the students, but also shows respect towards the victims. Elie Wiesel who wrote about his experience in Auschwitz in his memoir Night, wrote, "To forget would be not only dangerous but offensive, to forget the dead would be akin to killing them a second time" (Wiesel xv). As time passes, are losing their personal connections to the victims of the Holocaust. The millions of people killed are being forgotten and grouped into statistics. Wiesel also wrote "[I am] a witness who believes he has a moral obligation to try to prevent the enemy from enjoying one last victory by allowing his crimes to be erased from the human memory" (Wiesel viii). Properly educating students on the Holocaust can be seen as avenging the millions of people who were killed. Education is what connects the past, present, and future, and gives kids the opportunity to identify patterns over time. Knowing about previous genocides such as the Holocaust can help students better understand events in their own lives. Professor Daniel Rafecas, a federal judge in Buenos Aires, explained how

education about the Holocaust and its aftermath has helped Argentineans deal with their own recent past of military dictatorship and crimes against humanity (â&#x20AC;&#x153;International Dimension.â&#x20AC;?). When explaining why he chose to write Night, Elie Wiesel says "The witness has forced himself to testify. For the youth of today, for the children who will be born tomorrow. He does not want his past to become their future" (Wiesel xv). Unfortunately, it is impossible to learn the story of everybody who lived through the Holocaust. And this is becoming even more of an issue as the number of living survivors continues to decrease. This is the last generation to have the opportunity to meet survivors in person and form a relationship with an eye witness (Yom HaShoa). It is important to plan for the time when there are no more survivors to tell their story. The JFCS Holocaust Center is preparing for this by compiling archives of survivor testimonies (Blum). The impacts of this predicament are also being lessened by educating students early before itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s too late. Luckily, there is a general growing interest in the history of the Holocaust. Courses covering the history are becoming more and more popular as the public becomes interested in the finiteness of memories (Wiesel). Even with this growing interest there are many people who are not getting a substantial Holocaust education. One outcome of this lack of information is Holocaust deniers who believe the Holocaust never really happened. When eye witnesses are no longer able to testify, the number of deniers will increase (Blum). One obstacle in the way 301

of learning from the past is fear. Elie Wiesel spoke to this when he said "If a rabbi happened to mention [Night] in his sermon, there were always people ready to complain that it was senseless to ‘burden our children with the tragedies of the Jewish past’" (Wiesel xiv). The Holocaust is a very sensitive subject for many people, but discomfort is not an excuse to hold kids back from education. There are challenges such as anti-Semitism and denial but teachers have to find a way to get past these obstacles and educate the next generation. History provides a better understanding of how the world works and can be used as a tool to shape the future. One essential question to consider is how classes should be balanced between factual and emotional information. No matter what your goal is for the class, curriculum should include both factual and personal aspects (Blum). Having too much stress on either side supplies limited information and doesn’t reach every student. By looking at different state’s laws surrounding Holocaust education, the variation in balance becomes apparent. For example, California and New York focus on the emotional side of Holocaust education. According to California’s standards for Holocaust education, “Pupils must develop a respect for each person as a unique individual and understand the importance of a universal concern for ethics, human rights, tolerance, and democracy" (USHMM). Other states, such as Texas, Oregon, and South Dakota, put emphasis on knowing the history and politics rather than the personal effects on peo-

ple (USHMM). The variation in Curricula causes some students to be left without important aspects of Holocaust education. Some classes pay too much attention to statistics and leave out personal stories, while other classes jump straight into the emotional material and students are left without a basic understanding of the history. When states are forming their policies around Holocaust education they should look at other states’ (and countries’) ways of approaching the subject. By borrowing pieces of Curricula and updating laws to reach the current audience, students can be exposed to balanced, thought through lessons. There is not one correct way to teach about the Holocaust so variation naturally occurs. One factor which is highly debated is the age at which students should be introduced to the Holocaust in schools. Morgan Blum, the Director of Education at the JFCS Holocaust Center, believes that students should be introduced to the subject in eighth grade when they are able to understand the complexity of the Holocaust. However, it's important to know your audience and their previous experience with the subject. For example, at a Jewish school where the students have heard family stories of the Holocaust and have been exposed to the history outside of school, it is appropriate to begin teaching it in sixth grade. No matter what grade students are taught about the Holocaust, they should go in prepared by their previous curriculum. In elementary school, classes should begin talking about diversity and the dangers of bias. Curricula 302

should introduce themes that will later be helpful when teaching the Holocaust (USHMM). In order to reach the largest possible audience, Curricula should include a variety of sources. Each individual student learns in their own way and is affected by different things. Some people learn best through looking at personal stories while others are better at processing facts and statistics. Luckily there is an ever growing supply of resources to use in the classroom (especially as more primary sources such as diaries are being discovered). Primary sources are a helpful tool to remind students that the Holocaust affected real people and not just numbers (Blum). Classes should balance their sources between primary and secondary, offering diverse perspectives. Primary sources are open to interpretation, allowing for in depth class discussions (FCIT). Some useful primary sources include diaries/journals, photographs, poems, speeches, and survivor testimonies. By looking at diaries you get to know different viewpoints and how the Holocaust affected various groups of people (Day of Learning). Photographs give a face to the victims and help students form human relationships with the history (Day of Learning). Reading poetry from the period helps you get in the mindset of people living through the Holocaust and once again expresses the personal experiences of witnesses. Speeches by political leaders offer a unique perspective since students typically learn about the victims. Hearing survivors speak is possibly the most powerful lesson. Eye witnesses are the greatest

teachers who offer a wealth of knowledge and inspiration for students (Blum). They are able to form bridges to the past and pull students into the reality of the Holocaust. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Primary sources fascinate students because they are real and they are personal; history is humanized through them. Using original sources, students touch the lives of people about whom history is written. They participate in human emotions and in the values and attitudes of the pastâ&#x20AC;? (FCIT). Though primary sources are important, secondary sources should be integrated into the curriculum along with them. Showing how historians have analyzed the primary sources can help students form in depth opinions on the pieces as well. Secondary sources are important to include in Curricula alongside primary sources because of their ability to connect stories, identify patterns, and give less-biased information. Some helpful secondary sources include movies, fictional books, and museums.. Movies are a helpful tool in getting students interested and curious about the Holocaust (Yom HaShoa). Having a range of films available (varying in accuracy and appeal) helps start conversations outside of the classroom. For example, the movie Inglorious Basterds is fictional but takes place during the Holocaust. The popular film got younger (as well as older) audiences interested in the Holocaust and caused people to do their own research on the history. Similarly, historical fiction books set during the Holocaust are often more interesting to students than textbooks. While the plot and characters intrigue students, 303

the historical aspects help students become engrossed in the history. Novels also offer a variety of perspectives for students to learn about. By analyzing literature about written about the Holocaust, students can begin to understand how different people choose to remember the Holocaust and how the legacy is being formed (Yom HaShoa). Museums are another resource to help get students aware of the Holocaust and spark curiosity. With diverse exhibits (visual, stories, interactive, etc) students get a chance to figure out how they feel most connected to the material. Museums and memorials give insight into how people have chosen to remember the Holocaust. Students can analyze the formation of a legacy and form their own opinions as to what is important to remember and what is not. When designing a curriculum around Holocaust education itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crucial for teachers to identify what their goal for the class is and who their audience is. For every class there are distinct take-aways that the teacher focuses on. Since the Holocaust is such a complex subject there are many potential themes for a class to be based around (USHMM). Keeping the curriculum focused on one topic makes it easier to gain an in depth understanding of that theme. Some possible focuses include the experience of children, the role of bystanders, and political advances leading up to the Holocaust. When choosing a central theme teachers should consider who the students are, and what they already know about the Holocaust (Blum). Different students will have varying sensitivity to the subject, and it is

hard to predict how a class will respond to the Holocaust. Teachers can look at how the group of students has reacted to sensitive subjects in the past and then design their curriculum off of that. Because of the unpredictability of student responses, teachers should be flexible when teaching about the Holocaust. If a subject, activity, or source proves to be too intense or disturbing, teachers should have a backup plan and know how to comfort the students. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s also important to know how experienced the students are with Holocaust education. If they are being introduced to the Holocaust for the first time a teacher should focus on clarifying the historical context (timelines, politics, statistics, etc). Once they understand what happened, students can begin considering why and how the Holocaust was possible. Without a basic understanding of the Holocaust, students cannot truly comprehend the emotional aspects and as a result begin filling in the missing information with misconceptions. These misconceptions are common and dangerous â&#x20AC;&#x201C; caused by a myriad of reasons. In drastic cases, misconceptions on the Holocaust cultivate into the spread of false information and denial. Some common misconceptions are that Hitler was a Jew himself, all camps were death camps, and that the only victims were Jews. All of these misconceptions (along with many others) can be easily avoided or corrected through preliminary education. One of the most dangerous misconceptions is the hierarchy of suffering. This manifests in a few forms including the 304

idea that “the Holocaust is the worst event to ever happen in history” and that “Auschwitz-Birkenau was the worst camp where people suffered the most” (Blum). It is impossible to measure pain or suffering throughout the Holocaust and throughout all of history (USHMM). One cause of the misconceptions regarding hierarchal pain is over simplification. Many teachers stick to the famous sources which everybody knows and trusts because they are afraid to use lesser known sources (Blum). This makes it so that only one corner of the Holocaust is taught over and over again while there are many different perspectives available. Along with the idea of using popular and readily available sources is the fact that Auschwitz is the best known camp simply because it had a large number of survivors. Auschwitz is commonly thought to have been the most brutal out of all the concentration camps but that is only because students often hear stories about it. There are very limited stories from other camps because all of the prisoners were killed and were not able to share their experience with the world. By teaching a wide range of perspectives, teachers can make sure to avoid creating misconceptions.

Pagis. The poem written in 1970 tells the story of a mother in a cattle car with her young son sending a message to her oldest son. It ends without a closing statement but rather in the middle of a sentence: “If you see my older boy / Cain, son of man, / tell him that I”. Using this poem, students can imagine themselves in the mother’s position and write their own last lines. This activity helps students understand (as much as anybody can understand) the struggles which people experienced during the Holocaust. Another example of a hands-on activity is assigning a victim to each student. Using a picture and summary of their story, students get to know their paired victims. After seeing and reading about the victim, students imagine meeting them and have to think of one question to ask them. By brainstorming questions, students realize how complex and multifaceted the Holocaust was. Naturally, anybody would think of hundreds of questions to ask a Holocaust victim. By limiting the student to one question they see how many things they want to know and become intrigued in the history. It is important to get students active and involved in the classroom to ensure that they really understand the material.

Curricula should include various interactive activities in order to get students dynamically involved and improve their memories after the class is over. Having a hands-on lesson helps the students engage in the material, and form a relationship with the subject. One example of an interactive activity involves the poem, “Written in Pencil in the Sealed Freight Car” by Dan

Future generations should continue learning about the Holocaust through carefully designed curriculums. By extricating valuable lessons and messages, teachers can turn this tragic history in a beneficial tool. There are many different take-aways that students can get through learning about the Holocaust and that can easily be applied to the present. By choosing one 305

theme to focus on in a class (ie racism or bystanders) students are able to fully understand and analyze the history and then apply that knowledge to their own lives. It’s important that schools commit to their Holocaust programs and work towards developing students’ life skills. Education on the Holocaust helps students become outgoing, involved citizens and can in turn help prevent future genocides.

Works Cited "Additional Holocaust Survivor Services" Jewish Family and Children's Services. 28 Mar. 2013. http://www.jfcs.org/services/seniors/services-for-holocaust-survi vors Barron, Ann E., and Roy Winkelman. "A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust: An Online Resource." Social Education 65.3 (2001): 140. Questia School. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Blum, Morgan. Personal Interview. 18 Apr. 2013. Calandra, Brendan, John Fitzpatrick, and Ann E. Barron. "A Holocaust Website: Effects on Preservice Teachers' Factual Knowledge and Attitudes toward Traditionally Marginalized Groups." Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 10.1 (2002): 75+.Questia School. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Dawidowicz, Lucy. "The Holocaust and the Historians" Harvard University Press, 1983. 28. Mar. 2013.

Day of Learning. Written in Blood. Workshop. 17 Mar. 2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=oA3HituGJXQC&source=gb s_navlinks_s "Facing History and Ourselves" http://www.facing.org/ Greenblatt, Alan. “Rewriting History.” CQ Global Researcher. Dec. 2009. Web. 30 Mar. 2013. http://library.cqpress.com/globalresearcher/cqrglobal200912000 0 Hadag Nahash. Band. Israel. "Holocaust Denial" Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust_deniers “International Dimensions of Holocaust Education – the discussion.” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 2 Feb. 2012. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/resources/online-mate rials/single-view/news/international_dimensions_of_holocaust_ education_the_discussion/ "JFCS Holocaust Center." Jewish Family and Children's Services. 28. Mar. 2013. http://www.jfcs.org/services/holocaust-center "Propaganda," United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. http://www.ushmm.org/propaganda/ 306

Schwartzman, Roy. "Using "Telogology" to Understand and Respond to the Holocaust."College Student Journal 43.3 (2009): 897+. Questia School. Web. 3 Apr. 2013.

Yom HaShoa. What is Our Legacy? Workshop. 7 Apr. 2013.

Sheramy, Rona. "Resistance and War": The Holocaust in American Jewish Education, 1945-1960." American Jewish History 91.2 (2003): 287+. Questia School. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. “State Profiles on Holocaust Education.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. http://www.ushmm.org/education/foreducators/states/ "Teacher Resources" Florida Center for Instructional Technology. 28 Mar. 2013. http://fcit.usf.edu/holocaust/resource/resource.htm "The Holocaust: Photographs." Jewish Virtual Library. 28 Mar. 2013. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/phototoc.ht ml photos "The International School for Holocaust Studies" Yad Vashem. http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/education/ "Why Teach About the Holocaust?" United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. http://www.ushmm.org/education/foreducators/whyteach/ [why is it important? How to teach about the holocaust.] 307

Rainier Pearl-Styles

Shakespearean Pronunciation Introduction The English Language is the second most commonly spoken languages (“Top Ten”). It has 26 letters and 44 sounds. Out of these sounds, 23 are consonants, 12 are vowels, and the remaining 9 are diphthongs or the vowel blend like in the sound “oh” (Bryson 86). But where did our language come from? And why is it so hard to comprehend literature from the Renaissance and the Middle Ages? Can we make learning the literature easier by learning the accent? How do we know that is how they talked? By learning about the Original Pronunciation of Renaissance Literature, specifically Shakespeare, readers and performers become more grounded and connected to the text as the accent pushes their voice down and makes the language more natural. The reader or performer also can connect to the audience through the authenticity of Original Pronunciation while also making sense of many puns and rhymes.

History of English English has a long history dating back to around the 5th century. Before the Middle Ages, the land that is now Great Britain was occupied by Anglo-Saxons, a group of people from Germanic, Celtic, and Norse descent (Ibeji). The culture and language was a melting pot of German, French, and Scandinavian (Fajardo). Although we now call their language “Old English,” there is very little resemblance between their lingo and ours. The pronunciation of the time was changing rapidly, as more people came to this part of Europe (“Original Pronunciation”). Then, in 1087, the social structure shifted with the “French conquest and unification of England,” (Fajardo) dragging the language with it and forming “Middle English” (Brown 176). The “x” letter no longer represented a “ch” sound, and the prefix “ge-” became “in-” (Bryson 93, Fajardo). But English was still not widely spoken. Most English was only used for scholarly purposes. Common people often used French or Norse when speaking or casually writing something down. (Matthews 139). But, as time progressed, “English became increasingly widely used in the written mode as the Middle Ages progressed” (Brown 177). Then, by 1362, English became the official language of England, and its popularity continued to grow (Fajardo). During the 1400s, another large shift in language took place: the Great Vowel Shift. The Great Vowel Shift, or GVS, marked the change from Middle English into Early Modern Eng308

lish. It affected the long vowels, like the “a” in day, the “o” in open, and the “i” in fire ("What is the Great Vowel Shift?"). No one knows how it started, but Charles Laird jokes that “for some reason, Englishmen started shoving these vowels forward in their mouths” (Bryson 92). The GVS continued to take place until the late 1700s, as the language slowly evolved ("What is the Great Vowel Shift?"). This linguistic period is called Early Modern English, while anything after the GVS is called Late Modern English (“Re: OP Interview”). For example, before the GVS, the word life was pronounced “leef.” Then, in Early Modern English, it was articulated as “lafe,” before becoming “life” (Bryson 93). Because of this shift, language from the Renaissance is much harder to understand. The Culturally, the Renaissance was a very different time from now, and the language adds to the barrier. (Brown 164, “Shakespeare and GVS”). The differing accents between then and now make a lot of the language confusing; rhymes don’t rhyme, puns are lost, and the syntax of lines is confusing to the present reader of Shakespeare (“Shakespeare and GVS”). English was a newer language then, and so people were inventing words left and right! There weren’t set spellings, and when it came to language, people did what they wanted (“Little Book of Language” 235). For example, even Shakespeare himself spelled his name differently: 20 different ways to be exact (Kathman). The lack of standard spelling, for us, makes trying to follow meanings of words complex and tricky.

What is OP? OP, or Original Pronunciation, is a name coined by David Crystal, and it is the original pronunciation of Renaissance Literature, specifically Shakespeare. No one knows how people actually spoke in his day, but OP is the educated guess. Early Modern English lasted from the 1500s-1800s (Brown 165). As mentioned before, spelling was not important in Early Modern English. Most words were spelled phonetically. Because dialect across England varied, spelling varied as well (“Little Book of Language” 54-55). In 2004, the Globe Theatre put on a production of Romeo and Juliet in Original Pronunciation, starting the research about the benefits of performing Shakespeare in OP (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 12).

Qualities of OP While OP is an English dialect, there are many qualities that are different than the English spoken today. When most people think of English, they think of a soft, almost invisible “r” sound on the end of words, and gentle vowels. OP, however, is quite the opposite. A “liquid r” or rhotic r is spoken at the end of words, giving the words a growly sound (“Grounglingo” 15, “RP vs. OP”). Besides the “r,” most consonants are the same as modern English. The “cion/tion” in invention was a product of the Great Vowel Shift, and was changing even in Shake309

speare’s day. For example, musician: when Shakespeare started writing, it is speculated to be pronounced “mu-zi-si-on.” But as time went on and language continued to develop, it evolved to “mu-zi-shi-on” before becoming the “mu-zi-shun” of today (“Shakespeare: OP”). The vowels differed greatly in OP. There were a lot more diphthongs, or two vowel sounds blended together. “Life” includes a diphthong, pronounced “lieef.” In OP, words such as dignity were “dignit-ai.” The schwa had a different sound. It was similar to the “o” sound in open, but with less lip-rounding and without the second part of the diphthong (“Groundlingo” 15). The long “e” sound, like in knee, sounded very similar to the long “e” sound of low-brow English or cockney (“Shakespeare: OP”). Diction was much looser in Shakespeare’s day. Actors today are required to have perfect diction to pronounce every syllable. But Shakespeare’s actors were not trained to be so flawless (Meier). Accents varied from actor to actor. This was mainly caused by dropped syllables and mispronunciation due to laziness. Laziness caused dropped syllables and made each accent vary, based on the actor (“Pronouncing Shakespeare 48”). OP is the generic accent for the Renaissance, but regional accents remained prevalent. Accents today differ from place to place. OP is more of the overall pronunciation of the English area. The small differences in accents from place to place are very difficult to discover (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 66, Meier). David Crystal has a solution to differentiate actors and

characters. Each actor who comes to perform in OP has a different accent. He is not worried about their own accent’s influence on the OP, but rather, is delighted that each actor can “color” OP with their own accent. If an actor’s natural accent drops the “h” off of the front of words, he encourages the actor to drop the “h” in OP. (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 25). Crystal also explains how he uses the changing language to differentiate between ages. He has older characters pronounce changing words like musician as “mu-zi-si-an,” while younger characters might pronounce it as “mu-zi-shi-an” (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 49). The former is the older pronunciation of musician, so it makes sense to have older characters pronounce it as such. This difference between characters and individuals helps make OP sound more realistic. Because OP is a general accent, class and character distinction is difficult. The changed pronunciation solves that problem (“Shakespeare: OP”)

How Do We Know How it Sounded? Have you ever read a line or two of a sonnet and thought “that should rhyme…but doesn’t.” Or noticed the meter of a line doesn’t follow the rules? These small details are the proof for Original Pronunciation. Shakespeare wrote in a meter called Iambic Pentameter. It has ten beats per line with every other beat stressed. By looking at the holes in his rhythm, ideas about how words were pronounced reveal themselves (Meier). For example, the line “the brightest heaven of invention” (Henry 310

V I.i.2) only has nine syllables. David Crystal has figured out, by looking at this line and others like it, that invention was pronounced “in-ven-si-on” (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 48). The rhymes also make more sense. Shakespeare often rhymes “proved” with” loved.” But “prove” and” love” don’t rhyme today. By looking through the first folio and the quartos, the earliest published pieces of Shakespeare’s work, “prove” and” love” can be deduced to rhyme (“Shakespeare: OP,” “Pronouncing Shakespeare 47). When one looks at the folios, they would notice the spelling is very odd. As previously mentioned, spelling was entirely phonetic in Shakespeare’s day (“Groundlingo” 14). These spellings give insight to how words were pronounced. In the folio, the term “Poppering-Pear” was spelled “Poprin-Peare” (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 47). Another piece of evidence that explains how they spoke is how other writers of the time commented on the language (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 49). Ben Johnson, a playwright living at the same time as Shakespeare, mentioned that an “r” sound is very “doggy.” This is confirmation of the growly rhotic r sound used (“Shakespeare: OP”).

Benefits One of the main benefits of performing or reading Shakespeare in Original Pronunciation is that is helps the language connect with one’s body. This connection can then lead to better connection with the words, the audience, and the space. Bette Bourne, an actress who was part of an OP production of Romeo and Ju-

liet, said, “We were suddenly ‘earthed’ in the play” (“Groundlingo” 26). The accent causes the performer or reader to deepen their voice and increases the vibrations across their chest. It “hunkers you down” (“RP vs. OP”) and grounds you in the text. Received Pronunciation, the generic British dialect, is much different. It causes the performer or reader to be much more in their head. Ben Crystal, an actor and linguist, says it makes him “sort of dead from the neck down” (“RP vs. OP”). Because of this grounding, the actor performing Shakespeare can then connect with the audience in a way that is believable (Meier). Audiences say that OP connects to them in a way Received Pronunciation, RP, cannot because RP isn’t really spoken any more. It is sort of an ideal, the way language should sound. OP, however, is much more believable and is a combination of most accents spoken today (“Re: OP Interview”). RP is stuffy, and gives Shakespeare the connotation so often implied. As previously stated, RP is in one’s head, while OP is in the body. This allows actors to connect with their character, further engaging the audience (Meier). When performing in OP, “the mysterious border between actor and spectator is crossed. And it is the language that usually provides that border” (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 5). The 4th wall, or the invisible line between actor and audience member, is removed (“RP vs. OP”). Original Pronunciation makes the text more profound for the actor as well as the audience. Rhys Meredith, another actor who 311

performed in OP, said “I followed it so easily, and indeed, how natural it sounded” (“Groundlingo” 26). Speaking in OP gives the reader, performer, or audience member an understanding that one doesn’t usually have when dealing with Shakespeare (“Shakespeare: OP”). This is for the same reason translated versions of foreign books, especially poetry, don’t sound as rich as they do in the original language. Many of the puns, syntaxes, and general feeling of lines don’t make sense (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 45). For example, in OP, “reason,” “raising,” and “raisin” all sound the same. Shakespeare often uses the “reyzen” sounds to have a double or triple meaning (“Shakespeare and GVS”). Another example is the line from As You Like It: “And so, from hour to hour, we ripe and ripe, / And then, from hour to hour, we rot and rot;” (As You Like It II.vii.26). If this line is said in modern English, the pun is lost. If it is said in OP, it could easily be interpreted as: “And so, from whore to whore, we rape and rape, / And then, from whore to whore, we rot and rot;” This line, in OP, is not just a statement of Jacques’s boredom but is an uncouth sex joke. Rhymes also make more sense in OP. Because so many words were pronounced differently, 2/3 of the sonnets have rhymes that don’t work today (Shakespeare: OP). Shakespeare’s language is so regal, and so poetic, but a lot of that mood is lost when he ends a sonnet with a couplet that doesn’t rhyme.

sounds. For example, the “eh” sound comes from cheekbones and expresses panicking sadness, and is the sound of someone crying. However, the vowel sounds change between OP and modern English, so the line portrays a whole different emotion. For example, the word ‘prove’ in Modern English comes from knees and feet, and is a rich, lusty sound. In OP, however, ‘prove’ comes from the chest and is a gut wrenching heartache. The different placements of vowel sounds change characters completely. Because the emotions are coming from different places, a character’s entire mannerism and way of moving shifts to match the language. Sophomores at Bay listened to the Prologue of Romeo and Juliet in both Original Pronunciation and Received Pronunciation. While 84% said they understood the words themselves better in RP, 62% said OP gave them a deeper understanding of the emotion. Characters feel more natural and alive (“Groundlingo” 26). The characters in the play aren’t the only ones who jump to life. One actor’s experience of OP caused “words [to feel] like fireworks again” (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 65). His new excitement for the way the language sounded brought a fresh layer to his performance and altered his experience entirely (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 65).

Kristen Linklater, a voice teacher, has developed a concept that different emotions are expressed through different vowel

Detriments 312

Learning OP is very difficult because it isn’t spoken anymore (“Re: OP Interview). There is no dialect to which it can be compared. Jimmy Garnon, an actor who was struggling to learn OP, said that he “had no tune to grab hold of” (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 28). One of the easiest ways to learn the accent is by listening to it, which means that the learner would need to have a trained dialect coach to speak the accent until they could understand it (“Pronouncing Shakespeare” 36). There are also very few scripts that have been translated into OP (Meier). To perform OP as a company, a new script would need to be translated, requiring another trained dialect coach and linguist. So far, the only person to translate a script into OP is David Crystal (Meier). Another potential problem with performing in OP is that the concentration on the accent can distract the actor from the language and the emotion: the two most important things when dealing with Shakespeare (Avery). If the actor gives the dialect first priority, the words will lose their meaning and the language will become dry and boring, which is exactly what OP is trying to fix. Perhaps OP is the solution for native British speakers, but Americans tend to have difficulty speaking British dialects, and vice versa (Avery). OP is a British dialect, and the vowel sounds are much closer to the British dialects than American dialects. To audience members, an unnatural sounding accent could pose as a distraction to the words and emotions, which, again, could lead to increased confusion as opposed to less.

The third and final problem is one that David Crystal disputes, but the language would be too difficult to understand. The sophomore class unanimously said they had a difficult time making out individual words and lines. Hearing a new dialect is hard on people’s ears, especially one no one has heard before. Audiences could miss words as they are pronounced in different ways than now, which is part of the problem in understanding Shakespeare.

Conclusion While there are many disadvantages to learning Original Pronunciation, with the right practice and teaching, OP can make learning Shakespeare much richer for the actor, audience, and reader. The Original Pronunciation of Shakespeare is an earthy accent, letting the actor or reader ground themselves. Because the actor sounds more real, the audience can connect to the language and understand the emotions in the words. The reader relaxes into the language and can feel the words as well as read them. OP also clarifies the puns, rhymes and rhythms as they are spoken in the dialect Shakespeare intended them to be spoken. OP could revolutionize studying Shakespeare around the world.

Works Cited! Avery, Bruce. “Personal Interview,” 16 Apr. 2013. Boren, James. Middle English Consonant Sounds. PDF. 313

Brown, Keith, ed. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Boston: Elsevier, 2006.Questia School. Web. 27 Mar. 2013.

Meier, Paul. The Original Pronunciation of Shakespeare’s English. PDF.

Bryson, Bill. The mother tongue: English & how it got that way. New York: Avon Books, 1990. Print.

Menzer, Melinda J. "What is the Great Vowel Shift?." The Great Vowel Shift. eweb.furman.edu. 2000. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.

Crystal, David. A little book of language. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010. Print.

Mezner, Melinda . "Shakspeare and the GVS." The Great Vowel Shift. eweb.furman.edu. Web. 21 Apr. 2013.

Crystal, David. Groundlingo. PDF.

RP vs. OP. Ben Crystal, 2010. YouTube. Web. 1 Apr. 2013

Crystal, David. Pronouncing Shakespeare: the Globe experiment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print.

Shakespeare: Original Pronunciation. Open University, 2011. Learn at Open University. Web. 1 Apr. 2013.

Crystal, David. “Re: OP Interview.” Email. 15 Apr. 2013.

"Top 10 Most Spoken Languages In The World - Listverse." Top 10 Lists. Web. 1 May 2013.

Fajardo-Acosta, Fidel. "Middle English."Creighton University English Department. Creighton University, Web. 1 Apr. 2013. Ibeji, Mike. "BBC - History -Ancient History in depth: After the Romans." BBC. BBC, Web. 1 May 2013. Kathman, David. "The Spelling and Pronunciation of Shakespeare's Name. "Shakespeare Authorship. Web. 17 May 2013. Matthews, David. The Making of Middle English, 1765-1910. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1999. Questia School. Web. 27 Mar. 2013.

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Ben Purtell

Drug Decriminalization â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Practical Approach to Our Drug Problem Addiction to illicit drugs ruins countless lives every year in the United States. Addicts lose everything that makes them human, becoming slaves to a substance. Relationships crumble, bodies deteriorate and identities fade away, leaving a mere shell in their place. Although most agree that something must be done about addiction in the United States, there is much debate on the best way to address this huge issue. Many believe that prohibition, or the complete outlaw of drugs, is the best strategy. Others think that an approach emphasizing treatment is a better strategy. Because the prohibition of drugs in the United States is ineffective and damaging, drugs should be de-

criminalized and drug addiction should be treated as a health issue, not a crime. An effective drug policy should limit the damage that addiction causes in society, not try to eliminate it completely. In an ideal world, addictive drugs such as heroin and methamphetamines would not exist or they would be irrelevant and unused. If they did exist, a successful drug policy in this ideal world would result in the elimination of all drug addiction from society and prevent people from ever coming into contact with drugs. However, we do not live in a perfect world. Approximately 60 billion dollars is spent each year on illegal narcotics in the United States alone (Zill and Bergman). Eliminating the supply of drugs is an unattainable goal because of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;tremendous money that is made from the wholesale and retail distribution of illegal drugs,â&#x20AC;? (Fisher 156). In other words, attempting to eradicate the supply of drugs in America is pointless because of how profitable the drug trade is (Fisher 157). Drugs and addiction to them will always exist in America; at least as long as America is not a police state with a complete lack of personal freedom. Therefore, employing a policy that attempts to eliminate drugs and addiction is unrealistic and senseless. Instead, a successful drug policy should attempt to limit the damage that is caused by addictive drugs. Once we recognize that drugs are a reality of our society and cannot be eradicated simply by making them

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illegal, we can begin to focus on limiting the destruction caused by them. Prohibition is the current United States drug policy; but it is a failed strategy that damages the lives of addicts. In 1971, United States President Richard Nixon declared a war on drugs, dramatically increasing the punishment for the possession of all narcotics (Becker and Murphy). As a result, more and more addicts were locked up in prison. Dr. Ernest Drucker, Professor Emeritus in the Department of Family and Social Medicine at Montefoire Medical Center, observed increased arrests for drug use when he ran a drug treatment center in the Bronx during this time period. The harsh new laws, which mandated long sentences for drug offenses, meant that everyone was getting apprehended “all the time,” (Drucker). Drucker believes that when society arrests a drug addict, the addict loses possibilities in life. They lose access to health care, their homes, their jobs and their families – all of the things that enable you to deal with a drug problem (Drucker). Because of these losses, the war on drugs has not only failed to stop the rate of addiction in the United States, it has likely increased it. Instead of supporting addicts, prohibition makes it more difficult for them to overcome their issues by punishing them criminally (Rosmarin and Eastwood). Let’s look at a hypothetical case - a man, addicted to heroin, who is struggling and attempting to deal with his addiction. If this man were caught in possession

of heroin by the authorities, he would be thrown in jail for a year. For someone already struggling to deal with a drug problem, this would be devastating. Upon release from jail, he would be challenged to get a job because of his criminal record, and he would be disconnected from family and friends because of the time he spent in jail. It would be a struggle even to get health insurance. For someone with a history of drug abuse, jail time is an almost guaranteed way to turn them back to using. Unfortunately, this hypothetical case is a reality for many people in the United States today. With a little inspection, it becomes glaringly obvious that time in prison does not help drug addicts, so why would we apply harsh criminal penalties to them? In spite of its utter failure, prohibition has remained the drug policy in the United States since 1971 because of the political advantage being tough on drugs gives politicians. People do not like the idea of leniency when it comes to drugs because of how much damage drugs can cause people. Addiction is a terrible thing; it ruins lives and so the idea of being harsh when it comes to drug laws is appealing to many. Because of the devastation that drugs cause, making them illegal seems to be the best strategy. Being ‘tough on drugs’ is a popular position; it makes it appear as if elected officials are making a difference when in reality they may not be (Jones). Prohibition is a favored policy among voters because they believe politicians are 316

taking a stand and addressing the problem. The voters’ perception of prohibition’s effectiveness is far from reality.

sults; it is time for a different approach to our devastating drug problem.

Despite its appeal to voters, prohibition has been a monumental failure. Nothing that prohibition set out to accomplish has actually happened. Despite the over one hundred billion dollars spent by the United States government to reduce the supply of illegal drugs in our country, “there is virtually no proof that federal prevention initiatives have had any impact on illicit drug use patterns… or on the harm caused by illicit drug use,” (Fisher 2). According to Craig Jones, Executive Director of the John Howard Society of Canada (a network of offices across Canada committed to ‘just and humane’ solutions to crime and its consequences), “drug prohibition ignores science, compassion and logic,” (Jones). Drucker compares prohibition of drugs to the prohibition of alcohol in the 1920’s. Neither policy was effective. Both set out to control the use of a substance (or substances), and both failed. The difference is that the alcohol prohibition lasted for thirteen years, while the current prohibition of numerous drugs has lasted for over forty. Drucker takes it even further, stating that “what we call addiction in America is really inseparable from the criminalization of drugs,” (Drucker). Criminalizing addicts is not the way to help them; it simply isolates them more and makes it even harder for them to deal with their problems (Drucker). The prohibition experiment in the United States has lasted more than four decades and yielded no re-

Decriminalization is a logical, valid solution to the problem of addiction in the United States. Drug decriminalization would lead to treatment for addicts rather than incarceration and punishment. With drug decriminalization, drug possession, distribution and use would still be illegal. However, while trafficking and distribution would remain criminal offenses, possession and use would be moved out of criminal courts and into a unique court where the offender would be judged by psychologists, legal experts and social workers (Blackstone). To determine the difference between a possession and distribution charge, a threshold quantity is set. A threshold quantity is the maximum amount of a drug that one can possess and receive a non-criminal prosecution (possession). A quantity above the threshold would be a criminal prosecution (the sale or trafficking of illegal drugs). At its core, drug decriminalization would shift from punishing drug addicts to treating them. This shift would benefit addicts because it would make it easier for them to receive help for their issues (Becker and Murphy). Treatment, in turn, would reduce the amount of drug related diseases among addicts such as HIV AIDS. When addicts more consistently have the opportunity to receive help, as they do in a number of other countries, they will. This is the theory of decriminalization, and why it would lead to better lives for addicts in the United States. 317

If the United States were to decriminalize drugs, we would not be the first country to do so. Many countries have decriminalized with overwhelmingly positive results. According to the report ‘A Quiet Revolution: Drug Decriminalization Policies in Practice Across the Globe’ (the first written report in the campaign ‘Drugs – It’s Time for Better Laws’ by Release), “In the past 10 years, a new wave of countries have moved toward the decriminalisation model, suggesting growing recognition of the failures of the criminalisation approach and a strengthening political wind blowing in the direction of an historic paradigm shift,” (Rosmarin and Eastwood). Depending on what definitions (there is no specific definition for decriminalization) are used, between 25 and 30 countries have decriminalized illegal drugs (Rosmarin and Eastwood). This current movement towards decriminalization is not concentrated on a certain continent or type of country. In fact, countries as dissimilar as Armenia, Belgium and Mexico have implemented some form of decriminalization into their drug policies. Following recognition of prohibition’s failure as a policy, a trend of decriminalization has occurred worldwide and heralded great success. Portugal is the best example of a country with a successful drug policy. Portugal decriminalized almost all illegal drugs – from heroin to marijuana – in 2001. As a country, Portugal “changed its philosophy from labeling drug users as criminals to labeling them as people affected by a disease,” (Blackstone). Many expected drug use to soar and for Lisbon to become a drug-

haven. In actuality, the opposite happened. In eleven years of the new policy, the number of addicts in Portugal has been reduced by half (Blackstone). HIV AIDS among drug users has also decreased every year in Portugal since the policy change as have deaths from drug overdoses. What Portugal demonstrates is that treatment increases when it is made available and it is safe to seek (Jones). Knowing this, is it not the United States’ responsibility to provide the help that drug addicts in our country so desperately need? If we know that with more help offered more help will be taken, then instead of punishing the victims of addiction, we should support them in their struggle. Portugal proves that decriminalization is much more effective than prohibition. Drug prohibition is a failed policy in the United States. In the over forty years that it has been our strategy to fight addiction, nothing has been accomplished. Decriminalization of drugs – taking the emphasis off punishment of addicts and putting it on their treatment – is a valid and effective alternative. Decriminalization has already been put into place in at least 25 other countries with positive results. Portugal, for example, has halved its number of addicts in 11 years and decreased the rates of drug related diseases even further. The best course of action now is to replicate Portugal’s approach in the United States. Drug addiction should be treated as a health issue, not a criminal one. When more treatment is available for addicts, more treatment is taken advantage of. Knowing this, it is time for a new drug pol318

icy in the United States – one that is realistic and effective. Decriminalization is that policy.

I would like to acknowledge Ashley Boren, my mother, for editing this paper.

Works Cited Becker, Gary S., and Kevin M. Murphy. "REVIEW --- have we Lost the War on Drugs? --- After More than Four Decades of a Failed Experiment, the Human Cost has Become Too High; it is Time to Consider the Decriminalization of Drug use and the Drug Market." Wall Street Journal: C.1. Jan 05 2013. ProQuest. Web. 21 Mar. 2013 <http://search.proquest.com/docview/1266467960?accountid=3 830>. Blackstone, Samuel. “Portugal Decriminalized All Drugs Eleven Years Ago And The Results Are Staggering.” Business Insider International. Business Insider International, 17 Jul. 2012. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. Drucker, Ernest. “Decriminalization of Drug Possession Doesn’t Increase Drug Use.” Huffington Post. Huffington Post, 7 Jul. 2012. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Fisher, Gary L. Rethinking Our War on Drugs: Candid Talk About Controversial Issues. Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2006. Print.

Husak, Douglas. "Four Points about Drug Decriminalization." Criminal Justice Ethics, 22.1 (2003): 21-.ProQuest. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Jones, Craig. "Good Politics, Bad Policy." Inroads 2010: 85-97. ProQuest. Web. 3 Apr. 2013 Katel, Peter. "War on Drugs." CQ Researcher 2 June 2006: 481-504. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. Rosmarin, Ari and Eastwood, Niamh. “A Quiet Revolution: Drug Decriminalization Polices in Practice Across the Globe.” UK: Drugs – It’s Time for Better Laws. PDF File. Serrano, Alfonso. “How Latin America May Lead the World in Decriminalizing Drug Use.” Time World. Time World, 9 Oct. 2012. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Sher, George. "On the Decriminalization of Drugs." Criminal Justice Ethics 22.1 (2003): 30-. ProQuest. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Travis, Alan. “Decriminalise drug use, say experts after six-year study.” The Guardian. The Guardian, 15 Oct. 2012. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Zill, Oriana and Bergman, Lowell. “Do the Math: Why the Illegal Drug Business is Thriving.” Frontline. PBS. Web. May 22, 2013.

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Ayana Renoldi-Bracco

Food Fight: The Quest to Improving the Standard School Lunch “Shlop,” goes some ambiguous beige substance as it lands unceremoniously onto your plate in the cafeteria of some unnamed school. You’ve long since stopped bothering to ask what this strange goo-like entrée is, because you know the server will just tell you it’s “the special” in some monotone grumble. In some ways, you consider yourself to be lucky because your lunch is included in your tuition or paid for by the government—some policy you once heard about called the “National School Lunch Program” (EcoLit). But you still dream of greener pastures. And not just figuratively. These green rolling hills have perfectly picturesque black and white Holstein cows serenely munching their grass against the bright blue sky. As you snap

back out of your daydream, the harshness of the fluorescent lights in your reality momentarily blind you. In another unnamed school, Sally has four dollars for lunch. She has to decide between a sinfully tempting brownie and a two-day-old wilted salad. Sally considers this to be a painless decision. Making her way towards the scanner, Sally picks up the stale saran-wrapped brownie and for some extra protein, a deformed cheese stick. She too dreams of greener pastures, but in her case, the pastures are seemingly infinite fields of nearly harvestable butter lettuce. She tells herself she will one day have a legitimate salad. While these two stories may have been purely fictitious, they are prime examples of actual situations which occur in too many schools on a daily basis. Whether children are fed indistinguishable matter or need to make bad choices in order to cover their meal, school lunches need to be improved on the national scale. The only good thing about conventional school lunches is that they are affordable. Although many schools choose quantity over quality when it comes to procuring cafeteria lunches, it is vitally important that governments provide funding for alternatives to the average school lunch. If eating well was more easily accessible, the whole matter of terrible school lunches would be obsolete.

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Standard school lunch is faceted with countless flaws. Because the conventional school lunches usually come from mass distributors, it is sometimes very challenging to pinpoint the actual producer of what one eats. This means that it may be nearly impossible to find out what kind of conditions the food was made in and what might be in it. For instance, it is rumored that 95% of beef in the US is washed in ammonia (Truchinski). Issues with the conventional school lunch range from general poor quality to simply being detrimental for the environment in many ways. In the case of poor quality, there are not enough standards and regulations for typical school lunches. Most of the lack of regulations to standardize school lunches allows them to be regularly produced with questionable ethics (Bagdonis 108). Most people in school food administration are primarily concerned with nutrition. School nutrition is especially important because it lays the basis for all future health (Sonnenberg). If students learn to eat well in kindergarten and continue this practice through 12th grade, they will have had around 4,000 nutritious lunches at school (EcoLit). Unfortunately, most students will not have 4,000 nutritious lunches at school because they must make do with what they can afford. Marion Kalb, director of the National Farm to School Program for the Community Food Security Coalition, says this is because, “fresh fruits and vegetables are more expensive than what schools can get through the commodity program at a cheap rate.” Commodity programs usually supply schools with foods that can be stored for long peri-

ods of time, things that are canned or frozen, and “have long come under criticism for high fat content” (Glazer 91). But the government is not willing to pay much more than they already do, which is about $1 for fruits and vegetables (Bagdonis 108). Due to the lack of government funding, the food that schools usually get comes from an average of 1,500 miles away (EcoLit). Processed food must be heavily packaged in order to store during the lengthy travel and storage time between food production and consumption (Bagdonis 108). Not only is this terrible for the environment, but when the food is finally eaten, its nutritional value has been compromised along with its flavor and general presentation (Truchinski). This problem has an obvious solution, Farm to School Programs. “Farm to School” (FTS) is the name given to any program which allows schools to get fresh, local food directly from the grower, this includes school gardens. Because Farm to School programs provide fresh nutritious food to schools, FTS programs could bring about the end of childhood obesity, which would also help prevent if not stop adulthood obesity (Bagdonis intro). On the other hand, FTS programs would also help solve hunger in America (EcoLit). Here’s the catch: Farm to School programs, once again, are far too expensive to easily replace Sysco and other inexpensive food distributors in most school districts (Sonnenberg).

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Even when paid for, it requires many steps to get food from farms to schools. Transport is a huge reason why farm to school programs are complicated. According to Kalb, “probably the biggest hurdle is now how to get the produce from the field to the school.” This problem is greatly helped by produce purveyors like farmer cooperatives (Alvarez). These distributors work with many farmers to sell and distribute their goods so that farmers can focus on farming, instead of orders, transportation, and payment (Truchinski). Kalb believes farmer’s cooperatives are “the wave of the future.” Still, FTS programs are greatly hindered by lack of funding. Because it is more cost efficient for all schools to purchase from large distributors, such as Sysco, the federal government has trouble finding the monetary resources to fund schools that wish to purchase more nutritional, more expensive food (Truchinski). The majority of the funding for FTS programs—including the ones in public school districts—comes from private donations (Sonnenberg). But the US government does provide more support on other levels. Even though the government fails to provide adequate funding for better foods, they have set some regulations. In 1999, the “first school food policy was adopted by the US school district” (EcoLit). In 2004, it was mandated that by the 2006-2007 school year all US schools must develop some form of wellness policy which would outline their standards under the local and

federal government’s. The policy that was passed in 2004 is known as the Local School Wellness Policy Act of Expanded Child Nutrition, and it worked alongside the WIC Reauthorization Act from 1966. These wellness policy acts recognized that “at a minimum, schools are required to set nutrition education goals, establish nutrition guidelines for all foods available on the school campus, ensure that the school district’s reimbursable meal program guidelines are not stricter than USDA guidelines, establish a plan for measuring implantation of the Wellness Policy, and involve a diverse group of community members in the process of writing the Wellness Policy, including parents, teachers, school administrators and the general public” (Bagdonis 108). In addition to the individual school wellness policies, local governments should help by “ensuring programs that correspond to the specific circumstances and possibilities of their social and geographical settings” (Bagdonis abstract). Still, it is a bit upsetting that aside from the fast food and soda ban from schools, the government allows almost anything to be served in schools as long as it follows USDA regulations which provides standards for all food in the United States (Sonnenberg). Despite challenges, real improvements are coming with the Wellness Policies; Farm to School programs are providing substantial benefits to their districts. According to Breena Holms, MD, director of maternal and child health for Health Department, “Improved nutrition in schools is a key component in improving the overall health of the entire community, farm to 322

school [programs have] done this remarkably well and in many ways [have] expectations.”

berg). We can really make a difference, we are already starting to.

Many schools are doing their part to better their cafeterias. Some of the measures to better school lunches include incorporating regional foods to the lunch menu, building school gardens, and teaching hands-on projects instead of just facts for nutrition education (EcoLit II). These nutrition programs are essential for all schools, especially ones who cannot afford to completely overturn their cafeterias. Schools are only required to briefly mention nutrition as part of health class. At least fifty hours are required to develop new habits; unfortunately, most schools with nutrition education only allow for twelve hours out of the sixth grade curriculum (EcoLit). Still, if schools can’t afford to spend more time on nutrition education they could just try to teach using more engaging activities. Some great handson activities include finding the amount of sugar or fat in popular food products (Sonnenberg). Whatever approaches schools choose to take, it is vitally important that nutrition be taught to foster a consciousness for eating.

Works Cited

By starting with small community efforts, we will be helping future generations and the whole global community. Farm to School programs in smaller communities mean that eventually worldwide food issues could be stamped out, and that would be no small feat, as there are about one billion people who are obese and, in contrast, another billion who are hungry (Nieren-

Alvarez, Fred. "Farm Collectives Cultivate Ties to School Lunch Plans." Los Angeles Times: 0. Jul 10 2005. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. Bagdonis, Jessica M., C. C. Hinrichs, and Kai A. Schafft. "The Emergence and Framing of Farm-to-School Initiatives: Civic Engagement, Health and Local Agriculture." Agriculture and Human Values 26.1-2 (2009): 107-19. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. Cassel, Chris, et al. "Food to Me: A Farm-to-Table Program for Middle School Children." The Agricultural Education Magazine77.1 (2004): 19-22. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. "Ecoliteracy.org." Rethinking the School Lunch Guide. Ed. Zenobia Barlow. The Center for Ecoliteracy, 2013. Web. 29 Apr. 2013. "Ecoliteracy.org." 10 Things You Can Do to Rethink School Lunch. Ed. Zenobia Barlow. The Center for Ecoliteracy, 2013. Web. 29 Apr. 2013. "Farm to School Programs Thriving in Vermont." Targeted News Service 31 Oct. 2012. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013 . 323

Glazer, Sarah. "Slow Food Movement: Can It Change Eating Habits?" Global Researcher. CQ Publishers, 26 Jan. 2007. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. Izumi, Betty T., D. W. Wright, and Michael W. Hamm. "Farm to School Programs: Exploring the Role of Regionally-Based Food Distributors in Alternative Agrifood Networks." Agriculture and Human Values 27.3 (2010): 335-50. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. Kalb, Marion. "Getting Fresh with Farm-to-School Programs." Green Teacher.80 (2006): 22-7. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. Nierenberg, Danielle, and Dr. Camillo Ricordi. "Bay Area Leading Sustainable-food Efforts." SF Examiner. N.p., 6 May 2012. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. "School lunch makeover: a new law makes cafeterias dish up healthier food." Weekly Reader News Edition 4-6 [a Weekly Reader publication] 18 Feb. 2011. Student Resources in Context. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Sonnenberg, Beth. "Nutrition at the Edible Schoolyard Project." Telephone interview. 29 Apr. 2013.

a Resurgence." Los Angeles Times (pre-1997 Fulltext): 1. 19 Feb. 1991. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. Stahler, Charles, and Debra Wasserman. "School lunches, they are a-changin'." Vegetarian Journal. July-Aug. 2005. Student Resources in Context. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Tonn, Jessica L. "School Lunches." Education Week. 15 Feb. 2006. Gale Biography In Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2013. Truchinski, Kristen. "ACRE at Bay." Personal interview. 06 May 2013. USDA Announces New Farm to School Program to Improve the Health and Nutrition of Kids Receiving School Meals. Lanham, United States, Lanham: Federal Information & News Dispatch, Inc, 2012. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. USDA Opens Application Process for New Leahy-Led Farm to School Grant Program. Lanham, United States, Lanham: Federal Information & News Dispatch, Inc, 2012. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. "U.S. Department of Agriculture is Providing Grants for Farm-toSchool Programs." American School & University (2012) ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2013.

Spencer, Terry. "Classes Keep 'Em on the Farm Education: High School Agriculture Programs, Once in Decline, are Seeing 324

Keith Roehl

It's a bird, it's a plane... yes it is. Why drones spark a concern about privacy than safety "Drones are the Big Bad Wolves of the 21st Century, but when did they stop simply being unmanned aircraft and become a cultural touchstone?" â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Sarah Wanenchak

Many people hold slight misconceptions about the usage of drones and how they affect their privacy. Though, even though those conceptions may be true, drones provide security and other benefits such as a reduction in government expenses that create more jobs, which all lead to a safer community. The overall feeling that many have towards drones are that they can help a community that people live in with the increase of technology that can keep people safe without human error and ad-

vanced skills. However, after going into this topic of drone safety, it is found that after their use in the war in Iraq and the middle east, the general censes of this great futuristic technology has now changed to the worse. The act 'robots killing' and having the ability to take down enemies (Helena Bell) frightens many. People feel that they have a constitutional right of privacy which furthers the legislative acts upon the existence of drones in the hands of cities' protection forces. However, after the attack in Boston and rising gun control around the United States, there are three reasons of why this fluctuating ballot for; security, cost, and privacy. These components create an altering feeling about technology that can even be more helpful than humans at times. This is why drones are one of the financially and technological best in the use of neighborhood protection. Drones are good for security and low cost compared to other protection, but the main reason why many do not like them are because of the evasion of privacy. The biggest issue of the use of drones in public areas are the concern of one's privacy. You are in your backyard sipping on some sweat lemonade and your next door neighbor is taking pictures of you. Yes. You get annoyed, don't like it, and probably do not want it. However, what if that neighbor, the 'annoying' one, only takes a picture of your backyard and makes sure that you and your home is safe and are law abiding. The whole theory behind the concern of privacy is just this method over a more inclusive protection that is 325

more advanced than the typical search method police use today. Over the course of the past weekend, there was an interview with the chief commissioner at the Oakland police department, Howard Jorden, who is a supporter and advocate for the use of UAV vehicles in communities like his for the protection of inanity of many. He says that drones are one and better ways that we hope to use to crack down on crime. The machine won't play peek-a-poo in a toilet stall or evade you napping; the real reason why the force would like drones are to be accessible to have a better police force and have safer streets. However, could drones make a better police force and safer streets? These questions come up all the time and, as said in the Washington times by Ben Wolfgang, "Americans remain fearful that law enforcement agencies will abuse drone technology, and that fear is leading to concrete legislation to curb its use" (Ben Wolfgang). A month before the time of the Boston bombing, Massachusetts released that the police force would not use drones do to the concern of privacy of people. "It's patently absurd to do those kind of limitations, where we don't have them on manned rotary aircraft, manned fixed-wing aircraft and all the other technologies that are in place," says Mitch Barker, executive director of the Washington Association of Sheriffs and Police Chiefs. However, as now once the terrorists search, Boston layers now found that drones could have made the search easier and the ban has been lifted.

So why are people so worried about drones? In fact, â&#x20AC;&#x153;droneâ&#x20AC;? safety rules can also help protect privacy. In a radio interview this week, New York City Mayor Michal Bloomberg said that drones are an "inevitable part of our future"(and maybe our present), comparing them to the thousands of cameras already located around Manhattan. David Pierce form Verge wonders, "What's the difference whether the drone is up in the air or on the building?" he asked. "We're going into a different world, uncharted... you can't keep the tide from coming in" (David Pierce). So what is the difference if it's in the sky when people are already being watched? The reason why is because of safety which drones elude. If a crime does happen, less than 10% of criminals actually get caught in this method of sending a police patrol (Howard Jordan). As technology gets advanced, computers can be more powerful and smarter than some humans. Howard says that it is almost like entering the terminator days, but robots are not attacking humans (yet). In an interview, he speculates that this new technology is often better than using officers, but there is always a need for an officer. As privacy is still a issue, never the less, the actual cost of a new police system with drones could dramatically cut on the cost of a department to run every year. The use of this technology could cut the cost to the ratio of 3:1. On average, the average cop gets a yearly wage of $47,000 per year after taxes. With two cops per area and a car and weapons and all the other stuff cops have, it really adds up; up to about ~$300,000 326

dollars per are every year. That's a chunk a change that comes out of American wallets in form of tax pay. However, almost too good to be true, the benefit of one drone or quad copter every year would be about $120,000 and increase enhanced features that a normal cop cannot do as well including the ability to detect gas leaks and fires with thermal imaging; there are not any robo-cops yet, but this could be a step toward it (Anna Mulrine, Chip Johnson). With the use of drones, it cuts the cost of cops on the streets and the costs the amount they pay for many officers just to roam streets. Mr. Jordan [Oakland Police chief] says that about 50-60% of the time spent when an officer is on duty, is spent sitting in a car, or bicycle, and watching their assigned area. In fact, this part can obvisily be taken over by drones, and when the drone find "activity", then a officer can be called on. This new structure could improve police departments, especially in Oakland, into a more efficient and smarter station without the cost. In addition, as America tries to increase jobs in the nation, "The unmanned aircraft industry hopes that there will be 100,000 people with drone-related jobs by 2025" (Corey Dade). Republican Jeff Gorell says that “Ultimately it will be a global industry, ...We’re talking about at least thousands of jobs, if not tens of thousands of jobs, and billions of dollars in investment and economic development that, frankly, California can’t afford to thumb its nose at.”

ings, and alert police if someone is breaking the law. This can make our community a better safer community. This would be a cheaper and more secure way for law enforcement to serve and protect our country. As many have misconceptions about the matter and concern about privacy, the logistics show that using drones have more benefits than cons. Even though people do not like their envision of privacy, as said by Mayer Bloomberg, "It's not a question of whether it's good or bad. I just don't see how you can stop them." Now, neighborhood drones are not commissioned and they are even banned in some states. However, after the attack in Boston and rising gun control around the United States, there are three reasons of why this fluctuating ballot for; security, cost, and privacy. These components create an altering feeling about technology that can even be more helpful than humans at times. With drones, a neighborhood like yours could be more secure with the help of drones without the cost and needs for a new force

Works Cited Berton, Justin. "Police Use of Drones Concerns Activists." SFGate. SFGate, 18 Oct. 2012. Web. <http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Police-use-of-drones-conc erns-activists-3962638.php>.

With new technology, drones can track down know subjects with facial recognition, look at an airial view to find drug deal327

Dade, Corey. "Cops Using Drones? Get Ready." The Root. N.p., 9 May 2013. Web. <http://www.theroot.com/blogs/cops-using-drones-get-ready>. Harris, Paul. "Anti-drones Activists Plan Month of Protest over Obama's 'kill' Policy." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 27 Mar. 2013. Web. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/mar/27/anti-drone-activi sts-protest-obama>. Kaste, Martin. "As Police Drones Take Off, Washington State Pushes Back." NPR. NPR, 22 Feb. 2013. Web. <http://www.npr.org/2013/02/22/172696814/as-police-drones-ta ke-off-washington-state-pushes-back>. Luckerson, Victor. "Topics." TIME.com. N.p., 01 May 2013. Web. <http://topics.time.com/drones/>. Mulrine, Anna. "Drones over America: Public Safety Benefit or 'creepy' Privacy Threat?" The Christian Science Monitor. The Christian Science Monitor, 13 Mar. 2013. Web. <http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2013/0313/Drones-ov er-America-public-safety-benefit-or-creepy-privacy-threat>. Newman, Lily. "Drones Could Replace Eager Youths On Paper Routes (Updated)." Gizmodo. Gizmodo, 31 Mar. 2013. Web. P, A. "Alameda Drone Use: Sheriff Vows No Spying Will Occur In California County." Huffington Post. N.p., 10 Oct. 12. Web.

<http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/12/10/alameda-drone-use -sheriff_n_2271570.html>. Pierce, David. "The Verge." The Verge. N.p., 24 Mar. 2013. Web. <http://www.theverge.com/2013/3/24/4141526/mayor-bloomber g-says-surveillance-drones-inevitable-in-nyc>. Rose, Brent. "This Drone Aircraft Could Save Lives." Gizmodo. Gizmodo, 7 Sept. 2012. Web. Stanley, Jay, and Catherine Crump. Protecting Privacy From Aerial Surveillance: Recommendations for Government Use of Drone Aircraft. New York: American Civil Liberties Union, 2011. Print. Villasenor, John. "No-Fly Zone: How "Drone" Safety Rules Can Also Help Protect Privacy." The Brookings Institution. N.p., 2 May 2013. Web. <http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2013/05/02-drone -safety-privacy-villasenor>. Wanenchak, Sarah. "The Drone Is a Lie: How UAV Technology Grew into Urban Legend." Gizmodo. Gizmodo, 22 Mar. 2013. Web. Wolfgang, Ben. "Could Drones Have Found Boston Suspects Sooner?" Washington Times. N.p., 19 Apr. 2013. Web. 328

<http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/apr/19/could-dro nes-have-found-boston-suspects-sooner/>.

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Isabella Shmelev

Herb Your Enthusiasm A pressing issue in the teenage community is depression. Doctors have determined that, “depression is associated with changes in levels of serotonin and other neurotransmitters responsible for feelings of calmness and well-being.” (Whole Living: Fighting Depression with Natural Remedies). Depression can be treated a number of ways, but modern antidepressants and herbal treatments are the most popular. While antidepressants are scientifically proven to help depression in teens, herbal remedies are much safer to use, because unlike antidepressants, they do not have harsh side effects which could end up worsening the depression. Experts estimate that 5% of all teenagers will suffer from depression. Only 20% of depressed teens are appropriately diagnosed and treated (The Balanced Mind Foundation: Facts about Teenage Depression). The most common types of depression that are diagnosed in teenagers are Dysthymic Disorder, Major Depression Disorder and Bipolar Disorder and, “a small percent of teens also suffer from seasonal depression, usually during the winter months in higher latitudes” (Teen Help: Teen

Depression Statistics). The diagnosis process is different in the various types of medicine; however, they reach the same conclusions. The causes for these various types of depression include a traumatic life event, social/family situation, and even genetics, and usually, “depressed teens with coexisting disorders such as substance abuse problems are less likely to respond to treatment for depression.” (NIMH: Depression in Children and Adolescents) Usually, when parents find that their child is indeed depressed, they run straight to modern antidepressants, or SSRIs, but that is not always the best choice for the troubled teen. Much like adults, depression in teens can be treated and sometimes be cured. For depression, doctors usually prescribe SSRIs which are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. SSRI medications are basically antidepressants but are more modern and have several improvements from past antidepressant medications. SSRI medications usually have fewer side effects than regular antidepressants, and are less likely to be harmful if taken in an overdose. (NIMH: Antidepressant Medication for Children and Adolescents) Regular antidepressants were developed in the 1950’s and have been used to relieve symptoms of depression since then (EMedExpert). More doctors recommend the use of SSRI’s to teens because they are much safer for children to use. Some examples of SSRIs include: Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, Celexa, Lexapro and Luvox. Prozac is the only antide330

pressant that is approved by the FDA to be safe for treating depression in children ages 8 and over (NIMH: Antidepressant Medication for Children and Adolescents). Even though these medications have fewer side effects, they still can affect the patient who is taking them very negatively. These medications can cause side effects that end up making the person with depression feel worse. Side effects of these medications range from nervousness, nausea and dry mouth to rashes, hallucinations, seizures and suicidal actions or feelings (NIH: Fluoxetine). The frequency of suicidal acts when taking SSRIs was 0.3%, while the frequency while taking older kinds of antidepressants was 0.4% (Drugs.com: Prozac Side Effects). Some antidepressants even list that a side effect of taking the medication is feeling more depressed. Although some of these medications can be very harsh, there are some benefits to using them. If a teenager’s depression is extremely severe and cannot be helped by any other treatment, it would be beneficial for that specific teenager to try antidepressants. However, this is after they have tried all other means of treatment, such as different types of therapy, eating healthier, exercising, taking proper vitamins and using different types of herbal remedies and Chinese Medicine. Chinese Medicine is used very commonly for many things, such as diabetes, male and female fertility problems, Alzheimer’s, depression, and many others. Chinese Medicine has been in practice for more than 5,000 years (NCCAM: Traditional Chinese Medicine). Despite this, Chinese Medicine has very little scien-

tific evidence proving that it works. According Chinese Medicine, “the areas that are most effected by depression are the lungs and the heart” (Jennifer Jackson: Personal Interview), so during the diagnoses process, doctors make sure to take the patients pulse to make sure that there are no irregularities in the patients heartbeat. Some of the pros and cons for using Chinese Medicine for depression are that Chinese Medicine has very little scientific evidence that it actually works. Most modern doctors tend to think that the effects of Chinese medicine are a placebo effect, which is a substance that is prescribed to a patient that really does nothing for them, but by believing it works, the patient’s body begins to experience a more positive effect. Despite there being no scientific evidence that Chinese Medicine works, people who practice Chinese Medicine are very confident in the herb’s abilities to heal the human body. Chinese medicine is also safer to use, especially for a young body (Jennifer Jackson: Personal Interview). An herbalist named Jennifer Jackson, who has been practicing Traditional Chinese Medicine for almost ten years, noticed that teens with depression often are treated with harsh medications, which affect their body in the worst ways with all of the different side effects these medications can have. Teens come to her more commonly when they have been experiencing these side effects and want to find a different alternative to the medications. Since there are little to no side effects and there is absolutely no chance for an overdose, she recommends them to teens 331

with depression, especially those who have been experiencing the horrible side effects of SSRIs. While antidepressants dull personality and have harmful side effects, herbs are much safer and are and you cannot become dependent or addicted to them, unlike antidepressants (NCCAM Traditional Chinese Medicine). The different use of herbs depends on the severity of the patient’s depression. Different herb formulas are prescribed to people with different levels of depression. If the depression is very heavy, then the patient will want to use more minerals which sedate the nervous system and make the patient feel calm and more relaxed. If the depression is not as severe, then patients are advised to take different types of flowers; the top of the flower corresponds to healing the top of the body while the stem and roots of the flower correspond to the bottom half of the body (Jennifer Jackson: Personal Interview). Different from herbs, antidepressants don’t actually treat the body for depression. They put a theoretical “Band-Aid” over it, meaning that they mask the depression with chemicals to make it feel like the depression is going away, when in reality it is still there, and could even be getting worse. Herbs actually regulate the body and correct any of the chemical imbalances like a lack of serotonin in the body that cause depression and actually cure it for the time being (Jennifer Jackson: Personal Interview).

Even now, more doctors and therapists are recommending the use of herbs for teenagers with depression rather than antidepressants (NIMH: Depression in Children and Adolescents). According to Larry Goldman, a marriage and family therapist who helps many teens with depression, antidepressants are very over prescribed, and with all of the patients that he saw, not only did the antidepressants have very little effect on the depression, but he observed that many patients were becoming overly dependent on antidepressants and they were experiencing the harsh side effects. He has noticed that when people usually feel sad about something, such as the loss of a loved one or issues at home that they immediately go to the doctor for a prescription for antidepressants; however, that is a big mistake. He says that most people who aren’t even severely depressed take antidepressants which mean that people with severe depression are not getting treated. (Larry Goldman: Personal Interview) As much as eleven percent of Americans over age 12 take antidepressants according to a report released Wednesday by the Centers for Disease Control (CNN Health). Goldman recommended that patients with depression try herbal remedies first, and if they do not improve the depression, to talk to the patients physician about antidepressants and weigh the good from the bad. Whether the patients want to take herbal remedies or modern antidepressants for their depression is completely their decision, because when it comes down to it, they are the ones most 332

affected by it. However it is important for the patient and the patient’s family to educate themselves on the side effects, pros and cons, different types of medicines and therapies. There are many possible treatments for depression and every child is different. Patients should weigh the good from the bad and ask themselves, “Is getting well again more important than the mental and physical tolls that the side effects will take?” Using medications is a balancing act. Make sure you also help your body regulate the hormones with exercise, eating right, thinking positive, and taking the correct vitamins (Livestrong: 10 Tips for Curing Depression Naturally). If the patient wants a treatment that may or may not work, but will take no tolls on their body, then they should try Chinese Medicine. If they prefer something that is proven to work, they should take SSRIs. However, Chinese Medicine is safer, and in most patients was found to work, so it is clearly is the better solution.

"Fluoxetine: MedlinePlus Drug Information." National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, n.d. Web. 24 May 2013.

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"NIMH: Depression." NIMH: Home. Science Writing, Press & Dissemination Branch, n.d. Web. 24 May 2013.

"Antidepressants Comparison: SSRI's vs. Tricyclic Antidepressants."eMedExpert.com - Reliable Information on Prescription Drugs. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2013. "Fighting Depression with Natural Remedies." .com. Ed. Whole Living. Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia, Inc., Oct. 2010. Web. 03 Apr. 2013.

Goldman, Larry, Personal Interview. 28 April. 2013 Gupta, Sanjay . "More than 1 in 10 in U.S. take antidepressants “ The Chart - CNN.com Blogs." The Chart - CNN.com Blogs. N.p., 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 24 May 2013. Jackson, Jennifer. Personal interview. 19 April. 2013. NCCAM. "Traditional Chinese Medicine: An Introduction"." NCCAM . N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. NIMH. “Antidepressant Medications for Children and Adolescents: Information for Parents and Caregivers.” NIMH Home. N.p., 26 Apr. 2013. Web. 26 Apr. 2013.

"NIMH: Depression in Children and Adolescents (Fact Sheet)." NIMH: Home. The National Institute of Mental Health , n.d. Web. 24 May 2013. Solliday-McRoy, Dr. Cindy . “10 Tips For Curing Depression Naturally LIVESTRONG.COM.” LIVESTRONG.COM - Lose Weight & Get Fit with Diet, Nutrition & Fitness Tools LIVESTRONG.COM. N.p., 18 Sept. 2009. Web. 26 Apr. 2013. 333

"Teen Depression Statistics - Teen Depression ." Teen Help - Advice for Parents and Teens. Teen Help, n.d. Web. 24 May 2013.

334

Nathan Siegel

Internet Piracy: A Global Sharing Phenomenon “Rip, mix, and burn. This is a kind of creativity. It is a creativity that we should remember and celebrate” –Free Culture 24

I. Introduction to Internet Piracy On the Internet, many people engage in an illegal act called Internet Piracy. They enjoy the ability to access whatever they want, whenever they want, for free. Primarily used are Peer to Peer (P2P) networks, which can transfer any file from one computer to another, without the permission of the creator of the file, infringing on their copyright. These networks are wildly popular among users because “they are basically one stop shopping, where a user can find just about anything they are looking for” (“Software Piracy is Copyright Infringement”). Because of the easy access to information, this service is extremely popular. Every month, about 2.6 billion music files are downloaded, and nearly 400,000 movies are downloaded each day (“Introduction to Internet Piracy”). While Internet Piracy

does have a powerful negative effect on the world economy, it does increase the total amount of information available to the average Internet user. These pirates do not pay the creators of the content, and as a result, money does not reach the creators. The creators then will have less incentive to produce new products, slowing the world economy (“Software Piracy is Copyright Infringement”). The problem can be, and is, reduced by increasing the price for legitimate users, but that merely shifts the negative impacts to the users instead of the creators (“Software Piracy is Copyright Infringement”). Internet Piracy puts a large burden on the legitimate users and does not fully replace the loss that the corporations experience. In the U.S. alone, piracy in all its forms reportedly costs corporations more than $100 billion per year (“SOPA”). This is a truly gigantic amount of money, all of which is not going to its rightful owners, according to law. From similar data, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) concluded that the 26% fall in sales for music CDs between 1999 and 2003 was due to online file sharing (“Introduction to Internet Piracy”). This claim relies on the idea that 100% of the people who pirated the music were going to buy the music if they did not pirate it. Not everyone who pirates would have bought what they pirated, as is evident in another year, when the RIAA reported that the number of CDs downloaded illegally was 2.6 times the number sold, but sales of the CDs fell only 6.7%, 335

which was solely attributed to Piracy (Free Culture 71). However, for large corporations that employ creators, the link between profits and creativity is blurred. 50 Cent, a hip-hop artist, argues that piracy hurts “the distributors of the recorded entertainment, and not the artists (Born Digital 139). While piracy does have negative impacts for large corporations and the artists producing the content, this impact is overstated by lobbying groups like the RIAA and the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). Not only large corporations and legitimate users are affected by piracy, but also creators who want to legally use elements of a previously copyrighted work. Copyright laws were “born as a shield to protect publishers’ profits against the unfair competition of a pirate. [They have] matured into a sword that interferes with any use” (Free Culture 99). This has made it difficult for creators to obtain permission from the owners of the copyright. People that want to use others’ copyrighted material have to get approval from “every artist, actor, director, musician, and get explicit permission from each” (Free culture 103).This requirement has resulted in many derivative works not being created. The act of Internet Piracy negatively affects all creators, even those whose works were not pirated. There are many people who engage in Internet Piracy deliberately, but there are also many people who pirate without knowing what they did was illegal or even wrong (“Software Piracy is

copyright Infringement”). In addition, some pirates that knowingly download content illegally do not think that they are doing anything wrong. In a survey conducted by the Business Software Alliance, it was revealed that 76% of the college students surveyed believed that “piracy of music or movies was acceptable in some or all instances” (Born Digital 138). In addition, many young adults think that the amount that they pirate is insignificant, that the corporation is “bad,” or that they weren’t going to buy what they pirated anyways, and they are thus justified in pirating (Freiwald). The system that makes Internet Piracy so prevalent, the P2P network, has its own merits. These systems, using complex algorithms, allow the quick and easy spread of information in a way impossible a generation ago (Free Culture 17). This kind of data sharing can be “useful and productive, to produce either new content or new ways of doing business” (Free Culture 66). Many new businesses, like Napster, Facebook, and YouTube, have been created, all based around one main idea—the creation and distribution of digital media over the Internet (Born Digital 132). All this information that exists online has transformed the way we gather it. For example, one can find any image one wants, download it, and put it in a PowerPoint presentation, all in a few seconds (Free Culture 105). However, P2P file sharing is not without its own problems. Much of this data is a copy of someone else’s intellectual prop336

erty (“Introduction to Internet Piracy”). This copying is a form of theft and is illegal, but people continue to pirate huge amounts of data daily. Vast numbers of people engage in this act, yet only a small number of people are punished for copyright infringement because it is easy to copy someone else’s information on the Internet and difficult to detect when your information is being copied (“Consumer Software Piracy”). As a result, piracy is extremely prevalent in our society. In the U.S., more than 20% of all software is pirated, according to the Business Software Alliance (“Consumer Software Piracy”). The high frequency at which file sharing occurs “has forced us to rethink a system of copyright that is at odds with the dominant social norms of a generation” (Born Digital 132). This act has prompted many people to ask the question, “What does it mean when so many otherwise law-abiding people break the law?” (Born Digital 137).

II. History of Internet Piracy and Copyright Law Copyright underwent its first major transition to its current form in 1710, with the Statute of Anne. A group of powerful individuals had claimed the perpetual right to control the copying “of books that they had acquired from authors” (Free Culture 85), letting them effectively regulate the information that the general public had access to. The Statute of Anne placed a limit on this

right. It would allow the copyright owner a fourteen-year period to have the copyright “renewable once if the author was alive, and that all works already published by 1710 would get a single term of twenty-one additional years” (Free Culture 86). This form of copyright was very specific and only regulated the use of a certain machine to copy a certain type of work (Free Culture 87). The booksellers pushed back against the Statute, and argued that even after the copyright term was up, others still couldn’t make copies without their permission (Free Culture 90). A decision by the House of Lords abolished this idea of perpetual copyright. Now the booksellers could “no longer control how culture in England would grow and develop” (Free Culture 94). Copyright law, after the Statute of Anne was implemented, has remained relatively unchanged up to the present, except in its scope. Now copyright extends to most, if not all, creative works. With this expansion, the rights given to copyright holders make almost no sense at all (Free Culture 104). For legal use of copyright, an owner can legally charge whatever they want, whether it is as little as $10, or as much as $1,000,000 (Free Culture 97). For piracy, however, there are very definite laws governing how much compensation the affected company should receive (Free Culture 61). In fact, the reason that Internet Piracy exists as an idea is because of this extension of rights. The publishing companies own the information on the CDs that they sell, not the people that bought the CD (“Consumer Software Piracy”). 337

As stated by John Perry Barlow, a cofounder of the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), a group dedicated to protecting users’ rights, “Copyright’s not about creation, which will happen anyway—it’s about distribution” (“Introduction to Internet Piracy”). After the invention of the Internet, things started to change rapidly for copyright law. The law has been shifted to support creativity less—what it was designed to do—and “protect certain industries more” (Free Culture 19). In 1994, a loophole in copyright law was exploited by David LaMacchia who won a resulting lawsuit because he did not profit from his copying, and the law “did not cover not-for-profit copying of computer software” (“Consumer Software Piracy”). In December of 1997, the No Electronic Theft Act (NET) was enacted, closing the loophole that LaMacchia exploited (“Consumer Software Piracy”). In 1999, a new service was created. Napster, an online P2P network, had gained a large following (“Introduction to Internet Piracy”). Only sixteen months after its launch, Napster had nearly 30 million people using the service to acquire free music (Born Digital 133). This problem, in the eyes of legislators and lobbyists, was compounded by that fact that the structure of P2P networks makes them difficult to police for illegal material (“Consumer Software Piracy”). The music industry argued that “what Napster is doing threatens legitimate E-commerce models and is legally and morally wrong” (“Intro-

duction to Internet Piracy”). This quick reaction was simply because of the popularity of Napster. For companies, piracy already existed, but with Napster, “the scale of the new challenge was shocking” (Born Digital 133). The music industry made a strong argument: with the ability to get music easily and free from Napster, the customers would no longer pay for their music in stores (Born Digital 133-134). Napster was quickly shut down, but that act didn’t stop P2P file sharing or Internet Piracy (Born Digital 135). Another P2P service—named Kazaa—became popular a few months after Napster was shut down. This service was dealt with quickly, after the RIAA filed large lawsuits against the users of the service (“Introduction to Internet Piracy”). This method of suing pirates spread, and the Software Publisher’s Association (SPA) claims that these lawsuits are effective at reducing piracy rates (“Consumer Software Piracy”). The effectiveness is still up to debate, as, despite the SPA’s efforts, nearly 25% of all business software is used illegally in the U.S. (“Software Piracy is Copyright Infringement”). All of these acts by large lobbying groups like the MPAA and RIAA show a change in a relatively consistent story throughout history. Many different technologies, whether they be film, records, radio, or cable TV—were born of a type of piracy. Now, these new pirates are not being accepted, like they were in the past (Free Culture 53). 338

III. Solutions " The MPAA, one of the largest lobbying organizations in America, was formed in 1922 as “a trade association whose goal was to defend American movies against increasing domestic criticism.” Since then, the organization has expanded, and now represents filmmakers, producers, and distributors for television, video, and cable (Free Culture 116). Jack Valenti, the president of the MPAA for 38 years, was regarded to be “perhaps the most prominent and effective lobbyist in Washington” (Free Culture 116). When Valenti was still the president of the MPAA, piracy levels were reduced from 48% in 1989 to 25% in 2002 (“Software Piracy Is Copyright Infringement”). In October, 2011, a bill was introduced into the House of Representatives by Representative Lamar Smith. Called the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), the bill’s intention was to stop piracy over the Internet and was supported by both Republicans and Democrats, the MPAA, and the RIAA (“SOPA”). The bill would achieve this by denying websites suspected to illegally host copyrighted content access to the U.S. market (“SOPA”). This bill would require Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to completely block websites suspected of copyright infringement (“SOPA”). This strategy for reducing Internet Piracy had two major flaws. First, the sheer amount of data that would have to be processed necessitates the use of an automated program to decide what is copyrighted and what is not. Lawrence Lessig, the

writer of Free Culture, said, years earlier, “It is code, rather than law, that rules. And the problem with code regulations is that, unlike law, code has no shame” (Free Culture 148). Possible problems with the code’s design could cause actions that would be considered “fair use” to be copyright infringement because the code was not designed correctly. As a result, some people could get blocked when they did nothing wrong, while real infringers slipped through the code. Another issue is the way the websites would be blocked. The Domain Name System (DNS), a crucial part of the Internet that links URLs, the “name” of the website to the website itself, would have to be modified to block these infringing websites. Not only would removing the website from the DNS servers be ineffective (if you have the IP address of the website, you can still access it), it would also compromise the integrity of this system, and could stop it from working correctly (Freiwald). These issues were raised to the public, and online protests caused the bill to lose support (“SOPA”). SOPA was met with a large amount of criticism, and opponents asserted that the bills were too broad and could block “legitimate content sharing as well as protected fair uses of copyrighted materials” (“SOPA”). This bill would also put a large burden on ISPs, requiring them to monitor all of the content “on the sites they hosted, while weakening their legal protection from liability if they failed to detect and take down infringing content in a timely manner” (“SOPA”). This requirement for monitoring would pose a serious threat to the “business models of success339

ful user-generated content sites such as YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter” (“SOPA”). The RIAA didn’t help its argument by making many errors in its attempt to stop Internet Piracy (Born Digital 141). Their past strategy for reducing piracy was to sue the “people that the record companies wanted to do business with.” In the United States alone, the industry has sued over 15,000 people (Born Digital 140). These lawsuits quickly reduced the popularity of the recording industry because they were “suing thousands of people for acts that a significant percentage of [a] society doesn’t consider to be problematic” (Born Digital 141).

IV. Conclusion / What needs to be done Internet Piracy is a very serious issue for all creators of content. However, there is a large divide on how to go about solving the problem. On one hand, large corporations care a lot about reducing piracy but do not care as much about what else is affected (Freiwald), so long as they lose less of their profits. Individual users, on the other hand, are more concerned with access to information and their privacy and security on the Internet (Reform(aliz)ing Copyright). In the case of SOPA, the bill would reduce piracy at the expense of privacy and the stability of the web (Freiwald). This bill angered the public because of its privacy issues, and many online protests occurred. In order to have a solution that is supported by both corporations and the public, the solution has to reduce piracy and not infringe on the

privacy of the users (Reform(aliz)ing Copyright). One possibility is to follow the business model of iTunes. For example, iTunes provides easy access to many things that a P2P network can, namely music and movies, without the illegal aspects or viruses, but doesn’t allow uploading files, and most of the files are not free (Freiwald). This service is very popular, and almost certainly played a role in reducing Internet Piracy over P2P networks since it was launched. If more programs could replicate this business model but with different types of copyrighted works, piracy could be reduced to only a small nuisance, and not the gigantic problem it is today, without reducing privacy or people’s access to information.

Works Cited "Consumer Software Piracy." Gale Encyclopedia of American Law. Ed. Donna Batten. 3rd ed. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale, 2010. 158162. Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 28 Mar. 2013. "Introduction to Internet Piracy: At Issue." Internet Piracy. Ed. James D. Torr. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2005. At Issue. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. Freiwald, Susan. Personal Interview. 9 May 2013. Lessig, Lawrence. Free Culture: The Nature and Future of Creativity. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2005. Print.

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Palfrey, John G, and Urs Gasser. Born Digital: Understanding the First Generation of Digital Natives. New York, NY: Basic Books, 2008. Print. "Reform(aliz)ing Copyright For The Internet Age." University of California at Berkeley. Claremont Hotel, Berkeley, CA. 18 April 2013. Smith, Josh. "SOPA's Long Shadow." National Journal (2012). Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 28 Mar. 2013. Software & Information Industry Association (SIIA). "Software Piracy Is Copyright Infringement." Copyright Infringement. Ed. Roman Espejo. Detroit: Greenhaven Press,2009. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from "What Is Piracy?" 2008. Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. "SOPA." Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection. Detroit: Gale, 2012. Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 28 Mar. 2013.

341

Nina Tanujaya

Immigrant families: How Culture Affects Dynamics How does having immigrant parents from Asian countries affect family dynamics? Conflict within immigrant families is often shaped in large part due to culture, although this is not often recognized by society. Immigrant families must deal with acculturation to new society, on top of the already present generation gaps and stress that comes with raising children and having a family. Firstgeneration immigrants deal with a multitude of difficulties in transitioning from life in their home country to life in America. These difficulties also play a role in the parent-child relationship and how the child navigates their two (or more) cultures. It is a complex and conflictive topic, not reducible to simplistic explanations of parental expectations or peer pressure. Nevertheless, at the center of it all is the relationship between the immigrant parents and the American-born children, and the contradictions often engendered in the process (Rumbaut). Having immigrant parents from Asian countries affects family dynamics in a vari-

ety of ways depending on the familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s background and relationships; common threads such as language fluency, cultural awareness, and assimilation are large determining factors. According to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2010, an estimated 17.3 million residents in the United States are of Asian descent. Asian-Americans comprise 5.6 percent of the total population. This includes those who are 100% Asian, 14.7 million, and Asian in combination with one or more additional races, 2.6 million (U.S. Census Bureau). First-generation immigrants immigrate for a variety of different reasons, including safety and security, business, health, education, and family reasons, all of which reflect a desire for a better quality of life (Saleem). Although some immigrants are forced to migrate, this paper will discuss immigrant families predominately from the working class who migrate of their free will. " Although immigrants come to America seeking more opportunities and a better life, in doing so they sacrifice many things. First-generation immigrants often deal with language barriers, navigating a new culture on their own, and generally have a harder time establishing a stable lifestyle. Factors that influence first-generation immigrantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s transition are the ability to find employment, family and community support, number of years in the new country and most importantly, language acquisition and fluency (Saleem). Lorraine Dong is a professor at of Asian American Studies at San Francisco State, as well as the AAS 342

Department Chair. Dong put emphasized that the working class immigrants come to America seeking stability and survival. Their indicator is success in not having to worry about finances, food, clothing, and having a stable income and lifestyle (Dong). Because they often have a hard time finding employment, have to take jobs that are below their qualification, and many have to work multiple jobs to make ends meet (Saleen), immigrant parents tend to push their children to pursue “safer” careers that guarantee employment and good pay, such as being a doctor or a lawyer. Although many people assume that the stereotypical Asian immigrant parent is strict due to the culture, it comes from the good intention of wanting a good life for their children (Dong). Kim Tran, a graduate student at UC Berkeley majoring in Ethnic Studies, is a first-generation American-born to Vietnamese parents. Her parents split up when she was very young, and Tran’s mother had to work two full-time jobs, both of which was below her skill level, in order to make ends meet. Tran recalls that although her mother obviously wanted the best for her, she did not have time to put a strong emphasis on certain expectation or cater to her emotional needs because she was not at home a lot (Tran). However, Tran’s father, whom she saw rarely, always brought up the topic of her occupational future, pushing Tran towards being a lawyer. Valerie Zhang, a senior at the Bay School of San Francisco, has similar experiences as Tran. Zhang often has conflict with her parents about her occupational future. Although her parents have expressed interest

in various different fields, many of which Zhang has little to no interest in, she recognizes that the one determining factor for a career that her parents approve of is money. She says “In terms of occupation, my dad wants me to do business, but it’s pretty obvious that both my parents just want me to do something that will earn money. I mean that’s their idea of American success: being rich” (Zhang). Although immigrant parents’ good intentions are often lost in the delivery, what they want for their children is not necessarily the money, the position, or the career, but the security. Moreover, many immigrants feel a lack of support when they immigrate to America. Asian cultures, in general, have a strong emphasis on community, which they lose when they move. Thus, the immigrants tend to retain the cultural values of the time period of their move and do not pick up on the changes that are happening in their home country (Saleem). This inability to shift values as time continues can be explain as a “cultural freeze,” when immigrants are stuck in the culture and norms of their previous country and cannot or do not wish to adopt the new norms of their host country (Dong). First-generation immigrants tend to protect their traditional customs and culture and become much more traditional, even more traditional than the people still living in their home country, because those people’s values continue to evolve with the time period, while theirs do not. Dong, a first-generation American herself, used her parents as an example. Her parents came to America from China in the 343

1940s, and thus they “kept all the values of the 1940s Chinese, and they did not grow with China as China proceeds to the ‘80s and to the 21st century. So they keep a lot of old fashioned ideas, like no divorce, no pre-marital sex…girls are not expected to do this, girls are supposed to do that... Those are old values. In China today, they don’t have those values anymore” (Dong). In addition, with the loss of family system and extended community support, the immigrant parents must teach their cultural values to their children on their own, which can be a major cause of conflict (Saleem). The resistance from the children to accept these values, due to peer pressure, societal norms, or embarrassment of their ethnic culture, may cause the parents to be more rigid and strict (Dong). Another factor that influences immigrant’s receptiveness and acculturation to American mainstream society is the level of language fluency and number of years spent in the new country. Newly arrived immigrants with language barriers often feel isolated and stripped of their independence due to their inability to navigate on their own. Immigrants who have been in America for a number of years or are more comfortable interacting with English-speaking people will be more willing to go out and explore, and their world opens up. Thus, language fluency becomes a determining factor of the immigrant’s receptiveness to and understanding of American practices (Dong). Moreover, immigrant parents with language barriers end up depending on their children to translate for them, putting a burden on their chil-

dren to make sure things in the family run smoothly. The parents may feel useless and stripped of their authority, while the children can feel stressed, reluctant to translate, or embarrassed of their parents (Foner). Both of Valerie Zhang’s parents do not speak perfect English, her mother in particular. In conversations with her parents, Zhang spends a lot of time interpreting what her parents are saying and simultaneously trying to help them interpret and understand what she is saying. This often causes misunderstanding because if she becomes frustrated with the situation, her parents may think that she is being disrespectful or think that Zhang is angry at her parents. Not only does Zhang interpret between herself and her parents in conversations, she must also act as a translator between her parents and other English-speakers, often helping them with phone calls, appointments, plane tickets, and so on (Zhang). Despite these obstacles, immigrant parents are more than willing to sacrifice these things for a chance to succeed in the “land of opportunity” and to provide better opportunities for their children (Khu). Because the American-born children often feel that they are the main reason for their parent’s immigration, they may feel guilt and obligation towards their parents. The result can be parents having a psychological leverage over their children, and both pressure from the parents to succeed academically, as well as the pressure the children will put on themselves (Rumbaut). Seline Zhao is a sophomore at the Bay School, whose parents are 344

immigrants. In the past, Zhao has felt a lot of pressure to be a good student, she was always busy with various extracurricular activities, and she strived to be “perfect” (Zhao). This pressure from the parents places a strain on the parent-child relationship. However, pressure is not always detrimental; in fact, it has the capability to produce positive results. As a high school student now, Zhao continues to feel pressure academically, but not in the same way. Now the majority of the pressure is coming from Zhao herself, pressuring herself to do well because she holds herself to high standards and wants to do well. She feels that without having some pressure from her parents when she was younger, she might have not achieved some of the things that she did. She also recognizes that her parents did not pressure her out of bad intentions. In fact, it is because they care a lot about her future and care enough to spend time and money to give her opportunities to explore new things (Zhao). Immigrant parents also often have a hard time coaching their children through adolescence, due to the cultural difference and generational differences combined (Kwak). They have a hard time finding ways to teach their children lessons in ways that are effective because the manners that were accepted in their traditional culture may no longer be useful or valuable in America (Foner). Because many immigrant parents are busy and work many jobs, their child’s emotional needs may often go unnoticed, as Kim Tran experienced. Parents can be oblivious to children’s struggles and peer pressure, and place high de-

mands on cultural expectation at home versus those the children deal with at school (Saleem). Therefore, the children begin to take cues from their peers. Ironically, it is “in school settings, about which many of them know very little, that immigrant parents place both their deepest hopes for the social advancement of their children and their most often stated fears for their children’s safety and well-being” (Rumbaut). Kim Tran recalls trying really hard to be what she thought was American and taking cues from her peers because her mother was busy with her job. She joked about spending all her time at Abercrombie and Fitch, trying to rid herself of traces of her culture and fit in with her peers (Tran). Immigrant parents also have difficulties teaching their cultural values to their American-born children. Culture is the foundation for expectations, values, and morals. When the cultural foundation is no longer present, expectations and values change and can cause conflict between the parents and the children, as mentioned before (Kruzykowski). Cultural differences “between the culture of origin and that of the new society can threaten the harmony of immigrant family relations” (Kwak). The children will acquire their knowledge of their ethnic identity through their parents, and in a family context, but not as a part of the larger society, as it is in their parent’s home country (Kwak). Tamara Tanujaya is a senior at the Bay School, whose parents are immigrants. Tanujaya is only in touch with her culture through her family and the influence of her mother. Often times, the closest 345

American-born children will get to their native culture is whatever their immigrant parents practice at home, save for those who frequently visit the country their parents emigrated from (Dong). Children classified as fluent bilinguals and foreign language dominants, and therefore are more tied to their ethnic culture, tend to have lower parental conflict, lower embarrassment profile, higher family cohesion, and higher likeliness to adhere to family-centered attitudes (Rumbaut). Children who are English dominant and limited bilinguals and identify more with American culture tend to have higher parental conflict, high embarrassment profiles, lower family cohesion, and are the least likely to adhere to family values (Rumbaut). Oftentimes, parents try to help their children retain culture, simultaneously while kids are trying to get rid of it to “become American” (Tran). Tran used to get in huge fights with her mom over her mom speaking Vietnamese to Tran, and Tran responding in English (Tran). She says, “I think we pushed back a lot against being Asian, in the sense that it was kind of embarrassing. If you had the accent you got called a ‘fob’ (fresh off the boat) a lot. If you wore flip flops with socks to school or something, that was an immediate tell… me and a lot of my friends, had tried really, really hard to be what we thought was American. There was a really intense pressure to do that so I didn’t want to…be Vietnamese” (Tran). Meanwhile, everyone in Tran’s extended family was trying very hard to help Tran and others in the family to maintain Vietnamese culture, while Tran and her generation were trying

really hard to get rid of it, so that they could be “normal” (Tran). Many American-born children sustain positive family relationships by “delaying their pursuit of autonomy” (Kwak). Disagreements result from adolescents insisting upon autonomy as a part of growing up, while the parents insist on family cohesion and uphold the obligations of the children towards their parents (Kwak). As the children’s level of acculturation increases, the cultural gap widens, intergenerational conflict increases, embarrassment levels of their parents increases, and family cohesion decreases (Rumbaut). Second-generation immigrants often have a difficulties establishing their sense of self and making sense of “a life lived in two spheres” (Kruzykowski). They often describe their situation as “caught between cultures,” “negotiating between two worlds,” and “walking on a tightrope” (Saleem). American-born children often feel that they are too different and have a hard time reconciling their traditional culture with American ideology (Tran). They often describe feelings of loneliness and pain regarding cultural conflicts. They might exhibit rebellion, deception, or try to “Americanize” themselves as a way to cope. How these children either rebel against or accept cultural values “if often linked to the degree of support for acculturation to the new country from their families, as well as individual self esteem. Depending on the complex interplay of these factors, there is potential for problems with guilt, shame, and undue anxiety on second generation children” (Saleem). 346

The most prevalent coping mechanism for American-born children is to adapt to the immediate cultural context, which often have two sets of personalities. At home, they behave according to the values and expectations of their parents, and with their peers, they behave according to American values and conduct (Saleem). The split personalities can result in high levels of stress for second-generation children to “face an every shifting sense of self” (Saleem). Seline Zhao has been to four different schools, and throughout the transitions changed her behavior in order to fit in with her peers. However, this should not be seen as dysfunction, but rather as a psychological flexibility to adapt to different environments: “under the more fluid sense of self is usually a more stable inner core which keeps these individuals grounded” (Saleem). When asked if she feels that she has separate personalities for different environments, Tanujaya prefers not to describe herself as having “split personality.” She recognizes that when she is at school, she is more in touch with American ideology, and when she is at home, she is more connected to her Chinese-Indonesian roots. However, for her it isn’t about the need to fit into her environment or transitioning personalities, but merely appreciating and absorbing what each environment offers (Tanujaya). Sometimes, parents may feel that the children have “betrayed” their culture when they identify as Americans or see their children exhibiting American behavior. The common misconception that the word “American” means “white” or “Caucasian” sends the message that only white peo-

ple are qualified to be Americans. When the children begin to try to “Americanize” themselves, the parents may feel betrayed and unappreciated. Valerie Zhang remembers having fights with her father about the fact that she is American and he is Chinese, and they have different values (Zhang). Adolescence is the period of life when the individual will grapple with their individuality and self concept (Kwak). Young adulthood is usually the pivotal point where these individuals cement their sense of self, personal values, and create their own balance of the two cultures (Kwak). The melting pot theory is a metaphor for a heterogeneous society becoming more homogeneous, the different elements “melting together” into a harmonious whole with a common culture to describe the assimilation of immigrants to the USA. American culture places high demands for immigrants to change their cultural values and traditional norms and remove traces of their home country (Kruzykowski). As mentioned earlier, firstgeneration immigrants must deal with acculturation to a new society, and the ways in which individuals approach acculturation varies. If immigrants and Americans are more willing to accept one another into their lives, without changing their values and culture, some of the conflict can be eliminated (Kruzykowski). However, what the definition does not include are the Americanborn children, who did not immigrate but may still experience the need for assimilation. As Kim Tran, a graduate student at UC Berkeley, put it bluntly, “If you want to be normal, assimi347

late” (Tran). Assimilation is the absorption and integration of people, ideas, or culture, into a wider society or culture. Assimilation into American culture entails participating in American activities and adjusting one’s actions to fit American norms, such as participating in consumerism and sports. A study was done on the patterns of consumption in immigrant families and how that varies with the family’s degree of acceptance for the new society (Lee and Tse). Families that bought more things were generally more accepting of American society. On the other hand, families who were more opposed to American culture did not participate in mass consumption (Lee and Tse). The consumerism pattern reflects the idea of how language fluency factors in. If parents are more able to communicate, they are more open to American culture. Essentially, all conflicts among immigrant families revolve around assimilation, on all different levels. What can be done? To address the intergenerational conflict in immigrant families, it is important to start at the core of the problem, which often begins with the parent’s transition into American society. When the first-generation immigrates to America, it is important to stay connected with friends from home, people in the host country, and specifically people of their own culture in the host country to keep from feeling isolated and alone (Saleem). If they interact with people of their own culture and people of the host country’s culture, they will be able to incorporate values of both cultures, which in turn will make them more

understanding to their children’s problems and open to exploring new ways to approach conflict. The parents must be encouraged to listen to the children, and the children in turn must also be receptive to their parent’s expectations to foster more trust (Saleem). If parents compromise with their children, the children will be more open to accept parental expectations and try their best to eliminate the behaviors that cause conflicts (Foner). The American-born children appreciate when their parents make an effort to alter their expectations, be flexible, and learn new norms from their children and colleagues—essentially adapting some American values (Foner). It spreads the responsibility to both parties, not placing it solely on the child to listen to their parents. Zhang says that now, “I think that to a certain extent they understand that I am an American, while at the same time I also understand that I am Chinese, so I still try to respect what they want me to behave towards” (Zhang). This feeling of more equality and mutual respect makes the children more open to their parent’s ideas and beliefs. When the families have strong core support and values that are supported by both cultures, then the family can have healthy relationships (Kwak). Moreover, it is important for the American-born children to receive the message that having a cultural identity is not something to be ashamed of. As a young child, Kim Tran went through a transition and struggle with her culture but after going to college ended up with an appreciation for it. However, others in her family have more or less discarded their cultural identity. 348

She said that it is important to have role models, mentors, and people telling these children that they should not feel ashamed, to guide them and help them figure things out (Tran). Despite the different experiences that the multiple interviewees have had, every single one expressed that they do not think anyone should ever feel ashamed of their culture. Intergenerational conflict among immigrant families is largely culture related. Conflict can be difficult, painful, and frustrating to deal with. However, it can be reduced if both the parents and the children are able to understand each other’s perspectives. Despite the many misunderstandings and disagreements that are inevitably going to arise, both the immigrant parents and the American-born children have much to gain if they learn to compromise and open up to one another: ethnic culture is a source of enrichment for the second-generation children, and the parents can gain a better understanding of their children and American values, both resulting in a better parent-child relationship.

Works Cited Dong, Lorraine. Personal Interview. 19 Apr. 2013. Foner, Nancy and Joanna Dreby. “Relations between the Generations in Immigrants Families.” Annual Review of Sociology. 2011. Web. Apr 1 2013.

Khu, Josephine M.T. Cultural Curiosity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2001. Print. Kruzykowski, Katerina G. “Reconciling Two Cultures: The Experience of Immigrants and First “Generation Americans from Non-Western Countries.” Social Sciences Journal. Social Sciences Journal 2007. Web. 20 Mar 2013. Kwak, Kyunghwa. “Adolescents and Their Parents: A Review of Intergenerational Family Relations for Immigrant and NonImmigrant Families.” Mendeley. Mendeley, 2003. Web. 21 Mar 2013. Lee, Wei-Na and David K. Tse. “Becoming Canadian: Understanding How Hong Kong Immigrants Change Their Consumption.” JSTOR. Pacific Affairs 1994. Web. 21 Mar 2013. Lui, Bryant. Personal Interview. 1 May. 2013. Saleem, Sadia. “The Immigrant Experience.” Healthy Living Magazine. Lenmark Communications Ltd. Web. 20 Mar 2013. Rumbaut, Reuben G. “Children of Immigrants and Their Achievement: The Role of Family, Acculturation, Social Class, Gender, Ethnicity, and School Contexts.” Information Age Publishing Inc., 2005. PDF file. Tanujaya, Tamara. Personal Interview. 27 Apr. 2013. 349

Tran, Kim. Personal Interview. 18 Apr. 2013. U.S. Census Bureau. Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month: May 2012. Washington D.C., 2012. PDF file. Wen, Anni. Personal Interview. 2 May. 2013. Zhang, Valerie. Personal Interview. 7 May. 2013. Zhao, Seline. Personal Interview. 30 Apr. 2013.

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Theron Tarigo

The High-Speed Future of California Rail High-speed rail, a modern technology competitive with air travel and yet more accessible, has the potential for connecting the northern and southern parts of California far better than highways and air travel do currently. The technology is a long overdue addition to California's infrastructure. First introduced in Japan, now operating throughout Europe, and currently developing in China, high-speed rail is the international standard for intercity transportation (Perman). The United States has been slow to adopt this technology, which is called for now more than ever as our current infrastructure is struggling with problems of congestion, delays, and air pollution. However, as an advanced technology, it will require a major financial commitment to infrastructure. Building a fully functional and well integrated transportation system is a complex task that needs to be extremely well planned in order to be successfully implemented. The California High-Speed Rail Authority, tasked with planning the system, has already decided on the route, but there is still a lot of

disagreement on the specifics which needs to be rectified to ensure both the short and long term success of the system. High-speed rail is so named for its top speeds, which in the case of the California system will be 220 miles per hour, but what is most important about rail is its average speed, which is how far it can actually go in an hour when all of the stops and time spent accelerating and decelerating is taken into account. For high-speed rail, the average speed has to be at least 160 miles per hour in order to remain competitive to other forms of transportation (Perman). Even though airplanes are faster than high-speed trains, a trip by air can actually take longer door-to-door than the same trip by rail. The time taken for ground transportation to an airport, going through security, and waiting for weather and air-traffic control related delays can add hours on either end of a trip. HSR, being ground transportation, requires little security screening and would be less dependent on environmental conditions and better linked with other public transportation, cutting down the time needed to make connections. Air travel only has a time advantage for trips of over 500 miles, under which distance high-speed train travel is more efficient (Perman). This, together with it being more economical as well as more sound environmentally make high-speed train the logical choice for inter-city transportation. 351

" California's high-speed trains will be powered by electricity, which gives them a number of advantages over other transportation technologies. Since a purely electric vehicle does not burn any fuel itself, the trains will be zero-emissions vehicles. This helps to address a major concern for residents regarding transportation infrastructure of any sort, which is the air pollution created by the vehicles using it. While high-speed trains cause no pollution to their immediate surroundings, they are not without carbon impact. California's HSR is supplied by the electrical grid, which is for a large part powered by carbon fuels. However, as more of the grid becomes supplied by cleaner energy sources, high-speed rail will benefit directly without any need for modification of its own infrastructure. High-speed rail also makes use of a technology that not all electric trains use, called regenerative braking, where part of the train's kinetic energy is converted back into electricity when slowing down. This is far superior to frictional braking, a purely mechanical method, and to dynamic braking, which is similar to regenerative except that the electricity generated cannot be reclaimed. In both cases, all of the kinetic energy is wasted as heat. The electricity recovered from regenerative braking, on the other hand, can be put back into the system to contribute to the electricity needed by other trains traveling or accelerating (Perman). A major concern for any public transportation system is terrorism and the necessary security measures to protect against it. However, attacks on high-speed trains are not as grave an is-

sue as they are for aircraft. HSR is seen as an advanced technology and therefore an attractive target for terrorism, yet the security required is no different from any other rail system as the density of passengers inside a high-speed railcar is less than that of regional rail, making an on-board bomb a less effective means of terrorism. Unlike in an airplane, a bomb on highspeed rail train would not compromise the entire craft, and would be unlikely to cause even a derailment. A far larger safety concern is objects on the tracks. This is not an insurmountable problem and can be dealt with in a number of ways but passenger checkpoints is not one of them (Cruickshank). Several components of High-speed rail technology help reduce the severity of such accidents. HSR cars are permanently linked, using connections that are much stronger than detachable couplers used on conventional rail, making the cars much less likely to jackknife and helping to keep the majority of the train in line in spite of a derailed car (Perman). In spite of these potential advantages to both convenience and security, the Transbay Transit Center seems likely to include an unnecessary security checkpoint which will waste passengers' time and complicate the station by requiring separations between the HSR and Caltrain platforms (Tillier "SF"). A further unnecessary component of the station's design are ticket checkpoints, something that Europe's proof-of-payment system has proven to be unnecessary, whereby passengers are checked for payment after boarding the train. These two optimizations 352

would reduce the time spent in the station to a minimum. Additionally this has the significant advantage of allowing stations to be considerably smaller as people would move through them more quickly, an important aspect for a station in a crowded city (Tillier "Station"). One of the most common criticisms of California's high-speed rail is that it will depend heavily on taxes, which in reality is true for most infrastructure projects ("Inventory" 39). This point of criticism for high-speed rail is often exaggerated, however, because of a number of misconceptions. One is that the system would mean additional expense to a government which is already burdened by the cost of existing infrastructures. Another portrays high-speed rail as an expensive fix for existing transportation problems, using money that could be better spent on fixing and expanding highways. What these views fail to address, however, is that HSR track actually adds much more capacity for the amount of money spent than does adding lanes to highways, and that the capacity of the HSR system would take many people off of the road and therefore save money that would otherwise have to be spent on expanding highways and airports. While the cost of California's high-speed rail is projected to be $40 billion ("Benefit-Cost"), the construction of the system "will alleviate the need to spend more than $100 billion to build 3000 miles of new freeway [lanes], five airport runways, [and] 90 departure gates" ("Report" 109). That means that if the system were not put in place, all of the people who might

use it would instead be further contributing to the need for expansion of highways. The issue with growing demand on transportation is that taxpayer money has to be invested in transportation infrastructure regardless of which form it takes, as Emily Rusch points out in her op-ed Dollars for Roads or Dollars for Rail (Rusch). When the state has a choice of where to put that money, the more cost effective option is the more sensible one. High-speed rail faces opposition for the taxpayer money it requires while highway expansion does not because as a new technology HSR is perceived as extravagant in spite of its costeffectiveness. Further, many of the public infrastructures that are considered both standard and vital today were once met with similar criticism, as Governor Jerry Brown explains in defense of highspeed rail: "Critics of the high-speed rail project abound as they often do when something of this magnitude is proposed. During the 1930's, The Central Valley Water Project was called a 'fantastic dream' that 'will not work.' The Master Plan for the Interstate Highway System in 1939 was derided as 'new Deal jitterbug economics.' In 1966, then Mayor Johnson of Berkeley called BART a 'billion dollar potential fiasco.' ... The critics were wrong then and theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re wrong now" (Brown). While many of the criticisms of HSR are incorrect, there are a number of potential pitfalls which bear consideration. Apart 353

from the ever present fear of cost over-runs, many of these issues involve the route into the Bay Area. In order to serve transportation needs for San Francisco to LA, it goes up the San Francisco peninsula, which may not be the best for the Bay Area as a whole or for future flexibility of the system. To understand both the legitimate concerns and misguided criticisms about California's HSR, it is important to understand the route as proposed by the Rail Authority. The majority of the route would run through the Central Valley, connecting Merced, Fresno, Bakersfield, and Palmdale. To the south, it jogs west towards the coast to connect with Los Angeles. In the north, one branch continues north to Sacramento while another goes west towards Gilroy to San Jose, then up through the Peninsula to finally end in San Francisco ("Proposed Statewide Alignment"). Through the Peninsula, HSR will use existing Caltrain rights of way, and Caltrain and HSR will share tracks running at Caltrain speeds, which is called blended operation. The geographic nature of the Bay Area poses a logistical problem to the optimal installation of high-speed rail. When a transportation terminal is placed, the goal is to put it where it can best be reached by the surrounding population. The problem with the Bay Area is that the Bay itself splits the population, leaving no optimal location for accessibility by all cities. With the current scope and budget not allowing high-speed rail to be constructed on both sides, "which side of the Bay" is a necessary

decision to make and either choice leaves the other side disadvantaged by less direct access to high-speed rail. However, even more problems exist specifically with the Peninsula route. One of these is the limitation on possibilities of expansion or future connectivity. The location for the proposed Transbay Transit Center is closely surrounded by other buildings, leaving absolutely no possibility of expansion. In the event that high-speed rail needed to be extended northward, it would require a new bridge or tube across or under the Bay or serious modification to an existing bridge. With an East Bay route, the majority of rail would remain on land and have more space for widening (Perman). In spite of these issues, the Rail Authority has chosen San Francisco. While having high-speed rail limited to the Peninsula could be a problem in the long run, Daniel Krause, president of Californians for High-Speed Rail, counters that given the existing Bay Area rail systems, the fact that the proposed peninsula route will have blended service, and the potential popularity of HSR allowing more possibilities in the future, the San Francisco route does make sense. Of all the Bay Area cities, San Francisco would be the single largest source of demand for highspeed rail, and as the west coast's financial center, it is an important locale for a transportation system to support (Krause). While it seems like San Francisco is being given great access to high-speed rail while the East Bay is not, the blended HSR 354

service between the Peninsula and San Jose is comparable in speed to the very well established BART system in the East Bay, giving both sides near-equal access to San Jose where the "high-speed" of high-speed rail starts anyway. The only practical difference to San Francisco riders is the luxury of not having to switch trains in San Jose. By the time BART is extended to San Jose, which will be completed well before the operability of high-speed rail, the East Bay will already have a means of practical access to California's HSR (Krause). Building an extension of the route into the East Bay is likely to generate just as much opposition from residents while being redundant to BART, unless it is made truly high-speed. Mr. Krause believes that high-speed rail, especially if it connects well with San Francisco, will be very popular and profitable enough to support expansions in the future which are beyond the current budget of the project, such as upgrading the blended service to a fully high-speed route in the Peninsula, expanding the capacity of San Francisco's stations, possibly by tunneling, and building an HSR route into the East Bay. Much of the initial opposition to high-speed rail came from Peninsula residents concerned about the high-speed rail line disrupting their neighborhoods. The opposition was strongest when the proposed plan was to have a four track line with full high-speed rail service. This involved considerably more disruption and triggered the initial outcry from residents against highspeed rail. Since then, the Peninsula plan has been revised to

a two track line and blended operation, which Mr. Krause feels was an important political move toward making the system more acceptable to residents and therefore more likely to achieve success. Caltrain, a system which already runs through the Peninsula on the same route that it will share with HSR in the future, is already becoming increasingly popular and will need to be upgraded to keep up with demand as well as to fix existing problems. Much of the work that will be done on the Peninsula as part of the "blended" high-speed rail project consists of making necessary upgrades to Caltrain, to improve its service and to allow the tracks to support HSR trains. Caltrain already needs to increase the number of trains per hour to meet demand. To improve energy efficiency and make their trains cleaner, a plus for residents, Caltrain is converting their trains from diesel to electric, which requires modification of the railways as well ("Peninsula"). An existing problem is that Caltrain tracks have at-grade crossings with roads, which requires stopping traffic for trains and is a safety issue. As more trains are run this problem will get worse and will need to be solved by creating grade separations (Krause). The elegance of this plan is that the solutions called for by Caltrain also go a long way towards meeting the needs of high-speed rail. While the complexity of bringing high-speed rail to California is daunting, it has the promise of bringing a benefit proportional to 355

the challenges of creating it. As a project which will take many years of planning and construction before it is operational in 2029, it calls for vision and foresight to grant future generations the infrastructure that they will grow to depend on. The ultimate advantages of high-speed rail for Californians will prove the current expenditure a very wise investment.

"Proposed Statewide Alignment". California High-Speed Rail Authority. State of California, May 2013. Web. 27 June 2013.

Works Cited "Benefit-Cost Analysis". California High-Speed Rail Authority. State of California, Apr. 2012. Web. 27 June 2013.

Rusch, Emily. "Dollars for Roads or Dollars for Rail". Room for Debate. The New York Times, 27 Jan. 2012. Web. 27 June 2013.

Brown, Edmund G. "State of the State 2012". Office of Governor Edmund G. Brown Jr. State of California, January 18 2012. Web. 27 June 2013.

Tillier, Clem. "SF Transbay Transit Center". Caltrain HSR Compatibility Blog. Caltrain HSR Compatibility Blog, 1 November 2008. Web. 27 June 2013.

Cruickshank, Robert, et al. "Osama bin Laden's Death Revives HSR Security Discussion". California High Speed Rail Blog. California High Speed Rail Blog, 7 May 2011. Web. 27 June 2013.

Tillier, Clem. "Station Design 101". Caltrain HSR Compatibility Blog. Caltrain HSR Compatibility Blog, 16 October 2010. Web. 27 June 2013.

Perman, Ray G. Personal interview. 5 May 2013. "Report to the Legislature". California High-Speed Rail Authority. State of California, Dec. 2009. Web. 27 June 2013.

"Inventory of the Criticisms of High-Speed Rail". American Public Transportation Association. American Public Transportation Association, Jan. 2012. Web. 27 June 2013. Krause, Daniel. Personal interview. 2 July 2013. "Peninsula Corridor Electrification Project". Caltrain. Caltrain, May 1 2013. Web. 3 July 2013. 356

Nick Tse

Life’s a Bleach Since the beginning of this planet we call Earth, the oceans have been there for us to use as resources for food and water. In return, the oceans receive pollution from a variety of sources, but mainly from humans. There are absolutely no good outcomes from ocean pollution, but there are certainly many down sides to it. Ocean pollution damages the ecosystem, kills off marine life, and may affect the food chain. This in turn, can affect humans. There are many types of ocean pollution, one of which is ocean acidification. The main causes of ocean acidification are related to human activities, and could result in severe ecological and economic impact. The term ocean acidification was coined around 2003, only about ten years ago. This is a relatively new area of research, as it is a young topic. Ocean acidification is defined as the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth’s oceans, mainly caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by the ocean (“Ocean”). The ocean absorbs the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, where it reacts with the water to create carbonic acid. The ocean absorbs about twenty five percent, or one quarter, of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from human generated emissions. One of the main causes of ocean acidification is the burning of fossil fuels. Most people associ-

ate Carbon dioxide with Global warming, but little do they know that ocean acidification is another factor that is affected by carbon dioxide. Since the industrial revolution about 200 years ago we have been producing and burning fossil fuels, resulting in a dramatic increase of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Factories would burn fossil fuels such as oil, gas, coal. Car emissions also generate carbon dioxide. According to a report in June 2005 by The Royal Society, “the oceans are currently taking up about one ton of human-derived carbon dioxide per year for each person on the planet. Almost half of the carbon dioxide produced in the past 200 years from burning fossil fuels and cement manufacture has been absorbed by the oceans” (Royal Society). The report estimated that the acidity has increased by about thirty percent. Some other causes of ocean acidification are from chemicals such as “nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxide gases, or nutrients and organic carbon from waste water discharges and runoff from land-based activities can also contribute to ocean acidification” (Washington). Farmers use pesticides and chemicals to keep insects away from their plants, trying to protect their crops from insects that try to eat off their plants, and to make them seem to grow much more healthy. When these farmers plow their land, they loosen up all the soil containing the pesticides and chemicals beneath, up to the surface. When it rains, “The rain water drags the pesticides from the soil with it into nearby 357

streams or rivers, bringing those harmful substances further and eventually into the oceans” (“Ocean Pollution”). Ocean acidification impacts our ecologic environment severely. One of the most severe impacts is on the ecosystems of the coral reefs, as well as other organism that use carbonates. Species that are required to create their own calcium carbonate shells are extremely impacted by ocean acidification, because in order to be able to form their calcium carbonates, they need available carbonates from the ocean. The available amount of carbonates is less because of chemical reactions from ocean acidification. The increasing hydrogen reacts with the free carbonates in the ocean to create bicarbonates. Since there are less available carbonates, it becomes harder for the organisms to create their shells since their shells are made out of calcium carbonates. Animals such as clams, mollusks, pteropods, and corals, are a few examples of calcifiers. Pteropods have been observed to have smaller, more dissolved shells when exposed to ocean acidification than those who have not been exposed (Bednarsek). Nina Bednarsek, a member of the NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) went over to the Scotia sea to study about the pteropods. Her observations were that these tiny snails, reaching a maximum adult size of about only one centimeter, were observed to have thinner, partially dissolved shells.

Coral, as a calcifier, is expected to be severely impacted by ocean acidification. The whole coral reef ecosystem would be effected by the impacts of ocean acidification. The coral reefs contain an estimated twenty-five percent of the whole marine species (Shah). The coral reefs provide a habitat for many species of fish. The reefs serve as a shelter for fish, a home for them to live in. Zooxanthellae, tiny organisms that live inside the corals’ tissues, are starting to die off due to ocean acidification. Zooxanthellae coexist with Corals, as they provide benefits for each other. Corals provide zooxanthellae shelter. The “zooxanthellae provide food as products of photosynthesis to coral. The coral gains a boost of nutrients to secrete calcium carbonate skeleton that serves as a foundation for the reefs” (Shah). If one of them dies off, so does the other one. They live together in a symbiotic way, where they both benefit each other in a way. Zooxanthellae are dying off, which means “The corals will not be getting the nutrients they need to go through photosynthesis and secrete calcium carbonates, which would then cause them to die and bleach” (Zooxanthellae). Bleaching makes the corals lose their beautiful colors, and turn plain white. The marine species living there would have to find a new home after that occurs, or die off along with the corals. The species who live in the coral ecosystems would have to quickly adapt to a new environment, or perish. Kristy Kroeker, of the University of California, spent her time studying carbon dioxide in the volcanic 358

vents being released. She noticed that “when you move from current to lower pH conditions, the ecosystem shifts a little bit, and some of the calcareous species still hang on. But when you move to the extreme low pH zone, all those calcareous species drop out and are replaced by really high abundances of amphipods and tanaids” (Kroeker). The pH levels impact diversity of biomasses. There is less biodiversity and biomass when you get to a lower pH. Corals provide medicine for humans to use, as well as protect shorelines from coastal damage. Because corals are stationary animals, meaning that they are always in one place unable to move, they must build up their own defenses and adapt to them in order to avoid predators. According to NOAA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “Coral reefs are sometimes considered the medicine cabinets of the 21st century. Coral reef plants and animals are important sources of new medicines being developed to treat cancer, arthritis, human bacterial infections, Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease, viruses, and other diseases” (NOAA). Their chemical shells that they make in order to protect themselves from predators are constantly being examined by scientists as a way of treating diseases and illnesses. Their stationary beings help protect coastal shorelines from the impact of waves and storms. The corals help subdue the impact of the waves, so when they hit the shorelines of a coastal region, it is not as severe during a storm. They can help slow down the waves that are rapidly ap-

proaching the coasts. Michael Oppenheimer, a professor at Princeton University, did some research on comparing healthy reefs and dead reefs and how one helps slows down waves during a tsunami. He said that, “Healthy reefs have rougher surfaces, which provide friction that slows the waves substantially in comparison with smoother, unhealthy ones” (Oppenheimer). The large diversity of species found at the coral reefs is a huge attraction for tourists. This biodiversity makes the coral reefs an important ecosystem for many people to enjoy. Annually, tourists spend an, estimated $30 Billion dollars per year to visit the coral reefs in person (Shah). As a result, new jobs are created. There are jobs that can be offered, such as tour guides to show everyone around the areas and give information about the reefs. Fisheries and hatcheries are also affected by Ocean acidification. As stated before, clams and oysters need to use carbonates to create their shells to be able to grow inside them, but, with ocean acidification, the oyster and clam larvae are unable to survive. From 2005 to 2009, billions of oyster larvae were dying at the Pacific Northwest Oyster Hatcheries. This caused the businesses to lose much of their money. Research found the cause to be ocean acidification. The shellfish industry in the state of Washington has an annual income of $270 million and supports about three-thousand two-hundred jobs. There-

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fore, ocean acidification can have a big economic impact to the state.

Garces, Diego M. "Marine Problems: Pollution." WWF. WWF, n.d. Web. 04 Apr. 2013.

Emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere is causing the pH levels of the oceans to drop faster than ever before. Ocean acidification has a long term effect on our ecosystems and on our economies. There are some possibilities to treating this problem, but none of them will be immediate as they take time to eventually take effect. We need to increase the research and awareness of ocean acidification. We need to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere. People should strive to use their cars less. My solution is to have people bike to work more often, or walk instead of driving their car everywhere. We could set tighter emission standards for factories and for cars. People should also adopt the use of cleaner and greener cars, and develop more forms of green energy, such as solar energy. People should be encouraged to use their energy resources wisely, and be more conscious and energy-efficient. Countries should band together to find a solution to the problem of ocean acidification. If we act now, then perhaps we can slow down the process of ocean acidification.

Bank, Photograph Courtesy Projeto Tamar Brazil, Image. "Pictures: Millions of Sea Turtles Killed Accidentally?" National Geographic. National Geographic Society, 06 Apr. 2010. Web. 04 Apr. 2013.

Works Cited: "The Ocean." National Geographic. National Geographic, n.d. Web. 04 Apr. 2013.

"Ocean Pollution." MarineBio Home ~ Marine Biology, Ocean Life Conservation, Sea Creatures, Biodiversity, Oceans Research... MarineBio, n.d. Web. 04 Apr. 2013. Davis, Gray. "Facts About Marine Pollution." Facts About Marine Pollution. Department of Boating and Waterways, n.d. Web. 4 Apr. 2013. "Rapid Response Assessments." What Is Marine Pollution and How Does It Affect Marine Life. Grid Arendal, n.d. Web. 04 Apr. 2013. “Ocean Carbon Uptake.” PMEL Carbon Program. NOAA. Web. 16 May 2013. Kintisch, Eli. “Coral Reefs Could Be Decimated by 2100.” Wired. Sciencenow, 21 Dec. 2012. "Web. 16 May 2013. Shah, Anup. “Coral Reefs.” Global Issues. Global Issues, 3 Mar. 2013. Web. 16 May 2013.

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“Zooxanthellae.” R2 Coral Reefs: A Reef Resilience Toolkit Module. The Nature Conservancy, "2007. Web. 14 May 2013. Painting, Rob. “Coral: Life’s a Bleach… and Then you Die.” Skeptical Science. Skeptical Science, 13 January 2011. Web. 25 May 2013 "Corals Are the Medicine Cabinets of the 21st Century." National Ocean Service. National " Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 11 Jan. 2013. Web. 25 May 2013. Oppenheimer, Michael. "Princeton University - Living Coral Reefs Provide Better Protection " from Tsunami Waves." Princeton University - Living Coral Reefs Provide Better Protection" " from Tsunami Waves. Princeton University, 15 Dec. 2006. Web. 25 May 2013. “Ocean Acidification Due to Increasing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide.” The Royal Society. Royal " Society, June 2005. Web. 2 June 2013. Evans Ogden, Lesley. “Marine Life on Acid.”Bioscience. University of California Press, May 2013. "Web. 2 June 2013. “Ocean Acidification: From Knowledge to Action Summary Report.” Washington State Blue " Ribbon Panel on Ocean Acidification. Washington Department of Ecology, Olympia, Washington, November 2012. Web. 2 June 2013. 361

Jonah Wooley

Sports, Studies & Procrastination: A Delicate Balance Introduction Procrastinators are everywhere, in work places, schools and homes, although they don’t always exhibit symptoms of their plight. Piers Steel, a doctor studying the effects of procrastination and its widespread effects, surveyed 24,000 people on their procrastination habits. 95% of the subjects said that they do procrastinate (Steel). An estimated 15-20% of the population procrastinates on a regular basis (Steel). Although procrastination seems to be rooted in poor time management skills, this is in fact not the case (“Procrastination”). Procrastinators know what they need to do and the time that should be allotted toward the task. Much of the time they just choose not to do the work. However, “Not all delays can be considered procrastination; the key is that a person must believe it would be better to start working…but still not start” (“We’re sorry this is late”). When a person knowingly puts off work for the sake of not doing it, procrastination begins. Student athletes are similar to

their peers, with much of the same behavior and attitude when faced with large amounts of work. However, the regimen and team orientation of sports improves their decision making and work ethic.

Procrastination Much of procrastination has to do with self-confidence and mindset (“Procrastination”). A person with low self-confidence is much more worried about failure (Sirin 449). Mind set and self confidence are vital in combating procrastination, making people confident in their ability to complete work and continue to do so. They will see procrastination as a way to avoid the impending doom of failure that ensues when they receive a poor grade or a reprimand for shoddy workmanship. As a person’s selfefficacy deteriorates, the amount of time they spend avoiding the work increases (Sirin 452). Time-consuming work is the first victim of procrastination (“Procrastination”). Papers, presentations, and projects consume large amounts of time and are the easy to put off until due dates but difficult to complete once that due date arrives. Pressure can also find its way into the equation (“Procrastination”). When faced with large amounts of work, people generally put off difficult assignments, believing that they are saving themselves from the stress. The bitter reality is that their procrastination only leads to more built of stress in the future (“Procrastination”). 362

The causes of procrastination are not limited to confidence and pressure when coping with work. Perfectionism also plays a very important role in how people unaffected by low selfefficacy deal with their work. When envisioning a project, these procrastinators see flawless execution, a tidy finish and the respect and awe of their colleagues at their ability (Perry). This image of perfection may make it very easy for someone to begin a task, believing it to come to them flawlessly. In many cases, perfection does not come without is not in fact true, and the procrastinator finds himself with a much more difficult and time-consuming project than originally expected (Perry). Realization of the actual amount of time and effort that they would need to finish the assignment perfectly, makes them lose faith in their mission, and makes them susceptible to the effects of their plight. As they put off the work that was supposedly so easy and streamlined, deadlines approach, and the perfectionist finds himself in a vice (Perry). Either they can risk not finishing the work trying to make it perfect or they can complete the project although not necessarily at the same caliber as they had expected.

Student Athletes Students are incredibly susceptible to procrastination, keeping their loads of homework and projects pitted against their desire for a social life the results of which usually end in unfinished work. Student athletes have similar difficulties balancing their

life, but make up for them in different ways to their non-sports playing peers. High school student athletes have had their study habits since the mid 1970’s. In 2009, Angela Lumpkin, a professor at the University of Kansas, and Judy Favor, the assistant dean of Baker University, collaborated on a paper analyzing the benefits of sports on high school students’ academic performance. In a survey I conducted of a small number of high school athletes, the majority said that they were more efficient while playing sports. A student from University High school stated “When I am playing a sport I am much more motivated to start working right when I get home, rather than watching TV or something and losing track of time”. This may be attributed to the time many athletes spend playing their sports instead of working, making the time they have left more vital. A student commented, “I can plan my time out better…after sports”. After games, the students range motivation was varying depending on the whether or not they won. Although, most students who found it less difficult to work after games than after practice, overall they felt more motivated after practice than after nothing at all. However, it was a general consensus that when they did well, whether in a game or at practice, they felt more motivated to do work. Sports also had an impression on most of the students’ standard of work, making them try to excel and improve when doing their assignments. When faced with a difficult assignment, athletes found that sports made their standard of work much higher. 363

The practice itself also seems to be an important factor to consider. After a practice, students found their work to be easier after a practice. John Ludeke, a student athlete at the Bay School said, “I don’t want to go outside or anything [after practice], just sit back and do something non-physical”. To be a focused studier, a certain amount of exercise seems to be vital in order to release the excess energy from the day. It gives students a way to release pent up stress as well as provides a break between school and work . When the students had better practices, most of them felt more motivated to do work, using the wave of positivity they had created during their practice to help them coast through their work. Laura Vidano, a student at University High school commented “Doing well in practice puts me in a good mood and relaxes me, so it is easier to focus on my work”. This reflects the positive effects of physical activity upon the mood of students, which relates back to the motivation of the students. A study on high School seniors in 1992 showed similar results to the previously noted surveys. Many studies done in the early 2000’s “have supported the connection between participation in high school sports and higher grades and other indicators of academic achievement” (Lumpkin & Favor 45) where others had questioned the benefits. More studies in the field found students who participated in extracurricular activate to have higher GPAs and ACTs scores (Lumpkin & Favor). Although the increases were minimal, it did show progress in a positive direc-

tion. A student who participated in the Bay School survey stated that “I don’t really have a lot of time to be inefficient, so I have to find ways to get my work done faster, but at the same level as if I had all the time I needed”. The overall effect of sports seems angled toward time management and efficiency rather than the intellect and academic ability of the student (Lumpkin & Favor). Student athletes are susceptible to the affects of procrastination. However, the addition of sports in their daily routines gives them a number of benefits that makes their work ethic more structured than students who don’t participate in a sport. Because of their constricted schedules they tend to manage their time better (Lumpkin & Favor), knowing that they only have a fraction of the work time as they while not playing a sport. Coupled with this is their ability to relieve excess energy during their practices, making them calmer while doing their work. There are down sides however, and practices that are too difficult can leave students unwilling to do work. When faced with work after a difficult practice, Kate Swisher commented “I feel less compelled to do work because I spend half of my homework time eating or resting”. However, if a balance of work and sports can be struck, student athletes can find a more productive and relaxed work ethic.

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Solutions Unfortunately, perfect equilibrium between an energizing, but not exhausting practice and a reasonable workload cannot always be maintained, and procrastination will always be a problem. However, there are solutions which can be both implemented and influenced by student athletes. The following two solutions are a fraction of the implementable methods, but were chosen because of the ability for student athletes to influence them themselves. To-do lists are something that can be implemented by anyone, with much of the responsibility being solo. The integration of peers on the other hand is a solution that requires two people of different John Perry, a professor at Stanford University, has been researching procrastination as well as possible solutions for the malady. In his book Structured Procrastination; he details a step-by-step process to making procrastination beneficial. Perry says that â&#x20AC;&#x153;The procrastinator can be motivated to do difficult, timely and important tasks, as long as these tasks are a way of not doing something more importantâ&#x20AC;? (Perry). Structured procrastination is at its core the act of doing one piece of work in order to avoid another, more difficult assignment. To-Do lists and peers who can help one avoid procrastination are two valuable assets to aid in the battle against procrastination (Perry). There are numerous methods of combating procrastinations tricks to stay on task to build motivation. To-do lists may seem

trivial, useful for remembering what groceries to buy but not much else. However, they can be used to organize and streamline day-to-day life as well, making long tedious tasks easy to handle (Perry). When grappling with massive amounts of homework, a to-do list may seem overwhelming at first but becomes less and less menacing as check marks begin to build up. Using the simple tasks on the list to fill up the list quickly creates the illusion of progress, keeping motivation high. Picking topics that seem important and placing them as high priority is an effective way of influencing what work gets done (Perry). The method of picking and choosing can be implemented effectively by anyone who can use self deception to make minor assignments seem pressing ad urgent. Fortunately, most procrastinators are adept at self-deception and have no difficulty when doing it is necessary (Perry). Peers are a great asset for procrastinators. Although it would seem that non-procrastinators would be have a difficult time collaborating with their procrastinating counterparts, it can have the opposite effect (Perry). A non-procrastinator can make the job of a procrastinator more difficult, pressing them to do more work. However, this will inevitably make the procrastinator more responsible, through peer pressure and necessary amounts of nagging. At this point, student athletes can assist their peers, using their years of regime and training to influence the work of their partner. Inversely, if a student athlete had a dif365

ficult practice, their peers can help keep them on task and productive.

Conclusion Procrastination can be a difficult, almost impossible habit to get rid of. There will always be more appealing activities than the one that has been assigned. Once procrastination kicks in, it is very easy to get lost for hours in a world of off task However, the methods to combat this dilemma are easy to come by; the trick is to find the right one. For students, Athleticism is an easy deterrent to procrastination. Student athletes learn good study habits through the steady regimen and hard work that is required for sports. They also invest hours of time into their sports, leaving them with less time than their non-athlete counterparts. This benefit is not limited to just the people playing the sports and athletes can assist their fellow schoolmates who may not partake in a sport. Positive peer pressure from a nonprocrastinator such as an athlete can help procrastinators stay on task when faced with difficult assignments. To-do lists can be invaluable to procrastinators who refuse the help of others, allowing them a way to ensure they remember and complete all necessary tasks (Perry). It also allows for small victories at the end of each completed task, keeping the procrastinator motivated.

I would like to acknowledge Samantha Forman for proofreading my paper. Secondly, would like to acknowledge Danielle Rosenthal, Tyler Vidano, Laura Vidano, Page Goddard, Kaitlin Leung, Kate Swisher, John Ludeke, and Emmet Pfau for taking the time to answer my survey. Thirdly, Camden Mcmillan and Malik Sy for letting me interview them. Lastly I would like to acknowledge John Ludeke again for assisting me in writing the questions for the survey.

Works Cited Lumpkin, A., & Favor, J. “Comparing the academic performance of high school athletes " and "non-athletes in Kansas in 20082009.” Journal of Sport Administration & Supervision " 4(1), 41-62. May 2012. 14 Apr. 2013. Moore, Nicki. "Procrastination and Student-Athletes." AASP -. AASP, n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2013. Partony, Frank. "The Secret Benefits of Procrastination." Alternet. Alternet, n.d. Web. 21 " Mar.2013. Perry, John. "Structured Procrastination." Structured Procrastination. John Perry, n.d. Web. 30 " Mar. 2013.

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"Procrastination." Student Academic Services. Cal Poly, n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2013. THR College Planning. "How to Fight Procrastination and Get Better Grades." Get Bigger, " Stronger, Better, Faster. Stack, 13 Apr. 2012. Web. 21 Mar. 2013. Sirin, Erkan F. "Academic Procrastination among Undergraduates." Educational Research and " Reviews 6 (2011): 447-53. Print. Steel, Piers. "The Nature of Procrastination." Ucalgary.ca. University of Calgary, n.d. Web. 29 " Mar. 2013. Tierney, John. "FINDINGS; This Was Supposed to Be My Column for New Yearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Day."The "New York Times. The New York Times, 15 Jan. 2013. Web. 01 Apr. 2013. "We're Sorry This Is Late ... We Really Meant To Post It Sooner: Research Into Procrastination "Shows Surprising Findings." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 10 Jan. 2007. Web. 27 Mar. " 2013.

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