Research in the Community, vol. 3

Research in the Community Volume 3: 2010-2011 Table of Contents Issue 1: November 2010 Local Eats for a Global Feat………………………………………………………………………

Gemma B

What Has Happened to Our Schools?…………………………………………………….

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Henry C 11

Shut Up and Sit Down!……………………………………………………………………………

Luke G 14

Vandals and Artists: Fight over the Wall………………………………………………………..

James H 17

Violence Happens: Muni in Distress……………………………………………………………...

Logan H 21

Teach to Love: Stop Encouraging Ballerina Bodies……………………………………………………. Olivia L 24 Homerun or Strikeout: Should Major League Baseball and its Players Be Seen As Role Models? ………………………

Cat M 28

Stressed Out………………………………………………………………………………………...

Nidalia N 32

A Desire Named Streetcar…………………………………………………………………………..

Jackson P 36

Child Abuse: Just Another Statistic…………………………………………………………………….

Sarah S 39

Another “Homie”: Another “Blud”: Another Statistic………………………………………….

Ayluonne T 48

Getting in the Zone: The Ideal Mindset for Sports………………………………………………

Kayley YM 53

Issue 2: March 2011 Don’t Go with the Flow: Green Solutions in a Rapidly Changing World……………………………

Eden A 59

Endangered Species in the Presidio of San Francisco………………………………………………...

Jesse A 62

Domoic Acid: A Silent Killer………………………………………………………………………..

Haley A 65

Ski Resorts and Their Effect on the Communities Around Them………………………………...

Andreas B 72

Get in the Ring: The Story of Musical Development in the US………………………………………..

Urban Redevelopment in the Western Addition……………………………………………………...

What’s an Extra Nucleic Acid or Two Between Friends?

An Evaluation of Our Current Food Policy………………………………………………...

John B 75 Gabriel C 79

Amanda CE 83

Caged and Sold…………………………………………………………………………………

The Open Source Community and the Business World………………………………………………..

Brendan D 86 Sam F 91

Does Tough Love Work? The Crisis of the California Juvenile Justice System……………………

Daisy F 94

Virtually Braver: Treating Phobias Using Virtual Reality………………………………………...

Fiona G 99

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From the Lewis Chessmen to the Lich King: The Evolution and Competition of Games and Gaming………………………………………………...

Alec G 102

150,000 Homeless People and What is Being Done………………………………………………..

Alec H 105

Art: The Key to Understanding the Holocaust……………………………………………………...

Ayani H 108

The Patch of Green: Examination of Community Gardens in the Modern World……………….

Jacob H 111

Internet Security: Who Needs It? YOU DO!!! ……………………………………………………..

Alex J 116

On and Off the Slopes: A Comparison of the Benefits and Dangers of Skiing………………………..

Wali K 119

The Importance of Legal Residence……………………………………………………………….

Martin M 123

Therapy Dogs: “PAWS and Affect” …………………………………………………………...

Olivia M 126

Not in My Community! The Reality of Human Trafficking…………………………………….

Rintaro M 129

Animal Abuse: The Cause and Effect……………………………………………………………

Stefan N 133

Learning to Learn with ADHD: The Public vs. Private School Dilemma………………………..

Julia N 136

Two Wheels Are Better Than Four: A Look at the Benefits of Bike Commuting…………………..

Joey N 139

Video Game Addiction: The Unknown Addiction…………………………………………………..

Joseph O 143

Cyber Bullying: An Epidemic…………………………………………………………………

Matthew R 146

An Analysis of the State of Preparedness for an Outbreak of Pandemic Influenza within the United States………………………………….

Harry S 150

Exercise Your Way to a Straighter Spine: Alternative Treatments for Scoliosis………………..

Tamara T 157

Should We Use Synthetic Turf in Neighborhood Parks?

The Advantages and Disadvantages of New-Generation Turf Playing Fields……………………...

It’s a Bumpy Ride When There Are No Trails: Mountain Bike Trail Access…………………...

Jonah T 162 Christopher V 165

Breaking the Death Spiral: A Solution to Muni’s Problems………………………………………….

Jake W 170

California Sea Lions Against Fishermen………………………………………………………………

Tristan Y 174

Animal Experimentation: What Have They Done to Deserve It? ………………………………….

Valerie Z 177

3 Issue 3: June 2011 Homeopathy: A Counterintuitive Pseudoscience That Heals……………………………………...

Yani A 183

What Regulations Should Be Placed on Cargo Ships to Stop Invasive Species? ………………..

Kevin A 187

Stimulant Drug Abuse: A Growing Cause for Concern……………………………………….

Charlotte C 190

Assessing the Risk of Cyber Terrorism…………………………………………………………...

Walker B 193

Horse Therapy’s Effects on Children with Autism…………………………………………………..

Lee B 197

Sexism in Advertising…………………………………………………………………………….

A Future for Urban Agriculture? ……………………………………………………………….

Marissa B 201 Elizabeth C 206

Have You Ever Seen Rabbits Wear Mascara? …………………………………………………….

Rosie C 209

Will There Be Enough Money to Support Public Safety? ……………………………………….

Chevalo D 213

Living with the Burden: Children of Alcoholics……………………………………………………...

Chloe D 216

What the Frack is Going On? Hydraulic Fracturing Revealed…………………………………………

Eva G 220

Do Diverse Learning Environments Provide a Better Learning Environment? …………………

Summer J 226

Athletic Scholarships………………………………………………………………………………….

Lucas K 231

Team Sports………………………………………………………………………………………...

Ilana L 234

Homework: Are We Really Reading for Understanding? ……………………………………………... Megan L 237 Prepared or Not? SF Plan for a Catastrophic Earthquake……………………………………...

Kathleen M 242

Teenage Suicide…………………………………………………………………………………………

Kai N 247

Stem Cell Research…………………………………………………………………………….

Ian PK 252

Mavericks……………………………………………………………………………………………….

Joe P 255

Twins: The Struggle for Individuality…………………………………………………………………

Jessica R 258

A Fight for Energy…………………………………………………………………………………..

Anna S 261

Concussions……………………………………………………………………………………………... Shawn S 266 Calling All Nurses Stat…………………………………………………………………………….

Morgan T 269

Oscar Grant………………………………………………………………………………………….

Amelia W 272

Sports Media’s Decline: The Steroid Scandal………………………………………………………

James W 275

Transplant Tourism: Hope for the Desperate………………………………………………………

Claire W 279

The Effects of Extreme Parenting on Children…………………………………………………………..

Julia Y 282

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Research in the Community Volume 3 Issue 1 November 2010 The Bay School of San Francisco

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7 Gemma B Research in the Community Craig Butz Local Eats for a Global Feat Humans, especially Americans, are under the consistently growing need to get things done as quickly as possible, eat as quickly as possible, and have certain foods when they want them where they want them. Because of these values that have developed with the existence of newer technologies, farms have turned into industries and large corporations that are so focused on profit that they think nothing of the health of the animals, the crops, or the workers. Author Taylor Reid states that organic movements argue that “agriculture rather than industry should form the basis for a healthy nation” (Reid). Small-scale agriculture makes for a healthier nation, people, and environment.

Supporting agricultural methods such as organic movements, produce, and healthier ways of raising animals, has a healthier impact on ecosystems, humans, and animals. Other components to small-scale agriculture include the importance of seasonality, local produce, and urban homesteading. Seasonal foods matter because they put emphasis on eating food solely grown at that time and in that place. With the constant development of newer technologies over the years, it has become easier to purchase food from other parts of the world if it is not grown close-to-home.

This, however, while practical, has a large carbon impact and it is hard for consumers to trust the producers of their food supply when they don’t even know where it came from. Humans have forgotten the needs of the environment in a constant struggle to provide for themselves. Author, Pascalev, says that due to human arrogance, we need to strive to find a balance between “human needs and ecosystem health” (Pascalev). Supporting small-scale agriculture in the forms of local, seasonal produce as well as urban farming and sustainability is healthiest because it supports your local agricultural community as well as the health of the citizens, farmers, workers, animals, and environment.

Historically, agriculture, domestication of animals, and irrigation are the ways that humans have developed as an advanced society. Since Neolithic farming villages, humans have been able to cultivate their own crops and have enough food to support their growing population. Early organic movements “believed that healthy soil was connected to healthy crops, healthy crops to healthy people, and healthy people to healthy societies” (Reid). With these developments of society and increasing population, people who didn’t need to be involved in the cultivation of crops or animals could specialize in other things such as creating new technologies that would further benefit and advance humans. With all this new technology and machinery comes the responsibility that all of this development affects the environment, water supply, animals, and ecosystem (Pascalev). The concept of organic agriculture began in 1940 when “the term organic food was first used. . . to describe an alternative to chemical farming. Organic farming is a method of agriculture production that eschews chemical fertilizers . . . it is also a social movement” (Reid). When organic movements began, larger certified organic production farms did not exist. There was only the distinction between large, pesticide-using production farms and small, pesticide-free family farms. Only recently did larger companies start producing certified organic food. These branches of organic food, while certified by a governmental process, do not follow the same values that the organic movement sought to ensure because a relationship between farmers and small farms does not exist. Most industrial farms choose to use pesticides as a way to have better control over their crops, thus increasing their profit in the long run. Family farms are the most important for societies because the farmer is considered “a citizen whose ties to the land guarantee social stability because his or her private interest is linked to the prosperity of a society” (qtd. in “Pascalev”). Family farms are encouraged by “environmentalists, who see in that way of life an example of a sustainable relationship with the land that respects the needs of the environment and the interests of future generations” (Pascalev). These early organic movements have not been encouraged by the government as shown by the fact that the government has enacted strict laws in order for organic farms to exist. A fact book on organic agriculture states that “More than 60 countries have a regulation/law on organic farming” (Willer, Helga., Minou). Also, “in 2007, North America had only 7% of the organic farms in the world, and didn’t even make the list of top number of organic farms in the world” (Willer, Helga., Minou). Most of the farms in the United States are large, industrial farms.

Industrial farms are increasingly dangerous and damaging to people, animals and the earth because of the amount of pesticides applied to crops. The EPA states in an article addressing health risks of pesticides that “there are more than 1055 active ingredients registered as pesticides, which are formulated into thousands of pesticide products that are available in the marketplace” (Assessing Health Risks). The government doesn’t seem to think that these pesticides present any serious risk because when emphasis started to be put on organic agriculture, the government starting creating rules, regulations and certification processes that farms had to go through to make sure they were following “appropriate practices” (Reid).

Humans face many risks because of the pesticides used in industrial farms as well as the introduction of genetically modified foods. Both animals and humans are negatively affected by the fact that the EPA, “for human

8 risk assessments . . . [conducts] toxicity studies . . . [which are] tested on animals in independent laboratories and evaluated for accessibility” (Assessing Health Risk). Testing on animals not only brings up serious ethical issues for the animals being tested on, but the EPA even admits that there are major margins of error because testing on animals doesn’t always show the same affects as it does on humans. Thus when the products used for us are not guaranteed to be safe because rats or dogs that might be tested on have different make up than humans (Assessing Health Risks). Thus a pesticide eaten by a rat could have a completely different affect on the rat than it could on a human. Unless laboratories are prepared to start testing on humans, which causes even more ethical dilemmas, animal testing is not an accurate way of finding out whether pesticides are safe for human consumption. Pesticides are used to control insects, rodents, mold, weeds and bacteria (Pesticides and Food). The EPA decided how much pesticide can be used by figuring out tolerances, also known as MRL’s, maximum residue limits. Which are limits created by the EPA to analyze the maximum possible healthy amount or residing pesticide. While the EPA claims to be safe with their statement of healthy pesticide use, they admit that pesticides can cause birth defects, cancer, nerve damage, and can cause health defects for younger children. The EPA uses the term “reasonable certainty” to demonstrate how confident they are in the safety of the toxins they spray on crops. Young children are more prone to risks because their organs are developing and because they weigh less (Pesticides and Food). A government page about worker safety states that “pesticide applicators, vegetable and fruit pickers and other workers, who work around the pesticides can be exposed due to the nature of their jobs. To address the unique risks workers face from occupational exposure, EPA evaluates occupational exposure through a different program. All pesticides registered

by EPA have been shown to be safe when used properly” (Assessing Health Risks). Most large farms, however, exploit their workers and do not follow the proper procedures which leads to fruit pickers being sprayed by toxins and drinking from water sources polluted by pesticides.

According to Robert Knox, supermarkets are also quite homogeneous when picking their fruit because they want all of the same-looking, perfect fruit. This makes it so that there is no emphasis on taste, touch, or smell, but only look (Knox).

Another significant risk posed to humans is the introduction to our markets of genetically modified foods, also known as GM foods. Genetically modified foods are most commonly produce whose DNA has been genetically altered to withstand weather, bugs, or to look better. People against genetically modified foods believe it is unethical and unnatural. People for genetically modified food believe that this will, in the long run, cut down on pesticide-use because crops will be able to withstand certain weather conditions and bug infestations. The fact of the matter is that GM foods aren’t being labeled in grocery stores, which means that without the public’s consent, food is being created in laboratories. The same article states that the “world’s largest producer of engineered crops is the United States, where more than 80 percent of soybeans and cotton are genetically modified and more than 70 percent of all foods in the market are GM foods” (Pascalev). The use of genetic modification is controversial, but overall, GM foods should be labeled in the stores or production of GM foods should be halted until health risks to humans, the crops, and environment have been properly investigated.

The health, physical, and mental wellbeing of animals living in production farms are at risk every day.

Pascalev writes in an article about agricultural ethics, “Can the amount of animal suffering in industrial farming be morally justified by appeals to human needs and interest?” Humans have been so focused on profit and outcome that they have forgotten any consideration for animals. Animals are being mistreated, and we have lost the basis for symbiotic human-animal relationships developed in prehistoric agrarian societies where animals and farmers worked side by side and the animals were respected, appreciated, and not objectified in the way they are today in large farms. Farmers no longer take care of and respect their animals, but have underpaid and inexperienced workers care for them (Pascalev). Factory farms tend to kill a sick animal rather than nursing it back to health because it’s cheaper. With the concept of things being as cheap as possible to increase profit, animals on production farms also have no room to move because they are put in small areas. This causes not only physical discomfort, but psychological discomfort. Because of the stress they are put under, animals have been known to do things such as “bar biting [in horses and cows], . . . tail biting in pigs and feather pecking in hens” (Pascalev). In order to better control the animals, farmers start giving their animals hormones which are unsafe for the animals and the humans eating the animal products and meat (Pascalev). During the Industrial Revolution, it became easier for factory managers to exploit their workers because factories became so large that the manager never even had to come in contact with the workers. Similarly so, farmers in production farms can more easily take advantage of their animals because they don’t come into much contact with them, which goes back to the human/animal relationship that is lost in the process.

The environment is also being destroyed due to human arrogance and greed. Humans invent technologies and ways of life that hurt the environment in many ways. “Modern agricultural practices are responsible for numerous environmental crises [such as] worldwide-deforestation . . . destruction of wetlands . . . and for such

9 industrial disasters as the release of toxic gas” (Pascalev). Industrial farms “use large amount of natural resources (fossil fuel, water) and generate . . . large amounts of . . . animal waste that contaminates the soil and groundwater, and . . . waste that pollutes the air and contributes to global climate change” (Pascalev). When humans veer towards smaller-scale farming, production is simpler and more environmentally friendly. Large farms have machinery and pesticides that seep into the soil, into water systems, and onto workers. Industrial farms are often idealized because they get work done quicker and often increase the profit because the farm requires less workers, however there needs to be another way to help industries and economy without taking advantage of the land. Local produce is often sold within 24 hours of being harvested while produce from production farms in other countries could take 1-2 weeks (Buy Local Now).

Buying local produce builds community because the best way to trust your food is to be able to know and trust the people who grow it (Knox). When these people are in your community, such as local farmers in the area, you are also supporting the community’s economy. It is possible to meet people you would have never met, have a hand in growing gardens with your community, and show young children a simple and sustainable way of life.

Expensive farmer’s markets such as more precious ones with cheeses, breads, pickled vegetables, and honey products don’t have to be the only existing way to have organic, local food, many movements are making sustainability accessible, not a delicacy. Kevin Freeland started a farmer’s market in a poorer community in Long Island called the Roosevelt Community Farmer’s Market. It has three tables of corn, greens, tomatoes, lettuce, peppers and herbs. The concept behind the independent market is to provide fresh produce that is accessible to people living in areas where people are used to fast food (Applebome). Accessibility is an important part of the organic movement that is just starting to develop. While lavish farmers markets are wonderful, fresh produce should also be sold in bulk and at reasonable prices such as the Roosevelt Community Farmer’s Market. It is a common and unnecessary misconception that all organic food is more expensive. Because of this belief, people are often intimidated by sustainable agriculture because they deem it to be more costly. Also, people don’t always know how to distinguish seasonal foods from non-seasonal foods. An article encouraging local food says that “The key is to support your local community” (Buy Local Now). Thus when people buy agriculture solely from farmers in their community, it is inferred that this is seasonal, local and sustainable.

An article arguing for factory-farmed organic food states that “Buying organic goods from Wal-Mart may not be as cool or trendy as buying them from a farmer’s market, but when you do, you’re supporting methods of agriculture that encourage environmental sustainability and a system of production and distribution that makes organics more affordable and available to more consumers” (Turner). While it is nice to think that any food with the label of organic is sustainable, it is entirely idealistic. What the author misses is the point of sustainability. While the food being purchased at Wal-Mart could be technically organic, it is not local, spiritual, nor does it follow the example of ‘trusting the food by trusting the farmer’. The same article also says that “when you buy organic bananas from Costa Rica, you’re probably supporting sustainable practices in a small, poor country, ensuring the health and working conditions of farmers, supporting education and medical care for their children, and reducing pesticide-use globally” (Turner). This aspect of the author’s argument is simplistic. Who is to say that there is any proof that the profit of the food is even going to the workers? That these workers are being treated fairly? That they’re being paid enough to give their children what this author considers to be a proper education? Really, the only real way to support “reducing pesticide-use globally” and to fully trust your food and support the workers, is to help out your own community’s food production.

With sustainability, organic production, seasonality, urban farming, and accessibility of healthy agriculture in mind, many movements have been enacted to support these concepts.

The concept of Civic Agriculture, also known as “Community supported agriculture . . . invites consumers to participate directly in the labors, risk, and rewards of food production” (Reid). In Georgia, big chicken farms provide chicks and chicken feed for family farms. This makes is so that everybody has a job because the smaller farms are the ones that are raising and caring for the chickens, but that the larger farms can be successful production farmers without having a monopoly over the family farms (Keefe). In order to bring back local, family farmers, a couple in Connecticut started a small-county store where all produce is locally grown and 90% of it is certified organic. This couple makes it possible for the citizens of the county to support their agricultural community and in turn the safety of the workers, environment, and wellbeing of the farmers (Buy Local Now). In the sixties, a movement called Back to the Land was started by young people who wanted an opportunity to practice living in small agricultural communities. They did so by living in establishments where everyone cultivated crops and provided for each other. (Reid). Something called CSA, customer supported agriculture is a new form of buying food where people can pay monthly fees to small, local farms and in turn the farms deliver weekly baskets of produce. This way, people learn about seasonality, eat sustainably and it is the first way farmers have been able to have a fixed salary because they have a way of knowing what their sales are in advance (Knox). Movements against

10 organic agriculture have “robbed organic farming of its philosophical basis and [only] facilitated its commercialization and industrialization” (Reid). These movements are working. Small-scale farming has become a lot more popular and accessible throughout the last few years.“From 1994 to 2006, the number of farmer’s markets nationwide grew from 1,755 to 4,385, according to the USDA” (Buy Local Now).

Considering the health of animals, humans, the environment and everyone and everything involved in the production of industrial farming, it is the safest and more sustainable choice to buy products made as a result of small-scale agriculture. Too many animals are being killed, global climate change is getting worse, and humans risk their long-term health by consuming pesticides and buying genetically modified foods which have not been properly investigated. Human arrogance and a need to have an efficient-as-possible lifestyle is the cause for all this human error. When we support small farms, buy seasonal and local foods, and support the farmers in our communities, we are improving the quality of community life, economy and the health of our bodies, animals and the environment.

Works Cited Applebome, Peter. "Providing Fresh Vegetables to a Community Where Fast Food Reigns." New York Times 20 Sep. 2010. ProQuest. Web. 22 Sep. 2010.

Assessing Health Risks from Pesticides. United States. Environmental Protection Agency.. EPA, 15 Sep. 2010. Web. 10 Sep. 2009.

Buy Local Now. (2008, September). Country Living, 31(9), 69. Retrieved September 21, 2010, from Platinum Periodicals. (Document ID: 1529577581).

Keefe, Bob. "Why chicken farming is hurting: Federal agencies launch inquiry to find out. Goal is to determine if the cause is the economy or big poultry producers." The Atlanta Journal – Constitution 16 May 2010.

ProQuest. Web. 22 Sep. 2010.

Knox, Robert. "Trend is a natural - `Eat local' push touts boost to farmers, ecology, and taste." Boston Globe. 20 Sep. 2007. ProQuest. Web. 22 Sep. 2010.

Pascalev, Assya. “Agricultural Ethics.” Encyclopedia of Ethics and Philosophy. Vol 1. 2009.

Pesticides and Food: What You and Your Family Need to Know. United States. Environmental Protection Agency..

EPA, 15 Sep. 2010. Web. 17 May 2007.

Reid, Taylor. “Organic Farming.” Encyclopedia of Environmental Ethics and Philosophy. Vol 2. Web. 2009.

Turner, L.. (2008, February). more than organic. Better Nutrition, 70(2), 52,54. Retrieved September 21, 2010, from Platinum Periodicals. (Document ID: 1429135701).

Willer, Helga., and Minou Yussefi. “Organic Agriculture Statistics 2007–The main Results of the global survey 2007 by FiBL and SOEL”. Web. 16 Feb. 2007.

11 Henry C Research in the Community E Craig Butz October 7, 2010 What has happened to our schools?

In 1978, the Citizens of California passed Proposition 13. Most thought this proposition was innocent enough. It capped property taxes and kept them from increasing significantly. Californians thought that Lower property taxes would be a win-win situation. Many were worried that older Californians would literally be “Taxed” out of their homes because they wouldn’t be able to pay taxes. Rising Property values did cause property taxes to rise to historic levels (Speich), and people had the right to be mad. So, as a result, Californians took matters into their own hands. After Proposition 13 was passed by a 65% vote, People were happy to have their taxes so low.

Regrettably, the voters had no idea of the consequence of their actions.

In 2010, our education system has crumbled. The once great schools that the golden state prided itself on in the 1960’s have become among the worst schools in the country (Gordon). Teachers are being regularly laid off, and most schools have had to cut valuable programs like art and music. Another drastic curriculum cut is in the Physical area. PE Programs have been cut in many schools, and with the current budget crisis, more cuts are sure to come.

We ask ourselves, how did this happen? There is an economic crisis in the world, but these schools have been failing for about thirty years. The fact that Proposition 13 was passed thirty years ago is no coincidence. The tax initiative that was supposed to help people who were struggling has in fact destroyed our Public education system by cutting necessary funding for the schools to even function. Proposition 13 is greatly undercutting the public education system’s budget, and it is time as California citizens to repeal this poorly thought out Proposition.

The 1960’s were considered to be the golden age of California Education. California’s Public Schools grew immensely, due to the Baby Boom, a growing economy, and lastly, a generous state government. Hundreds of new elementary and high schools opened to accommodate new students. Enrollment in K-12 shot up to 4.1 Million students in 1965, from the number of students in 1950, 1.6 Million. Enrollment in UC schools went from 200,000 students in 1950, to more than a million in 1970. Educators needed a plan to accommodate this influx, so in the late 1950’s, Politicians and educators made the Master Plan for Higher Education, which divided labor between Education instructors and Education researchers. This was wildly successful, and was later followed by the Donohoe Act, which was a promise to the people of California that anyone who wanted a college education would get one.

This seems like a rather large promise, but the government already had a plan in the works. What made the Donohoe act possible were community colleges, two year schools with open admission and no tuition. The government had up until this point funded education well, but then, in 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik. America doesn’t take losing well, and the Soviet’s launch of the first satellite was a major blow to the American ego, and as a result the government was eager to pour money into the scientific curriculum of the K-12 program, as well as to the college curriculum. Politicians were subtly sending the message to educators that the schools had failed to put the U.S. in space first. The Educators of the time didn’t care if the politicians were sending a subtle barb, because they were also sending more funding. Unfortunately, it wasn’t just the government that was dissatisfied with the education system, so was the general populous. Ronald Reagan for example was not satisfied with the education system, and promised to “trim the fat” out of public education. In actuality, Reagan did not make severe budget cuts, but he didn’t approve any new funding for schools, and during the early 1970’s many new programs sprang up to compete with public education for tax dollars. Healthcare, environmental protection and special education programs hurt public education funding the most (Speich).

Education in the 1970’s relied mainly on the state property tax. These taxes were set at an average 2% of a house’s value. 2% of your house value doesn’t seem like much money annually. But think about it this way: You’re a recently retired police officer, who has saved money religiously, and can now buy a house that costs $250,000.

Now, with a 2% tax rate, you are paying $5,000 dollars. This is a lot of money, but you probably would be able to swing it. Now consider that your house value goes up like most houses in the 1970’s. Now your house value is at $500,000. Your income hasn’t gone up at all, and taxes are now costing you $10,000. You cannot afford to pay these rates, and you are forced out of your home. Is this actually fair? People in the 1970’s were literally getting taxed out of their homes, and California voters were angry about it. A house going from $250,000 to $500,000 may seem like a rather large rise, but in fact, House values in San Francisco and Los Angeles were rising by 14% a year (“In California”).

12 The fact that the public was paying the highest property taxes in history, combined with a 2 billion dollar state surplus, along with a growing anti public education sentiment, the public was very ready for property tax cuts.

Unfortunately legislation failed to pass any tax limiting laws, and the public got angrier. The fire was fueled, and the people of California were ready to change the tax system.

In 1977, Howard Jarvis and Paul Gann ingeniously harnessed the public’s anger and started a ballot initiative. The initiative planned to cap property taxes at 1% of a house’s 1975 value. The Initiative also made it impossible for property taxes to increase by more than 2% per year, which is 2% of what the owners of a property paid last year. The last item on the initiative was a little fail-safe to keep low property taxes in place, a requirement of a 2/3 legislative majority to raise property taxes. This only applied to owned properties, and when a property changes owners, taxes go back up (Gordon). In a California of people happy with state services this initiative would have been extreme. But circumstance shined upon the initiative, the petition got 1.2 MILLION signatures, and Proposition 13 was on the 1978 ballot. Proposition 13 was supported mostly by Conservatives, but many liberal politicians supported Prop 13 to please the general home-owning public. Proposition 13 was opposed by most teachers and educators, along with some politicians who foresaw the cutting of funding for public services the Proposition would bring. The Opposition stood a chance, but unfortunately the Los Angeles county tax assessors came out with their annual report, and the public’s anger about rising property taxes after this new evidence was enough to wash the opposition into the pacific. The polls were flooded, and Proposition 13 was approved 65 to 35 percent. Anti-tax fever had swept through voters. Surprisingly, 57% of democrats and 47% of renters voted for Proposition 13. Voters were truly convinced that because of the great state surplus, they could just cut unnecessary programs from the government and have lower taxes. Californians suffered a wanting something for nothing mentality (Gordon) The Proposition was then mandated into law.

After a year, the lack of tax funding for public programs was apparent, but because of the surplus, government was able to bail out public education until the early 90’s. Prop 13 caused house values to rise even faster, because of people holding onto houses to keep low tax rates, creating a small supply but a large demand (In California). The citizens of California had no idea that their Proposition would have such terrible repercussions, but those repercussions would not be seen for years to come.

The United States public education system is run by property tax dollars. Up until 1978, this system worked with public services getting the money they needed. A property tax-funded education system is a good idea, as long as the system is not funded by district, which would mean poorer districts would get worse schools. Proposition 13 has shown us that regardless of repercussions, people will lower any tax they can. Because Prop 13 took away 60% on tax funding (Personal interview with Phil Ting, tax assessor), which as you could imagine would have a large effect of public services funded by tax dollars. The public education system is directly funded by property taxes; they were hit hardest by proposition 13. The state the California Education system is in is just sad. The San Francisco Public Montessori, a newly created school, has no playground equipment, little to no sports equipment, and the PE program has been completely cut. This signifies a definite need of funding. What was once an amazing symbol of American achievement has fallen behind to American embarrassment. A symbol of hope and dedication to our future has turned into a symbol of our shortsightedness. Failing schools mean lower SAT scores, which translate to less college acceptance, which of course means those citizens won’t get as lucrative jobs. An expanding economy needs a skilled workforce, and a lack of education will hold us back economically.

Proposition 13 has almost singlehandedly crippled the California education system, and the schools are running out of programs to cut. A growing nation needs an education system that can expand and start new programs.

One afternoon, I was getting a ride from one of my friend’s mothers, and we started a little debate over Proposition 13. She said to me that without proposition 13, she would have to pull her son from private school. I didn’t respond because I was hoping she would see the enormity of her flawed reasoning. Unfortunately it never dawned on her. She said that she cared about education, and that’s why her son is in a private school. What she didn’t understand was that if Proposition 13 is repealed, Public schools could have the opportunity to become the places they were many years ago. She wouldn’t have to send her child to private school, and he could get a perfectly good education going to a public school. (Hoo, Susan) Moving on to a separate conversation, one with another one of my friend’s mothers she had a different stance. She too valued education for her children, and was sending them to private school for that reason. She had been educated by the California Public education system, back when it was still being funded by the surplus. She is a very well adjusted person, has a great career and a house. The last thing she told me was that for most of her childhood, she wasn’t even aware that private schools existed (A, Karen). So why have Private schools gotten so

13 numerous in this day and age? It is because most families value education, and know that a good education equals a good career. These families should know that Proposition 13 should be repealed, and that it would save them money in the long run.

Proposition 13 must be overturned. But even today, when it is now apparent that our schools need funding, proposition 13 still remains popular in opinion polls. How will we overturn this proposition without the support of the population? It would be nearly impossible to. Very few politicians have tried. This is because Proposition 13 is the third rail of California politics, if you touch it, you die. Even if a few politicians were to summon up the courage to try to repeal Prop 13, most would be voted out of office before they could do anything. Evidently, we will need the public’s support to overturn Prop 13, but how will we go about getting the public’s support?

On solution would be, instead of Repealing the Prop, fixing the Prop, which might be more appealing to tax payers than just a general repeal. One thing we could fix is the Business and Family loophole, which allows relatives to gift houses and allow the property taxes of the owner to stay low (Personal Interview with Phil Ting, Tax assessor). This would be a good step, but it would not give the money that is necessary to fix the education system (Bohnett). Taxes need to increase across the board. Not a drastic increase, but they need to be set to a house’s current value, in order for education to have any chance of being fixed to fix education. Some opponents of Prop 13 have suggested we implement the “Washington Monument Strategy”. This involved shutting down popular public services in a time of crisis so the voters relent and are willing to pay more taxes (Gordon). This may seem extreme, but this is what is going to happen anyways if we don’t repeal proposition 13 soon. We should all hope that California citizens realize what they must do, before this state falls irreparably.

The people of California have decided a tax break is worth hampering their children’s futures. California is such a progressive state, and yet it is now in the worst educational Dark Age it has ever experienced. If Prop 13 isn’t overturned, our younger citizens won’t just get lower SAT scores, unemployment will rise. It is necessary for taxes to provide money for the institutions that allow the economy to function. Soon, the economy will not just be unable to function; the workforce will be unable to compete in the global economy. Californians are human, and looking out for oneself through getting tax breaks is indeed, only human. But Humanity is also defined by looking out for one another, and looking towards to futures instead of just caring about the now. Proposition 13 is greatly undercutting the public education system’s budget, and it is time as California citizens to reform this poorly thought out Proposition.

Work Cited A, Karen. Personal interview. October 7, 2010.

Bohnett, David. On Prop 13: Time to Amend and Correct. Huffingtonpost.com. May 6, 2010 California Proposition 13: Seismic Retrofitting. Ballotpedia.org. July 7th, 2010. Web. Sept 22, 2010.

Chapman, Jeffery. “Proposition 13: Some Unintended Consequences.” Public Policy Institute of California. PDF. 24 Sept, 1994 Fox, Joel“Proposition 13 & the Property tax Revolts of 2007” Hjta.org. Howard Jarvis taxpayers association. 15 Nov, 2007. Web. 15 Sept, 2010.

Gordon, Tracy “ Analysis: California Budget Crisis” Washingtonpost.com. Washington post. 19 June, 2009. Web. 15 Sept, 2010.

Halperin, Samuel. Kaplan, George. Education Policy in the Carter years. Washington DC, Institute for Educational Leadership. 1978 Hoo, Susan. Personal interview. 3 October, 2010 In California, What is Prop 13? Wisegeek.com. Sept 8, 2010. Web. Sept 22 2010.

Moore, Stephen. Proposition 13: Then, now and forever. Cato.org. July 30, 1998. Web. Sept 22, 2010.

Proposition 13: Love it or hate it; it’s roots go deep. Caltax.org. November 1993. Web. Sept 21, 2010.

Said, Caroline ” Lower home values mean lower tax revenue” Articles.sfgate.com. SFgate. 21 June, 2009. Web. 15 Sept, 2010.

“Senator Peace: Cure Prop. 13 'Sickness' by Reassessing Commercial Property, Boosting the Homeowners' Exemption and Cutting the Sales Tax.” Caltax.org. California Taxpayers' Association. February 2000.

Web. 15 Sept, 2010.

Speich, Don. Weiner, Stephen. In the eye of the storm: Proposition 13 and Public education in California.

Washington DC, Institute for Educational Leadership. 1991.

Ting, Phil. Personal interview. 17 October, 2010.

14

Luke G Research in the Community – E-block Craig Butz October 3, 2010 Shut up and Sit Down!

Living in such a fast paced, constantly changing world can make it easy to become overwhelmed. We can all relate to the fact that no matter where we go our brains are constantly being bombarded by all kinds of sensory stimuli. Think about it; what appears to be a relaxing stroll down the sidewalk is actually quite an exciting experience. Bright lights, accompanied by a loud whish of air, whizz by as cars pass you at inhuman speeds; the feeling of your clothes brushing up against your body as you feel your left pocket vibrate, indicating that you have a new text message from Aunty Margret reminding you to buy bananas on your way home. It’s not easy to maintain this kind of lifestyle, but at this point there isn’t much we can do to change these things. Whether we like it or not, the majority of the times we take a stroll down the sidewalk we will experience some variation of these events.

Even though society won’t slow down for us, we can slow ourselves down by practicing meditation. With minimal required commitment to perform, meditation is uniquely loaded with countless benefits such as stress and anxiety reduction, increased focus, and a heightened sense of general well being, and thus should be integrated more readily into society.

Although it is not a new concept, meditation is an efficient way of providing people with relaxation, and even exercise. Many people actively perform traditional Chinese exercises such as tai chi, an activity consisting of purposefully slow breathing accompanied by continuously controlled motions, in the hopes of deriving the different “ health benefits from the exercise and relaxation” these activates can provide (“Traditional”). While tai chi brings upon a meditative state, it also enables one to physically exercise from the slow, yet strenuous movements it entails.

Aside from tai chi, other different ancient Chinese traditions related to meditation that were invented thousands of years ago are still used today to instill relaxation upon the participant (Luft). If humans have passed down traditions hereditarily for thousands of years, common sense tells us that it’s said effects are probably pretty reliable. Consider this: if it wasn’t a successful practice, would still be around after so long? Humans wouldn’t practice something for such a long time if it wasn’t unanimously respected by many different cultures.

Throughout history, Meditation has been an integral focus of many different cultures. Sources believe that a figure found from the Indus Valley Civilization by archeologists “demonstrates that yoga practice could have existed in the first Indian Civilizations” (“The Long”). This expresses how meditation has been an avid part of many different cultures throughout the evolution of human civilization. Furthermore, Dan Murkur of Encyclopedia Britannica claims that the “disenchantment with materialistic values led to an awakening of interest in Indian, Chinese, and Japanese philosophy and practice among… young people in many Western countries in the 1960s and ’70s” (Murkur). Westerners began following the practices of eastern cultures during the middle twentieth century.

When contrasting the data provided by these different sources, it is clear that meditation has been an important developmental aspect of human culture. Modern day youth thought it necessary to take on the practices of ancient civilizations as to become less materialistic. This demonstrates how even the most distant of cultures value the benefits that meditation has to offer. Undoubtedly, the cultures that are being compared are not very similar due to their differences in both geographic location and the period in which they existed. As a result, it is safe to assume that they valued different things. People living in the 1970’s, driving their Volkswagen vans all over the place, are obviously going to have quite a different perspective on life than an Indus valley inhabitant. Considering the lack of commonality between these two cultures, it is rather interesting how they could both practice meditation.

Meditation has been passed on through history through so many places that it has integrated itself within even the most distant of cultures.

The long term, diverse integration of meditation has likely been due to the many beneficial effects it can provide. Since we now have the technology to scientifically analyze the benefits of meditation, many scientists have conducted studies to explain why it has been practiced throughout history. A group of scientists led by Paul Grossman, a researcher from the Freiburg Institute for Mindfulness Research in Freiburg, Germany, analyzed many studies that were done on the effects of meditation. Grossman and his team specifically studied cases where subjects suffering from chronic stress, anxiety, and depression were treated by going to classes and meditating thirty minutes a day for one week. They concluded that the subjects with these problems were mainly affected positively by meditation. The team noted that meditation also helped with the coping of such problems (Grossman et al).

15 According to the National Center for Complimentary and Alternative Medicine, another study conducted by scientists suggests that “it is thought that meditation can reduce activity in the Sympathetic Nervous System while increasing activity in the Parasympathetic Nervous System” (“Meditation: An”). In the human body, there are two main parts of the Involuntary Nervous System: the Sympathetic Nervous System and the Parasympathetic Nervous System. The Sympathetic Nervous system is activated mainly when someone is put in a stressful position.

For example, if someone is about to get into a fight, the Sympathetic Nervous system would become quite active.

When activated, a person’s heart and breathing rate will increase dramatically, while their blood vessels will constrict (reducing blood flow). The Parasympathetic Nervous System, which is activated generally when someone is in a calm situation, does almost the exact opposite as the Sympathetic Nervous System: it relaxes them. When active, a person’s heart and breathing rate will decrease dramatically, and their blood vessels will dilate thus increasing blood flow. Also, their digestive fluids will flow more freely (“Meditation: An”).

While not absolutely sure, scientists suggest that the most likely effect from meditation is increased activity in the Parasympathetic Nervous System (“Meditation: An”). As a result, a person is generally in a calmer, less stressed out state while meditating. Because of the fast paced world we live in, so much is demanded of each and every one of us. The scientifically suggested activation of the Parasympathetic Nervous System shows that meditation can create a much calmer environment in this very hectic life.

Matthew Morey, an avid long term meditator, claims that the majority of people who meditate over a long period of time are subject to calmer personalities. He describes humans as onions and meditation as the tool that one uses to peel away the “layers” of their being to come in contact with a much deeper part of themselves. Matthew has a very relaxed nature, and is quite a laid-back person. According to Matthew, his relaxed nature is a direct effect of his long term meditating, which he practices daily. He lives with a roommate who meditates alongside with him.

Matthew claims that his roommate shares the same calm personality as he does (Morey). People who meditate consistently over a long period of time generally have calmer personalities. Matthew also explained his experience at past silent meditation retreats. A silent retreat is where people leave, are completely silent for the length of the retreat, and meditate a lot of the time they’re gone. According to Matthew, people portrayed very individual reactions, but he described how there was a general, unanimous calming in the environment of the retreat after the people had settled in. When nearing the end of the retreat, he observed that a lot of people reach a very deep and private part of themselves. Despite the onslaught of emotions experienced during the retreat, Matthew noted that many people left in a much calmer state of mind (Morey). This shows how meditation has a significant calming effect upon the meditators.

Because of the proclaimed calming induced by meditation, experts claim that it could be a useful tool for people suffering from Social Anxiety Disorder (Smith). Social Anxiety Disorder is a condition where a person becomes so anxious when anticipating an event where they are required to perform in front of others that they will go great lengths to avoid such situations (Smith). It isn’t an uncommon condition, although it can dramatically affect a person. Melinda Smith, an expert on the subject, describes meditation as an effective way of helping regulate the amount of stress and anxiety that a person feels (“Meditation: An”).

There is a direct correlation between these three studies. The National Center for Complimentary and Alternative Medicine says that the Parasympathetic Nervous System experiences increased activity when meditating. Matthew and Grossman’s team both claim that people who practice meditation over a long period of time become overall more calm. Melinda claims that people with Social Anxiety disorder should meditate because it helps calm them down when in an uncomfortable situation. With the information at hand, it’s pretty obvious that the reason for this calmness in one’s personality is because the Parasympathetic Nervous System is activated during meditation. Just as Matthew explained how people who meditate can more easily access a deeper part of themselves when they are not meditating, they are also subject to feeling calmer when they are not meditating. After a meditating for a long period of time, it literally becomes a part of a person. Its effects rub off onto who they are, and become incorporated into their daily life.

When someone meditates for a long period of time, they experience a heightened sense of well being.

According to an interview conducted by the National Public Radio foundation, researchers at the University of Wisconsin have discovered that meditation induces the activation of the left prefrontal cortex. This is the part of the brain that controls the emotional well being of the person. The effects were shown to be more noticeable in people who had a more long term experience when meditating. This explains how meditation affects the well being of the person (Aubrey). The effects of meditation become intertwined with the personality of the meditator. This means that because meditation increases activity in the emotional well being part of the brain, it will also make the person have a heightened sense of well-being during the time that they aren’t meditating. This improves the emotional well being of each aspect of their life, instead of just during the period that they are meditating.

16 Another beneficial aspect of meditation is the increased focus it instills upon the meditator. Throughout the world, many people are studying the specific effects that meditation has upon attention. Amishi Jha, a neuroscientist from the University of Pennsylvania, claims that “as you practice [meditation] more and more, the ability to flexibly allocate attention in a more open way may actually improve” (Aubrey). The control that a person has over their attention can be increased by long term meditation.

As a result of the near to unlimited pros that meditation has to offer, there is really no reason for someone not to try meditating. Claiming that meditation takes time to do is not a valid excuse because everything takes time.

Although this is true, the preciousness of time makes each person want to use it as productively as possible.

Encompassed by so many countless benefits, meditation is in fact one of the most beneficial things that a person can do with their time. To be able to slow down and have that period of time for each of us to reflect inward would create a much calmer, more bearable, and more productive environment for the followers of society.

The drawbacks of meditation are relatively minor compared to the possible benefits acquired by meditating.

One of the worst scenarios that could come out of attempting meditation would be that you discovered that meditation didn’t affect you as expected, and thus you would have used up a small portion of your time. What if you find out that meditating is what has been missing all of your life; then was it still a waste of time? Say you tried meditating for twenty minutes (only about 1% of your day) and you discovered that meditating was stupendously beneficial to you as a person. Under those circumstances, was it actually a waste that 1% of your day?

Now, think about it this way: if someone said that they could provide a positive, life changing experience in a mere twenty minutes, would you opt to do it? Since life-changing opportunities such as this are rare and hard to come by, ones that present themselves should be avidly pursued. Meditation is always available to try, and the only way for someone to find out how it helps them is to try it out for themselves. The fact that meditating significantly reduces the stress and anxiety levels of a person, increases their focus, and heightens their sense of well being makes it clear that meditating should become a larger focus of our society.

Acknowledgements: I’d like to acknowledge Nidalia, Minkee, Olivia, and Gemma for helping me revise my paper and Matthew Morey for taking the time to be interviewed.

Works cited Aubrey, Allison. “Science Explores Meditation’s Effect on the Brain.” National Public Radio. National Public Radio, 26 July 2005. Web. 17 Sep. 2010.

Blakeslee, Sandra. "Study Suggests Meditation Can Help Train Attention." New York Times, 8 May 2007, Late Edition (East Coast): New York Times, ProQuest. Web. 17 Sep. 2010.

Bolte Taylor, Jill. “My Stroke of Insight.” Radiolab. Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, 2010. Web. 17 Sep. 2010.

“Brain Atlas.” Brain explorer. Lundbeck Institute. Web. 30 Sep. 2010.

“Brain Facts and Figures.” Eric H. Chudler. Washington University. Web. 30 Sep. 2010.

D, Richard et al. “Alterations in Brain and Immune Function Produced by Mindfulness Meditation” Psychosomatic Medicine. 65: 2003. 564–570. Dunntastic. Web. 19 Sep. 2010.

Grossman, Paul et al. “Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Health Benefits, a Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 57 (2004): 35-43. Proquest. Web. 19 Sep. 2010.

Hamilton, Jon. “The Links Between the Dalai Lama and Neuroscience.” National Public Radio. National Public Radio, 11 Nov. 2005. Web. 17 Sep. 2010.

“Meditation: An Introduction.” National Center for Complimentary and Alternative Medicine. National Center for Complimentary and Alternative Medicine, June 2010. Web. 17 Sep. 2010.

“Meditation for a Stronger Brain.” National Public Radio. National Public Radio, 20 Aug. 2010. Web. 17 Sep. 2010.

Luft, Glenda. Meditation. University of Florida, 2005. Web. 18 Oct. 2010.

“Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research.” Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, June 2007. Web. 19 Sep. 2010.

“Metaphysics.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2010. Web. 17 Sep. 2010.

Morey, Matthew. Personal Interview. 30 Sep. 2010.

Murker, Dan. “Meditation.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2010. Web. 17 Sep. 2010.

Smith, Melinda. “Social Anxiety Disorder and Social Phobia.” Help Guide. Help Guide, May 2010. Web. 17 Sep. 2010.

“The Human Brain.” University of Michigan. University of Michigan. Web. 30 Sep. 2010.

“The Long History of Meditation is Evidence of its Benefits.” Buzzle. Web. 2 Oct. 2010.

“Traditional Chinese Medicine.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2010. Web. 17 Sep. 2010.

17 James H October 6th 2010 Craig Butz, Research in the Community Vandals and Artists: Fight over the Wall People who do not know the art form behind graffiti might think that it has been around forever with cave art and other ancient forms of vandalism, but the concept of placing art in an illegal environment with the intent of self promotion and recognition through art is a very new idea, certainly in the schemes of the art world. Graffiti tackles a new form of modern art, truly tests the boundaries of art, and stretches the canvas to the world around the writer and tackles a new art form. Graffiti and street art puts the artist’s work out on a vulnerable medium. With the right tools anyone can do it but they know that they are sacrificing their hard work on something that may not stay for a day or two. Even the highest artists in the graffiti and street art world do not always have their art cherished, regardless of if the art is considered more valuable. Graffiti pushes the boundaries of art and tackles constant obstacles of removal and opposition while moving the gallery to the streets where anyone can be inspired or offended. This new evolution of illegal art it must be accepted as an art form and because the majority of graffiti art is done illegally, and so the art behind it must be accepted so that we can provide new legal places for aspiring artists to paint and express themselves on more abundant and safer mediums. This way graffiti art does not have to remain limited by the platforms it is performed on and the damage from illegal pieces and tags will be diminished.

Graffiti brings to mind the image of someone’s tag or pseudonym being written on a wall, but there are more forms of graffiti and street art then one simple genre. Self promotion through graffiti began during the 1960’s and 1970’s during the rise of hip-hop. This unique act of vandalism became a revolutionary new form of graffiti.

Hip-Hop graffiti evolved by adding self promotion and art into the elements of self expression and crime that vandalism offered. This illegal art revolution remained largely underground and it was objected by not only the law, but the art community and plenty of people who saw it as a plaque that symbolized the degradation of society and human order. The range of graffiti subcategories includes classic hip-hop graffiti, tags, new lettering, installations, street art, stencil art, stickers, wheat-pasting,” throwies”, and plenty of other forms.

Being a street artist even now is still a thing of secrecy because of the legal implications. As the famous stencil artist Banksy put it in his street art “documentary”, Exit Through the Gift Shop, his street art is in a legal grey area. This is an ideal way to look at street art for Banksy but not exactly honest. His work, however, is some of the most controversial because he paints illegal pieces in the night and will then go on to sell a painting to a celebrity in the day. This creates a lot of conflict because he has been accepted into the art community and even when his illegal work is covered it creates an outcry. Banksy embodies the struggle between art and law because people have begun to make exceptions for his work. Banksy still does graffiti but it is street art rather than hip-hop graffiti which focuses more on ideas and the images then letter style and developtment. Street art has become significantly integrated with western culture and even politics. In fact, Shepard Fairey, the artist and designer behind the Obey Giant sticker campaign also did the design for Obama’s campaign posters. The new British prime-minister David Cameron also presented President Obama with a painting by the street artist Ben Eine. These examples of the new value and recognition of street art is proof alone that it is no longer just thought of as pure vandalism, but also has a place in people’s everyday lives in design, on t-shirts, on the street. The fact that leaders of the two of the strongest Western countries are exchanging and receiving art that came from an illegal counter-culture demonstrates how accepted graffiti art has become into culture.

The mentality behind graffiti has also become more artistic yet it still holds its angry, rebellious driving force that makes it attractive to youth. Many artists believe that their voices are important and see the art behind the crime. Many artists including Aeon, an artist native to Australia, believe that public space should have more visual freedom of space, where people can express themselves on public platforms. Less aggressive writers who aren’t in graffiti for the vandalism focus on public space. The reasoning that everyone pays taxes and everyone owns a place is also reoccurring in graffiti thinkers and though this still has a blatant disrespect for law, the respect for private property is one of the positive sides of artistic ideas behind graffiti. San Antonio is known for its graffiti and many of the artists have witnessed the different mentalities in the art world that take affect on graffiti depending on its context. The writer Nezo has his work in the streets and galleries but the same people who like his art in the secluded galleries hate it when his art is in the open on the streets (“Street Legal” 2007). Another San Antonio artist, Supher, likes to give bland buildings life with his “unconventional artwork” (“Street Legal” 2007). Many also see graffiti as a way to “counter excessive advertisement (“Art:21” 2003). This allows for writers to rebel against the claustrophobia that they feel frombeing constantly bombarded by in your face ads. When people are watching television they have made a deal and allow advertisements into their lives, but with giant billboards and slogans throw at people every day it can be a very negative side of consumerism. As the Californian artist Barry Mcgee say

18 he believes that the jingles from a giant corporation stuck in your head can have more damage than graffiti. After all, graffiti can be covered with just a layer of paint.

The legal boundaries of graffiti also become very blurred when mistakes are made by people who buff the graffiti and anti graffiti vigilantes. In San Rafael, California a resident has made it his duty to cover up graffiti that he sees “wrecking” his city. Mr. Birkhead drives around with his own paint and covers graffiti with his own paint and no permit, covering up tags on any property that he thinks has been defaced. A large problem which causes some irony is that he has begun painting over tags on sound walls by the highway. The problem with this is that the sound walls are actually porous and when the wrong paint goes into them the walls become less effected and the sound could be redirected at more residential areas in Dominican. This no doubt has been a problem and Birkhead has had the police called on him because of his vigilante actions without a permit. Some city officials have noted that he has become no worse than the taggers he is trying to stop. Another said that he is a “vigilante abatement machine” who himself needs to be “abated” (“Marin IJ” 10). This shows that graffiti is not always from the side of the writer, but also sometimes the buffer.

Australia has had some larger ironic fumbles due to the almost draconian lengths that they go to to try and prevent and cover graffiti. When the property owner of a building commissioned Anthony Lister to paint a mural he happily did without any outside funding, as a gift of sorts. However after he finished the mural it was quickly buffed out by the Australian vandal squad. The irony is that the vandal squad is being accused of trespassing and painting over this mural illegally, which was no doubt vandalism in its own right. The vandal squad went and painted over a gift that probably had a lot of value to it and thus completely vandalized the art and disgraced the idea behind it.

A large problem with this ongoing battle over what color the streets remain is that all of the solutions have not focused on the trend of graffiti but has merely tried to fight it rather than trying to honestly direct graffiti inspiration into honest, legal mediums. One of the large problems with making graffiti a bigger crime is that it diminishes the quality of pieces and creates mainly tagging which spreads the graffiti around in a diminished quality. The issue behind this tactic of fighting graffiti is it takes time, and as Aeon says since graffiti is a visual crime it takes up the attention of the stakeholders while there are other more important issues that do not necessarily have visual traces (Bombing Science 09). Because covering graffiti is an obvious sign of the government doing their job it becomes a long term focus with only short term solutions.

Graffiti affects everyone. There are few places that one can go where some sort of graffiti or vandalism hasn’t occurred. Because the stakeholders, in this case artists and victims, both have such conflicting feeling there is hardly any common ground. The promise of reward for the artist is sometimes enough to make breaking the laws worth the risk. But at the same time the resulting damage can be hard to clean up as well as being an eyesore.

Writers face many challenges and dangers when they want to make it big. Graffiti is an act of vandalism and destruction so destroying someone’s property may not go down well with them and they may run into the wrong people and get hurt or killed. This is especially common if someone tries to paint in gang territories. Gangs can lay claim to areas and it is far too common that a tagger may write in the wrong place and end up dead because of it.

Being attacked is not the only way to be injured or killed when painting illegally. There have been incidents in train yards when writing on freight trains was the massive core of graffiti (moving graffiti meant even more people would see it throughout the city and essentially as far as the train went). Being in an area with moving trains and sometimes dangerous drops has lead to injury for a few graffiti artists in the train yard.

Another way that writers get their name up in the public eye is by painting in high places near the highway, where a billboard may go to catch the most eyes as the people move through. A graffiti crew that is known for “getting up” is AWR MSK. Many of their artists including Augor, Revok and Saber place their work in very obvious places so that it can be seen very easily. The dangers that come with these illegal paintings is that one could easily fall and kill themself. Part of the awe and thrill that comes from the placement of this graffiti is seeing how the artist has managed to get their work in such an out of reach place, but that can also be one of the most dangerous elements.

Problems that victims of graffiti face are not usually as dangerous as those that some of the big writers may undergo but it is probably enough to make them wish that the writer would fall one of these days. Property owners have to pay to get the graffiti covered and it can be an eyesore if the buffing is obvious. People spend millions every year covering up tags which only come from a select few individuals. Daniel Pan believes that despite cracking down on graffiti it hasn’t gone away and instead of large pieces that most people actually find interesting writers resort to tagging because they are less likely to get caught. Unfortunately this just increases and spreads the damage and reduces the quality of the work (Pan 10).

There are luckily some solutions to graffiti that can take away a lot of the damage and danger without taking away the benefits that the artists may seek. Legal opportunities like murals and design are great places for

19 graffiti that can benefit the artist without the risks. Risks can however be the draw to graffiti but with this people must realize that these people will commit crimes and at least graffiti isn’t as hurtful as some other alternatives.

Graffiti has intermingled with design ever since it became popular and now can be found in plenty of brands like Upper Playground, Burton, and Volcom. Dennis Crowe, a longtime graphic designer has seen the integration between the two and has worked on several projects with former street artists and graffiti themes. He told me that the main difference between art and design is that design usually is trying to make the viewer want something or have a certain response while art may have a meaning behind it but is usually up for interpretation (Crowe 10). There is no doubt that the two have given each other a lot to work from. In graffiti there are plenty of gradients and shine that became popular in design before the graffiti boom. There are also obvious uses of graffiti lettering in design and letter work. Ironically this has made it back into the advertising that graffiti tried to counter.

T-shirts are great places for work because it moves like trains but they can get produced over and over.

But perhaps writers would rather stay an artist. Well this is easily done as more and more galleries are beginning to show street art. Street art has become very accepted and if the artist is good enough then they are sure to land multiple gallery shows. Unfortunately this doesn’t allow anyone to see their artwork which would be an obvious downside to working only in galleries. This is where there needs to be more public support for murals and areas where people can learn and develop their skills. A new idea that would take more of the graffiti off the streets is to have “graffiti parks”, places where people can learn and develop their skills much like a skate park. If it wasn’t for skate parks skateboarders would be skating throughout the city even more, without places to learn without being chased away by a security guard. Skate parks have been public and private and have obviously benefitted those who don’t want kids skating on their property and the skateboarders themselves. If this idea of embracing the culture and accepting it in some areas could be brought to happen then graffiti artists could paint without hurting anyone. In fact there are many legal graffiti zones around the world that are larger than just parks. Melbourne, Warsaw, Tesnov, Queens, Paris, Taipei, Zurich, Copenhagen, Burghausen, and Venice beach all have designated graffiti areas (Huang 09).

If more walls and mediums are made open for legal graffiti then both stakeholders, the writers and victims, will benefit and hopefully learn to appreciate each others’ reasoning. The truth is that the short term solutions and draconian laws to an art boom that competes in size with the Renaissance will not have effects on the growth of graffiti and street art culture but trying to integrate the art form in pure legal ways rather than fighting it with sandblasting and buffing is more likely have effect and tackle the vandalism and damages from graffiti.

I would like to acknowledge Craig Butz, Henry C, Ayluonne T, and Jackson P for proofreading and helping me with my paper.

20 Bibliography “Art:21 seasons one and two” PBS, 2003 Banksy “Wall and Piece” London, Random House, 03/11/2005 Bay Area Multicultural Media Academy . Villanueva, Aaron. June 27, 2007 “Legal or not, graffiti is about respect” <http://xpress.sfsu.edu/archives/bamma/008615.html > Bombing science . Gonella, Brian. 10/9/09 “Aeon interview” <http://www.bombingscience.com/index.php/blog/viewThread/2424 > Crowe, Dennis personal interview 10/10/10 D’Amico, Daniel. 2004 “A legal and economic analysis of graffiti” George Mason University <http://www.graffiti.org/faq/damico_a_legal_and_economic_analysis_of_graffiti.pdf > Graffiti Hurts Australia 2008 <http://www.graffitihurts.com.au/ > Hilditch, Scott. May 2009 “Public Submission to the City of Melbourne Draft Graffiti Policy 2009” <http://nograffiti.com/docs/City%20of%20Melbourne%202009%20plan%20response.pdf > Matador trips. Huang, Juliane. 1/29/09 “10 places where Graffiti is legal” <http://matadornetwork.com/trips/10places-where-graffiti-is-legal/ > MarinIJ -Bernstien, Jessica. “San Rafael man a graffiti vigilante: Neighbors worry painting over vandalism may be damaging the absorption qualities of soundwalls” 9/12/2010 <http://www.marinij.com/sanrafael/ci_16060678> Pan, Daniel personal interview 10/14/10 Prof. Goldman. Fall 1997 “Graffiti Art: An essay concerning the recognition of some forms of graffiti as art” < http://www.graffiti.org/faq/stowers.html> San Antonio Current -Martinez, Kiko. 10/3/2007 “Street Legal” <http://www.sacurrent.com/special/story.asp?id=67444 > Sunsentinel- Shatzman, Marci. 9/15/2010 “West Boca deputy on a mission to catch graffiti artists in the act” < http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2010-09-15/news/fl-wbf-ridealong-0915-20100915_1_marker-or-spraydeface-property-taggers>

21 Logan H Craig Butz Research in the Community 7 October 2010 Violence happens, Muni in distress While crime in San Francisco has decreased over the years, this has not been true for crimes on the Muni.

A whole range of events happen almost every day on our buses such as robberies, stabbings, hate crimes, assault, graffiti, and other vandalism. While some bus lines might be more dangerous than others, crimes can happen on any Muni regulated transportation. Drivers are always present when crimes occur as they are like permanent passengers.

Because these drivers are only employees, they cannot prevent crime. The Municipal Transportation Agency (or MTA) must take responsibility for these problems.

San Francisco Police Department reported that 569 criminal incidents occurred on Muni between January and June of this year (Aldax). Headlines in the San Francisco Examiner, have featured attacks on riders: “Man knifed near T-Third Street Platform. Police halt service to look for the criminal.” “Stabbing on Muni in Sunset District” “ 24 year old woman attacked while riding the J. Police think this is connected to attack on a 11 year old boy in September.”

Muni drivers are the essence of Muni. Without them, the organization would not exist, since their purpose is to provide transportation for its citizens. Many San Franciscans ride the buses daily; without Muni drivers, the buses cannot function. Even on their website, in the “About us” section, they have a picture of a Muni driver to represent their agency. Not only are Muni responsible for the passengers well being, but also for the wages, and well being of its drivers and other employees, which they have been failing at doing. What tends to happen during Muni’s rule making is that they do not completely think about all the situations this law would be applied to or how fair it is to society. For example, during the Citizens Advisory Council, they talked about making companies pay a fee for parking space that they required for them to have! One of the advantages of having a Citizens Advisory Council is that this group allows citizens to attend their meetings and comment on the discussions while also bringing up issues that the council might have thought of. These, thoughts and comments, are reported back to Muni, helping them to see what a citizen might see as a problem.

From the birth of Muni, it was a privatized transportation system to serve the public and only the public.

Therefore, the citizens of San Francisco have to pay for this transportation through tax money, and fares! Most people do not realize that the citizens own Muni. Purchasing a Muni ticket means that the driver has to transport you safely to your destination. The citizens’ money goes to pay the Muni drivers. They are the ones who have to put up with the harsh life of driving these machines. They are the ones who have to be patient with the public who blame the drivers for events that are beyond the drivers’ control.

Are the Muni drivers really the ones to blame?

Muni claims on their website that they “strive to provide a convenient, reliable, accessible and safe transit system that meets the needs of all transit users within the City and County of San Francisco” (SFMTA). Muni relies on the police to patrol their transportation vehicles. However, are the police really doing their job? The police chief has ordered cops in squad cars to ride Muni twice a day and foot patrols, four times a day. Police simply do not have enough units to patrol all the buses to catch every crime. Justice is not being served! While this may be the case, the most surprising part is how long it takes the police to react to crimes on Muni. On a day in December of 2008, a woman was taking her mother to the dentist, and had a fight with a passenger over a window. Luckily, a Vietnam veteran was there to help the woman once the other passenger started choking her. The driver did the proper procedure which was to pull over and open the doors, but when the driver did this, the veteran found himself being thrown out. Only through the help of another person were they able to overcome the criminal. At least two policemen were at the site of the crime, and they yet did not take action. Muni was informed by the driver 20 minutes after the incident had happened (Noyes). A survey was taken to see how many police officers actually patrol the bus, and about 90 percent of the police do their job. However, when ABC7 news interviewed the police, they said that these numbers are not accurate at all. The way the Police avoid patrolling buses is by only reporting the number of each bus line. The lack of police on Muni allows criminals to get away with crimes.

One particular group from ABC7 news called the I-team, investigated Muni to gather proof about crimes that the public has described on the I-team’s blog. Lead by the head of the I-team, Dan Noyes, the I-team’s sole purpose is that it “reports on stories involving corruption, government waste and crime in the Bay area” (I-Team).

ABC 7 news had to sue Muni to get the videos of crimes, and the news channel has gotten tapes of the 25 drivers

22 that got the most complaints. The subjects of these complaints usually involved injuries, accidents, insults, and threats made by Muni drivers. At the request of the public, the I-team was given 18 video tapes of crime where criminals were not arrested. With so many accidents and crimes happening on buses, Muni tries its best to keep these videos from circulating on the internet. These videos would make their business look bad and would make their riders feel unsafe. In fact, the drivers’ union even helped the city prevent these videos from going viral. When ABC 7 news asked Irin Lum, the president of the Muni drivers’ union, about why they tried to with hold these videos, he said that these videos were for the drivers’ personal file and should not been seen by the public. When riders feel unsafe; they do not to want to ride buses which hurt Muni.

Effect of Violence on Muni’s budget While violence is a major issue on Muni buses and light rails, because of their much larger financial problems, the agency cannot focus their attention on fixing this problem. Muni was once a privatized business until it was taken over by the city. This means that “the agency is an extension of the mayor's office, which stands by as other city departments siphon millions of dollars from Muni's budget — compounding huge cuts in state funds.

Multiple sources confirmed to SF Weekly that not only does Mayor Gavin Newsom's office dictate the agency's budget down to the line item, it also demands Muni fudge its fiscal shortfalls into ‘politically palatable’ deficits (Eskenazi).” City departments can steal millions of dollars from Muni’s funds by making the excuse that the agency owes them for each accident or crime that the city documents. For example, General Hospital got an earmark from Muni saying that they had to pay 5 million dollars for related accidents (Eskenazi). All of the unions in the city use the collective bargaining system except for Muni. In what is called the Charter system, the government agrees to pay their drivers 29 dollars per hour no matter whether they work or do not work. They are paid the second highest wages in the country when compared to other cities’ agencies (Eskenazi).

In what some may call a battle between two sides, proposition G, also known as the Fix Muni Now ballot measure, will be upcoming in November of 2010. Right now MUNI operator salaries are guaranteed through the city charter system. As a result, MUNI operators have the second city wages in the nation. Proposition G wants to change the way MUNI operator wages are set, and instead set wages through collective bargaining. Whether it will, “fix Muni” is rather deceiving to the public as one of the co-sponsors for this prop has said that, “It’s important not to oversell Prop G. Yes, it’s absolutely necessary, but it won’t fix Muni,” said Gabriel Metcalf, executive director of the San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association” (Roth). However, the man who proposed Proposition G. says that this will completely fix Muni and will save them 16 million dollars. Mayor Gavin Newsom will chair a debate by the two sides and the San Francisco Chronicle is supporting G. (Roth).

Another pro G. journalist, Eskenazi, reported in the San Francisco Weekly that, overhead wire failures, breakdowns in the Metro tunnels, the growing number of vehicles unable to "make pullout" in the morning are some of the problems that happen to MUNI’s buses, while drivers are getting a $3,000 bonus and automatic pay raise of 8 million dollars. When other city departments found out that MUNI received $27 million from the city to fix their main problems, they decided to take advantage of all this money by raising their rates for MUNI related accidents.

This raise of rates was big enough to easily eat up all the $27 million in a couple of months(Eskenazi).

The drivers’ union’s response to the arguments in favor of Proposition G. is that people want to find somebody to blame, and that the system they have right now has been working since they installed it. Irin Lum, the president of Transportation Drivers Union local 250-A, says that “there has not been a strike over a contract for Muni drivers in 41 years.” (Lum) This is when drivers’ wages were put into the city’s charter system. Though as these politician fight, the safety of riders is still in question.

In order to help keep riders safe, one problem-solving suggestion came from Dan Noyes, of the I-team. He advises passengers to try to sit in the front of the bus instead of the back. Doing this, will increase the chance that the driver will see the problem and call the police for backup. When a fight does break out, police are usually not on board, so passengers themselves have to help break up fights. In almost every video where there is a fighting, most of the time, some passenger has had the courage to help break it up. Another tip from the I-team is that when riding buses, passengers should remember to hide ipods and iphones which are the most targeted electronics in thefts.

“Increasing penalties for carrying concealed weapons and harassing people on Muni or near transit shelters is the latest effort to make the public transportation system safer” (Sabatini). The purpose of a greater penalty for carrying weapons is a fear tactic to try to discourage criminal activities. Even though this might sound like a good idea, the question arises as to how police would know when passengers are concealing weapons?. The only way police could catch these people with weapons is that they would be visible on camera or somebody must report the person to police if they see them carrying a weapon. Either that, or police would search everybody’s belonging or at

23 least suspicious people. Many people might find this an invasion of privacy because the police officers will see all of the person’s possessions.

One recommendation has been to put a security guard on every bus, so that a police officer would always be present during a crime, and would make people think twice before acting violently. Ideally, this would be a great way to reduce crime, but realistically given the current financial situation of the city, the cost is prohibitive.

Perhaps this is because of human nature of wanting to fight and discriminate against others. No matter how safe you think it might be, there will always be crime somewhere in the city, and your chances increase even more to be attacked on the bus than on the streets. While many people expect drivers to take action when a situation arises; it is the duty of the police to patrol the cars and arrest criminals on Muni. With proposition G coming up in November, there is hope that this will help solve some of Muni Financial crisis, and would allow Muni to focus money for more security.

Works Cited Aldax, Mike. “Muni stabbing persist while overall crime drops.”SF Examiner. August 18, 2010. Web. 23 September 2010.

Begin, Brent. “Muni Crimes raising an alarm.” SF Examiner. 30 September 2010. 23 September 2010.

Eskenazi, Joe, and Greg Dewar. “The Muni Death Spiral.” SF Weekly. 14 Apr. 2010. Web. 23 September 2010.

“I-Team.” ABC7 News. ABC7 News, 8 November 2010.

Lee, Vic. “Muni attacks: Hate crimes or random violence?” ABC 7. 02 Apr. 2010. Web. 23 September 2010.

Lum, Irin. “Muni drivers didn't get 'bonuses'.” SF Gate.com. SFgate.com. 06 January, 2010. Web. 19 October, 2010.

Noyes, Dan. “Muni Crime Spikes; police often absent.” ABC 7. 15 May 2009. Web. 23 September 2010.

Palta, Rina. “Crime on Muni.” Cross currents from KALW News. 2 Aug. 2010. Web. 23 September 2010.

Reisman, Will. “Crime Stalling on Muni routes.” SF Examiner. 7 July 2010. 23 September 2010.

Roth, Mathew. “Proposition G and the Fix Muni Syndrome” SF. StreetBlog.org. SF. StreetBlog.org. 14 October 2010. Web. 19 October 2010.

Sabatini, Joshua. “New penalties proposal targets violence on Muni.” SF Examiner.com. The Examiner. 30 June, 2010. Web. 21 October 2010.

24

Olivia L Research in the Community Craig Butz 7 October 2010 Teach to Love: Stop Encouraging Ballerina Bodies Watching a professional ballet company perform is an amazing experience, but when looking at the individual dancers, and seeing how their body types are all very similar; shows how traditional the dance world is when it comes to body image. The reason they all look similar is because dancers are given weight expectations, and a dancer’s body must be strong, light, and beautiful all at the same time. Dance is a physically demanding art and has to be done with precision and grace. So how do dancers maintain this “beautiful” look? Healthy dancers eat right, and worry about their health rather than their weight. Unhealthy dancers that just want to stay thin often form eating disorders, and this is a huge problem in the dance world today.

Eating disorders are complex and most dancers do not consciously choose to have eating disorders.

However, the main reason dancers have or are on the verge of having an eating disorder is because of the weight expectations that are inherent in dance. But who created the weight expectations? The teachers of dancers sometimes unconsciously or consciously encourage dancers to lose weight and eventually develop (change to develop) an eating disorder. As a result, teachers should be aware of how much influence they have on their dancers. Because the body of a dancer is frequently being judged and critiqued, dance teachers should be trained to teach their dancers in a more positive and less damaging way. Dance teachers who approach their students about their body in a negative way could potentially lead those students to something as serious as an eating disorder.

The majority of people with eating disorders are between the ages of twelve and twenty-five (“Teen Health Series” 64), and 50% of girls between ages eleven and thirteen view themselves as overweight (“Teen Health Series” 64). Eating disorders are very dangerous and have the highest mortality rate of mental illness (“Teen Health Series” 63). Eating disorders are very common and in the United States, and it is estimated that 7 million women are affected with this disorder, and 80% of thirteen year old girls have attempted to lose weight (“Teen Health Series” 64).

The most common eating disorders in dance are; Anorexia nervosa (with purging), Bulimia nervosa, Anorexia nervosa (without purging), and sometimes even Anorexia nervosa that turns into Bulimia nervosa(Marks).

Anorexia nervosa is when a person begins to starve themselves to lose weight, and Anorexia nervosa with purging is when individuals make themselves vomit or obsessively exercise after eating (Marks). Bulimia nervosa is when a person will eat something, and then they feel the need to purge it (throwing up or overly exercising) (Marks).

Dancers are at a higher risk than others because on top of all the “normal” factors that could lead to an eating disorder, their bodies are constantly being critiqued by their teachers. In addition to all of these risk factors, people with Anorexia in their family have an 11% higher chance of having Anorexia, compared to people without a family history (“Anorexia Nervosa”). A person with depression or Obsessive Compulsion Disorder is more likely to develop Anorexia nervosa, than the average person. Other things that can contribute to someone developing eating disorders are: culture, family, spiritual values, peers, self esteem, emotional and psychological problems.

To be considered Anorexic, you have to be 14% below your healthy weight for your height (Hamilton L.H.). Someone who is Bulimic will have frequent episodes of binge eating (over eating), and will use extreme efforts to lose weight (purging or overly exercising) (Pies). Eating disorders may form quickly, and have a tragic affect on someone’s life. 5-10% of Anorexics die after ten years of suffering (“Teen Health Series 63”). And only 30-40% of Anorexics fully recover (“Teen Health Series 63”).

The pressure that ballerina’s feel to be thin is part of the nature of succeeding as a professional athlete. In 1934, George Balanchine became director of the American Ballet Company, and showed the world what ballerinas were supposed to look like (“George Balanchine”). Tina Banchero, a dance teacher, expresses how obsessive George Balanchine was with being skeleton skinny: “He would cast all these beautiful but scary skinny ballerinas in his shows, and that is when ballerinas knew what to strive for,” (Banchero). Author Jennifer Denning also comments on how Balanchine has affected dancers, she explains that, “Dance is a highly competitive, high-pressure and physically damaging profession. In classical ballet there is popularly believed to be an ideal ‘Balanchine’ body type for women, this factor is not enough to send ballerinas spiraling into the delusional life of eating disorders, but it adds to the many factors of why dancers might feel the need to be thin.,” (Dennings). For example, most dancers have an unsubstantiated belief that lower body fat enhances performance (“Teen Health Series” 136).The other reason is that dancers are already at a higher risk because “female athletes are especially at risk in sports that emphasize their body or appearance such as…ballet” (“Teen Health Series” 135). 83% of dancers have eating disorders: 6.9% anorexia nervosa, 10.3% bulimia nervosa, and 10.3% a mixture of anorexia nervosa and bulimia

25 nervosa, and the other 55.5% have not yet classified eating disorders (Ringham). Banchero described a studio as having a negative vibe: “I remember there was a scale in the bathroom and you had to weigh a certain amount to stay in the company” (Banchero). Banchero also mentioned a competition she used to attend where she would stand in front of the judges in a leotard, and they’d simply judge how you looked (Banchero). Therapist and dancer Nancy Marks says that though dance has evolved over the years, the ballerina hasn’t changed much.

These body images of what dancers are supposed to look like aren’t just established when dancers join the professional world, but when the training starts. Most dancers begin formal training between ages five and fifteen (“Dancers and Choreographers”). Most serious dancers have their first audition by seventeen, a time when their bodies are still changing and they are not yet adults (“Dancers and Choreographers”). Dancers that do make it to the professional stage will normally spend eight hours a day in rehearsal (“Dancers and Choreographers”). Because dancers start dance training so young, they start noticing body type earlier. And the fact that dance studios are filled with mirrors is no confidence booster to a teenage girl going through an awkward period.

Just about everyone wishes they looked different in some way, but most dancers have certain personality traits that can resemble those of someone with an eating disorder (Marks). Dancers and people with eating disorders share these traits: being a perfectionist, feeling the need for approval, fearing humiliation, and being extremely sensitive to failure (“Teen Health Series 19”). Also, “individuals who are pre-occupied with weight and appearance may be more likely to participate in athletics” (“Teen Health Series 136”). College dancers are especially at higher risk for eating disorders because most college girls in general have unhealthy eating methods (“Beauty and Body in the Media”). Author Susan Eley explains, “Sometimes the academic and social pressures at college, mixed with pressure of the dance world can cause anxiety, and depression, which are root causes of eating disorders” (Eley).

Therefore dancers (especially college age) have a higher risk at forming an eating disorder than the average person.

Though dancers as a whole want to be thinner, they all have different reasons to lose weight. Aspiring ballerina 17-year-old Alyssa Mitchell says that at auditions the directors always choose the thinnest ballerinas (Mitchell). 15-year-old Tapper Kathleen Mathews says that it makes sense to be skinny because you are automatically more flexible and can do more complicated leaps (Mathews). She also says that because she isn’t “ballerina thin” she needs to try harder, and in a way “prove herself”. Tara Lihn, professional salsa dancer who used to have Bulimia Nervosa, said, “You have to devote your life to get a ballerina body” (Lihn). She also expressed the main reason she became bulimic was because she wanted to “look like a dancer” (Lihn). Charlotte Lee, a 17-yearold dancer, says she just feels like the costumes and moves of dance are meant for the thin. She says, “I feel like I make some of the moves look awkward. I don’t quite look like a dancer, I don’t feel as graceful,” (Lee). And though all of these insecurities are different, they can all end with an eating disorder.

Teachers are the ones putting these body images into dancer’s heads. Dance teachers in studios need no education or permit, all they need to be able to do is dance (Banchero). Author Susan Eley states, “It’s very important that the teachers be someone with whom the student feels at ease,” (Eley). Because some teachers do not have any knowledge about how sensitive a dancer is, or how delicate girls can be, they can approach a dancer about their weight in a very negative way. A fifteen year old dancer who wishes to remain anonymous says her teacher would try to approach her by telling her about great diets, and this dancer was in 5th grade at the time. Tina Banchero says when she asked her teachers to help her with her eating disorder, they just said, “you look great” (Banchero).

Alyssa Mitchell says that at her old company all the teachers smoked cigarettes to control their appetite (Mitchell).

Eley says, “an instructor should not attempt to serve as a diagnostician or a therapist, but should provide understanding, nonjudgmental support, and should direct the student to therapeutic and medical sources,” (Eley).

Therapist Nancy Marks believes dance teachers need to emphasize the importance of health, and not weight (Marks). Good teachers should understand that no two bodies are alike, and that dancers should work mindfully and realistically with the body they have (Marks).

Recovering from an eating disorder is a long hard journey, and treatment includes confronting the patient’s personal issues, putting everything aside to help the patient become healthy, and maybe even giving up their dream of being a dancer. In order to diagnose the person with an eating disorder (so the therapist knows how to treat them), the patient must first fill out a questionnaire, have lab testing done, and the therapist must know all of the family’s history of illnesses (Yagar). Eating disorders need three to six months of inpatient care (“Teen Health Series” 64).

Unfortunately, health insurance companies often do not cover eating disorders, and treatment cost as much as two thousand dollars a day (“Teen Health Series” 64). Outpatient treatment cost around $100,000 for therapy and medical monitoring (“Teen Health Series” 64). And though it is fortunate that we no have therapist who specialize in dancers’ emotional and physical problems, struggling dancers often cannot afford these treatments even if the treatments are available (Dennings).

Not all dancers suffer with eating disorders, and even though body image is a big part of dance, dancing can be a truly joyful experience. Several young dancers shared about how dance made them feel, and each dancer

26 described dance as something magical and energizing. Charlotte Lee says, “I was lucky, when I was depressed, dance brought me out of it. It is all fun for me,” (Lee). Alyssa Mitchell said once she switched from a strict ballet school to a very supportive company she got her love of dance back (Mitchell). Lastly, Kathleen Mathews, a long time tapper, says, “it calms me; I feel on top of the world…I feel amazing!” (Mathews).

Looking at dance styles beyond ballet, we see that some dance forms, such as modern dance, are more accepting of body types, and use dance to celebrate human beauty (Marks). Banchero states, “modern dance encourages you to love yourself, there’s no need to be stick skinny,” (Banchero). Dance forms also promote personal growth, health and well being (“Benefits of Dancing”). Also, studies have proved that dance improve body image, self esteem, and communication skills (“Benefits of Dancing”). Teachers either make dance a self loving activity, or a self hating obstacle.

Dance teachers not only need to know their students and how to approach them, but also need to know that not all their dancers are going to be professionals and understand how much of an influence they are. Nancy Marks, who once learned from a traditional ballerina, believes that “unhealthy, unhappy, poorly educated, and narcissistic dance teachers make unhealthy role models,” (Marks). Dance teachers, may not necessarily stress the joy of dance, because most of them didn’t make it in the professional world. Lihn’s advice for dancers is to “find a teacher that doesn’t just do ballet, and that doesn’t pound your dream…but helps you grow.” The most important thing for dance teachers to do is stress the joy of dance, and to encourage dancers to accept and enjoy the moment (Marks).

Dance teachers should be trained and educated so that they can lead their dancers in the right direction. The teachers need to show the dancers how wonderful dance is, and help them find a kind of dance they can do for the rest of their lives, without risking their health. The more dance teachers encourage their students to accept their body type; the sooner dancers will stop feeling pressure, and the need to be thin. The prevention needs to start with at the beginning of training, and teachers need to understand their influence on their dancer’s health.

I acknowledge Elamar H.-M., Henry C., Kayley Y.-M., James H., and Robin L. for editing this essay.

I would also like to thank Nancy Marks, Tara Lihn, Tina Banchero, Kathleen Mathews, Charlotte Lee, and Alyssa Mitchell for letting me interview them.

27 Working Bibliography “Anorexia Nervosa-Part 1.” Harvard Mental Health Letter. Harvard Medical School, February 2003. Web. 27 Sept 2010.

Banchero, Tina. Personal Interview. 1 Oct 2010.

“Benefits of Dancing for Children.” EduDance: Classrooms in Motion. Web. 7 October 2010.

“Dancers and Choreographers.” Bureau of Labor Statistics.17 Dec 2009. Web. 30 Sept 2010 Dunning, Jennifer “Eating Disorders Haunt Ballerinas.” New York Times. 16 July 1997. Web. 15 Sept. 2010.

Eley, Susan. "Helping a student overcome an eating disorder: part 1." Dance U101. Web. 30 Sept. 2010.

“George Balanchine.”.Encyclopedia of World Biography, Web. 12 October 2010.

Hamilton LH. “The Role of Selectivity in the Pathogenesis of Eating Problems in Ballet Dancers.” U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institute of Health. 20 Dec. 1988. Web. 27 September 2010.

Lee, Charlotte. Personal Interview. 22 Sept. 2010.

Lihn, Tara. Personal Interview. 22 Sept. 2010.

Mathews, Kathleen. Personal Interview. 22 Sept. 2010.

Marks, Nancy. Personal Interview. 25 Sept. 2010.

Pies, Ronald. “What’s New in Eating Disorders?” The Carlat Psychiatry Report. October 2005. Web. 27 Sept. 2010.

Ringham R. “Eating disorder symptomatology among ballet dancers.” U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institute of Health. 29 Sept. 2006. Web. 27 Sept. 2010.

Teen Health Series. Eating Disorders Information for Teens: Health Tips about Anorexia, Bulimia, Binge Eating, and Other Eating Disorders. Detroit, Michigan: Omnigraphics, 2005. Print.

Yager, Joel. “Tips on Treating Eating Disordered Patients.” The Carlat Psychiatry Reports. May 2009. Web. 27 Sept 2010.

Bibliography: Additional Sources “Ballet's approach to weight is an Ugly Tragedy.” Guardian. Web. 15 Sept. 2010.

“Ballet Dancers.” Something Fishy: Website on Eating Disorders. Web. 15 Sept. 2010.

Barnard, Anne. “Wasting Away Women Suffering from Eating Disorders Finally get the Medical and Psychological Attention They Need.” Boston Globe. 1 July 2003. Web. 16 Sept 2010.

Bawdon, Fiona. “No model for girls.” New Statesman. 1 Oct. 2007. Web. 16 Sep. 2010.

“Beauty and Body Image in the Media.” Media Awareness Network. Media and Internet Education Resources. Web. 14 Sept. 2010.

“Eating disorder terms.” Turning Point. Florida department of children and families. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

“Filling in the gaps in anorexic treatment.” China Daily. 14 Feb. 2004. Web. 16 Sep. 2010.

“Gelsey Kirkland.” Ballet Encyclopedia: The Ballet. 4 Sept. 2007. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.

“Media and Girls.” Media Awareness Network. Media and Internet Education Resources. Web. 14 Sept. 2010.

“Online Ballet Lessons: Ballet terms A-Z.” Learn to Dance. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Polivy, Janet. “Causes of eating disorders.” Annual Review of Psychology. Platinum Periodicals. Web. 16 Sep. 2010.

S., Abraham. “Characteristics of eating disorder among young ballet dancers.” U.S. National Library of Medicine.

Web. 15 Sept. 2010.

“The Alliance of Eating Disorders Awareness.” The Alliance of Eating Disorders Awareness. Web. 15 Sept. 2010 Zohar, Gil. “It Takes Guts.” Jerusalem Post: International Newspaper. 4 July 2008. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.

28 Cat M November 4, 2010 Research in the Community E Block Craig Butz Homerun or Strikeout: Should Major League Baseball and its Players be seen as Role Models?

Major League Baseball players have always been seen as role models. There is controversy over whether they should in fact be seen as role models. Throughout his career, Barry Bonds was always thought of as a role model by his fans. When people started to question whether he used steroids or not, it called into question his home run records and how people looked at him. In 1998, when he was playing for the San Francisco Giants, he averaged a home run every 16.5 at-bats. Once Bonds allegedly started his steroid use, he started to hit home runs twice as frequently (“Shadows Reveals Truth Behind Barry Bond’ Steroid Use”). Although Bonds was never convicted of steroid use and his home run record still stands in the Baseball Hall of Fame, it blackened his reputation in Major League Baseball. Major League Baseball players are influential role models who can help at-risk adolescents stay away from drugs, gangs, and violence; however, they can also lead poverty-stricken juveniles to abandon their education to try to reach the improbable goal of fame and fortune that Major League Baseball players have.

Many people, such as Larry Baer who is the President of the San Francisco Giants Organization, do not believe that players should be seen as role models although they are; “Whether we like it or not, they are role models and have that reputation, we have to treat them as such. We have to assume that they will be and it is a high priority to us how they are presented” (Baer). He thinks that the ideal role model would be “someone who can deliver an impactful message that is pro-social. They would be able to take an issue that adolescents struggle with and say that ‘I did wrong’ and look at where I am” (Baer).

In Larry’s opinion, a player who should be looked up to and seen as a role model, if any, is Barry Zito who, in 2009, was a nominee for the Roberto Clemente award for having an active role in the community. In 2005, Barry Zito formed Strikeout for Troops. The purpose of Strikeout for Troops is to “lift the spirits and moral of wounded troops in military hospitals nationwide” (“Barry Zito”). Barry Zito also built the “Barry Zito Junior Giants Field” in Stockton, California. Thousands of children and adolescents can now play baseball and participate in physical activity. All of these qualities show what a good role model is and what they can do as an active member of the community.

In agreement with Larry Baer’s views on whether Major League players should be role models, Walter Haas Jr., former President and CEO of the Oakland A’s and founder of Team-Up for Youth believes the following: In reality, they shouldn’t be. I don’t think that any professional athlete should necessarily be viewed as role models in that many of them, especially Major League Baseball players, are relatively young people with, in many cases, not a lot of education or experience. Also, the reality that they live in is somewhat unrealistic in some ways because they are so idolized that they do have a false sense of reality. Having said that, I think that because sports are viewed as such a powerful entity in our society, professional athletes are viewed as role models and they need to act as such. I think that the problem is because they are so young, not all of them are great role models. Just because they can hit a ball far or pitch a ball really fast doesn’t mean that they are great human beings. However, because they are sort of put on this pedestal, they should be held accountable and are not. They should be obligated to give back to the community as role models because of the exceptional opportunity they are given. They do not realize that there are major negative implications if they are poor role models. (Haas) Walter Haas’ view calls into question the recent incident involving Tim Lincecum of the San Francisco Giants. He was caught on November 6, 2009 with 3.3 grams of marijuana and a pipe in his car. Initially, he was pulled over for speeding. The law enforcement officials cited him for his possession of marijuana as a misdemeanor (Martinez). This was a problem because he is seen as a role model and by making the decision to smoke marijuana, he is giving adolescents the message that it is acceptable for sports figures to break the law. His reputation was tarnished as a role model and caused controversy.

Although there are many aspects of Major League Baseball that could be perceived as negative, many Major League Baseball teams have committed to helping at-risk communities through personal time and financial contributions so that the adolescence who are involved stay away from drugs, gangs, and violence. As one example, the San Francisco Giants have gotten involved in the community in many different ways. In 1994, the Community Fund, which is the Giants non-profit organization, founded the Junior Giants, a program dedicated to helping at-risk adolescents find an alternative to drugs, crime, and violence through baseball and physical activity. The Junior Giants is a free program which focuses more on character than on competitiveness. The Community Fund provides the Junior Giants with uniforms, equipment, and training. These contributions help sixteen thousand adolescents in

29 eighty-five leagues across California, Nevada, and Oregon (“Junior Giants Baseball”). Another example of the Giants involvement in the community is the Harmon and Sue Burns Scholarship Fund. The Scholarship Fund was founded in 2002. The Scholarship participants are chosen from the Junior Giants when they are thirteen. The ten adolescents who are chosen every year are meant to demonstrate the value of good education, a good work ethic, and community involvement and outreach. This program helps to keep adolescents in school and provides incentive to earn good grades so that they can get into college (“Harmon and Sue Burns Scholarship Fund”). A program that directly affects the Giants players is the One Hundred Percent Participation Program. This program helps to get the players, coaches, and staff involved with the community for the entire season (Baer). All of these programs are dedicated to helping at-risk adolescents and giving them an alternative to drugs, gangs, and violence.

In the 1990’s, there was an increase in juvenile crime in the San Francisco Bay Area. The Giants organization was concerned with the crime statistics in the Bay Area and thought that by creating the Junior Giants that it was the best way that they could help (“Junior Giants Baseball”). For example, most adolescents arrested for truancy are not attending school or have completely dropped out. In the mid nineties, there was an increase in adult crimes, which lead to an increase in juvenile crimes. The number of people participating in armed gangs also went up because of drugs. Studies show that adolescents in families without a father figure are more likely to get involved in drugs, gangs, and violence (Locarno 1). As adult crimes increased, more men left their families (due to being incarcerated) putting more and more adolescents at risk for getting into serious trouble.

The Junior Giants program is for boys and girls ages five through eighteen and is meant to help build confidence, integrity, leadership, and teamwork in those who participate. The hope is that the Junior Giants will give adolescents something to do and give them the support that they need to develop as adolescents who give back to their community (“Junior Giants Baseball”). Confidence is built through teaching the Junior Giants to give onehundred percent of their effort, believe in themselves, and keep going when they make a mistake. Integrity to the Junior Giants means being honest with oneself, treating other people with respect, standing up for what you believe in, and making the right choice in a tough situation. Leadership is taught by treating other players and people the way that you would like to be treated, not only thinking about what is best for yourself but for other people as well, recognizing every effort that your teammates make, and lead people by setting a good example. There are four golden rules to teamwork: we achieve more when we work together as a team, the team should never come between friends, tell your teammates what they are doing well, and everyone on the team has a role to play and therefore is a valuable player (“Junior Giants Baseball”).

To help promote healthy living, the Junior Giants make sure that nutrition is largely incorporated into the program. The Junior Giants handbook promotes eating well through depicting players making healthy choices. For example, Tim Lincecum is holding a platter of fruits and vegetables as he promotes a nutritional value of eating five servings of fruits and vegetables a day. Pablo Sandoval is encouraging adolescents to be active instead of watching TV or being on the computer. This method of showing nutrition is more effective than lecturing them because famous athletes are showing adolescents that they eat and act this way, encouraging the kids to strive to eat and act in a healthier way. These are only two of many examples of how the Junior Giants are encouraging children to be healthy (San Francisco Giants). By eating healthy and staying active, adolescents are better able to stay focused in school and learn (Rate).

Another way to keep adolescents out of gangs, drugs, and violence is to provide students with incentive to stay in school and earn good grades. The Harmon and Sue Burns Scholarship Fund was founded “to provide students with the incentive and motivation to actualize their full potential” (“Harmon and Sue Burns Scholarship Fund”). The Scholarship program emphasizes self-esteem, teamwork, and leadership for its participants as well as a commitment to academics and to the community. When the ten adolescents are chosen for the scholarship, they are thirteen years of age. These students must graduate high school and be accepted to a college before they receive $2,500 which goes towards their college tuition (“Harmon and Sue Burns Scholarship Fund”).

In addition, the Giants players get more involved in the community through The One Hundred Percent Participation Program. This program is designed to help adolescents see baseball players as human beings and be able to look up to them. In this program, every Giant’s player selects a community program to devote time and money to. The Community Fund tries to connect every player with a worthy cause. This program helps at-risk adolescents by being in the community because it gives the adolescents someone to look up to. The players talk to the adolescents about drugs, violence, and gangs and how the adolescents should not get involved in them. By having the players talk about either their experiences or just the topics in general, it is more influential because it is coming from a role model (Baer).

Walter Haas, Jr., founder of Team-Up for Youth, believes that sports programs in low-income households and communities for children of all ages are essential. He has witnessed and spoken about the power of sports as a vehicle in children and adolescents on their path of discovery as they find out what tools they need in life. He has

30 watched, first hand, the positive impact of group sports participation in young children as well as young adults as they come to terms with the emotions of winning and losing in a safe environment. The team provides them with a healthy way to compete and take risks which increases their self discipline and self esteem. They learn by doing and living rather than watching. They learn how to show humility as team players. Great citizens who volunteer to coach set a direct example of hands on care, skill building instruction, and can captivate and engage kids as well as encouraging them to be the best they can be on a neutral playing field (Haas).

The majority of Major League Baseball teams, such as the Giants, make sure to take an active role in the community. The Giants have many programs to keep kids active in their community and away from gangs, drugs, and violence. However, in poverty-stricken countries, such as the Dominican Republic, the prospects who try to pursue a Major League Baseball career do not have the luxury of community involvement by the players. Instead, the prospects are given a choice, drop out of school and be trained by a buscone or try and enroll in one of the baseball academies that a Major League Baseball team has provided. The hope is that the baseball academies will provide incentive for kids to stay in school because there are a limited number of applicants who are accepted into the academies.

Although there are many good aspects to Major League Baseball, there are some downsides. In the Dominican Republic, for example, most adolescents drop out of school to pursue a Major League Baseball career.

Buscones, which are unlicensed scouts, trainers, and agents, scour the Dominican looking for young boys to train.

The buscones sell their prospects to the highest bidder, meaning that the prospect gets no say in the arrangements and the buscones usually pocket about twenty-five to fifty percent of the signing bonuses. The adolescents that are picked to be trained are usually fifteen to eighteen years old. These adolescents can sometimes be younger and their ages are forged so that instead of being signed at the legal age, which is sixteen, they can be signed earlier. This means that more adolescents are dropping out of school. Out of all of the efforts of the adolescents and what they are giving up, roughly about ten percent make it to the Major Leagues. The fact that sports are lacking in many of the Dominican Republicâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s schools only causes more students to drop out and pursue their careers as baseball players. Adolescents dropping out of school cause the prospects that do not make it to the Major Leagues to end up jobless due to their lack of education (Gregory).

In the Dominican Republic, the situation with Major League baseball is sensitive. Although the Major League Baseball organization is trying to fix the cause and effect of fame, fortune, and opportunity, there is still a long way to go. Many families are condoning their children dropping out of school because they see it as the only way out for their families (Gregory 1). This means that families might even be encouraging prospects to drop out of school for even the slim hope that their child might be able to get money and help their family. With their families allowing them to leave school and the rags to riches tale that Major League Baseball personifies, many adolescents question the reasons to attend school. This is causing more students to drop out and go to the buscones (Gregory).

In response to these problems, Major League Baseball teams have started to open academies in the Dominican Republic where prospects are trained by legal coaches, housed, and fed. However, before these academies started to open, many prospects moved in with the buscones whose living conditions were terrible. Many places didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have running water and there was no electricity. To many prospects, these living conditions were an upgrade from their previous houses (Gregory 1). Now, instead of the prospects going to live with the buscones, the academies take in players and train them. In some academies, such as the Chicago Cubs, the living conditions closely resemble the buscones. About ten prospects are crammed into one room and the room would possibly fit about two or three prospects comfortably. There are four bunk beds crammed into one room as well as a mattress being shared on the floor (Gregory 2). These living conditions were deemed unacceptable and the living condition standard has been raised.

Many other Major League Baseball teams have high standards for their academies. Two examples of good academies are the San Diego Padres and the Pittsburgh Pirates. The Padres built an eight million dollar academy that, for every two prospects, has two twin beds per room, air conditioning, and their own private bathroom (Gregory 2). At the Pirates academy, the prospects are being educated four hours a day, five days a week. The basic education that the prospects at the Pirates academy receive only costs seventy-five thousand dollars per year for all of the prospects attending the academy (Gregory 2). If this happened in all of the baseball academies, it would help the number of adolescents without educations to be able to find a job that pays money.

If prospects do not get signed by the Major or Minor league teams, many try to become part of the baseball system again. Many try to become buscones because there, money can be made, some try to get jobs as handymen or drivers for the academies and most line the roadsides of the Dominican, looking for jobs that do not require much education. However, there is another option. Prospects that decide not to become part of the system again sometimes train their sons. In a way, the old prospects are reliving their dreams through their sons (Gregory 3). If

31 these options are not available, then the former prospects usually turn to the roadsides of the Dominican, looking for work. On most roads there are many “washed-up baseball players struggling to get by” (Gregory 3).

As a result of Major League Baseball and its players, these problems have arisen. Although the Major League Baseball organization is trying to deal with these problems, it is taking a long time, causing more damage to be done. If these problems are not fixed soon, then there will be serious consequences that many poverty-stricken countries will have to face.

All of these aspects of Major League Baseball highlight the question of whether the players and Major League Baseball in general should be seen as role models. Although some people might think that the good outweighs the bad, many people, such as Mr. Baer and Mr. Haas, see baseball as a positive force in the community.

This argument is important to the baseball community because it questions the players and their actions. Although not all players’ actions are perceived as positive, many people choose to overlook them, which should not happen.

As famous professional athletes, they should be held accountable for their actions by society, receiving the same consequences as a typical citizen. Professional athletes are not always mindful that their choices set examples for acceptable behavior as perceived by impressionable youth. This seems to be one flaw in modern society that does not have a solution that assures a positive role model in every professional athlete.

Works Cited Baer, Larry. Personal Interview. 6 Oct. 2010.

“Barry Zito Named San Francisco Giants Nominee for the 2009 Roberto Clemente Award.”

SFGiants.com: Official Info. “The Official Site of Major League Baseball” 1 Sept. 2009.

Web. 7 Oct. 2010.

“Giants Community Fund.” SFGiants.com: Community. “The Official Site of the San Francisco Giants.” San Francisco Giants, n.dd Web. 21 Sept. 2010.

Gregory, Sean. “Baseball Dreams: Striking Out in the Dominican Republic – TIME.” Breaking News, Analysis, Politics, Blogs, News Photos, Video, Tech Reviews – TIME.com. Time, 26 Jul. 2010. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Haas, Walter Jr. Personal Interview. 11 Oct. 2010.

“Harmon and Sure Burns Scholarship Fund.” SFGiants.com: Community. “The Official Site of The San Francisco Giants.” San Francisco Giants, n.d. Web. 4 Oct. 2010.

“Junior Giants Baseball.” SFGiants.com: Community. “The Official Site of The San Francisco Giants.” San Francisco Giants, n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2010.

Martinez, Sharon. “Teen Crime Statistics.” N.p., 9 Aug. 2010. Web. 22 Sept. 2010.

Pruitt, Lori. “Lincecum Cited for Marijuana Possession.” NBC Bay Area – Local News, Weather, Traffic, Entertainment, Events, Breaking News. NBC, 6 Nov. 2009. Web. 6 Oct. 2010.

Rate, John . "Spark." www.johnratey.com. John Rate, n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2010.

“Shadows Reveals Truth Behind Barry Bonds’ Steroid Use.” Sports Illustrated. Sports Illustrated, 7 Mar. 2006. Web. 18 Oct. 2010.

San Francisco Giants. Junior Giants Handbook. San Francisco Giants, 14 Apr. 2009. Web. PDF File.

32 Nidalia A. N Research in the Community Craig Butz: E Block STRESSED OUT According to study, one third of teens in the United States feel stressed out on a daily basis (Military Schools). Stress in large quantities is not useful or helpful for the growth or production of a teen, however learning to control it and recognizing their individual level of stress, can be beneficial for them in the long run. There are many different factors contributing to the level of teen stress in the US such as pressure from teachers, parents and coaches, as well as from friends and the media to maintain a level of perfection that is not real but forced onto many individuals. Teenagers don’t always know how to deal and handle themselves with all of the pressure in a healthy way when they are anxious or constantly worrying. Many do not let the people around them know how alone or exhausted they may be feeling. Signs of stress are loss of sleep, constant crying, memory retention, depression, irritability, sense of isolation, procrastination, chest pains, rapid heart rate, frequent colds, and much more (HelpGuide). If these symptoms are not treated then teens can and will likely have a series of mental problems, or even the worst case scenario, commit suicide. Having too much stress is not good for adolescents because it can lead to these various symptoms. Therapists and school counselors are around for a reason, to help adolescents share their stress related problems and have someone to lean on as well by teaching the teenager how to deal with their stress in a more positive way. Parents should be around for their kids and be alert and ready to assist their children when they are in need because over 20% of anxious and depressed teens do not receive the proper care or attention they need to move forward in life (HelpGuide).

THESIS Adolescents of all ages have the tendency to get overwhelmed and stressed out about everything from parents to schoolwork to relationships to personal achievements. Dealing with too much anxiety on a regular basis without action can cause long term damage to the individual and maybe even suicide. Teenagers need to have to have a positive role model such as their own parents, coaches, even teachers who can be there and give every bit of support they have because it will have a huge, encouraging effect on the teenager’s mind and body as well as the rest of their lives.

STRESS EFFECT ON THE BODY Stress is not always bad, depending on how much stress a teen handles in an amount of time. Everyone, even adults, has stress in their lives and we don’t necessarily need it but it is good for our body and our brain when used in moderation. Stress management is the key, not stress elimination (The Human Brain). There are different kinds of stress, some that are more useful than others. Having stress to remember something for school or an activity helps the adolescent memory grow and get stronger (HelpGuide). If the teen is stressed out about something involving their social life or after watching a scary movie, feeling the fear and angst of that experience it is not beneficial for the production and growth of the brain. When a teenager is stressed, there is a chemical inside the brain released called norepinephrine which helps your memory tremendously. Stress can help certain individuals rise to challenges and sometimes make them work even harder than if they weren’t stressed (HelpGuide). But if teenagers are constantly stressed out and carry anxiety with them wherever they go then their body and mind starts to function in a less productive manner. Certain areas that influence a teenager’s stress tolerance level is their support network such as good friends and close family make stress easier to handle and get through. If the teenager does not procrastinate and works hard under a minimal amount of stress than they will likely have less anxiety. By doing this than the teenager will have more control of work load and time. Their ability to deal with emotions in a healthy way is crucial because if they are extremely angry, sad or afraid and can’t calm themselves down then they become extremely vulnerable to stress. Being prepared for stressful situations, like taking a test or writing an essay or speaking in public will help the adolescent cope and handle the situation better (HelpGuide). Teenagers’ bodies experience all sorts of negative physical and mental and emotional effects such as memory problems, aches and pains, irritability, frequent colds, chest pain, rapid heart rate, nausea, eating more or less, loss of sleep, procrastination, isolating themselves from friends and family, agitation, poor judgment, anxious thoughts, constant worrying, feeling overwhelmed etc. (Stress Management). All of these symptoms over time build up to serious cases of depression which can cause the child to start using alcohol, cigarettes or drugs and abusing sex to relax and deal with their issues and high stress level. If the adolescent feels that these methods to deal with stress are not helping them then they will start to think about taking their own life because of the constant feeling of isolation and anxiety in their current lives. Overall, constant high levels of stress is not good for the mind or body but learning to be conscious in their daily life can help the adolescent focus and work hard in the time that they are feeling anxious or stressed out.

33 PARENTS EFFECTS ON CHILDREN Home life for teenagers will probably always be difficult and frustrating at times. This usually leads to an increased stress level and as kids get older they start to migrate away from their parents (Price of Privilege). Besides school, home is the one place where kids spend the most of their time. The problems and arguments that go on at home are a large part of why a teenager is stressed or feeling anxious amongst themselves. Parents have many high expectations for their children and sometimes believe that their children are able to handle a lot of responsibilities (Price of Privilege). Anyone would agree that kids want less pressure on their shoulders, a chance to relax and enjoy life as they get older but they seem to have no chance of that if the people that they live with are constantly bringing them down and not accepting his or her own personal achievements. Many parents would like a close relationship with their children but rarely have time to, because the parents are so busy and conflicted with other problems including their teenager and/or siblings, the economy, work, and keeping the entire family happy, healthy and entertained. Some groups of parents have a lot of stress as well as the teenager but adults have been teenagers before so they learn to understand better how to act on their anxiety faster and deal with it in a different way that might not benefit their child. Creating a separation in the relationship is not the answer; it only builds more tension and makes the child feel more isolated and disconnected from his or her parents. A good bond can be made by good communication and equal amount of love for one another. Madeline Levine, author of “The Price of Privilege” states in her book that, “ 60 percent of youngsters who reported low levels of closeness to their parents showed particularly high rates of depression, anxiety, delinquency, and substance use” (Levine 32). Parents should be aware that how they quickly act or don’t act really affects their children in the long run. What happens between parents and teenagers as well as siblings doesn’t just cause tension and stress at home, it causes the child to have difficulty in focusing or putting enough time and effort into school work, activities, and relationships with friends and other family.

Levine also says, “It is when a parent’s love is experienced as conditional on achievement that children are at risk for serious emotional problems” (Levine 30). Teenagers of all ages want to succeed in life, put their best foot forward and receive acknowledgement for their work however the parents don’t realize this and only give love and recognition for what they believe is “their best work” then there is surely to be some conflict between parent and child.

Parents who focus more on making their children happy by creating a better life economically and academically instead of emotionally is not the best way to raise or get closer to them. If parents spend all of their time being critical and making sure their children are perfect, they are not going to create a healthy relationship with their children. Levine wrote that “depression, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse are all hitting kids from comfortable homes at a rate clearly “in excess of normal expectancy”” (Levine 21). It is clear to see why that that is true, guardians with a lower income and more time to be around their kids gives them a chance to connect and relate to each other on a regular basis. Parents who put more time, effort and money into luxuries will not be around as much to converse and get to know the true heart and soul of their children. This is exactly what most parents don’t want. In addition, among wealthy children who attend private school there may be greater access to money for drugs. The parents are too busy, preoccupied and unavailable to monitor their teenager’s social life says Doctor Levine. Not having a parental unit around is more than just not having a role model. Children need to have someone discipline them and explain the difference between right and wrong and not having that can have the worst effect on the child. Adolescents will get the idea in their mind that it is alright to get high, consume alcohol, get bad grades, skip school and be sexually active at a young age.

Studies show that 22% percent of affluent girls that attend public school suffer from clinical depression which is three times the national rate of depression for adolescent girls (Levine 18). It is not just females but males as well that come from wealthy families that suffer from higher levels of anxiety and depression children than lower class working parents. No one would suspect this since well educated, financially secure homes are the last group of children to be studied by researchers (Levine 17). These certain groups of children get away with doing many inappropriate activities because their parents are not around to supervise. Teachers don’t notice anything wrong with a student who happens to be suicidal until the day that they actually commit suicide. It is crucial that adolescents from any family have someone to acknowledge their existence and happiness. When the parents from affluent families are at home but are stressed and frustrated during that time, children will become nervous and stressed as well. If the parental units deal with their anxiety by drinking or by yelling and arguing with their children then the idea that it is okay to drink and constantly take out their anger on other people becomes clear in their mind. Daniela Tempesta, Licensed Clinical Social Worker says, “Very often kids take on their parents stress and when we see our parents stressed, we become anxious as well. It’s good to see their parents handle stress in a healthy way so that they have a good role model for how to handle their own stress” (Interview). Some parents don’t realize when their negative habits are effecting their children until it’s too late, when they overdose on a certain drug, they start cutting

34 themselves, develop eating disorders, slack off in school, get into fights and cause disorder among their peers and worst case, commit suicide. Children start to do these hurtful actions when they feel that there is no other option.

They feel isolated, like there is no one to turn to for advice or answers. Parents don’t notice that their child is feeling depressed or anxious because there is no communication happening inside of the family structure. It is always better for a child’s mind and body to have a good, honest and open relationship with their parents. “Low levels of closeness to their parents showed particularly high rates of depression, anxiety, delinquency, and substance use” (Levine 32). It has been said that it helps decrease stress and anxiety when there is a solid bond between them by conversing with one another on a regular basis (Focus Adolescent Services). Parents want to have a close relationship but they do not have the time to be around their children. The parents are working and the kids are at school for most of the day and when they come home, the adolescent will start his/her homework and continue until the late hours of the night.

On top of that, maintain a social life and keep up with sports and outside activities so it is clear why parents and teenagers don’t always have the strongest relationships. “Families who eat together five or more times a week have kids who are significantly less likely to use tobacco, alcohol, or marijuana, have higher grade-point averages, less depressive symptoms, and fewer suicide attempts than families who eat together two or fewer times a week” (Levine 33).

CONCLUSION Overall, parents should be more aware of their children’s lives. Parents should try asking the children to be involved in activities with them instead of assuming that they don’t want to be asked. Providing a luxurious life for their children does not always help them become better people or more productive adults. There are many other sources of stress coming from a teenager’s life such as school, social interaction and sports but life at home can affect all of those things in a negative way if not satisfactory or appropriate for the child and their needs. To ensure that parents don’t accidentally ruin their children’s lives, they must be around, to participate as a role model in the adolescent’s life.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my therapist, Daniela Tempesta for taking the time to be interviewed by me and providing a lot of good information.

I would like to thank Sarah S and Minkee Sohn for editing and suggesting many useful ideas for my paper, it really made a difference.

I would like to thank Craig Butz for meeting with me for my conference and helping me realize what kind of paper I wanted to write and organizing my thoughts and preparing me for the process.

I would like to thank Madeline Levine for writing the book “The Price of Privilege” because it gave me inspiration for how I wanted to revise my paper and providing relevant information.

I would like to thank my mother for helping me edit and revise the final product.

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“Helping Teenager with Stress.” American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2010. Web. May. 2005.

36 Jackson P 7 October 2010 Craig Butz Research in the Community A Desire Named Streetcar Marin, as a county, is car dominated. It is full of affluent businessmen and women who do not and will not ride transit, as such Marin, as many counties and cities have, decided to go for the tin can approach: Move only the transit dependant for as little money as possible. With this approach however, it does not meet the goal of a better county filled with economically solvent communities that people want to live in. We, as the Urban land Institute says, “Must find ways to invest in transit”. Investing in transportation simply does not include the tin can method. It involves types of transit such as the streetcar: the streetcar moves people about but not just the transit dependant, it attracts those affluent business men and women who have a substantial disposable income that they can spend on a car. You may say that because the tin can method is cheaper we can save money—if so you are wrong: A streetcar creates development, moves all not just the transit dependant, and will make for a more effective transit system.

This is the transit that we should have: not a bus that gives us none of these things. A strong believer in the tin can theory is Randall O’Toole, one of most discerning critic of transit, he believes that transit systems must be profitable, have high ridership, be cost effective, and create economic development (O’Toole 1). These are valid things that we should be looking for in a transit system. What Mr. O’toole doesn’t understand is that the tin can method will never meet these tests, but the streetcar will. Streetcars attract transit customers and developers, while being neighborhood circulators, raising property values, and revitalizing communities: As such streetcars should be an addition to Marin’s transit network.

One of Randall O’Toole’s main criticisms of the streetcar is that they don’t actually create development, but the development would have happened without them: This is simply not the case. Streetcars do create development, while there must be interest in area or a developer is looking for property, a streetcar will attract those developers and build their property on the streetcar line. The streetcar line will create a pleasant downtown that will attract the developers and the eventual tenants. If developers are looking for tenants, transit should be built around the eventual rider who could be a tenant of the future building. According to the Urban Land institute these customers are looking for a walkable city with plenty of storefronts. A streetcar will facilitate this type of development. Furthermore pedestrians can go farther on their trips with a streetcar than on foot; this means that pedestrians will visit more stores (Taylor 23). Foot traffic is an important part of retail: places with more foot traffic rent for more. With more foot traffic more businesses will grow. According to David Taylor an expert on streetcars, Streetcars connect because they provide for the pedestrian movement and true urban circulation by linking activities and destinations. They shape neighborhoods by stimulating redevelopment, creating active users, promoting public-private investment, and creating places where people want to be. (Taylor 24) By creating these places and attracting transit “customers“ this is a healthy public-private relationship which stimulates development and creates jobs, in this respect streetcars are a great idea.

As a result of these desirable neighborhoods, property values rise significantly, and developers will come to build in these new neighborhoods. An example of a streetcar increasing property values, which demonstrates the value of a streetcar line, is the San Diego Trolley System. Commercial property within 200 feet of a trolley stop has had property values increase by a staggering 167% (13 Center for transit oriented development). In St. Louis, residential property within 100 feet of light rail has seen its property value increase by 30% (CTOD 10). This demonstrates that people in a residential area appreciate the benefits of high quality transit more than they dislike the potential noise. A raise in property values shows a want for a streetcar line. If you were a developer wanting to build a retail/residential building you would want it near the streetcar. This is what makes developers want to come. They know that their land was a good investment, and that the government has faith in the area, enough to provide the area with high quality transportation. Another example of streetcar aiding development is the system in Kenosha, Wisconsin. It was built at a cost of six million dollars for a two mile line and a few years later had created a total of 100 million dollars of development (Weyrich 8). A point that counters Mr. O’Toole’s who says that streetcars do not foster development, Ron Allen of the Kenosha Transit commission is saying that “we built the streetcar because we wanted to attract developers and they came running” (Wood 44). Another benefit of a streetcar is that they promote development along the whole route as opposed to nodes with other rail transit at each station (Arrington 29). A streetcar gives taxpayers the most bang for their buck; can you imagine real estate values increased by 167% along an entire streetcar line? The Urban Land Institute, an authority on real estate says that “Real Estate opportunities should always take priority over low cost solutions” (17 ULI). Streetcars allow communities to thrive, creating vibrant downtowns and places where people want to be.

37 Mr. O’Toole’s rallying cry is, replace it with a bus. This is simply the antisepsis of good transit. The bus is low quality, it makes ridership fall, it pollutes, and most of all it stymies development. They simply don’t work towards a goal of investing in transportation. They may move people from place to place, but they don’t “invest in transportation”. While cheep, they are transit band-aids, just covering the needs of the public transit dependent.

Michael Rex, director for the Marin Trolley Project, explains the problems with busses: “People say, oh we should support busses because it is more affordable, well. . . we should spend money on what works and not send good money after bad” (Rex). We must not continue to spend money on a bus system that doesn’t work. Even though busses may move the transit dependent, anything will move the transit dependent: they have endless patience because they have to. If we invested in real transit that moved the riders from choice as well as the transit dependant we would have huge returns on our investment reaped by the private sector, we would have development, more walkable communities, and less congested roads. As Paul Weyrich and William Lind from the Free Congress foundation say about busses “Busses have no effect on development. Why? Because a bus route can disappear overnight. Busses also seldom attract “Riders from Choice” with significant disposable incomes, which is what downtowns need economically. Streetcars with their investments in tracks and wires represent a commitment to lasting, high quality transit service, service developers can build on” (Weyrich 8). It is simple really, a streetcar will attract developers and a bus won’t.

According to Mr. O’Toole “Taxpayers can legitimately question whether rail riders are attracted by the glitzy, expensive trains or simply appreciate the frequency and speed that could have been provided by much less expensive busses” (O’toole 2). While the taxpayers can question, the answer is clear: People are in fact attracted by those glitzy trains and streetcars. Busses are the epitome of cheap, polluting, and most importantly ugly and unattractive public transportation. According to Michael Rex, the head of the Marin Trolley project, “It is a simple fact that people will hop on a streetcar and not on a bus” (Rex). If people will get on public transportation, it will fair better than if it is just getting its income from the transit dependant. The reason why busses don’t attract riders from choice is explained perfectly by Michael Rex “People see busses as a second class way to get around, maybe it’s different in Europe, but we are not in Europe, here its considered second class, and it in fact is” (Rex). This is the reason why people don’t want to get on a bus, they simply dislike the idea. Historic and fun to ride streetcars are a shoe in for a systems’ success explains Rich lanbscher who says of the original San Francisco F line “Part of the attractiveness of the festival service was that you never knew what might come along next, a bouncy single truck streetcar from Portugal, a smooth riding tram from Australia, or a MUNI original from the 1910’s or even an open topped boat tram from Blackpool, England, complete with a skull and crossbones flag on the trolley rope. People just loved it” (Qtd. Wood 46). Transit that people will actually ride is important because it will help the parent transportation agency. Trains and streetcars are a much more attractive public transit option and thus raise ridership.

Many of these people are riders from choice who have chosen to ride transit and are not transit dependant. People that like the look of transit will want to ride it, and with the economic benefits of the streetcar, it is the obious solution to Marin’s transit problems.

Cities with rail transit have higher transit ridership than those without it. If you compare two cities of relatively similar size and one with rail transport (Sacramento), and one without rail transport(Columbus), per capita transit trips in the streetcar city increased by 15% while that in the one without transit trips dropped by nearly 50% (Henry 3). Sacramento adopted a light rail system in the 1980’s (which is comparable to a streetcar as they both run in the streets, but for light rail the stations are further apart and thus have less developmental effects) and Columbus continued with a bus system. These are similar cities and one can infer that they have a similar number of transit dependent and a similar amount of riders from choice: these numbers clearly show that people will ride on a streetcar but not a bus. Considering that had Sacramento not adopted a streetcar system, per capita transit ridership would have dropped 50% but, it rose 15% in the same time. As such the rail transport city was able to save 50% of ridership and grow by 15% which is amazing. Streetcars can even make people switch from cars. In Toyama, Japan, where many drive cars, the streetcar has made some stop driving and begin using the streetcar instead. An expert on Toyama’s Port-tram Tetsuo Muro explains the breakdown of passengers: “A survey of transport modes before the tram opened showed that many switched from other modes. While 50% were weekday uses of the previous Toyomako line, about 13% switched from busses and about 12% switched from cars” (Muro 28). Not only did 12% of riders come from cars but from nine to six o’clock on weekdays the numbers of passengers increased by a factor of four, and on weekends the number increased by a factor of seven (Muro 28). This is again a significant ridership increase, for a line that could have been closed. Also neighborhoods with a railway station or rail transit kept ridership the same or increased it, but bus neighborhoods experienced losses in ridership (Henry 3). A streetcar will not only help Marin, but it will help the ridership and thus effectivness of our Marin transit agencys.

Randall O’Toole believes that transit systems must be cost effective. Streetcars fit that bill, while bringing the benefits of a train; it can be done in an in-expensive manner. A streetcar, a charming jitney, which only costs a

38 few million dollars, is much easier to ask for than a light rail system that will cost hundreds of millions of dollars while binging the same, if not better benefits (Weyrich 9). This cheap system will bring much in development and will save its owner transit system. According to the Center for Transit Oriented Development, “for each dollar invested in transit, the public realizes five dollars in cash savings” (COTD 9). This shows just how cost effective Mr. O’Toole’s money sucker is. Also from reduced wait time from transit saves about 3.7 billion dollars a year (COTD 9). Because we in the United States are in a jobs crisis, transit is a great investment because according to one study, “if 20 metropolitan areas shifted 50% of their highway funds to transit they would generate 1,123,674 transit jobs over a five year period” (More Transit More jobs). Cost was also cited a reason why Portland built their streetcar as Earl Blumenauer, a congressman, said that the streetcar was a “Smaller, less expensive and easy to construct option than light rail” (Qtd. Ohland et. All II). Thus with a relatively small price tag and with huge economic benefits streetcars are very cost effective.

The streetcar makes for a strong link in the chain of our public transportation systems. Whether the crowning centerpiece of a transit system or just a fun link between the train station and downtown, it will bring passengers, development, and decreased traffic along its route. It will provide more than transportation. It will pull its own weight as a people mover, bringing customers to shops, commuters to work, while creating a vibrant area where people want to be. It will save its transit system by increasing ridership. Its cost is outweighed by its huge benefits. While the system itself may never make any money, the private sector will and this is the public-private relationship that governments and businesses should strive for, each benefiting the other. This is investing in transportation.

Acknowledgements For their help in the writing of this paper I would like to acknowledge Michael Rex for letting me interview him and being and invaluable resource. I would also like to thank Kayley YM, Olivia L, James H ,and Craig Butz for proofreading this paper.

Works Cited Bernard, Lisa, and Laura Baverman. "Streetcar Route Much Coveted." Cincinatti.com. Cincinnati Inquirer, 22 Aug. 2010. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Center for Transit Oriented Development. "Capturing the Value of Transit." ReconnectingAmerica.org. 19 Nov. 2008. Web. 21 Sept. 2010.

Center For Transit Oriented Development. "Financing Transit Oriented Development in the Bay Area."

ReconnectingAmerica.org. Center For Transit Oriented Development, 17 Nov. 2008. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Center For Transit Oriented Development. "More Transit = More Jobs." ReconnectingAmerica.org. Center For Transit Oriented Development. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Dunphy, Robart, Deborah Myerson, and Michael Pawlukiewcz. "Ten Principles for Successful Development Around Transit." Urban Land Institute (2003): Web. 22 Sept. 2010.

Henry, Lyndon, and Todd Litman. Evaluating New Start Transit Program Performance. Rep. 1 Sept. 2006. Web. 22 Sept. 2010.

Muro, Tetsuo. "Compact City Development Using Public Transport." Japan Railway & Transportation Review Mar. 2009: 24-31. Japan Railway & Transportation Review. East Japan Railway Culture Foundation, Mar. 2009.

Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

National Business Coalition For Rapid Transit. The Economic Importance Of Public Transit. Rep. Print.

Taylor, David. “Place Making and People Moving” Ohland 23-27.

Weyrich, Paul and Lind, William. “Why conservatives should want streetcars” Ohland 8-9.

Wood, Jeff and Ohland, Gloria. “Four Case Studies” Ohland 43-50.

Arrington, G.B. “Zoning for Density, Intensity and Intimacy” Ohland 28-34.

Ohland, Gloria, and Shelley Poticha. Street Smart: Streetcars and Cities in the Twenty-first Century. Oakland, CA: Reconnecting America, 2006. Print.

O'Toole, Randal. Defining Success: The Case against Rail Transit. Rep. CATO Institute, 24 Mar. 2010. Web. 22 Sept. 2010.

Rex, Michael. Personal Interview. 25 September. 2010 Tsujimoto, Katsuhisa. "New Rejuvenation Model for Regional Railways in Japan- The Case of the Wakayama Electric Railway's Kishigawa Line." Japan Railway & Transportation Review. East Japan Railway Culture Foundation, Mar. 2009. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Urban Land Institute. Ten Principles for Successful Development Around Transit. Rep. Print.

Urban Land Institute. Transportation for a New Era. Rep. Washington D.C: Urban Land Institute, 2009. Print.

Weisbrod, Glen, and Arlee Reno. Economic Impact Of Public Transport Investment. Rep. Print.

39 Sarah S Research in the Community-E Block Craig Butz October 15, 2010 Child Abuse: Just another Statistic The harsh reality of child abuse and its devastating effects are an unfortunate reality in our society. It is unimaginably often disregarded and ignored, and is sadly affecting a large percentage of the youth in our community. Child abuse is prevalent throughout the United Sates and reported cases are continuing to increase.

More than two million cases of child abuse and more than 1,500 deaths related to the mistreatment of a child are reported yearly (Newton). Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a sad fact that Americans are more likely to be assaulted inside their own home than on the street. Although measures are being taken to prevent children from being lost in the child protective services system, and the foster care system has been improving throughout recent years, more than 500,000 youths in the United States are in foster care and more than 65% of those children leave the system without a place to live (National Foster Care Youth Statistics). As a consequence of this abuse, millions of lives are damaged, dreams are shattered, and this clearly needs to be stopped. As a result of an insufficient foster care system and the ambiguity between acceptable forms of discipline and abuse, children are being raised in homes with guardians who are unprepared and unsuitable to properly take on the role of a parent, and the long and short term effects are tragic, and too often, fatal.

Abuse is a term describing the actions of emotional, physical, sexual, and verbal violence that are used to gain or manipulate control and power over anotherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior (Kettleson). Physical abuse, by definition, is the action of using anything to threaten or control the behavior of another person that may result in serious injury or death (Kettleson). The short term effects of physical abuse show up as broken bones and bruises, however the long term effects can impact the mind, body, and spirit. According to a study done by experts at the University of Toronto, children who experience physical abuse at a young age are highly more likely to develop cancer as an adult (Child abuse linked to cancer in adulthood.) It has also been shown that reoccurring exposures to violence, either to oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s self or someone close to them, results in automatic and endocrine hyper arousal (Newton). This hyper arousal causes high rates of stress which can eventually lead to long term psychological problems and causes more tension for children among their families, friends, and school (Newton). Physical abuse can also lead to something called experimental restraint (the unease of trying anything new or going out of a controlled routine because of the fear of harsh punishment), and this greatly impacts how a child reacts to situations, and as a result they can become distant from peers and family members. As children experience the ongoing pain of physical abuse, unexplained bruises and scars will often appear, and school performance will begin to change. Children living in abusive homes may show up early, leave late, or make excuses to not go home (Child Welfare Information Gateway). Violent parents will sometimes show no concern for their children, and often kids will be left unattended with no supervision. While recognizing one sign does not necessarily prove the existence of child abuse, noticing certain patterns and taking time to get a closer look as suspicions is a good first step in preventing child abuse.

Although the thought of physically harming a child may be unimaginable, sexual abuse, one the most complicated types of abuse because of its underlying motives by the abuser and disturbing incentives given to the victim, is even more sickening to imagine and therefore widely misunderstood. Sexual abuse is a form of abuse in which an adult or older adolescent uses a child for sexual pleasure or stimulation. Sexual abuse can also be exposing a child to explicit material, or involving in creating or distributing child pornography (Barrier). It can be shameful and disorienting for a child to endure such violence especially given that sexual abuse is most often perpetrated by someone within or close to the family. In 2001, a study showed that 44% of reported sexual abuse cases were close relatives and only 2% were strangers (Barriere.) Besides the obvious harsh physical damage, the emotional effects of sexual abuse can be immense. According to a Conference on Child Victimization and Child Offending in 2001, children who suffered sexual abuse were seven times more likely to become drug and alcohol abusers. (Barriere) One of the severe effects of sexual abuse, as well as all forms of abuse, is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. The signs are similar to those who were diagnosed in the Vietnam War and symptoms include sleep disturbances, anxiety, depression, and disrupted normal, everyday behaviors (Barriere).

Physical and sexual abuse may be the most visible and the easiest to diagnose, but the effects of emotional abuse can be just as damaging and the psychological effects on the mind can be life threatening.

40 There are three types of emotional abuse: § verbal abuse § physical neglect § emotional neglect Physical neglect is the failure to provide the necessities of survival such as a sufficient amount of food, clothing, and shelter. Emotional neglect is the failure to provide the support and guidance that every child needs to survive.

Verbal abuse is the action of continually undermining a child with harsh criticism and self-destructive words.

Emotional abuse is becoming a huge threat to lives of youth across the country. Over 905,000 reported child abuse cases were related to neglect in 2006 and numbers are continuing to increase (U.S department of health and human services). Children suffering from emotional abuse often develop a variety of maladaptive self-destructive behaviors, such as experimenting with drugs and alcohol, abusive behavior towards themselves and/or others, anti social behavior and illegal activities. Contrary to the famous quote: “Sticks and stones may break my bones but words will never hurt me,” emotional abuse is severely damaging to a child’s mental health and social development.

Children who are told over and over that they are wrong or stupid are left with scars just as deep as those left by physical abuse. Children who are verbally abused are left with ideas in their head that they are unwanted, and often children can become hostile and violent and turn against those close to them because they feel alienated. Sometimes children will hold in their anger and rage and withdraw themselves from others, and in many cases, adults who experience abuse as a child with project these bottled up emotions onto their children. In this case, there are two victims in the act of child abuse: The child and the abuser (Newton).

The Coalition for Children has stated “It is a sad irony that many abusers genuinely love their children, but they find themselves caught in life situations beyond their control and they do not know how to cope. They are often isolated from friends and family and may have no one to give them emotional support. They may not like themselves and may not know how to get their emotional needs met”. Parents influenced with violent behaviors as a child often express themselves aggressively towards others as an adult. Children living in a physically violent household never know what is going to trigger a parents rage, there are no clear boundaries distinguished, so abused children are constantly living in fear. During childhood, children are being influenced by their caretakers on the “right” way to behave and survive. Growing up in an abusive home provides poor impressions and destroys the good examples of what should be taught to children; ideas and motivation that will lead them to become healthy, successful adults. Although children may experience similar situations and the effects can be vastly different, it is a horrific but true fact that no child survives child abuse unharmed. Abuse not only affects the victim, but affects the community as a whole. Adults who develop health issues can become a drain on the welfare system, and children that suffer from abuse are eleven times more likely to be arrested for criminal behavior and 25-38% more likely to become addicted to drugs and abuse alcohol (Child Welfare Information Gateway).

The value of a child’s life needs to be treasured and we should value how we are raising these future generations. The start to the prevention of the ongoing continuance of child abuse is education on the subject. How do we define the line between discipline and abuse? Although the laws and restrictions of child violence are clearly defined, parents across America still claim that as parents they have the right to discipline their child as they see fit (Kettleson). Living in a society where child abuse has become widespread, knowing where the line is crossed in terms of punishment will guide parents and peers to identify when abuse is apparent. It is true that some communities have a higher rate of child abuse, and reasons for this include: low marriage rates, isolated families, higher rates of alcohol abuse, and high rates of drug trafficking. (Newton) That is, in many cases, people are products of their surroundings and often hold on to past experiences which can strongly influence abusive behavior among these individuals, although this is no excuse against the law preventing child abuse. To some members of our society hitting is seen as an appropriate punishment, but to others those hits would be considered an assault-so there is no clear line between what’s right and wrong. Our task as a society is to create clearly defined boundaries and laws between what is considered acceptable discipline versus abuse. As a society we seem to be able to legally define abusive behavior between adults, and have laws, restraining orders, etc to enforce them. We need the same boundaries set for the protection of children. Discipline is intended to help teach children self control and positively influence their behavior. There is an immense difference between that and violent punishment, which does not help shape a child’s behavior encouragingly, but more often, stops children from disobeying the rules to avoid punishment. The irony is that most parents who hit their children have let their anger and fears control them, and they continue to demonstrate the lack of self control that they are trying to instill on their children. This cycle of abuse is what must be stopped.

In 1996, the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act was put in place. Since its inception it has attempted to define and enforce the laws concerning child abuse. CAPTA continually provides federal funding to states across America to support prevention and treatment activities, and also provides grants to public agencies and

41 non-profit organizations for awareness programs (Child Welfare Information Gateway.) The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act also indentifies the states federal role in supporting research, evaluation, technical assistance, as well as supports foster care throughout America (Child Welfare Information Gateway). The foster care system in the United States has helped and likely saved the lives of children from abusive homes, but sadly the flaws in the system are putting just as many kids at risk. It remains that each year millions of children are moved into more abusive, neglectful, and dysfunctional homes then the homes from which these children were removed from in the first place. Although it is wrongful to say that all foster parents are bad, there are many fraudulent people who take emotionally fragile and physically wounded children from the system into their homes simply for the paycheck. The subsidy amount is determined by the state, but can change based on the age, medical needs, and behavior of a child (Brogan).

The start to preventing the misuse of subsidy is enforced supervised visiting to foster homes to ensure the safety of the child. The restrictions for foster parents are undervalued and the amount of training foster parents receive varies by state, therefore children are often taken from their abusive homes and placed with parents who don’t always have the child’s best interest in mind. To prevent situations in which children are placed into these unsuitable homes, foster parents need to be more educated about the care of foster kids, and the amount of responsibility they need to obtain.

Another issue is the separation of abused children from their siblings once they enter the foster system.

Being removed from the only place in which one is familiar with, the only place that has been known as “home” can be frightening and children can become reserved and ill at ease. It would be at the children’s best interest to stay together so that they can continue to have some sort of familiarity, and it is a huge flaw in our system that siblings can often be separated as a result of the regulations and limitations to the number of children per foster home. The placement of each child needs to be carefully decided so that they can stay with their siblings while at the same time not shoved into an overcrowded “foster child mill” overseen by adults just looking for government subsidies (e.g. the more kids they take in, the more money they get) Healthy families, whether natural or foster, are essential to every child’s safety and wellbeing, and it is beneficial for every individual raising a child to have information, guidance, and help as they meet the challenges of parenthood. Child abuse has become a widespread issue in the United States and it’s time that critical measures be taken to stop the horrifying truth that is affecting millions of children per year. Our society needs to become educated and be aware of the values and responsibilities one needs to properly raise a child, as well as the harsh effects of child abuse. Our legal system needs to be streamlined and enforced. The United States Foster Care, although arguably positive, is still skewed, and millions of children are continually being lost in the system each year. We need to begin to raise awareness and understand the reality of child abuse because the truth is, as of now; another child is just another statistic.

Work Cited Barriere, Darlene. Child Abuse Effects. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.

Brogran, Pam. Study finds major flaw in Nation’s foster care. Gannet News Service. N.p., 19 May 2004. Web. October 19, 2010.

Carter, Janet. Domestic Violence, Child Abuse, and Youth Violence: Strategies for Prevention and Early Intervention. MINCAVA Electronic Clearinghouse 14 march, 2005. Web. 17 Sep. 2010 Child Abuse Linked to Cancer in Adulthood. N.p. 27 July 2009. Web. 18 Sept. 2010 Children-Victims of Abuse. N.p. 22 Feb. 2009. Web. 23 Sept. 2010 Child Welfare Information Gateway. Child Welfare information Gateway. N.p 2008. Web. 17 Sep. 2010 Coalition for Children. “Safe Child.” N.p N.d. Web. 17 Sept. 2010 “Conn. Senator praised for introducing Abuse Prevention Act.” The Middletown Press. 22 Sept. 2010: 1. Web. 22 Sept. 2010 Magnuson, Ed. “Child Abuse: The Ultimate Betrayal.” Time Magazine Sept. 1983: 1-7. Print.

National Foster Care Youth Statistics. N.p. N.d. Web. 18 sept. 2010 Newton, C.J. “Effects of Child Abuse on Children.” FindCounseling.com. Mental Health Journal, April 2001. Web. 23 Sept. 2010 R. Ricci, Lawrence, and Ann S. Botash. Pediatrics, Child Abuse. Emedicine. N.p. 9 Sept. 2009. Web. 17 Sept. 2010 Saisan, Joanna, Melinda Smith, and Jeanne Segal. Child Abuse and Neglect: Recognizing and Preventing Child Abuse. N.p. 2009. Web. 18 Sept. 2010 What is Child Abuse: Important Facts you should know. Busika: Share your Knowledge. N.p. 1 Nov. 2009. Web. 23 Sept. 17

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48 Ayluonne T Craig Butz Research in the Community October 7, 2010 Another “Homie”: another “Blud”: another Statistic Amongst the population of United States of America are over 1,000,000 members of society who have been consumed by gang life and thus have become tangled within the negative obligations that result from this decision (Johnson). Of this expansive population, 740,000 are youth of the age 10-25 (NGC). African Americans make up the majority of these members, followed my Hispanics and lastly Asians or Pacific Islanders (Carlie Ch. 4 Pt. 3 Tp. 2). The National Gang Center of America believes the origin of this epidemic to be an attraction to either the social or protection aspect gang involvement provides that society or their family has failed to (NGC). Many juvenile members are either lacking a social necessity that is imbedded in humanity’s values such as the sense of belonging and purpose or seek the protection gangs provide against the negative and often perilous activities that take place within their neighborhood. In addition, many minority youth are lacking positive depictions of their race’s potential and a source of motivation from not only their teachers but also their own loved ones. To many minority teens, gang association is seen as their only ticket to belonging, support and sense of success, when in reality it is their one-way ticket to a life behind bars or the end of their life entirely. Hundreds of thousands of underprivileged minority teens have been consumed by the detrimental lure of gang association in hopes of achieving a sense of belonging and motivation that their family has failed to provide them and a sense of worth and positivity society neglected to provide them. Therefore, although the end of this epidemic will not come quickly, society as a whole can take part through community intervention and youth organizations. With this we can begin to ensure that minority teens achieve the psychological needs of self worth, self purpose, and most importantly motivation to overcome the unfortunate circumstances of their upbringing.

The English Dictionary defines the term “gang” as a group of three or more people who through organization, formation and public actions, share a common ideal identity and purpose (Merriam-Webster). Greg W. Etter, Author of “Common Characteristics of Gangs: Examining the Cultures of the New Urban Tribes,” describes gangs as modern form of tribes that have: Developed into a subculture in the streets of the urban jungle. They claim territory, are self supporting, have their own language and customs and establish their own rules of conduct. Their customs are passed to new members by rites of passage from generation to generation, thus ensuring the continuance of the gang, Gang members identify themselves as separate from the rest of society ( qtd. In Carlie Ch. 4 Pt 6).

The following characteristics support this concept: Gangs are often indentified by the group of chosen colors worn in unison in order to represent the gang’s authority. Furthermore, gangs often use an “argot” or secret language that allows them to communicate undetected and lastly, form a tag or sign that further informs all observing that their gang is of power in this particular area or domain (Carlie Ch. 4 Pt. 14). It seems gangs have in some ways formed a society within a society. A society in which they feel in control and purposeful to those around them and moreover poses as an alternative social system for providing needs to those who are unable to achieve them in other more common venues (Carlie Ch. 4 Pt. 8).

Much like our society, gang’s consist of a social and occupational structure in which every member is supplied with assignments and aspects of the gang’s existence to maintain or attend to. The majority of gangs consist of a leader or main authoritative figure, various drug dealers, a collection of lookouts and lastly a group of physically apt members that act as the body guards or “muscle” of the gang. Consequently, the gang moves and breathes as a whole and exemplifies various aspects of a government and society in a smaller and more exclusive form thriving in peril (VPD). Overall, “being in a gang is in fact being a part of a business, a family business that is” says Dr. J.L. Weems. A very lucrative one that is bounded by the contract of death and promise that once you’re in, you’re never out (Qt. in Chase).

The formation of these small exclusive societies is most common in areas of dense urbanization and poverty. Areas that are predominately inhabited large minority communities. This close proximity can often lead to gang formation through either frequent social and racial clashes and widespread poverty results in an angst ridden community more susceptible to committing violent and illegal crimes in the survival mindset (Carlie Ch. 4 Pt. 8. Tp 5). Since a majority of minority families live paycheck to paycheck, many youth have to do what is necessary above what may deem is just in order to support their families. Consequently, they are unable enjoy or focus on socially acceptable adolescent activities while they act as the sole employed member of their family. Even if employment means supplying illicit drugs to cocaine fiends or initiating a shooting in a neighborhood alley (Carlie Ch. 4 Pt 8 Tp. 5).

49 However, poverty is not the sole instigator of gang activity. In fact, gangs form from deeper rooted values and perceptions that often blossom from economic deprivation. These deeper rooted values correlate with a sense of belonging and self purpose influenced by exposure to poverty associated with a particular racial group.

When a minority teen is not only being confronted by an onslaught of media depicting members of their race and economic status as the core of violence, but is a member of a home absent of positive influences or portrayals of a successful American minority, the decision to invest their life into the neighborhood gang seems valid. Therefore, minority youth are both being pulled into the violent lifestyle of gangs in search of a sense of love and belonging that their family has failed to provide them and pushed by a society that has failed to depict the importance of a successful citizen of color. Although poverty is a contributing factor, the source of gangs is imbedded in the absence of human needs that extend past physiological needs.

85% of gang members were a member of a single parent household or broken family, and a majority enter for the sense of family they were never given. Thus first “need” minority youth are lacking is presence of a structured family and sense of belonging. A child lacking family has no idea where they belong, who they are or who they can become (Carlie Ch. 4 Pt. 8 Tp 2) and thus are “directionless, hopeless and lacking a sense of belonging” (Carlie). This is due because a family can act as source of affection, an association with the youth’s personal identity and portrayal of what is socially acceptable. Family acts as a socialization route in which a society's values are integrated from one generation to the next. If a family values human life, that value will be taught to the child. If respect for another person's property is valued, that value will also be passed along. If obedience of society’s laws is valued, the child will grow to become be a law abiding adult. A significant relative or adult can integrate countless values into the mindset of a child if they are able to portray them (Carlie Ch. 4 Pt 2).

Andre Atkins of the Omega Boys Club believes, “if there is no one to show you what is possible, what is respectable, what is admirable and act as a source of motivation and support then a youngster has no way of knowing which way to go and thus they are at the mercy of the gang bangers outside their door.” What a young person can’t find in their family they will go looking for somewhere else, and if they don’t have an older and wiser person to filter out the negative influences, a youth will see gang life as useful form of family to take part in (Atkins).They are in need of a positive role model to show them what is capable. Without it minority teens begin to associate gang life with the only expectation of people of their color and financial status. In addition, like to any child of any color and financial status, family provides a sense of love and safety that nurtures the emotional well being of a child. This causes them to feel wanted, important and emotionally stable. The unconditional love that family provides also feeds into the child’s way of confronting hardships or fear. If there is no one at home to comfort you or answer your questions about the things that worry you, bother you or frighten you, then you will find something to facilitate that comfort, even if it means the knowledge that the boy beside you will die for you (Carlie Ch. 4 Pt. 8 Tp. 2). In whole, minority youth venture from dysfunctional families that lack proper positive role models and loving support are pulled into the world of gangs by the prospect of finding a sense of belonging and identity that is substituted by the surrogate family that gang life provides (CYC). In a gang one has fellow gang members to facilitate a form of love or support that was nonexistent back home. Gang membership also gives you “a way to identify yourself; it gives you a name…a status” (Atkins) and for a population of youth who lack a stable and loving family, gang life provides the only sense of family they may be able to achieve.

Along with being “pulled” in by the prospect of attaining a sense of family, minority youth are being “pushed” in by social expectations and demeaning depictions of their races academic and life potential. Mark Becker of the FBI believes “it’s hard for young people to see the light if they can make significantly more money working the streets for a gang than working at a fast food chain”(Qt, in Chase). And due to the fact that the success rate of a minority citizen is viewed as much lower than those of non minority it seems as though social depictions of minorities is force feeding them the concept that they will either be involved in crime or a minimum wage occupation (Chase). Furthermore, society as a whole holds low standards for the achievements of minorities. Even high school teachers and administrators have low expectations and deem that “a white kid with a “C” in the class is slacking off, while a [minority] student with a “C” is working to his potential” (Lyons).

Therefore as a whole society is inflicting negativity that “pushes” youth into the tumultuous life of “thug”s.

Dr. Marshall, founder of the Omega Boys Club stated, “Society holds deeply implanted negative assumptions of people of minority, or mostly poor people of minority. They continue to associate them with murder, vandalism and flunks either because of the medias constant description of a young black male on countless police reports or a rooted racism that has failed to end since slavery,…I don’t know. All I know is that African American students are not drop outs, but in fact push outs. Minority youth are being pushed out of society and into negativity.” To many young minority youth who have been flooded with information that doubts their ability to rise above and beyond the hustle of the streets, they began to idolize notorious and powerful gang leaders that glorify the gang life (Bing). With their situation being depicted as impossible to overcome by media and society minority teen’s begin to experience a

50 sense of powerlessness and lack of interest in perusing a higher education or safer lifestyle. Consequently, they stop trying to achieve something admirable by social standards, stop pushing the overwhelming lure of Gang life and thus are “pushed” in themselves (Carlie Ch. 4 Pt. 8). They give up at attempting to satisfy what our society views as success and aspire to achieve their own, more accessible, interpretation of success through gang participation.

To minority youth who have been engulfed by this gang life, succumbed its advertisement and have tangled themselves in its various obligations, any further development is impeded. Firstly, gang involvement can be linked to the pitiful and discerning graduation rate amongst minorities in national public schools. It is stated in a study conducted by the Urban Institute that of all the African American students enrolled in High school only 50% will receive their GED and only 53% of Latino will do the same (Orfield). Andre Atkins of Omega Boys Club believes that “if a Black student has to worry about whether there is someone waiting to deliver drugs to them after fourth period, or whether there are people waiting to shoot him back at his apartment or whether the cops are going to break down his door and attempt to arrest them, they are not going to be worried about whether Hamlet loved Ophelia. Schools are unable to handle students with immense issues such as those and therefore they simply slip through the cracks. They can’t focus and they can’t do what average crime-free teens could accomplish.”

In addition, when a minority teen is constantly exposed to gang life they began to associate it with an ideal form of “success” and the sole pathway to reach it. As a result they will refuse to harbor self motivation in a venue that isn’t where their kind of “people” thrive. When they feel “the burden of acting white” in order to achieve academic success “it can cause reluctance and overall a sense of giving up” (Lyons). As a result, those involved in gangs never receive the necessary knowledge to succeed or participate actively in society and as a result even if they do attempt to achieve things beyond the streets, they will be unable. Youth members cannot nurture their appetite for knowledge or blossom into a respectful and productive member of society because they “in doctrine into this lifestyle at an early age” stated Lt. Glenn McCourtie. “While they’re in grade school and other kids are playing soccer and studying books, they’re acting as look out on the corner. They’re holding gang weapons before or after a fight” (Qt. in Gathright and Zamora).

Also, due to the enforcement of California’s Proposition 21, which lowered the age of that convicted youth can be trialed as adults; youth members who commit crimes at even the age of 14 will be tried as adults instead of the age of 16. In other words they will be placed into institution disallowing any form of progression or achievement of success before they have even truly been allowed to reap the benefits of adulthood (Gathright and Zamora).

Along with negatively effecting the academic achievement and ability of the youth member, the second negative impact gang involvement inflicts on its members is the distortion of a person’s view of reality. This further isolates and influences them to believe that the gang life is in fact the only life. Dr. J.L Weems of the Thornton Township Youth Committee argued that involvement in a gang is similar to substance abuse; it is addicting, diverts members from confronting their true feelings and generates a false sense of whatever need they may be lacking. For example, the main aspect of reality gang association distorts is a minority youth’s idea of success and potential.

When gang activity and influence is so commonly expressed in a community, youth began to perceive this as the ideal achievement of success and pursue it with more enthusiasm than they will pursue academic recognition or other socially valued venues (Chase). As a result of this tainted view, youth become unable to recognize what is beneficial or detrimental to their achievement of positive goals and will remain in the fixed view of life gang involvement that implanted within them(Chase).

Additionally, kids are recruited at the age of 10, and therefore are unable to distinguish what is socially acceptable and valued and what is the negativity that gang life values. This early exposure to negativity causes them to become “distant from society, friends, family and even emotions and aspirations” (Gillig and Cingel 221). When older gang associates have young children holding guns and mass murdering gang rivals, their sense of innocence is stained and eventually entirely destroyed. Furthermore, “they are exposed to the darkest part of a human being and because there is nothing else for them to aspire to or model after, that is what they latch to as their own” (Atkins).

The third detrimental factor gang association imposes on its members is the fact that leaving a gang is at times the most dangerous part (Greene 7). Even if a minority teen comes to a realization that their current life style is flawed, the process of leaving the gang is often more dangerous and troublesome than the process of entering for a multitude of reasons. Firstly, like the withdrawal or quitting of an addictive drug, leaving a gang requires the breaking bonds formed with a surrogate family and a surrogate feeling of success and purpose. They must leave the lifestyle that has filled a void caused by lack of support and motivation and has posed “as a tool to cope with the negativity their surroundings encompassed them in” argues Dr. J.L Weem (Qt. in Chase). Furthermore it has given them a sense of purpose and necessity besides being negative and detrimental to their community (Carlie Ch. 4 Tp. 8 Pt. 7). In addition, many minority teens are in fact supporting their own families through their participation in gang activity and thus the withdrawal from their gang would mean a negative effect on the financial stability of their family as a whole (Carlie Ch.4 Pt. 8 Tp.). But above the mental and financial effects of leaving a gang, is the

51 physical harm that is often inflicted on members who show interest in leaving. This includes being forced to endure a beating, assigned the assignation of another or even the death of themselves (Carlie Ch. 4 Pt 15). James Howell M.D of the National Gang Center, blames this on the fact that “Gang involvement is a permanent condition… There is no turning back and there is no end” (Howell 6).

Last, but certainly not least is the number of lives that it’s dangerous and delusional lifestyle terminates. A study taken by the National Gang Center found many unsettling statistics involving the population of minority youth members. First it was found that homicide is the leading cause of death for African Americans of the age 10-24 and the second leading cause of death for Hispanics of the same age group. In addition roughly 5,700 youth are killed each year due to youth violence, meaning that averages of 15 are slain everyday in the undeclared war waging in the streets of our community (CDC). In a 2009 survey it was reported that out of grades 9-12, 18% admitted to carrying and illegal gang related firearm, and in the minority community homicide statistics for African American Youth (60.7 out of 100,000) and Hispanics (53.5 out of 100,000) are significantly higher than that of Caucasians (Howell 5), thus exemplifying the extent of gang violence in relation to minority youth and its effect on the crime rate in the community.

The effects of this epidemic have negatively impacted youths’ lives and communities and thus it is evident that intervention is needed in order to ensure this cycle is targeted and removed. “The goal of counselors in helping children break that dependence is nearly identical to the tactics used in helping kids leave behind gangs” Dr. J.L Weems states. “Children must be helped by adults to identify the things that keep them coming back for more harmful elements. Weems continues on to explain that “when talking about gangs or drugs, it's about getting the kids to conceive of options outside of their own heads” (Chase), and exposing them to the multitude of possibilities they can reap and heights they can reach as a youth of color. Andre Aktins, the director of Omega Boys Club, believes that gangs can’t be removed: As easy as 1, 2...3, first because it does not seem to be the focal point of the nation’s concerns, however, action is needed to be taken…I do not understand how many more sons and daughters need to be killed before someone goes “Hey! Enough is enough!”… I don’t understand why it has taken so long for society to realize that minorities aren’t joining gangs because Blacks or Mexicans are violent or rascals and such…but rather because they are lacking what is necessary to their success. And they are lacking it because they are lacking a family’s sense of direction and because society is failing to motivate them.

Gangs are the consequences of discrimination, poverty, lack of parental guidance and lack of social expectation (BUILD), and therefore those issues need to be addressed in order for this to cease. Atkins believes “families need to become a focal point of a child’s upbringing and portal in which they see the world through” thus ensuring the proper values of social laws and academic achievements are integrated into the values and views of the child. Although poverty is a contributing factor to the urge to join gangs, the main focus of community action should be informing minority teens of their positive capabilities and ensuring them that they can be embraced and motivated by a stable and successful adult. Dr. Marshall of the Omega Boys Club agrees that this epidemic is related to society as a whole and stresses that fact that “now a days, black teens only now about the gangsters, the thugs, the rap music and the swagger, but they know very little of actual accomplishments…if a minority teen knows about the hood but not the village, knows about the thugs on the block but not the African scholars of the world, knows their homies but not their ancestors, that’s a problem” (Marshall).

The main tool both minority families and society can use the in confrontation of this epidemic is the funding and establishing of youth programs and services such as United Playaz and Omega Boys Club of San Francisco. Both organizations pinpoint the various areas of a minority youth’s development that gang life negative impacts and strive to counteract it. The ways in which this is done is through involvement in school programs to facilitate as a form of motivation and academic support, leadership workshops that raise the moral and personal sense of self potential within each minority youth and lastly poses as a warm and engaged community to fill the void the lack of family has created. Director of the Omega Boys Club, Andre Aktins attributes the success of youth program intervention to be their ability to “facilitate the love and compassion they [the students] have been lacking and most importantly, love the “good” and “bad” child equally. [They] do not treat any students as lesser or in need of more work for then [they] will be pulling their arms and forcing them to change. Rather [they] give the tools and compassion they need and can use [start] new beginnings.” Overall, youth programs can target both the pulling and pushing that occurs in this epidemic by both supplying the love and sense of belonging family has failed to and providing the tools and knowledge needed to not only overcome unfortunate circumstances but prove to them that the abilities of their race and class is as abundant as any other.

In conclusion, in order to end the epidemic of violent youth gangs, the priorities, sense of worth and sense of potential of minority youth need to be altered. In order for this to happen both minority families, society and Youth

52 Organizations need to intervene. Gangs evidently are formed when youth feel they are lacking a physiological need or have been influenced to believe they are incapable of achieving socially valued attributes of success and academic excellence. Thus they result to formulating their own mode of attaining what they need by initiating into what can be seen as the “dance with the devil”. Until minority families’ step up to fill the void, society stops pushing minority youth into negative stereotypes and Youth Organizations receive more recognition and funding, I am afraid no progress can be made.

Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge Gemma B, Nidalia N and Luke G for helping me fix grammatical errors and giving me constructive input about my research paper.

Works Cited Atkins, Andre. Personal Interview. 5 Oct. 2010.

Bing, Léon. Do Or Die. New York: Harper Perennial, 1991. Print.

Broader Urban Involvement and Leadership Development. “Youth Gang Information Handbook.” BUILD, Oct. 2000. Pdf. 19 Sept. 2010.

Carlie, Mike. “Demographic Characteristics.” “Into The Abyss. Missouri State, 2002. Web. 19 Sept. 2010.

---. “Graffiti and Other Gang Identifiers.” Into The Abyss. Missouri State, 2002. Web. 19 Sept. 2010.

---. The Structure of Gangs.” Into The Abyss. Missouri State, 2002. Web. 19 Sept. 2010.

---. “What is a Gang?” Into The Abyss. Missouri State, 2002. Web. 19 Sept. 2010.

---. “Why Gangs Form: The Absence Of Family.” Into The Abyss. Missouri State, 2002. Web. 19 Sept. 2010.

---. “Why Gangs Form: Because They Can.” Into The Abyss. Missouri State, 2002. Web. 19 Sept. 2010.

---. “Why Gangs Form: Social Discrimination.” Into The Abyss. Missouri State, 2002. Web. 19 Sept. 2010.

Center For Disease Control And Prevention. “Youth Violence: Facts at a Glance.” CDC, 26 July 2010. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Chase, Mark. “Gangs, Drugs and Our Kids.” CYC-Net. International Youth And Care Network, 28 July 2008. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Duffy, Maureen P., and Scott Edward Gillig. Teen Gangs. Westport Conneticut: Greenwood Press, 2004. Print.

Howell, James. “Menacing or Mimicking?: Realities of Youth Gangs.” NGC.gov. National Gang Center, 2007.

Web. 30 Sept. 2010.

Howell, James. “Youth Gangs.” United States Department of Juvenile Delinquency, Dec. 1997. Web. 19, Sept 2010.

Johnson, Kevin. “FBI: Burgeoning Gangs Behind Up To 80% Of U.S. Crime.” USAToday.com. USAToday, 2009. Web. 14, Nov, 2010.

Lyons, Linda. “Do Minority Teens Struggle With Academic Self Worth.” Gallup. Gallup Inc, 24 Nov. 2004. Web. 22 Sept. 2010.

Marshall, Wes. Omega Boys Club. Omega Boys Club, San Francisco. 5, Oct. 2010. Lecture.

Orfield, Gary et al. “Losing Our Future: How Minority Youth Are Being Left Behind by the Graduation Rate Crisis.” Urban.Org. Urban Institute, 25 Feb. 2004. Web. 22 Sept. 2010.

United States. National Gang Center. National Gang Center. NGD, 16 Sept. 2010. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Vacaville Police Department. “Gang Awareness.” VPD. Pdf. 19 Sept. 2010.

53

Kayley YM Craig Butz Research in the Community E block October 22, 2010 Getting in the Zone: The Ideal Mindset for Sports What is mindset? Mindset is your beliefs about yourself and your basic attributes, specifically your intelligence, talent, and personality. Do you think that those things can be changed and developed? Or are they set in stone? People who believe that their traits are givens and unchangeable, have what is called a fixed mindset. Those who believe that their basic qualities can be changed and developed have what is called a growth mindset (Dweck, Mindset. Web). Mindsets affect people of all ages (Krakovsky), and they “can be very area specific” (Dweck, “Mindset: Powerful Insights”). For instance, a person could have a fixed business mindset but a growth athletic mindset. Having a growth mindset is important for all things in life, but it is especially important in athletics.

Playing a sport involves both physical and mental skills; growth mindsets are equally, if not more important than physical talent, to producing a team or individual who is resilient, persistent, eager to overcome obstacles, and that will do better in the long term; therefore mindset development should be incorporated into coaching.

There are certain things that people with fixed mindsets believe: that their basic qualities cannot be developed, that everything is about winning, and you should be good at things right away. These beliefs are often subconscious ones that the holders do not recognize. Deep down, people with fixed mindsets believe that it’s an innate talent that brings them to the top and keeps them there or prevents them from getting there (Dweck, Mindset.

Print 89-90). They honestly believe that your talent, intelligence, and such cannot be changed or developed (Dweck, Mindset. Web). Fixed mindset holders also subconsciously believe that they need to establish their superiority, which brings the focus off of effort and personal best. They need to beat other people and win to have success (Dweck, Mindset. Print 99). People with fixed mindsets believe that you have to be good at something right away.

They often think that they must quit if they fail, see others who are better than they are, or lose (Dweck, Mindset.

Print 100). The fixed mindset holders think that if they have to put effort into something, that says that you’re only good, not great (Krakovsky), so effort “casts doubt on your talent” (Dweck, Mindset. Print 99). People with fixed mindsets often just see other people’s results from hard work and effort, and think that it’s natural talent (Boteach).

People with fixed mindsets believe that their abilities are set in stone and cannot be improved upon, that winning is paramount, and that success should come with little or no effort or is impossible, which leads to people with fixed mindsets having certain characteristics.

The main characteristics of a fixed mindset holder are not knowing how to fail, not thinking about improvement, and not putting effort into things. People with fixed mindsets often involve their emotions in athletic performances, but emotional involvement “is one of the biggest mental stumbling blocks…” (Krucoff). Fixed mindset holders have difficulty learning from their mistakes or working with their frustration (Dweck, Mindset. Print 93); instead they release their anger through temper tantrums (Dweck, Mindset. Print 100). People with fixed mindsets simply tend to “fall apart quickly and to recover slowly” according to Marina Krakovsky, journalist, and graduate from Stanford in her article in the Stanford Alumni Magazine. A common trait of someone who has a fixed mindset is never really thinking about improvement (Kurtz). Oftentimes they will focus on the outcome of a game or competition, winning, rather than trying to play their best (Glass). People with fixed mindsets “want to validate their talent” (Dweck, Mindset. Print 103), rather than try their hardest, especially if it means looking bad. Not putting effort in is another thing that characterizes people with fixed mindsets. They might know how to study, but they won’t if they don’t think it’s worth it (Krakovsky). A way that they don’t put effort into things is by not pushing themselves when they’re feeling anything less than one hundred percent (Kurtz). With knowing the beliefs and characteristics of people with fixed mindsets, you can understand where the effects of having a fixed mindset come from.

The negative effects of a fixed mindset far outweigh the positive ones: fixed mindset holders don’t reach their full potential, aren’t team players, constantly make excuses for failure and errors, have bad focus, only care about winning, don’t leave their comfort zones, and don’t learn necessary life skills such as diligence and perseverance. In her article Marina Krakovsky explains that “the evidence shows that if we hold a fixed mind-set, we’re bound not to reach as high as we might.” People with fixed mindsets don’t do everything they’re capable of because they don’t push themselves, and are instead satisfied with whatever performance they had since they believe they couldn’t do anything to change it (Kurtz). For the most part, they aren’t team players because proving their talent exists means being a “superstar, not ‘just’ a team member” (Dweck, Mindset. Print 103). People with fixed mindsets are often egotistical, getting caught up in their own talent and specialness (Dweck, Mindset. Print 107).

Making excuses for all failures and errors is a common practice for people with fixed mindsets because in their

54 minds that mistake will be a strike against their talent, which they believe is stuck as is (Dweck, Mindset. Print 102103). Due to the emotional pressure fixed mindset holders place on themselves, they lose their focus and some skill when things go wrong. When things are going well, people with fixed mindsets are extremely competitive, which isn’t necessarily a bad thing (Dweck, Mindset. Print 107). Yet, often, the person with the fixed mindset thinks about the outcome, which causes unsettling emotions that result in the person tightening up (Krucoff). To avoid failure, people who possess a fixed mindset don’t step out of their comfort zone. An example of which is being forced to play a position that you haven’t played before or that you dislike, and bringing your team down because you didn’t have the mindset to try something new, something that you weren’t guaranteed to be good at (Dweck, Mindset. Print 103-104). When people with fixed mindsets come across something that they can't do right away, their skill level actually decreases (Krakovsky). The beliefs and characteristics that come from having a fixed mindset prevent those people from learning essential life skills. The people who are naturals don’t learn how to work hard or deal with setbacks (Dweck, Mindset. Web). The need to make their performance seem effortless causes people with fixed mindsets to not want to practice, but only to perform (Dweck, Mindset. Print 99).

People aren’t born with a fixed mindset, so how do they acquire fixed mindsets? If you praise people for their intelligence, it leads them to believe that their intelligence is a fixed trait. The same thing goes for talent or anything else of the sort. This takes away the person’s motivation because they believe that they don’t have to work to be intelligent, talented, or whatever it was you praised them for. Then when the person messes up, they believe that they lose the title of smart, or whatever else it was, and there isn’t anything they can do to get it back such as working hard. Praising someone’s developable traits, makes them think that they are unchangeable, and leads to fixed mindsets (Kurtz).

Some of our society’s values also encourage fixed mindsets. Our society often suggests that everything is about winning. Our society makes it seem like it’s “all about the scoreboard” according to Steve Glass, head athletic director at the Bay School of San Francisco. “Our society is based on winning and achievement and how much money you make,” which causes people to be most interested in results. Some parts of our society encourage fixed mindsets because they send out the message that winning is the most important thing.

People can also obtain fixed mindsets from examples. This is especially true for teachers, coaches, or parents to do because they are role models for others (Krakovsky). Teams, scouts, and coaches often look for naturals, which sends out the message that having talent to begin with is the most important thing. Carol Dweck offers her own childhood as an example of this. In elementary school in the 1950s, Dweck did well in school. Then, when she transitioned to middle school, her sixth grade teacher, Mrs. Wilson, seated the students in IQ order, and even used IQ scores to dole out classroom responsibilities (Dweck, Mindset. Print 6). Someone had to sit in row 1, seat 1, and someone had to sit on the other end. What Mrs. Wilson did was convey her fixed mindset that intelligence couldn’t be changed to an entire class of sixth grade students.

Having something come naturally to you can easily cause you to gain a fixed mindset about that thing (Dweck, Mindset. Print 107). Bruce Jenner was an Olympic athlete with an enormous athletic talent, but he had a fixed mindset about athletics. At school, he had a learning disability and a growth mindset about academics because he could learn just as much as everyone else with a lot of effort because he saw that effort paid off. That led him to think about what would happen if he carried over that effort into sports. When he did, it brought him lots of success.

Bruce Jenner, who turned out to be a 1976 Olympic gold medalist for the decathlon said “’If I weren’t dyslexic, I probably wouldn’t have won the Games. If I had been a better reader, then that would have come easily, sports would have come easily…and I never would have realized that the way you get ahead in life is to work hard’” (qtd. in Dweck, Mindset. Print 91). Not having to work for things gives people a fixed mindset. But then there is almost the polar opposite: the growth mindset.

People with growth mindsets have a diverging set of beliefs than those with fixed mindsets. They believe that your basic traits can change and be developed, that teamwork is important, that your learning is important, that you should work hard, that you should do your best, setbacks are motivational and informative, and that your errors are because of insufficient effort. People with growth mindsets commonly believe that “A superstar’s talent can win games, but it’s teamwork that wins championships” (Dweck, Mindset. Print 103). They know that their learning is important (Kurtz), and that it is worth it to practice and put in effort (Krakovsky). With a growth mindset you believe that you get what you put in (Kurtz), that effort is something to be proud of (Dweck, Mindset. Print 98-99), and you have to put a lot of effort into something if you have any hope of deciding whether you’re good or bad at something (Dweck, Mindset. Print 107). But being good or bad at something is not normally highly important to someone with a growth mindset because doing your best is another belief that people with growth mindsets tend to hold. The growth mindset belief is that you should just focus on doing your best, and if you win, it’s a bonus (Krucoff). As Steve Glass, an AD and former professional baseball player says, “You could focus on win win win, but then you’re going to be let down let down let down. It’s not about that. It’s about always giving your best effort

55 and never giving up and taking care of your teammates and then enjoying your experience while it’s taking place.”

The belief that setbacks are motivational and informative is another one of growth mindset holders’ beliefs (Dweck, Mindset. Print 99). Two other things that people who have growth mindsets believe is that circumstances don’t change results (Dweck, “Mindset: Powerful Insights”), and that your errors are because of insufficient effort (Krucoff).

People with growth mindsets have their own set of characteristics. They believe that effort is important.

When they acquire study and learning skills, people with growth mindsets have the desire to use them, so they put in effort (Krakovsky). They think optimistically, such as saying something along the lines of ‘I’m here to learn as much as I can, and I will’ (Dweck, “Mindset: Powerful Insights”). People with growth mindsets persevere. They “persist in the face of failure” (Krakovsky). As Krucoff says in her Washington Post article on sports and psychology, “Have faith in yourself. Continue to play as if you’re going to win, even if all evidence is against it.”

Going for things all the way no matter what is a trait of people who possess growth mindsets. (Dweck, “Mindset: Powerful Insights”). Self-development, such as knowing your limits is another important part of having a growth mindset (Kurtz). Responsibility is another portion: people with growth mindsets mostly act with their best interests in mind (Dweck, Mindset. Print 103), know that they’re in charge of their own motivation and learning, and don’t look for excuses for their errors (Dweck, “Mindset: Powerful Insights”). They don’t look for excuses for failure either, because they embrace failure. They aren’t ashamed when they fail; instead they face the failure and work off of it (Dweck, Mindset. Web). As a result of that, they cope well with setbacks (Kurtz). Besides coping well with setbacks, people with growth mindsets have a tendency to get more success because they get success from things other than winning. If you have a growth mindset you also get success from doing your best, trying your hardest, learning, or improving (Dweck, Mindset. Print 98-99).

There are many effects of growth mindsets, which are wholly positive, that come from the beliefs and characteristics of a growth mindset. Someone with a growth mindset won’t look around and label people as those who can play and those who can’t because they know that people’s talent can be developed through hard work (Glass). People with growth mindsets put effort into things because they want to improve. With improvement in mind, they practice hard (Dweck, Mindset. Print 106). It would seem logical that your skills would decrease with age, but if you work hard enough you can make up for what is lost (Dweck, Mindset. Print 101). Growth mindset holders motivate themselves. In a growth mindset, when you see someone who is better than you are, you see it as motivation to get to that level (Dweck, Mindset. Print 100). People with growth mindsets can turn around the voice in their minds that say that they can’t do something, and say that they can instead (Glass). An effect of having a growth mindset is making improvements. It is easier for people with growth mindsets to improve because they want to, they know what they need to work on, and they take charge of their own learning. They work hard, and use selfreflection, self-analysis, and constructive analysis to get better (Dweck, Mindset. Print 102). People with growth mindsets are constantly thinking about improving, so that leads them to advocate for their own learning (Kurtz).

With a growth mindset people get satisfactory success (Glass). The beliefs that people with growth mindsets hold have many tangible effects that positively affect their athletic performance.

While you can clearly see physical endowment, you can see equally clearly how practice leads to improvement, so why do people think that you don’t need effort (Dweck, Mindset. Print 83)? Because there is an emphasis on physical preparation in our society, oftentimes when things go wrong people think that it’s because of lack of physical preparation as opposed to a lack of mental preparation (Lindsley). But that isn’t the case. The mental side of sports is equally, if not more important than the physical aspect.

There are quite a few reasons why mindset, and specifically growth mindset, is important to sports. Failure being an intrinsic part of sports and life is one reason in and of itself (Krucoff). It is necessary for people to know how to make mistakes and learn from them, which is something that characterizes a growth mindset, not a fixed one (Dweck, “Mindset: Powerful Insights”). People need to know when to push through and when to quit (Kurtz), which is another positive that comes out of growth mindsets. Also, champions are the people who can win when things “are not quite right” (Dweck, Mindset. Print 95). Growth mindsets are also important to sports because it has enormous impacts on motivation and achievement (Krakovsky). Improvement comes more easily if you know where your strengths and weaknesses are, and if you keep in mind not too push yourself too hard (Kurtz), which means having a growth mindset. People with growth mindsets tend to work hard, and there is a clear correlation between people who work hard and people who thrive (Glass). Your mindset and your process are more important that your talent (Dweck, Mindset. Print 83). People need to know how to work hard (Dweck, “Mindset: Powerful Insights”); it’s a life skill, that people with fixed mindsets just don’t have. And lastly, in order to reach your full potential, you need a growth mindset (Krakovsky).

There are things that parents, teacher, coaches, or anyone who influences others can do to encourage growth mindsets in their students. One of those things is to encourage self-reflection and self-analysis. A coach,

56 parent, or teacher could easily do this by asking questions about how a person thought they did, what they think they could’ve done better, what they’re going to work on, and so on (Dweck, Mindset. Print 102). Coach Kurtz, the cross country coach at Bay this year (2010) says that she likes to help runners pay attention to how they feel, in their body and mind by asking questions because people need to know when to keep going and when to stop (Kurtz).

Something else a person can do to nourish growth mindsets is encouraging teamwork. Encouraging teamwork is extremely important because teamwork allows people to fill their potentials and learn how to work with others (Glass). It is better to develop an entire team as a team than to build a team around a superstar because winning will naturally follow: “getting players to fill roles as part of a team” teaches people how to be team players, and fulfilling their roles that way leads to winning and success (Dweck, Mindset. Print 103). Something else that a coach can do is to focus on the process as opposed to the outcome. Following his or her example, the students can learn this too (Glass). Teaching and motivating are better things for coaches to do than to yell and constantly say things are wrong (Murphy 191). Having good communication is also key because “Effective coaches provide the vision the team will strive for and the instruction necessary to translate that vision into a reality” (Murphy 192). A coach forcing their expertise on their players can be self-defeating in the long run because it is better to “encourage players to be responsible for their own learning”. The more a coach gives off the "I know everything" vibe, the more it stymies a person's growth mindset, so it is better for the coach to be a resource for the person's learning (Dweck, “Mindset: Powerful Insights”). Goal setting is a good technique to encourage growth mindsets. According to Coach Steve Glass, you have people set team goals and individual goals. Then you give them techniques on how to get there (Glass). Coach Kurtz said that part of what she does is to help her runners think about what their goals are, and then recognizing things in themselves and available to them that they can use to reach those goals. She specifically said that "Helping kids and young adults think about what their goals are and helping them identify how they’re going to reach those goals” is not only something that she enjoys doing, but something that nourishes growth mindsets (Kurtz). Coaches shouldn’t praise talent because you are saying that the person’s talent cannot be developed (Kurtz), and it ends up taking away the child’s motivation (Krakovsky). Also, when the person messes up they think they’re not brilliant or talented is they have to hide that to keep the title either by quitting or making up excuses (Dweck, “Mindset: Powerful Insights”). Coaches should try to notice all successes. When debriefing after a competition don’t just talk about score(s), talk about team energy, effort, improvements, and such (Kurtz). But most importantly, the best thing that a coach can do is to teach their players to love learning (Dweck, “Mindset: Powerful Insights”).

Growth mindsets are incredibly beneficial, and although it requires effort the resultant way of thinking is worth it. It is a necessary life skill to know how to fail, which means a growth mindset, not fixed mindset is important (Dweck, Mindset. Print 82). Carol Dweck thought that this message was so important that she spent 30 years researching the answer to why people who are equally talented and have equal potential, reach different levels of success and she wrote the book Mindset to spread the knowledge of mindset (Krakovsky). Because of the countless advantages of growth mindsets for athletes, coaches should place a focus on encouraging and nourishing growth mindsets in their players.

I would like to acknowledge the following people: Kamryn You Mak, Kendall You Mak, Henry C, Luke G, Ayluonne T, and Amanda C for giving me feedback on my paper, Charlotte Lee and Angie Matarozzi for help with brainstorming a title.

Works Cited Boteach, Shmuley. "LeBron James and what we lose when we win.” Jerusalem Post 13 July 2010. ProQuest. Web. 22 Sept. 2010.

Dweck, Carol. Mindset. Carol Dweck, 2010. Web. 22 Sept. 2010.

Dweck, Carol S. Mindset. New York: Ballantine Books, 2008. Print.

Dweck, Carol. “Mindset: Powerful Insights from Carol Dweck.” Positive Coaching Alliance. Web. 22 Sept. 2010.

Glass, Steve. Personal interview. 5 Oct. 2010.

Kurtz, Anna. Personal interview. 28 Sept. 2010.

Krakovsky, Marina. “The Effort Effect.” Stanford Magazine. Stanford Magazine, Mar./Apr. 2007. Web. 22 Sept.

2010.

Krucoff, Carol. "Playing Mind Games; Psychological Skills Can Boost an Athlete's Performance." The Washington Post 19 May 1992. ProQuest. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.

Lindsley, Chris. "Putting Your Head In the Game." The Washington Post 26 Jan. 2001. ProQuest. Web. 16 Sept.

2010.

Murphy, Shane, ed. The Sport Psych Handbook. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics, 2005. Print.

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Research in the Community Volume 3 Issue 2 March 2011 The Bay School of San Francisco

58

59 Eden A Craig Butz Research in the Community – E Block 11 February 2011 Don’t Go With the Flow: Green Solutions in a Rapidly Changing World Since the beginning of time, man has strived for progress; the current paradox of discovery, however, is that it has enabled the modern world to both develop technologically and to see the destructive effects of such actions. We have realized, perhaps too late, that progress does not always equate to quality, and that the capitalist greed surrounding us and supporting our infrastructure is not an entity separate from ourselves. The “global economy is now so large that society can no longer safely pretend it operates within a limitless ecosystem” (Daly).

As each day continues, so does our inaction, causing our inevitable future to worsen.

Even though most of the world is aware of the change our climate is experiencing, green technology is sparsely adopted by our nation and most of the world. Our cars still run on gas, we heat and cool our homes excessively, we purchase newly manufactured items all the time, and we eat foods that have to be shipped hundreds of miles to arrive on our dinner tables. The list goes on, while the amount of greenhouse gasses in our atmosphere increases. Drastic temperature changes are expected, resulting in glacial melting, ocean current changes, and an increase in natural disasters, all of which threaten the stability of our lives (“Climate”). Scientists know that "sea levels worldwide are expected to rise between 7 and 23 inches by 2100, and will continue to rise for at least the next 1,000 years" (West), and warn that "higher temperatures and more frequent heat waves could increase heat-related deaths and illnesses from insect-borne diseases" (Environmental). Additionally, our agricultural stability relies on a consistent ability to obtain water through a carefully constructed irrigation system; a system easily destroyed by weather changes. Biodiversity decreases daily, and all the while we continue to fill “the world … [with] us and our stuff, [causing it to become] empty of what was here before” (Daly). As citizens of a shared world, living on a planet with constantly decreasing resources, we will not be able to afford our current lifestyle much longer.

Almost all estimations of the damage that will be done to our planet are calculated by assessing their economic impact. Very few businesses and large corporations seem to realize that the issue is real; summing losses up in terms of the global market does not fully encompass the tragic consequences that our actions will soon realize.

Perhaps our society has so thoroughly rid itself of its moral conscience that the only way to address environmental impact and the impending destruction of our way of life is to express it in terms of our economy. We are experiencing a conflict in values; some hold capital and profit above our environment, while others hold the reverse.

This results in a politicization of the earth’s resources, which cripples the possibility of cooperation. In an ideal world, oil companies and other big businesses would, of their own desire, decide to make the switch to either solar, wind, or other technologies. Because of pride on both sides, it is not only difficult, but close to impossible, to begin discussing compromises.

A mutually beneficial alternative, however, is natural gas; while drilling for oil, previously untapped resources were discovered. Although using this fuel produces greenhouse gasses, the carbon offshoot is fifty percent of that of traditional oil. Natural gas is easy to integrate into our economy, and could act as a fluid mediator in the switch from oil to all solar or other alternative energies. The goal is to reach grid parity, or the point at which it is equally profitable to produce energy through alternative means and through the burning of fossil fuels (Ogden).

Once we do, we will be able to further develop solar and alternative technologies. The problem, however, is that production of alternative technologies can only occur when the price of developing them is cheaper, meaning that the demand for them will have to increase, lowering their cost. Essentially, as volume increases, price decreases; what is necessary is to develop technologies now that can run more efficiently and longer. We must find the capital to do so somewhere.

As a leading country in technology, it is absurd that our government is failing to set an example. In 2005, an act was introduced that would create "97,500 new jobs by 2025" in California; an obvious asset to the job market, nationwide and state-specifically (Environmental). It was defeated by the Congress. A slightly changed proposal was introduced in 2007, and similarly rejected. Such bills are not rejected for lack of alternative energy; solar and wind power are easily accessible. According to Clean Energy Authority, "California … [is] the top state for the solar market." By 2010, "electric utility companies are required to [use] renewable energy to produce 20 percent of their power". This number seems large, but in truth is fairly insignificant. 80% of the energy produced is still unclean.

However, the potential of California to make a complete switch to green energy is very high. In 2004, "California produced 4,258 million kilowatt-hours of electricity" through the use of wind energy (“Overview”). The state's wind energy potential is ranked 17th in "wind energy potential and leads the nation in wind energy deployment" (Environmental). The natural resources California has give it an incredible opportunity to set an example for the rest of the country.

60 The greed that is the core of capitalism signifies that a catalyst is needed in order for change to occur; an incentive to make solar panels and wind turbines more appealing and further research fuel alternative to oil.

Government subsidization is an appealing solution; while it does exist in San Francisco, the previously 50% pay back guarantee has decreased to 30%, and continues to decrease (Ogden). Taxes and quotas have proven to be successful vehicles for change in laws. Qualified law makers are able to push at the government to pass certain codes, achieving standards for environmental cleanliness that force energy utilities to produce a certain amount of their electricity through means such as wind, solar, biomass, or geothermal. California’s current RPS, or Renewable Portfolio Standard, is 33%, which means that only 67% of the energy produced comes from the burning of fossil fuels (Ogden). So even though progress is occurring, it is slighted by the fact that oil production has not peaked and begun dropping; in fact, according to Doug Ogden, who was vice president of the Energy Foundation in San Francisco up until 2009, technologies have become so advanced that we can easily access more oil. Fundamentally, current decisions about our environment are not made based totally on the resources to which we have access, but upon our moral obligations to the earth and each other. The true interests of businesses and the government are exposed. Ogden emphasized that the only truly effective way to change policies surrounding green technologies is to be connected to a large budget, and be able to influence the direction the money is flowing. It is obvious that a government backed by businesses that profit from the consumption of oil want to propagate and continue the use of fossil fuels, hindering the advancement of green technology.

The devastating reality of our world is that even if the government increases quotas and businesses are pushed to run on a high percentage of clean energy, the earth will continue to become polluted and climate change will still occur. The realization that we must come to is that everything is interconnected; the resources that we consume and the output we release are inextricably tied. “If we do not make the adjustments needed to achieve a sustainable economy, the world will become ever more polluted and ever emptier of fish, fossil fuels and other natural resources. For a while, such losses may continue to be masked by the faulty GDP-based accounting that measures consumption of resources as income. But the disaster will be felt eventually. Avoiding this calamity will be difficult. The sooner we start, the better” (Daly). The belief that we profit from our use of limited resources is destroying our world.

Herman Daly believes that “… natural and manmade capital are more often complements than substitutes and that natural capital should be maintained on its own, because it has become the limiting factor. That goal is called strong sustainability. For example, the annual fish catch is now limited by the natural capital of fish populations in the sea and no longer by the man-made capital of fishing boats. Weak sustainability would suggest that the lack of fish can be dealt with by building more fishing boats. Strong sustainability recognizes that more fishing boats are useless if there are too few fish in the ocean and insists that catches must be limited to ensure maintenance of adequate fish populations for tomorrow's fishers.” Weak sustainability reflects the mentality surrounding restructuring agricultural fields and infrastructure once water levels change, and building dikes to keep out the flooding. If we instead capped the amount of CO2 that is released globally, we would begin to eliminate the problem at its source. Every decision that each individual makes on our earth ultimately decides the fate of our atmosphere, our various climates, our biodiversity, our sea levels, and ultimately ourselves. The purpose of all fuel is arguably to eventually become waste. The fundamental problem with the moral code by which society functions is that our earth and resources are treated as waste. Adaptation, although it has its benefits, will ultimately prove ineffective. “Because establishing and maintaining [a] sustainable economy entails an enormous change of mind and heart by economists, politicians and voters, one might well be tempted to declare that … [sustainable, zero waste living is] impossible. But the alternative to a sustainable economy, in [an] ever growing economy, is biophysically impossible” (Daly). We need to completely alter our lifestyles. It is essential that we put aside our greed and laziness in order to preserve what little natural vitality and resources we have left.

To capture the sentiment of pre-Revolutionary France, Charles Dickens comments, “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”. Never in the history of the world have these words rung as true as they do today.

We are hovering on the edge of a precipice, where our actions or inactions define our future. It is too late to expect that we can avoid change to our environment or alleviate most of the damage. Our climate is changing, whether we acknowledge it or not. Inaction is not an option. It is impossible to know, however, exactly how to act as we have never faced a challenge of this magnitude before. The only thing that is certain is that how we act now does not determine how our current generation will be remembered; it determines whether we will be remembered at all.

61 Works Cited “Climate Projections.” World Meteorological Organization. Web. 12 Jan. 2011.

Daly, Herman. Economics in a Full World. Scientific American, Sept. 2005. PDF. Dickens, Charles. A Tale of Two Cities. London: Chapman & Hall, 1859. Print.

Environmental Entrepreneurs. Effects of Global Warming on the State of California. California: Environmental Entrepreneurs, 2005. PDF. Meehan, Chris. “Solar industry still hot to the touch.” Clean Energy Authority. Digital Green Media, 24 Jan. 2011.

28 Jan. 2011.

Ogden, Doug. Personal interview. 31 Jan. 2011.

“Overview of Wind Energy in California.” California Energy Commission. California government, 15 May 2009.

Web. 28 Jan. 2011.

West, Larry. “Global Warming is Unstoppable and Humans are to Blame, says UN Report.” Environment About.

Web. 14 Jan. 2011.

62 Jesse A Craig Butz Research in the Community—A block January 24, 2011 Endangered Species in the Presidio of San Francisco Currently, in San Francisco’s Presidio, plant and animals are running out of their native habitat due to urban development and an increase in human activity in the park over the past few decades. As a result of its position on the coast relative to the bay and ocean, a unique atmosphere has come about in the Presidio over time, causing much of the flora and fauna in this area to develop one-of-a-kind characteristics. As humans have arrived and altered the landscape of the Presidio, these species are becoming increasingly threatened (Endangered Wildlife and Plants of the World). There are several projects presently underway to restore the nature in the park, run by both independent volunteer organizations and government institutes such as the Presidio Trust; however, not enough is being done to ensure that the endangered species do not go extinct. Legislation must be pushed for which will convert sections of the Presidio with government-owned, rundown, and unused buildings to restoration sites for endangered and threatened species native to this area.

In order to understand the human impact on the Presidio of San Francisco, the Presidio’s history must first be realized. Prior to the late 1760s, the area now known as the Presidio was most likely populated by Native Americans known as the Ohlone. The Spaniards were colonizing the California coast, and arrived in what they called the Gran Puerto de San Francisco, or the Bay of San Francisco, in 1769. They built missions, which were used to convert Native Americans to Christianity, as well as presidios, which were military structures designed to defend settlements from attack and monitor Native Americans in the area. In 1821, Spanish control in the west declined, and Mexico was able to claim the San Francisco Presidio for itself (Benton). Over time, the Presidio continued to fall into a greater state of disrepair, even after the Mexican government sold most of their land to private owners. After the Presidio remained in a decrepit state for years, the United States declared war on Mexico in 1846, and gold was discovered near the Presidio in 1848, the Presidio was surrendered to the U.S. by Mexico, and became the main center of commerce in California. In 1850, land was set aside in the Presidio for the military to use for protection of the harbor. In the late 1850s, major “improvements . . . included the construction of picket fences, a medical facility, and a large multipurpose building for artillery and stores” (Benton). The years after the civil war, however, yielded the greatest alterations in the Presidio.

Many issues occurred because of the industrial revolution, including disease and overpopulation, as well as water and air pollution. As a result, several movements came about to promote environmental awareness and conservation in an urban setting (Benton), initiated by both the government and independent groups. Later in the 1870s, more improvements were made to the Presidio, as the civil war was finished and the government could focus on the aesthetic elements of the base. Trees and shrubs were planted as anchors to prevent sand dunes from damaging buildings, and exchange the barren, wasteland look for a more sheltered forest environment. Though the Presidio was still an army base, it appealed to the civilian population with its beautified landscape and welcoming gates, causing public presence to become a large factor in the development of the Presidio.

After the earthquake of 1906, in an effort to expand and restore the Presidio, the construction of many new buildings in the base took place, beginning to encroach on the habitat of some of the native species in the area.

When the first World War began, the Presidio went through an extreme transformation, in which military barracks and warehouses were built, some of them temporary, and thousands of soldiers were stationed there. Afterwards, the Presidio would return to its regular size, though funding would eventually allow it to expand its territory even further. As the Great Depression took hold of the country in 1929, many proposals were submitted to privatize the Presidio for building personal residences (Benton). However, this failed when Roosevelt initiated his New Deal plan, which invested in governmental construction projects in the Presidio. As the result of the Depression, many people enlisted in the army for one of the only opportunities at a steady job, which meant an increase in size of soldier’s living quarters was necessary. During this time, the Presidio was allowed to fall apart once again, and wildlife areas became overtaken by weeds and other invasive plants.

When the Golden Gate Bridge was completed in 1937 (“Presidio of San Francisco.” GlobalSecurity), foot traffic increased immensely in the Presidio area, as tourists from across the globe visited the prominent landmark.

But this soon changed as Pearl Harbor was attacked and World War Two commenced, and soldiers poured back into the Presidio to defend the United States from Japan. After the war, “there was an ongoing debate over whether the Presidio should be developed for housing or preserved as a national monument” (Benton). The decision for it to become a national park was crucial for the future of the nature in the Presidio, though it would still present problems in modern years. In 1989, when the secretary of the interior, Manuel Lujan, toured the Presidio, he said, “the Presidio is a different kind of problem for the park service to face. it is not like the grand canyon, a natural resource

63 that identifies itself. Here we have 900 buildings to fit into a National Park” (Benton). As the Park Service gained control of the Presidio, it was expected to develop the themes within the park, come up with historical education programs, and find people to reside in hundreds of buildings to make enough money to meet make the state requirement. With this challenge in mind, it was difficult to provide attention to the species of plants and animals needing protection in the Presidio as well.

In addition to human history in the Presidio, the park’s history of extraordinary natural diversity must be understood in order to comprehend the current struggle to protect it. The rare variety of plants and animals in the Presidio are a result of a complicated natural history and the effect of the geology in the area (Wilson). The Presidio is a “unique world within a world. From birds to plants, the ecosystems here can be found in few places on the planet” (“Presidio of San Francisco” U.S. NPS). The park’s current geologic setting relates to its unusual past. 100 million years ago, one massive tectonic plate slowly slid beneath another, and serpentine soil was created in this process. In this soil, a special community of plants exists, known as serpentine scrub (“Presidio of San Francisco” U.S. NPS). In addition, sand dunes began forming one million years ago, becoming hosts of even more unique organisms.

Another important factor in the development of rare plants and animals in the Presidio is that of climate (Dobson). As the Presidio is located at the tip of the San Francisco, peninsula, the Pacific ocean surrounding the area has caused a moderate Mediterranean climate (“Presidio of San Francisco” U.S. NPS). This, combined with the presence of sand dunes and serpentine soils, resulted in the development of a multitude of species adapted solely to these specific conditions. As species created more and more exclusive communities of life for themselves, they have been caused to become even rarer. The Presidio contains an unusually large amount of threatened and endangered plant life (“Presidio of San Francisco” U.S. NPS). This includes shrubs that are adapted to live only in serpentine grassland, and wildflowers that are native to the sand dune habitats. Because there are several different institutions which list endangered species, it is difficult to say exactly how many are officially endangered or threatened; there are currently “four officially recognized endangered or threatened species in the Presidio” (Frey) according to the Presidio Trust, and “twelve plants found at the Presidio are designated as rare, threatened or endangered by the United States Fish & Wildlife Service” (“Presidio of San Francisco” U.S. NPS).

There are currently several programs to help protect and restore the habitats containing endangered nature in the Presidio. These include the government-funded Presidio Trust restoration projects, volunteer organizations such as the Presidio Park Stewards, and independent donations to government-funded projects. However, many of these projects have conflicting interests, as they work with urban development as well as improvement of natural areas. This causes much of the habitat restoration progress in the area to happen slowly, and take months for permission from the government. Another difficulty is that these environments have been leveled and built upon many times over throughout history, making it difficult to re-establish vegetation. Also, there is no documentation of the variety of species, especially of insects, that were in the area before large population of humans arrived, making it nearly impossible to figure out how many have been lost. However, “it has been estimated that at least fifty percent of insect species have gone completely extinct,” says Dr. John Hafernik, an entomologist and the preeminent habitat expert in the Presidio. In addition, though stream restoration has been taking place, some aquatic life has not been returning to the Presidio area in the past few decades (Hafernik).

The Presidio Trust is currently in the first stages of habitat restoration and development in the Doyle Drive project, and scientists believe that they are probably doing the best they could, considering the complications of all the different organizations and government programs which have a hand in the Presidio. Dr. John Hafernik also believes that “because restoration science is such a new field, it is difficult to know what will happen, and which processes will work best” (Hafernik). An addition, with the threat of global warming especially in a park right by the ocean, it is difficult to predict what will happen, and how to know which steps make the most sense for every party involved in the future.

Despite this, the government could be doing more to help native plants and animals regain their territory within the Presidio. Several of the projects taking place to re-establish habitats favor human development in the area over natural restoration (Hounsell). For example, the Doyle Drive Replacement Project is supposedly working to reduce “impacts to biological, cultural and natural resources” (Presidio Environmental Sustainability Programs).

However, the construction process is taking up space that restoration sites could be utilizing for planting endangered species. The conflicting needs of the governmental and nature projects in the Presidio threaten the efforts to restore nature in the park.

One way to solve this problem would be passing legislation which would divide the Presidio into sections, some of which would be left for advancement for buildings and other human projects, while others would be designated solely for environmental development. In this way, there would be fewer complications with governmental and other programs, and efforts could be focused on the most important areas of development.

64 Otherwise, progress will come slowly and without much gain in the proposed work time. Worse, threatened species may not be given the chance to return to their former abundance, which could disrupt the ecosystem permanently.

Most importantly, though, is the change that ordinary citizens can make in the Presidio. If people give only a couple hours of their time to volunteer for one of several organizations to restore native habitats, progress will happen much more quickly. Projects involve anything from weeding areas to prepare them for transplanting endangered bushes to cleaning trash from a creek to provide animals with a cleaner living environment. As human impact is the main reason why plants and animals are threatened in the Presidio, it is crucial that humans contribute to the effort to restore it; only then is there a chance that these species will still exist in the future.

I would like to acknowledge the following people: Craig Butz, for developing ideas in my first draft.

Olivia M, Brendan D, and Joey N for peer editing my paper.

Works Cited Benton, Lisa M. The Presidio: from Army Post to National Park. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998. Print.

Dobson, Andrew P. Conservation and Biodiversitiy. New York: Scientific American Library, 1996. Print.

Endangered Wildlife and Plants of the World. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2001. Print.

Hounsell, Dan. “Transforming the Presidio.” Facilities Net. TradePress. Web. 10 Jan. 2011.

“Presidio Environmental Sustainability Programs- Presidio of San Francisco.” The Presidio. The Presidio Trust.

Web. 21 Dec. 2010.

Presidio of San Francisco: Cultural Landscape Analysis: Golden Gate National Recreation Area, California. Denver, Colorado: National Park Service, Denver Service Center, 1992. Print.

“Presidio of San Francisco.” GlobalSecurity.org - Reliable Security Information. Global Security. Web. 19 Dec. 2010.

“Presidio of San Francisco” U.S. National Park Service. National Park Service: U.S. Department of the interior.

Web. 20 Dec. 2010.

“San Francisco Presidio National Park and Crissy Field.” SF Travel. Web. 20 Dec. 2010.

United States Department of the Interior. National Park Service: Presidio of San Francisco. 1 December 2010.

Walker, Deborah Lee. The Presidio of San Francisco: culture and landscape. New York: University of Washington, 1993. Print.

Wilson, Edward O. The Future of Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002. Print.

65 Haley A Research in the Community - A block Craig Butz February 28, 2011 Domoic acid: A Silent Killer The Marine Mammal Center, located in the Marin Headlands near Sausalito, California, finds up to 100 marine mammal species sick with domoic acid poisoning each year. Naâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;au is just one example of a sea mammal who has been treated multiple times for this type of poisoning (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Na'au is on her way to the Marine Mammal Center in Sausalito, which has treated her twice before for symptoms of domoic acid poisoning. (Berton) The number of documented cases is only a very small proportion of the number of animals actually killed by the toxin, most are lost at sea and never found. Marine mammals are dying because they ingest a neurotoxin produced by naturally occurring algae. Expanding understanding of the origins of this toxin are pointing researchers in new directions in designing interventions to help manage this problem. Interventions include raising awareness among the general public and supporting local marine biology centers which care for afflicted animals. Domoic acid is a big problem for a lot of our marine animals which is why it is important to spread awareness and look further into this deadly neurotoxin.

Figure 2: The tiny one-cell Pseudo-nitzschia algae which produce domoic acid

66 Domoic acid is naturally occurring neurotoxin produced by marine algae (diatoms) from the genus PseudoNitzchia (Figure 2) and species P. Multiseries and P. Australis. Domoic acid is one of a few algae that produce toxins when they bloom (Donald M Anderson). Other examples of toxic algae are known as red tide because of the red color it produces (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). These are called harmful algal blooms because they are dangerous to animals who eat them.

Figure 3: Chemical structure of domoic acid The chemical structure of these toxins suggests why they are so harmful. Domoic acid is an unusual amino acid that contains three carboxyl groups (Figure 3), a property which makes it highly soluble in water. Because this toxin is so water soluble it concentrates in the algae cells which produce it. It is structurally similar to glutamic acid, one of the 20 or so natural amino acids that make up proteins in our bodies. Glutamic acid normally helps transmission of impulses from one cell to another in the central nervous system. It is known as an “excitatory” amino acid because it stimulates nerve cells. Impulses caused by these amino acids are carried to parts of the brain including the hippocampus, a part of the brain responsible for memory and learning. Like its chemical cousin glutamic acid, it is believed that domoic acid over excites nerves leading from the body to the brain and thereby disrupts the normal impulse pattern in the central nervous system. This over stimulation causes cells in the hippocampus to “burn out” and die, which is a leading symptom of amnesic shellfish poisoning. (Kizer, Kenneth W.).

Figure 4: These photographs capture the largest toxic algae bloom ever observed on October 1, 2004 taken from special cameras aboard the OrbView-2 satellite. High concentrations of chlorophyll in the Pacific Ocean off Washington State were detected. Not all of the chlorophyll seen in the right image is from the toxic bloom. It is likely that other forms of phytoplankton also color the water, and from this image alone, it is impossible to tell which are toxic algae and which are other plants (NASA Images)

67 The algal source of domoic was first identified in 1987. As for the time of year the is the worst for marine mammals, The International Bird Rescue and Research Center, IBRRC, has found that domoic acid flares (or blooms) occur every spring with “predictable regularity.”

The main sites of domoic acid-producing algal blooms include the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California, Oregon, Washington (Figure 4) and British Columbia (Kizer, Kenneth W.), and in the Atlantic Ocean in Canada.

“Domoic acid is of particular concern to the Pacific Coast states” however (Kizer, Kenneth W.). In 1998 scientists followed sea lions to determine how much of the neurotoxin they actually ingested and attempted to trace where the contaminated fish eaten by these marine mammals where coming from. They found that domoic acid-producing algae were especially wide spread along the central California coast. Now that the source of the toxin has been recognized, scientists are carefully surveying coastal waters for evidence of the algae and animals affected by its poison. Although scientists don’t know the origin of this harmful algae they do know that is hurting marine mammals along these coast lines.

As to how the toxic algae originated scientists speculate that it has either been here for a long time and just unrecognized, or it was brought into coastal waters from the deeper ocean by ships and currents. Researchers do not know exactly how long domoic acid producing algae have been growing along the coast. But the relationship between Pseudo-nitzchia spp. blooms and marine mammal toxicity is pretty clear. The results shown in Figure 5 illustrate this point. Standings of California sea lions increase just after a Pseudo-nitzchia spp. bloom in 2002; mammal toxicity follows the toxic algal bloom. (Tosses de la Riva)

Figure 5: Number of monthly California sea lion strandings compared with median Pseudo-nitzschia spp. bloom relative abundance (MRA) index in southern California in 2002. (Torres de la Riva) Researches and marine biologists are doing all they can to find out what is the true cause of the apparent increase in the toxic effects of domoic acid on marine wildlife. Adam Rantar a biologist on the staff of the Marine Mammal Center, says that the million dollar question is: what is causing the rapid increase in this bio toxin?

Although there is no definite cause for the recent increase in domoic acid poisoning, the IBRRC points out that “something is making blooms of algae especially virulent.” There also is no hard evidence on what has been causing the increase in recent blooms, making it hard to figure out possible ways of prevention, though there are theories.

One of these is that agricultural runoff is causing an influx of nutrients into costal water, including San Francisco Bay. This hypothesis stems from the fact that nutrients help plants grow and algae are no different; it is reasonable to suspect that contaminants from agricultural activity entering the ocean form rivers and streams along the coast is a contributing factor to toxic algal blooms. Farmers and agricultural companies being more cautious when using pesticides and fertilizers in areas near rivers may help lessen the impact, but since there is no proof this is what is causing domoic acid algal blooms, not many people are willing to change their ways and legal force cannot be applied.

Domoic acid works its way up the food chain from the one-celled algae that produce it to mammals and birds. The bi-valve shellfish, oysters, mussels, and clams are the first animals that eat the toxin infested algae.

Although domoic acid has proven to be very poisonous for marine mammals and people, shellfish and fish appear more tolerant; they can accumulate the toxin without being killed or showing any signs of illness (Razor Clams).

68 However, when larger animals ingest the toxin they can become very ill (IBRRC). Sea lions accumulate the poison when they eat shellfish and small fish that feed on the algae and concentrate the toxins (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Kenneth W. Kizer says that domoic acid is “concentrated by finfish or filter-feeding shellfish as they consume the unicellular algae that produces the toxin.” Another key element of domoic acid poisoning is that “this toxin causes seizures in high vertebrates as it concentrates up the food chain by targeting the brain specifically the hypo-campus” (Marine Mammal Center). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration explains that the way animals are poisoned is when “toxic compounds … enter the food web and accumulate in fish and shell fish.” While in my interview, Adam Ranter of the Marine Mammal Center explained that small fish eat a lot of the algae and accumulate a large quantity of the algae containing domoic acid. Then bigger fish eat a lot of the smaller fish and marine mammals eat a lot of the big fish. This pattern explains why the toxin accumulates in higher organisms such as sea lions, dolphins, and elephant seals; it becomes more concentrated and dangerous as it moves up the food chain.

Domoic acid can poison a range of life forms in our coastal waters. It affects animals from sardines to whales and everything in between including sea birds, pine beds, dolphins, Dungeness crabs, sea lions, seals, and otters (IBRRC) (Razor Clams). The main animal that centers such as The Marine Mammal Center finds ill with the disease, however, is sea lions. During my interview with Adam Ranter I learned that domoic acid targets the hippocampus; damage to this part of the brain can cause confusion and loss of direction. This explains marine mammals such as sea lions are found as far as 60 miles from their natural habitat. Rietta informed me that another telltale symptom of domoic acid poisoning that suggests brain damage is that animals bob their heads if they are still for a while. At this stage the animals are typically extremely emaciated and confused. The IBRRC even compared the number of animals that die or are being injured due to domoic acid to the number of animals affected by an oil spill (IBRRC). Domoic acid also affects sea birds, such as pelicans, that can have seizures while flying and literally fall from the sky (IBRRC). This is what people say inspired the Alfred Hitchcock movie The Birds when in 1961 there was a massive bird poisoning (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). The toxin caused hundreds of birds to dive into street lamps, crash through glass windows, and attack people in the street (Razor Clams).

This affects the marine ecosystem because it is contaminating such a vast array of marine species. Domoic acid killed over 400 sea lions in 1998 which was very detrimental to the marine ecosystem because their deaths tipped the delicate balance needed for the marine environment to function properly.

Marine mammals aren’t the only ones affected by domoic acid poisoning. Domoic acid was first detected in people in 1987 on Prince Edward Island, Canada. People showed positive for domoic acid poisoning after eating contaminated shellfish. Three people died while over 100 people became very ill (DA and ASP).

When people are infected by the neurotoxin from eating domoic acid contaminated shellfish such as mussels symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps within 24 hours and headaches disorientation, dizziness, confusion, motor weakness, seizures, profuse respiratory secretions, and possibly going into a coma within 42 hours (Figure 6). Domoic acid also can cause permanent short term memory loss (Razor Clams). Because the toxin has a great impact on people’s memories it was named Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning.

Figure 6: Table from the first medical publication about domoic acid intoxication of people who ate contaminated mussels showing the symptoms they experienced. (Rerl)

69 Getting Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning wasn’t the only threat that domoic acid had on people. In 1991 many fisheries in Monetary, Californisa were closed by the State Health Department in order to keep people safe from the toxin (HAB). In that same year, fisheries, both commercial and recreational, were forced into closing in Washington as well as other places along the west coast. In Washington their main razor clam fishery was closed for a full year (Razor Clams). Fisheries along the east coast had to be shut down due to high levels of DA, as well. (Figure 7) Fisheries closing had huge detrimental impacts on the local economies all over (Razor Clams).

Figure 7: Newspaper article alerting public to toxic razor clams near Olympia, Washington.

After ingesting domoic acid contaminated fish, mammals pass through stages of illness and many do not survive. The first stage is called is acute, meaning the animal only has a low toxicity level and the toxin hasn’t affected their brain much. At this stage they are still able to function on their own and can be treated and released back out to their natural habitat. In a chronic case, the toxin has eaten away at too much of their brain causing them to have severe brain damage; they will either die on their own due to drowning or starvation, or would have to be put out of their pain by a center.

Because there is no cure for poisoned animals there is not much that scientists can do other than care for the poisoned animals that are found alive. Eliminating the source does not seem practical. While in my interview, Rietta explained that in the ocean it is impossible to separate algae which produce domoic acid from those that do not; they look alike so there is no way of extracting the “bad” algae from the good. Although there are few options to treat poisoned animals, marine biologists are doing all they can to care for sick marine animals. Centers like the Marine Mammal Center can’t even estimate the number of marine mammals that die every year from domoic acid because most it is believed that most animals die at sea. All data about domoic acid comes from information scientists and centers get from those that are found stranded on land. Because of this it makes it “virtually impossible to count the bodies” so no one really knows how many animals are affected and that is most likely a lot more than centers see (IBRRC). Marine animal care crews are doing everything in their power to make affected animals as comfortable as possible and to look deeper into what is causing these blooms and what can be done about them. When visiting the Marine Mammal Center I found that this is one of the main problems that they have to face every day with their sick animals and learned about standard procedures that centers go through with a sick animal.

When the center first gets a sick animal they run different tests to see what is making this certain animal sick. For domoic acid, animals “will be evaluated using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), cognitive behavior tests (how the animal behaves), and histopathology (tissue samples from dead animals)” (MMC). They can also perform urine and stomach content tests to be thorough. If an animal is sick with domoic acid the only things they can do for the animals are to give them fresh fish and a clean place to live and gain their weight back for a few months as well as some medicine to stop symptoms such as seizures. In some cases it is possible to provide the animal with fresh blood and bodily fluids (IBRRC) as well as pumping the animal’s stomach if necessary. After the toxin has passed through their bodies and the animals have completely regained their weight, they can be released back into the wild.

Rehabilitation is not as easy as it sounds however, according to the IBRRC this is “a labor intensive process” (IBRRC).

There is a recent proposal to use iron fertilization in the ocean to help stop global warming. But this solution may aggravate the domoic acid problem according to researchers at UC Santa Cruz. Scientists believe adding iron to the ocean will help Global Warming because as phytoplankton grow they consume carbon dioxide and when iron is added to the ocean it causes phytoplankton to grow more rapidly. This, however, may cause domoic acid diatoms to increase vigorously as well due to the increase in nutrients (UC Santa Cruz).

Since 1987 there have been many other reported cases of people eating contaminated shellfish and getting sick, but “Many times people don’t know what made them sick so they don’t report it to the health authorities” explains the International Bird Research Center (IBRRC). This shows the importance of raising awareness among

70 the general public. Not letting scientists add iron into the ocean and create stricter rules for farmers near the bay are possible interventions to help make blooms less aggressive. Funding or helping local marine centers are also ways that people can get involved and help. Common mistakes that people make when they see a dead marine animal or one that appears sick is to take it home, push it back into the sea, or approach it at all. It is crucial for anyone that finds a sick creature to call a local center and, in extreme cases with dolphins, to keep them moist and their blow hole clear of water, but not before contacting a center and reporting the animal. People can all help in spreading awareness about the toxin and making sure that they have their local center’s phone number at all times in case they need to report an animal. Also making sure that everyone watches what kind of shellfish they eat and in what time of the year can be beneficial. Places such as the Marine Mammal Center, the California Academy of Sciences, and the Monteray Bay Aquarium all offer helpful seafood safety cards.

Bibliography: Anderson, Donald M. "Marine researchers have established that a toxin produced by algae, which is responsible for seafood poisoning incidents, can cause epilepsy in marine mammals." Chemistry and Industry 5 (2010): 9.

General Reference Center Gold. Web. Berton, Justin. MARINE LIFE: Sea lion Na'au roams Oakley, San Francisco Chronicle December 06, 2010. http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-12-06/bay-area/25009589_1_sea-lion-domoic-acid-poisoning-jim-oswald.

International Bird Rescue Research Center. “Crisis off Our Coast.” 2011. Web. 4 January 2011. http://www.ibrrc.org/pelican_domoic.html Kate Thomas, James T. Harvey, Tracey Goldstein, Jerome Barkos, Frances Gulland. Marine Mammal Science.

January 2010 v26 i1 p36(17).

Kizer, Kenneth W. "Domoic acid poisoning." The Western Journal of Medicine 161.1 (1994): 59+. General Reference Center Gold. Web. 30 Jan. 2011.

"Marine biotoxins at the top of the food chain." Oceanus 35.3 (1992): 55+. General Reference Center Gold. Web. 30 Jan. 2011.

Mestel, Rosie. "Hitch's birds deranged by dodgy anchovies." New Scientist 147.1987 (1995): 6. General Reference Center Gold. Web. 30 Jan. 2011.

Monterey Bay Aquarium. “Sand Crab.” Web. 4 January 2011. http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/animals/AnimalDetails.aspx?enc=VsGX+Lst7QYKvk6t2Mgw5w== NASA Images, Earth Observatory Collection. Toxic Algal Bloom off Washington 2004. http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://mm04.nasaimages.org/MediaManager/srvr%3Fmediafile%3 D/Size3/nasaNAS-10NA/71399/Washington_SEA_2004275.jpg%26userid%3D1%26username%3Dadmin%26resolution%3D3 %26servertype%3DJVA%26cid%3D10%26iid%3DnasaNAS%26vcid%3DNA%26usergroup%3DEarth_O bservatory_(nasa)-10Admin%26profileid%3D46&imgrefurl=http://www.nasaimages.org/luna/servlet/detail/nasaNAS~10~10~6 8532~173496:Toxic-Algal-Bloom-offWashington&usg=__IO5ypZRlkBrNWHWy6RcCYTaTKpw=&h=605&w=540&sz=103&hl=en&start=2& zoom=1&tbnid=PUokcUsTv07sZM:&tbnh=135&tbnw=120&ei=2qxpTfGAKYKcsQO12tGoBA&prev=/i mages%3Fq%3Dalgal%2Bbloom%2Bwashington%2B2004%26hl%3Den%26rlz%3D1T4GGLD_enUS31 0US310%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1&itbs=1 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “Domoic Acid Fact Sheet.” Web. 13 December 2010. http://channelislands.noaa.gov/focus/pdf/daf.pdf Northwest Fisheries Science Center. “Domoic Acid Poisoning.” Web. 13 December 2010. http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/hab/habs_toxins/marine_biotoxins/da/index.html Oregon Institute of Marine Biology “Domoic acid.” 21-23 February 1992. Web. 19 December 2010. http://books.google.com/books?id=TFUXAQAAIAAJ&q=Domoic+Acid&dq=Domoic+Acid&hl=en&ei=0 f8jTaXsCYzksQOt_Iy6Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAQ Oregon State University. “Domoic Acid and Amnesiac Shellfish Poisoning.” Web. 4 January 2011. http://seagrant.oregonstate.edu/sgpubs/onlinepubs/g03005.pdf Rerl, Thrish, Bedard, Lucis, Kosatsky, Tom, Hockin, James, Todd, Ewen and Remis, Robert. An outbreak of toxic encephalopathy caused by eating mussels contaminated with demonic acid. New England Journal of Medicine, vol 322, No. 25 p 1775-1780, 1990.

Torres de la Riva, Gretel, Kreuder Johnson, Christine, Gulland, Frances, Langlois, Gregg, Heyning, John, Rowles, Teri, and Jonna, Mazet A. Association of an unusual marine mammal event with pseudo-nitzschia spp blooms along the Southern California coast. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 45(1), 2009, pp. 109–121

71 The Marine Mammal Center “Domoic Acid Toxicosos.” Web. 18 December 2010. http://www.marinemammalcenter.org/science/top-research-projects/domoic-acid-toxicity.html University of California, Santa Cruz, “Domoic acid Production near California Coastal Upwelling Zones.” June 1998. Web. 15 December 2010. http://ic.ucsc.edu/~kudela/OS130/Readings/Trainer2000.pdf University of California, Santa Cruz “Iron Stimulates Blooms of Toxin-Producing Algae in Open Ocean, Study Finds.” 8 November 2010. Web. 15 December 2010. http://news.ucsc.edu/2010/11/domoic-acid.html University of California, Santa Cruz “Large Blooms of Toxic Algae in Monterey Bay are Affecting Marine Animals.” 16 May 2007. Web. 15 December 2010. http://news.ucsc.edu/2007/05/1292.html University of California, Santa Cruz. “Sea Lion Gallery: Domoic Acid.” Web. 15 December 2010. http://shutterbug.ucsc.edu/sealion/view_album.php?set_albumName=album112 Teitelbaum, Jeanne S., Zatorre, Robert, J., Carpenter, Stirling, Gendron, Daniel, Evans, Alan C., Gjedde, Albert, and Cashman, Neil R. New England Journal of Medicine 1990; 322:1781-1787 Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. “Razor Clams.” 2011. Web. December 6, 2010. (http://wdfw.wa.gov/fishing/shellfish/razorclams/domoic_acid.html) Washington State Department of Health. “Domoic acid and ASP.” Office of Shellfish and Water Protection, 6 October 2010. Web. 13 December 2010. http://wdfw.wa.gov/fishing/shellfish/razorclams/domoic_acid.html

72 Andreas B 1/20/2011 Research in the Community Craig Butz Ski Resorts and Their Effect on the Communities Around Them Although Ski resorts are a wonderful vacation idea, they definitely have an adverse effect on the environment around them. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Americans have been enjoying their winter trips to ski resorts. There is no doubt that skiing is a great winter activity for families, being both fun and athletically demanding. These ski resorts also operate year round, servicing mountain biking and other activities in the summer.

When ski resorts are built they also open up a variety of jobs and generally bring a boost in the local economy (Duffy, Ann). However, ski resorts also have negative effects on the environment. To combat the environmental downsides, the resorts must take initiative and invest in clean energy solutions, as this will not only make the environment cleaner, but also lower energy costs.

However, there are also downsides to the construction and expansion of ski resorts. The main downsides are environmental, including pollution, the disruption of ecosystems, and deforestation. In addition to this, ski resorts are very expensive to both build and maintain. The large amount of construction and traffic that accompanies the building of such resorts also disrupts the lives of people who live close to the building site. These many factors should all be considered when ski resorts plan on building.

There are in fact many more downsides to the construction of ski resorts. These negative effects can be divided into two subgroups; environmental issues and socioeconomic issues. One socioeconomic effect of ski resorts is how the construction affects the local towns. Before the introduction of ski resorts into an area, the towns that inhabit this area are often small, with little or no tourism. However, when a multimillion dollar ski resort is built nearby, these small towns must adapt to the massive amount of annual visitors coming through their town. Roads need to be built, along with restaurants, gas stations, and many other accommodations (Sochi Faces Challenges). In the case of Mammoth Mountain, CA, an entire airport was built to transport people to and from the mountain resort (Mammoth Yosemite Airport â&#x20AC;&#x201C; MMH). The townsfolk tend to be unhappy with this new traffic, as all the new construction is loud and takes the charm away from the small towns. Another downside to building new accommodations is pollution. Construction is the cause for more water pollution than any other industry, and because ski resorts are located on mountains, the polluted water will flow into rivers which eventually lead to urban environments, including the San Francisco Bay (Pollution From Construction). In addition to this, ski resorts cost a lot of money to build, often totaling millions of dollars. This money is either produced by investors or borrowed by the owners from banks. Then of course, there is also the maintenance that resorts need to go through to function properly. This maintenance is very costly, both time-wise and monetarily. This may not be much of a downside to other people in the community, but it puts a lot of pressure on workers and officials at ski resorts, as it is them that have to perform these repairs and come up with the money (Sochi Faces Challenges).

There are also a lot of environmental downsides to the construction of ski resorts. The first, most obvious downside is deforestation. When Resorts create ski runs, the first step they take is clearing away the trees. This alone does not have a strong effect on the local environment, because of the sheer amount of trees in California and in the world. However, this deforestation damages the biodiversity of the surrounding areas, which is another negative effect of ski resorts. Biodiversity is a word for the diverse types of plants and animals in an area, and how they are all connected. If one aspect of the nature is altered, then the entire biodiversity of the area will be affected. Another thing that affects this biodiversity is the relocation of animals. During the construction phase, the noise of machinery will cause the animals in the area to migrate elsewhere (Duffy, Ann). This may continue to happen throughout the existence of the ski resort, as there are no animals that want to live among skiers. Although biodiversity is the main concern associated with building a ski resort, the heavy energy uses also make a significant amount of pollution, as most ski resorts either use fossil fuels directly, or electricity derived from fossil fuels (Eco-Resorts Turn White Slopes Green).

One of the most famous examples of biodiversity being affected by ski resorts occurred at the Resort at Vail, Colorado in 1998. The resort was planning on expanding onto a lynx habitat, and by doing that, they would be clear cutting through â&#x20AC;&#x153;the last, best lynx habitat in the stateâ&#x20AC;? (Eco-Terrorism In Vail, CO). The ELF (Earth Liberation Front) chose to take extreme action against this expansion, by burning five buildings and four ski lifts to the ground. Two days later, the ELF confessed to their actions, and in an email to Colorado Public Radio, they wrote: On behalf of the lynx, five buildings and four ski lifts at Vail were reduced to ashes on the night of Sunday, October 18th. Vail, Inc. is already the largest ski operation in North America and now wants to expand even further. The 12 miles of roads and 885 acres of clear-cuts will ruin the last, best lynx habitat in the

73 state. Putting profits ahead of Colorado's wildlife will not be tolerated. This action is just a warning. We will be back if this greedy corporation continues to trespass into wild and unroaded areas. For your safety and convenience, we strongly advise skiers to choose other destinations until Vail cancels it’s inexcusable plans for expansion. (Earth Liberation Front) Although the goal of this eco terrorism was achieved, such extremities are certainly not acceptable methods for making the community a clean place. People were hesitant to come to Vail after this incident, and local economy was negatively affected because of that. Fortunately, this is the only major incident of eco-terrorism towards ski resorts (ECO-TERRORISM IN VAIL).

There are also many efforts that can be made towards sustainability that do not involve vandalism. One method that resorts may want to take is to hire a CSO, or Chief Sustainability Officer. CSO’s are a relatively new job position, and as the title entitles, the CSO is in charge of monitoring and controlling the sustainability of a company. For example, in the 2010 winter Olympics in Whistler, VANOC (Vancouver Organizing Committee) hired Ann Duffy as their CSO. One of the things she did was work with Coca-Cola Inc., who was one of the main sponsors for the Olympics. When dealing with Coca Cola, she worked with them to set up successfully functioning waste management both for human waste and material waste. She also worked with them to ensure that the product was transported to the event efficiently and cleanly. Although a significant part of sustainability has to do with the environment, it also has to do with the social effects on the surrounding community, including social and economic issues (Duffy, Ann).

Ski resorts spend an immense amount of energy running their various services, and most of this energy comes from burning fossil fuels. Not only is this nonrenewable, but it pollutes the environment. Therefore, many resorts have begun to harness the power of renewable resources instead of the traditional sources of energy. There are four main types of renewable energy that are being used in ski resorts; wind power, solar power, hydropower, and geothermal power (Eco-Resorts Turn White Slopes Green).

The first type of renewable energy, wind power, has been increasing in popularity over the past years.

There are in fact two ways for ski resorts to get wind energy. The first and easiest method is for a ski resort to buy wind credits, like the resort at Vail, Colorado. Wind credits essentially mean that a company will replace the electricity they get from the electric companies with electricity from wind farms. When resorts buy wind credits, they are doing many things that are beneficial to both the environmental and social/economical aspects of the community around them. Obviously, this reduces the amount of greenhouse gasses being introduced into the environment, but it also directs business towards independently owned local wind farms. This also doesn’t cost an obscene amount of money, because the resorts do not need to build anything to use wind credits (Eco-Resorts Turn White Slopes Green).

Alternately, ski resorts could harness the power of the wind by using wind turbines. In fact, placing turbines on top of mountains is effective, because the wide openness around a peak means that wind is not blocked off by surrounding land. Jiminy Peaks resort is one of the many modern ski resorts that has resorted to installing wind turbines. Although Jiminy Peaks is only installing a single turbine, that turbine will generate a third of the resort’s energy consumption. This structure will cost a hefty 3.9 million dollars, but Jiminy Peaks has predicted that they will save upwards of a half million dollars per year, which means that after 8 years the turbine would have paid for itself. This should be incentive for other resorts to follow the same path and switch to renewable energy (EcoResorts Turn White Slopes Green).

Another thing that resorts can do is to install solar panels. The ski resort at Aspen/Snowmass installed an array of solar panels that now fully powers one of their ski patrol stations. Solar panels are an effective method of harnessing natural power. Because of the altitude and geographic structure of ski resorts, strategically placed solar panels could harness sun power throughout the day without being subject to the placement of shadows and fog. By installing solar panels, resorts would not only be cutting down on their consumption of fossil fuels, but they would also not need energy to be transported to them (Eco-Resorts Turn White Slopes Green).

Another kind of reusable energy that resorts have begun to use is geothermal energy. If resorts dig far enough underground they will find heat, which can either be used for heating purposes or for generating electricity.

Mammoth Mountain in California sits on top of an inactive volcano, which makes them a prime candidate for using geothermal energy. Lisa Isaacs, director of environmental programs for Mammoth says, “Punch a hole in the ground and you don’t have to go very far to find warm water.” They plan on using this heat to melt snow and to heat a new lodge. Harvesting geothermal energy is relatively easy, and the process can continue to work day round since the heat of the earth is not affected by sunlight (Eco-Resorts Turn White Slopes Green).

The last kind of renewable energy that ski resorts can use is hydropower. Hydropower is harnessed by installing turbines in creeks which will in turn generate electricity. Aspen/Snowmass installed a small hydropower turbine a few years ago which can power 35 homes year round. Depending on where the turbines are placed,

74 hydropower turbines can run year round, but produce the most electricity during the spring (Eco-Resorts Turn White Slopes Green). The ski resort at Whistler was also installed a similar water turbine, which powers a small part of their resort (Duffy Ann).

In addition to making the environment cleaner, switching to renewable energy reduces the energy costs for ski resorts. After a few years, the money saved will actually cover the price paid to install the energy sources (Duffy, Ann). And with the new money, resorts can then buy new sources of clean renewable energy. This can lead to resorts to be entirely self-sustainable, like Crested Butte Mountain Resort in Colorado along with others (EcoResorts Turn White Slopes Green). When a resort becomes entirely sustainable, they don’t only reduce greenhouse gasses on a global scale, but they make the air around the ski resort cleaner as well.

All in all, it is very possible for ski resorts to become environmentally friendly, but they need to take initiative. They need to be aware of how renewable resources will pay for themselves after a few years. But before they can do this they first need money, but because of today’s economy, fewer people than ever are taking trips to ski resorts over the holidays. Therefore ski resorts need to look for other ways to earn money. One possible way for them to do this is to organize a fundraiser. Fundraisers will not only raise money for the resorts, but also gain publicity for the issues related to ski resorts. It is very important for people to become aware of the problems with ski resorts. Once people know what goes into building ski resorts, they will begin to take efforts to combat the negative effects.

Another possible solution could be getting all the resorts to form a union. If all the ski resorts in the United States formed a union, the successful and wealthy resorts could help the smaller, struggling resorts. They could lend money, give advice, and all the resorts could have a shared leader. This way, money can be appropriately distributed, and if multiple ski resorts do not have enough money, the government could donate money to the alliance, instead of paying each resort individually. Anyway, as the old saying goes: there is safety in numbers.

No matter what the ski resorts choose to do, the most important thing is that they learn how to “use but not abuse” nature. Vacationers should follow the same advice. If they use common sense, they should be able to think of ways to increase their annual profit, but at the same time not have a negative effect on the communities around them.

Works Cited Duffy, Ann. Personal Interview. 4 Jan. 2011.

“Eco-Resorts Turn White Slopes Green.” The New York Times. The New York Times. 19 Nov. 2006. Web. 2 Jan. 2011. http://travel.nytimes.com/2006/11/19/travel/19surfacing.html “ECO-TERRORISM IN VAIL, CO.” Econedlink. Council for Economic Education, n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2010. http://www.econedlink.org/lessons/index.php?lid=30&type=educator “International eco group hits out at 'illegal' ski resorts in Eastern Europe.” Property Wire. Property News. 25 Jan. 2009. Web 2 Jan. 2011. http://www.propertywire.com/news/europe/illegal-ski-resorts-eastern-europe200901252480.html “Mammoth Yosemite Airport – MMH.” Mammoth Lakes. 2 Jan. 2011. Web. 2 Jan. 2011. http://www.visitmammoth.com/static/index.cfm?contentID=656 “Planning, Design, and Construction: Mammoth, CA.” The Green Room – The Ski Industry Environmental Database. National Ski Areas Association. N.d. Web. 2 Jan. 2011. http://www.nsaa.org/nsaa/environment/the_greenroom/index.asp?mode=greenroom&group=G1 "Pollution From Construction - Sustainable Build (UK)." Sustainable Building, Development and ECO Construction Techniques at Sustainable Build (UK). SustainableBuild. Web. 02 Feb. 2011. http://www.sustainablebuild.co.uk/PollutionFromConstruction.html “SKI RESORT CONSTRUCTION IN BULGARIA WORRIES ENVIRONMENTALISTS.” Bulgaria Property Wise. Economedia Group. 26 Jan. 2007. Web. 2 Jan. 2011. http://www.propertywisebulgaria.com/article/ski-resort-construction-in-bulgaria-worriesenvironmentalists/id_110/catid_2 “Sochi Faces Challenges, Scrutiny Ahead Of Olympics.” NPR. PBS. 9 Jun. 2009. Web. 2 Jan. 2011. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=105162265 "Whistler Creekside and Whistler Sliding Centre Biodiversity Profiles - Creekside and Sliding Centre." Environment Canada. Environment Canada, 20 May 2010. Web. 02 Feb. 2011. http://www.ec.gc.ca/pbjobpog/default.asp?lang=En&n=4D1F2C17-1

75 John B Craig Butz Research in the Community – E Block January 25, 2011 Get In the Ring: the Story of Musical Development in the US Ever since the dawn of human society, and perhaps long before that to the origins of sentient communication between species, music has had an important and defining presence in life on earth. From the mating calls of animals to complicated and multifaceted symphonies, we experience music constantly, encompassing a vast range of complexity and style. Music is a large part of our lives today, with a dominant presence in pop culture through songs, movies, TV shows and commercials. It also brings communities together and creates common links between otherwise entirely different people. But music has become a massive commercial industry, and at the top of this industry are the producers and record companies, who promote and advertise artists to drive the business and to drive profit for their companies. Artists are subject to more and more pressure from the industry as well as consumers to conform to popular expectations for music and produce “hot” singles, but often this comes at the expense of real musical development. Despite pressure from record companies and audiences, it is important that artists develop musically even though it can be riskier. As long as record companies can produce top selling artists, the industry stays profitable, but is it at the expense of real musical development?

As time goes on, the interests of the common people change, and while these changes translates to almost every aspect of life (for example, clothing styles or car choices) they are seen quite prominently in the musical tastes of the public. Throughout history, there have been genres of music that have had periods of popularity, lasting anywhere from a few weeks to many decades. This ongoing shift poses many questions about music. First of all, what makes a genre, an individual artist, or even just a song popular? And, if an artist, genre or song is able to gain popularity, what causes the public to move on? To answer these questions, one must first identify what factors contribute to the popular music. The first characteristic is that the audience has to be able to connect to the music, in order for an emotional response to be elicited from the listener, because listeners most enjoy the types of music that are able to cause the largest emotional response. Popular music genres, as well as successful artists within those genres are able to connect with the public, and to make connections between people who are otherwise entirely different. (Mystery Train) To look further into the American music industry, one must understand the development of popular music in the US. Two prominent examples of American popular music in the past are blues music and rock n’ roll music. Of the many genres that make up the American music scene, there are hardly any that span more generations and have more influence than blues or rock. Since the 1930’s, commercial music has been made up largely of blues, rock, and rock-based subgenres, and while there have always been “underground” genres they usually don’t receive industry or media attention. While genres such as rap and hip-hop have risen to popularity in the recent years, they both indirectly take roots from rock-based genres, and even genres like Pop are considered to be a subbranch of rock music, sharing similar chord structures and lyrical styles. Songs of these genres usually follow the verse-chorus song structure, while genres like Rap can be more freestyle.

One of the first major genres to gain popularity in the US after the spread of radios was Blues music, named after the phrase “blue devils” meaning sadness and melancholy. Since the founding of America in 1776, the US has stood for different form of values than the conventional European values, born of the struggle to escape from the naturally imposed limits. From the time of the Civil War, Americans have been fighting to break and re-establish boundaries, aiming for and pursuing life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. This pursuit, along with the accompanying struggles and inevitable failures, is embodied in a stereotype that is prominent in blues music, that of a ‘worried man’, who is constantly fighting for these goals and at the core of these goals the pursuit of happiness. (Mystery Train) The struggles faced by common people were exacerbated during and after the Great Depression, which coincided with the popularization of the radio among the public, as well as the beginning of commercial broadcasting. In music these struggles often translate to gloomy, bleak, sad songs speaking of the troubles of life, with sad tones and simple song structures. In the late 1920’s and 30’s, this was the type of music most relatable to the general public, and therefore was one of the most popular forms of music.

The rise of the radio and commercial broadcasting, however, also marked a rise in power of the music industry. Now, with radio as a main form of advertising and promotion for the artist, large companies could pick and choose who they could promote, and the importance of being “mainstream” or “hot” started to pick up. This trend continued even further in the 60’s. (Ewbank)

76 By the 1960’s and onwards, the views and tastes of the public had changed. In the years after World War II, The US was experiencing one of its strongest economic periods, and Americans had more money to spend on leisure and entertainment than ever before. This increased spending power meant that music became much more of a commercial product, and thus developed to be more aurally pleasing. (Ewbank) A good way to convey this new energy and appeal was through rock music. Louder and more direct than its predecessors, rock n’ roll offered a more theatrical experience as well as a more commercially viable product, and appealed to a wider audience than the sad tones of blues.

Another important aspect of music, besides connecting to the audience and connecting audience members, is the ability to “challenge” the audience. An example that comes to mind of a band that truly embodies and emphasizes these challenges is the hard rock band Guns N’ Roses, often billed in their prime as “the most dangerous band in the world”. Debatably one of the most popular bands to come out of the so-called glam-metal scene of Los Angeles in the 80’s, Guns N’ Roses achieved fame with their debut album, Appetite for Destruction, which has sold more than 28 million copies to date and remains the highest selling debut album ever from a band. From their formation in 1985, to 1993 when the band fell apart due to hostility between lead guitarist Slash and singer Axl Rose, the band hit the music industry as well as audiences worldwide with an unrefined, aggressive sound which sparked many controversies. The Guns N’ Roses song “Get in the Ring” is a great example of this. Released in 1991 on disk 2 of their double album “Use Your Illusion”, the song serves as a confrontation to critics and magazines who have given Guns N’ Roses a “dangerous” reputation, as well as supposedly giving them negative reviews for their actions on stage. Guns’ singer Axl Rose calls out media critics by name, such media critics Andy Secher (from Hit Parader), Mick Wall (Kerrang!), and Bob Guccione, Jr. (Spin), and calls on them to “get in the ring” (actual lyrics: “you wanna antagonize me? Antagonize me, [expletive], get in the ring [expletive] and I’ll kick your [expletive] little a**, punk!”) (Guns N' Roses, Back in Fighting Form) While vulgar and offensive, this song and others on the album, Use Your Illusion II, give a great example of the sort of stands made by 80’s hard rock and punk bands. While the “challenges” posed by artists to the community have changed, from the straightforward, blunt and borderline offensive stands made by 80’s bands and in the punk rock movement, they still exist in the way that the audience is challenged to accept what many may consider radical or extreme personalities and ideals.

One great example of this is Lady Gaga, who has become a media sensation because of her unique clothing and videography. She doesn’t send challenges in line with bands like Guns N’ Roses, but she does challenge the audience in a unique way, which is challenging them to accept her for who she is.

Today’s popular music, however, has lost a large part of its ability to connect to or challenge the audience on a deeper level. More and more often, top selling artists are writing short, catchy radio hits, about topics like being rich and famous or even just describing the hook-up culture that has come to embody a large part of the American social scene. These songs can be enjoyable to listeners but they fail to connect to a large part of the audience. On the contrary, the music forces the audience to connect to the artists, making people aspire to be like their favorite artists. While this music may still be enjoyable to many listeners, this type of connection does not support the growth of music as much as when the music can connect to a changing audience. When audiences have Top 100 Chart songs played to them all day, every day, through the radio, the public is forced to connect to the artist and not the other way around, there is no force acting to spur change from the artist, and many artists will establish a set in stone image based off what the audience sees as popular.

While this trend seems disappointing, anybody who listens to the radio can tell you that the majority of radio stations have fallen into this pattern. In this way, music loses its ability to adapt to changing times and changing audiences, and eventually falls out of touch with society because it fails to stay relevant. In short, the public will move on because invariably there will be a new trend that arises to fill the void, one that is able to connect to the audience, even if it’s just for a moment.

Author Greil Marcus, however, has a different perspective on the inability of current artists to stay popular for very long. His explanation is that modern day artists “simply do not have as much to give to society.” He believes that artists in today’s culture don’t have the lengthy careers that previous generations had because they often can produce only one hit, only one notable contribution to society through their music.

While this may be a reflection of musical talent, it isn’t necessarily a reflection of their inability to connect with the audience. Unlike bands like The Beatles and The Rolling Stones, or artists like Elvis Presley and Michael Jackson, many artists simply can’t keep producing the hits required to maintain popularity. It is up to individual listeners to determine whether it is because of industry pressure, or lack of talent, or a rapidly shifting public, but the companies and producers that make up the music industry have an undeniable influence on this.

77 While there are still many artists who break the norms to create music that reaches its full potential, these artists now represent a shrinking minority underneath the huge number of overnight celebrities and artists who only achieve fleeting fame, maybe with one or two hits, but no longer with careers spanning decades like the biggest artists of previous decades. This group of independent artists is the minority because they often don’t receive the full support and endorsement of the major record companies. These record companies exist not to push the development of culturally relevant music. Instead, they ride the waves of popular artists to make a profit. Artists who may push boundaries but do not reach stardom are not endorsed as much by the record industries, and therefore do not have as much power to instigate musical change. Does this mean that the producers and large record companies in the music industry are against artists who push boundaries to develop musically and to be relevant to society? Not necessarily, but the fact is that by instead giving their endorsements to overnight celebrities, they are invariably hindering the progress of cultural musical development.

Besides the cultural reasons pushing for musical development, there are other, biological reasons why music should not be limited by the desire of the industry and controlled by the expectations of consumers.

Music has evolved for the purpose of enjoyment as well as to mutually benefit groups of organisms. Studies show that the first definable music originated in mating calls of prehistoric animals, utilized by young males to signify to females that they were dominant and healthy and therefore a good candidate for mating, in order to further their genes. (We Got Rhythm; the Mystery Is How and Why) Furthermore, it is strongly suspected that early groups of human ancestors used music in the form of songs to signify their cohesion to rival groups of humans. However, this effect is not just an emotional placebo to make us feel good. Researchers at the Montreal Neurological Institute recently took PET scans of musician’s brains, while they listened to music they enjoyed, and found that the brain produced similar signals to those created by food, sex, and addictive drugs. Furthermore, research in Montreal as well as at the University of Dartmouth and at Harvard Medical School suggest that people have built in brain circuits to recognize things such as chords and notes, as well as changes in pitch or tone and ascending or descending scales. These neurons are found particularly on the right side of the brain, in contrast to those used in linguistic skills, which are located more exclusively on the left side of the brain. (The Mystery of Music: How It Works In the Brain). While they are separate at more distinct levels, these neurons share common ground at lower levels, suggesting that specialization and distinction between music, language, and other sounds has developed in the human brain as music has developed throughout history. There is an innate ability hardwired into the human brain to enjoy music, and to respond emotionally and even physically through chemical signals to music that is pleasing to the listener.

Why, then, should artists not be free to produce music they enjoy, rather than conforming to industry standards for musical expression? The industry is limiting the freedom of expression of artists, and this has a negative effect on the enjoyability of music. Artists who conform to standards and buckle to the will of the industry are not pushing musical boundaries, and often are not creating songs that are musically pleasing. This negatively affects musical development as well as the overall quality of popular music because artists are not able to live up to their full potential if that potential is not perfectly in line with industry standards. Another problem with industry standards is the fact that, when artists do not comply with a consumer-bestowed image, they risk alienation and loss of popularity and commercial success. Greil Marcus sums this up in his book Mystery Train: Images of America in Rock 'n' Roll Music, saying that “[an artist] can move on, and perhaps cut himself off from his audience; if he does, his work will lose all the vitality and strength it had when he knew it mattered to other people. Or the artist can accept the audience’s image of himself, pretend that his audience is his shadowy ideal, and lose himself in his audience. Then he will only be able to confirm; he will never be able to create”. He goes on to say that “rock n’ roll at its best a democratic art”, which means that the back-andforth between the artist and the industry is almost like a political battle, attempting to reach the best sort of compromise between the desires of the artist and the will of the industry. This should not be the case. When the music industry, through record companies and producers, limits the ability of artists to create music to their fullest potential, it is also limiting the ability of artists to be relevant to culture and to adapt to changes in society, thereby doing a disservice to that society. What’s even worse is, when artists don’t comply with these standards, the record companies can even take legal action against them. An example of this is when Geffen Records sued Neil Young for $3.3 million, for producing music that was “not commercial” and “unrepresentative of himself” (Marcus Interview). What does this mean? This means that Geffen Records went so far in trying to define Young, as an artist, that they saw any experimentation as a breach of contract warranting legal action. However, Young countersued, saying that he was promised “no creative interference”.

This is a clear example to show that the record companies can, and will, overstep their boundaries to try to control music.

78 Even though artists such as Neil Young and Guns N’ Roses will stand up against the industry, they can’t do it alone. The public needs to stand up for artist’s rights, and to speak out against music companies who use their power to define and limit artists. In the long run, who knows what will happen. Not even Greil Marcus, who when asked about the future of the music industry based on past trends, said “I never answer that… because I don’t know and I don’t answer it because I don’t want to know.”. The widely spread out, individualized nature of artists and audience members means it is difficult and even impossible to predict where the public opinion will sway to next, but one thing is clear: As long as record companies and producers have the power to choose who is advertised and promoted, to define the image of the artists they choose to represent, and even to try and punish those artists who go against the industry, the development of music is limited and restricted. Even science supports the fact that artists should have free will to produce music that they will find most enjoyable. No matter where music goes from here, the industry will continue to have presence, but it is imperative that they be pushed to relinquish some of their control over artists, in order to benefit music the most. This push must come from the audiences who want to enjoy music that is unhindered by industry control. As Axl Rose once said, the record industries and audiences need to get in the ring.

Works Cited Ewbank, Allison J. Whose Master’s Voice? The Development of Popular Music in Thirteen Cultures. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997. Print.

Ganz, Jacob. “The Decade In Music: The Way We Listen Now.” NPR Music. NPR, 22 Dec 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2010 Harrington, Richard. “Guns N' Roses, Back in Fighting Form” Washington Post, 15 Sep. 1991. Print.

Luukkonen, Jarmo. “Here Today… Gone To Hell! – Guns N’ Roses history” 1996-2010. Web. Jan 19. 2011.

Marcus, Greil. Mystery Train: Images of America in Rock 'n' Roll Music. New York, NY: Penguin Books USA, 1997. Print.

Marcus, Greil. Personal Interview.30 Jan. 2011.

O’Hagan, Sean. “The 50 moments that shaped pop history.” The Observer. Guardian.co.uk. 2 May. 2004. Web. 3 Jan. 2011.

Richards, Keith. “Life” New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company, 2010. Print.

Wade, Nicholas. “We Got Rhythm; the Mystery Is How and Why.” New York Times. New York Times, 16 Sept. 2003. Web. 2 Jan. 2011.

79 Gabriel C Craig Butz Research in the Community – A Block 2/2/11 Urban Redevelopment in the Western Addition Historically, urban renewal in the Western Addition and lower Fillmore districts has been unforgiving for the African-American community and an act of racism. The SFRA’s attempts to correct their past mistakes using large developments were a repeat of their lack of success and they have not been able to rebuild the black community. In order to return the sense of unity in the Western Addition, the local government needs to fund the startups of small and locally owned businesses in the neighborhood in a Fillmore Street shopping district.

The beginnings of the strong black community in San Francisco began as the United States entered World War II against Nazi Germany and Japan. This occurred because President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which evicted the entire Japanese-American population living in the Western United States. In San Francisco, the Japanese-American population resided in the Fillmore and Western Addition, which meant that many buildings became vacant as the government sent many Japanese-Americans off to concentration camps.

Consequently, many African-Americans began to migrate from areas of the Deep South to the Western Addition in San Francisco because of the vacancies and discrimination against blacks for living in other parts of the city. The former homes and businesses of the Japanese-Americans filled quickly with migrant African-Americans. There were so many people that some families shared a house with two other families and needed to sleep in shifts (The Fillmore). As the new black community found work and developed skills in the war industry, they established their own cultural and social institutions like churches, schools, and small businesses. They made the Fillmore and Western Addition their own.

After World War II in the 1950s, the Japanese Americans tried to return to the Fillmore and Western Addition, but they were not able to. The returning Japanese-Americans lost their pieces of property when the government evicted them and the strong and new black community occupied their former homes and businesses.

Furthermore, the black community’s large numbers per household put strain on the old Victorian homes and led to urban blight. The houses in the Fillmore suffered from urban blight and the city of San Francisco recognized that, so they used the housing act of 1945 to wreck blighted buildings in the current Nihon Machi Cultural Center and Japantown Shopping Center. The redevelopment agency, headed by Justin Herman at the time, deemed this project “Western Addition Area 1 (A1).” A1 affected over 20,000 people, primarily African-Americans over two square miles of land in the Western Addition along Geary Street (The Fillmore). However, in the time that the agency used in the final stages of the planning process, the African-American community built a vibrant jazz district with countless restaurants, nightclubs, and other small businesses. The Fillmore was a cultural center of San Francisco and attracted famous musicians from all over the country. As the agency used eminent domain to kick people out of their houses for minimal compensation, they claimed to be eliminating blight. In reality, they were trying to remove the non-white population and break up the black community in San Francisco.

The SFRA’s system for labeling an area as “blighted” was a point system. The more points a neighborhood gets, the more likely that it will receive “blight” designation. One of the factors that added points to a given neighborhood was the non-white population. This shows how the SFRA’s goal at the time was to break up the communities of non-white San Franciscans (Finch 29).

To add insult to injury, the new Geary expressway unintentionally created a North to South dividing line right through the heart of the neighborhood (The Fillmore). Although the agency thought that they were doing the city a service by renewing the blighted homes of the Western Addition, the project eliminated a vibrant community and proved that large redevelopment and demolition projects are not able to improve neighborhoods.

80

Fig. 1: This is a map of Western Addition A-1. The boundaries range from Eddy Street at its southern most point and Post Street at its northern most point. The Eastern boundary is Franklin Street and the Western boundary is between Broderick and Baker Streets. Generally, A-1 divides the black community in two because the SFRA centered the project on the Geary corridor (Fischer).

Fig 2: This is a map of Western Addition A-2. The boundaries are about Grove Street at its southern most point and Bush Street at its northern most point. The Eastern boundary is Van Ness Avenue and the Western boundary is Baker Street. A-2 encompasses the entire black community in San Francisco and people see this project as an expansion of A-1 (Fischer).

As the agency completed A1, bland and lifeless buildings replaced the vibrant community gathering places and majestic Victorian homes. Seeing the unsuccessful results, the agency decided to plan for another larger project called Western Addition Area 2. A2 would affect 60sq blocks and 13,000 residents in the Western Addition (The Fillmore). The boundaries of A2 expanded from the original boundaries of A1, which is the current Nihon Machi Cultural Center, St. Mary’s Cathedral, and along Geary Blvd. The new project called for wiping out the black community’s core in San Francisco in the entire Western Addition and Fillmore districts. The agency faced stiff opposition to the project and even lost a lawsuit to WACO (Western Addition Community Organization) who called for more community involvement in the plans for the area. In response, Herman appointed Wilbur Hamilton, an African-American who did not live in the Western Addition, but WACO was skeptical because he was an outsider to the community. As the agency started clearing huge plots of land in A2, the black population began to leave to the Bayview/Hunter’s Point area, Oakland, and the Peninsula. The demolition in A2 removed the black community and only four percent of the former Fillmore businesses returned after the demolitions were completed. In A2’s aftermath, the Western Addition’s crime rate rose significantly and there were almost no economic opportunities because of the large vacant plots of land. In retrospect, over 883 businesses left, 4729 households moved out, and the SFRA demolished about 2500 Victorian homes (Fullbright). The redevelopment agency made no effort after that to rectify the racist removal of the vibrant black community in the Fillmore and Western Addition until the plans for the Fillmore Center came out in the 1980s.

81 In the late 1980s and 1990s, the redevelopment agency completed their construction on the Fillmore Center, a large redevelopment project to help the Western Addition and eliminate urban blight. The plans included up to three blocks along Fillmore Street with businesses that would be returning to the area from the demolitions of A1 and A2, businesses that would hire the local residents in their workforce, and new housing units for lower and working class residents (possibly returning residents from the 1950s and 1960s). The Fillmore Center faced scrutiny from the remaining black community because they were afraid of more gentrification in the Fillmore. Even though half of the housing units in the Fillmore Center would go to lower and working class residents, many of them would not be from the Western Addition because the SFRA had not kept their list of certificate of preference holders up to date (Gilden). The SFRA handed out these certificates to evicted residents of the Western Addition and the Fillmore.

Each certificate holder gained favor and increased priority to buy the newly developed housing and commercial units in the new developments. However, the SFRA tried to contact as many people as possible, but most of the former residents started a new life and did not feel the need to return to the neighborhood filled with good memories and great pain. The returning residents would walk up and down Fillmore and see a small shadow of what their history used to look like and the Fillmore Center would not be able to return the area to its former glory (Wagner).

Even though the SFRA desperately reached out to former residents, they could only convince 22% of the 5000 people who used to live in the Fillmore and Western Addition to return to the area (Fullbright. “Some evicted in ‘renewal’...”). Although the Fillmore Center will try to make amends for the SFRA’s devastating and racist decisions in the past, the surrounding community in the Western Addition wants a greater effort from the redevelopment agency and feels that the Fillmore Center will not be able to do that (Fullbright). In the past, the large redevelopment projects have not been successful. Although the Fillmore Center brought in tax revenue for the city, it was not able to rebuild the community.

As the SFRA tried in introduce businesses into the area in the 1990s, they had to sell empty plots of land for extremely low prices to convince businesses to move into the neighborhood in an effort to increase tax revenues.

Although the residents in the Western Addition were worried that the new businesses would not hire members of the community, Mr. Mel Lee, a former employee of the SFRA, says that “part of the deal with Safeway and other businesses in the Fillmore Center was to include the local residents and train them in the industry.” In the case of Safeway, the hiring process was successful, but it was not able to help restore the sense of community. The SFRA’s main goal in redeveloping the Fillmore again was to increase tax revenues for the city rather than to establish community institutions (Lee). In reality, the SFRA is working to benefit the city, not the neighborhood people who need it the most.

The grim reality that the agency is working against the neighborhood is evident in the 1990 and 2000 censuses. In the 2000 census, the population of San Francisco went up by 7% from 1990, while the black population went down by almost 20,000 people (Nieves). In most American cities, the black population was decreasing in urban areas because they had been moving upward in socio-economic class and moving out to the suburbs.

However, the situation in San Francisco was much different. The high cost of living and more gentrification in the Fillmore led to African-Americans moving out of the city. In addition, the middle-class black population had sold their property to cash in on the strong real estate market and they had to move to East Bay cities with cheaper housing prices and more job opportunities. By 2001, the city’s demolitions of low-income housing projects and replacing them with more affluent condominiums and housing units has effectively kicked out many AfricanAmericans (Nieves). By 2008, high-end restaurants like Yoshi’s have opened in the Fillmore and attracted more outsiders to the area. In essence, gentrification of the Fillmore south of Geary Blvd. has truncated the borders of the Western Addition.

This trend of the black population decreasing has contributed to a smaller base of support for the community institutions. This means that the black population in San Francisco is losing their cultural identity and sense of belonging to a community. The only area where there is a high concentration of African-Americans is in the Bayview and Hunter’s Point area. Many residents there say that the only reason why the redevelopment agency has not exercised its power on the prime real estate of Hunter’s View, a hill with a pretty view of the bay in the Hunter’s Point area, is because of the amount of toxic waste underground (Nieves). Even though the main commercial area in the Bayview and Hunter’s Point area is Third Street and the new light rail line, established in 2008, links the Bayview to downtown, residents are skeptical of new developers bringing in higher value properties to the area.

Many residents still carry the pain and resentment of the redevelopment of the 60s, so they do not want to lose the small part of San Francisco that they still have (Vega).

In the future, it will be impossible for the redevelopment agency to restore the jazz district in the Fillmore.

This means that the redevelopment agency should not reach out to former residents of the Fillmore. Instead, the city of San Francisco should focus on overseeing the developers along Third Street in the Bayview to ensure that they are hiring local residents in the area and training them with valuable skills in businesses and commerce. In order for

82 the black community in Bayview/Hunter’s Point to thrive, private developers and the natural flow of the real estate market need to spur commercial activity instead of the redevelopment agency. In addition, developers should construct churches and community centers so that the surrounding community can form their own cultural and social institutions. Not only will this strengthen the economic opportunities available to the residents, but it will also ensure that the African-American community in the Bayview/Hunter’s Point are will be more unified.

In the past, the redevelopment agency’s multiple attempts at redeveloping area to improve the area have been unsuccessful. When the city tried to eliminate blight in the 50s and 60s, the black community blossomed and grew at the cusp of redevelopment. The projects show how large demolitions are effective at eliminating urban blight, but not effective at maintaining the communities in the area.

In the future, the city of San Francisco should not try to use additional, drastic, and sweeping redevelopments to rebuild the black community in the Western Addition. Instead, the local government should introduce more youth programs in the neighborhood connected to schools. For the public schools in the area, they need smaller class sizes and more counseling for students and their families. These programs would help students succeed in school, which ultimately allows them to be productive citizens and a positive contribution to the neighborhood. Once a new wave of successful students emerges, they will be able to start their own businesses and work in the existing businesses in the Fillmore. Not only will a productive community bring them together more, they will strengthen the economic prosperity of the area as well. From the past, it is obvious that redevelopment projects do not work to strengthen the community. There could be new buildings all over the place, but real success comes from unifying and strengthening the existing residents instead of introducing outsiders in new housing units.

Works Cited Broussard, Albert. Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1993. Print.

Dearen, Jason. "In S.F.'s Fillmore District, Memories of a Vibrant Life Before 'Renewal'." The Washington Post. 16 Nov. 2008, US National Newspapers, ProQuest. Web. 14 Dec. 2010.

The Fillmore. Dir. Rick Butler. Narr. Ossie Davis. KQED, 1999. Film.

Finch, Kelsey. Trouble in Paradise: Postwar History of San Francisco’s Hunter’s Point Neighborhood. Diss. Stanford University, 2008. Print.

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Fullbright, Leslie. “Some evicted in ‘renewal’ may get housing help.” SF Gate. San Francisco Chronicle. 18 Aug. 2008. Web. 1 Jan. 2011.

Gilden, Julia. "FOCUS: San Francisco; 20-Year Rehabilitation About to Bear Fruit." New York Times. 5 Feb. 1989, Late Edition (East Coast): New York Times, ProQuest. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.

Lee, Mel. Personal Interview. 18 Jan. 2011.

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Vega, Cecilia M. “Some in Bayview Fear the ‘R’ Word.” SF Gate. San Francisco Chronicle. 28 Feb. 2006. Web. 1 Jan. 2011.

Wagner, Venise. "Fillmore Center bid spurs debate Black leaders prefer sale to a local company, but many residents, business people are skeptical :[SECOND Edition]. " San Francisco Examiner. 27 Apr. 1998, California Newspapers, ProQuest. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.

Wagner, Venise. “City panel OKs sale of Fillmore Center.” San Francisco Examiner. 26 Aug. 1998. Web. 23 Jan. 2011.

Wagner, Venise. "Western Addition residents in exile Renewal forced them out, won't let thousands return: [SECOND Edition]." San Francisco Examiner. 21 Apr. 1998, California Newspapers, ProQuest. Web. 14 Dec. 2010.

83 Amanda C Craig Butz Research in the Community—A Block 3 March 2011 What’s an Extra Nucleic Acid or Two Between Friends?

An Evaluation of Our Current Food Policy The growing controversy over genetically engineered foods presents a multifaceted and critical issue as consumers struggle to make informed decisions about what they are eating. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been on the market now for over fifteen years and yet there are still numerous questions regarding the safety, politics, and regulations behind genetic engineering. There are many components to the debate over biotechnology, but perhaps one of the most fundamental concerns is just how safe is the food we’re eating?

Although various proponents of GMOs cite studies asserting the safety of transgenic foods, insufficient safety regulations and lack of adequate testing are cause for concern and a revaluation of government policy.

In the 1970’s scientists began to develop genetic engineering, and it replaced traditional hybridization in the 1990’s to increase profit and efficiency (Cummins and Lilliston 15-16). Prior to the development of biotechnology, scientists transferred pollen from one plant to another to introduce new traits. The drawback of this method of cross-breeding is that desired traits can only be introduced if they are found in a close relative of the host plant. Biotechnology enables scientists to introduce new DNA into a host plant to combine traits from radically diverse organisms (United States “Statement”). In gene transfer, enzymes act like chemical scissors, ‘cutting’ the desired gene out and inserting it into the DNA of the host organism. For example, it is possible to insert the genes found in a fish into a tomato. As genetic engineering increased yields, protected against pests, and increased efficiency, many large companies recognized the potential advantages of this revolutionary new technology. As a result, corporate giants like Monsanto did their utmost to usher GMOs onto the market with minimal governmental restrictions.

Ultimately, it is the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) responsibility to ensure that all commercialized GMOs are subjected to sufficient safety assessment before they are released and marketed. From the outset, however, the FDA’s policy on genetically engineered foods was vaguely worded and ambiguous with regard to what constituted adequate safety testing. In their Consultation Procedures under the 1992 statement of policy, the FDA stated that they [do] not conduct a comprehensive scientific review of data generated by the developer. Instead, the FDA considers, based on agency scientists’ evaluation of the available information, whether any unresolved issues exist regarding the food derived from the new plant variety that would necessitate legal action by the agency if the product were introduced into commerce. (Consultation Procedures) Furthermore, consultation with the FDA during the developmental stages of GMOs was optional until the 2000’s.

Before the FDA chose to mandate the consultation process, developers were merely “encourage[d]…to consult early in the development phase” and were “recommend[ed]” to follow several prescribed steps “to inform FDA about bioengineered foods that are intended to be introduced into commercial distribution” (Consultation Procedures). The FDA suggested that developers submit a summary of their safety and nutritional assessment including where the introduced genetic material is derived from, the intended function of the added DNA, whether or not scientists believed the modification is likely to induce an allergic reaction in consumers, and any other relevant safety data (Consultation Procedures). In addition to the voluntary submission of data, the FDA’s regulations provided each company with a choice of which tests to submit. Not only that, but instead of submitting entire studies, the government only required companies to present a summary of their data (Cummins and Lilliston 42). Although current policy is an adequate basis for an overview, the requirements stated both in the FDA’s Consultation Procedures and in the 1992 Federal Register were not sufficient to establish the safety of GMOs poised for release in the 1990’s—let alone during the 2000’s.

Moreover, the FDA has based much of their current method of safety evaluation on a controversial concept called “substantial equivalence,” whereby if the FDA deems a food substantially equivalent to its conventional antecedent it is classified as safe for consumption (Millstone, Brunner, and Mayer). The FDA’s delineation of substantial equivalence parallels its food policies as both are lax and ill-defined. In the 1992 Federal Register, the FDA notes that “In most cases the substances expected to become components of food as a result of genetic modification of a plant will be the same as or substantially similar to substances commonly found in food, such as proteins, fats and oils, and carbohydrates” (United States “Statement”). Many scientists take issue with the use of substantial equivalence as a means of testing because

84 the degree of difference between a natural food and its GM alternative before its ‘substance’ ceases to be ‘equivalent’ is not defined anywhere, nor has an exact definition been agreed [on] by legislators. It is exactly this vagueness which makes the concept useful to industry but unacceptable to the consumer. (Millstone, Brunner, and Mayer).

The lack of clarity and specificity with regard to substantial equivalence is a convenience for corporations because it enables them to market their products quickly, efficiently, and without lengthy testing, as they only have to meet a low and poorly defined standard. However, while efficient, substantial equivalence is not an objective standard and should not be a key factor in determining food safety.

A report by the Canadian Royal Society expounded on the problem of substantial equivalence saying that to say that the new food is ‘substantially equivalent’ is to say that ‘on its face’ it is equivalent (i.e., it looks like a duck and it quacks like a duck; therefore we assume that it must be a duck—or at least we will treat it as a duck). Because ‘on its face’ the new food appears equivalent, there is no need to subject it to a full risk assessment to confirm [the] assumption. (Pringle 66) Substantial equivalence is a vaguely defined legal standard “based on a simplistic view of living cells…[that] overlooks all the interactions between genes, and the direct or indirect potential metabolic consequences of insertional mutagenesis” (de Vendômois). Moreover, it is a standard that fails to serve the interests of the consumer.

From the outset, substantial equivalence has served, not as a useful guideline for producers, but as a glaring loophole to enable corporations to bypass relevant safety assessments (Millstone, Brunner, and Mayer).

In addition to establishing the standard of substantial equivalence, the FDA has dubbed most GM foods GRAS, or Generally Regarded As Safe—yet another technicality that allows companies to circumvent safety tests (Cummins and Lilliston 92). The 2001 Federal Register asserts that “transferred genetic material can be presumed to be GRAS,” meaning that because nucleic acids are in everything we eat, the FDA does not view them as a health concern when transferred using genetic modification techniques (United States “Premarket”). Because of their GRAS status, the FDA does not treat genetically engineered foods as food additives, and therefore does not require GM foods to undergo the same toxicological tests mandated for food additives (United States “Premarket”).

So what’s the problem? The FDA has an, albeit low, standard of evaluation; companies are able to increase their profits; food lines our supermarket shelves—why do we need additional testing? Corporations claim their products are safe, and consumers faithfully continue to buy them. After all, what’s an extra nucleic acid or two between friends? The issue is that the FDA’s lax standards on food safety could have dire consequences. For instance, suppose a GMO contained a gene that lay dormant for several years and then proved to be destructive.

There could be an entire host of medical problems tied to the consumption of GMOs, but we have no way of knowing. The fact that we have not seen any immediate detrimental health effects does not prove the safety of these plants. It is the FDA’s responsibility to enhance its safety policies to ensure consumers are not faced with negative health effects in the long term.

Unfortunately, the few tests done on GMOs have been poorly designed and are not sufficient to prove their safety. Current policy is that “the regulatory test [only has to be] performed once for each GMO, which [can then]…be eaten all over the world” (de Vendômois). These regulatory tests follow the same flawed schema: the tests are too short and the control rats vastly outnumber the test rats. The longest animal feeding test on file is 90 days—a period too short to observe any long-term effects. There are approximately four times more reference rats in the average feeding study then there are treated rats. Because of the test construction, “false negative effects may be…amplified by the poor experimental design that curbs…statistical power” (de Vendômois). A group of French scientists published in the International Journal of Biological Sciences wrote, “it is really impossible within 90 days, with a single experiment worldwide and such a small number of rats, to get a consistent toxicological picture” (de Vendômois). Current government policy makes blatantly clear that its top priority is not in fact the consumer, but the corporation.

A former researcher of the Rowett Institute in Scotland, Dr. Arpad Pusztai, conducted an experiment on genetically engineered potatoes. He found that although the GM potatoes were grown together in the same conditions, produced from the same gene insertion, and had the same genetic construct, there were several notable differences (Pusztai). Logically, the potatoes should have been incredibly similar to one another, but Pusztai discovered batch variation in his GM potatoes—he found differing levels of protein as well as other discrepancies.

Pusztai’s findings exemplify “the inherent unpredictability of gene-spliced foods and reminds us of how incredibly difficult it will be to carry out reliable chemical and safety tests on [genetically modified] foods” (Cummins and Lilliston 33). Furthermore, batch variation poses a significant concern for people with food allergies because, as each potato is different, “even if you test three potatoes and find that they do not cause an allergic reaction, a fourth potato of the same kind, produced by the same technique, could cause a toxic or allergic reaction” (Pusztai).

Admittedly, toxicologically testing every genetically modified potato ever produced worldwide to determine the

85 safety of GMOs is more than slightly extreme, but it is the government’s responsibility to find a balance that better protects the interests of the consumer.

Moreover, consumers are not informed about the products they buy. Genetically modified foods line our shelves unlabeled. The FDA maintains that they are not aware of any information showing that foods derived by these new methods differ from other foods in any meaningful or uniform way, or that, as a class, foods developed by the new techniques present any different or greater safety concern than foods developed by traditional plant breeding…the agency does not believe that the method of development of a new plant variety… [is] required to be disclosed in labeling for food. (United States “Statement”) The FDA’s basis for the supposition that GMOs present no new health risks is substantial equivalence, which is in itself a supposition. The government has based its food policies on assumptions, brief periods of testing, and little else. GMOs are not labeled because that would decrease their profitability—companies worry that branding a product with the slogan ‘Genetically Engineered’ will deter consumers (Nestle). While this is most likely true, consumers should have the option to steer clear of GMOs. Food safety has become a second priority to profitability; “although some stakeholders claim that a history of safe use of GMOs can be upheld, there are no human or animal epidemiological studies to support such a claim as yet, in particular because of the lack of labeling and traceability in GMO-producing countries” (de Vendômois). Current food policies have not been designed to impose strict regulations, rather they are in place to assist corporations with the efficient marketing of their products.

Additionally, the few studies done to determine food safety of GMOs, have been done by the corporations themselves and the tests are not available for public review. If other scientists want to peer review Monsanto’s feeding studies, they need a court order.

Dr. Arpad Pusztai said in an interview “It’s very unfair to use our fellow citizens as guinea pigs” (Pringle 96). Guinea pigs—that is exactly how the food industry is treating consumers. From the outset, food policies have not kept up with the advances in biotechnology. I do not mean to assert that GMOs are unhealthy or dangerous, merely that more stringent testing should be enforced. An extra nucleic acid or two could have dire consequences if that extra nucleic acid turns out to cause cancer. Corporations cannot be permitted to market new GMOs without proving their safety prior to their release, and it is irresponsible of the FDA to set so low a standard with regard to consumer health. The FDA should revise its legislation to balance the interests of the consumer with that of the corporations—food safety cannot continue to come in second to profitability.

Works Cited “Consultation Procedures Under FDA’s 1992 Statement of Policy—Foods Derived From New Plant Varieties.”

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 22 Feb. 2010. Web. 15 Jan. 2011.

Cummins, Ronnie and Ben Lilliston. Genetically Engineered Food: A Self-Defense Guide for Consumers. New York: Marlowe & Company, 2000. Print. de Vendômois, Joël Spiroux et al. “Debate on GMOs Health Risks after Statistical Findings in Regulatory Tests.”

International Journal of Biological Sciences 6.6 (2010): 590-598. PubMed. Web. 25 Jan. 2011.

Millstone, Erik, Eric Brunner, and Sue Mayer. “Beyond ‘Substantial Equivalence.’” Nature 401 (1999): n. pag.

Web. 20 Jan. 2011.

Nestle, Marion. What to Eat. New York: North Point Press, 2006. Print.

Pringle, Peter. Food, Inc.: Mendel to Monsanto—The Promises and Perils of the Biotech Harvest. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2003. Print.

Pusztai, Arpad. “Why I Cannot Remain Silent.” GM-Free. GM-Free, Aug.-Sept. 1999. Web. 17 Jan. 2011.

United States. Dept. of Health and Human Services. Food and Drug Administration. “Premarket Notice Concerning Bioengineered Foods.” Federal Register 66:12 (2001): 4706-4738. Web. 23 Jan. 2011.

United States. Dept. of Health and Human Services. Food and Drug Administration. “Statement of Policy: Foods Derived From New Plant Varieties.” Federal Register 57.104 (1992): 22984-23005. Microfilm.

86 Brendan D Craig Butz Research in the Community—A Block 22 Jan 2011 Caged and Sold People often think of the lion as the king of the jungle, a strong predator whose roar causes all other species to cower in fear. Yet the real kings of the jungle are wildlife smugglers. One of the biggest black markets in our society today, right above arms dealing and a little below drug dealing is the trafficking of wildlife. The two biggest customers of this underground industry are China and the United States, specifically California, New York, Texas, and Florida (Robinson; Begley). This cruel market focuses on capturing and selling some of the most exotic and rare species on the planet, and when the population of each of the species decreases, their prices begin to rise.

Some of the most targeted animals on the market are piranhas, Bengal tigers, Asian leopard kittens, song birds, parrots, small monkeys, and most recently various types of reptiles (Lovgren). The U.S Fish and Wildlife Service is responsible for protecting fish, plants, and wildlife in their natural habitats by keeping security standards high.

However, it is very hard to stop every single animal that passes through security (Wildlife). The trafficking of exotic and rare animals is a problem for humans, animals, and many of the world’s ecosystems. Although there are many incentives for both buyers and sellers that will never disappear, we can attempt to decrease or even end wildlife trafficking by putting a greater emphasis on airport and harbor security as well pushing for worldwide protection of habitats with endangered or threatened species.

Besides the obvious consequences of endangering a species, many people do not realize all the environmental issues that this black market causes. For instance, non-native and invasive species are indirectly introduced to other vulnerable ecosystems. Many animals carry potentially harmful insects and parasites that most wildlife smugglers and buyers are unaware of. Once they arrive, some may escape and reproduce, while eating many of our crops and possibly attacking our native animals. This can result in major disruptions of an ecosystem that may harm or diminish the populations of native plants and animals (Green 101). Besides our surroundings being threatened, our very own lives are threatened by diseases such as salmonella and which is deadly if left undetected (Reptiles). One of the worst parts is that it is nearly impossible to find a perfectly healthy animal taken from the wild and the chances of the animal getting sick in the owner’s care are very high (Landais). Besides the potential danger of introducing non-native insects or parasites, the animals themselves can imperil habitats they are put in along with the people living nearby. For example, in Florida, Burmese pythons have been found throughout the Everglades most likely from pet owners who abandoned or lost them. The Burmese pythons can kill smaller snakes or other animals that are beneficial to this ecosystem. This is a problem because animals that are brought into a new habitat and start becoming an issue to society or native animals are considered a native species. As well as harming a habitat when being introduced to it, the animal’s home is also put off balance when removed. For instance, if the lion is taken from the wild then the gazelles will thrive and eventually eat most of the land’s plants leaving them starving which would inevitably kill most plant eaters. One other thing that many people aren’t aware of is that about a hundred rangers are killed in Africa each year when they are defending wildlife or evidence lockers filled with ivory (Begley, Sharon). It is important for the buyer to actually think if all these consequences are worth the fancy bird or lizard and if it’s even worth putting you and your neighbors at risk when buying such an animal.

Many of the most dangerous and most targeted animals are chimps, reptiles, and large cats. Most of the time when buyers get these animals they will be able to care for them for a little while until they get too big, at which time they will be sent to wildlife rescues that are overcrowded with other outgrown animals (Green 120).

Chimpanzees are one of America’s favorite primates because of their close resemblance to humans and their entertaining pasts on television, movies, and ads. What many people don’t realize is that an adult chimpanzee is stronger than any human being, they are cannibalistic, and will suddenly turn from cute and sweet to ferocious in less than a second. One of the most famous cases was about Chandra and her husband Bill who owned a chimp, Travis who became the center of their towing business. Many world known owners admitted that this chimp was special for being so well behaved and talented. As the years passed, Chandra’s husband passed away and she was left with Travis, the chimp. He remained to be on good behavior until one day when he got out of her car and laid down in the middle of a heavy traffic road and would not budge for an hour and a half. He was seven, the age that most of these chimps turn when they start to get nasty, and this behavior should have been the sign. The next day the woman opened the cage and went outside, leaving the keys on the counter. She was washing her car when Travis unlocked himself from the door and came outside. After a long attempt at trying to get him back in, she called her friend, Sharla, who Travis had known since he was a baby. When she got there, she opened the door and was immediately attacked. After Chandra had repeatedly hit Travis with a shovel, she began to stab him in the back.

When he turned around, she saw a look in his eyes that told her to run. She called the police and when they arrived

87 he tried to open a squad car door when a police officer shot him twice. The chimp ran away to his cage and died.

Although Sharla was saved, she lost her eyes, her teeth, her fingers, and much of her facial tissue. As any person could see from this experience, chimps are vicious and will stop at nothing. The chimp was stabbed and hit and he continued for a long time until the police finally came. Chimps will last a while as a cute and well behaved baby but will eventually use their naturally given instincts when they are older. It wasn’t the chimps fault either and he didn’t deserve to die. The whole situation could have been avoided if Chandra didn’t get a chimp in the first place and had let him remain in the wild where his life would have been spared. There are many other incidents like this that show the animal dying because he was doing what he was naturally inclined to (“Chimp”).

Reptiles are one of the types of animals that get most often smuggled into the U.S. today. The problem with this is that reptiles are very hard, if not impossible to train. Many owners of reptiles, especially of venomous snakes, are vulnerable to hoarding due to the thrill and variety as well as the fact that they cannot achieve the same relationship with a reptile than with another animal or person so they continually try to reach that relationship with more and more of them. Every single wild animal has a defense and it is just a matter of time before they use it.

Ron Hoff’s experience became a famous case when he made the mistake of not realizing this. He owned ten plus monitor lizards which he let roam around his apartment. Until a certain age, they were pretty much the normal animal and showed no sign of hostility, at which time one bit him. Ron was an expert on this lizard and new perfectly well that he was infected with salmonella but he did not want to leave his lizards alone to starve on a five day hospital trip. He made the ultimate sacrifice because once he got weak enough he was not able to feed them and they eventually ate him (Reptiles). In this example it was the owners fault and if he had made a good friend to take care of the lizards when he was gone, he would have survived. The problem is that many reptile owners of snakes and lizards will start to get too comfortable around them and believe that they have an emotional bond with the animals. At this point, people begin to make mistakes such at being less careful or even dropping food in with their hands rather than with tweezers (Reptiles).

Tigers are one of the most exotic and rare animals that come to any person’s mind when animal trafficking is brought up. One of the saddest things about tigers is that there are more in captivity than in the wild (Green 135).

Many of them are owned by pet owners, shooting ranges, roadside zoos, and theme parks. Although this may be true, the amount of tigers throughout the United States is no excuse to own a tiger or buy a tiger part. Tigers should be bred for release to the wild, but many people will still hunt these tigers and breeding them in captivity may take away their natural instincts to fight capture. A tiger is in no way a good pet because it will always be stronger than any person and does not understand when playing has gone too far.

There are many motives for buyers in this black market that may never go away. The problem with California is that we have many cultures from around the world and the diversity fuels the demand for endangered species in medicines, foods, pets, and trophies (Lovgren; Robinson). In Tibet, many people of the wealthy class will wear tiger skin robes and even display tiger heads as a trophy of their wealth (Begley). In China, people make tiger bone wine, bear paw soup, rhino horns, snake wine, and use bear bile for various ancient remedies for anything from sexual stimulates to dissolving gallstones to hair loss. People in the increasing wealthy class will dine on shark fin soup, pangolin soup, and even tiger meat. Many people from Russia will buy illegal caviar and El Salvadoran restaurants buy sea turtle eggs for soup (Christy; China; Begley; Lovgren). The list continues as the diversity expands. Although trafficking brought by immigrants is a factor, we must not forget that many people born in our country still fund this black market with our desire for rare and exotic animals as pets.

Although we do not believe in the use of these animals for food or medicine, we do believe that they will be a good pet, which is false. We have been influenced since kids by movies about fish, reptiles, tigers, and even monkeys. These movies never show the bad side of these animals since they are meant for kids but actually these animals are wild and will never act the same way that they do on a movie set. Some animals, however, may not be vicious, but the environments they are taken from will still be effected greatly. For example, the movie Finding Nemo was supposed to educate kids about this exact topic, but this idea that taking animals from the wild went over their little minds and the large demand for clownfish began (Prosek; Robinson). The rarer an animal becomes, the greater the smuggling rate is. This is a very bad cycle because as an animal becomes endangered they start to become more desired, decreasing their amount throughout the world.

Smuggling exotic and rare animals into the U.S. has become a popular crime in the last fifty years because of its low punishments, high pay rate, and low chance of discovery. National Geographic estimates the money in this industry to be right behind the sales of drugs and higher than the sales of weapons. The Fish and Wildlife Service estimates it to be between ten to twenty billion U.S dollars. This is a large money incentive for many bad people that end up funding horrible things (Lovgren; Begley; Robinson). Another plus for this industry is that there are many methods to getting these animals to their destination without getting caught.

88 There are many methods to get an animal past our borders that have been possible for too long of a time.

One of the most common ways is sending them by sea cargo because authorities rarely check these shipments (Lovgren). The human x-ray machines helps strengthen our security but this still hasn’t stopped many people from carrying animals aboard since the chance of going through it is minimal. One of the biggest reasons smuggling occurs is that there are many flaws in our security system letting animals pass through unnoticed. If somebody does happen to get caught, the “maximum penalty is twenty years and a 500,000 dollar fine and remaining charges carry five years and a 250,000 dollar fine” (Wildlife). These penalties are lower than most criminal charges and do not deter smugglers as they should. With the low penalties, high success rate, and high pay that this black market industry offers, many criminals are attracted to it and begin to help the decline of wildlife species around the planet.

One solution that people have offered is to allow smugglers to breed animals in captivity and sell them.

Although this may sound like a good plan, it isn’t because it costs a lot to keep animals and allows for loopholes which would make trafficking stronger. Many of these allow for death certificates to be signed without verification meaning that people have the license to bring in these animals, sign a fake death certificate, and sell them. From here authorities won’t get suspicious when the animal is no longer there. Also many animals are expensive to keep and sometimes profitable dead. Tigers are one of the top examples today because “keeping [one] costs $5000 a year in food alone, but a bullet only costs a dollar” (Christy 14). This means that it is a lot cheaper to kill a tiger than to raise one and what’s even worse is that tigers are worth more dead than alive (Robinson). Along with it being more expensive, it is also a lot harder for many animals to breed in captivity because there are a number of things that can happen such as an unbalance in temperature for eggs or animal compatibility with more developed animals (Prosek).

This is especially true with reptiles because eggs are extremely delicate and incubators need to be set to just the right temperature. Besides this factor, reptiles are small, durable, and can go a long time without food or water, making them the top target for animal smugglers around the world (Christy).

One of the things that someone must consider when trying to solve a problem such as this, is to figure out who is a part of it. Although many of the sellers are those who have had a criminal past in gangs, drug dealing or firearm dealing (Wildlife), the state department and members of congress think that there is a link between terrorism and wildlife smuggling (Begley). This is a scary thought that terrorists are using animals to fund their operations and is particularly true in Africa. An example of this is the northern white rhinoceros with a current living number of thirteen. In 2003 they had just started to make a comeback and totaled to thirty-two in Africa but then a Darfur genocide group called Janjaweed came with AK47s and killed nineteen taking their horns with them. Janjaweed is believed to have caused about one hundred deaths of wildlife rangers each year for the easy money they get selling rhino horns and elephant tusks (Begley). Besides incidents such as these in Africa, many of the traffickers come from all around the world and typically have a criminal background in something animal or dealing related. Many times the people who receive and sell animals in the United States have a better record than those who ship, catch, or contact buyers. This is often because the final sellers will own a pet shop (International) or captive breed (Christy).

These people are often not suspected to be importing illegal animals but what they don’t realize is that when one goes down, they all go down. A typical seller to buyer chain will go from a catcher, often a local who will get paid as little as fifty dollars to a sender who sends it through a corrupt FedEx agent to a receiver who may be the final reseller or personally deliver it to the final buyer(International; Lovgren). Once this “package” arrives the buyer may pay as much as twenty times what the local sold it for which is sometimes worth it considering the risk the sellers have to take to get it there. Some people even skip shipping altogether and result to bribing customs officials.

In Malaysia, the system is so corrupt that when something is confiscated, the airport authorities will actually sell the contraband (Christy).

The reason our security lets so many animals pass through each year is because of the sophisticated network which takes advantage our security’s weaknesses. One of the most recent problems is the sale of these animals online, where “anything from live chimpanzees to whole elephant tusks” are sold (Mott). From this point, smugglers will buy from locals or catch animals from the wild and ship them in express delivery boxes. The problem here is that these smugglers will bribe FedEx employees to simply overlook the contents of the box (Lovgren; Robinson; Wildlife). Potential buyers don’t seem to realize that illegal things do happen on the internet and just because something is sold there doesn’t mean it is okay to buy it. Wildlife conservationists say that the internet has not helped with stopping this trade (Begley). EBay has encountered many problems with violations against their selling terms and immediately remove the seller and post when they are notified. The problem is that even if the seller gets banned from EBay they still reached buyers much like an ad would (Robinson). Other ways of reaching a buyer include traveling and spreading the word and teaming up with someone who lives in places with a high demand such as the United States. Smuggling by cargo is the most effective and easy way for an animal to be brought into the U.S. because even if the smugglers declare the cargo as legal shipments of animals, the cargo will rarely be checked (Wildlife). The real trouble for a smuggler is getting the animals to the U.S. in a way that doesn’t

89 involve sea cargo or express shipments. Many people turn to carrying animals with them so that x-ray machines do not detect them. Smugglers will tape animals to their legs or wear eggs as necklaces. Some people will even put animals where many security officers wouldn’t dare to look - their underwear (Lovgren; Wildlife). One of the most threatening methods is by owning animals legally through a zoo or otherwise and then selling animals and tricking authorities with death certificates so not suspicions arise (Landais).

The sad part of this is that most animals are defenseless against our technology in caging or tranquilizing and many of them perish before making it to their destination. Besides the ones that die, only a few are discovered when going through security and when they are, it is quite difficult to decide what to do with these animals. Some animals will go to animal sanctuaries in the United States or in other places and some will be sent to their original home. Sanctuaries, however, have also had a number of problems with selling, abusing, or not providing proper food and health care. Those who are sent home are weakened so much that they face danger from other wild animals as well as being recaptured. Many of the animals that aren’t discovered will end in the homes of collectors as pets and others may end up in food. Many owners will not be able to care for an animal after a number of years meaning that the animal will be neglected and will eventually die (Green 80). None of these fates should be acceptable in the United States today and these animals should be protected better from this monstrosity of a death sentence.

Although we aren’t able to get rid of the incentives to continue wildlife trafficking or the people associated with it, there are many things that can be done to stop this industry from growing further and possibly even decrease it. Mostly awareness needs to be spread and this can be done through TV shows such as Fatal Attractions which is a show about exotic pet owners who are attacked by their pets. This is more of a scare tactic but shows like these would help buyers be informed of the dangers when buying illegal animals. Besides putting TV shows and movies on air that show the other side of animals, we need to find ways to cut off contact from buyers to sellers. This can be done by putting filters in search engines so that they will not allow sites such as these to be put on. Even further there must be a barricade for sellers trying to get into the United States with these animals. To accomplish this we need to increase security in harbors and airports. In harbors, there should be more security guards and every crate with “legally declared animals” should have priority to be scanned or personally checked by a guard. To avoid guards getting paid off, shifts should change routinely and only be known by the government. In airports an increase in full body scans would help security because people would no longer be able to carry on animals to the plane. Dogs have been trained to smell drugs so they may easily be able to be trained to smell and listen for these animals. These security increases are just a few more risks that smugglers would have to face when bringing these animals into our country. Another thing that must be done is to increase the amount of people working on teams such as the Fish and Wildlife Service who apparently only have ten agents in California and less than 200 in the U.S (Ricky). Buyers can end the smuggling when they stop buying (Mott, Maryann). As Sharon Begley said, “Drug lords are doing what they do because of users much like traffickers doing what they do because of buyers.” This shuts down the whole industry because there is no one who will buy the product the dealers have to offer. The trafficking of exotic and rare animals is a terrible industry but stopping it would not be too hard to accomplish. A few security issues are the only problem in our country because we never intended for animals to come through our borders but now is the time to update the security to the threats it now faces.

Acknowledgements I acknowledge Yani A for editing my paper I acknowledge Haley A for editing my paper I acknowledge Martin M for editing my paper I acknowledge Andreas B for editing my paper

90 Works Cited Begley, Sharon. “Extinction Trade.” Newsweek. MSNBC, 1 Mar. 2008. Web. 15 Dec. 2010 Christy, Bryan. “Asia’s Wildlife Trade.” National Geographic. January 2010: 84-105. Print.

Green, Alan. Animal Underground: Inside America’s Black Market for rare and exotic species. New York: Public Affairs, 1999. Print.

“International Trafficker in World’s Rarest Reptiles Jailed.” Environment News Service. 8 June 2008. Web. 17 Dec. 2010.

Landais, Emanuelle. “Lion Cubs for Sale in UAE Black Market.” UAE Environment. Gulf News, 24 Mar. 2010.

Web. 2 Jan. 2011.

Lovgren, Stefan. “Wildlife Smuggling Boom Plaguing L.A., Authorities Say.” National Geographic News.

National Geographic, 26 July 2007. Web. Jan 2 2011.

Mott, Maryann. “Protected Species, Animal Products for Sale Online.” National Geographic News. National Geographic, 26 Aug. 2005. Web. 1 Jan. 2011.

Prosek, James. “Beautiful Friendship.” National Geographic. January 2010: Print.

“Reptiles in multi country trafficking.” Animal Abuse Cases. Pet-Abuse.com, 1 Jan. 1999. Web. 19 Dec. 2010 Robinson, Bryan. “U.S. Smugglers Hot for Exotic Animal Parts.” Abc News/ U.S., Abc News, 25 Feb. 2010.

Web. 13 Dec. 2010.

U.S Attorneys Office, Exotic Animals Rescued at L.A Airport “Wildlife Dealer Sentenced for Running International Smuggling Ring.” U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Department of Justice, 1 June 2001. Web. 20 Dec. 2010.

91 Sam F Craig Butz Research in the Community – E Block January 25th, 2011 The Open Source Community and the Business World Open source technology has become more mainstream than ever before in recent years. Many companies are using open source software in day to day functions, and even more are releasing their software under an open source license. During the beginning of the open source revolution, the relationship between the open source community and business was strained to say the least. As time has passed, the relationship between the parties has grown stronger, and it will continue to grow as they collaborate and work together. This strengthening of relationships, as well as increased use of open source technology, is better for the end user, the public, because it ensures that companies as well as open source projects will constantly improve the quality of their products to keep up with current times.

In order to understand the tension between the two communities, one first must understand what open source is, and how and why the tension started. Open Source is a broad term usually used to describe computer software code (source code) that is free to use and distribute. Open source can also be applied to other content, such as schematics, images, video, and even audio. In layman’s terms, any software released as open source is completely free to download and share with other people, and the creator has made an intentional decision to allow this.

The open source community may seem very strange to people not involved in it at first glance; programmers seem to contribute massive amounts of time on a project with no pay, and still somehow manage to match and sometimes even beat company-released software. The main idea behind the open source community is that software is a tool that everyone should be able to use regardless of resources.

In the early 1990s open source technology started to gain a following, and many programmers and other people interested in technology began to develop programs under open source licenses. This sudden boom of open source development is often called the Open Source Revolution (Moody 11). This revolution started as a result of Linus Torvalds deciding to create an open source operating system that he called Linux. When interviewed, Linus stated that he created Linux as a side project, because he wanted to learn more about the architecture of operating systems. The main operating system at the time was Minux, which was originally designed as a teaching tool, and not as a full blown operating system. It was unstable and hard for the average user to work with. Linus’s “experimental” operating system Linux ended up spreading extremely fast, and overtook Minux, soon after its initial release (Moody, 23). Linux filled the gaps left by Minux and offered a new, unified base to develop on.

This free, open, and useful operating system that seemingly came out of the blue threatened to undermine Microsoft’s success and monopoly over the home operating system market at the time. Microsoft had long had an issue with the open source community and hobbyists, and even issued a later famous letter entitled “An Open Letter to Hobbyists” which claimed that the open source movement often infringed on Microsoft’s as well as other software companies’ copyrighted materials (McDougall). The fact that Linux and other open source software threatened the large software companies created a great amount of tension between the two communities. This tension would slowly decrease over time, but it would be another five to ten years before large companies started to involve the open source community in their projects.

The relationship between large software companies and the open source community started to get better around the mid 90s, when open source software and development started to become more mainstream (Hoover).

Many large companies took advantage of the software that the open source community had to offer, simply because the software was completely free and the company could do as they wished with it. In general, developers chose to release projects as open source because they agreed with the general philosophy behind open source, that is, they believed that software should be free and available to everyone, not just people with large resources (Hoover).

A prime example of large companies using open source is the Apache server software. Apache is used by 90% of the internet’s web servers today, and that number continues to increase (Babcock). Apache is fully open source, and because of this many large companies have started using it as it greatly reduces the cost of running and maintaining a server.

But with this increased usage came an additional problem for the open source community: the monetization of open source projects by businesses. The company Red Hat Enterprises is famous for modifying and adding onto the standard Linux kernel and monetizing it project by selling its Red Hat Linux to businesses (Babcock). The general public as well as the open source community had mixed views on this action, but many seemed to lean towards the idea that it was wrong for a company to monetize for itself an already open project. As Charles Babcock put it, “Large firms that have substantial resources that could be applied to the open-source world have little involvement in the actual software work. Large companies are consumers of open source, and they are good at

92 pushing the limits of what open source can do” (Babcock). The problem is that large companies can put resources toward more and better uses of open source for their own commercial benefit, but not share the results with the larger open source community.

Even though many large companies were using and even monetizing open source projects, some actually contributed to the open source movement. Google was at that time releasing many of its projects and works under an open source license, and it is still constantly contributing to the community to this day (Babcock). This increased use of open source software and involvement has caused the open source community to grow and engage even more programmers than ever before, leading to more and higher quality open source projects.

The reason behind the great quality of open sources projects is that programmers tend to be writing the software for themselves (Ambroz). If a programmer finds that he or she needs a piece of software but it doesn’t exist or they cannot access it, the programmer will simply create it, possibly with the help of a few other individuals that require a similar piece of software. This collaborative mentality among programmers in the open source world has created a massive amount of projects that are fully available for the general public to use.

This idea that a programmer creates for his own use isn’t always the case, however. Sometimes large companies release a project under an open source license as well. There are a few theories as to why companies do this, some of the most plausible being that they want good press, or that they agree with the general philosophy behind the open source movement.

There are different terms, or licenses, that an open source project can be released under. One of the most widely used licenses in the open source community is the GNU General Public License. A quote taken directly from the license, while biased, describes it perfectly: “The licenses for most software and other practical works are designed to take away your freedom to share and change the works. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change all versions of a program--to make sure it remains free software for all its users. We, the Free Software Foundation, use the GNU General Public License for most of our software; it applies also to any other work released this way by its authors. You can apply it to your programs, too” (Open Source Initiative). In layman’s terms, the GNU General Public License states that the software that is released under it is completely free to use and modify. The most recent version of the GNU General Public License also states that any software created using the released software must also be released under the GNU GPL. This ensures that large companies cannot make a profit off of modified open source projects.

Sometimes a project will create a license solely for the purpose of releasing that project under the new license. A prime example of a license like this is the Apache license, which was originally created by the Apache Foundation to release its open source web server Apache (Open Source Initiative). Since its creation, the Apache license has been used by numerous other open source projects, one of the most recent being Google’s open source Linux based operating system, Android.

While the relationship between large companies and the open source world has improved greatly over the past few decades, there are still many conflicts around today. One conflict that has been prominent in the news lately is the lawsuit between Oracle and Google over the open source operating system called Android. Google created Android specifically for smart phone devices, and it has since become the number one mobile phone operating system on the market today (Dignan). Google created Android by adding onto and modifying the Linux kernel and used Java as the base technology for developing and running applications on the device. Java is loosely defined as a programming language as well as an interpreted environment originally developed by Sun Microsystems. After initially releasing the Java interpreter under an open source license, Sun closed the source for the interpreter around 5 years later, claiming that from that point on companies needed to pay Sun in order to use Java. Android was developed after Sun closed Java, but Google did not pay Sun for its use. .

Sun’s closing of Java was very controversial. Google’s use of the supposedly closed Java was also controversial, but Sun did not pursue the issue. However, after Android started to lead in usage numbers, Oracle, another software giant, proceeded to purchase Sun and immediately afterwards file suit against Google for their usage of the Java interpreter (Diganan). While this lawsuit is going on, a lot of questions are being raised such as the ethics of closing source, and the monetization of open source software.

At the same time, there are more benefits for businesses from open source. Open source can be extremely beneficial to small startup companies simply because it allows them to develop business systems and release high quality products with less money needed for technology. One example of a small startup that utilized this advantage of open source software is Two Degrees, which creates nutrition bars. For each bar they sell, they donate a nutrition package to a malnourished child in Africa. Two Degrees has two primary sales platforms, in physical stores and an online web store. The online web store is powered by an open source project called WordPress, which is primarily used for blogging. Two Degrees adapted WordPress for their needs, which they were allowed to do because of WordPress’s open source status. Without this open source project, Two Degrees would have had to

93 purchase proprietary software to create their web store, which would have caused a lot of strain on the company economically.

This kind of usage is becoming more and more prominent in small businesses, and is allowing them to create a better experience for the end user without putting economic strain on the company. This usage is forging a strong relationship between the open source community and these kinds of businesses, and it will only continue to grow stronger.

During the beginning of the open source revolution, there was extreme tension between the open source community and big corporations. This tension started as a result of the open source operating system Linux taking market share away from other large software giants such as Microsoft. As time has gone on, the relationship between the community and businesses strengthened, and the community itself gained a much larger following. This is in part due to Google and other companies deciding to release their projects under open source licenses, and also because programmers and starting to agree with the open source philosophy more and more. This improvement will be greatly beneficial to the general public, as it will create an environment which allows higher quality software.

The idea is, the more people who contribute high quality code become involved, the larger the user base will grow, which in turn will create a higher demand for programmers to contribute, causing the community to grow exponentially.

Bibliography Ambroz, Jillian. “The Back-end of the Web”. Folio Jul. 2008. Print.

Babcock, Charles. “The Givers and Takers of Open Source.” InformationWeek 15 May. 2006: 44. Print.

Babcock, Charles. “Project Aims to Crack Proprietary Clouds”. InformationWeek 28 Sep. 2009: 22. Print.

Babcock, Charles. “IBM Tires Open Approach Again”. InformationWeek 21 Aug. 2009: 14. Print.

Etro, Federico. “Rather than democratizing innovation, we should be protection it from the competition.” Financial Times 16 Jul. 2007: 8. Print.

Hoover, Nicholas. “Big Vendors Get Into the Game.” InformationWeek 26 Feb. 2007: 41. Print.

Hillesly, Richard. “10 Reasons to use Open Source in Business”. ITPro. 21 Aug. 2009. Web. 1 Jan. 2011.

“IBM Denies Breaking Its Open-Source Promise.” eWeek 19 Apr. 2010: 12. Print.

Lohr, Steve. “IBM to Help Clients Fight Cost and Complexity.” New York Times 15 Jun. 2009: B.3. Print.

McDougall, Paul. “New IBM Unit Formed.” InformationWeek 11 Oct. 2004: 22. Print.

Moody, Glyn. The Rebel Code: The Inside Story of Linux and the Open Source Revolution. Cambridge: Perseus Publishing, 2001. Print.

O’Brien, Kevin. “Microsoft’s rivals fight for spot in E.U. offices; New rules could drive governments’ use of opensource software.” International Herald Tribune 19 Jul. 2010: 18. Print.

“Open Source Case for Business.” Open Source Initiative. Web. 1 Jan. 2011.

Vance, Ashlee. “The Defenders of Free Software.” New York Times 26 Sep. 2010. Print.

Wiles, Frank. “Using Open Source in Business” RevSys. Revolution Systems. Web. 1 Jan. 2011.

94 Daisy F Research in the Community Craig Butz March 1, 2011 Does Tough Love Work? The Crisis of the California Juvenile Justice System Adolescence is a time for youths to explore the world around them, to push their boundaries, to make mistakes and learn from them. However, California youths are not learning from their mistakes. As many as seventy percent of teens who are arrested in California are arrested again within two years (Carney). A good juvenile justice system is one that can balance holding people responsible for their actions by supporting them and helping them move forward with their lives. The current California juvenile justice system is not effective in helping offenders in a positive way because it is not based off a system designed for juveniles and does not put an emphasis on becoming a better person; alternative community-based systems that focus less on punishment are better suited for helping juveniles because they provide a better chance for rehabilitation and improvement without the extraneous cost.

Joseph Califano, the former United States secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, writes, “Instead of attending to the needs of our most desperate children, we are writing them off, warehousing them in detention centers, or sending them back to their troubled families and neighborhoods” (Califano). This is only hurting the chances of our state and our youth having a bright future.

The caseload of the California juvenile justice system has increased by over half a million cases in the past twenty years (The Cost of Confinement). Juvenile delinquents can range in age from 11 to 25 in California (Flowers 117) and crimes considered to be juvenile delinquency can range from serious offenses, like rape or armed robbery, to more minor offenses, like shoplifting or smoking marijuana. Another type of juvenile delinquency encompasses runaways and truants (Flowers 120). Juvenile law is quite different from adult law because, besides adult law, youths can also violate juvenile status laws, which are laws that only apply to youths, such as truancy or underage drinking, as well as “being out of control” which can mean general disobedience of authority figures (Flowers 131).

When a youth is caught by police, the officer has five possible actions to take: warning the juvenile and releasing them, releasing the juvenile to their parents or guardians with a formal reprimand, issuing a citation to the juvenile with a court order, arresting the juvenile and placing them in a diversion program, or arresting the juvenile and placing them in a county detention center until a court hearing. The two most common actions police officers take are releasing youths to their parents or guardians or issuing them a citation with a court order. For most encounters, all that is necessary for apprehending an offender is for a court summons to be issued with very little additional police involvement. Before a teen goes to court, their case is looked over by a case manager who interviews the offender and looks into the offender’s life so that the manager can make a good recommendation for sentencing to the judge. Often, youths will get put on probation and may be instructed to pay a fine or some other sort of restitution. For more violent offenses, juveniles maybe sentenced to serve time in a state run correctional facility (Flowers 175-177).

Probation and juvenile facilities, while practical for handling large numbers of juveniles, are not properly caring for and supporting their youths on the path to getting their lives back together. Many offenders and officers view probation as a ‘free pass’ and not much of a punishment. The formal goal of probation is to rehabilitate the offender by seeing an improvement in behavior through guidance. Guidance is often mixed up with control, though, giving probation a negative reputation. Any effects that probation has on a juvenile are decidedly short term as youths must only be on good behavior while on probation without any concrete evidence of a change of heart (Flowers 177). Monitoring youths on probation is costly and the system is inefficient as the case files regularly get mixed up causing probation officers to possibly go weeks without checking in with some of their youths (Flowers 180). Inconsistency in both idea and execution make probation no better for helping wayward youths than simply letting them go.

Juvenile facilities are even less productive than probation, as they foster a violent, hostile environment that does very little to interact with offenders in a positive way. California has been nicknamed the “Great Detainer” (Townsend) for the sheer number of both juveniles and adults it commits to correctional facilities. Sixty percent of youths who are in state-run correctional facilities are recommitted within three years of being released (The Cost of Confinement). This can be attributed to the fact that juvenile correctional facilities exacerbate violent tendencies with permanent impressions on these young people. While in juvenile detention and correctional facilities, many youths have negative experiences due to overcrowding and unsanitary conditions (Flowers 179). Thirty-one of the thirty-three facilities in California qualify as being overcrowded (The Rising Costs of Incarceration). This overcrowding has led to the formation of aggressive and territorial gangs within the facilities who use force as a way to push around other offenders. Youths may also be victimized by other offenders. In order to not only defend

95 themselves, but thrive in this environment, youths are learning a new set of behaviors that, while conducive to this pressure cooker atmosphere, are counterproductive to life in the outside world.

Overcrowding also stretches the budget of the correctional facilities thin, causing the cuts of important treatment programs that are necessary for offenders’ mental health and safety. Forty-one percent of the youths who are in correctional facilities in California need mental health services. Fifty-eight percent of juveniles are in need of substance abuse treatment services and twenty-two percent are in need of sexual behavior treatment services. In California, only twenty-eight percent of locked up youths are receiving special education services (Youth Population Overview) out of the estimated eighty percent of offenders who need it (Califano). Juvenile correctional facilities are unable to provide these basic services to their wards, yet this past year the Californian government spent more money on its prison system than it did on education (Carney). These services are some of the most important parts of a youths stay in a facility. It is in the facility that he or she can work through his or her problems, learn to control his or her feelings, and ultimately grow as a person. Without these services, juveniles are coming out of correctional facilities, the same, if not worse mentally than they were before they entered.

Juvenile justice systems in the United States have greatly varied throughout the years and have used many different styles of reform in an attempt to set youths on the right path. The state juvenile justice systems were originally designed to provide offenders with the “care, custody, and discipline” that a youth would receive from a parent (Califano). Cities first began to pay attention to youth offenders in the nineteenth century when advocators for slum reform made the connection of bad conditions in the slums and workplaces as the cause of delinquency.

Capitalizing on this, reformers began offering treatment to youth offenders. Around the turn of the century, a few cities began to develop special courts and proceedings solely for juveniles but many people thought that these new courts did not punish and reform kids, but spoiled them (Flowers 171). Despite this public opinion, twenty-two states had adopted juvenile court systems not twelve years after the first one opened and by 1925 all but two states had systems in order. The new public opinion of the juvenile courts was that they “encourag[ed] investigation, diagnosis, and treatment instead of fixing blame” (Flowers 173).

Juvenile correctional facilities were fully functioning by the 1950’s and aimed to continue nurturing the offenders in a parental way. These correctional facilities focused on “instilling into the juveniles values and ethics, as well as working on decision-making skills to teach right from wrong” (Gluck). Youths were divided up into cottages which sat on the edge of the woods, slept in bunk beds, and had a cottage mother who prepared and served meals to the cabin. There were about six or seven cabins in a correctional facility. Youths were required to attend a full day of school and were encouraged to participate in recreational activities too. Using a points system that rewarded good behavior, juveniles could earn extra recreational activities like camping or biking trips (Gluck).

This system catered to the whole child, but by the 1960’s many people didn’t think the system was working effectively to reform delinquents. At the same time, the Supreme Court passed a series of changes to the policies and rights of juvenile delinquents giving youths more of the individual rights that adults were allowed by the justice system (Flowers 173). During the 1970’s, the public began to grow wary of juvenile offenders, fearful of having dangerous offenders so close to their houses. Corrections facilities became more secluded and guarded to calm public worry. In addition, emphasis began to be put on discipline and treatment, instead of education. Facility budgets were dramatically cut in the 1980’s, leaving many correctional facilities almost on their own. Lack of resources meant facilities could not focus individually on children. As more youth were incarcerated, facilities began filling up, but the budgets and the number of staff stayed constant (Gluck). California made the switch from smaller, family oriented facilities to more institutionalized ones in 1978 which California continues to use today (Carney).

California’s current system is based off the adult system for incarceration which, while effective with adults, is not conducive for youths to learn from their mistakes. The adult system is based off the idea that the offender has the “undiminished capacity to determine right from wrong and the fair opportunity to learn and see acceptable standards of behavior” (Corriero 5). The frontal cortex, responsible for making decisions, is not fully developed in a person until they are about twenty-five years old. Youths get longer and more severe sentences for not having the same degree of judgment that is expected from adults and therefore many correctional facilities have filled up to try and accommodate those incarcerated. Due to overcrowding, the Californian government has made a push in the past twenty years to reduce the number of juvenile offenders in correctional facilities by moving lower level offenders to county detention centers instead (Moore).

Despite California’s attempts to reduce the number of youths in their correctional facilities, the approach the state is currently taking is not one that looks to reduce the number of youths being processed, rather just to move youths from one place to another. If California wants to actually make a difference in the lives of their incarcerated youths, they must look to alternative programs. Restorative justice programs are the right alternative to help California reduce the number of repeat offenders. Restorative justice programs work by “mediat[ing] encounters between those directly involved in or affected by the crime: the victim, the offender, family members, and

96 community representatives” with the ultimate goal of “reconciliation, reparation, and transformation” (Brookes).

The most effective programs bring together teachers, counselors, doctors, and therapists to help the “whole kid” by focusing on all aspects of the offender’s life (Gluck). Often, a few different programs are used for helping an offender reach their full potential, including mediated meetings between the offender and the victim, family or community group conferences, individual counseling, and peacemaking and sentencing circles (“Reforming Juvenile Justice”). What makes restorative justice programs effective is that an offender can be put back in the traditional court system if they do not cooperate (Flowers 179). Youth offenders usually do cooperate, though, as having ownership and involvement in the process instead of being ganged up on by a room of adults has a big impact on the offenders opinion of their sentence and how committed they are to working the program (O’Conner). This is apparent, as community-based restorative justice programs have been shown to reduce recidivism rates, that is, the number of youths who commit a second offense, by up to twenty-two percent (“The Cost of Confinement”). It is with these sorts of programs that we are “focusing on the best interest of the child… [without] circumventing the best interests of society” (Corriero 6).

The California juvenile justice system is not properly designed to work with youth offenders in a progressive, supportive, and cost effective way. Community based restorative justice programs, on the other hand, are.

“A CASA [Court Appointed Special Advocates Association] national report [found] that, were society to invest $5,000 for treatment and securing comprehensive services and programs for each of the 123,000 substance-involved juveniles who otherwise would be incarcerated, we would break even on our investment in the first year if just 12% of them stayed in school and remained drug- and crime-free. If we could prevent the crimes and imprisonment of just 12% of adults with juvenile records, there would be 60,000 fewer adult inmates. This would save $18,000,000,000 in criminal justice and health care costs--and do not forget the added economic benefits of employment or the 6,000,000 fewer crimes that would be committed” (Califano).

Currently California spends more than $200,000 a year for each incarcerated youth (Moore). Besides being fiscally a more responsible choice, alternative justice programs also have much lower rates of recidivism with the Center for Alternative Sentencing and Employment Services (CASES) reporting that 82% of participants who graduated from their program do not receive any new criminal convictions in the following two years after completion (Corriero 12). Keeping all nonviolent youth offenders in the community and working with them through their problems, dilemmas, and feelings while teaching them safe and effective tools for navigating their lives has been proven to be the most beneficial for offenders and for communities.

California’s current juvenile justice system is riddled with inconsistency, a lack of resources, and the will to change, but change is necessary for the protection of our youth as well as the government. California should implement a two tier plan to address the real needs of the offenders and the state. To begin, only the most dangerous, volatile offenders should be sent to state-run correctional facilities. As a deterrent from sending many youths to correctional facilities, counties would be required to pay a part of the costs for each youth in a correctional facility.

To encourage the use of county detention centers as a form of punishment for more minor offenses, counties would be partially reimbursed by the state for each youth in a detention center. The most common form of justice system that youths would go through would be a restorative justice system unique to each county. Requiring counties to use a restorative justice system would put the focus on local accountability but would allow for counties to customize and make branches of the system to meet their specific needs and the needs of the youths in that county.

The general county by county restorative justice systems would be based around the ones in Santa Cruz and Marin County. Santa Cruz County redid their juvenile justice system because their detention centers were so overcrowded that youths were “sleeping on the floors. Their heads were next to the toilets… [and] it was a struggle just to get the young inmates showered and fed. Tensions were high, fights were common, and injuries to both staff and kids were rising. [The staff and administrators of the detention centers] were just dealing with day-to-day survival” (Townsend). So Santa Cruz decided to focus on “keeping kids at home, supervising them closely, and enrolling them in community-based programs that provide drug counseling and job training” (Townsend). By 2005, youth felonies were down forty-eight percent and the average number of youths in Santa Cruz detention facilities was twenty-two compared to the average of ninety-seven ten years ago (Townsend). Currently in Santa Cruz, ninety percent of youths who go through a community program do not commit new crimes within three years of completing that program (Moore). Santa Cruz County also excelled at finding new and innovative ways to help offenders on the road of rehabilitation. When data showed that young Latino heroin addicts were more likely to get and stay clean if their families were involved in the process, Santa Cruz County designed a program that would keep family a much more central part of recovery for these young addicts (Townsend).

97 Marin County focused on a different problem when designing their restorative justice program: underage substance abuse. Marin County has one of the highest binge drinking rates in the nation, and much of substance abuse in Marin County can be attributed to coping with stress. The Marin County restorative justice program focuses on teaching teens to make smarter choices about ways to deal with stress with a mandatory “Decisions Under the Influence” course as ninety percent of the cases that are seen by the Marin County Youth Court are drug and alcohol related. In addition, offenders are required to complete twelve hours of therapy, both individual and with their family so that the sources of these youths’ stress is diminished too. On top of that youths are also sentenced by a jury of their peers to complete community service and other forms of restitution (Carney). The recidivism rate for the alternative justice program in Marin is less than ten percent. This approach caters to all the needs of the offender while proving to be less costly.

Some youths still need to be sent to a correctional facility for them to truly face their actions and the consequences of those. In order for them to properly do that, though, California must reform their state-run correctional facilities so that they are more like the ones in Missouri. In the 1970’s, Missouri realized their current system was not working and they looked for alternative in order to fully help their youth get on the right track. Their solution was to create a juvenile justice system that “emphasized rehabilitation in small groups, constant therapeutic intervention, and minimal force” (Moore) and proved to be so effective that it is still in use today. Any form of punishment is seen as a last resort and physical punishment like hitting is strictly forbidden (Gluck). Missouri created a correctional facility system that was similar to the 1950’s correctional facilities with small cottage style dormitories in the woods. Ten youths live in one of the cottages with two cottage “parents.” In addition, the facilities have game rooms with couches and health and wellness centers for the youths. It is not uncommon for there to be a few animals walking around the compound, adopted from local shelters and cared for by the offenders (Moore).

The facilities used in Missouri are not the only progressive changes that make the process so effective.

Offenders are encouraged to talk about their past experiences, fears, hopes during group meetings and counseling.

When they “talk about their inner-self and how they feel about themselves and their families, that’s what makes changes in people” (Reforming Juvenile Justice). What makes Missouri’s facilities, known around the nation as the Missouri system, so effective is that offenders focus on what got them into trouble and how they can avoid situations like that in the future rather than just having to be on good behavior (Reforming Juvenile Justice) and also the peer involvement in the program. Youths are trained to de-escalate fights among peers by talking and reason with them if someone is acting up and to apply a safe grappling hold if there is violence (Moore). This gives kids responsibility and ownership of the program and also encourages them to set a good example. These skills are also essential for life outside of the program. This system works and works well, and Missouri is the perfect example, with a recidivism rate of less than ten percent (Reforming Juvenile Justice), one of the lowest in the country (Moore). In other states that have applied this system like Louisiana and Illinois, recidivism have dropped by up to seventy percent (O’Conner). California youths would benefit from a system where they get more individual attention and care.

In order for California to have a successful future they must focus on helping the coming generations to success. This means not “blindly funding” a system that is “sending kids out angrier than when they came in” (Gluck) and providing more individualized programs to better fit the needs of offenders. California is currently facing a massive budget deficit and with plans for the prison budget to be cut by ten percent this coming year (Carney), California must act quickly. Youths around California have shown that the current system is broken but change is possible with community oriented restorative justice programs. Alternative justice programs are the future of juvenile justice around the country; California must recognize that and work towards that goal for the sake of the state and future generations.

I would like to acknowledge Jackson P, Craig Butz, Ayani H, Wali K, and Rintaro M for their editing and input.

98 Works Cited Brookes, Derek. "Evaluating Restorative Justice Programs." Restorative Justice Online. Web. January 2, 2011.

Califano, Joseph A. and Charles W. Colson. "Criminal Neglect: "… a Top-to-Bottom Overhaul of the Nation's Juvenile Justice System Is Mandatory If These [Troubled Youngsters] Ever Are to Avoid Becoming Adult Crime Statistics.". USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education). 133. (January 2005). Questia.

Web. December 14, 2010.

Carney, Don. Personal Interview. January 16, 2011.

Corriero, Michael A. Judging Children as Children: A Proposal for the Juvenile Justice System. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006. Questia. Web. December 14, 2010.

Flowers, Ronald Barri. Children and Criminality: The Child as the Victim and Perpetrator. New York: Greenwood Press, 1996. Questia. Web. December 14, 2010.

Gluck, Stephen. "Wayward Youth, Super Predator: An Evolutionary Tale of Juvenile Delinquency from the 1950s to the Present." Corrections Today.55. (June 1997). Questia. Web. December 14, 2010.

Moore, Solomon. “Missouri System Treats Juvenile Offenders With Lighter Hand.” The New York Times. The New York Times, March 27, 2009. Web. January 5, 2011.

“Reforming Juvenile Justice.” Talk of the Nation. National Public Radio. NPR, August 29, 2005. Radio. NPR. Web. January 4, 2011.

Townsend, Peggy. "Detention Redemption: In One California County, Progressive Leaders and Law-Enforcing Officials Are Transforming a Troubled Juvenile-Justice System." The American Prospect. 16. (September 2005). Questia. Web. December 14, 2010.

"Youth Population Overview." California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation. State of California, 2010.

Web. January 2, 2011.

99 Fiona Gallagher Craig Butz Research in the Community A block January 25, 2011 Virtually Braver; Treating Phobias Using Virtual Reality With 23 million Americans predicted to be diagnosed in their lifetimes (Wiederhold, Wiederhold), anxiety disorders, a class of mental disorders that includes phobias, are surprisingly widespread. "Anxiety disorders," says Heather Denkmire, author of The Truth About Fear and Depression,” are “mental disorders causing biological changes in the brain as a result of fears that are out of control." Scientific understanding of the human mind has progressed so much in recent years, says the director of the National Institute of Mental Health, Dr. Lewis Judd, in the article “Defusing the Panic Button” that 25 years ago anxiety disorders had not even been discovered yet (Ronan). However, diagnosing phobias is only half the battle. Diagnosing people more effectively leads to the need to cure them more effectively as well. There are three main treatments for phobias: medication, psychodynamic therapy, and exposure therapy. Within the category of exposure therapy, recent advancements in technology has led to virtual reality exposure therapy or VRET for short. While treating phobias using virtual reality has been shown in scientific research to be very effective, it is not as widely used as it should be due to therapists’ unwillingness to invest the time or money in it.

Normal fears become phobias "when a person alters [their] lifestyle in order to manage it" (Denkmire). An example of this would be if a person with cynophobia, a fear of dogs, moves to a new house, they might change the way they drive to the supermarket to avoid passing the dog park in their neighborhood. There are two main types of phobia; specific phobia and social phobia. Specific phobias are phobias that focus on a specific object or situation.

This can include heights, flying, spiders, or blood. According to the United States Surgeon General, roughly eight percent of the adult population in the United States suffer from specific phobia each year (Denkmire). The other main type is social phobia, which usually begins its onset in childhood and adolescence (Denkmire). Social phobia sufferers are severely afraid of embarrassing situations. This can include public speaking, or more specific social situations such as recess or taking tests. Four percent of Americans suffer from social phobia. There are a large variety of different phobias, but they all have similar causes and can thus all be treated in a similar fashion.

The biological causes of phobias are very similar to those found in people suffering from depression. In addition many people who suffer from anxiety disorders also suffer from depression, and vice versa. The chemical serotonin regulates happiness in the human brain. People who suffer from phobias often have lower concentrations of serotonin to keep their negative emotions in balance with their positive ones. Because of the lack of serotonin, phobics will not have enough positive-emotion chemicals, and aren’t able to keep fear and anxiety away for long.

Some people suffering from phobias cite a specific, traumatic incident in the past of their lives to have caused the phobia. Simple experiences such as being bitten by a dog can cause lifetime phobias, but oftentimes the experience is more intense- emotional and physical abuse can both be the cause of phobias (Kevin Hibbet). However, therapists are not always able to understand why a patient has a phobia. As Kristen Valus puts it, "Sometimes, there's just something squirrely with you, and we don't know why." Because the cause of phobia is always at least partly chemical, the patient does not have a large amount of control over their phobic thoughts. Many phobics know that their reactions are excessive and illogical, but they cannot naturally control what they feel.

The chemical nature of phobias might cause people to think that a good treatment would be medicine or over-the-counter drugs. Physicians often prescribe drugs and medicine to treat phobia. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most recently discovered and widely used drug to treat phobia (Kittleston). SSRIs work by blocking certain nerve cells in the brain that send and receive serotonin, which improves the concentration of serotonin in areas of the brain where serotonin is needed. SSRIs and other drugs are useful for helping people with phobias so severe that they cannot leave the house to attend therapy sessions, or "...do their homework," as Dr. Valus puts it. Medication is also useful to help people whose fears are mild. For more severe cases, it is not possible to only take medications. In order to be fully cured of a phobia, they must attend therapy of some sort.

Psychologists credit Sigmund Freud with the development of the field of psychodynamics and establishing many other psychological standards still relevant to the field today. Psychodynamic therapists believe that everything that human beings do can be explained by what is rooted in their past, especially childhood experiences.

Often referred to as "talk therapy," the patient and therapist discuss what is wrong with the patient. In the case of phobias, the patient will discuss with the therapist what they think caused the phobia, and why the fear is illogical.

Psychodynamic therapy in particular does not work well for treatment of phobias, because phobias are mental diseases that transcend logic. VRET addresses what psychodynamic therapy cannot. The biggest asset of psychodynamic therapy is that it helps patients understand the cause of their phobia, and from there, get rid of the cause. Dr. Hibbet, a psychodynamic therapist pointed out in an interview; "If you get rid of just the symptom [the

100 phobia] rather than the cause [of the phobia], the symptom will return." Another positive aspect of psychodynamic therapy is that it appeals to phobics because it does not involve facing the phobia directly, unlike other forms of phobia treatment. Despite these positive facets, psychodynamic therapy has more negatives than positives. Firstly, many patients aren't able to find the cause of their problem, even after years of therapy. Dr. Valus is a therapist who elects to use exposure therapy, a treatment of phobias that will be elaborated on later, pointed out in an interview that many of her patients were people who had attempted psychodynamic therapy for as long as ten years and still had yet to be cured. When asked what his success rate was, Dr. Hibbet tip-toed around the question; "It depends on what you mean by 'success.' …if [their] phobia is less severe then before, and they feel better about it, I consider that success." When pressed for a number, he estimated that his success rate was about 75%. When placed side-by-side to the success rates of his colleagues in exposure therapy, who chalk that number up to 90% or more, Dr. Hibbet’s success rates are not stunning.

The most common and widely used treatments for phobias are known as exposure therapy. Within this category are different varieties of exposure therapy, including in vivo desensitization, cognitive behavior therapy, and VRET. All exposure therapy is based on, well, exposure-- the patient is exposed to the object of their fear. How the patient is exposed is where each therapy takes a different path. In vivo desensitization is simply exposing the patient to the object of fear repeatedly until they are no longer afraid of it. Unfortunately, in vivo does not deal with the patient’s psyche at all and only seeks to rid the patient of the fear rather than techniques to deal with it. Cognitive behavior therapy first gives the patient techniques for calming their anxiety, such as breathing exercises. What makes VRET different is that it takes place in a virtual environment over which the therapist and the patient can both have a great amount of control. A common technique utilized by exposure therapists is to create what is known as a “fear hierarchy.” To show the reader how a fear hierarchy works, an example of a dog phobic is provided below.

1 Being the owner of an active dog 2 Being the owner of a calm dog 3 Being jumped on and licked by a dog 4 Being licked on the hand by a dog 5 Petting a calm dog 6 Being in the same room as an active dog 7 Being in the same room as a sleeping dog 8 Seeing a video of an aggressive dog 9 Seeing a video of a happy dog 10 Seeing a picture of a happy dog In normal exposure therapy, the patient will participate in each of the activities on their hierarchy while being counseled by the therapist. Kristen Valus, a cognitive behavior therapist, pointed out that exposure therapy is the best-documented form of treating phobias. They are also the most successful, with the best relapse prevention.

Kristen Valus is a therapist that uses exposure therapy, and she points out another benefit of exposure therapy; "For my phobic patients, the average number of sessions is about 30 sessions," practically a blink of an eye in the world of psychology. By contrast, patients using psychodynamic therapy can continue therapy for five to ten years without any results. Even though exposure therapy works much better than psychodynamic therapy, it itself is not flawless.

Its major flaw is that people with phobias tend to avoid the object of their fear, thus exacerbating the phobia so that by the time they finally cannot avoid their phobia any more, it has taken over their lives. This is because they are so busy being afraid that phobics never even contemplates actively facing their fears. The thought pattern goes something like, “Oh, it’s not too much trouble to take this route past the dog pound- it’s only an extra hour after all.”

Another problem is that exposing people to their fears can be dangerous, expensive, or inconvenient. One of the most logistically difficult fears to cure is the fear of flying in an airplane, simply because of the inconvenience and cost. Fear of bridges can also be diagnostically complicated to cure, depending on where you live. Finally, exposing patients to situation in real life takes a huge amount of control away from both therapist and patient alike. Control over the exposure session is essential for properly exposing patients, otherwise patients might either not be challenged by their exposure session enough, or more likely, the patient will experience a far too stressful situation too soon. If a patient is being exposed to a dog, for example, there is no guarantee that the dog will not jump onto the patient and attack them, which will at the very least prolong treatment and at the worst reinforce the phobia even more, and prompt the patient to discontinue sessions with their therapist. Exposure therapy is a reliable and relatively fast way to treat phobias, but it leaves a great deal to be desired.

Virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET for short) is a relatively recent phenomenon. Research into virtual reality began in the late 1950s, but it did not become popular until sometime around the 80s. In the United States,

101 the largest distributer of VRET hardware and software is a company called Virtual Reality (Rither). Even though it is still in its infancy, studies by psychologists have shown VRET to be super highly effective in helping patients who have phobias, and despite the time, effort, and money therapists need to invest in VRET to make it useful, it should be more widely used. VRET offers far more control over a situation which typically is entirely out of patient’s and therapists’ hands. In the program used to treat patients with a phobia of flying, the therapist can define whether or not the program should include sound effects, messages from the ‘captain,’ or whether the plane flies through a storm or clear skies. This applies to the other programs available to therapists and patients as well, such as the program that treats patients with fears of heights. VRET also abolishes any real danger that the patient might be in when participating in conventional therapies. This is especially relevant in cases of animal phobias, because animals are oftentimes unpredictable and dangerous. Finally, VRET adds an element of confidentiality to the treatment. In exposure therapy, there is often an element of embarrassment involved, because the patient is in a public space, such as an airplane, suffering from a panic attack. When somebody on an airplane begins to scream or cry, everybody will turn and look in that direction. Imagine if that happened to you; a hundred or so people, all acting perfectly normal in a situation that you can’t handle, looking at you. This sensation of embarrassment only adds unnecessary stress to the patient’s therapy and, more importantly, prolongs the time treatment takes. In addition to VRET hardware and software, there are technologies therapists can utilize that track their patients’ level of stress. This gives the patient a visual of their stress level. Watching their stress level slowly decrease as they use techniques to lessen their anxiety gives patients a huge feeling of accomplishment.

Virtual reality exposure therapy is a highly effective method of treating phobias that provides the patient with a safe environment that psychologists can tailor to their needs very easily. Unfortunately, VRET has not caught on significantly in the United States. According to Mr. Rither, VRET is utilized by therapists more widely in Europe than in America. Therapists have difficulty investing in VRET due to the cost of the equipment and software, the time needed to invest in learning how to use the equipment, and setting it all up. Mr. Rither is a therapist who uses VRET, and although he believes VRET does a world of good to help his patients, he admits that it was not a good investment in terms of business.. He has not accumulated more patients because of VRET. “Therapists don’t like to step out of their comfort zones very often,” he continued, “so it’s difficult for technological advances in the field of therapy to happen.” VRET needs to become more widely used, and the technology advanced more. Otherwise, it won’t be there for us in the future.

Works Cited Anthony, Martin and Mark A. Watling. Overcoming Medical Phobias. Oakland, California: New Harbinger Publications, Inc., 2006. Print.

Antony, Martin and Randi E. McCabe. Overcoming Animal and Insect Phobias. Oakland, California: New Harbinger Publications, Inc., 2005. Print.

Defino, Theresa. “Virtual Plane Calms Flying Fears.” WebMD.com. N.p., 4 August, 2000. Web. 30 December, 2010.

“Deimos & Phobos.” Theoi. Aaron J. Atsma, n.d. Web. 16 January, 2011.

Dossey, Donald. Holiday Folklore, Phobias and Fun. Los Angeles: Outcomes Unlimited Press, Inc., 1992. Print.

Hibbet, Kevin. Telephone interview. 9 January, 2011.

Hodges, Larry, Benjamin Watson, G. Drew Kessler, Dan Opdyke, Barbra O. Rothbaum. “A Virtual Airplane for Fear of Flying Therapy.” Proceedings of the 1996 Virtual Reality Annual International Symposium. 1996: pp. 86. Web. 16 January, 2011.

Kittleston, Mark. The Truth About Fear And Depression. New York: Book Builders Llc, 2005. Print.

Rither, Richard. Personal interview. 24 January, 2011.

Ronan, Shari. “Defusing the Panic Button Health: Anxiety is the most common mental health disorder in U. S. Improved treatment techniques mean that up to 90% of those who seek help overcome the problem” Los Angeles Times (June 19th, 1990). Proquest . web. 26 December, 2010.

“Sigmund Freud.” Encyclopedia of World Biography. Advameg, Inc, n.d. Web. 17 January, 2011.

Valus, Kristen. Personal interview. 11 January, 2011.

Virtually Better. Virtually Better. Virtually Better. July 12th, 2010. Web. 21 December, 2010.

Wiederhold, Brenda; Mark Wiederhold. “The Use of Virtual Reality Therapy for the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders and Phobias.” AMC Digital Library. Siggraph, May, 1999. Web. 27 December, 2010.

I would like to acknowledge Craig Butz, Martin, Isaias, Jake, and Gabriel for editing my paper in its various drafts, my mother for providing moral support, and my friend Michael for making a huge portion of this entire project possible.

102 Alec G From the Lewis Chessmen to the Lich King: The Evolution and Competition of Games and Gaming As massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) become more and more popular, they create competition for non-electronic-game companies, causing these companies to adapt and draw upon aspects of online games in order to continue to attract new customers. The advent of online games has had a profound effect on non-electronic games. In order to survive, non-electronic games have had to adapt in order to reach the gaming market, and in the future non-electronic games are going to continue to adopt the best features of the online games in order to keep attracting gamers.

This paper compares how non-electronic games have evolved over time as a result of massively multiplayer online games becoming increasingly popular. When non-electronic games are referenced, this essay is referencing physical, non-electronic games that require more than one person to play. Massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) are games that are played online with many other people, such as World of Warcraft, EverQuest, or Runescape. Non-multiplayer computer games and physical games played by only one person are excluded, because most physical games require more than one person to play and comparing dissimilar games is pointless. Also, much of the money spent in the online gaming market is in MMOGs, which makes them an important aspect of games, gaming, and game development (Ransom-Wiley, “D&D is Doomed”).

Online games have gone from an experiment in gaming to a multi-billion dollar industry in 20 years (Ransom-Wiley). Originally, what we now call MMOGs did not exist, because computers were not powerful enough to run them. In 1981, the first Multi User Dungeon (MUD) was created. MUDs were text-based worlds in which multiple users could interact. By 1993, there were hundreds of MUDs on the internet. A year later, the now incredibly powerful game company Blizzard was founded. In 1997, the first real MMOG Ultima Online was put online, but was very different than our current view of MMOGs. Stereotypically, MMOGs are first-person games with swords, spells, mounts, etc. However, Ultima Online was a top-down view strategy game in which the player rules a city on a landscape filled with other player-commanded cities, and the player gathers resources and commands armies. The first popular MMOG was EverQuest (EQ), which was the first MMOG to have a first-person viewpoint, and at its peak had 450,000 paying subscribers. Then, World of Warcraft (WoW) came out, and many people who had never played MMOGs began playing WoW, and many who played EQ switched to WoW. By 2008, WoW had over ten million subscribers, and is making Blizzard nearly two billion dollars a year (Castronova, Ransom-Wiley).

TRANSITION Games have been around for as long as civilization has. Civilization makes surviving easier, so with civilization came spare time. Some of this time was spent on religion or worship, some on building and upkeep of shelters, and some childrearing; However when all things that had to be done were done, people must have relaxed and played games. Although they may have been simple, the games played then set the foundation for the games we play now. Some games played by our ancient ancestors are still around today in some form. The classic example of this is Mancala, which has been around for thousands of years, although the exact age is not known. The game of Mancala may have evolved out of a way of keeping track of numbers. Mancala was originally developed in Africa, where they would dig small pits out of the ground to use as a board, and use seeds or pebbles as their playing pieces (“the history of mancala”). The earliest complete game found dates back to 3000 B.C.E., and is a copy of the Royal Game of Ur (“History of Games”). The first cubical dice date back to 700 B.C.E. Playing cards were most likely invented in China between the 7th and 10th centuries, but there was no evidence of their existence in Europe until 1371, when playing cards were noted in Spain. In the 1500s the Game of the Goose was created, the precursor to modern race-type board games. In the 1800s Bridge developed from earlier games. Poker is first mentioned in print in 1836. Chinese checkers and Snakes and Ladders were both published in the 1890s. The ancestor of Monopoly, the Landlord's Game, was patented in 1904. Lexico was invented in 1931, and changed to Scrabble in 1947. Othello was published in 1968, and Dungeons and Dragons six years after that. Remarkably, many of these ancient games still exist in a modern form, speaking to the durability of gaming as a treasured pastime (Bellis, “History of Games”, “the history of mancala”).

While there may be modern versions of Mancala and poker, nothing has driven change in gaming more than the internet. As online games have become more and more popular, the one main change in non-electronic games is the increase in choice. In online games, the player chooses what they do, where they go, and what they say.

In classic board games such as Candyland, there is no such choice. The player rolls the dice and moves their avatar that many spaces. However, in many games invented since MMOGs, such as Magic: The Gathering (a card-based strategy game), the player chooses everything; they choose what goes in their deck and choose what cards to play and when in game. However, this comes with a tradeoff. With that much choice, the amount of information the player has to keep track of increases phenomenally, and keeping track of a lot of information in a non-electronic

103 way can bog down the game. This is part of the reason that extremely complicated physical games such as D&D never became really popular, and were most popular before MMOGs became popular. This is also the reason that MMOGs such as WoW and SCII can be as complicated as they are without overloading the player with information; the computer can keep track of a huge amount of information like this with ease (“D&D is Doomed”, Bellis, Ransom-Wiley).

In both of these types of game social interaction is an important aspect. When playing non-electronic games, all players are actually present in the room, which tends to make people act more civilly. However, if there are not people near someone who wants to play, that person will not get to play at all. In MMOGs, the player can connect with people all over the world and play with them, so they are never without people to play with. However, there are no consequences to being rude over in-game chat, so people tend to say and do whatever they want. This can make playing unpleasant. However, this is a tradeoff people choose to take when they play MMOGs (“subyman’s Blog”, Castronova).

The nature of the social relationship is very different between game types. In non-electronic games, the social interaction tends to be competitive instead of collaborative. One may have temporary alliances against a powerful player, but in the end there is one winner who beat everyone else. However, in online games, one plays with other people, working together to attain a goal. The player may be in a party killing a powerful boss mob, or clearing out a castle, or defending a point, but will be working together to an end. There are even guilds, which are permanent groups of people who work together.

In both game mediums, the reason that the game doesn’t feel arbitrary, tedious, and pointless, is the imaginary world that the game creates for the player to inhabit. All games have a story to them, from the simplest to the most complicated. In Candyland, the simplest of games, one travels through an edible landscape of sweets, adventuring through mountains and swamps. In WoW, a game of immense complexity, the player progresses through a medieval themed world, killing monsters and increasing in power. All the other players go along with this theme and the immersion, becoming immersed enough to say ‘I’ instead of ‘my character’ or ‘my avatar’. This does happen in non-electronic games, but people tend to get less emotionally involved. If these themes were nonexistent, nobody would play these games. If Candyland was just a board with a track on it, it wouldn’t be fun to play. If WoW didn’t have intricate landscapes, finely rendered weaponry, and engaging battles, it would not have subscribers.

There are several other, smaller differences. MMOGs are not nearly as portable as board games, because a computer and internet is needed to play MMOGs. Also, there's the chance that the game will be down due to maintenance, updating, or a glitch. However, with MMOGs there's no risk of losing a game piece or the box falling apart. Online games charge from nothing to over $100 for a game and all the expansions, but non-electronic games usually cost between $20 and $40.

Before MMOGs came out, the non-electronic games were more similar to each other. Some were race games, some were strategic, some were eliminatory, but all were played on a board, and most made the player go on a preset track on the board. Now, we have non-electronic games such as Settlers of Catan, a strategy game in which the board is set up differently every time one plays; Magic: The Gathering, a card game in which one makes their own deck and there are four different ways to win; Killer Bunnies, a card-based strategy game with ten different booster boxes and counting; and Khet, a chess-like strategy game which uses lasers and mirrors as a playing medium. It is not happenstance that all these non-electronic games have been introduced since MMOGs came out; they are in direct response to the richness of experience MMOGs offer (Bellis, “History of Games”).

Gaming is fundamentally changing, but there is no indication that non-electronic games are going away entirely any time soon. They have proven their ability to adapt, borrowing the elements from MMOGs to enhance their experience. The popular medium of development is via MMOGs due to the richness of experience, making the barrier to entry for non-electronic games very high. However, if a game does make it past this it has greater potential to be huge. If a non-electronic game does manage to capture the imagination of the public and become as big as Monopoly, Scrabble, or even Mancala, it has the ability to maintain itself indefinitely, while there’s no indication that MMOGs have that capability. EXPAND THIS Since the advent of MMOGs, there have been many changes to the general structure of non-electronic games, but the main change is an increase in possible choices made by the player. Comparing Settlers of Catan, a new non-electronic game, to Monopoly, a traditional non-electronic game, both of the changes made by MMOGs are apparent. In Monopoly, the player rolls the dice, moves that many spaces, and decides whether or not to buy that property. In Settlers of Catan, the player rolls the dice, gets the corresponding resources, and then faces a myriad of things that could be done, including building roads and cities, trading with other players or with the in-game traders, and buying cards with unknown rewards. Even the board is set up differently every time it is played. However, with this increase in choice comes an increase in the amount of information that needs to be stored. This is why

104 computerization is inevitable. Computers can store huge amounts of information with ease, and access it quickly.

Hence, past a certain point, non-electronic games will need to be at least partly computerized, otherwise the storage and retrieval of information will be so time-consuming that the game is not fun to play. However, non-electronic games are not going to entirely disappear, as they have some features to them that MMOGs do not. In non-electronic games, the player competes against other people, which does not happen in MMOGs. On that same note, in MMOGs the player also donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t interact with people on a personal basis, because the player cannot sit in the same room as them. People will want these aspects more and more as they become less and less prominent, so they will play non-electronic games, thus keeping them from being discontinued.

In the future, both MMOGs and non-electronic games will only get more complicated and more immersive.

The tendency seen in the newer non-electronic games is more complex themes and more complicated play, and what is next is further borrowing from MMOGs via computerization. Games will have a board and a small computing device used for use in play for keeping track of data and possibly calculating odds for dice throws or drawing a needed card, while others will become entirely electronic, like Catan online. For example, it is possible to buy a small, calculator-like device into which the player puts a word and it tells them whether or not that word is acceptable for use in Scrabble. There are also large tablet computers on which it is possible to play Settlers of Catan using real dice that the tablet computer can communicate with so the computer registers what is rolled. The player places cities and roads, trades with other players, and buys chance cards, but all virtually. In the future, the player will be able to choose anything, from choosing a story to designing the very landscape lived in. Regardless of medium at, some point new input and output devices and increasing computing power will make online games so immersive the player will not be able to tell a game from the real world.

Works Cited "12 Coolest Board Games Based On Video Games | Video Games." Video Games. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Feb. 2011.

"Avi-Arad | /Film." /Film | Blogging the Reel World. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Feb. 2011.

Alexander, Hope. "Dungeons and Dragons Online vs World of Warcraft." HubPages. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Feb. 2011.

"D&D is Doomed (But Not Just Yet)." 6d6 Fireball - Home to the 6d6 RPG and 28mm Miniatures. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Feb. 2011. "'Angry Birds' Flies Toward The Game Board : NPR." NPR : National Public Radio : News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts : NPR. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Feb. 2011.

Bellis, Mary. "The History of Boardgame - Playing Cards and Puzzles." Inventors. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Feb. 2011.

"Board games vs. video games and my progression into table top gaming Board Game Dialog | Board Game Dialog." Board Game Dialog. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Feb. 2011.

Castronova, Edward. Synthetic worlds: the business and culture of online games. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 2005. Print.

"History of Games Timeline." Historic Games & Celtic Art. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Feb. 2011. "How Did You Get Started Into Board Gaming?Board Game Dialog | Board Game Dialog." Board Game Dialog. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Feb. 2011.

Ransom-Wiley, James. "WoW surpasses 10 million subscribers, now half the size of Australia | Joystiq." Joystiq.

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"StarCraft vs Dawn of War." PC Games - Cheats, Walkthroughs, News, Reviews, Previews, Game Trailers & Videos at IGN. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Feb. 2011. "subyman's Blog: Starcraft Versus Warhammer 40k." GameSpot is your go-to source for video game news, reviews, and entertainment. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Feb. 2011.

I would like to acknowledge the following people: Victoria Grey for proofreading and attempting to keep my sanity somewhat intact, Sam F for proofreading, Eden A for proofreading, John B for proofreading, and Paul Gabriel for proofreading, editing, modifying, altering, varying, and general changing of my paper.

105 Alec H Craig Butz Research in The Community, E block January 27, 2011 15,000 Homeless People and What is Being Done San Francisco needs to start combating homelessness more aggressively by putting more homeless people into housing with physiatrists there around the clock in hopes of integrating them back into society.

In San Francisco there are over 15000 homeless people living on the streets or in shelters. 3000 of these people are chronically homeless (Fagan). Being chronically homeless is defined as being homeless for over 1 year.

The chronically homeless are usually harder to help. San Francisco is the homeless capital of the world. It has more homeless people than any other City. Many people come to San Francisco because of the liberal policies and moderate climate. San Francisco is ideal because authorities tend to leave the homeless alone and the city provides many services for the homeless. The homeless population is expected to rise because of our current economic situation. To integrate these people back into society the city and county of San Francisco needs to create more affordable houses and shelters for the homeless.

One piece of legislation recently passed is Sit-Lie. This law was passed by voters on November second.

Sit-Lie makes it now illegal for homeless people to lie down and sleep on public streets during the day. If a homeless person is arrested they are punished with 30 days in jail. This piece of legislation is highly controversial and was composed by former mayor Gavin Newsom.

Now it looks like this: Sit-lie was created and constructed by Gavin Newsom. He created the proposal and now law after walking on Haight Street. Haight street always has many homeless people on it because of how close it is to Golden Gate Park. Gavin Newsom had to literally walk over some homeless people on the Streets it was so bad. People would be aggressively pan-handling him for money or just be sleeping in the middle of sidewalks. Mayor Gavin Newsom knew he needed to do something and so that is why he created sit-lie.

After his trip to Haight Street he realized that something must be done. He then created the sit-lie ordinance. The sit-lie ordinance affects many homeless people. During the day the homeless are now prohibited from panhandling on the street or sleeping.

This step is a step forward in trying to terminate the homeless problem. Although highly controversial I believe this law is now essential. It is now harder for homeless people to panhandle as well as sleep which is leading them into shelters and other programs. Sit-Lie is making it easier for everybody to walk on streets normally heavily populated by homeless people.

Care Not Cash is another highly controversial piece of legislation that was passed under Newsom. Care Not Cash is a program to try and get homeless people off the streets. Instead of a homeless person receiving $400 a month they then would receive a room, counseling, $60, food, and other services. This is why it is highly controversial. It is controversial because homeless activists believe these people should be receiving these services with more money on the side.

This law has been very effective in reducing the homeless population of San Francisco. It has reduced the population by about 50%. Getting homeless people into housing with counselors is the most important thing to do to get homeless people off the streets. As long as Care Not Cash is in place the homeless population will only continue to diminish. Care Not Cash is one of the easiest ways of getting homeless people into housing. The only problem is that homeless housing is always at 100% capacity and finding a room for someone is often difficult.

People usually have to wait a couple of weeks-months before they find a place to stay. In this time homeless people usually stay on the streets or at shelters.

The final law that was created during Newsom’s reign is providing a bus-ticket home to homeless people.

Homeless advocates believe that this is just send the homeless people away while politicians believe that this is good. The city is willing to pay for a bus ticket if the person has family or friends in contact to then live with.

Dariush Kayhan believes “this is good because many people become homeless in San Francisco when they realize how expensive it is and don’t have a way back home. This is their ticket home” (Kayhan). I agree with Dariush and I think this should continue to be implamented. The laws however are not enough to help the homeless.

There are many different organizations the aid the homeless. There are organizations to assist the homeless in every possible way. Some of the most distinguished organizations in the city are: Walden house, SF food bank, Glide, St. Anthony’s, Haight-Ashbury free clinic, and the Tenderloin health clinic. Walden House has units for housing homeless woman who have just got out of jail. Walden House mainly operates on Treasure Island and has a 95% success rate (Sherry Williams). The San Francisco food bank helps provide food to anyone who is hungry in San Francisco. They provide food to shelters, low-income housing, and set up markets that give away food. They receive all the food from donations by big name companies. Glide and St. Anothony’s provide

106 warm food to homeless people. St. Anthony’s also has a shelter. In this bad economy both glide and St. Anthony’s always have huge lines for their food giveaways. Both the Tenderloin Health Clinic and the Haight-Ashbury health clinic provide essential items. This includes Hygiene related items, socks, and everything else people take for granted. These organizations are crucial to San Francisco’s homeless population.

These organizations are vital for San Francisco’s homeless population because they provide services that the city cannot afford to do so. San Francisco spends an estimated 200 million dollars a year on helping the homeless and giving out general assistance. This money is not nearly enough to provide all the necessary help to the homeless. Without these organizations the homeless of San Francisco would suffer and many people would die from malnutrition and other complications of being homeless. These services provided are one reason why many homeless people come to San Francisco. San Francisco will always be a very ideal spot for homeless people, however there is still a lot that can be done to help reduce the problem.

San Francisco needs to start combating homelessness more aggressively. As it is right now there are way too many people living on the streets. The city needs to keep its bus-ticket home policy as well as Care Not Cash.

These are helping to get homeless people off the streets.

Care Not Cash has been very successful and will remain successful. Homeless people are receiving less money but they are receiving, shelter, food and most importantly counselors to help deal with stress orders or substance abuse. Counselors are the most important thing along with shelter to get people off the street. In shelters it usually takes a homeless person 6-12 months before they are ready to live on their own while a chronically homeless person it can take up to 3 years. There about 3000 chronically homeless people in San Francisco. These 3000 chronically homeless plus the other 12000 needs help now more than ever. As the economy gets worse more and more people are ending up homeless.

The city and other organizations must do the most possible in this state of emergency to help the homeless.

They need to create more shelters with counselors to combat this problem. As long as the city continues Care Not Cash the homeless problem will slowly diminish however I do not think it will ever disappear completely.

More legislation and more services must be provided to get the homeless off the streets. More solutions to getting them off the streets it is harder crackdowns and enforcements on many of the cities laws which usually are not enforced by police.

Right now about 40% of any jails population is filled by homeless people. 90% of homeless people circulate through jails on a monthly basis. We need harder crackdowns to get more people off the streets. The city should also propose more legislation that highly encourages the homeless after being arrested to enroll in a shelter.

This homeless problem is a very serious issue and needs to be combated more effectively. I believe that while the homeless population will never be completely terminated it can be diminished to just a few people. To help reduce this, the city and its inhabitants need to lend a helping hand to others, whether that means, giving some money, volunteering, or anything else to get involved is a huge help.

Although we have a huge problem, it does not need to be this big of a problem. San Francisco needs to implement more housing and I believe they are going to in the future. Homelessness can be stopped. There is no reason why someone should be chronically homeless. Sometimes people may become homeless for a short period of time, but this problem can be stopped.

107 Works Cited San Francisco Ten Year Planning Council. The San Francisco Plan to Abolish Chronic Homelessness. San Francisco: 30 June, 2004. PDF. Coté, John. “Mayor brings sit/lie ordinance to S.F. voters.” SF Gate. 15 June, 2010. Web. 22 Dec, 2010.

Raymond, Josie. “ S.F Government to Consider Dumb Sit/Lie Ordinance Today.” Change. 2 Mar, 2010. Web. 22 Dec, 2010.

Fagan, Kevin. “Mayor: Soon no homeless on welfare / Care Not Cash ranks falling, Newsom says.” SF Gate. 21 Dec, 2005. Web. 22 Dec, 2010.

Ten Year Plan Implementation Council. Care Not Cash Overview and Progress Report. San Francisco: 1 Mar, 2005.

PDF Fagan, Kevin. “Tenderloin's 'Guardian Angel' prepares to spread her wings. Homeless shelter head departs to start a family.” SF Gate. 11 June, 2006. Web. 22 Dec, 2010.

Fagan, Kevin. “Homeless, Mike Dick was 51, Looked 66.” SF Gate. 2 Mar, 2008. Web. 22 Dec, 2010.

Fagan, Kevin. “Mayor: Soon no homeless on welfare. Care Not Cash ranks falling, Newsom says.” SF Gate. 21 Dec, 2005. Web. 1 Jan, 2010.

“Chronic Homelessness.” National Allience to End Homelessness.27 Aug, 2010. Web. 1 Jan, 2010.

Rhorer, Trent. San Francisco’s Plan to End Chronic Homelessness. San Francisco: 1-2 June, 2006. PDF “Fact Sheets.” National Coalition for the Homeless. Web. 4 Jan, 2010.

“Coalition on Homelessness.” Coalition on Homelessness San Francisco. Web. 5 Jan, 2010

108 Ayani H Craig Butz Research in the Community—E Block January 20, 2011 Art: The Key to Understanding the Holocaust The Holocaust in and of its self is a difficult subject to discuss. Even just a basic understanding of the destruction and brutality that occurred is inconceivable to a student just introduced to the subject. How were people driven to commit such atrocious acts of hatred? To address questions students often ask in relation to the Holocaust, or the Shoah as it is also called, teachers have used a variety of methods and resources with varying degrees of effectiveness. These techniques range from documentary films shown in class to stuffing kids into a single bathroom stall to give them a similar sense to being crowded into a cattle car (Hoffman). Although there are a number of methods used in Holocaust Education, teaching through art may provide a more relatable and effective means of teaching about the Holocaust as the students can feel a personal connection to the artists and understand and retain the information more effectively.

Teaching about the Holocaust can be difficult in many ways. The methods used to teach students depend on the teacher, but also the characteristics of the students. 7th graders in Hebrew School at an Orthodox Jewish congregation receive a very different education from high school student in their second semester of junior year (Estoque and Rosenberg). Students in Jewish religious school often receive an education based off of remembrance and stress the idea that “[Jews] are victims” (Rosenberg). In contrast, junior in high school may study it for week in a text book in an American history class. In many cases, this manifests itself as either firsthand accounts of survivors or as famous movies about the Holocaust. A survey commissioned by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. and conducted by the Center for Education Policy at SRI International documented that film, not including historical documentaries, where the most common method used in public schools a long with firsthand accounts of the Holocaust (Donnely). However, survivors are all now very old and reaching the end of their lives. It is not unlikely that in the next generation there will not be anyone left in the world that actually experienced the Shoah. And how many times can one see Schindler’s List or The Devil’s Arithmetic before these films begin to lose their meaning? They are powerful movies, however upon the 3rd or 4th viewing, the movie is still the same and the information and emotions presented do not change. Many people can name the horrors that inmates at Auschwitz went through from the cattle car to the gas chambers but do not even realize that there were underground resistance groups that fought against the Nazis. Art can address these issues of the dwindling number of survivors as it provides the same firsthand experience from survivors and also presents new material that reveals many different perspectives on a wider range of topics.

Holocaust art can be defined as either art produced by people who actually experienced World War II and the Shoah regardless of whether it was created during or afterwards, or as art produced by others in reaction to that actual event or events that pertain to the Holocaust. These art pieces, ranging from literature and poetry like Night by Elie Wiesel or Survival in Auschwitz by Primo Levi to pencil sketches found on the backs of postage stamps in a ghetto, convey a myriad of emotions and messages depending on both the medium and the artist. Someone who films a documentary about the Warsaw ghetto thinks of conveying a very different message than a composer expressing the emotions they felt as they watched smoke rise from the chimney of a crematorium. In general the most common mediums of art created by victims of Nazi brutality are writing literature, poetry, traditional visual arts like painting and drawing, as well as music and photography. Later generations creating art in reaction to the Holocaust have commonly used these forms as well as sculptures and installations, like memorials in parks and museums, dance and film.

Some people ask why Holocaust Education is important. Some even say that it is not as important as other genocides as more people lost their lives during the Communist Revolution in China or that comparatively a greater percentage of the Armenian population in the Armenian genocide was killed then the Jewish population in the Holocaust. However, there are several aspects of the Shoah make it easier and more effective to teach as an introduction into issues such as human-rights, European politics and other such topics. The Holocaust is unique in some ways as even those who did not identify with the targeted groups where still murdered. A secular German with enough Jewish relatives was still a Jew to the Nazis regardless of whether they actually felt connected to Judaism in anyway. The Nazi mindset was also different from other perpetrators mindset as their goal was to achieve the extermination of these targeted groups worldwide which is to say “their ideology was universalistic, in a perverted way” (Kwiet and Matthaus). In addition to these points, the Holocaust was not committed through a misunderstanding or false accusation upon a target group but was based off of a complete fantasy and used as a means to gain support and economic advantage. It is often forgotten that the Nazi war machine was powered by the inmates at labor camps like Mauthausen which provided the Nazis with free labor and cheap war supplies which

109 propelled their armies across Europe at a devastating pace (Kwiet and Matthaus). The Shoah also lends itself to study of human rights and racial issues as the ultimate goal of the Nazis was to create an “ideal” society where only the single “perfect” race would be able to thrive. This systemized, unprecedented, unrestrained slaughter of millions of people on based upon a fantasy and a twisted sense of humanitarianism lends itself to be studied from multiple viewpoints. This is not to say that the Holocaust is any more important than other genocides or that the extreme war crimes committed should be ignored. On the contrary, the Holocaust serves as an effective introduction to these other topics as there is much more specific information readily available to be analyzed and discussed.

The next issue is whether or not there is too much Holocaust education. Do we even need to study the Holocaust? The short answer to that question would be yes, however Holocaust education is too often comprised of specific, semi-related facts about what the victims endured. This information is repeated over and over again throughout the years resulting in a sense of “Holocaust Fatigue” (Schweber). Doesn’t it seem odd if a student can name Zyklon B as the gas used in the chambers to kill inmates at extermination camps but is unaware of the process of dehumanization that marginalized certain groups in the first place (Schweber)? Or if student can name a certain number of concentration camps but isn’t familiar events that led up to the Holocaust that allowed those camps to be built? The true worth of studying the Shoah is not in the gruesome details of extermination camps but rather in what it represented to the world. It was a wakeup call to the world that mass murder on this scale was a reality and in fact not uncommon. Just as the world accepted the term genocide and created laws that hoped to prevent it students learning about the Holocaust she be able identify signs of a group being marginalized. The Shoah provides many topics to be studied, whether it is through a course on human rights or geopolitics in Europe, the true value to its study is found through people’s stories.

There was a point in American history when knowing a Holocaust survivor was not uncommon. It was not uncommon in some places in America for the barber down the street to have a number on his arm and whether or not he spoke about where that number came from, people at least had an idea what it meant. Many survivors are reaching the final stages of their life now, and the presence of the Shoah is not is felt as strongly in our everyday lives. This is not to say that everyday one should be thinking of the Holocaust, but the lack of presence makes the Shoah even less tangible. It is incredibly difficult for students to learn about a subject they cannot make any sort of personal connection to. A personal connection is important to any subject matter, but to the Holocaust specifically is important for students to realize when the world begins to show similar signs of marginalization and dehumanization of other groups, important aspects for conscientious citizens of the 21st century to be aware of. Art provides a multitude of mediums for students to create this connection. A student may not understand The Diary of Anne Frank but grasp the enormity of the Shoah when they see a single memorial candle reflected over and over again in remembrance of the children killed. The art produced during the Holocaust is most important as it allows us to view “through their eyes…the horrors of forced labor, random murder, ghetto life, transit camps, the Resistance, and concentration and death camps,” and additionally provides important historical context (Rosen and Apfelbaum 121).

Art challenges the student’s mind as well. Different mediums of art may raise different questions for students to grapple with its answers. Art of any kind warrants some kind of response from its viewer and art that has to do with the Holocaust can raise particularly pertinent questions and points for students to struggle with. The art forces emotional responses and connections from the students, promoting the understanding of not enormity of the subject the effects it had on actual people. A student is more likely to come away with their own ideas and their own internal desires based upon their own reaction to these people’s experiences. A large part of this understanding is for the student to be able to relate to the artist as a real person, not unlike themselves. Ariana Estoque, the Director of Adolescent Education at Temple Emanu-El said that the most informative and meaningful class on the Holocaust she ever took was based in literature as she felt like she was actually understanding the writer through their work (Estoque). Hillary Hoffman, another educator, found that choreographing her own movement piece helped her and her colleagues understand the stories of both a survivor she interview and also of her one her relatives who also experienced the Shoah (Hoffman).

Producing art under Nazi rule was strictly forbidden for inmates with exception of inmates at Theresienstadt, where they were encouraged to create art that reflected a perfect world and satisfied life (Rosen and Apfelbaum 122). Anyone caught creating art or with art in a ghetto was generally killed on the spot. The fact that many of these people created art anyways is indicative even on the smallest level that resistance was present; people did not simply roll over and let themselves be crushed. Through this simple fact, a whole slew of lessons could be taught about resistance, covering topics such as the Partisan groups or the threat that the Nazis felt Jehovah’s Witnesses posed to their ideals. Within this, a teacher could go further into the ideology of Nazis’ and their methods of dehumanization, compared to advertisements and propaganda seen in our society today.

Learning is not simply the absorption and regurgitation of facts nor is it the summary of another person’s experience and ultimately teaching through art will yield neither of those results (Estoque). Art obviously exposes

110 less concrete information than a text book or documentary film, and it certainly does not inform a student about the gruesome torture or the incredibly high numbers of victims. Art instead provides the path to truly understanding of these events and that this was not the first, nor the last time that a horrifying event such as the Holocaust occurs.

This is not to say that using history and concrete information should be thrown away. It must be supplementary however, as photograph after photograph and number after number does not yield true understanding. The ultimate goal of educating students about the Shoah through art is to move beyond numbers. It is to move beyond specific details and into the realm of proactive understanding.

Works Cited Donnelly, Mary Beth "Educating Students about the Holocaust: A Survey of Teaching Practices," Social Education 70.1 (2006), Questia, Web. 20 Jan. 2011.

Estoque, Ariana. Personal Interview Hoffman, Hilary. Personal Interview Kwiet, Konrad and Matthäus, Jßrgen. Contemporary Responses to the Holocaust Westport: Praeger, 2004. Questia.

Web. 31 Dec. 2010.

Rosenberg, Shalom. Personal Interview Rosen, Philip and Apfelbaum, Nina. Bearing Witness: A Resource Guide to Literature, Poetry, Art, Music, and Videos by Holocaust Victims and Survivors. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002. Questia. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.

Schweber, Simone "Holocaust Fatigue" in Teaching Today," Social Education 70.1 (2006), Questia, Web, 18 Jan. 2011.

111 Jacob H Craig Butz Research in the Community—A-block 1 March 2011 The patch of green: examination of community gardens in the modern world The organic movement is gaining momentum in the United States because people are becoming increasingly doubtful about their food; one part of people’s desire for reassurance is turning to community gardens.

Community gardens serve as a way to fulfill “the basic need to know our food and have some sense of control over its safety and security” (Kimbrell 359). Communal gardening has recently become much more popular in the United States due to them representing a hands-on approach to social and environmental change. Although not the most economically sound method of change and not without social drawbacks, community gardens are impacting the lives of those who work in and live around them both historically and in the modern world by putting money back into the economy, building communities, supporting the surrounding community’s economic welfare, and helping the environment by using less fuel and therefore should be used more.

Historically, people have turned to gardens especially under the worst conditions; those subjected to horrible conditions have used gardens as a source of inspiration, defiance, and sustenance.

The soldiers of World War One had well documented gardens, primarily close to the Western Front. The trench gardens in World War One offered a refuge and sense of control from the fighting that was taking place around the soldiers who cultivated the gardens. Both the landscape and violence that defined the retrospective view of the Western Front, were unheard by the societies of the time. The general population struggled for a long time to describe it. The extent of the horror was so great that words had to be invented to represent it (Helphand 27). The civilian population struggled with the horrors of World War One but nowhere near as much as the fighting forces did.

The soldiers of World War One lived in a trench warfare world. The trenches were a “labyrinthine of horror, wet, cold, smelly, squalid, one that became a charnel house and often a tomb” (Helphand 22). The soldiers turned to an aspect of home that could be created within a trench by making gardens. The gardens were not common along the Western Front by any means; they were hardly possible to sustain in the front line trenches. There were more gardens behind the fighting front, in the supply and reserve trenches (Helphand 23).

The gardens served as a method of survival in many ways. They first served as a source of food. The soldiers of the First World War usually didn’t have enough food, the gardens so planted allowed for them to grow their own produce. The food was also very fresh, which was not necessarily common during the war. The gardens also served as a pleasant source of viewing. No-man’s land (which separated one side from the other) was “the fault line between two massive forces where ‘nature’ itself was dead or destroyed. A place of horror, it had the look and feel of hell” (Helphand 23). The green that the soldiers grew would be the only sense of a natural world for miles.

The third and final positive aspect that the trench gardens offered was the mental benefit. The gardens that the soldiers collaboratively grew offered what many of them longed for most; they wanted control in a chaotic world. The gardens grown by soldiers in the trenches were grown amongst bombshells and tear gas canisters. The gardens though were a tangible representation of the hope that very few felt at the time. They “represented home and hope, affording a pastoral escape from the war” (Helphand 23).

Another remarkable place that communal gardens were found was in the World War Two Jewish ghettoes.

The gardens that the Jews grew in the ghetto represented their lives, both literally and metaphorically, which were always on the brink of being extinguished. The Jews were subjected to the worst conditions in the ghettoes and then ultimately taken to their deaths. While the Jews clung to life in the ghettoes, they sought control and life just as the First World War soldiers did.

The ghetto gardeners invested all that they had in their gardens, the children of the Lodz ghetto orphanage being no exception. They grew a garden in the hard, infertile earth using “whatever their little hands could get a hold of” (Helphand 61). The children looked to the earth for the support that they needed; they came to trust the land and when they found out that they were to be deported to the concentration camps they reacted violently, trampling their meager garden (Helphand 61). The plants that they had nurtured had come to represent life to the children and they began to trust only the earth. When they learned of their fate, the children destroyed the garden in their rage, the garden that they had all worked together to grow had betrayed them, their lives went with the life of the garden.

All residents of the Nazi ghettoes also faced daily the possibility of starvation; the residents came to rely on what they grew in their gardens. The scarce harvests helped with the everyday resistance of Jews. The gardens themselves became the fuel for and the act of confrontation to the Nazi regime. The community gardens of the ghettoes “were mechanisms of resistance to the horrific conditions under which people lived, they were acts of hope and defiance” (Helphand 61). The communal ghetto gardens served as a method of resistance, a source of hope and

112 sustenance to the imprisoned Jews. The gardens cultivated under the worst conditions served the most important roles to the fighters and prisoners, providing inspiration, defiance, and sustenance.

Modern community gardens play similar roles to the historic ones, though the situations under which they are grown are not necessarily as dire. The modern community gardens still impact the lives of those who work in and live around them by putting money back into the economy, building communities, supporting the surrounding community’s health and economic welfare, and helping the environment by using less fuel.

The growth of community gardens was permitted by the food rediscovery movement. Food rediscovery was a movement to improve food in every way and to have cooking at home be just as good as the cooking in restaurants, it spread all over America and to all americans. Food rediscovery cuisine was based loosely on the cooking of the Americans and the French. It was in the early eighties that people realized that good food came from good ingredients and that the best ingredients were grown in a natural setting. Farming had also become increasingly mechanized. Though the mechanization of farms lowered the need for physical labor and raised yield it also morally corrupted farms and the product. Mechanized farming is also highly unsustainable. The mechanical farms are best represented by their confined animal feeding operations (CAFO). The CAFO is a building jam packed full of animals that live without enough space to walk, and injected with hormones to increase yield. The same hormones also cause sicknesses which must be treated with antibiotics which then end up in food. The resistance to the mechanized farms was manifested by the organic movement, part of which was the community garden. A common goal for food rediscovery enthusiasts was to “try to get more involved with their food”. Community gardens were a perfect way for people to do this, thus the community garden movement grew (Franceschini 8-12).

Modern community gardens now also serve the purpose of allowing for the neighbors of the garden to feel connected to both their food and nature. The greater goal of community gardeners “is to reach out to the entire neighborhood, to invite diversity – in other words to create community as well as garden” (Hatch 1). The employed gardeners, of which there are few, do much of this work by beautifying the garden and also by working with the volunteers as most community gardens are volunteer run. Community gardens allow for people to connect to nature by improving accessible areas. Community gardens “produce beauty, good food and respite for those who lack suitable garden space where they live” (Hatch 3). Community gardens work best when they are in their natural habitat; California has 29 main climate types so gardens should ideally be matched to that climate type (Schmidt 336).

Most community gardens make the people surrounding them feel more connected to one another. The East New York Farms are a prime example of this. The surrounding community is largely composed of low income immigrant families, creating a prime spot for interracial tension. However, the community has joined through the garden, and has come to rely on it for this bond. The garden provides the neighboring residents with fresh vegetables, the most sought after category of which are exotic vegetables from the immigrant’s home countries such as karela (bitter melon). These would be otherwise unavailable (Finally New Yorkers).

Just how close knit the neighbors of the East New York Farms are was demonstrated best by the events leading up to the legalization of beekeeping in New York City. Despite the stings which people received on numerous occasions and the known illegality of beekeeping, the neighbors remained silent to the local police because they had rallied behind the garden (Finally New Yorkers). The honey bees have also helped to spur the gardens growth by using them to pollinate the flowers. The garden now produces more than fourteen thousand pounds of food per year.

Community gardens support the surrounding economies by creating jobs and reinvesting money in to the community. Cleveland has had many jobs created through its newfound gardens; Cleveland used to have its entire economy based on industry. However with the down turn of manufacturing, the city was transformed. The factories shut down and massive numbers of jobs were lost. Some estimates put it as much as one half of the population having left the city to search for work elsewhere. Because of this, entire neighborhoods both industrial and residential were emptied and then bulldozed leaving vast swaths of empty land. An estimated eight hundred thousand properties were razed. The remaining people had to fill the need for labor and using the land they turned to creating community gardens. The gardens created were largely organic which have given rise to many new sustainable jobs. They have supplied the city with fresh organic food. Cleveland is now home to the largest urban farm in the world, with sixty acres within in the city (Reclaiming).

The community garden at one hundred Third Street and Grape in Watts, Los Angeles is within the most notoriously rough blocks in the most violent part of LA. The garden is planted in an area where people openly smoke crack on the street, and during the set up of the garden, large amounts of the equipment were stolen, from tractors to the PVC piping. The Watts garden is now split up into two main sections, one for individuals to plant for personal use and a larger plot to plant produce to be sold at markets and restaurants. This marks a trend of inner city farms to sell their produce to upscale restaurants. The garden has united the local residents. The money brought back

113 into the economy has helped the people there and no other malevolent acts have befallen the garden to date (Kimbrell 359).

Community gardens also offer mental benefits to those who work in and live around them by satisfying their need to remain stable. The gardens of the World War One soldiers offered an outlet for the soldiers that was “essential for mental health” (Helphand 23). The First World War gardens had “a human touch in the act of soldiers brightening up the spot with growing flowers and plants” (Helphand 21-22). Community gardens also fulfill many people’s mental needs. Many who have worked in community gardens speak of having a need to grow plants, which fulfilled by the gardens (Hatch 2).

The social drawbacks of the community gardens are limited and are greatly outweighed by the benefits.

Community gardens are small enough so that they are constantly in touch with their surrounding communities which allow them to sort out issues as they arise. Despite this conflict resolution, some people still feel patronized by the community gardens in some of their efforts and there are also clashes of beliefs from within the garden to the outsiders. The gardners at city slicker farms commented that “There is a tendency to be imperialist when it comes to showing others how to do sustainable agriculture” (Franceschini 64). When people are teaching about sustainability both in and out of the garden, they play the role of a teacher; however those being taught may not play the role of a student. Therein lies the source of the conflict, the students feel patronized by the teachers. The City Slicker Farms, a community garden in Oakland, is a text book example of how the farmers can be viewed as putting themselves over the neighbors. City slicker farms are in Oakland in a poor and largely African American neighborhood at the beginning of the farm there was “a dilemma about how to make it (the garden) work without patronizing people” (Franceschini 54). City slicker farms also had worries that the gardening would be viewed as similar to slavery. As the garden grew, this never became an issue.

The other social drawback to community gardens is clashes of beliefs which often arise between the garden activists and the local officials. In Milwaukee for instance “old school” home owners have started to brush up against the newer wave of home owners who take sustainability more seriously. When Residents started planting in the parkways (the patch of grass separating the road from the sidewalk) the local government however reacted very differently from the local residents. Local residents reacted very positively to the six by eight foot raised garden. The dog walkers “stop and give us (the local gardeners) a thumbs up, lots of that” (Not All Communities). The attention that the gardeners in Milwaukee received even spread though out the state, they received letter from Seattle residents, where officials encourage locals to plant gardens in parkways. The reaction from the local officials however was “swift and negative” (Not All Communities). The source of this unsupportive reaction was based in the local residents not knowing the official rules, even some of the residents on the local board are in violation of the ordinances set forth by officials. One resident said that “in many cases individuals and families are a little bit ahead of policy makers in term of understanding just how important this (community gardening) is” (Not All Communities).

Another place that officials and local residents have run against one another is in London. In London there is a system that people can buy a plot of land for a low yearly charge to garden upon. Because of the low prices many different types of people are drawn to this. The gardeners consist of the elderly who look to stay fit, immigrants who want to grow vegetables from their home country and low income families looking to save money by growing their own food. The London allotment gardens also paired with a shed for the gardeners to store their tools in. Due to the upcoming London Olympics however many of the allotment gardens were forced into new, much less desirable land. The land that they currently garden upon is more of a bog than anything. The gardeners joke about having to check for the elderly; however that is the case now that they work in a bog. The London officials have prioritized up and coming Olympics parade grounds over the long time gardens. while the gardeners may be permitted to return, the fact remains that the Olympic committee has put the parade ground over the sustainable efforts of the citizens. The social drawbacks of the community garden movement are the patronization felt and the disagreements of between the gardeners and the government officials.

The environmental benefits of the community garden movement are that the organic growing doesn’t pollute as much and that there is lower fuel usage. Organic vegetables and fruits are quickly becoming the choice of Americans. The organic movement though still fairly restricted to the wealthy, has been becoming more and more available to the public through initiatives like community gardens. Community gardens work to bring the organic foods to the working class neighborhoods by physically bringing them to the neighborhoods. Gardens such as city slicker farms are not only established in poorer neighborhoods but also go out and help to build gardens at houses.

City Slicker Farms also have a bicycle route to collect the compost of the local residents to be used in its main garden (Franceschini 11). Community gardens also largely grow food organically, which can have a higher nutrient count due to the natural pest chemicals that the plant develops. Pesticides remove the need for and production of these chemicals (Truchinski). Also because community garden mostly do not use pesticide there is no toxic run off.

114 Pesticides drain into rivers and into cities drinking water or oceans, both greatly damaging all of the living organisms which interact with the toxic water.

The second environmental benefit that community garden have to offer is the lower usage of fuel and have enviremntaly sound methods of gardening. Since community gardens are located within cities the fuel used for transport is much lower, causing less carbon dioxide to be put into the air, thus slowing the progression of global warming. The community gardens do have operating capacity to create enough food for the world too. Urban farms can produce up to fifteen times the amount of food than a rural farm by taking such greater care of the plants; all that need to be done is for more gardens to planted (Kimbrell 9). Ecuadoreans grow approximately ten percent of their food at home (Menzel 107). In Berlin, there are approximately eight hundred thousand community gardens, one third of all Danish agriculture takes place in urban areas, and thirty percent of Polish families participate in some sort of communal gardening. In Accra, Ghana, ninety percent of all vegetables eaten are grown within in the city Hundreds of millions of people in the world are being fed somehow through a community gardens. Community gardens also have waist reducing practices, the most notable of which is composting. Composting is that act of reusing any organic materials nutrients to enrich soil. There are vast amounts of potential compost being produced each day. Calcutta creates and sells soil from its dumps, in 1950s china ninety eight percent of fertilizer used in the production of food was form recycled organic sources, cities around the world should adapt these practices so that all of agriculture can be made more sustainable. The environmental benefits that community gardens have to offer are that there is less pollution and less usage of fuel. These benefits greatly outweigh the drawbacks that are presented and all of the facts point to community gardening being a sound method of providing food environmentally and practically.

Just as with their social problems, community gardens and consequential large attention to detail allows for community gardens to sort out ecological issues as they arise. Still though there are small issues that are just built in to how community gardens operate, the most notable of which is land usage. The amount of land used for community gardens is the most detrimental side of community gardens. There are several reasons why land usage is an issue for community gardens. Many community gardens use raised bed so that more people can work there and so that pests stay out. This keeps the gophers out and makes it so that the elderly donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have to stoop quite as much.

Raised beds however limit special optimization because paths are need between each one so that people can walk along them and work from the paths. The land that community gardens are on also often exceed the maximum possible monetary yield that a garden could have per year. Because of this community gardens are often pressured to sell the land or, like in London, are moved or just bought out. Still though community gardensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; benefits are often overlooked when this happens.

While space may be scarce, community gardens have several methods of optimizing land for gardening to balance this is. One of which is terracing, this is done at many garden including the garden for the environment in San Francisco. Another method is instead of having lots of raised beds to just have one very large plot, while pest become an issue gopher wire is both cheap and effective. The large plot eliminates the need for path and allows for more land to plant upon.

Community gardens are some of the fast growing methods of greening the world today because community gardens serve so many human needs. Community gardens benefits, both social and environmental, far outweigh the detriments and therefore should be used much more. Although not the most economically sound method of change, community gardens are impacting the lives of those who work in and live around them by putting money back into the economy, building communities, supporting the surrounding communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic welfare, and helping the environment by using less fuel both historically and in the modern world and therefore should be used more in cities and in the world.

115 Works cited “Bevendean Community Food Garden.” Bevendean Community Food Garden. 2010. Web. 29 Dec 2010. “finally, New Yorkers can bee all that they can Bee.” All things considered. NPR.org. National Public Radio, 3 Apr. 2010. National Public Radio. Web. 11 Jan. 2010.

Franceschini, Amy, Daniel Tucker. “Farm Together Now.” San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2010. Print.

Hatch, Alex. Cracks in the Asphalt. San Francisco: Pasha, 2008. Print Helphand, Kenneth L. Defiant Gardens Making Gardens in Wartime. San Antonio: trinity university press, 2006.

Print Kimbrell, Andrew. Fatal Harvest Tragedy of Industrial Agriculture. Washington: Island Press, 2002. Print.

“Londons Gardens: allotments for the People.”Hidden Kitchens. NPR.org. National Public Radio, 26 Jun. 2008.

Radio. NPR. Web. 14 Jan. 2010.

Menzel, Peter, Faith D’alusio. Hungry Planet what the World Eats. Napa: Material World Books, 2007. Print.

“Not All Communities Welcome Urban Gardening.”Morning Edition. NPR.org. National Public Radio, 10 Aug. 2009. Radio. NPR. Web. 4 Jan. 2010.

Outer suburban/ interface services and development committee. Inquiry Into Sustainable Development of Agribusiness in Outer Melbourne. East Melbourne: Outer Suburban/Interface Services and Development Committee, 2010 “Reclaiming Abandoned Homes and Vacant Lots.”All things considered. NPR.org. National Public Radio, 10 Nov. 2010. National Public Radio. Web. 11 Jan. 2010.

Schmidt, Marjorie. Growing California Native Plants. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. Print.

Truchinski, Kristen. Personal interview. 21 Jan. 2011.

116 Alex J Craig Butz Research in the Community – E Block January 23, 2011 Internet Security: Who Needs it? YOU DO!!!

The Internet; such an amazing technology that has revolutionized society. One that has such so much innovation, and so much potential. However, the tradeoff with that innovation and potential is it can be used for malicious purposes, such as attacking itself and the people who are on it, and can have real life consequences. Some of them not so serious; posting on your facebook, deleting files on your computer, however, many are much more serious, that involve money and identities, which have real life consequences that can mean a lot of pain for a lot of people. We need to protect our data from being stolen, and the process of defending it is called, cyber or Internet security. The problem with it, is there is not enough of it and as a global community we need to work together to keep our data safe. In the long run we need to restructure the Internet to increase the protection of the end users. End users are the people at home, or at work, or in the coffee shops using their computers just to get them through the day and done with their work.

Some key terms for understanding the Internet security and why it is such a problem are PCs, operating system, servers, malware, and IP addresses. The Personal Computer or PC is something that a lot of people refer to as a computer running an operating system made by The Microsoft Corporation. However, that is incorrect. What it really means is any computer that is personal, that belongs to a person or company. An operating system is the thing that makes your computer work and can run other programs like Firefox, Internet Explorer, Word, etc. Servers are similar to PCs in that they use very similar hardware except they run web server programs that let them talk to you PCs and send them data. That is how the Internet works, by sending and receiving data from computer to computer.

That could be server to PC, server to server, or in some cases, PC to PC. Malware is short for malicious software, which is a program that has malicious intent. That could mean it is trying to steal you credit card number, or deleting everything on your computer, but it is always something bad. Internet Protocol address, IP address is a number, which looks like this: 127.0.0.1, which is assigned to your personal computer and servers so that they can identify each other and then send data to one another. If you can understand those then you understand the basics of the Internet (Tyson, Jeff).

The problem with the Internet, since it is so flexible it can be used for many different purposes, some can be very malicious. We could take an approach like what Apple did with the AppStore and lock down the whole system and make it secure by regulating the programs and devices that can be used to access it (Diaz, Jesus).

However, that would compromise the freedom of the Internet and might cause it to fail (Zittrain, Jonathan).

To understand why restricting the internet is such a bad idea you need to go back in time and understand how the internet was started and what is was being used for back then and why it was designed the way it was. In the early stages of the Internet, it actually had competitors, and those competitors chose to make their networks more secure by regulating what they could be used for. In doing so, they domed themselves. Since they locked down their networks, they completely destroyed the flexibility of the network and since the Internet was very open and flexible, it eventually won out over the others (Zittrain, Jonathan).

Keeping this in mind you can now understand why the Internet’s pipes, the technical term for them are protocols, were designed so that anything could use them, and send any kind of data through them. A common example given to explain protocols of the internet are pipes. If you think of the things that transfer data as pipes it is a lot easier to explain. Since the “pipes” of the Internet are flexible it is similar to having a pipe that will connect to any kind of hose so that you can move water anywhere you think with any kind of hose. This makes it so that you do not have to buy a “special hose” that will connect to the pipe just to use it.

In the earlier stages of the Internet, there was no such thing as viruses and you did not have to wonder if visiting a website would compromise the security of your computer. Nowadays, the internet is riddled with malware and you have to be very careful about what you do online.

The security of the Internet right now is very poor and you cannot blame it because it is just the way it was designed. It was originally designed as a trust network, where it was assumed that everyone and everything connected to it was something useful or positive not a hacker trying to steal from you (Zittrain, Jonathan).

To even better understand the Internet you can think of it as a spider web where everything is connect to each other not directly but with a few key strands that branch off and through those you can trace all the way across the web from one side to the other. That is exactly how the Internet is laid out (The White House).

You are not directly connected to every website on the internet, on a normal house hold internet connection you first are connect to ISP which stands for Internet Service Provider. This is the company that assigns you, your IP address, for example Comcast or AT&T are ISPs. There are also Host Providers which are companies that are

117 ISPs connect to they are also in charge of giving servers their IP addresses. Remember that servers are the computers that send you data when you connect to the internet. Host Providers act as gateways to servers and connect people at home or work with servers that hold the website data on them (Tyson, Jeff).

The connections between ISPs and Host Providers are very large, much like that of a spider’s web, the middle, most important strands are the thickest. This is because millions of people are sending and receiving data through those connects while connections between your house and your ISP are much smaller because it only needs to support a few people at a time (Tyson, Jeff).

These strands between the ISPs and the Hosting Providers are actually quite secure. The two main problems are what the data will do when it gets back to you or gets back to the server and the connection between your house network and your computer, through a wireless network (“Cyber Security Tips”).

The problem with data when it gets back to your computer or the server is that it could be malicious code that harms you or the server in some way. If you send some malicious code to a server you can trick it into doing things that the owner of the server really does not want. If you receive malicious code on you machine it might be run on your computer and could start stealing your passwords or steal data off your computer and send it back to a hacker (“Cyber Security Tips”).

It is one thing for your computer to get broken into, but when a server that is hosting login information for all of its users gets broken into, you have real trouble. For example if Google’s list of users was broken into and the attack stole all the emails and their passwords, that would cause a huge problem for the millions of users that use that service, that is why server security is of the utmost importance. There are things called SQL interjections with is a type of attack that basically ticks the server into executing a piece of malicious code on the database. The database is just a list of username, passwords and other data that is associated with user accounts. There are also XSS attacks which are even more terrible (Tyson, Jeff). They exploit weaknesses in parts of the website coding and steal data out of the database. It is especially important to keep all that information safe.

The key to improving Internet security is to do it so that there is still freedom within the network but enough security to protect users and servers from all the threats of the Internet. That is the big question though, how do we make it more secure without killing the freedom of it. It is a difficult task, balancing freedom and security, and not all countries are going to immediately agree on a solution (Mills, Elinor).

Restructuring the Internet is the only solution that keeps the Internet free and open but secure. It is important to note that the implementation of this is vital to its success. There must be an organization, agreed upon by almost all governments but completely separate from any one government, in charge of the restructuring.

The restructuring would have two key components to it. The first would be to add an extra layer of security in the connection between ISPs and Host Providers. This would be done by adding in data scanners that search for malicious code. This would protect against harmful code being sent between people and servers. However it will be hard to develop a way of scanning that does not infringe on people’s privacy and maintains high speeds. The second would be to protect data that is being sent over wireless networks.

Stealing data on a wireless network is impossible to completely prevent, but you can make it very unreasonable to do it, because it would just take so long to break in. Given enough time regardless of how “secure” you may think your network is, all wireless networks can be broken into. Once in, anyone can start to steal your data as you send and receive it from servers. To protect against this you need to protect the network on both levels; first keeping them off the actual network and second if they do get on, encrypting all the traffic between you and the server so they can’t read it (Hruska, Joel).

To solve the first problem we need to continually work on creating stronger and stronger encryption methods, right now WPA2-PSK2 is the strongest and it can be broken, eventually. Eventually could mean anywhere from hours, to days but in the long run, that is not very secure (Hruska, Joel).

Right now encryption is available to all servers, but the owner of the server must pay for a certificate that validates your server and even if you do that, it is not always used on all of the connections, usually just used at login. When you return to browsing the rest of the web page after the login, you create a big security hole and your login can be taken over by someone else one your network. To protect against these certificates, which are what tells your computer that it is talking with the server and not someone else trying to steal you data, should be authorized and assigned by this new organization for free. It would then be require that all connections be encrypted therefore making it impossible for anyone to see what you are doing.

Restructuring the Internet is such a way that it is secure enough the people are safe, but free enough that the internet is open and can prosper. An issue that many people might have with this new structure of the internet is that everyone is not free to do whatever they want. However, the tradeoff between the amount of security and the amount of freedom is ok because you are allowed to anything that is not “illegal”, as defined by the new organization. It is

118 important to keep the Internet as free as possible because that is what the Internet was founded on and it would ruin it, if this new organization went too far in restricting it (Zittrain, Jonathan).

The biggest problems with the restructuring are implementation problems, when you begin to think about logistics are; money, time, and deciding who the new organization in charge of the Internet is going to be comprised of.

Money; where does it come from? Who is paying for it? And who is going to pay for this organization?

Time; how long is this going to take? Will there be down time on the Internet? The organization; who is going to be in charge, and how will that be decided? All of these problems must be worked out before you can begin the process of migrating from the “old Internet” to the newly restructured Internet.

The problem is that right now the Internet is full of threats to everyday users and servers. Whether it is over a wireless network, or on a server, we need to make sure that no one’s data is being compromised. It is so important that we do this because the Internet is so intertwined with our society right now and it is important to protect it. If we don’t protect the Internet we risk the loss of massive amounts of data, money getting stolen, identities being forged, all of which that have devastating effects on the day to day lives of users and server administrators. Since everything is stored online or can be accessed online, we have to make sure that it is secure while still remaining open and free so that the internet can still grow and prosper. The security of the Internet should be our top priority and needs to be fixed as soon as possible.

Works Cited "BBC Inside Out - Cyber Security Guide." BBC - Homepage. Nov. 2008. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

"Cyber Security Tips." US-CERT: United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team. Web. 20 Dec. 2010.

"Cybersecurity." The White House. Web. 20 Dec. 2010.

Diaz, Jesus. "Censorship Stays as IPhone App Development Rules ‘Relax’" Gizmodo, the Gadget Guide. 9 Sept.

2010. Web. 1 Jan. 2011.

"Department of Homeland Security | Cybersecurity." Department of Homeland Security | Preserving Our Freedoms, Protecting America. Web. 4 Jan. 2011.

Greenemeier, Larry. "International Report: What Impact Is Technology Having on Privacy around the World?: Scientific American." Science News, Articles and Information | Scientific American. 18 Aug. 2008. Web. 03 Jan. 2011.

Hathaway, Melissa. "Power Hackers: The U.S. Smart Grid Is Shaping Up to Be Dangerously Insecure: Scientific American." Science News, Articles and Information | Scientific American. 5 Oct. 2010. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

Hruska, Joel. "The ABCs of Securing Your Wireless Network." Ars Technica. 29 Apr. 2008. Web. 2 Jan. 2011.

Mills, Elinor. "U.S. House Passes Cybersecurity Research Bill | InSecurity Complex - CNET News." Technology News - CNET News. 4 Feb. 2010. Web. 1 Jan. 2011.

News, Daniel Nasaw BBC. "BBC News - Should Obama's 'internet Kill Switch' Power Be Curbed?" BBC Homepage. 24 Nov. 2010. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

Poulsen, Kevin. "Dual Perspectives Article." Wired.com. 28 July 2009. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

Tyson, Jeff. "HowStuffWorks "How Internet Infrastructure Works"" How Internet Infrastructure Works. How Stuff Works. Web. 3 Jan. 2011.

Zetter, Kim. "Dual Perspectives Article." Wired.com. 28 July 2009. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

Zittrain, Jonathan. The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It. New Haven [Conn.: Yale UP, 2008. Print.

119 Wali K Craig Butz Research in the Community—E-block March 2, 2011 On and Off the Slopes: A Comparison of the Benefits and Dangers of Skiing Imagine you are skiing down a mountain. Catching you by surprise, you hit a tree that seems to come out of nowhere. You are knocked unconscious and you fall into the quicksand-like snow. When you wake up you try to stand up resulting in sinking further into the snow. You are starting to feel the cold and you realize nobody knows where you are. If you try to move, you will only sink deeper resulting in probable suffocation, and if you stay still you will die from hypothermia. This is one of a few fatal scenarios that some of the 200 million snow sport enthusiasts face today (Hines 10). Although there are not many fatalities, skiers often suffer injuries, which must be dealt with. The death rate per 100,000 participants (skiers, snowboarders, cross country skiers, etcetera) in a season is almost 40 ("Rothwell”; "Facts About Skiing/Snowboarding Safety."). Though skiing has a lower death count, the death rate is higher than car-related deaths. Keep in mind the skiing population is the same size as the driving population of the United States. Precautions must be taken to reduce those statistics. After all, cars these days have seatbelts and airbags, why is there no such safety for skiers? Nothing should keep skiers from participating in the sport they love. There are many beneficial reasons for why people ski. People ski because it is an activity to do with friends, it is a conditioning activity, and subconsciously relieves people of their stress, and they should not have to face danger to achieve such benefits. While statistics prove skiing to be one of the most dangerous sports, the cardio vascular and stress relieving benefits make it worth the risks.

The cause and intensity of injuries in skiing ranges from broken bindings (the contraption that holds the boots connected to the skis) to the cold temperatures on the mountains, all of which can and should be prevented. Of all skiers, beginners suffer the most injuries, but besides their skill level, they often lack the necessary knowledge.

For example, injuries happen most commonly when skiers setup ski bindings (what connects the boots to the skis) improperly (Stahle 611). Luckily though, improvements in ski bindings have reduced the injury rate for alpine skiing by more than half since the 70’s (“How Dangerous”). People should also know about weather conditions and temperature. According to Steven Stahle, a fifth of all ski injuries are related to the cold (610). Though it does not seem like a threat, people do not realize that they need proper equipment to keep warm. On the other hand, “95% of the time, death is due to impact”. 65% of which are caused by collisions with trees (Mote 71). Helmets do not protect as much as people think, either. Although they protect against direct impact, they cannot protect against forces to the base of the skill and neck, which are the source of the severest injuries (Hines 31). Most injuries take place in the lower extremities, whether they are broken bones or pulled muscles, because there the skis are the closest to the body. The most common injuries are broken fibulas, shattered ankles, cuts from ski edges (not as common anymore due to recent development of ski brakes), and accidental ski pole stabs (Hines 17). Improper release from bindings causes most of those injuries, resulting in the skier separating from his skis too early or too late. Either way can have fatal consequences. Another problem is the ski boots themselves. They are so stiff that they can break bones when a skier is falling.

For more casual snow sports like cross country skiing, trees, ski bindings, and boots, do not pose such a threat. Cold weather especially applies to cross country skiers because for them frostbite and hypothermia are the largest dangers (Gaskill 21). Many things cause for the injury of a skier, all of which can be avoided with the necessary knowledge and equipment, so that they are aware and ready for those dangers.

A popular debate between skiers and snowboarders is which sport is more dangerous and which is more fun. However, there are only statistics that can support either argument. The answer varies depending on who is asked. Some people will say that a sport is more dangerous but therefore more fun, and vice versa. The results of research done in Japan shows that only 6% of skiing subjects were injured from jumps, as opposed to 25% of snowboarders (Sakamoto). Furthermore, snowboarding is more dangerous because you can go faster, cannot brake as well, and most snowboarders do jumps and other reckless activity (Sakamoto). Snowboarding can thus be classified as more dangerous, but whether it is more fun is still up to debate. The frequency of doing stunts in snowboarding suggests that it is more fun, while the greater speed, difficulty, and control suggests that skiing is, but again that depends on who you ask.

New sports are constantly being developed, trying to breach the limit of what is humanly possible by making the sports faster, harder, and generally more dangerous, making it more appealing to the public. Although the crowds they attract are the source of a professional skiers income, participating in more dangerous sports for money or publicity is not right. One of those new sports is alpine cross. Alpine cross is where either four skiers or snowboarders compete against each other at the same time, on a narrow track, going as fast as they can over jumps, while trying to remain in control. This sport is a source of frequent wipe outs. Consequently, when one skier falls, a

120 few are usually taken with him. As mentioned before, 95% of all injuries are caused by impact, and these sports effectively make use of that to become more popular. It is human nature to be interested in great risks, but that does not make it acceptable to exploit those risks for the entertainment of the public.

Another almost unnoticeable hazard many people are ignorant of is avalanches. Avalanches cause the death of about 150 people a year in North America and Europe. Prevention and safety is a top priority, and must be more strictly and regularly enforced to bring the statistic down. Essential precautions include restricting skiers from dangerous areas and increasing the number of ski patrollers. Currently, only about 25% of buried skiers are found alive (Jamieson 58). More often than not the avalanches themselves are not the cause of injury or death. At least a quarter of avalanche fatalities are caused by physical injuries from terrain traps (Jamieson 58). Terrain traps are physical objects on the slope that could injure a skier if he/she was trapped in an avalanche (Jamieson 19). For example, trees and rocks can injure, but the plain at the bottom of an avalanche slope is just as much of a trap, since that is where all the snow is piled on the helpless victim. Cliffs and crevasses are also dangerous because they make escape more difficult and concentrate the snow into one area (Jamieson 19). Another cause of injury and often death are tree wells, which claim a life almost every year in Colorado (“Hidden Danger”). A tree well is the area around a tree that makes escape neigh impossible, since the snow is very soft and thus provides no leverage to stand up. That is why nine out of ten tree well victims need help getting out (“Hidden Danger”). Since most tree well victims land face first into the snow, they can die within ten minutes from suffocation. California alone accounts for almost a fifth of tree well fatalities in North America. Injury lurks in many areas, and more often than not in the areas you least expect them. That is why people need to be made aware of these types of dangers, like what avalanche terrain looks like and when it is acceptable to ski through the trees.

Knowing how avalanches are created and what they can do is essential to preventing/surviving them, and all skiers must be made aware of that information. There are two main types of avalanches, of which there are varying intensities. Some avalanches are harmless while others can destroy entire villages, and they all happen as a result of subtle differences and changes on the mountain. The two types are slab and loose snow avalanches. A slab avalanche is where all the snow moves as a unit until breaking up, leaving a distinct fracture line at its starting point (Jamieson 10). The size of slab avalanches ranges from mere shifts of loose snow, called sluffing, to displacement of entire slopes, which can destroy forests and villages (“Avalanche”). As for the speed, an avalanche can range from 10 to 125 miles per hour, and more often they are too fast to be out-skied, boarded, or motor skied. The other form of avalanche is called a loose snow avalanche. A loose snow avalanche is where pieces of snow start breaking up and accumulate the farther they roll. These types of avalanches are usually less destructive since they apply to smaller areas and can thus be avoided. Significant loose snow avalanches normally start on 30 to 60 degree slopes, as opposed to slab avalanches which only range between 30 and 45 degrees (Jamieson 14). Fortunately, avalanches usually start on relatively steep slopes, which are normally devoid of skiers.

Avalanches can be triggered by nature and people, but “contrary to popular belief, loud noises do not trigger avalanches” (“Avalanche”). For slab avalanches, people do not necessarily need to be in the starting zone to cause one, meaning that they can create an avalanche that takes their partner standing just a few feet down the mountain. In a way, that would be a better scenario than if the avalanche took all the skiers, since then they would not be able to help themselves or each other. Luckily that can be avoided if the skier(s) knows the signs of avalanche terrain. Places where avalanches frequently happen are covered in smaller, tilted trees, usually with broken branches.

Another visible sign of avalanche terrain is its orientation to the wind. “Wind blows up the windward slope removing snow and down the lee slope depositing snow. [That] smooth wind-deposited snow on the lee slopes can remain unstable for days” (Jamieson 14). The last sign, although not visible, is the elevation. The greater the elevation, the more avalanche danger there is (Jamieson 15). When an avalanche does happen, the steeper the slope the faster it is. Skiers need to be trained in spotting avalanche terrain so that they will avoid it, which is the most effective way to reduce avalanche-caused casualties.

The easiest way an avalanche can be prevented is by causing it prematurely, which is done regularly in resorts across North America. One way, though dangerous, is using dynamite to create the avalanche in controlled conditions. The more expensive strategy is placing avalanche fences throughout the terrain to keep the snow from shifting. Both are used frequently, but not frequently enough because people continue to die in avalanches.

Every type of winter sport has a benefit, though some more than others, but they all allow for the participant to be healthy and have fun with friends. In the mountains the air is significantly less polluted and also has lower oxygen levels which forces the lungs to breathe more heavily and is eventually healthier for the cells. The cleaner and thinner air can also reduce the risk of cancer (Hines 11). Skiing is an intense but subconscious work out, mostly because people are distracted by all that happens on the mountain. On a psychological level, skiing is an environment far removed from the stress of everyday life (Hines 11). Other snow sports provide even better cardio, like snowshoeing and cross country, because they are continuous which increases cardiovascular endurance (Kane).

121 Even small things like the weight of the layers of clothes and the “cold weather [that] forces your body to exert more energy to stay warm, which translates into extra calories burned” gets enthusiasts in better shape (Kane).

Since it uses every part of the body, cross country is definitely the toughest exercise, as said by retired professional patroller, Loring Sagan. A cross country skier requires strong arms to be able to make effective pushes with the poles (Gaskill 32), while of course the body’s lower half is always in motion. Cross country is also more social than regular alpine skiing, mostly because the skiers are closer to each other. The best part about cross country is its safety. Cross country has one of the lowest injury rates of all sports (Gaskill 6). Besides that, cross country is less expensive than downhill since it can be done almost anywhere (Gaskill 6). There are two types of cross country skiing. The classic form can be done at any pace, and therefore requires less conditioning (Gaskill 32). Classic cross country is gentle on the joints and allows for long amounts of exercise. The other technique is called skating cross country, where the participants push with both poles together and is in constant motion, even when pushing off (Gaskill 32). This form definitely requires a better condition, but in return the participant achieves better and better condition, if done right.

Although the probability of injury while skiing is low, ski-injuries can be chronic and must be prevented.

As Mark Hines said, there are actually quite few injuries in skiing compared to the number of snow enthusiasts, but that does not mean the skiing population can slack in awareness on the slopes (Hines 18; 31). Statistically, “about 10,000 Britons a year are injured while taking part in the sport” while only 30 require medical help and the risk of death is less than one in a million (“How Dangerous”). The overall MDBI (Mean Days Between Injuries) is 315, so even though skiers should be made aware, the danger of skiing is actually quite low (Hines 18). There is always a chance of injury because of being out of shape, tired, or dehydrated. Skiing consciously, which includes healthy eating, reduces those dangers and can still be fun. The few fatalities and injuries that do happen are often exploited to scare the public to get them to buy more equipment, memberships, subscriptions, etcetera, but the fact is that most people do not take a lot of risks. Nevertheless, skiers should be informed of the statistics and general information about the dangers of snow sports, so that they at least know what they are doing. As for avalanches, the people should not be allowed to ski around hazardous terrain at all. As long as everything is done to prevent an injury, the occasional accident can be easily fixed by the medical care today. Skiing can be a very dangerous sport as it has proved multiple times, but as long as those dangers, as small as they may be, are treated to the best of our abilities, the healthy, social, and exciting characteristics make skiing worth the risk.

I would like to acknowledge Craig Butz, Ayani H, Rintaro M, Jonah T, Amanda C, and Julia N for helping me with this paper.

122 Works Cited “Accidents: Statistics.” CAIC: Colorado Avalanche Information Center. CAIC, n.d. Web. 27 Jan. 2011.

“Avalanche: Prediction and Protective Measures.” Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Web. 16 Dec. 2010.

Bloch, Gordon Bakoulis. "Getting Started." Cross-training: the Complete Training Guide for All Sports. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992. 49-63. Web. 20 Dec. 2010.

"CDC - Motor Vehicle Safety." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2011.

Deibert, M. C., D. D. Aronsson, R. J. Johnson, C. F. Ettlinger, and J. E. Shealy. "Skiing Injuries in Children, Adolescents, and Adults." Skiing Injuries in Children, Adolescents, and Adults (1998). The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. Web. 6 Jan. 2011.

Dzierzak, Lou. "Why race? (Clear Track)." Cross Country Skier Nov. 2001: 6+. General OneFile. Web. 19 Jan. 2011.

"Facts About Skiing/Snowboarding Safety." National Ski Areas Association. N.p., 15 Nov. 2010. Web. 25 Jan. 2011.

Gaskill, Steven E. Fitness Cross-country Skiing. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1998. Web. 20 Dec. 2010.

"Hidden danger at ski resorts." Gazette [Colorado Springs, CO] 3 Mar. 2010. General OneFile. Web. 6 Jan. 2011.

Hines, Mark. Skiing and Snowboarding Fitness: Reach Your Potential on the Slopes. Buffalo, NY: Firefly, 2007.

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"How dangerous are the slopes?" Europe Intelligence Wire 20 Mar. 2009. General Reference Center Gold. Web. 6 Jan. 2011.

Jamieson, Bruce. Backcountry Avalanche Awareness. Revelstoke, Canada: Canadian Avalanche Association, 1989.

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Kane, Kristin. "[I love like winter sports ].(health benefit of winter sports )(Brief article)." Prevention Dec. 2006: 21.

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Kodas, Michael. "Avalanche Survival: Know Your Snow." 10 Dec. 2010. Web. 05 Jan. 2011.

Levine, Reed L. "Ski injuries and knowledge of fatalities: an intimate link." The Psychological Record 45.1 (1995): 23+. Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 6 Jan. 2011.

Mote, C. Daniel. Skiing Trauma and Safety. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM, 1996.Www.books.google.com.

Google. Web. 6 Jan. 2011.

Rothwell, Charles J. National Vital Statistics Report. 19th ed. Vol. 58. Hyattsville: U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, 2010. U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, 20 May 2010. Web. 25 Jan. 2011.

Sakamoto, Yuko, and Keishoku Sakuraba. "Snowboarding and Ski Boarding Injuries in Niigata, Japan." The American Journal of Sports Medicine (2008). Gale Cengage Learning. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

"Ski Cross Brings Excitement, Danger To Olympics : NPR." NPR : National Public Radio : News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts : NPR. Web. 05 Jan. 2011.

"Snowboarding and Skiing Terminology - Glossary of Terms." Cool Summer Jobs, Seasonal Jobs, and Interesting Careers in the U.S. and Abroad - JobMonkey. Web. 04 Jan. 2011.

Stahle, Steven D., and Robert. J. Dimeff. "Chapter 81 Skiing Injuries." Essentials of Sports Medicine. Ed. Robert E. Sallis andFerdy Massimino. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1997. 610-614. Questia. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

123

Martin M Research in the Community A-Block Craig Butz January 22, 2011 The Importance of Legal Residence Consider this scenario. An immigrant from Nicaragua, Juan, had, for twenty years, worked as a physician in his native country. Coming to the United States, he was relegated to janitorial work. Regretting that he cannot be helping American society in the same capacity as he helped his home’s, he is frustrated that he does not enter American society at the same socioeconomic level. He knows he has the qualifications but the AMA will not let him practice medicine.

After research, it becomes clear that there are two contributors to someone’s economic options: externalities and the individual. To compare an outset with their success shows a person’s character. If someone was poorly educated, perhaps illiterate, then the number of employers who would consider him would be small. If he did not know the employers’ language, the effect would be the same. If he entered the U.S. illegally, it is more likely that potential employers would not consider his application (Jimenez).

Central American refugees—those who have fled their country of origin because of persecution and (or) armed conflict—prove no more educated than economic migrants—those that have emigrated for material welfare— from the Americas’ isthmus. Nor are they more familiar with English when they arrive. Bob Jackson, the head of economic development and I.T. for the Canal Alliance, an immigrant aid group, said that Central American refugees will be in the U.S. legally more often than economic migrants. More refugees can thus attend job-training— improving their résumé. More employers will consider them in turn.

Just as the character traits of American citizens are all over the board, those of Central American immigrants are as well. And so it is reasonable to Central American refugees and economic migrants as similar.

Members of the two will act tenaciously; still others will prove indolent. It follows that economic opportunities available to the two are the same except for “having papers.”

Employment The following Central Americans were interviewed for this assignment. Adriana, who is a refugee, came to the United States illegally. Maribel is a refugee who came to the United States legally. José is an economic migrant who is in the United States legally. Whether they are refugees or migrants, their experiences are often the same.

It is clear Central American refugees and economic migrants often follow the same career paths. Adriana has worked as a housekeeper and a nanny throughout her stay. José has worked as a custodian and in building maintenance for his. Jackson explained that most Central American immigrants work as housekeepers, landscapers, construction workers, and painters. None of which offers much upward mobility.

There are also members of both groups that do not follow a static career course. Maribel—also a Salvadoran refugee—worked as a nanny and housekeeper when she arrived. Later on, she worked as a nurse assistant. Following her tenure in that position, she took a post in a real estate firm. Within several years Maribel ascended company ranks and took on the billet of property manager—an upper level position. With the Canal Alliance’s aid, a Guatemalan immigrant founded a landscaping business (Jackson). The question is thus: with what difficulty do Central American immigrants move up the working order?

A subsidiary question is one of the hardships the groups meet when looking for work. The economic milieu was quite good when Maribel arrived. It was, as she termed it, “much easier to get a job [than it is now].”

Nevertheless, she was unemployed for her first month in the U.S. because of her facility (or lack thereof) with English. Maribel then aired that she had always been in the United States legally. Having a family member in the country who legally advocated on her behalf, immigration authorities approved her residency before arrival. The adversities she faced later in life while “ascending the ladder” had to do with training. Some of which she pursued; some, her employer offered. Adriana, on the other hand, disclosed that she arrived in her adopted country illegally and without any knowledge of English.

Jackson elucidated that to be in the United States illegally, whether refugee or economic migrant, would limit anyone’s options. Firstly, no one can attend state-sponsored job training without “documentation.” Unless some well resourced NGO has operation close to an illegal immigrant’s home—and disregards whether he is in the United States legally—his résumé-improvement options are nonexistent. Secondly, few employers hire people who are in the U.S. illegally (Jimenez). Jackson mentioned that, by comparison with Central American refugees, a higher percentage of Central American economic migrants are in the U.S. illegally. Economic opportunities available to the latter group are therefore not comparable with those to economic migrants.

124 For those that can attend state-sponsored job-training, are they cost prohibitive? Can job training be found close to immigrant population-hubs? Maribel reported job-preparation was available at a minimal charge, if not free.

She then attested that it was at the community college and well timed for her schedule. It “began at seven o’clock [in the evening] and ended at one or two [in the morning.]” She concluded by stating (at least for those that are in the United States legally) there is always an opportunity to improve their résumé. José too was trained in a community college. There he learned how to be a chef, a mechanic together along with other professions.

A further question is if these courses equip someone for fields in which they can advance. Maribel said, with relative ease, she ingressed useful tutelage. Use of the computer, how to be a nurse assistant, intermediate English skills: all of these things made Maribel a much more attractive employee for industries in which one could rise. Jackson pointed out that the Canal Alliance provided a number of useful work-training services. These include computer literacy classes; small business development “classes, workshops, and individual support;” and immigration legal services.

Now, do Central American immigrants experience prejudice at work? Maribel and Adriana explained that they had not. Maribel went so far as to say that she “has always worked for people that respected her.” When attending to questions of work-place discrimination, whether someone is not considered for a position because of their race or place of origin is paramount. Maribel reported that she had never encountered such prejudice. At least one of her employers had gone well beyond what was expected of them. One had in fact helped her make a downpayment on her home loan. In contrast there were few promotions to be had in Adriana’s industry. Be that as it may, her employers had, on the whole, been fair-minded in their treatment of her.

Finally, one must consider the qualities—and the wishes—of the people in question. Did they, despite a useful course being scheduled for nine o’clock PM, attend it regularly? Did they accept extra work hours when offered to them? In spite of a useful course being a considerable distance away, did they endeavor to attend it?

Responses to these sorts of questions reflect an individuals will (power;) and as a corollary, the types of opportunities which they may find. Were Maribel to have lacked initiative, she would not have attended a nurseassistant course from seven in the evening to one or two in the morning, thus allowing her to become a nurseassistant. Despite working and raising a child, had Adriana demonstrated additional initiative when she became “legal” she would have attended job training courses (Vega). She would have entered a more upwardly mobile métier. Granted, Adriana faced many barriers. Yet even so, Maribel was caring for her children as she frequented job training (Jimenez).

Credit Loans are too fundamental to acquiring the “American Dream.” If someone has entrepreneurial aims, he may use one to found a business. Suppose he wanted to purchase a commuter-car, credit may enable him to do so.

Perhaps his wish is to purchase a home as an asset. He hopes it will appreciate in value. A line of credit will allow him to become a home owner. The questions are thus: with what ease do Central American refugees and economic migrants amass credit; and for these two groups, what sums are usually loaned?

Jackson asserted that business-loans for most impressarios he has assisted have been small. Their enterprises are rarely capital intensive. It is a matter of purchasing tools—frequently gardening implements (Jackson). The question of why such loans are small, beyond that their business’ often need little start-up capital, follows logically. Residents of the canal, which is largely Latino, work as painters, landscapers, and construction workers; accordingly, they are not paid well (Jackson). It is not reasonable for a lender to provide several hundred thousand dollars, if not millions, to someone with little earning power and collateral to offer. How will they repay?

As Maribel noted, it is also common business practice not to offer loans to those who have lived in the United States for less than two years. They must then cultivate a credit history in the United States. Without one, a lender cannot decide if they are credit-worthy. Acquiring one is arduous however (Jimenez). It took Maribel over ten years to get a mortgage even when her employer made some of the down-payment, and the federal government worked to increase Latino home ownership. What then sets Central American refugees apart from economic migrants? Quite a body.

Though lacking a social security number—meaning they are in the United States illegally—does not preclude somebody from finding credit, they will not be able to improve their résumé; as a corollary, their wages will be static (Jackson). The size of their loans will be static in turn.

As described above, the individual is also important when dealing with credit. Their merit, at least when they become “legal,” will affect whether they are creditworthy. Is their pay minimal? Do they have little job security? Do they spend beyond their means? If a lender’s response to this question is yes, why would a lender offer more than a small loan, if that? Central American immigrants undoubtedly face barriers. For some these are odious.

For others they are better. But that does not mean someone cannot overtake somebody else based on work ethic and talent. If a migrant were to immigrate to Bakersfield, they could move to the San Francisco area despite greater living expenses. If they are “legal,” they could stay up late into the night training for a new profession, increasing

125 their spending power. They would be more credit worthy as a consequence. This contention is not some naïve piece of Americana. It is simply that past work shapes future opportunity and that some Central American immigrants will find such opportunity.

Monetary Assistance Consider the following scenario. Eduardo Mendoza, a Honduran from the country’s capital, Tegucigalpa, has travelled to Los Angeles for better wages. He is illiterate and arrives immediately after a surge in foreclosures.

The nation’s banks and builders are reeling. There is not a home to be built, nor a house to be painted, nor a garden to be landscaped. The market for construction workers, painters, and landscapers is already saturated, and fewer people, considering the economic climate, want these jobs done. His search for work yields nothing and he turns to monetary aid. The question of whether he will find it follows.

It is not typical for Central American immigrants to receive monetary assistance. Maribel, with the exception of Medicaid for her small children, did not receive any, nor did Adriana, nor did José. Jackson decried claims of immigrant dependence on welfare as false. But is aid available?

For the most part not. As Jackson noted, non-profits typically do not have resources to aid someone indefinitely. Nor will someone receive Medicaid if they are an “illegal.”The exceptions to the rule are pregnant women and children (Jackson). Now, for those that are in the United States legally—refugees more often than economic migrants—they are eligible for Medicaid (Jimenez). Maribel also reported that if an immigrant has legally lived in the United States for two years, he may receive welfare payments. The question is thus one of accessibility.

Adriana said that she knew of many people who received welfare payments. One could hardly say that welfare payments are inaccessible when roughly 520,000 Californians received them in mid-2009 (Murray).

Conclusion Employment, credit, and monetary assistance: these three will define any person’s economic history. To get a better job, someone needs to be in the U.S. legally. The same proves true when he tries to access credit and, at least in most cases, when he tries to find monetary assistance.

To ascend company ranks requires a résumé satisfactory to merit “moving up.” As Central Americans are, more often than not, less educated than their peers from the United States, to develop such a track record necessitates job training (Jackson). Most job training is provided by community colleges, and someone cannot attend a state-sponsored course without documentation. Central American economic migrants—who are in the United States illegally more often than Central American refugees—are, as a group, therefore left at a disadvantage when compared with refugees from their countries of origin (Jimenez).

Though living in the United States illegally does not mean that someone cannot access credit, the inability to attend state-sponsored job training that comes coupled with it limits the quantity (Jackson). What lender would offer a large line of credit to someone whose annual earnings are $15,000?

Finally, for someone to live in the United States illegally, except in the above mentioned scenarios, means that he is unlikely to find monetary aid. As Central American economic migrants are less likely to live in the U.S. legally than refugees from the isthmus, they are less likely to access monetary aid than refugees (Jackson). In closure, Central American economic migrants, as a group, have far fewer economic opportunities than Central American refugees as a group. It should be noted however, that their futures in the U.S. are not proscribed.

Works Cited Jackson, Bob. Personal Interview. 18 Jan. 2011.

Jimenez, Maribel. Personal Interview. 9 Jan. 2011.

Mendoza, José. Personal Interview. 20 Jan. 2011.

Murray, Sara. “Numbers On Welfare See Sharp Increase.” Wall Street Journal. Wall Street Journal, 22 Jun. 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2011 Vega, Adriana. Personal Interview. 17 Jan. 2011.

126 Olivia M Craig Butz Research in the Community A Block February 28, 2011 Research Paper Therapy Dogs: “PAWS and Affect” From kids with disabilities to the elderly in nursing homes, therapy dogs have proven to be an inspiration and source of comfort to all the people whose hearts they touch, by acting as therapists to help alleviate physical and emotional trauma, these special dogs perform the chain reaction one might call "paws" and affect. Even though the facts are significant, the underlying “magic” in the human canine bond is even more powerful. Therapy dogs are very helpful but their treatments are not as well known compared to the regular medications people use. It is important for people to spread the word about therapy dogs so that more hospitals and other similar institutions will allow them to visit.

Therapy dogs are trained dogs that provide affection and comfort to people in hospitals, nursing homes, and other similar institutions. Therapy dogs are different from service dogs that are trained to help people with disabilities get around for their entire lives, instead therapy dogs are short term and not to be depended on forever. In contrast to the jobs of service dogs who help blind people get around or alert to seizures their owner might be having, a therapy dog’s job is to help comfort people with emotional trauma or physical conditions that are disabling. Many dog owners are familiar with the way their dogs bring joy to their lives, and what therapy dogs do is just spread that love. The therapeutic value of dogs is undeniable both physically and mentally; their uses are only limited by imagination and small restrictions related to health and temperament.

General restrictions and requirements of therapy dogs include a good temperament, healthy, minimum of 1 year old, and must have a handler (TDI Testing Requirements). It is essential that the dog has a good temperament because they cannot show any aggression towards people; they need to be outgoing and love people. If a dog is nervous and scared of people it will make the patients and the other people around them nervous, which is the opposite effect of the purpose of therapy dogs. A therapy dog must have annual veterinary check-ups to make sure they are healthy so there is no risk of exchangeable diseases or sicknesses between human and animal (“Requirements for Registration”). The dog should be a minimum of one year old because most young dogs still have a lot of energy and their attention span is minimal. The handler of the therapy dog is also really important because they have to make sure the dog is behaving, and if the dog is showing any signs of stress or aggression they need to be taken away from the patient or facility immediately (Butler 15). However, despite these requirements, facilities are generally open to the idea of having therapy dogs come visit their patients.

The goal of therapy is to ultimately help make people feel better and this is exactly what dogs accomplish.

When patients are bed ridden they become very lonely and depressed, but when a dog comes to visit (followed by their handler) they get the much needed exposure to another living thing. This exposure is followed by the basic human need of touch. Our human need for touch begins when we are a baby and our mothers hold us, or our dads bounce us on their laps. Dogs help fulfill this need by giving patients someone to cuddle with, pet, and play with (Sakson 219).

A few of the Bay area institutions that use therapy dogs include the Marin Humane Society, LITA Marin, and PAWS SF. The Marin Humane Society’s (MHS) mission statement is “Improving the lives of animals and people through advocacy, education, and support” (Mission Statement: MHS). MHS has a program called “SHARE” which has many classes that train dogs to become therapy dogs. Their classes include Animal-Assisted Therapy which brings dogs to visit and assist people in special care institutions such as hospitals, and their Share A Book class which help children build confidence in their literacy skills (SHARE: MHS). Similar to the Share program at the Marin Humane Society, LITA (Love Is the Answer) in Marin, also has a program called “The PET Connection” which brings dogs to people in long term care facilities (“Our Programs” LITA). For people who have had to leave their pets behind at home because they have had to enter long term care facilities and they are unable to take care of their pets, there are organizations such as PAWS SF to help. PAWS SF is a nonprofit organization that focuses on “essential support services, educating the larger community on the benefits of the human-animal bond, and advocating for the rights of disabled individuals to keep service animals” (“Our Mission” PAWS SF). PAWS SF started as just a “dog food bank,” but now goes to people’s houses and helps them take care of their dogs that they have had to leave behind by taking them on walks, socializing them, and making sure they have enough to eat (Sakson 64). These three institutions are only just a few in the Bay area that work with therapy dogs, and they are all committed to promoting the physical and emotional benefits of therapy dogs.

Therapy dogs are used to help people physically such as providing motivation to move, lowering blood pressure, and helping people relax which eases muscle tension. A study that was done of about 6,000 patients at

127 Baker Medical Research Institute in Melbourne, Australia, showed that “those with pets had lower blood pressure, a lower cholesterol level, and as a result, a diminished risk of heart attack” (Sakson 8). Researches believed that this was no coincidence and that the reason was that dogs have a calming effect on people and “reduce our state of arousal, which reduces blood pressure” (Sakson 8). The physiology behind these studies is when humans are around dogs, we have increased levels of dopamine and oxytocin, both of which are known as “feel good hormones” that help us relax, be happy, and in turn reduce our blood pressure. A lack of dopamine can make you socially awkward or depressed, but people will open up more around dogs because they increase our levels of dopamine (Psychology Today: Dopamine). Oxytocin plays “an important in social relationships and the feelings of trust and affection” (McConnell).

The reactions people have towards dogs due to increased levels of dopamine and oxytocin allow dogs to provide emotional therapy in a variety of ways such as decreasing loneliness and depression, giving exposure to structure and discipline, and providing unconditional love. When a patient is sick from a life threatening illness it is logical that they feel scared, stressed, and anxious, but just the small act of having a dog come visit can provide a great source of comfort. Dogs have proven to reduce “anxiety as measured on a standard rating scale dropped 24 percent for those [patients] visited by a dog and human volunteer” (Altman 1). This is because when interacting with dogs, our levels of oxytocin increase more than when we are interacting with humans (McConnell).

Therapy Dogs are used in facilities that have patients with physical disabilities that make it difficult for them to move because dogs are a great source of motivation. Children with “physical disabilities have an especially strong bond with animals. Children who have trouble walking make astonishing efforts to maintain their balance so they can play with a dog. Those whose heads loll uncontrollably from side to side work to maintain eye contact” (Sakson 9). Children work hard to maintain eye contact because studies have been done to show that when gazing in the eyes of dog our levels of oxytocin increase which makes us feel good (McConnell) and dopamine makes us react to those good feelings by making us want more of them (Psychology Today: Dopamine), so that is why kids continually want to interact with a dog.

Therapy dogs’ work is very beneficial with children who have been subject to abuse. The kids have a very hard time opening up to people and “psychologists find it difficult to evaluate abuse victims because the abused will do anything to avoid talking about what happened” (Sakson 102) and that is where a therapy dog can come in to help. Dogs are comforting and allow people to relax because of their stable presences and they know the dog will not judge them or abuse them.

Even though there are many facts supporting how therapy dogs help people physically and emotionally, it is hard to provide facts on the “magic” that happens between a human and canine that show how dogs provide emotional therapy. Emotional therapy from dogs is something that needs to be experienced firsthand to really understand it because “there is no explanation for why humans are able to open their hearts to receive a dog’s unconditional love and benefit from it. And there’s no explaining why dogs are so generous about sharing their lives with us” (Sakson 225).

Because of the emotional and physical benefits that therapy dogs provide it is important that hospitals, nursing homes, and other similar facilities continue to take advantage of the many therapy dog programs that are available. Dogs can be a form of medicine; people just have to be open to their diagnoses. “Like ripples from a stone dropped in a pond, word of the healing power of dogs continues to spread” (Sakson 225), and hopefully people will not only have a greater appreciation for the dogs they have at home, but also understand why they are so beneficial to our well-being.

May the power of healing be at the end of your leash (Sakson 225).

128 Bibliography Altman, Lawrence. Study Identifies Heart Patient’s Best Friend. New York: The New York Times Company, 16 Nov. 2005. PDF. Butler, Kris. Therapy Dogs Today: Their Gifts, Our Obligation. Oklahoma: Funpuddle Publishing Associates, 2004.

“Dopamine.” Psychology Today. Sussex Publishers. Web. 20 Jan 2011.

McConnell, Patricia. “Oxytocin Increases When Your Dog Looks at You.” The Other End Of the Leash. McConnell Publishing, Ltd., 21 Oct. 2009. Web. 20 Jan. 2011.

“Mission Statement.” The Marin Humane Society. 17 Sept. 2008. Web. "Our Mission." PAWS: Pets Are Wonderful Support. 2009. Web. 27 Dec. 2010.

“Our Programs.” LITA. 2010. Web. 1 Jan. 2010.

“Requirements for Registration with TDI.” TDI. 2009. Web. 18 Dec. 2010.

Sakson, Sharon. Paws & Effect. New York: Spiegel & Grau, 2007. Print.

SHARE (Special Human-Animal Relationships).” The Marin Humane Society. 2010. Web. 1 Jan. 2010.

Therapy Dogs International. Testing Requirements. New Jersey: TDI. PDF.

129 Rintaro M Craig Butz Class-Block E February 9th 2011 Not in My Community!

The Reality of Human Trafficking Introduction Slavery is something that still goes on in the America; in fact it is happening in our community. It could be happening in neighboring homes, it could be happening in workplaces and it could be happening in the streets. The definition of slavery is â&#x20AC;&#x153;the process by which a person is recruited to be controlled and held captive for the purpose of exploitation.â&#x20AC;? (Understanding Slavery). People are still being enslaved to be used in many different jobs: domestic servitude, forced labor and prostitution. There are two reasons why people still enslave other people: first, slaves can be used in many different ways, second they can be used to do things for free. There are a few big antitrafficking organizations in San Francisco, although only two will be mentioned. The API is an organization who wants to help Asians who have been trafficked through court. SAGE Project also wants to improve the lives of victims; however they are also trying to prevent trafficking before it happens. Another way in which victims are saved from their traffickers is by the actions of Good Samaritans. Good Samaritans are normal citizens however they realized something was wrong with the community and took actions to help the victims they found. Human trafficking is a problem in the Bay area; people are imported from other foreign countries and are forced to work in many different fields. People should not ignore this crime, and the only way for us to stop this injustice is by noticing the signs of slavery and bringing it into the light.

Domestic Servitude One of the places slavery happens is in the home. Domestic servitude is forced labor within a household with little or no pay and under bondage. This is a big issue that is going on in San Francisco; unlike other forms of slavery, the goal of domestic slavery is the money the trafficker will save from using a slave instead of hiring and paying a maid or nanny. In fact, 1/4th of all human trafficking going on in the United States is domestic servitude (Bales and Soodalter). The primary perpetrators of domestic servitude can range from an average middle class family to foreign diplomats. The victims of domestic servitude can be anybody: male or female, child or adult. As long as the traffickers can make their victims feel helpless, almost anybody can be made into a servant if their mind has been crushed. So how do foreign diplomats come under the category of traffickers? They too do not want to hire a maid to clean their second homes. Foreign diplomats are able to use their diplomatic immunity to escape punishment; in fact, the only punishment they receive is being banned from the United States. They do not receive any fines, nor do they receive any jail time because of their immunity (Bales and Soodalter). Another issue is that the government allows these diplomats to hire workers under a special type of visa which they do not regulate enough. Because of this traffickers of domestic servitude are rarely ever caught. Even though domestic servitude is very similar to labor trafficking, there is a significant difference. Domestic servitude goes on strictly within the household, while labor trafficking usually goes on in the workplace. This difference is significant enough to make domestic servitude its own category instead of putting it in the same category as labor trafficking.

Labor Trafficking Although Labor trafficking does not directly go on in San Francisco, it still can affect our everyday lives.

Labor trafficking is very hard to define because there are so many jobs people can be forced into doing. This ranges from forced labor in factories to forced mining and even forced farm labor in the United States. One of the biggest issues about this type of slavery is that, not all workers are protected by the laws, even today, farm workers are the only type of workers who are not protected by the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (Bales and Soodalter). The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 means that all workers are allowed to form unions and fight for rights without having to be afraid of getting fired. That is, all workers except farm workers; back when this act was passed, racism was a prevalent factor in the United States. This makes them an easiest target to slavery. How does this type of slavery affect our community? Even today slaves are being used in Florida or foreign countries to pick agriculture.

This means that a tomato that we can purchase in our grocery store could have been slave farmed; the Cocoa in our chocolate bars could be slave-farmed in the Ivory Coast. Slaves are also forced to mine in foreign countries that trade with the United States. Tantalum, copper and steel used in our everyday mechanical goods might have been farmed and or processed by slaves. There are many more cases like sea food caught in Bangladesh, clothes made by child slaves in New Delhi and charcoal made in Brazil; products like these have been tainted by slavery, but are still entering our country. Here are a few ways how slavery affects our everyday lives.

Slavery probably crept into your life several times today, some before you even go to work. Rolling off your bed, standing on that pretty hand woven rug, maybe you threw on a cotton T-shirt. In the kitchen did

130 you make a cup of coffee, spoon in a little sugar, and then kick back with a chocolate croissant and your laptop to check the headlines? (Bales and Soodalter) Most likely some of the products you own were either made by slaves and parts or ingredients of it were farmed or mined by slaves. Even though labor trafficking does not go on in our community, it still affects our everyday lives.

The biggest problem we have with this kind of slavery is that, it is almost impossible to tell if a product is made by slavery or not, making this, one of the toughest type of slavery to prevent. Although this type of trafficking is very hard to prevent, it is not the one that causes the most trauma: sex trafficking is.

Sex Trafficking Unlike labor trafficking, sex trafficking is another big issue in our community. Sex trafficking “is the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for the purpose of a commercial sex act, in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person forced to perform such an act is under the age of 18” (HUMAN TRAFFICKING). It is said that According to local authorities, there are approximately 90 Asian massage parlors which are actually underground brothels in San Francisco. Based on this information, it is concluded that there are at least 700 Asian Masseuses who are being used as sex workers in San Francisco (SEX Trafficking). According to the SAGE Project, 43% of sex trafficking in California occurs in the Bay Area. This is largely due to the fact that many Asian workers immigrate to San Francisco to work in Asian massage parlors. Another thing we should keep in mind about sex trafficking is that 50% of the sex trafficking going on in America is the trafficking of children (MythsHT). Although most targets of traffickers are women and girls, men and boys are also vulnerable to them. The big problem that we face when trying to prevent sex trafficking is the demand. People who buy the victims, commonly known as “johns”, commit this crime multiple times. Therefore many programs have been made to educate first time offenders and men and boys who have yet to commit this crime. One of these programs is the “john school”; in fact one of the first john schools in the United States was started in San Francisco (Abt Report). Without these kinds of facilities and anti-human trafficking organizations, the Bay community would have more slavery than there currently is.

Recruitment Methods Most traffickers bring victims from foreign countries; usually the traffickers themselves will go to the country and convince the soon-to-be-victims into moving with them to the United States to do their housework or taking care of their children. The trafficker will usually fill the heads of their victims with glorious stories of success in America. This is usually enough to convince the victims into legally or illegally immigrating to the United States. There are many other ways for traffickers to obtain their victims; an example would be kidnapping.

There have been many cases of international and domestic kidnapping where the victims end up being involved in slavery. There are also cases of psychological manipulation which is changing the victim’s behavior by offering them something that piques their interest. With these methods of recruitment, the trafficker is able to find their victims. The travel route of the traffickers is to fly to Canada or Mexico and go through the border to the United States. Once in the United States they will travel through Native Reservations during the night so authorities cannot arrest them (SEX TRAFFICKING). Once they reach their destination, the attitude of the traffickers change. They try to crush the will of their victims through fear and beatings. The traffickers usually take away the immigration paper of the victims, if they have any. Traffickers usually threaten the victim by telling them they will harm their families if they do not obey. Slowly, but surely the victims will slowly begin to break.

Asian Trafficking In the Bay community, Asians are one of the biggest victims. In our community Asians are being used mainly for domestic servitude and prostitution. Specifically for this topic, I interviewed people who work in anti Asian trafficking organizations to ask them about the issues of Asian trafficking in our community. The two organizations I interviewed were the API and the SAGE Project, whom I will talk about later. The idea I got about the situation of Asian trafficking going on in the Bay area is that it happens more than we know about. The reason we do not notice it is because the act of trafficking is rarely ever caught by the public.

Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, the vice unit of the San Francisco Police Department routinely conducted reverse sting operations focusing on arresting men who sexually exploited prostituted persons, and made several hundred arrests of johns per year… In the early 1990s, there was a robust local commercial sex market, exacerbated by the city’s position as a major tourist destination and a busy port for markets throughout the world – particularly Asia and the Pacific Islands (Abt report).

A reverse sting is when a police officer either disguises themselves as either a possible victim or as a “john”. These would also include police officers invading brothels, replacing employees with female officers and then wait for johns to approach the brothel (Abt report).

Asian human trafficking was prevalent 20 years ago, but the problem is that it still is even after all this time. For example on January 20th 2011, the Hayward police caught a sex trafficking ring that was not only going on in

131 Hayward, but also going on in three different counties: Almeda, Contra Costa and Santa Clara county (Human Trafficking Charges). It is a big development that so many prostitution rings have been shut down. It is not only the anti-trafficking program that has developed over the last 20 years; the police have gotten better at handling human trafficking cases. However one of the main problems we have today is the power and regulation of visas.

Visas Although some victims come to America by illegal means, others get through the border legally pretending to be tourists or by getting a temporary work visas. Some of the visas used to legally immigrate poor workers who want to work as a domestic servant are: The A-3 Visa is for household employees of diplomats. The G-5 visa is given for domestic workers attached to the households of employees of international agencies such as the United Nations, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund. The B-1 visa serves a larger group, since it covers the domestic workers who “belong” to businesspeople, foreign nationals, and American citizens with permanent residency abroad (Bales and Soodalter). These are some types of visas used to traffic victims over to the United States to work as domestic servants. They are usually given to people from poor countries who are desperate for a job in America. However if a young, middleclass and educated European woman wants to work as a domestic servant in the States, they are given a J-1 visa, which allows them to work safely in a protected and regulated household. Under the J-1 visa, they are required to have an orientation session in New York and then introduced to other workers who will be located in the same area.

This way, the women will be able to contact one another in case anything bad happens (Bales and Soodalter 36). Basically even though the two workers are in a similar situation, one receives protection from the law, while the other does not. The worker who does not receive protection, may have to go through all the traumatic effects and experiences that come along with forced labor.

Effects Trafficking has on Victims It’s simple to say that trafficking has negative effects on the victims, however that does say much. The only way for us to understand to truly understand trafficking, we need to explore the hardship the victims had to go through. Victims are under constant fear: fear of harm being done to their family, fear of being physically assaulted and the fear of being caught by the authority.

The victim is also taught to fear the police and the courts. The police are corrupt, she is told, just as they were back home. They will arrest you and beat you, and the immigration authorities will deport you.

Finally, the slaveholder instills the fear of retribution against the victim’s family in the country of origin.

This “intimidation tactic” is very powerful; it’s enough to keep the victims from running. Other than fear, a slave might develop other feelings for their traffickers, loyalty. One of the more terrible effects of this loyalty is that the victim comes to feel that her enslavement is her own fault. (Bales and Soodalter).

This feeling of loyalty comes from the victim thinking that he or she is guilty especially if they have been sexually abused by their traffickers. Another challenge a victim has to go through is malnutrition and sleep deprivation: Fed of scraps and leavings, most domestic slaves live in a constant state of malnutrition, a significant contributor to breaking their spirit… [The trafficker] must keep the victim tired enough to be confused and debilitated… (Bales and Soodalter).

These factors are key ingredient in breaking down the victim’s spirit; they are also the reason why victims have such a hard time talking or remembering about their life as a slave even after they have been rescued. Some groups are devoted to helping trafficked victims to go through court and post-traumatic depression.

API and SAGE Project As I have mentioned earlier, I was able to interview two big anti-trafficking organizations here in San Francisco. The Asian Pacific Islander Legal Outreach (API) is part of an even larger collaborative called the AATC (Asian Anti Trafficking Collaborative), which is made up of four large shelters and outreaches for trafficked Asians.

The mission of the AATC is to provide legal and social services to victims, especially to those who speak a different language. Another mission it has is to provide training and technical support to other anti trafficking organizations.

Their final goal is to provide emergency housing and service for children to the victims (Asian Anti-Trafficking Collaborative Brochure). On the other hand the SAGE Project wants to try and stop the demand for human trafficking, especially sex trafficking and sex trafficking of children. By doing so, they are able to prevent slavery before it happens at a relatively low cost. The SAGE Project was created by Norma Hotaling and created as a NonProfit Organization in 1992. (Sage Overview) Over the years many programs and organizations have been developed to fight human trafficking going on in the Bay area. While many programs have developed since 20 years ago, we the people also need to help put an end to this issue. We need to be “Good Samaritans”.

Good Samaritans and Ways for Citizens to Bring an End to Trafficking

132 Good Samaritans are ordinary citizens who aid in the rescue of trafficked victims. A Good Samaritan is the openness to the fact that something in their surrounding is not right (Bales and Soodalter 165). Basically by being aware of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surrounding and being open to the fact that there could be something wrong, anybody has the potential to become a Good Samaritan. The first step is to know what to look for when you think somebody is being trafficked. Here are some things to keep in mind when you think you are confronted by a victim of sex trafficking: Is he or she working or being held against his or her will? Is he or she not free to change employers? Does he or she not control his or her earnings? Is he or she unable to move freely or is being watched or followed? Is he or she afraid to discuss him or herself in the presence of others? Has he or she been assaulted, or threatened with assault for refusing to work? Has he or she been cheated into payment of debt upon arrival? Has he or she had his or her passport or other documents taken away? (Bales and Soodalter).

These are the kinds of questions Good Samaritans ask themselves when they suspect someone of being trafficked.

There have been many cases of Good Samaritans who have saved the lives of victims. For example a woman from New England who realized her next door neighbors were using an Indian boy as a domestic servant, or the woman from Vermont realizing the massage parlor she worked at also had an underground brothel that enslaved Asian women (Bales and Soodalter). Because these people realized that something in their community, something in their everyday lives was wrong, they were able to contact local authority who in turn arrested the traffickers and rescue the victims.

Conclusion Slavery still goes on in the United States, in fact it happens right here in the Bay area. It is something that we cannot ignore nor should be ignored. It is a matter that we the community must fight, whether it happens in the household, in the farmlands or in the brothels. Things have gotten better since 20 years ago, for instance the police are taking the initiative to teach their officers how to recognize slavery when they see it. You might think that itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s simple to recognize slavery; however there have been many cases where a victim could have been rescued but never was because they missed their chance. An example of that would be the case in Connecticut where a police officer happened to find a group of teenagers sitting inside a house. The officer found that all of the children were foreigners and none of them knew how to speak English. He found it suspicious, reported it but the case was never investigated. Because of this, that group of children disappeared and was never found (Bales and Soodalter). Along with the police, many anti-human trafficking organizations are now trying primary prevention techniques. Primary prevention refers to fighting the illness at its base; the demand for sex trafficking (Abt Report). Although NGOs and the police are both fighting to abolish slavery, the people must also help. Noticing our surrounding, knowing the signs of trafficking and being aware of the products we buy, we can slowly abolish slavery that is affecting our community.

Acknowledgement I would like to acknowledge Craig Butz for looking over my paper.

Bibliography Bales. Kevin. And Ron Sodalter. The Slave Next Door. California: University of California Press. 2009. Print.

"Definition of the Issue | CAST LA." CAST LA. Web. 22 Jan. 2011. <http://www.castla.org/definition-of-the-issue>.

"Visions and Missions." The SAGE Project | Standing Against Global Exploitation. Web. 27 Jan. 2011. <http://www.sagesf.org/html/what_main.htm>.

"Human Trafficking FAQ." SAGE Project. Human Trafficking FAQ. Print.

"Abt Report - Developing a National Plan to Stop Sex Trafficking." SAGE Project. Abt Report - Developing a National Plan to Stop Sex Trafficking. PDF File.

AATC. "Asian Anti Trafficking Cooperative Brochure." Asian Anti Trafficking Cooperative Brochure: 1-4. Print.

"International vs Domestic HT." International vs Domestic HT. SAGE Project. (2006): 1-2. Print Metinko, Chris. "Human Trafficking Charges Filed in Hayward Prostitution Bust - San Jose Mercury News." Home - San Jose Mercury News. Web. 28 Jan. 2011. <http://www.mercurynews.com/breakingnews/ci_17223601?nclick_check=1 SAGE Project. "Sage Overview Packet." Sage Overview Packet (2009). PDF File.

May, Meredith. "SEX TRAFFICKING / San Francisco Is A Major Center For International Crime Networks That Smuggle And Enslave / FIRST OF A FOUR PART SPECIAL REPORT." Featured Articles From The SFGate. 06 Oct. 2006. Web. 28 Jan. 2011. <http://articles.sfgate.com/2006-1006/news/17316911_1_trafficking-victims-human-trafficking-new-owners/4>.

133 Stefan N 1/18/11 Research in the Community Animal Abuse: the Cause and Effect There seems to be no end to the suffering of household pets. Many pet owners will purposefully and unintentionally scare or hurt their pets which has detrimental effects to the pet and leaves mental scars that may never heal. To stop these people from purchasing pets, all sellers of animals should start performing background checks on perspective owners. In addition, animal shelters should devote more of their budget towards the advertisement of their animals.

Animal abuse has taken many lives and hurt many dogs and cats and this issue can be traced back to early childhood problems. The want to inflict pain on the animals can be traced back to the childhood of the abuser. Often, abusers were the victims of child abuse. This causes them to take out their anger on their loving pets which causes them to gain a sense of power.

Pets are also abused or neglected because the owners cannot afford the pet with all of its maintenance bills.

There were 3800 dogs that were treated because the owners couldn’t pay for the vet bills and another 2210 came into the hospital because of the low cost vaccination clinics (The Numbers and Beyond: A Look Back at 2010).

Carolyn Jones said that “People buy small animals all the time as an impulse buy . . . and the animals end up at the shelter and often are euthanized,” (Jones). The animals are purchased without knowing the animals’ requirements and then they find out that they do not have the stability to afford a pet. They are then forced to give up the pet.

Abuse comes in many forms, some more detrimental to the health of the animal than another but they all effect the animal in negative ways. Some abuses are unnecessarily early weaning: the early removal from its mother before two months with its mother starting at birth. Social isolation: the animal has not been introduced to many dogs or people so it lacks the skills to be friendly and instead, becomes hostile around people and animals other than its owners. Physical restraint: the confinement of the animal to restrict the animal from movement. Verbal punishment: yelling at the animal because it did not do what the owner wanted or screaming at the animal and calling it names and making the animal feel bad. Physical punishment: the beating of the animal because it did not do something properly, did something it was not supposed to do, or because of the owner’s want for power.

Improper care and maintenance: the animal’s lack of its necessities such as exercise, food, grooming, and cleaning.

Deliberate or thoughtless infliction of chronic stress or pain: deliberate or thoughtless infliction of chronic stress or pain means that the animal has been put under stress by the owner by many small inflictions of verbal abuse or physical abuse over a long period of time (Dodman). All of these types of abuse hurt the animals and may alter their personalities and actions.

Abuse and neglect is still happening today and it is evident through the stories of Samson and various other dogs. It may seem as though abuse is rare but it happens more often than not and these animals are afflicted with heart wrenching stories where there is no telling if they will live or die. No matter how the abuser sees how they have treated the animal, they have still abused it and the views of the victim are always the same. The universal response to abuse is “one of mistrust, social withdrawal, physical inactivity, and depression,” (Dodman). Abuse is a major problem because it is still happening. A German Shepard named Samson was being trained for bomb detection until it developed a heart murmur which deemed it unable to continue with its job. Shortly after this discharge, the dog was abandoned by its former owners and given to the shelter. With help from the shelter and the fire department, Samson found a home with a police officer (Samson). This loving pet was abandoned because it could not perform its duties. This is like saying a 90 year old grandfather is now useless so it should be left to die.

Animals are neglected and abused everyday and no one tries to do anything. Another story is that a family’s German Shepard mix was beaten savagely with a large rock by a neighbor. The dog was left in the grass heaving with skull fractures, broken nasal passages, and close to death. This loving animal was then euthanized because the road to recovery would be too difficult and painful. The court convicted the neighbor with felony animal abuse (Bates). The dog was beaten because it was out and these crazy people are killing animals simply because they are there. In addition to this life changing story, a Chihuahua puppy was beaten in a park with surrounding children and police officers. The Chihuahua puppy was throttled and pushed against the cold hard ground multiple times. In addition to these injuries, the puppy was also punched in the face several times. Multiple witnesses were present and the abuser was convicted (Winton). In Broad daylight, the animal was punched in the face which is a serious offense that could have killed the animal. What would drive someone to hate the animal so much as to punch a Chihuahua? The most disappointing and depressing story of all was when Weber, a 22 year old, had been accused of killing his girlfriend’s cat by hanging it in her trailer. This act was a way to intimidate the girlfriend and her son. The worst part about this story was that the man was acquitted of the animal abuse charge as well as three other charges although he was found guilty of fourth-degree assault in the presence of a child and first-degree criminal mischief which are

134 considered felonies in addition to misdemeanor strangulation. The reason he was not convicted on animal abuse was that no one could put Weber at the scene of the crime and yet they could still convict him with the other crimes (Animal Abuse Not Among Convictions for Man). This is the most depressing story ever heard about animal abuse in today’s society. They put the mental safety of the child and mother before the life of the cat. The animal abuse problems are more of a problem than anyone can imagine.

Abused animals have a long and cautious road to recovery because the animal needs time and specific requirements to fix. Leading the abused pet to recovery is even more difficult when the animal is younger because the pet is more impressionable whereas an older pet would bounce back much quicker. Although the speed of recovery increases with age, the process of adjusting an abused pet is not easy; it usually takes about a year to recover from serious abuse and some animals never see improvement (Dodman). Abuse leaves a mental scar on the life of the pet and the only way to fix it is to take the time to follow many guidelines and steps. This time is very crucial for the recovery of the animal. There are many things that need to be done when helping an abused animal, and many activity based methods for recovery. Such steps include: speaking quietly, sitting quietly with your pet, setting up stuff to do while you’re gone to decrease separation anxiety, don’t make them work for rewards, clicker training, and dogs need twenty to thirty minutes of exercise daily (Dodman). Speaking quietly will keep them from feeling threatened or become stressed while still allowing the owner to communicate with the pet. Sitting quietly with the animal will help with the bonding process because the time alone in silence allows the animal to feel unthreatened and relaxed so the owner may earn the animal’s trust. Separation anxiety is a problem because the pet will become accustomed to its owner and when the pet is alone, the pet will become stressed and feel deserted.

Making the pets work for the food provides stressful situations where the animal may not meet the expectations of its owner. This leads to more stress because if they do not succeed, the pet feels like a failure. Clicker training is training where the trainer tells the pet to do something and when the pet has done the command, the trainer clicks a toy and tosses the pet a treat. Clicker training is a good thing because this method is a good way to make the dog feel accomplished while training the animal. Exercise is an important part of recovery because animals need plenty of space to move and run because being cooped up will stress out the animal.

There are many other things that are the owner’s responsibility to do such as making them feel needed and loved, allow them to get accustomed at their own pace, protect them from what they are afraid of, arrange positive outcome for all situations, clear communication, and a place away from everything. The owner can earn the love of the pet by making the pet feel loved and needed which is important when first introducing the pet to new situations and people. The pet needs to get accustomed to people at its own pace because rushing will lead to increased stress.

Protecting the pet from what it fears helps the pet get accustomed to its owner and makes it appreciate them for decreasing the stress from fear. Arranging positive outcomes is good because when the pet is successful, it makes it feel happier that it pleased its owner and overall will help the pet bond to its owner. Clear communication provides the pet with an understanding of what the owner wants the pet to do such as commands. A place free from everything gives the pet a break from stressful situations. The problems that come with an abused pet can easily be remedied with patience and relieving stress.

Many states attempt at stopping pet abuse once and for all, although they none are successful. Nevada initiated a law which requires any and all offenders of the animal abuse law to be enrolled in counseling. While this punishment is worse than only the jail time and fine, counseling is a minor setback. Abusers have mental dispositions and counseling is not the way to move about getting rid of animal abuse. Arkansas is trying to increase the punishments for abusers which could be up to a $10,000 fine and six years in jail (States Look at Stricter Animal Cruelty Laws). This punishment is a good way to discourage offenders from abusing animals, yet animals’ lives are in danger. This is not enough of a punishment for ruining an animal’s life or maybe even ending it. Prison should not be solely a way to punish the offender; it should be a form of punishment and a way to fix the problem. If there is a thirty years to life for a murder of a human being, the death of a beloved pet deserves the same treatment. A life is a life regardless of who it belongs to. San Francisco was attempting to pass a law that prohibits the distribution of all animals excluding fish (Jones). This law is unreasonable because while it would prevent all people from owning pets including abusive owners, it only is effective in the city of San Francisco. It is still very easy to drive to another city and buy a pet where the law still allows people to own pets. It was said by Lockwood that “We have much stronger laws available to us, now, going after animal cruelty, and it is partially due to the perception by the general public,” (States Look at Stricter Animal Cruelty Laws). Lockwood said this to ensure that animals are now better represented and that these laws protect the animals, yet, the animals still suffer. When rescuing pets, a third that come in are from rescues from out of state; mostly large scale, another third come from other shelters whose housing is filled with other animals, and the last third comes from the public who cannot take care of the animals (The Numbers and Beyond: A Look Back at 2010). The fact that the shelters are so overrun that they have to send the pets to other shelters is unfortunate. They receive so many abused or neglected animals that they cannot house them all and it is

135 unfortunate. It is also unfortunate that the people make large scale rescues because if someone is abusing more than one life, they are injuring the heart and soul of not just one, but many pets. 68% of abused animals require medical help when they enter the shelters (The Numbers and Beyond: A Look Back at 2010). This is a sad percentage because the majority of animals that are rescued need medical help as their lives are at stake. The laws being put into place need to be proactive instead of reactive or else more animals will become the victims of animal abuse.

The current laws around the world are not working but there are multiple methods which the shelters and distributors should do to protect the animals they sell. One solution is for distributors to run background checks on owners. Another is that the breeders should check in on the owners periodically, also it should be mandatory that the animals see a veterinarian every month for signs of abuse. In addition, on all sellersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; websites should be a list of animals with pictures and bios to be able to flip through. Distributors should run background checks to make sure that the owners are able to care for the pets and are not abusive. They should check in on the owners periodically so that if they miss anything in the background checks, the damage to the pet is minimal. It should be mandatory that the animals see a veterinarian so that the pets are safe and do not go without treatment for extended periods of time.

Part of the budget should be devoted to advertising the animals on the shelter websites so that it is easier to find out what cat or dog to get without having to go to the shelter. People are lazy so they should be able to not have to waste tiem in different shelters trying to find the right one. These solutions are proactive, and combined with the punishments for breaking the laws; animal abuse may be gone from the world.

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Arluke, Arnold. Just a Dog: Understanding Animal Cruelty and Ourselves. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2006.

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Jones, Carolyn. "S.F. Considers Banning Sale of Pets except Fish - SFGate." Featured Articles From The SFGate.

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Mathews, Dan. Committed: a Rabble-rouser's Memoir. New York: Atria, 2007. Print.

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Strand, Elizabeth B. "Domestic Violence and Animal Cruelty: Untangling the Web of Abuse." Journal of Social Work Education 39 (2003). Questia. Web. 4 Jan. 2011.

"States Look at Stricter Animal Cruelty Laws." State Legislatures Apr. 2001. Questia. Web. 4 Jan. 2011.

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136 Julia N Craig Butz Research in the Community—A-block 27 February 2011 Learning to Learn with ADHD: The Public vs. Private School Dilemma “When you take the symptoms of ADHD and put them into a work or school setting, there’s more than likely to be a struggle”, states Terry Matlen, psychologist and author, in a recent interview (Haupt). Since 2007, about 9.5% of adolescences ages 4 through 17 have been diagnosed with ADHD (“Attention”). Legislation has been passed that grants students with ADHD, or any other disabilities and learning differences, specialized learning programs in public school, but private schools have not been obligated to follow these laws. Although private schools are not required to follow of the state school regulations, they tend to do a better job accommodating their student’s with ADHD. Therefore the state should make it easier for public schools to provide services to their students with ADHD by making sure they have enough money to create special education services.

But what is ADHD? ADHD is the acronym for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder which is a medical condition that can affect the way someone acts, listens, and behaves towards others (“ADHD”). According to Dr. Zoe Collins, a clinical psychologist in the Bay Area, “ADHD is how quickly and effectively the brain processes information and how attentions to these thoughts are disrupted, than how a person with ADHD behaves”. Some common symptoms of children with ADHD are trouble focusing, distraction, organization trouble, restlessness, and patience issues (“ADHD”).

Since there are many distracting elements in a classroom, students who struggle with ADHD may have trouble focusing on tasks and lectures at hand. Distraction is “one of the ways that ADHD is first identified in young people” and is one of the most common problems that students with ADHD struggle with (Taylor 14). In a classroom setting, colorful posters and noises coming through the window are two elements that remove a student’s attention from the task at hand (Taylor 18). In visiting a second grade class, I noticed the students’ with learning differences looking around the classroom at the bright posters. When one of these students was then chosen to answer a question, he mumbled and did not know the correct response, because he was distracted.

There several different in-class solutions to this problem. A teacher can allow the student to work in a low distraction room that does not have bright and colorful posters covering the walls (Collins; Taylor 18). In addition, a student with ADHD should be working in this room without any other students and room should be quiet with no outside noises (Taylor 18). Depending on the child, it would also be beneficial for relaxing and soothing music to be playing in their work room (Taylor 18). Since children with ADHD are usually restless, sitting still is tough (Taylor 18). If the teacher does not let his or her student with ADHD work in another room, it would be helpful to let the student take constant breaks to move around and stretch (Collins; Taylor 18). Although these methods of preventing distractions might be helpful to students with ADHD, oftentimes students will need something to keep them even more focused.

Therefore, another way a student can eliminate distraction is to regularly take his or her ADHD medicine (Taylor 19). Blake Taylor author of ADHD & Me, a firsthand account of how he struggled with ADHD, offers an explanation to what ADHD medication does. He states in his book that its function is to help the brain “filter out unimportant data” and let the mind focus on necessary information (15). Therefore if a student takes his or her ADHD medicine, they will not be as distracted by side conversations, outside noises, or colorful posters (Taylor 18).

These techniques might work well, but it is equally important that the teacher be attentive and patient with their students struggling with ADHD. Although students dealing with ADHD mean well, they have a difficult time controlling their impulses, actions, and emotions so teachers must be patient. Dr. Collins gives a few suggestions for teachers that are working with students struggling with ADHD. She recommends that the teacher creates a learning environment in the class that is structured yet flexible and includes a lesson plan and routine transitions. If a teacher has a set schedule with break times, a student will be much more attentive and focused. In addition, it is important for the teachers to set up goals for the upcoming year with their students who have ADHD (“Advice”). Then, throughout the year a teacher should check in with their student and find out their progress in achieving the previously discussed goals (“Advice”). Along with these elements the teacher should “…praise [their student with ADHD] immediately, often, and privately…” about their academic success and hard work (“Advice”). As a teacher praises their student with ADHD privately, it is also important to privately discuss ongoing problems with the student (“Advice”). Dr. Collins states that although these elements are important, it is most important that the teacher has patience and believes that his or her students are trying and want to learn.

As well as having academic trouble at school, students with ADHD can struggle socially with their peers.

Blake Taylor recalls that he had trouble fitting in with his peers during school because of his ADHD. He was bullied

137 once or twice, although he was able to find an honest and creative solution to this problem (Taylor 79-92). Taylor recalls that it was difficult for him to make friends because he was insecure about his ADHD and felt that his behavioral issues would get in the way (Taylor 73). In contrast to Taylor’s experience, Dr. Collins recalls that though her clients might have trouble with peers it is never too serious and differs by case. She believes that the reasons for a child to have social trouble would be when they impulsively say something before thinking about its impact or consequences. In addition, she believes that peers might feel as if a student with ADHD is not listening when they actually have a low attention span. Since other students, without ADHD, may not understand why their peers or friends have trouble focusing on conversations or impulses to make inappropriate comments they avoid their peers with ADHD. For a child with ADHD to succeed making friends and improving academically during class, it is important that families and parents work together with the school to discover what is best for their specific child. The first thing that parents should do is ensure that their child’s teacher is well prepared to teach a child with ADHD (“Advice”). If their child’s teacher is not well-prepared to teach a child with ADHD, the parents should try to find another class in which to transfer the child (“Advice”). Once a student with ADHD is placed in an appropriate class, it is necessary that the school and parents work together to come up with supplementary ideas to help the child academically (Fowler). If the parents believe that their child needs additional education programs and services to help them in school, they must conduct the required evaluations which determine whether or not their child qualifies for them (“How”). To do this, start by researching the services available and talking with teachers, school districts, and professionals in the field (“How”). If the child does become eligible for these services, the public school district must provide individualized services for them in the next 30 days (“How”).

In order for schools to provide acceptable accommodations and services to students with disabilities or learning differences, California’s government mandates schools using its legislature. There are two laws, in particular, have had the most affect and are the most reviewed (“Educational Issues”). They are the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (“Educational Issues”).

Although these laws have been passed, they mainly apply to public schools and each public school district chooses whether a student qualifies for the programs offered through the laws (Collins).

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ensures students with disabilities and learning differences “free and appropriate public education” and provides special education services for students who qualify for it (“IDEA”). If a student qualifies for the program, their public school is required to provide them with services individualized for their needs (“IDEA”). Dr. Collins relayed her concerns to me that public schools do not include ADHD as a learning difference, but instead as a neuro-disorder. In addition, Eileen Bailey writes that the IDEA “is often restrictive in providing special education or services to children with ADHD”, which agrees with the point Dr. Collins made. Also, most public schools use the IDEA as a guide and not as a law they must follow. Because of this, most students with ADHD do not get the services offered by IDEA. Section 504 is a civil rights law in the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 which “… ensures that a qualified child has access to education” (“Section 504”). This law eliminates discrimination of children with disabilities or learning differences in anything that is federally financed, including public schooling (“Section 504”). The general qualifying terms are that a student has a disability that limits his or her education, learning, behavior, or any other major life functions (“Section 504”). Unlike the IDEA, Section 504 is much more flexible in providing services to children struggling with ADHD. Although this is a good start, public schools do not always follow these laws adequately.

Even though these laws only cover public schools and not private schools, the latter does much more to accommodate its students with ADHD and learning differences for a variety of reasons (National). Public schools do not have enough money to spend on learning services for all their students struggling with a difference or disability so they limit how many children receive programs. The students that do qualify get sufficient programs that place them in a special education classroom which provide them with basic and minimal services. In these special education classes there are often a range of learning differences, but teachers teach as if the students have the same learning difference. In contrast, from my experience in private schools, most private schools try their best to teach their classes in different styles—visual, lecture, hands-on—in order to engage and accommodate their entire audience. In addition, most private schools tend to have learning specialists that meet with their special needs students, such as ones with ADHD, on a regular basis. With a more one-on-one program and more money to use on learning specialists, private schools are able to provide more services and accommodate more children with ADHD. The government should provide public school systems with more funding to help them create more private school style special education programs, in order to benefit students with ADHD. If a public school were to have more beneficial programs for students with ADHD, such as one on one tutoring or more hands on activities, these children will strive more in and outside of the classroom. It is important for students with ADHD to be both academically and socially strong. In order for this to happen, peers, teachers, parents, and school boards need to help

138 students with ADHD thrive in school. This is not an issue that is able to wait any longer and action must be taken in the government in order for children to receive proper education.

I would like to acknowledge Craig Butz, Olivia M, Jesse A, and Jacob H for reviewing and giving me suggestions on my research paper.

Works Cited “ADHD”. Teens Health. The Nemours Foundation, 1995-2011. Web. 2 Jan. 2011.

“Advice for schools teaching children with ADHD”. The Practitioner (7 July 2005): 525. Gale Cenage Learning;Health & Wellness Resource Center. Web. 4 Jan. 2011.\ “Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Data & Statistics”. CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. 27 Jan. 2011.

Bailey, Eileen. “Section 504 for Children with ADHD”. Health Central. The Health Central Network, 2005-2011.

Web. 31 Jan. 2011.

Collins, Dr. Zoe. Personal interview. 24 Jan. 2011.

Fowler, Mary. “ADHD: School Issues and Interventions”. Family Education. Pearson Education, 2000-2011. Web. 2 Jan. 2011.

Haupt, Angela. “Surviving ADHD at Work and School”. U.S. News. U.S. News & World Report, 26 Oct. 2010.

Web. 2 Jan. 2011.

“How can I work with my child’s school?”. National Institute of Mental Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 23 Jan. 2009. Web. 16 Dec. 2010.

“IDEA”. National Resource Center on ADHD. CHADD, n.d. Web. 3 Jan. 2011.

National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD). “Highlights of Key Provisions and Important Changes in the Final Regulations for IDEA 2004”. LD Online. WETA, 2010. Web. 31 Jan. 2011.

“Section 504”. National Resource Center on ADHD. CHADD, n.d. Web. 3 Jan. 2011.

Taylor, E.S. Blake. ADHD & Me: What I Learned from Lighting Fires at the Dinner Table. Oakland: New Harbinger Publications, Inc, 2007. Print.

139 Joey N Two Wheels Are Better Then Four: A Look at the Benefits of Bike Commuting Whether it is racing in a group of 100 or more people, or simply riding my single speed around town to get to my friends house, I have always been very interested in many aspects cycling. I have been racing at a national level since I was 11 years old. To race like this, a lot of training is needed and I had to make do with the city and the areas around it for my training ground. Because of this I became very knowledgeable about riding in the streets of San Francisco. As I have grown older and continued riding in the city, I have realized that using bikes as a form of transportation is something that is overlooked. People do not realize that it can do the rider just as much benefit as the environment, keeping both our planet and us healthy. Considering how hard it is to resist the luxury of driving to work in the morning, the city needs to commit to many things like wider bike lanes, bike routes without hills, and public bike related events, like critical mass and bike to work day, to motivate the city to forget about cars and use bicycles instead.

Ever since the phrase “Share the road” was coined, there have been arguments between busy, late for work, coffee drinking car drivers, and defensive, environmentally conscious reflector wearing bike commuters. Car drivers believe that bikers have good intentions but sometimes get in the way of busy traffic, slowing down drivers who may be late for work (Arnoldy). This is when drivers get mad and a lot of times, if this happens a few times to one driver they will get a bad impression about all cyclists. Some drivers take out their anger about other things on cyclists who stand in the way of their SUV. Drivers who misunderstand the motive of cyclists may even crash into a cyclist on purpose. I once witnessed a car and a cyclist that were crossing an intersection. The driver believed that the cyclist had gotten in its his way and the cyclist believed that the driver had gotten in its his way. The car driver honked their horn and yelled out the window at The cyclist yelled and made a rude hand gesture back at the driver of the car.

They continued out of the intersection and out of sight. I was walking along the block the way they had gone and when I got to the next corner I saw the same cyclist standing next to his smashed bike, explaining to a police officer that a large SUV had hit him. It seemed to me that since the SUV that had honked at him had followed him down the street; it could have been none other than the same car that hit him after taking offense to his shout and no doubt the rude hand gesture.

When accidents like this happen, The Police often side with the Car driver, putting the cyclist at a disadvantage. This is caused by lack of training in police officers, who simply do not know how to deal with a bike crash (Kim). However, no matter whose fault it is, the cyclist is of course already at a disadvantage because when a car and cyclist do end up colliding, the cyclist will be the one to hit the ground and feel the pain of it (Arnoldy).

Although the cyclist is almost always the one to actually get hurt, drivers must realize that car insurance companies will raise their rates if they hit a biker or pedestrian. This is the insurance company’s way of showing us that it should be a general rule that the smallest and most vulnerable person on the road should have priority (“Better Ways to Help Bike Transit”).

When discussing the issues between cyclists and motorists, one must not leave out critical mass. Critical Mass is a massive gathering of cyclists with the intention of creating such a big group that the cars will no longer be in control of the streets. This is extremely dangerous to the cyclists who partake in it and is the best way to piss off car drivers who, until that point, thought cyclists were doing a good thing. These cyclists race past stop signs and totally ignore red lights. Although the law known as the “Idaho Stop” is being considered which would allow bicyclists to treat stop signs as yield signs, this simply makes car drivers angrier and less likely to look when opening a door or making a turn (Arnoldy). Of course this is also putting the cyclist in danger because when they run those red lights, they will be the ones to pay the price. Drivers who have witnessed the scene at critical mass believe that it is “Unfair to drivers by granting concessions to bicyclists, such as new bike lanes on Polk Street that will allow people to pedal around their own city with slightly less fear of bodily injury” (Mechanic). This driver believes that cars have the right to the road and that cyclists should ride in fear of cars. They believe that bike lanes and critical mass are only giving cyclists a false sense of security.

Although Critical mass seems to be doing an immense amount of harm to the rise of bike commuters, Critical mass is actually coaxing more people to come out and ride than ever. Critical mass is actually helping people get motivated to commute and get around town. The reason being, people like the idea of riding in a large group, protesting against the way cars seem to rule the streets. Some people show up dressed up in costumes, with flashing light shows, and their favorite wacky bike. It is a way to have fun while also riding your bike. People realize that every day can be like this if they commute to work or wherever they need to go. This huge group has gotten so popular that they have now started to be escorted by a squad of police on motorcycles to protect from belligerent, angry drivers. However, not all car drivers are like this. Some drivers happen to also be cyclists who for

140 this certain task, needed to drive their car. Neal Petal from the San Francisco Bicycle Coalition is convinced that “Most people who commute by bike still have a car; they just choose to use it as little as possible.” However there are the extreme ones who refuse to ride their bike and must understand that although it may be a little obnoxious, Critical mass is just a way of reminding the cars that they must share the road. For in reality, everyday is critical mass for cars (Mechanic). There is a way to minimize car and cyclist collisions. If classes were given showing cyclists proper positioning in traffic, cars would not have the chance to make a mistake. It is all about making sure that the car sees you. If you ride a little behind a car and on its side when it might be making a turn, it will probably come close to hitting you. But if you make an effort to ride closer to where the driver is and make sure they see you, they will not hit you (Arnoldy).

Some car drivers don’t understand what people find so compelling about bicycle commuting. Their cars are no doubt very comfortable, with heating, AC and all the other comforts. How could anyone willingly give this up to ride their bikes up the many infamous steep hills of San Francisco? The fact is riding up hills is hard. It’s painful and not very fun. So why would anyone want to do it instead of just driving up them in a couple of seconds, only having to put your foot down? That is a question that many car drivers might ask when confronted with someone advocating for the spread of bicycle commuting. However hills are not the only barrier stopping people from biking.

Some people haven’t ridden a bike in many years and they believe they are not up for it (“Will Gas Prices See a Surge in Bike Commuters”). Lance Armstrong’s feats in the world of bike racing inspired many cyclists to ride more but for car drivers, it did not help them make the transition to biking. They started to see Lance Armstrong and riders doing insane stunts, participating in the X Games and get the impression that it is only an extreme sport (Byrne).

For all of these doubtful people, they must realize all of the benefits of bike commuting. Besides its beneficial impact on it also allows people to stay in shape without having to spend hours at the gym every day.

Allison Aubrey from NPR reported that “The U.S. cities with the highest rates of walking and cycling to work have obesity rates that are 20% lower” (Aubrey). For some people looking to fit in hours at the gym after their busy work day, biking to work might be just the thing that they have been looking for in order to stay in shape during the week.

However, there are people who need more persuading and claim that they rely on their cars to get them to their job quickly and on time. Although contrary to popular belief, the average bicyclist is actually faster than cars on busy, traffic filled streets, averaging a speed of 8.4 miles per hour during rush hour. When compared to the 6.2 miles per hour average that most cars are capable of during rush hour, suddenly biking doesn’t seem so farfetched after all (Peralta).

Biking around the city has become an essential part of the daily lives of some teens as well. They use bikes not just to get around, but to express themselves by performing stunts on the many different obstacles in the city.

These teenagers have come to be known as “street riders.” They think of street riding as a sport and for some it is their only sport. This sport is best defined as freestyle riding, or dirt biking on the city streets. These days, street riding is almost as popular as skateboarding. The only thing that makes skateboarding so much popular is the fact that nice bikes cost a lot more than a nice skateboard (Duff). Most street riders believe that “Street riding is about using your bike to do something. . .something more than just transportation, something outrageous” (Duff). The fact that some of these stunts might be a little to “outrageous” for the public to see means that street riders must venture out at night to perform their stunts. This ensures that there will not be anyone around to get in the way of a certain area or any cars to get in the way if they are riding in the street. Street riders must be very creative when looking for a spot to ride. Unlike mountain bikers who need to find the right jump, street riders will ride all over the city in search of the perfect set of stairs or the perfect ledge. Additionally, most good spots to ride are found by word of mouth, not only exploration. Due to so many young rambunctious teens getting into this sport it is now thought of an extreme sport, both by the onlookers and the riders. For the riders, “Danger is more than just a part of the game, it is the game” (Duff). Unlike a skate park where helmets and pads are required, street riding has no rules. Therefore the participants in this sport do not wear helmets or pads of any kind (Duff). The benefit of this sport becoming so popular is that teens are not as motivated to start to drive if they have to ride around town looking for new spots.

They might as well just bike around for other things. This also eliminates their parents having to drive them to a skate park or a certain area to do their tricks; they already have the mode of transportation.

Although there is still much to be done to help the rise in bike commuting, a considerable amount of effort has already been put into it. The main organization that is helping with this is the San Francisco Bicycle Coalition, whose goal is to educate the people of San Francisco about bike transportation and to eliminate the obstacles that stand in the way of people biking to work and other important places. The bike coalition is doing many things to make it so it is an easy choice for people to make when they decide to start commuting by bicycle. For example The SF Bike coalition used to only have two bike classes a year, but due to the rise in gas prices, there are now up to 6 classes each month (Arnoldy). Since Caltrain only has a 24 bike limit per car, people soon started getting bumped from trains, due to too much space being taken up by bikes. The bike coalition has worked very hard to get Caltrain

141 to add 20 more cars so that they can accommodate all of the bikes (Strasberg). I Bike SF, an organization which helps people get out to do their shopping by bicycle is being considered a long with many other events (“Bike”).

These events like bike to work day are very effective in getting people motivated to ride their bikes. A lot like Critical mass, bike to work day makes biking to work more exciting than usual. Booths with snacks, free bags and water bottles are set up along popular routes. Flocks of people come out with their bikes that some of them might not have ridden for a few years to ride with all the other commuters. Studies have been undertaken that show one to two thousand people start bike commuting after bike to work day. Cyclists are also getting motivation from their bosses at work to commute. CEO’s have started lunchtime rides with their employees to get to know them better.

This makes it hard for them to come to work by any other way than their bike if they do not own a bike rack on their car (Aubrey).

There are also some outside forces that are helping people realize that biking to work would be a good start to their day. Some people just cannot be dissuaded when certain things start to change. With gas prices being what they are, who wouldn’t reconsider their means of transportation? Gas prices have been a major help to this cause.

People simply are getting sick of paying four dollars for gas in their gas guzzling cars. The rising awareness of global warming has also caused people to stop and think. People realize that it is not a myth and the easiest and most inexpensive way to help is to dig out the old ten speeds and ride to the grocery store.

Although these outside forces are helping, there are still many things that must be done that will not unfold all on their own. That is why we must make improvements of our own. There are many possible solutions that can be put into motion. But to find the solution we must look back at the problems that people face. The problem of Danger seems to be one of the biggest that people are facing. One way to eliminate some of the dangers could be to put bike lanes on smaller streets instead of on large busy streets where most of the traffic is. This will help eliminate a lot of the danger and will make it easier for people to get around the city without the constant fear of being cut off by a bus or by any of the other many distractions that can catch you off guard in a busy street. One other solution that could possibly eliminate many painful accidents would be the to move the parking lane for cars into the middle of the street, in between the two driving lanes. This would only work on the larger streets but would make it so that the bike lane was next to the sidewalk with no cars in between. This would eliminate the many cases of Dooring.

Dooring occurs when a car driver is getting out of their car. They open the driver door quickly when a cyclist happens to be riding by. Most of the time, the cyclist is thrown over the door along with their bike. They may occasionally even take the door off with them as they go crashing to the ground. Without any cars in the way to door cyclists, there will be a lot less risk of crashes. The other big issue that causes people to choose not to commute is the large amount of extremely steep hills in San Francisco. There is a simple fix to this however. There needs to be a lot more across town bike routes that circumvent the hills and focus instead on flat side streets. Even though there are many things that can be changed about the streets to help people get around town, people must also be educated on the safest and fastest way to bike around town. Cyclists need to know proper positioning in traffic. This is important because if you are not positioned right, the car will not see you and may accidentally run into you.

With all of these changes in effect, there will be less excuses for people to get out and ride their bikes around town. Some people need to get over their cars and at least give bike commuting a try. It is quite understandable that people feel so sure that driving to work is the only way for them to travel. Cars provide a quick easy way to get to work. Especially on cold winter mornings when people want to have the luxury of riding in a car with heating instead of freezing in the cold wind, people forget that cycling to work also gives them a great sense of fulfillment and satisfaction that driving can simply not produce (Aubrey). As long as people have the resources to give bikes a try, there is no reason why they should not at least try it for one day and see how they like it. It is very important for people to at least try it and see what they think so that as many people as possible can experience the thrill and fulfillment that comes along with biking. Even if you couldn’t imagine that biking to work in the mornings will be any better than the usual car ride, consider it. You never know! It might be that one thing that ties your whole day together.

142 Bibliography "Accessible Pedestrian Signals to Be Installed in San Francisco," Questia, Web, 31 Dec. 2010.

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Kim, Ryan. "Panel wants cops to report bike crashes Board of Supervisors to consider resolution; cyclists complain police tend to favor motorists in mishaps " San Francisco Examiner 12 Jan. 2000,California Newspapers, ProQuest. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.

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143 Joseph O Craig Butz Research in the community- E block January 15, 2010 Video game addiction: the unknown addiction A story published by the New York Times a kid had just got a Xbox and Halo 3. A Sci-Fi (Science fiction) first person shooter. He played the game all day for two weeks and every chance he got. His parents saw a drop in his grades from his extreme amounts of time playing the game and thus they took it away. The kid could not handle not playing the game and he took the Xbox back and started to play again. Once again the parents took away the Xbox and locked it away in a safe with a 9mm gun, which was for protection. From the compelling addiction the kid got into the safe took the Xbox, the Gun, and shot his parents killing his mother and injuring his father. Then continue to play the game after killing his parents (Marriottt Michel).

Parents and players believe that video game addiction is just a phase in someone life, but it so much more.

There have been cases of children that were extremely addicted to video games and would go crazy if they did not play the game. The point of this extreme example is that video game addiction shouldn’t be taken lightly. Just like a drug addiction, the usage begins to escalate until the point of overload. Just as how you might turn to drug and other substances for happiness you might do the same with video games with video games. Video games can be fun and entertaining, and often used as a stress reliever, however playing too much can lead to a horrible addiction. Just like any other addiction, people can go to extremes if restrictions are not made.

The dictionary definition of addiction is “Being abnormally tolerant to and dependent on something that is psychologically or physically habit-forming” (Peters). Drug and alcohol are the most known and discussed addictions. Video game addiction is just as important and addictive as drugs and alcohol. The effects I have learned from drug and alcohol addiction match some of the identical effects of video game addiction (Mary). One might start taking drugs or drinking extreme amounts of alcohol for the happiness it brings. Video games are no different; kids play them for the happiness and enjoyment they bring. “Reset” a book about video game addiction, says “It is not that video games are a stress reviler themselves, but the attitude you play the games with relieves the stress” (Reset). That mindset can be had doing other activates, such as playing sports. When you play video games you don’t care about anything else besides level or improving your character in the game. Thus, forgetting all of your real world responsibilities, “When someone really becomes addicted to that feeling they go to the one source, where they know they can obtain that feeling” (Unplugged). When people are addicted they will not try other ways to get the feeling, because they do not believe they will get eh same feeling. When kids like playing video games, they do not believe the same feeling can have playing video games.

With any addiction not, being addicted to video game include: signs and symptoms. Some addiction symptoms for kids could include: lack of sleep, not keeping up with school work, Drop in grades, lying about game playing, playing video games over friends, stealing money to get new games, irritated when not playing video games, and being unable to quit playing video games. (Parent Further) The symptoms of addiction vary between adult and children. The symptoms for adult could include: an intense feeling of pleasure, many hours of playing that game, interfering with your family relationship, lying about playing the video game, feeling angry or irritated when not playing the game, large amounts of money spent on games, and having your online life be more important than your real life. (Parent Further) With having such a strong addiction the amount of time doing the addiction can become overwhelming. A poll was taken about kids from the ages from 12-16 and 70% of the video game players of that age played over 4 fours hours a day (Peters). People want that happiness whenever they have the chance, and thus all the free time they have, might be spent playing video games. Video games require more often continuous use. “Video games require practice and continuous play, for the player to become good at the game” (Mary), it could vast amounts of playing time before the player would be good at the game. That inclines you to believe that you have to be good at the game.

Not being able to play the video games or use the substances can cause serious problems. “When having that happiness of playing videos on a regular basis and when it is not had the person, would go through extreme mental struggles to get that happiness” (Mary). People yearn to get that happiness whenever they can. Video game addiction and drug and alcohol addiction are similar in the way of that family genes can alter ones addictiveness. In your family history if your ancestors were a large video game player and have showed signs of addiction, there is a much higher chance that you would be more prone to becoming addicted (Mary). Another relationship between video game playing and human personality is if the player has ADD/ADHD. Kids having attention deficit disorder are known to be easier addicted to video games (Mary). With having ADHD managing time is a challenge and the time needed to play video can engulf you. People with ADHD need to play out how much time they need to spend

144 on different activates, because they can easily become distracted. Thus when kids with ADHD play video games they can lose track of time more easily and spent a lot of time playing video games (Peters).

Playing large amount of video games and constantly thinking about when you can play them, easily transforms into an addiction. An addiction not only affects the amount of time you would spend playing or using the substance, but it can affect so much more in one’s life. Video games can affect all types of social relations. For example, if you are invited to hang out with friends, but you are in the middle of an intense video game battle, you would choose to continue your fantasy life rather, then your real life (Mary). This is a sign of any kind of addiction, not only video game addiction. The addiction could also affect your family relations, such as if you are having family over for dinner. You might not talk to your family members, but just be playing the video games. (Peters) The whole concept is that you would not do anything other than play the game when you are at home. The most common thing addiction effects is school. When you are addicted you put the importance of the source of your addiction ahead of everything. Someone who is addicted to video game would see getting to the next level in a game more important. Than finishing their homework. With not completing school work drops in grades will occur.

(Peters) The same effects can be had from being addicted to drugs or alcohol. Someone who is addicted to video game will think that video games are the most important thing in their life, but it is totally the opposite (Mary). At this point restriction needs to be made around the video games. Restriction should be put on the players so they cannot play endless amounts of time. For example, having the kid finish their homework before being allowed to play video games.

Violent video games can cause more aggressive behavior in kids, which can lead to further problems in the future.

When kids see the violent mentality of the video game and are drawn towards it, they are more likely to imitate that violent behavior form the video game. Children might lash out after playing the violent game, when asked to stop.

People claim that, “The graphics are not good, so it is not as real looking”, but it is not whether it is real looking or not.

No matter the graphics, violence is violence. For example, games such as GTA, (Grand Theft Auto) that you might have to kill someone to complete a mission. Younger kid interpret the violence as “Violence bring rewards” (Violent Video Games). The human brain does not fully grow or mature until the age of about 21. Thus if a kid is introduced to a type of video game can physically change the wiring of the brain.

Someone how is addicted, thus could not recognize that they are addicted; it is up to someone else to help them. The most common is parents; parents being aware about video games are one of most important factors.

Parents should know what games they purchase. Parents should know the rating system, M (Mature +17), T (Teen +13), E10+ (Everyone above age ten), and E (Everyone). This is one major step to managing video games and not having your child playing M games, at the age of 12. Another step that parents should take is “putting the video game system in a public room” (Mary Woodbridge). This way the child will not disappear in there room and play for endless amounts of time. Having the gaming system in a public area means the amount of playing time can be monitored. Lastly, parents should always encourage social and extracurricular activity, “The brain needs exercise to live” (Mary Woodbridge), and thus when your child is sitting in front of the TV, encourage them to get up and go out. Also possibly your child could find another activity that they will enjoy putting the same amount of time into.

From being a addict of other substances there is not a career choice involving the substance. As for video games if you love video games a lot and have played them all of your life, you could become a video game designer.

Although there are negatives to playing a lot of video games, the only difference between video game addiction and drug addiction is the idea of it possible leading to a career. All the experience of being a video addict could incline someone to work with video game for their profession. But, the experience of playing video games is negative on someone life they possible would not want to connect themselves with the destructive part of their life.

145 Work cited Cleave, Van. Unplugged. United States: Health communications, 2010. Print.

DeMaria, Rusel. Reset. United States: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2007. Print.

“Kids & video game addiction.” Gale Science in Context. Pediatrics of parents, 13 Apr. 2009. Web. 4 Jan. 2011 Marriottt, Michel. “When Love Turns to Obsession, Game Are No Game.” The New York Times. New York Times, 12 Mar. 1998. Web. 4 Jan. 2011 "Man sues video-game maker over 'addiction'." Gale Student Resources In Context, UPI NewsTrack , 28 Aug. 2010. Web. 4 Jan. 2011.

Peters, Diane. Gaming Deal with it before it outplays you. Canada: Diane Peters, 2010. Print.

Sax, Leonard. Boys adrift. United States: Basic books, 2009. Print.

Weinstein, Aviv. “Computer and Video Game Addiction – A Comparison between Game Users and Non-Game Users.” Proquest. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol, Sep. 2010.

Web. 4 Jan. 2011.

Peckham, Matt. "Games no murder defense." General Reference Center Gold. March 2009. Web. 4 Jan. 2011.

146 Matthew R Craig Butz Research in the Community, E block 11 February 2011 Cyber Bullying: An Epidemic Facebook, MySpace, and Formspring: all names that jingle in the ears of many young people, websites in which they can relax, talk to their friends, play games, talk to family, maybe steal someone’s identity, or anonymously bully them. Since the release of social networking sites there has been a huge rise in identity theft, cyber bullying, and teen suicide. All social networking sites need to come up with new security features and ways of handling cyber bullying so that the public has a safe and fun experience on the internet. These organizations or companies believe that harsher security features will result in a drop of usage if they make it more time consuming to create an account because you have to go through endless security options. What would take up more time: having to contact the authorities and try to regain your identity or just take a few minutes to make sure you never lose it? There need to be new laws or regulations set by the government so that these sites are more safe and responsible for their users.

Unlike back in the old days, before there were social networking sites, when bullies were kids that were bigger than all the others and used their size as an advantage, nowadays there is no need to be bigger. Now you can be the smallest kid in the world and be able to bully someone and for some, this is an opportunity. For some, being able to vent by bullying others anonymously is something they just can’t resist doing. This is so appealing because they think they can’t get caught. Facebook tries hard to make sure it’s doing a good job of security and keeping peoples’ identities from being stolen but this becomes difficult when users publicize information such as their home city, college, age, pictures, relationship status, phone number, siblings, parents, friends, and worst of all your credit card number (Keyes). Facebook never actually asks you for you credit card number, but there are a number of games that Facebook lets advertise on their site and people can play these games via Facebook. These games are some of the most addictive games because you are competing against your friends on Facebook. With the need to be the best, people sometimes opt into buying money in the game with real money. People do this so they can be the best at that game. This may seem like a good idea at the time but someone could have stolen your information and may be spending thousands of your dollars on things for themselves. People must be careful about what they put on Facebook.

As a family in Massachusetts found out, anything can happen. They had just moved to a new home and their son just started ninth grade at a new high-school. He was beyond excited to make new friends but this would prove much harder than he expected. He had a pretty good first few months, his mother said, but he soon withdrew himself from the school and the few friends he had made. She kept trying to find out why, and soon she did. Two of his classmates, who remained unknown for most of the time, had made a Facebook account in his name and they were bullying all the other classmates in his name. He would go to school and his classmates would ask him why he was saying these things. He just kept telling them “I keep telling you that I don’t have Facebook” (Hoffman). He didn’t have a Facebook account; his mother wouldn’t let him get one but she had one so she went to see if she could find her son, and she did. A picture of him taken from across the playground and all these hurtful words and traits about him were written on his profile. This poor kid had his identity stolen by his classmates, which hurt his life in many ways because his fresh start was no longer a fresh start. This outraged his mother enough to get the authorities involved, which really affected the community and their family. They say life in Massachusetts has never been the same after that event (Storm).

Knowing whether or not your friend or child is being bullied or bullying someone via a social networking site is difficult. What a parent should do to help ensure that neither of these things happen, is give the ability to go on social networking sites to their children as a privilege not a given right. This means that the ability to go on social networking sites can be taken away if the children misbehave (Hoffman).

Surprisingly, schools are not allowed to help their students resolve issues that happen on these sites because they happen “off campus”. If you go to a school you give that school a certain right to be able to interact with you outside of the school setting. If you have a problem that takes place outside of school, the school should have ways of solving it. Cheryl Jacobs, a counselor at the Marinwood Middle School in Marin County, told me about a suicide that happened at their school the year before due to cyber bullying. The school isn’t allowed to get involved in things that happen off campus unless a student says that he is having issues at school due to an event that happened off campus. If this happens they use peer mediation to try to solve the problem. Although peer mediation doesn’t always work, Ms. Jacobs says “It isn’t always our intention to solve the problem, because there isn’t always a solution. Sometimes it is to judge the situation and assess how mad each student is at each other to ensure that it doesn’t get out of hand” (Jacobs).

147 Surprisingly, there is a huge difference between physical bullying and cyber bullying. Ms. Jacobs says that cyber bullying is much worse and has a far greater effect on its victims than physical bullying does. This is because, when you are cyber bullied, most of the time it is anonymous. When you don’t know who is bullying you, your brain runs wild; it could be your best friend or your mother. All things you think about when trying to figure out who is bullying you. This alone can drive a person insane. To limit this from happening on campus all the schools can do is block the websites so students can’t access Facebook because it can take over their lives (Jacobs).

On Facebook, if someone posts something embarrassing on your wall you don’t know until you log on again. This could be minutes, hours, or days. People become so worried about this they are constantly checking Facebook. A study showed that the average Facebook user checks their account every two hours (Hinduja). This phenomenon has sparked growth in a new market; phones that allow you to check Facebook wherever you are.

Parents are no longer buying their children cell phones; they are giving them a miniature computer that they have with them at all times. Ms. Jacobs says, “Children these days just sit during recess, they clump together and all have their phones out either playing games, texting or they’re on Facebook” (Jacobs). These clumps don’t only demonstrate who is friends with whom but it also shows who the victims of bullying are. Victims of bullying generally sit together because they all have something in common (Keyes).

There are a lot of different reasons that people can be bullied, but the most common ones are for being younger, trying to be something you’re not, or for having a different sexual orientation. Bullying also differs by gender. Boys don’t usually get cyber bullied. If boys are going to bully each other they usually do it physically.

Girls, on the other hand, are mostly too timid to hurt each other physically so having the option of being anonymous on the internet is a huge opportunity for them. For each gender there are different reasons, for boys most reasons have to do with losing a sports game or being scared to do something. With girls it more has to do with boys, betraying other girls, or being a “slut” (Hinduja).

The main reasons that people turn to bullying lie within their family relationships. A lot of people have family issues, such as: parents going through a divorce, fighting with parents due to grades or other issues, and even sometimes a death in the family. All of these and more can cause children to find a way to take their anger out on others. Many psychiatrists say that if a child realizes what he is doing that is a huge step, but most never realize that they are relieving themselves of anger by hurting others. This is very hard to realize because people generally never think they are doing bad things. Kids may turn to bullying because they in fact have been bullied, at home or by peers. People are driven to bullying because of many different reasons, all specific to each person.

When I interviewed a student at the Bay School she talked to me about her experiences being cyber bullied when she was a freshman, her first year of high school. She described it as a “great welcoming gift” to a school she thought was the perfect fit for her personality. She explained how she had made a good amount of friends in her grade and wasn’t trying to become friends with anyone older than her because it was early in the year and she didn’t want to seem desperate. However, some older girls bullied her nonstop for almost 5 months about stupid things. She told me how she got really fed up with all of it and tried to ignore it never seemed to stop. She began to feel worthless, like everyone was just gunning at her. She soon noticed a drop in the amount of effort she would put into everything, including her job and in her schoolwork; her life was slowly slipping away from her. This was affecting not only her; her family suffered as well. It is unacceptable for this to keep happening to people all over the world.

In our community, The Bay School, that student has started a group that meets every Thursday to talk about cyber bullying. She has now spoken out about how bad it truly is.

The select group of teens who in general, are subject to much more violent and relentless cyber bullying are those who are gay. When a teen comes out gay to their family, friends, and community they need support. There will always be those who will question their choice and may act differently around them but some feel a need to act out in horrific ways. Some may go up to the person and verbally abuse them, even physically abuse them and sometimes, these confrontations might be resolved. Other times people are too scared to go up to the person and actually do this to their face, they would prefer that what they had to say remain anonymous to others and the victim.

This person may choose to use the internet, like many do, and post on this person’s Facebook account, send them messages, create a fake account in their name and embarrass them to others. This can go on for weeks or months. A victim of cyber bullying spends a lot of energy worrying about hurtful words written on their account for the world to see, but they can’t do anything about these comments. Cyber bullying seems to never end for those who fall victim to it (Students Suicide Highlight...).

Unbeknownst to many, bullying gay people is a hate crime. This isn’t just someone logging onto the internet and cyber bullying another kid, this is someone who has purposely taken time out of their life to make someone else’s worse, for a stupid reason, because that person was different. This shouldn’t happen but in reality it happens all too much. Cyber bullying these days has become much too intense and has, in some cases, led to suicide. It’s hard to imagine someone being bullied so relentlessly that they think their only way out is suicide. In

148 most cases nobody that is closely related to them knows exactly what has been terrorizing their lives. They know that something has changed but the victim usually tries to hide the truth from others possible because it’s too shameful to talk about (Irvine).

When a family finds out that their child has committed suicide due to the relentless amount of bullying they received from friends or classmates, it is devastating to them and they instantly want to find out who did it so that they can punish them. This, in many cases, isn’t a good idea; the “bullies” are generally just as devastated as the parents, maybe more. They now feel responsible for somebody’s life, the result of the fun they thought they were having now has torn a family apart. This doesn’t only affect a family; this can also tear apart a school or community (Correa).

When a suicide occurs a community instantly reacts in order to ensure that such events never re-occur.

However, there is never an easy fix because this issue isn’t localized just to one community in one place. This problem is global. Everywhere in the world people are being bullied, be it physically or verbally. The epidemic is now online. Everyone having access to these social networking sites is making it too easy for kids to bully each other anonymously. Social networking sites need to take responsibility for what is happening on their websites. The issues are taking place right under their noses. Changes need to be made so people don’t have to be worried that something might be on their profile that they don’t want. One site that I think has done a good job is Formspring.

Formspring is a site where people can ask you any question they want anonymously, but the questions that will appear on your wall have to be approved by you first. If this system were woven into Facebook’s system, it would be a much better experience for all users. Now on Facebook, when somebody sends you a chat, it just pops up on the bottom of your screen with whatever they said to you; there is no way to avoid this. If Facebook made it so they had to send a request to you to initiate a chat so you had a choice of who you wanted to talk to, that alone would make Facebook a much more friendly community. A problem Facebook brought on itself is identity theft. For example, proving that you are the person whose account got hacked and you want it back or that the account is fake, and you want it deleted is almost impossible. The only real way to do this is to involve the authorities and actually sue Facebook for the account deletion or to find out who was behind the whole thing (Stop Bullying Now).

The companies that administrate these sites must accept that having a large number of users is not the ultimate goal. They must realize that they have to take responsibility for those who are using their sites so that they are safe in all aspects of online use. There is no easy solution to solve such a large problem like this but there are many small steps that can be taken that will make a huge difference.

The social networking sites are not taking responsibility for what they have created. This epidemic is ripping the hearts of families all over the world apart. If the individual organizations won’t own up to what they have done the government needs to step in and create guidelines for these sites so that teens can have nothing but safe and fun interactions on the internet. This epidemic must come to an end.

I would like to acknowledge Bob Rosenfeld, Julia Schulte, Kelly Gleason, and Craig Butz for looking over and helping with this paper.

149 Bibliography Correa, Tracy. “Oakhurst School Incident Puts Focus on Bullying.” The Fresno Bee. January 15, 2011. Web. January 17 2011.

Hoffman, Jan. “As Bullies Go Digital, Parents Play Catchup.” The New York Times. December 4, 2010. Web. December 30, 2010.

Hinduja, Sameer, Justin W. Patchin. Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard. California: Corwin Press, 2009. Print.

Irvine, Martha. “Going Against The Type.” JournalGazette.com. Associated Press. May 12, 2008. Web. December 27, 2010.

Jacobs, Cheryl. Personal Interview. January 6th, 2011.

Keyes, Allison. “Social Networking Sites: A Wealth Of Personal Info.” NPR. May 13, 2010. Web. December 25, 2010 Nasser, Kai. Personal Interview. January 27th, 2011 N/A. “Students Suicide Highlight Bullying Over Sexuality.” NPR. September 30, 2010. Web. December 19, 2010.

Smith, Stephanie. “Cyber Bully Victims “Isolated, Dehumanized.” The Chart. CNN Health, 8/21/2010. Web. 1/22/2011.

Storm, Stephanie. “Social Networks Meant for Social Good, but at a Price.” The New York Times. December 19, 2010. Web. January 1, 2010.

United States Government. “Stop Bullying Now.” What Kids Can Do. N/A. Web. 1/ 24/2011 Wayne, Teddy. “Age Gap Narrows on Social Networks.” The New York Times. December 26, 2010. Web. January 2, 2010.

150 Harry S Craig Butz Research in the Community—E-Block February 27, 2011 An Analysis of the State of Preparedness For an Outbreak of Pandemic Influenza within the United States As the morning sunlight illuminates the room, a moan erupts from Joe. His body aches, he sneezes and coughs, his eyes are puffy, and his temperature is steadily increasing. He briefly debates attending school before he decides that a full day of work would be difficult given his current state. An influenza virus has infected his body; his immune system response is already in full swing. He closes his eyes and attempts to fall back asleep. The virus, generally perceived as more of an annoyance than a health risk, perennially infects friends, family, and acquaintances. However, influenza presents dangers to public health that must be addressed in order to ensure the safety of the American public in the case of a pandemic.

The United States is underprepared for an outbreak of pandemic influenza. There are insufficient vaccine production capacities, a lack of comprehensive government policy, and few other response capabilities that will effectively control the virus. The combination of these deficiencies, unless addressed, will result in unnecessary casualties in the event of an influenza pandemic. The World Health Organization (WHO) states that in the case of an outbreak, there will be calls to vaccinate the world population (“Global Action” 8). However, global inoculation is not feasible, as vaccine companies currently use outdated egg-based production methods that allow the production of vaccines adequate for only 4.6% of the world population (Lundgren). Domestically, the chances of being able to control multiple waves of pandemic influenza look slim at best. According to David Fedson, the former head of medicine at the University of Virginia, “expectations of what can be done for prevention and control of influenza may exceed the capacities of health care systems in every country” (Fedson “Pandemic” 1552).

What will it take to make America ready for the next influenza pandemic? How must vaccine production change to meet the WHO recommendations for global immunization in case of an influenza pandemic? Given vaccine supply limitations, what is the most effective method of distribution? The solution lies in a combination of approaches to remedy the current lack of preparation. Increased vaccine production and efficacy, antiviral medications as targeted prophylactics, and utilization of non-pharmaceutical methods of disease control will delay the spread of influenza and control the outbreak.

Previous influenza pandemics have been characterized by the mortality caused by the virus. The influenza pandemic of 1918 killed an estimated 50 to 100 million, more than all the deaths of World War II (Fedson “Pandemic” 1556). During the winter of 1957-1958, an outbreak of “Asian Flu”, an H2N2 virus1 caused 70,000 deaths in the United States. In 1968, another strain of influenza caused an additional 34,000 deaths in the United States alone (Longini et.al. “Containing” 624). Recently, focus on strains considered to be the next big pandemic threats included the H1N1 “Swine Flu” and the H5N1 “Avian Flu”. These threats leave the United States in a position to realize the uncomfortable truth that we are not prepared for a pandemic.

The Characteristics of Pandemic Influenza There are three criteria that the WHO states must be filled by a virus in order for a pandemic to occur. First, a new HA antigen must be present in the virus that can infect the majority of the population. Second, the virus must be capable of causing significant damage to human beings. Finally, the virus must be able to achieve efficient human-to-human transmission (“Global Pandemic” 10). The HA antigen refers to the hemaglutinin of a virus, also known as an antigen, which is targeted by the body’s immune system response. Recently, the H5N1 “Avian Flu” has become a topic of discussion. The strain had a 60% mortality rate of infected individuals, but did not achieve efficient human-to-human transmission (Fedson “From Scarcity” 336). While this statistic is not indicative that the next pandemic will be caused by a H5N1 influenza strain or have a 60% mortality rate, it is important to recognize that such deadly strains could have extreme consequences if not properly controlled. Even so, the virus received press that many would consider unwarranted. A fact generally not understood by the public, is that more often than not, viruses with low mortality rates are often harder to control, and thus, more deadly than their more virulent counterparts (Aragón). During World War I, 80% of fatalities resulted from respiratory illness caused by the 1918 influenza pandemic. However, the disease only upheld about a two percent mortality rate among infected individuals (Fedson “From Scarcity” 332, Aragón). The most deadly aspect of the disease, indeed, was how generally mild the virus was. With only two percent of infected individuals becoming critically ill, those that were infected were only mildly symptomatic, and in some cases were asymptomatic (Aragón). Such a low visibility virus with an affinity for infection became the most deadly influenza pandemic in history, not because of a high mortality rate, but because of the sheer volume of infected individuals. Two percent of the global population is invariably a greater number than 60% of an isolated community. One could argue that vaccines become more important when considering a pandemic

151 with a more limited virulence. The less visible a virus is, the harder it becomes to treat with social distancing or targeted prophylaxis of antivirals (Aragón). Increased travel may spread the disease faster than in prior epidemics (Longini et.al. “Mitigation” 5939). Thus, it is important to comprehensively plan for a coordinated response to the threat of pandemic influenza.

Pandemic Preparedness and Vaccine Vaccines work by stimulating the immune system; they introduce an antigen into the body, which then initiates an immune system reaction. The antigens in vaccines are weakened or, in some cases, dead strains of the influenza virus that are injected into the body. Because the strain introduced into the body is too weakened to cause any real damage, it will be quickly neutralized, before it can replicate and continue the infection2. Now that the body has been alerted to the possibility of this invader, it deploys more antibodies, expecting further targets to kill. When the live, un-weakened version of the virus actually infects someone, antibodies are waiting to eliminate the disease.

Viruses, especially type A viruses, which are extremely pathogenic in humans, are categorized by their hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) antigens. H antigens mutate more frequently than N antigens, although both can be targeted when creating vaccines (Fedson “Preparing” 5).

Currently, the United States’ capacity to control an outbreak of pandemic influenza is extremely limited.

The United States does not currently have the capacity to produce enough vaccines in a timeframe where delivery would provide a meaningful response to the influenza virus (Fedson “Preparing” 14). To protect the population effectively, vaccines must be deployed in large numbers. At present, such a deployment is not a possible. If the vaccines were to retain their current standards of immunogenicity and if there is not a shift to either larger scale eggbased production, antigen sparing methods of vaccine production, or a shift to molecular production, (which provides a far more scalable method of vaccine culture) then successful mitigation of an outbreak is highly unlikely (Lundgren, Fedson “Preparing” 14).

There are inherent problems with the current state of vaccine production that will limit the quantity and efficacy of vaccines. Influenza vaccines have been produced using the same method for over 60 years (“Developing Vaccines” 1953). In the 1940’s, the U.S. military, recognizing the danger that influenza presented to the American troops (shown by the astronomically high number of influenza-related casualties during WWI), began development of a vaccine for soldiers. Two years later, a vaccine was ready and the military purchased 10 million doses to protect its troops (Fedson “From Scarcity” 332). They used egg-based vaccine production, a technique that is currently in use. The vaccines are grown in chicken eggs; eggs are injected with the virus and grown in the fluid around the embryo. It is then extracted, purified, and shipped to health care providers as a vaccine (Lundgren). This production method is slow, costly, and inefficient. “On average, between one and two eggs are needed to produce one dose of vaccine and the entire production process takes at least six months,” admits Bjӧrn Lundgren, the marketing manager of G.E. Healthcare. “The whole process is labor-intensive, time-consuming, difficult to automate, and subject to contamination” (Lundgren). The extended length of time required for a vaccine to be ready for deployment after the production process begins means that vaccines will not be available to the early victims of the outbreak. If vaccines are available, they will be in short supply. Dr. Longini, a professor of epidemiology at the University of Washington states that, “manufacturing and distributing a vaccine to match a newly identified influenza strain would take 6-8 months. Thus, vaccines would unlikely be available for the first wave of pandemic influenza in the United States” (Longini et.al. “Containing” 629).

It is necessary to explore alternative methods of production and strategies for prioritizing who receives vaccines, as well as addressing policy issues surrounding immunogenicity (the perceived potency of a vaccine) that indirectly limit the amount of vaccine companies can make in the event of a pandemic. Although a complete vaccination of the populace is not possible due to the aforementioned production limitations, targeting who receives the vaccines may produce protection similar to widespread inoculation. Recent research prioritizing groups of individuals for preferential administration of vaccines has indicated that inoculating children can be extremely effective in controlling widespread outbreaks. In fact, children are responsible for up to 50% of infections due to their high rates of susceptibility and transmission (Chuang). If widespread vaccination of children under the age of 18 occurs, it may induce herd immunity among adults, a state that occurs when the public vaccinates enough that transmission of the virus is limited and the entire population, even unvaccinated individuals, are protected (Fedson “Preparing” 7). The efficacy of prioritizing children is unparalleled in other vaccination groups; vaccinating just 80% of children is more efficient than vaccinating 80% of the entire un-prioritized population (Longini et.al.

“Containing” 628)3. Dr. Longini reported that the vaccination of 80% of children is 93% percent effective in pandemic containment, and 65% effective in pandemic prevention (Longini et.al. “Containing” 630).

Although it is clear that children between the ages of 5 and 18 are the most important targets to receive vaccines during a pandemic, another solution is to modify the production process and government policies that limit the number of vaccines that can be produced. Since susceptibility to infection is directly related to immunological

152 experience with the virus, a pandemic vaccine with a new HA antigen would most likely require two doses of vaccine in order to ensure adequate protection (Fedson “Pandemic” 1553, “Global Pandemic” 10). This is well understood by the scientific community, says Dr. Fedson, “influenza experts recognized early on that pandemic vaccination would require far greater numbers of doses of inactivated vaccine than are ordinarily used for seasonal vaccination. This could be achieved only with a vaccine that contains a much lower amount of vaccine antigen than is used for seasonal vaccines” (Fedson “Scarcity” 325). Manufacturers should commence the transition to vaccines with adjuvants, or live attenuated vaccine, to increase production efficiency up to 100 times over current levels (Fedson “Scarcity” 330). These smaller dosed vaccines would provide adequate protection to the individual, while allowing for improved production. Live attenuated vaccines do not pose a health risk to individuals; they are no more dangerous than traditional vaccines.

Finally, the FDA needs to revise their policies surrounding the immunogenicity of vaccines in the case of a pandemic. At present, the FDA will not approve a vaccine that is less immunogenic than what is already in existence. However, there is a difference between optimal immunogenicity for an individual and optimal immunogenicity for a population (Fedson “Research Paper Clarification”).

Figure 2. Although using 15 µg HA per dose is less immunogenic than 90 or 45 µg, it will protect more people because of the increase level of coverage (Fedson “Scarcity” Chart 326).

However, as shown in figure 2, sometimes a less immunogenic vaccine can actually protect more people due to increased coverage (Fedson “Scarcity” 326). The FDA does not take this into consideration. In the case of a pandemic, the most effective way to increase vaccine protection will be to increase vaccine production.

Manufacturing capacity must increase in interpandemic year to create mass quantities of vaccines during pandemics. Because vaccine companies are businesses, they increase production only as a response to increased demand. Therefore, the way to increase vaccine production is to increase vaccine consumption. Increase demand relies on consumers to become more widely vaccinated; Dr. Fedson has reported that “public reimbursement seems to be helpful in increasing coverage” (Fedson Response). Perhaps even more promising than subsidies to increase demand are CDC reports of vaccines that target epitopes of the influenza virus that are common among many strains. These “Universal Vaccines” could effectively target multiple strains at once, allowing for increased production capacity, as facilities produce one vaccine rather than a blend of three (Wei, C-J et.al. 1, Palese 1-2).

Finally, a shift to cell based manufacturing, a technique that has been used to create rabies and polio vaccines for years, will greatly increase production (Lungdren).

Antivirals as Prophylactics Antivirals, such as admantadines or the neuraminidase inhibitor Oseltamiver, will become invaluable resources when approaching pandemic influenza. On their own, however, they are not an efficient method by which to control influenza. Antivirals would most likely be used as a prophylactic measure to slow the spread, buying valuable time that can be used to create more vaccine. Dr. Longini recognized many of the challenges in providing antivirals: antiviral agents are expensive and probably would be in relatively short supply, we consider the targeted antiviral prophylaxis (TAP) strategy for treating only identified index cases and offering prophylaxis only to the contacts of these index cases in predefined mixing groups. The mixing groups considered are households, daycare centers, playgroups, and schools (Longini et. al. “Containing” 626).

Even considering these problems, if less than 200 doses of vaccine per 1,000 persons were available, TAP would still be important for the unvaccinated (Longini et.al. “Containing” 329). As shown in figure 3, even just 6 weeks of TAP prevents 1.2 cases of influenza per person

153

Figure 3. Different effectiveness rates are shown for different interventions. Targeted prophylaxis, while less effective than vaccines, also contributes to the reduction in cases (Longini et.al. “Containing” Chart. 280). treated. The number of doses needed for effective antiviral prophylaxis is staggering, and massive stores of antivirals would needed for the moment a pandemic arrives. To continue widespread use of antivirals would be no small feat for production facilities; 8 weeks of prophylaxis could require up to 1.9 billion doses of antivirals (Longini et.al. “Containing” 628).

The mass use of antivirals raises concerns of the creation of drug resistant viruses. Viruses develop resistance to medications through natural selection, and create viruses that do not respond to treatments. Historically, viral resistance is found in admantadines, but not in neuraminidase inhibitors (Longini et.al. “Containing” 624).

However, on December 15, 2010, the World Health Organization released a report detailing new viral resistance in influenza to the neuraminidase inhibitor Oseltamivir (“Update on Oseltamivir”). Even though this resistance may produce an undesirable effect on potency, widespread use of antivirals as a prophylactic measure will not breed extremely resistant strains of influenza (Aragón). The largest contributing factor to influenza’s increased resistance to Oseltamivir was use as a treatment to the flu. Use as a prophylactic, however, was only responsible for a 6% increase overall resistance, whereas treatment resulted in a 35% increase (“Update on Oseltamivir”). Due to issues of production capacity and the development of resistance to antiviral medications, many people find that nonpharmaceutical methods are a helpful addition to disease control and prevention.

Non-Pharmaceutical Techniques and Their Efficacy Non-pharmaceutical techniques, when used in conjunction with vaccines and antivirals, will provide additional protection that may staunch the spread of influenza using low cost changes to behavioral patterns. There are many different methods of non-pharmaceutical disease control, such as the use of masks and respirators, frequent hand washing, and coughing and sneezing into a sleeve instead of a hand. All non-pharmaceutical methods of disease control are grouped into one of two categories: actions taken by the infected to reduce or eliminate transmission, and actions taken by the uninfected to limit or eliminate infection (Aragón).

Social distancing represents the most renowned, and perhaps, effective form of non-pharmaceutical disease control, and interrupts contact between sick and healthy individuals. According to Dr. Aragón, “isolation of cases, quarantine of exposed, [and] sheltering of non-exposed…are the major non-pharmaceutical interventions that have to do with contact,” and they have been proven to be effective (Aragón). Simply not letting the sick individual interact with uninfected persons is highly efficacious in eliminating transmission. The premise of case isolation simple; “if someone is sick,” says Dr. Aragón, “don’t let them go to work or school. If they are in the hospital, put them in the isolation ward” (Aragón). Thus, isolation of the source case eliminates transmission, and thus, slows the spread of the disease. Quarantining exposed individuals provides even further protection for healthy individuals, effectively eliminating the risk of contact with infected persons. Sheltering is a term for eliminating contact between infected and healthy, such as keeping people who have not been exposed to the virus at home. A mother not letting her children go to school because other children are sick is an example of sheltering. School closures are a mainstay of traditional social distancing policies, and have been shown to be effective. Some may argue that

154 children will continue to congregate outside of school when schools are closed, however, there is data that contradicts this and shows that school closures are indeed an effective method of disease control (Aiello et.al. 245, Longini et.al. “Containing” 5936). In fact, during the H1N1 initiated school closures last year, Hong Kong health officials reported a 25% reduction in infection rates (Chuang). Social distancing, when used in combination with more direct forms of interventions, such as the use of respirators and hand sanitizers, becomes a formidable method of infection control.

Non-pharmaceutical interventions other than social distancing respond to the vectors of infection that result from contact with infected individuals, and limit or eliminate virus introduction to more vulnerable parts of the human body, known as “portals of entry” (Aragón). The portals of entry include the mouth, the eyes, and the nose.

Contact with these areas is generally achieved in one of two ways. Exhalation by a sick individual releases particles that settle on surfaces, subsequent contact with these contaminated surfaces transfers the virus to the hands, which can then be spread to the eyes or mouth through contact. Exhalation also creates micro aerosolization of the virus, in which small particles are suspended in the air for a short period of time, creating air, that when breathed in, may cause infection (Aragón). There are two aspects of disease control that respond to these vectors; public health officials often try to limit or eliminate transmission by sick persons, and also try to influence the susceptibility of healthy persons. Surgical masks, hand sanitizers, face touching awareness, coughing into sleeves, and hand washing are all effective methods of limiting transmission. A mask worn over the face of a transmitting individual stops the spread of particles to surfaces surrounding the person and also limits the micro aerosolization that the virus achieves (Aragón). This is also achieved by coughing into sleeves, however, it does not provide as complete coverage. Hand washing and hand sanitizing kills virus particles that exist on the hand, while limiting the touching of one’s face minimizes the number of particles that come in contact with hands initially. The efficacies of these techniques have already been proven. The University of Michigan reported a 50%-65% reduction in flu and flu-like illnesses over a 6 month period when students used sanitizers and face masks, and the University of Pittsburgh, after educating students on the benefits of coughing into sleeves and proper hand hygiene as well as other methods, saw a significant drop in absences and lab confirmed reports of influenza among elementary students (Aiello et.al. 252-4).

Furthermore, the University of Hong Kong reported “substantial reductions in household [attack rates] when all household members practice frequent hand washing and wear facemasks within 36 hours of symptom onset of the index case”, highlighting the effectiveness and pragmatic nature of non-pharmaceutical interventions (Aiello et.al.

252). Methods to influence uninfected person susceptibility also are effective. There are many ways to do this, but “the most efficient way of protecting them,” states Dr. Aragón, “is to put a respirator on” (Aragón). The simplest respirator, an N95, looks like a mask and is inexpensive to produce. These respirators separate particles from the air and eliminate transmission of the virus to the lungs if properly worn (Aragón). Finally, hand washing, hand sanitizing, and face touching awareness limit virus contact with the body, and help protect the uninfected individual from the virus.

Pandemic Preparedness Plan for the United States A plan for pandemic influenza must take into consideration two important aspects of current deficiencies for preparedness: a plan to increase vaccine production and efficacy in interpandemic years, as well as a plan that outlines the actions necessary to provide the greatest amount of protection possible given supply limitations.

Vaccine production must increase in interpandemic years so when calls for global vaccinations occur, the increased capacity production facilities may be able to meet, or even exceed that goal (Fedson “Pandemic Influenza” 1558).

Antigen sparing methods, such as live attenuated vaccines, must be used to reduce the quantity of antigens required in each dose to provide adequate protection. The FDA must revise their policies surrounding immunogenicity in pandemic vaccines. It must be modified to allow vaccine producers to create vaccines that are less immunogenic, under the condition that the vaccine producer be able to prove that a widespread vaccination of a lower immunogenicity will indeed protect more lives at a lower dose, than a much more moderate scale of vaccination, with less protection at a higher dose. Cell based production methods must be used to increase production capacity and efficiency, a call for the end of egg-based production and the beginning of cell production must happen.

Furthermore, “universal” influenza vaccines must be researched and developed. A vaccine that only needs minimal re-engineering will save countless hours of vaccine development and provide protection against more strains than conventional trivalent vaccines.

Currently, we do not have the capabilities to inoculate the entire population, so it is important that there are plans in place to distribute the vaccines as effectively as possible, and to use whatever resources we have otherwise to combat the pandemic. It is important that children in between the ages of 5 and 18 receive the vaccine first. They are responsible for a great percentage of the spread of the virus, and vaccinating children is the most effective method to control the spread with limited vaccine supplies. Furthermore, TAP should be used with whatever antiviral supplies are available to health officials, and again, should target children and contacts of identified index

155 cases. Finally, non-pharmaceutical interventions must be utilized. In addition to case isolation of infected individuals, quarantine of exposed persons, and sheltering of healthy individuals, hand washing, respirator use, cough etiquette among other interventions must be used. However, despite our best efforts, a combination of the above methods may not be enough to contain a pandemic outbreak of influenza. Notwithstanding, until vaccine production increases to a point where complete vaccination is possible, it is the best option we have.

1.

2.

Notes Type A viruses, the most pathogenic in humans, are organized by their HA antigens and NA antigens, each type representing a different number e.g. H1N1 vs. H2N2 (Fedson “Preparing” 5).

T-cells, which are responsible for many functions of the immune system, are the receptors in the body that will identify the foreign substance and “tag” it, thus marking it to be killed by antibodies that the immune system produces in response to the “tag”. Each invader, or antigen, is tagged in a specific locale on the Tcell. Each T-cell has protrusions in specific shapes. The sites, called antigen binding sites, are shaped in the negative image of the antigen. When an antigen approaches, the two attach, the antigen fits perfectly into the antigen biding site, and the two are bonded. The immune system now starts producing antibodies to kill the identified virus. How vaccines provide protection is in this buildup of antibodies.

3.

Figure 1.1 Children show higher rates than other individuals. (Longini et.al. “Containing” Chart 628)

Figure 1.2 Although vaccinating 80% of all individuals is more effective than vaccinating 80% of children, it requires unreasonable amounts of vaccine. (Longini et.al. “Containing” Chart 629)

156 Bibliography Aiello, Allison E, Tomás J. Aragón, et al. “Research findings from non-pharmaceutical intervention studies for pandemic influenza and current gaps in the research.” American Journal of Infection Control. 38.4 (May 2010): 251-258. American Journal of Infection Control. Web. 26 Dec. 2010.

Aragón, Tómas. Personal Interview. Jan. 28 2011.

Chuang, Shuk-Kwan, et al. “School closure and mitigation of pandemic (H1N1) 2009, Hong Kong.” Emerging Infectious Diseases. 16.3 (2010): 538. Gale Science in Context. Web. 4 Jan. 2011.

Fedson, David S. “Pandemic Influenza and the Global Vaccine Supply.” Clinical Infectious Diseases. 36.12 (15 Jun. 2003): 1552-1561. JSTOR. Web. 21 Dec. 2010.

--- “Meeting the Challenge of Influenza Pandemic Preparedness in Developing Countries.” Emerging Infectious Diseases. 15.3 (2009): 365-371. PubMed Central. Web. 23 Dec. 2010.

---“Preparing for Pandemic Vaccination: An International Policy Agenda.” Journal of Public Health Policy. 26.1 (2005): 4-29. JSTOR. Web. 23 Dec. 2010.

--- “From Scarcity to Abundance: Pandemic Vaccines and Other Agents for “Have Not” Countries.”Journal of Public Health Policy. 28.3 (2007): 322-340. Email. 5 Jan. 2011.

--- “Research Paper Clarifications.” Message to Author. 5 Jan. 2011.

Lundgren, Bjӧrn. “Optimizing Vaccine Production to Meet Increasing Demand.” Pharma Asia. GE Healthcare, 2008. Web. 14 Dec. 2010.

Wei, C-J, et al. “Induction of Broadly Neutralizing H1N1 Influenza Antibodies by Vaccination.” National Institute of Health. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 2010. Web. 14 Dec. 2010.

Longini Jr., Ira M., et al. “Containing Pandemic Influenza with Antiviral Agents.” American Journal of Epidemiology 159.7 (2004): 623-633. Oxford Journals. Web. 24 Dec. 2010.

---“Containing Pandemic Influenza with Antiviral Agents.” Chart. American Journal of Epidemiology 159.7 (2004): 628. Oxford Journals. Web. 24 Dec. 2010.

--- “Containing Pandemic Influenza with Antiviral Agents.” Chart. American Journal of Epidemiology 159.7 (2004): 629. Oxford Journals. Web. 24 Dec. 2010.

---“Mitigation Strategies for Pandemic Influenza in the United States.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS). 103.15 (April 2006):5935-5940. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS). Web. 26 Dec. 2010.

Palese, Peter, and Taia T. Wang. “Universal epitopes of influenza virus hemagglutinins?” Nature Structural and Molecular Biology. 16.3 (2009): 233-234. Gale Science in Context. Web. 26 Dec. 2010.

“Update on Oseltamivir Resistance to Influenza Virus (2009).” World Health Organization, 2010.Web. 10 Jan. 2011.

All work is my own unless otherwise indicated. I would like to acknowledge Tristan Y, Valarie Z, Daisy F, Alec H, and Joseph Sherman for editing this paper.

157 Tamara T Craig Butz Research in the Community- E Block February 27, 2011 Exercise your way to a Straighter Spine: Alternative Treatments for Scoliosis Imagine having a curved spine, and feeling as though you have no control over your back. This scenario describes many people with scoliosis. What many people don’t know is that for the most part, they can control how their back looks and feels. Scoliosis is a lateral and rotational curvature of the spine. It is not a disease, but a condition (Lyons). Every year, about 30,000 children wear a back brace and 38,000 people with scoliosis undergo spinal fusion surgery to correct their scoliosis (“Information”). Although alternative treatments for scoliosis are relatively unknown and usually thought to be ineffective, they often have great success and are better for many aspects of health for the patient than invasive traditional treatments. Alternative treatments include exercises such as Pilates and yoga and body work such as osteopathy and Alexander technique. Christine J. Anderson, M.H.A, creator of Christine Anderson's Holistic Movement Method says, “Alternative means giving a person another approach that does not rely on external intervention, but empowers the person with tools to change the internal source of their imbalance”. So why do so many people choose the invasive treatments? Alternative treatments are not well known by the general public. While many Western doctors publish medical journals and articles, not many alternative treatment professionals publish their work. In addition, most people’s knowledge about healthcare is usually limited to what they hear from Western doctors.

Western doctors and alternative treatment professionals agree that early diagnosis of scoliosis can aid in the proper treatment (“Are”). This is why frequent scoliosis screening, in schools and pediatric offices, is important. If someone has scoliosis, they should be taken care of as soon as possible. Scoliosis can be suspected when one shoulder looks higher than the other, when there is a curvature in the spine, or the pelvis appears to be tilted (“Signs”). One big problem that scoliosis can cause for someone is pain. If someone with scoliosis is not treated, if their curve worsens, pain will increase, and they will not be able to move and stretch as well. If scoliosis gets severe, it can lead to other health problems, such as problems affecting the heart, lungs, and joints, because the severe curve can squash organs (“Treating”). Fortunately, this occurs rarely.

The National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Disease (NIAMS) says, “Causes of scoliosis are classified as either structural or nonstructural” (“Questions”). Structural scoliosis is caused by neuromuscular diseases, vertebrae birth defects, injury, certain infections, tumors related to the spine, metabolic diseases, connective tissue disorders such as Marfan’s syndrome, rheumatic disease, chromosomal abnormalities such as Down’s syndrome, or unknown causes (“Questions”). Nonstructural scoliosis is a structurally normal spine that appears curved. It’s a temporary curve caused by underlying conditions such as difference in leg length, muscle spasms, or inflammatory conditions such as appendicitis. This type of scoliosis is treated by addressing those conditions, and is not as serious or difficult to treat as structural scoliosis (“Questions”). When people discuss bracing, surgery, and alternative treatments for scoliosis, most of the time they are referring to structural scoliosis.

This paper focuses on structural scoliosis.

There are different types of scoliosis: congenital, idiopathic, neuromuscular, and degenerative. Some of these are treated differently from one another, and this paper focuses on idiopathic and congenital scoliosis.

Idiopathic and congenital scoliosis is treated similarly and is both structural scoliosis. Treatments for scoliosis depend on the person’s age, how much he/she is likely to grow, degree and pattern of the curve, and the type of scoliosis (“Question”). Idiopathic means “no known cause” (“Are There Different”). Idiopathic scoliosis is the most common kind of scoliosis. It is divided into subgroups according to age: infantile, juvenile, adolescent, and adult scoliosis (“Types”). It is unknown what triggers the development of the curve, or why some curves progress more than others (“Are There Different”). Congenital scoliosis is the result of one or more of the twenty seven vertebrae, which are stacked together forming the spinal column below the neck, not being properly formed (“Congenital”, Scoliosis Research). It is caused by an unknown injury to the embryo during the first month of pregnancy, often before the mother knows she is pregnant (“Causes”), (“Congenital”, Scoliosis Association).

Standard Western medicine’s response to scoliosis is observation by doctors, back bracing, and or surgery; bracing, and especially surgery, are often unnecessary and invasive. Patients who are still growing and have less than a minor 25 degrees curve just require observation every four to six months (“Questions”). Bracing is used when someone has an idiopathic curve about or greater than 25-30 degrees and has a few years of growth remaining (“Questions”). Bracing is used to stop the progression of the curve and or to decrease the degree of the curve. The brace works by putting pressure on the back and ribs to push the spine into a straighter position (“Scoliosis Brace”).

It is usually worn full time until the bones have stopped growing (“Scoliosis Brace”). Surgery is used to stop or correct the curve. It is used when the curve is more than 45 degrees, and the curve is getting worse (“Questions”).

158 Even if someone has stopped growing, if they have a curve 45 degrees or more, their curve will progress. Spinal fusion, the most common type of surgery, is the joining of two or more vertebrae (“Questions”). Spinal fusion is invasive, eliminates motion between vertebrae, and prevents the stretching of the nerves, surrounding muscles, and ligaments, which can cause issues and pain later in life (“Spinal”). In addition, besides the usual risks of surgery, the areas of the spine that are not fused might have some troubles in the future and sometimes the spine curves in spite of the surgery. Bracing also has its complications and downsides. It is restrictive and not very effective.

An excellent alternative to traditional treatments are exercises specifically for scoliosis. The best thing one can do for one’s body is to keep it active (“To Consider”), and for people with scoliosis, this is especially important.

The Scoliosis Association believes that “physical therapy is an excellent way to improve function, flexibility, endurance, and decrease pain” (“Conservative”). As someone gets older, their spine becomes stiffer. Teenagers have the most flexibility, but that decreases around age 40-50 (“Challenges”). This is one reason that people with scoliosis must continue doing their exercises throughout their life. Unlike the Western approach, there is not a time when someone’s scoliosis is “fixed.” People involved in Western medicine look for something that allow people to “fix” or “correct” their scoliosis once and for all, without having to do treatments after that. Alternative treatments differ in that they aren’t looking for this kind of solution. The spine is constantly changing- one day the scoliosis may appear like nothing at all, and some days stress may cause the curve to be more pronounced. There is a time when the back stabilizes, which differs from person to person; however, there is not a time when someone is forever “fixed.” If someone stops exercising, their muscles will weaken and their curve might worsen. Another reason that people with scoliosis must continue their exercises throughout their life is that the curve is affected by gravity.

Because the spine is curved, gravity pulls on people with scoliosis in an uneven way. As people age, they are affected by gravity’s pull even more. Exercises specifically for scoliosis should be incorporated into someone’s daily life. It improves the strength of the torso muscles and takes some stress off the spine. Often when someone is in pain, it is because they are not doing their exercises (“Conservative”).

Exercises that work for scoliosis have a few things in common: improving basic flexibility and strength, relaxing the “bossy” and dominant muscles, strengthening the weak and sunken muscles, realignment the body, derotation of the spine/pelvis/ribs, and extension and lengthening of the spine, pelvic stability, and include mostly inner range movements. Improving flexibility helps avoid injury and balances mobility (“To Consider”). Also, people with scoliosis should do gentle, inner-range exercises because it “encourages flexibility, lengthening and muscle tone” (Wellings). The Scoliosis Association states, “The muscles on each side of the curve are strong in the arc position, but weak in the position where they hold the spine straight”. Exercise without this knowledge can cause the stronger back muscles to become even stronger and increase the curve (“To Consider”). These exercises should be constantly adjusted and molded to fit the needs of an individual (Wellings). In general people should be gentle with their curve(s). They should avoid high impact and weight bearing exercises such as running because it compresses the curve. Swimming is a great way to get intense aerobic exercise without the straining impact.

Making sure the shoulders and hips are level, making note of one’s centerline down the body, and even weight distribution throughout the body (i.e. equally standing on both feet) before exercising is important (Wellings).

Another important element of exercises for scoliosis is the mind- body link and body awareness (Wellings).

Jana Cerny, specialized Pilates instructor says, “The mind leads the body. The mind and body teach each other. As the mind starts to understand what’s happening in the body, the body is able to let go more.” Body awareness and the mind-body link are similar and often go hand in hand. Cerny says, “Body awareness…is an individual’s ability to feel things in their own body and to possibly shift/change them based on making mental connections to the feeling and requesting an alternative way to produce a similar action. If one is able to determine what and where they are feeling something, they are the most reliable source of how productive and beneficial any one treatment is for their body” (Cerny). The muscles of the whole torso, front and back need to be balanced, strong, and supple. Some of the important muscles that people with scoliosis should develop are the erector spinaegroup, latisasmus, serratus, transverses, abdominus, and psoas major. These muscles are in the torso; however, it is also crucial to strengthen muscles in other parts of the body.

People’s backs start to stabilize when a certain level of body awareness and strength is developed. Usually this time comes pretty quickly. It takes longer if someone is really out of shape. Sometimes they are out of shape because their scoliosis makes them stop wanting to deal with their bodies. Dedication, strength, focus, and fitness are factors that determine how fast someone’s back starts to improve. Using the techniques they learn from their exercises not just when exercising, but rather keeping it in mind throughout the day is also important. Cerny says, “It’s a meditation of staying present.”

Because yoga and Pilates were not created specifically for treating scoliosis, it is important to find instructors who understand how to work with the condition. The focus of someone’s exercises should be to address their scoliosis and not just general fitness. For example, Pilates for scoliosis differs from general Pilates in that

159 special focus is given to gentle inner-range movement, alignment of the body, lengthening of the spine, engaging pelvic floor, and isolation of muscle groups (moving specific muscles while relaxing the rest of the body) (Wellings). Other kinds of exercises that teach body awareness are dance, yoga (especially Iyengar yoga because it focus on body awareness and alignment), and physical therapy. It is important for people with scoliosis to do aerobic exercise. However, this doesn’t just apply to people with scoliosis; an improved sense of self esteem, well being, and body image are benefits that anyone can have from doing aerobic exercise (“Orthobicize”).

Why and how do alternative treatments work? Like many other Western doctors, Dr. Mohammad Diab, chief of pediatric orthopedics at UCSF does not believe exercises or body work can help correct scoliosis. Exercises refer to those that are specifically for scoliosis, and body work is any kind of hands on work a practitioner does on the body. He doesn’t know why exercises and body work don’t help, but says that one speculation is “scoliosis is a condition that is inbuilt in the spine itself, not in the muscles or ligaments. It’s in the way the spine grows” (Diab).

However, muscles pull on the bones. This is where alternative treatments come into play. When the spine is rotated and curved, so are the muscles in the torso. The uneven musculature makes one side of the back appear thicker and rounder than the other side, which appears thinner and flatter. One shoulder might be higher and rolled forward, one rib bone might stick out, one of the shoulder muscles might be tighter than the other, and the pelvis might be tilted.

The muscles contribute to the curve staying the same, or getting worse. By strengthening certain weak muscles and loosening tight and dominant muscles, the person is changing the way their muscles are pulling on their spine. The muscles should be more balanced, resulting in the back being more even. If the muscles do not support the spine by staying in the uneven curved position, by using exercises and body work, the spine can lengthen to straighten out.

Body work, otherwise known as manipulation or manual medicine is an important factor in treating scoliosis. Body work that has been found to be successful for treating scoliosis is osteopathy, Bowenwork, Rosen work, Alexander technique, Aston patterning, and Felden krais technique. Scoliosis affects, and is affected by the remainder of the body (head, limbs, jaw, etc.). Because the spine is curved, other parts of the body compensate in order to keep the head straight and the eyes level. Treatments such as osteopathy treat the whole system. Body work only temporarily aligns the body; the spine will eventually go back the curved position without exercises to stabilize the spine. Therefore, a combination of body work and exercises such as yoga and Pilates are crucial for treating scoliosis.

In addition, unlike Western treatments, alternative treatments also treat the neurological aspect of the body.

All changes in the body come from the neurological re-patterning. Neurological refers to the nerves. After the exercise instructor and the patient finds the right movements, repetition is important to change the nerves.

Although scoliosis is often seen as and treated as a physical condition, it can have negative psychological effects; these effects may get in the way of how easily someone is treated and how well their body responds to exercises. Brooke Lyons, author of “Scoliosis: Ascending the Curve” says, “Scoliosis subjects perceived themselves to be less healthy than their peers and had a poorer perception of body image.” When people feel they look different than other people, they often feel self-conscious. They worry about how other people think they look, as well as other’s judgments about their possible physical limitations. Cerny says, “There is so much unknown about the body that people are afraid. When told ‘you’re different’, or ‘deformed’, people get scared. Especially for teens going through treatment, there is a lot of being scrutinized and watched very closely. It can make people feel like there is something wrong with them. In general, there isn’t a lot of acceptance in this culture about being “deformed” or ‘different’.” People may also feel out of control- can’t control their back. There may also be a sense of helplessness and frustration of not knowing what to do (Wellings). Although many teens accept their scoliosis diagnosis and possible bracing, others may have difficulty. Clues to difficulties are apprehension, worry and anxiety, self-critical statements, concerns about the future, avoiding social situations and friends, depression, frustration, anger, and thoughts about body image (Lyons). Parents should be aware of these behaviors to be able to help their children.

The family of someone with scoliosis affects how the individual perceives their scoliosis, especially in terms of distress, hopefulness, discomfort management, and disability statues (Lyons). Sometimes families negatively react to one member having scoliosis, which can put a strain on everyone. The most common negative reactions families have to bracing are being overanxious and overprotective, overindulgent, other rigid approaches, resentment or rejection of the child, disinterest, and neglect (Lyons). A healthy way for a family to cope with one member having scoliosis is to give encouragement, support, have good communication, have viewpoints that are accurate, allow for individuality and creativity in problem solving, be consistent in application of household chores, use humor, avoid insult and sarcasm, talk about the stress of bracing/surgery/treatment, have realistic goals, view scoliosis as part of someone, not as the whole person, have time for fun, be informed about scoliosis, use and develop a support network, and not letting marital issues get in the way of child’s scoliosis management (Lyons).

Being accepting of a friend or student’s brace, getting over it, and acting like it’s not there can help the bracewearers feel like they stand out less amongst peers (Lyons). In addition, when people are stressed, it’s apparent in

160 their scoliosis. Pressure and psychological stress make people harder to treat, so it is especially important that people with scoliosis manage their stress.

Alternative treatments can help with the negative psychological effects of scoliosis. People will benefit psychologically from doing exercises, because the physical movement makes people feel better physically and emotionally. Dr. Margarita Loinaz, medical doctor and osteopath says, “Pilates…makes people learn to tune into their bodies…They feel stronger, more confident.” Most people are not in tune with their bodies and are disassociated with the physical sensations. Getting in tune with one’s body is “… a training of mind, and that in itself has a very beneficial affect”, says Dr. Loinaz. People also feel empowered by helping themselves.

There have not been any research studies done to figure out the success rates for alternative treatments for scoliosis. Many people do not know anything about alternative treatments. The majority of the alternative treatment professionals are not scientists, and generally they focus their time on helping their clients, rather than conducting scientific studies. In addition, there are so many different alternative treatments that they cannot be generalized.

Unlike standard treatments, there are also more factors that go into how successful the treatment is, besides the treatment itself. The focus, dedication, determination of the person going through treatment plays a big role in how much their back improves. Finding the right treatment for people with scoliosis is a case by case situation. They also need to find a treatment or exercise that resonates with them and a teacher that they are able to work well with.

Because alternative methods have not been proved using the scientific method, the mainstream sometimes discounts it. It is very likely that there will be research studies done on alternative treatments when the public demands these treatments for their health concerns. People need to be more open minded about treatments that seem foreign to them, because treating with alternatives is a case by case situation; everyone is different.

Although there are both pros and cons of traditional treatments for scoliosis, the cons outweigh the pros.

Sometimes bracing is successful in keeping the curve from progressing, however, bracing restricts the body.

Although it holds people in a better position, if the person doesn’t do a combination of exercising and bracing, the muscles get weak from not exercising. Overtime, after the brace comes off, the curve may eventually go back to its original position. Bracing alone is not very effective, but a combination of bracing and exercises can be. Spinal fusion is a quick “fix” and usually the spine doesn’t curve anymore. However, spinal fusion has surgical risks, sometimes the spine curves in the spite of the surgery, and spinal fusion can cause back issues for a person later in life.

Although there are also pros and cons of alternative treatments, the pros greatly outweigh the cons. One is able to decrease the degree of their curve without invasive treatments. Also, if people choose the alternative path without surgery or bracing, they rid themselves of the stress and discomfort that come from both treatments. Unlike surgery, they are also able to keep mobility and flexibility in the spine, which is important because people can feel pain due to lack of mobility and flexibility. On the other hand, alternative treatments are more expensive and are also a longer process. In fact, alternative treatments end up being a life-long process.

Alternative treatments can help with many conditions besides scoliosis. Alternative treatments are often successful and better for many aspects of health for the patient, beyond how their back looks and feels. Unless someone’s scoliosis causes them so much pain, and they are not in the condition to do exercises, then surgery is most likely a better option. However, most of the time, a person’s scoliosis will be detected before their curve gets so severe that they are not able to do exercises, in which case they can treat their scoliosis with exercises and body work. As information about alternative treatments becomes more common, people need to be more open minded so they can figure out what treatments work best for them.

I would like to acknowledge Craig for helping me with getting together my ideas, helping me work through challenges in my ideas and research, and clarifying many things for me. I also would like to acknowledge Daisy F, Matt R, Wali K, Henny Tanudjaja, and Anne Turnbull for reading my paper and giving me great suggestions and corrections. And last but most certainly not least, I would also like to acknowledge Jana Cerny, Dr. Loinaz, Dr. Diab, and Christine Anderson for letting me interview them, and for answering my many follow up questions.

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“What is Scoliosis?” NIAMS. MedlinePlus, Mar. 2009. Web. 6 Jan. 2011.

162 Jonah T 2/11/2011 Research in the Community E-block Craig Butz Should we use Synthetic Turf in Neighborhood Parks? The Advantages and Disadvantages of NewGeneration Turf Playing Fields Artificial turf fields are being installed more and more frequently in the 21st century, and many people are unclear where they should stand on the topic. Turf fields have been both praised and criticized, but with proposals to convert our own neighborhood soccer fields to the new material, we need to have a definite answer to whether or not turf fields are advantageous to our society. Although expensive to install initially, synthetic turf playing fields are, in fact, beneficial to the environment as they greatly reduce the need for maintenance. However, many people in the community still have health and environmental concerns.

In 1964 the first synthetic turf playing surface, known as Chemgrass, was put on the market. A year later the first domed stadium, the Houston Astrodome, opened. After the baseball season started, the grass field in the new stadium began to have problems due to lack of sunlight. It was decided that the use of Chemgrass would solve the problem, and in 1966 the new playing surface was installed at the Astrodome. The artificial grass field worked better than expected, and the name Chemgrass was quickly changed to AstroTurf. The popularity of AstroTurf rose drastically in the next two decades, particularly for the use of professional sports teams. However, many athletes began to complain that the new fields were harder than grass ones and therefore caused a higher chance of injury. In 1988 the English Football Association banned synthetic turf playing fields as a result of safety concerns. Back in the United States, a poll was taken by the National Football League Players Association that showed that 93% of football players thought that playing on artificial turf increased their chance of injury. Some people were simply discouraged by the idea of playing on an unnatural surface. Professional baseball player Dick Allen argued against turf fields by saying, “if a horse won’t eat it, I don’t want to play on it.” Such mindsets became popular, and as a result a movement against artificial turf fields continued throughout the ‘90s (Claudio).

Since then, several companies have developed a new generation of synthetic turf playing surfaces. These new surfaces are made from synthetic blades of grass, rubber infill pellets, sand, and a hard base at the bottom made out of recycled materials (Hannan). The new turf was designed to resemble natural grass as much as possible while being safe and environmentally friendly at the same time (“Renovating the Fields”). New synthetic turf is often considered to be safer than natural grass because it eliminates the factor of unpredictability that is apparent in natural grass fields. The turf fields are perfectly level, so when you play sports on them you will notice far fewer “bad bounces”, and the risk of spraining your ankle on gopher holes or bumps is eliminated (“Synthetic Turf: Creating”).

In 1998 there were only seven of the new-generation turf fields installed in the United States. In 2008 there were over 3,500 (Claudio). Now, over a thousand of the fields are installed annually in North America (“Synthetic Turf: Creating”).

In the early 2000s, citizens of San Francisco began to notice problems with their public parks and grass playing fields. All the fields were constantly being used by athletic leagues, schools, and summer programs. The number of children playing sports on the fields after school on weekdays was estimated to be close to 4,000 (Schonfield). Sports teams were forced to have tight schedules and playing times, not to mention that during practices teams often had only a fraction of a field to play on. Under such heavy use, the quality of the grass fields swiftly began to deteriorate. Furthermore, there was not enough space on sports teams to support every child who wanted to play. With not enough fields to play on, many children, especially girls, were deprived of the opportunity to get involved in athletics. In the dense city of San Francisco, finding the space to lay down a new playing field is a challenge (Hannan). Finding space for 60 additional baseball, softball, and soccer fields—the estimated number fields needed to meet public demand—would simply be impractical (“FAQs”).

In 2005, Bob, Bill, and John Fisher got together and decided that, in the name of philanthropy, they would help to solve San Francisco’s problem with playing fields. They thought that the quality of the overused fields “sent the wrong message to city families” (Schonfield), and above all felt that every child should be given the chance to play sports (Hannan). After conducting research, they decided that the most efficient way of doing so would be to renovate the current grass fields with new-generation synthetic turf. Consequently, with the help of a handful of other donors, the City Fields Foundation was established (Schonfield).

The City Fields Foundation believes that the use of synthetic turf instead of grass would significantly increase the number of hours of play-time public fields are able to support. One point that cannot be stressed enough is that grass fields require a lot of maintenance; tons of time and money are spent on the upkeep of natural grass fields. The average grass field requires both mowers and gardeners to frequently look after it and keep it in shape (Hannan). The supplies that they use, including fertilizers and herbicides, cost a considerable amount by themselves,

163 (Walton) and 15 million gallons of water a year is needed to water the average grass soccer field (“Beach Chalet”).

The grass needs to be replanted periodically, and the fields have to be closed while this is being done. They also have to be closed during rainfall and a little while afterwards because the field gets muddy and can easily be damaged. Artificial turf fields on the other hand do not have to be closed for replanting or weather. Turf fields can be used around the clock without running the risk of being damaged. They do not need to be watered, and the only kind of maintenance required is being swept off and occasionally having the synthetic blades of grass groomed (Hannan). But, it should be noted that artificial turf fields still have to be replaced every 7 to 8 years (Katherine). All in all, with the extended amount of play-time provided by grass fields, San Francisco would be much closer to meeting public demand (Hannan).

A large factor that discourages many people from making the switch to synthetic turf is the high price to install initially. The cost of constructing an artificial turf field greatly exceeds that of the cost of planting natural grass (Walton). However, the Synthetic Turf Council, a non-profit association aiming to promote the use of artificial turf fields, argues that by purchasing synthetic turf, you will eventually receive a “payback” (Synthetic Turf). This means that despite the high cost to install at the start, in time it will save money because of the low maintenance fees. Thanks to its founders and donors, the City Fields Foundation has the money to cover most of the initial costs, and only asks for permission from the community to carry out their project plans (Hannan). Even so, due to the many health and environmental concerns, people are still hesitant to allow the change.

One such health concern has to do with the use of rubber infill pellets in turf fields. These pellets are usually made out of recycled tires taken from landfills (“FAQs”). When City Fields constructed the Crocker Amazon Fields in 2008 (“Beach Chalet”), they used 55,264 tires taken directly out of the landfill (“FAQs”). Out of the 300 million tires that are thrown out annually worldwide, the synthetic turf industry ends up using about 27 million—roughly one-twelfth of the total amount. While this is good for the environment, people are concerned that the rubber used in tires can be unsafe to play on. The rubber infill is infamous for containing polyaromatic hydrocarbons, volatile organic chemicals, and heavy metals like cadmium, arsenic, nickel, and lead. When turf fields are subject to heavy use, particles of the rubber infill can become airborne and inhaled by players on the field. This could cause the toxic chemicals to be transmitted to sports players. The rubber pellets can easily get caught in clothes and athletic gear and be carried back to an athlete’s home (Claudio). Nonetheless, numerous tests have been done showing that rubber infill is not harmful enough to worry about. One test conducted by the US Environmental Protection Agency in 2009 determined that “the air concentration of particulate matter and lead were well below levels of concern” (“FAQs”). Another test detected more heavy metals in the natural grass at the Beach Chalet Fields than in the synthetic turf that is proposed to replace the grass. And yet, many people are still skeptical of tests done so far, and say that more research has to be done before they will be satisfied (Claudio).

Another major concern brought to the attention of the community is the increased risk of bacterial infections on artificial turf fields. Natural grass is “self-cleaning”, meaning that it has the ability to defend itself from bacteria. Synthetic turf does not have this ability, and therefore can gather a lot more bacteria. Bacteria thrives when the environment is warm and moist, especially in areas of turf that have been exposed to sweat, saliva, and sometimes even blood. To make matters worse, synthetic turf fields can cause abrasion injuries, often known as turfburns, more frequently than natural grass. With more scrapes and greater exposure to bacteria, infections will always be more prone to occur (“Synthetic Turf Playing Fields”). However, the San Francisco Department of Public Health announced in a 2008 memo that there is no evidence that MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), a relatively common bacterial infection, spreads faster on artificial turf than grass. Still, they made sure to explain that abrasion injuries could act as a portal for the infection, and therefore all scrapes should be properly cleaned (“FAQs”). This means that after any abrasion injury is indentified, it should be immediately washed off with soap and water. In order to prevent the spread of infections, all young athletes should be taught not to ignore the injuries.

One additional concern is that synthetic turf can attract dangerous amounts of heat on hot days. Brad Fresenburg, a synthetic turf expert at the University of Missouri, discovered that on a 98 degree day, the surface temperature of artificial turf reached up to 173 degrees Fahrenheit. In comparison, natural grass only reached up to 105 degrees. All the rubber and plastic used in newer turf fields may be safer and more environmentally friendly than before, but they absorb a lot more sunlight (“Synthetic Turf Playing Fields”). As a result, the fields can reach uncomfortable, unrelenting temperatures under the midday sun, and players on the field can quickly become fatigued and dehydrated (Walton). For a solution to the problem Fresenburg suggests that sports teams practice either in the morning or the evening when the turf is cool. He even suggests that in some circumstances, teams should look for natural grass alternatives during hotter seasons of the year. In any case, all athletes playing on synthetic turf should be sure to stay hydrated (“Synthetic Turf Playing Fields”). And yet, San Francisco’s Recreation and Park Department “has never had a single complaint about their synthetic turf fields getting too hot for play, and has never closed a field due to hot weather”. Some people worry that turf fields in such high temperatures run the

164 risk of catching fire, but this is extremely uncommon. This has only happened in two known situations, and both were the result of arson. All synthetic turf fields in San Francisco have passed flammability tests, so their risk of igniting is rather small (“FAQs”).

Along with already renovated soccer fields in San Francisco, The Beach Chalet Fields in Golden Gate Park were recognized as a definite candidate for renovation in 2006 and 2007. In the fall, over 1500 kids and 600 adults play on the Beach Chalet Fields each week. It is one of the leading complexes for playing ground sports in San Francisco, but the City Fields Foundation believes that they will be able to triple the amount of play on the fields by building lights and installing synthetic turf (“Beach Chalet”). People do not want the fields to stand out in the discreet environment of Golden Gate Park, so the proposed fields are designed to be virtually unnoticeable from the outside. Even so, the community is concerned about the safety of turf fields and question whether or not they will be good for the environment, so the project has been put on hold (Hannan). One argument asks why organizations like City Fields do not put turf fields in vacant lots instead of on top of natural grass. Another argument recommends that we keep natural grass fields, and make up for the amount of water they need by encouraging the use of native plants that do not require as much water (Purpura).

An organization called SF Ocean Edge was established with the goal of finding alternate ways to renovate the Beach Chalet Fields and preserve Golden Gate Park’s natural beauty. They believe that ideally the fields should undergo a full renovation, but ultimately that natural grass should be used instead of synthetic turf. They are not opposed to synthetic turf, but do not feel that it belongs in a place like Golden Gate Park. By putting in artificial turf, you are essentially paving over a natural surface. This should be avoided because it reduces the total amount of parkland for future generations to enjoy. In any case, both enemies and advocates of synthetic turf agree that the decision whether or not to use artificial turf should not be based on money, but rather the effect of the fields on our community. The official meeting for an Environmental Impact Report of the Beach Chalet Fields will be held on February 23, 2011 which will allow for all concerns to be heard(Katherine).

But after considering all these advantages and disadvantages to synthetic turf, should we as a community welcome synthetic turf fields or discourage them? People are always critical of new ideas because it is human nature to dislike change. When most people first hear about a proposal to add synthetic turf to their local field, they usually reject the idea before hearing both sides of the story. After artificial turf is installed, people begin to realize that it really is not as bad as they thought it would be. Synthetic turf closely resembles natural grass in many ways, but saves millions of gallons of water each year. There is no reason to believe that turf fields are unsafe to play on, so if people are taught to clean abrasion injuries properly and keep hydrated on hot days, turf fields are certainly a good alternative to natural grass. However, in some cases such as the Beach Chalet Fields, synthetic turf does not fit into the environment. So ideally, the targeted areas for artificial turf fields would be urban areas and areas where the type of grass used in playing fields does not naturally grow. Although each case has different factors that have to be addressed, synthetic turf is safe and environmentally friendly, and we should encourage its use in our neighborhoods.

Works Cited “Beach Chalet Athletic Fields Renovation 2011.” City Fields Foundation. 2010. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

Purpura, Mary. “Synthetic Turf Prompts Real Reactions.” Neighborhood Newswire. 10 May 2010. Web. 27 Jan. 2011.

Claudio, Luz. “Synthetic Turf: Health Debate Takes Root.” Environmental Health Perspectives. 1 Mar. 2008. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

“FAQs.” City Fields Foundation. 2009. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

Hannan, Patrick. Personal Interview. 5 Jan. 2011.

Katherine, Howard. Personal Interview. 7 Feb. 2011.

“Renovating the Fields—The Science” City Fields Foundation. 2009. Web. 25 Jan. 2011.

Schonfield, Anne. Giving Every Child a Place to Play Ball. City Fields Foundation, 2010. Print.

Synthetic Turf: Creating the Field of Dreams. Synthetic Turf Council. 2008. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

“Synthetic Turf Playing Fields Present New Dangers.” Plant Management Network International. 2 Nov. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

Walton, Sam. “Synthetic Turf – The Pros and Cons.” Ezinearticles. 13 May 2010. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

165 Christopher V Craig Butz Research in the community—E-block 25 January 2011 It’s a Bumpy Ride When There Are No Trails: Mountain Bike Trail Access Mountain biking is an increasingly popular sport that deserves more attention and resources than it currently receives. With mountain biking comes great joy and a stronger local economy and community, among other benefits, yet Marin County and the Bay Area have done little to acknowledge or aid this movement. The absence of legal mountain biking trails has lead to the construction of unsafe illegal trails which harm mountain bikers and spur conflict between trail users, which needs to be stopped by creating a multiuse trail system, for the safety of the environment and all trail users.

The origins of mountain biking as we know it today can be traced back to Marin County. About forty years ago small group of riders began taking adapted 1940 Schwin bikes off road on Mt. Tamalpais. The bikes, deemed “Clunkers”, were raced down old logging roads at very high speeds. The small group racing these “Clunkers” primarily consisted of hippies and outcast road bikers, wanting to push the sport in a new direction (Freedom Riders). Certain members of this community began making moves to expand the sport even farther, one member in particular, Joe Breeze, began designing and building his own bikes that were better suited for the conditions on the mountain. This new style of bike inspired Tom Ritchey and Gary Fisher to begin building and marketing their own bikes. This venture was going so well that they decided to found MountainBikes (now know as Gary Fisher Bikes) and in their first year they quickly sold all of the bikes they built and continued to do so in each subsequent year (Brandt). From there mountain biking popularity greatly increased with people beginning to mountain bike all over the country, and soon all over the world. This surge of popularity inspired other people and bike companies to start creating their own mountain bikes, with new brake designs, and the incorporation of suspension.

Mountain Biking has progressed greatly since the days of a few riders racing down logging roads in Marin County. In 2004 Big Bear Ski Resort began offering mountain bike lift accessed to trails, a model many other ski resorts began to follow. A couple years later the first mountain bike specific trail system was created in The Teton National Forest (Freedom Riders). Mountain bikes no longer bear any resemblance to the old clunkers; mountain bikes now have over 8 inches of suspension in the front and back, are made of carbon fiber, and are considerably stronger and lighter (Kelly). Mountain biking is now an Olympic sport, and there is an international circuit for multiple disciplines of mountain biking. Events like Redbull Rampage and Kokanee Crankworx, are broadcasted around the world and attract thousands of spectators every year. Between ages six to seventeen biking is now the favorite outdoor activity and America now has over 50,000,000 mountain bikers (Shimano).

Despite this popularity there is very little acceptance of mountain biking in Marin County, and the entire Bay Area. Mt Tamalpias, the birth place of mountain biking, has only two single track trails that permit mountain biking. Additionally these two trails are both very short, and pose little technical challenge for advanced riders.

While there are fire roads (large dirt roads cut into the hillside that provide rangers with car access and prevent the spread of fire) these can often be crowded and very monotonous for mountain bikers. There are only a few other single track trails in all of Marin that allow mountain bikes. This is not due to a lack of land as over one half of the land in Marin is protected for trail use. Additionally it is not because of a lack of interest as an estimated twenty percent of adults in Marin mountain bike (Trails). Similar problems are present throughout the rest of the Bay Area.

Of the little single track that does exist is in the Bay Area, almost none of the trails connect to each other, providing very limited riding options, and meaning that most mountain bikers will need to drive to a location to access trails.

Furthermore, for more advanced riders there are no mapped trails with features, such as wooden bridges, jumps, and drops.

This lack of legal mountain biking trails leads some riders to create their own unmapped, unauthorized mountain biking trails. These trails are created for a number of reasons. Some are simply deer trails, and old hiking trails, adapted for mountain biking. Other trails are created to link existing trails, provide short cuts, or link two popular destinations. The final and most serious type of illegal trail construction is that in which mountain bikers deliberately create trails that challenge their skill level (International Mountain Bicycling Association 43). These trails are generally built by a very small group of mountain bike riders, typically friends, who decide that they want new challenges and so go about constructing a trail to match their riding style. These builders often do not realize that what they are doing is wrong, as they consider the trail to have a tiny effect on the land and do not think about the land manager.

Mountain biking poses some very serious dangers and as a result land managers are reluctant to allow mountain biking trails on their property. The greatest and most severe dangers associated with mountain biking are spinal injuries, which are unfortunately fairly common. In a study conducted by Emily Dodwell, she found that

166 mountain bikers who went to the hospital because of a spinal injury had an average hospital stay of seventeen days, and sixty two percent of patients required surgery (Dodwell). Additionally there are many other possible injuries that can be sustained from mountain biking, such as lacerations, fractures, and sprains (International Mountain Biking Association 165). The majority of these injuries can be prevented through common sense and the use of the right protective gear. This risk is further enhanced when riding on unauthorized trails, as these trails typically have challenging and potentially dangerous features. Additionally these features tend to be of a lower quality on illegal trails, and thus have a greater likelihood of breaking or collapsing, further increasing the risk. The features on illegal trails are also generally not marked, meaning a rider could go off a drop without being aware that it was present on the trail. Finally rogue trails prove to be a danger as there are no maps of these trails making it difficult to locate injured riders. In Teton pass a collection of unauthorized trails were only shut down after a rider was injured, and search and rescue was unable to locate the rider without the help of a fellow rider, slowing down the process, and possibly endangering the injured riders life (Freedom Riders). Due to these dangers land managers are very hesitant to allow mountain bike access, or turn a blind eye to unauthorized building and riding taking place on their property as they are worried about lawsuits.

When unauthorized mountain biking trails are constructed they are often done so in an ecologically unsustainable way. Unauthorized trails are generally, as stated above, created by a small group of riders, who have limited recourses to devote to the trail they are constructing. As a result these trails are often of poorer quality than trails built by the government or a private organization. The group building the trail often lacks trail building experience and knowledge, or a set of guidelines, so that the final product quickly becomes a large problem requiring constant maintenance (Schneider). These trails are often constructed hastily, as people are worried about being caught. Clay Curley describes how when he first began building an unauthorized trail there was â&#x20AC;&#x153;this weird feeling of looking over your shoulder and wondering if, you know, maybe, you were actually gonna get popped by the fedsâ&#x20AC;?. This resulted in the trail being built quickly at night (Freedom Riders).

The largest problem that trails built by amateurs often face is with drainage. Trails are usually built with a disregard for how they will influence the flow of water, and it is only after the trail is finished and there is a large amount of rain that the problem becomes apparent. Unauthorized trails are often built either too steep or too flat, and both have consequences. Steep trails that go down the fall line encourage erosion as the combination of bike wheels, water, and gravity slowly pull away the dirt, which is accelerated by the lack of vegetation on to hold the dirt in place. Flat trails on the other hand have a problem with lack of water movement, and so the stagnant water creates large amounts of mud which can cause greater soil displacement, compaction, and erosion to the trail when bikes are ridden over it (International Mountain Bicycling Association 101). Additionally when these trails are built the builders typically do not have an extensive knowledge about the ecology and wildlife of the area that they are building in, and so are more likely to damage sensitive plants and animals (Schneider). Trails can often have unexpected effects on the land, Zev Shearn-Nance, an experienced biker and trail builder, recalls how a trail he built quickly became unusable after it became the primary means of travel for a herd of deer living in the area. For many bikers, the alternative of riding unauthorized trails is riding hiking trails, which can be equally damaging. These hiking trails are not designed to accommodate bikes, and so riding them can have some of the same environmental repercussions as riding illegal trails, in addition to being dangerous for hikers also using the trail (Shearn-Nance, Schneider).

Building and riding on illegal trails is not only damaging to the environment, but can harm the people using the trails too, as there are often large legal penalties. In 2001 three people were accused of creating an illegal bike trail on Golden Gate Recreational Area in Marin County. The three people were convicted of destruction of federal property, fined 34,000 dollars, and put on probation for 3 years. Later in 2008 Michael More pleaded guilty to constructing an illegal trail in China Camp State Park, and sentenced to 10 days in jail (Klien). Similar events have taken place all over the country. In 2003 federal agents ambushed a small group of mountain bike riders and trail builders in Hickory, North Carolina. The entire group was sentenced to jail and forced to pay thousands of dollars (Freedom Riders). Penalties such as these make mountain biking on illegal trails un enjoyable, and serve as a large deterrent for illegal trail construction and use.

In addition to legal penalties there have recently been a number of radical methods used to deter mountain bikers from riding on trails. One such example took place on an illegal mountain biking trail in Marin County. A Marin County Open Space ranger set barbed wire and stakes in a trail in an effort to deter mountain bikers from riding the trail. The barbed wire was strung across the trail to snag bikers, and the stakes were placed in such a way that if a biker slid off the trail they would land on an array of spikes that had the possibility of killing or seriously injuring the rider. The Marin County Open Space eventually admitted that this was the wrong way of going about the problem that they faced (Prado). Recently in the east bay Mike Vandeman was charged with assault with a deadly weapon on two mountain bikers. Mike Vandeman was previously an anti mountain biker advocate, who gave

167 speeches on the destructive effect that mountain bikes had on the environment. Eventually he attacked two mountain bikers with a handsaw on a legal mountain biking trail and arrested by police officers (Masoner). These radical actions greatly increase the danger of mountain biking, especially on illegal trails, further increasing the need for legal mountain biking trails, if only for safety reasons.

Regardless of these severe threats, mountain bikers are still overpowered by a desire to ride trails, and so illegal trail construction continues. While shutting down trails and increasing fines may temporarily prevent unauthorized trail use, the riders and builders will eventually return, or find a new area to pursue their sport. The only true solution to this problem is to supply mountain bikers with legal trails to ride. Areas such as The Teton Pass and North Shore of Vancouver serve as prime examples for the benefits of legal trails. Both of these locations faced large problems with illegal trail construction, and decided to combat this with the introduction of legal trails. This was incredibly successful in curbing illegal trail construction and use in the two places (Freedom Riders, Lau).

Additionally these trails were built in a far more ecologically friendly manner that eliminated many of the problems the illegal trails were having (Freedom Riders). The new trails were also mapped, allowing for easier emergency access and regulation of features present on the trail (Lau). The primary reason that these trails proved to be such a success, while others have failed is that they were able to meet the userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs. If the legal trails do not meet the userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s demands, as they are too short or lack challenge, riders will go back to building and riding unauthorized trails (Schneider).

Mountain bike trails can have an extremely beneficial effect on the nearby community. They serve as a gathering point that can strengthen bonds between different community members, united by their mutual love for biking. One noteworthy example is the Colonnade Mountain Bike Park in Seattle. The park utilized an unused plot of land located beneath the I-5 highway, which additionally provides cover from Seattleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s frequent rain fall. Prior to the Colonnade being built the area was filled with homeless people, and experienced large amounts of drug use and prostitution, creating a divide between the East Lake and Capitol Hill neighborhoods. Now however the park serves as a meeting place for the two, with both neighborhoods contributing over 12,000 volunteer work hours to the project. The project also received almost all of the money from grants and donations rather than the city government (The Colonnade Story). This demonstrates that that cities need to provide limited funds and manpower to create a mountain bike park, as these will supply themselves, and yet cities and towns are still hesitant to create parks and trails for bikers (Schneider).

An additional incentive to creating mountain bike parks and trails is the economic gain that can come from them. Mountain biking is a booming industry that grows every year. Mountain bikes have been outselling road bikes for over a decade, and the popularity of the sport continues to grow. Whistler Mountain Bike Park attracts over 100,000 visitors every summer, charging them for lift tickets, rentals, lodging and food (Freedom Riders). Every year mountain biking contributes 26 billion dollars to the American economy through direct spending. Mountain biking on National Forest produced 205 million dollars in 2005, and trails in Moab, Utah are responsible for roughly 200 dollars being spent per person, per trip (Shimano). At least some of this money should be reinvested in creating more mountain biking trails.

The majority of environmental problems that illegal trails pose can be eliminated with sufficient resources and the use of sustainable trail building techniques. Mountain biking is often looked upon as having an extremely devastating effect on the environment, however a study done by Thurston and Reader revealed that mountain bikers and hikers both had the same effect on vegetation around the trail. A number of other studies have found that mountain bikes cause roughly the same amount of erosion and soil displacement, while horses cause far more.

Additionally a study conducted by Taylor and Knight showed that mountain bikers caused the same level of disturbances with wildlife as other trail users. The reality is that trail design has a far greater effect on the environment than any group of trail users. Trails should be built at a gentle grade perpendicular to the hill so that water runs down the hill, not the trail, thus preventing erosion. To ensure that water does not stay on the trail it should be built with a slight out slope, meaning that the outer side of the trail is slightly lower, forcing water off the trail and preventing muddiness. Trails should never exceed half the steepness of the hill they are being built on, but this can be even less depending on the of soil type. Rock and clay soil can be built up to a 15% grade, loamy soil up to 10% and sandy soil should not exceed a 5% grade. An additional way to deal with drainage is by creating grade reversals, where two points on a trail funnel together, forcing water off the trail. In addition to the factors described above trails should be built to provide consistent speed and turns, so that fast turns and braking, which accelerate erosion and soil displacement, are not used. Trails should be located so that they avoid low points in the terrain, and when excess water does become a problem stones should be used to harden and reinforce trail structure and wooden bridges should be used to cross muddy areas. A final element to ensure sustainability in trail design is to educate bikers of proper riding techniques. Riders should be educated how to avoid locking their rear brakes, and taught to

168 stay on the trail and not create shortcuts. These steps in trail design will guarantee a sustainable final product that requires far less maintenance (International Mountain Bicycling Association 110-28).

While the possibility of trail user conflict is a very real threat, it can be avoided through educating about trail etiquette, regulation, and proper construction. The majority of conflict between mountain bikers and other trail users arise from problems with speed, etiquette and trail width (Jellum). Mountain bikers need to be taught to ride slowly when in sight of other trail users, pass even slower, and practice common courtesy. There are a number of multi use trail techniques that have proved to be successful in the past. One technique involves rotating days or weeks that certain trail users are allowed on a trail, which resulted in 90% satisfaction of trail users in Mt. BakerSnoqualmie National Forest (Jellum). Another option is allowing mountain bikers one way access up trails and hikers two way access (Schneider). If multiuse access is allowed on a trail then certain aspects must be kept in mind when designing it. It is critical to manage the speed of bikers for the safety of others, as well as themselves. This can be done by installing rocks and logs that narrow the trail in small areas, or making patches of trail rougher, thereby forcing bikers to slow down. Another way to regulate speed is through turns, while at the same time there should be the longest possible line of sight to allow bikers to slow for other trail users. A final way to manage speed is through rules such as speed limits on trails. Pull offs should also be created, allowing mountain bikers to pass, or be passed (International Bicycling Association 150-153). A final thing to consider is that the demands of a cross county rider are very different than that of a downhill or free ride mountain biker. As such user specific mountain bike trails should be considered, as these are more likely to meet bikerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs, and prevent the construction of illegal trails. If all of these components are taken into account trail user conflict will be greatly decreased.

As previously discussed one primary concern for land managers about mountain bike trails is the risk associated with them, but with the proper precautions this danger can be greatly reduced. All mountain bike trails should be regularly inspected for the presence of unsafe or unstable features, which should be removed if found. A variety of trails that provide challenges for all ability levels should be provided, allowing for skill progression. All of these features should be marked and have ride arounds if the rider assesses the feature to be above their skill level.

The entrance to these trails should contain a feature that will be one of the most difficult one on the trail, which will deter riders from entering trails above their skill level. These trails should additionally have signs that label the difficulty level of each trail. Gear regulations, such as use of helmets and body armor, should also be enforced on these trails, which will greatly increase the safety of each rider. This will greatly reduce the risk present on mountain biking trails, and hopefully cause land manager to reconsider the presence of mountain biking trails on their property.

Unauthorized trail construction is a serious problem that can only be remedied by building legal trails.

Illegal trails are extremely dangerous for the users and contribute to the destruction of local ecology. This should be combated by the construction of safer more sustainable trails which efficiently manage erosion and drainage. If this is done correctly it can have an extremely beneficial effect on the local economy and community.

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170 Jake W Craig Butz Research in the Community A Block 1/20/11 Breaking the Death Spiral: A Solution to Muni’s Problems You plan on catching the 5:00 bus home from your after school activities, and you are waiting at the bus stop for 30 minutes before a bus comes, and it is completely packed with people. Has this ever happened to you? It is a widely acknowledged hypothesis that San Francisco’s public transportation system needs a massive overhaul.

The current system is plagued with inefficiency and heavy traffic. These problems stem from the various drains on Muni’s budget, such as Cable Cars and Muni operator’s annual wage increases. Muni is also under stress to heed the Mayor’s suggestions rather than those of transport experts (Dewar and Eskenazi). Although ramping up fare price and cutting bus service may generate short term revenue, a more effective solution would be the creation of more transit-only lanes around the city thereby decreasing stopped time and removing traffic from the many problems facing Muni.

Although many San Franciscans consistently complain about Muni, over the past few years Muni has been making great strides towards some of the goals the San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency (SF MTA) had when it was created: to improve accessibility, make Muni a more popular form of transportation, and to have an 85% on-time rate (White). In 2009 and early 2010, Muni had an average on time rate of 73.5% (Reisman, “Survey shows lowest”). The SF MTA in the same block of time have also been re-paving hundreds of roads around the city to help the buses run more smoothly, and to make people who use cars more comfortable. The SF MTA has also introduced the Clipper card system along with the monthly pass system to alleviate the necessity for cash or change.

In 2009, the SF MTA interviewed 563 random San Franciscans, 43% of whom said they take Muni 5+ times per week (Reisman, “Survey shows lowest”). The SF MTA has also been listening to what their riders have to say, one example being improved service on the 38-Geary route after a local blogger posted about the problem (Reisman, “Richmond”). Clearly there are many San Franciscans who agree with local Sara Hayes: “It gets me where I need to go. It may be a little slow in the morning, but I don’t think that’s a big deal” (Reisman, “Survey shows lowest”).

Another way that Muni has been trying to improve its image is by replacing the current bus stops. The main reason for the replacement of the shelters is to allow for easier access to these shelters by the handicapped community (Kelkar). Over the entire city, 1,200 shelters are being replaced. Although the new shelter design has some people worried about how they will fare in the rain, the designer of the shelters assures that “unless it’s raining at a 45 degree angle, the people should stay dry”. The seats in the shelters are also designed to drain quickly according to the creators (Kelkar). Creating the new shelter and taking out the old shelter takes around a week. Each new shelter costs upwards of $25,000 to put in, with a total cost of at least $30 Million, which would not be paid for by the city or the SF MTA (Kelkar).

In an effort to improve the Muni system, the City created the Transit Effectiveness Program. The Transit Effectiveness Project (TEP) is a program that was initiated in 2006 to examine how Muni currently works and how it could be improved. The TEP was created as a result of the 1999 Proposition E, which called for a top-to-bottom sweep of Muni’s system to determine why it was suffering from one of its lowest average on-time years yet (White).

In 2006 and 2007, the TEP placed counters on certain buses to determine which buses were ridden most frequently, when, which door most people got onto the bus on, and so on (“Recommendations”). In 2008, the TEP held meetings with community leaders such as religious officials and school principals to hear suggestions as to what Muni needs to do to improve. Later that year, the TEP sent a revised list of possible plans for Muni to undertake.

Many of these suggestions involved running more buses during rush hours and implementing more transit-only lanes (“TEP Staff Recommendations”).

The overarching themes in the TEP’s recommendations to the MTA Board were plans to speed up the system by removing bus stops and increasing the amount of buses operating during rush hours (“TEP Staff Recommendations”).

Muni is caught in a painful downward spiral of slow speeds, heavy traffic and low ridership rates. Greg Dewar and Joe Eskenazi, writers for a website called the N-Judah Chronicles and SF Weekly newspaper explain that the “death spiral” is started when Muni encounters a spot of heavy traffic. This causes the people on the bus to think that since Muni is so slow, it would be more efficient for them to own a car (Dewar and Eskenazi). However this is a debatable train of thought, because then they would be caught up in the same traffic that the buses are in. When more people choose to drive, the buses get caught up in more traffic, they go slower, and thus the spiral continues.

All of this results in to fewer people on the buses, lower on-time rates, and all in all, less money in the system (Dewar and Eskenazi). This causes a general disapproval of Muni in the public eye, with about a 52% approval

171 rating (Survey shows lowest…), which is around the number that Bay School students thought that Muni was on the right track.

This spiral would not be as costly if Muni did not already have four other big drains on its budget, the foremost of these being the operators. Unfortunately for Muni, the City Charter states that Muni operators get annual wage increases, regardless of Muni’s financial situation (Reisman, “Contract”). Until the recent Proposition G, Muni was unable to negotiate this contract with the operators union, and the extremely high overtime payment and health benefits were also non-negotiable (Reisman, “Contract”). This might be more bearable if it was not true that “Work rules place strict limits on the number of part-time drivers—which means that more full-time operators end up working overtime. That’d be at a cost of roughly $45 an hour” (Dewar and Eskenazi). It also turns out that operators still get paid during break times and sometimes for not showing up for their route at all, which “supports non-productivity” (Dewar and Eskenazi). Mr. Dewar and Eskenazi explain that each year, Muni operators are allowed to miss a certain number of routes without informing any superiors and without giving any explanation of their absence and still get paid, which is an extremely unreasonable thing for the MTA Brass to allow. Along with all of these costs simply to drive the buses, Muni must also pay $3.5 Million to an “operator’s fund” that gives money to operators for health care and other employee benefits (Dewar and Eskenazi). The operators are a huge hole in Muni’s metaphorical pocket.

The next big financial problem facing Muni right now is the fact that other city departments leech off of whatever aid Muni receives from the State. Whenever the City receives money from the state that is supposed to go to helping Muni (such as Proposition E), other departments charge Muni more for their services (e.g. patrolling Muni routes for illegal activity) and call it “work orders”. Dave Snyder, a local transit expert declared that “The mayor completely controls Muni.” Along with controlling what the Agency does and what programs it starts (e.g. the “Culture Bus,”) he also controls the Agency’s budget (Dewar and Eskenazi). It is particularly puzzling to think that the Mayor’s ideas are headed above the TEP’s, whose sole purpose is to improve Muni’s service. Clearly the Mayor has a different goal for Muni, which is to cater to non-residents using projects like the Culture bus and forcing Muni to pay for upkeep on the cable cars. The entire Muni board is appointed by him alone, and with their agreement he has allowed other city departments to charge Muni $67 Million for their services. Anonymous Public Relations representatives also told SF Weekly that the mayor instructs Muni to make their current financial deficit “more presentable” (Dewar and Eskenazi). Muni cannot do its job of serving the public properly if it is busy catering to the Mayor.

In addition to budget cuts and a lack of political control, fare evaders present another problem for Muni’s finances. A 2009 study presented to the MTA Board showed that one in every ten riders does not pay their fare (Gordon). This means that each day around 70,000 riders do not pay fare. Drivers tend to let fare cheaters get away because they are afraid of being assaulted. One possible reason for not being more assertive could be that if a fight were to break out, other riders would not intervene. $19 Million a year on average is lost to fare evaders. The study also found that most of this evasion happens after the afternoon rush hour, possibly due to the fact that people are tired and did not remember to bring fare. This mainly occurs when riders board through the back door of the bus, and when confronted refuse to pay (Gordon). However all of the blame cannot be rested on the operator’s shoulders, since they have to deal with thousands of people each day, collect fares, deal with traffic and assist handicapped people onto the bus (Johnson). Muni operators clearly need help from the San Francisco Police Department to catch fare evaders, without another huge charge for “work orders,” which the SFPD would charge for increasing the amount of police on Muni routes. More fare collectors are especially needed during the morning and afternoon rush hours, when the buses are packed full of people (Gordon).

What would be the most effective way to solve all of these problems? Is there one way to deal with them all, or must there be one solution per problem? To identify a good solution, we must acknowledge that not all of these problems will be removed in one fell swoop. A good solution would maybe fix two or three of Muni’s biggest problems such as traffic, speed, and general approval. Fare evaders, though a big financial problem, could be ignored if more people believed that Muni could quickly get them where they needed to go. The operators may be causing Muni to lose the most money, but they would require a solution that would not alleviate any other problems.

One possible solution is to add more Bus Rapid Transit systems. These are systems that include individual lanes for buses in the middle of the street, blocked off by low concrete islands where people can board the bus. “It is basically an above-ground light-rail line without the rails” (White). These systems would eliminate traffic, but are extremely expensive, and take up space in streets where there may not be enough to begin with. Additionally, it would be difficult to remove these lanes if the City felt a need to at a later point in time. . All of these deficits make the Bus Rapid Transit system an unwise choice for a solution to Muni’s problems Furthermore, Muni could implement a Congestion Charge Zone (CCZ) around the downtown San Francisco area. This is a system that is currently being used in London along with an underground light-rail system

172 (“How it works”). This system works by using cameras around all entrances to a selected area to scan the license plates of all cars going into the area. The information would then be sent back to a central monitoring area where the plate numbers would be scanned against a database of people who have discounts or are allowed to park private vehicles in within the CCZ (“How it works”). If the plate number did not come up in the database, the owner of the car would be charged a certain amount of money per night spent inside the Zone with a private vehicle (“How it works”). Although this would be an effective solution, it may be difficult to get consent from the public and implementation would be quite costly.

One necessary step to making Muni run faster is to take out some stops along each route. Currently, there is a Muni stop on each block of most bus routes. If there were only bus stops every other block, the buses would be stopped less and could thus move faster through the streets without having to stop so frequently to pick people up, which takes up 20% of the time spent on routes (White). The current average speed of a Muni bus is 8.1 MPH (Dewar and Eskenazi), which is on par with London’s bus system (Jolly). Muni’s average bus speed has been decreasing by a total of 12% over the last 25 years (Dewar and Eskenazi). The only reason that more bus stops have not been removed as of yet is that on each block, there is always someone who is extremely opposed to the removal of that particular stop because they are unable to walk an extra block (White). Though a plan was recently sent to the MTA Board to take away 10% of the stops on the most popular lines (9, 14, 28, 30, and 71), many local transit experts believe that this will not be approved due to arguments from the public (Freemark). These people make a large ruckus and the stop is not taken away (White). If more people were willing to walk slightly further to catch a bus, the entire system would be more efficient, but this does not solve the issue of heavy traffic.

If Muni were to attempt to implement one thing around the entire city to speed up the buses by decreasing traffic, it would be to create Transit-only lanes on more streets. Assuming the lanes were enforced using cameras or possibly by police officers, these would help speed up the buses by removing congestion. This would help Muni greatly during rush hours when the buses are most crowded and every minute stopped means that Muni is losing money. Although transit-only lanes will prove beneficial in the long term, Muni may encounter several problems during their creation. For instance, some popular streets, such as Grant Street, are too small to accommodate a transit-only lane. Simply because some streets cannot handle these lanes does not mean that this solution is impossible, it just means that Muni could only place these lanes onto wider streets such as Geary and Market Street.

In setting up the lanes, Muni may find it difficult to take street parking away from the streets, which would be necessary to allow both a bike lane and a transit-only lane on the same street (White). Although there would be a few difficulties in initiating these solutions, if local commuters are willing to walk a little further to catch a bus, Muni’s service could be greatly improved and the city would benefit greatly from the improved transportation system.

This is my own work unless otherwise indicated.

I would like to thank Craig Butz, Amanda Crego-Emily, Isaias Moya and Gabriel C for editing and generally assisting in the development of my paper.

173 Works Cited “About the TEP.” SF MTA. Web. 10 Dec 2010.

Dewar, Greg, and Joe Eskenazi. “The Muni Death Spiral.” SF Weekly. SF Weekly, Apr 14 2010. Web. 12 Dec 2010.

Freemark, Yonah. “In cutting Bus Stops, San Francisco Points Towards a More Efficient Bus System.” The Transport Politic. The Transport Politic, 15 Nov 2010. Web. 16 Dec 2010.

Ford Sr., Nathaniel P. “SFMTA Strategic Plan Survey.” SF Muni. SF Municipal Transportation Agency. Web. 17 Dec 2010.

Gordon, Rachel. “Muni finds almost 10% of riders are fare cheats.” San Francisco Chronicle. SF Gate.com, 19 Oct 2009. Web. 2 Jan 2010.

“How it works.” Transport for London. ND. Web. 18 Jan 2011.

Johnson, Will. “From a Muni operator: the facts.” Muni Diaries. ND. Web. 2 Jan 2010.

Jolly, Lynn. “Slow Coaches.” The Mirror. 15 Feb 2007. Web. 27 Jan 2011.

Kelkar, Kamala. “New Muni bus shelters leave opening for rain.” The SF Examiner. The Examiner, 22 Nov 2010.

Web 2 Jan 2011.

“Muni reform that might actually work.” San Francisco Bay Guardian Online. San Francisco Bay Guardian, 5 Nov 2010. Web. 2 Jan 2010.

“Recommendations.” SF Municipal Transportation Agency. ND. Web. 18 Jan 2011.

Reisman, Will. “Contract Showdown on Tap for Muni Officers.” The SF Examiner. The Examiner, 30 Dec 2010.

Web. 2 Jan 2011.

Resiman, Will. “Election outcome could determine Muni’s path.” The SF Examiner. The Examiner, 12 October 2010. Web. 10 January 2011.

Reisman, Will. “MTA Brass, operators set to meet next month.” The SF Examiner. The Examiner, 30 Dec 2010.

Web. 2 Jan 2011.

Reisman, Will. “Muni Makes feds’ grade.” The SF Examiner. The Examiner, 25 July 2010. Web. 17 Dec 2010.

Reisman, Will. “Richmond district resident’s blog spurs Muni to add more bus service.” The SF Examiner, 25 January 2011. Web. 25 January 2011.

Reisman, Will. “Survey shows lowest satisfaction with Muni since 2001.” The SF Examiner. The Examiner, 21 Sept 2010. Web. 17 Dec 2010.

“TEP Staff Recommendations.” SF MTA. Web. 10 Dec 2010.

White, Dustin. Personal Interview. 14 January 2011.

174 Tristan Y Craig Butz Research in the Community—E Block January 25th 2011 California Sea Lions Against Fishermen.

Many of us can remember the loud barking of the Sea Lions at pier 39 ever since we were children. You can often see California Sea Lions piled on top of each other at the docks at pier 39 because of the Bay Area’s sheltered environment. Sea Lion populations are currently under threat from the activities of fishermen and natural causes such as Domoic acid, and malnutrition. Though there is little the general public can do to help directly, we can be better informed about the subject and know what to do when you see a distressed Sea Lion.

In order for the ecology between the fish and the Sea Lions to work there is a balancing act between the two says Adam Ratner, one of the staff in the education department at the Marine Mammal Center (Ratner). The way this balance works is that the Sea Lions will eat fish and Sea Lion populations will go up while fish populations go down. As the Sea Lions food source goes down as the “carrying capacity of its environment” (NOAA) is reached, which means that the environment cannot support and feed the number of Sea Lions the population had reached. Once the maximum carrying capacity of the environment has been reached Sea Lion populations begin to go down because of a lack of food, and fish populations begin to rise again (Ratner).

The recent Sea Lion disappearances at pier 39 had raised awareness in Sea Lion conservation. Though the media had overblown the issue, the Sea Lion numbers at Pier 39 had indeed dropped to a surprisingly low amount of Sea Lions. At one point there were only two Sea Lions lying on the decks at pier 39, compared to the thousands of Sea Lions that often lounge there (Jones). This drastic decrease in Sea Lions caused a loss in profit for tourist shops at Pier 39. When the Sea Lions returned Pier 39 store owners “who had a tough winter due to the recession, lousy weather and lack of tourist-attracting marine life” were overjoyed to hear the Sea Lions trickling back to the piers after about three months (Jones).

The reason for this disappearance of Sea Lions could have been due to many things. The truth of the matter is that in December there are the least amount of Sea Lions at Pier 39 (Ratner). This is because in December there aren’t as many herring as there are in seasons like fall and spring. Even though it may have been the low season for Sea Lions there still remains the mystery of why there had been only two Sea Lions at the dock, because even on the low season their numbers still range in the hundreds. One of the reasons this may have occurred is that there was a lack of food due to overfishing.

The acquisition of advanced fishing equipment has caused many problems for marine life. We have seen species being overfished almost to the point of extinction. The overfishing occurring in this case is not of Sea Lions but is the overfishing of prey species such as the squids that the California Sea Lions often feed on. The “Overfishing of prey species are going unregulated, including immense stores of squid and krill” (Jane), this is because there is a large demand for small prey fish to feed commercial fish such as salmon in farms. One of the major reasons for Sea Lion deaths is malnutrition. According to Adam Ratner, about 75-80% of the marine mammal center’s patients suffer from malnutrition. Sea Lions not only suffer from malnutrition but also face threats from fishermen.

Fishermen deserve every right to go fishing but what’s in the ocean doesn’t belong to just the fishermen.

Some fishermen, such as Larry Allen Legans don’t understand this concept and react violently to Sea Lions. Larry Allen Legans was charged with animal cruelty for shooting a 650 pound California Sea Lion. The California Sea Lion was shot with a shotgun slug and was later named Sergeant Nevis after an animal control officer who had assisted in the rescue (Weiser). Legans punishment for this crime was 30 days in prison, 5 years probation and a $51,081.48 fine to pay for the treatments Sergeant Nevis received at the marine mammal center. Legans admitted to the shooting and the shocking part of this story is that Legans himself had said that he was “tired of Sea Lions taking his fish”. It is arguable to think that other Sea Lion shootings were done by fishermen as well, because who else would want to shoot a Sea Lion (Ratner)?

1992 was a bad year for Sea Lions, there were 74 reported cases of Sea Lions being shot, that number has gone down in recent years, but lately it has begun to creep back up again. According to NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) “There were 43 reported marine mammal shootings in 2009 in the waters off the California coast - nine more than in 2008 and 14 more than five years earlier. Of the reported shootings in 2009, all were sea lions” (Dearon). Of the 43 reported marine mammal shootings only 18 of the victims made it to the marine mammal center. In the year 2010, the marine mammal center received 10 patients that were victims of gunshot wounds. These numbers are only cases that were reported. Adam Ratner and officials both agree that “many more cases go unreported”. How many Sea Lions get shot and die out at sea before they can get help, or even get noticed?

Even if the shot wasn’t lethal how is a severely wounded Sea Lion suppose to survive? These thoughts are what are

175 truly disturbing, the number of reported cases is already too high and to think that maybe hundreds of cases go unreported is unthinkable.

Another major case of Sea Lion shootings occurred in Washington on the Columbia river. On the Columbia river Sea Lions had been preying on endangered Salmon species. The Sea Lions were feeding off salmon that passed through the Bonneville dam. Measures were taken to reduce the number of Sea Lions preying on endangered salmon on the Columbia River. In the March of 2008 wildlife organizations in Washington, Seattle and Idaho were given permission to remove Sea Lions that were observed preying on endangered Salmon. Lethal use had been sanctioned but relocating the Sea Lions was their first priority (NOAA). The truth behind the matter is that fishermen are actually fishing way more of the Salmon than the Sea Lions are eating (Ratner). The fishermen are not only fishing more of the Salmon out than Sea Lions but they are also shooting them! In the years of 2008 and 2007 three fishermen were caught and accused of shooting Sea Lions. Of these three men one of them had shot six Sea Lions. Like the Sea Lion shootings in California no one knows how many of these Sea Lions are shot and not reported or found.

In the past two years only one person has actually been found guilty of shooting marine mammals.

Sergeant Nevis was the most recent case of someone actually being caught for shooting a Sea Lion. It is sad to think that so many cases of people shooting Sea Lions go unjustified. It is estimated that only one person is caught and prosecuted for shooting a Sea Lion every five years. It is very hard to catch someone and properly accuse them of shooting a marine mammal, the reason for this is because in order for a person to be prosecuted there needs to be a witness (Dearon). Even if the person is caught and prosecuted he faces, in my opinion, very lenient charges.

Shooting a Sea Lion can land a person up to a month in prison, several years of probation, and your fishing license will probably be taken away from you. For an act so immoral, these charges need to be much harsher.

The situation with Sea Lions is not without hope though; the marine mammal center is among the world’s leading facilities in marine mammal rescue. The marine mammal center is a nonprofit organization which aims to save marine mammals who suffer from any sort of ailment. The Marine Mammal Center is, and this is stressed an incredible amount to visitors, a hospital for marine mammals and not an aquarium. The Marine mammal center is an incredible place but it is only made possible by the approximately 800 volunteers who help there. There are only about 45 paid staff at the marine mammal center, who take the role of veterinarians and directors. The marine mammal center covers about 600 miles of coast line and numerous species of marine mammals. The marine mammal center covers all the way from Anchor Bay to San Luis O’Bispo. Since 1975 the marine mammal center has saved over 16,000 elephant seals, California sea lions, fur seals and harbor seals. The marine mammal center has also rescued other marine mammals such as porpoises and whales. The patients that the marine mammal center receives suffer from things such as malnutrition, entanglement in fishing lines and nets, gunshot wounds, and Domoic acid.

Sea Lions that suffer from Domoic acid poisoning are also received at the marine mammal center. Domoic acid poisoning occurs when there are large algal blooms and the algae has dumoic acid in it. Algal blooms are a natural occurrence in the environment but lately there has been a significant increase in algal blooms (Flatflow).

How does Domoic acid in tiny algae hurt a 400 pound Sea Lion? The way the Domoic acid reaches Sea Lions is that it becomes more concentrated as it works its way up the food chain. First, plankton eats a certain amount of algae with dumoic acid, then plankton eating fish eat 1000 plankton, then a carnivorous fish eats 100 plankton eating fish, then a Sea Lion eats 100 fish (Ratner). By the time the Domoic acid reaches the Sea Lions it has already become thousands of times more concentrated than it originally was. When the Domoic acid reaches this high concentration it affects the hippocampus in Sea Lions and can cause epileptic attacks and seizures. If the Domoic acid becomes so concentrated it can permanently destroy or diminish the Hippocampus. If this occurs there is little anyone, even the marine mammal center can do about it.

There is little we can do about the actual shooting of Sea Lions, but we can help report and help wounded Sea Lions. Most of the patients that are admitted into the marine mammal center are reported by ordinary people who see a Sea Lion who just doesn’t look right. The marine mammal center may cover a large area but it is impossible for them to sight all occurances, you have any doubt as to if the Sea Lion is endangered, it is. Be aware that the worst thing that you can do is bring the Sea Lion back to your house. The best thing to do is leave the Sea Lion where it is and report it to the marine mammal center. You can also help by volunteering at the marine mammal center. Though we cannot stop the actual harassment of Sea Lions we can help by volunteering and reporting wounded Sea lions.

Sea Lions face a real threat from fishermen and Domoic acid. Though we can’t directly save the Sea Lions from fishermen we can take measures to report and help endangered sea lions. The punishment for harassment of

176 marine mammals is far too lenient and needs to be a more heavy punishment. Through these measures we can help save the California Sea Lions we love so much.

I would like to acknowledge the help from Craig Butz, Valerie Z, Alec H, and Alex J. Works Cited "California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus) - Office of Protected Resources - NOAA Fisheries." NOAA :: National Marine Fisheries Service. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2011.

Dearon, Jason. “Reports of Sea lion shootings rise in Calif.” KTNV.com. N.p., 02 Jan. 2011. Web. 12 Dec. 2010.

Fimrite, Peter. "Silent Knight the wounded sea lion is blind - SFGate." Featured Articles From The SFGate. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2011.

Jones, Carolyn. "Pier 39, hundreds of sea lions mark 20 years - SFGate." Featured Articles From The SFGate. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2011.

Kay, Jane. "Overfishing imperils ocean life, study says - SFGate." Featured Articles From The SFGate. N.p., n.d.

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Matt Weiser. "SEA LION SHOOTING Man pleads not guilty to cruelty charge WOUNDED ANIMAL CONTINUES RECOVERY. " The Sacramento Bee 29 Dec. 2009,California Newspapers, ProQuest.

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Public Radio, 19 Feb. 2010. NPR.org. Web. 04 Jan. 2011.

177 Valerie Z Craig Butz Research in the Community—E Block February 11, 2011 Animal Experimentation: What have they done to deserve it?

In one year, more than twenty-million animals, some considered household pets, are used in experiments and killed annually. 3/4 of these animals are used in medical research (Andre). These animals are used to study diseases, for basic biological research, to test the safety of chemicals, and to develop new medicines. They are the preferred method in medical experiments because of the similarities animals have with humans, their temper, and their availability. Over time, tension between scientists and animal rights activists has increased due to the issue of the morality of animal testing. Activists fight for their belief that animals can feel pain and it is immoral to inflict any harm to them, while scientists justify their actions by saying that their intentions are for human good. The issue then leads to: whether or not the safety of humans is worth killing millions of animals. How can we stop animal experimentation? If the world is willing to stop animal testing, what will we rely on to test the safety of our products and continually advance in medical research? It is hard to rid medical research of animal testing because of the similarities between animal and human bodies, but unless animals are provided with better care, it is the moral obligation of humans to end animal testing.

Alternatives that currently exist include biological molecules, computer programs, and synthetic skin. Only recently, in June of 2010, scientists developed a gut and liver made up of nano-particles. This “test-tube gut” can be used to test toxicity of chemicals and products and is a cheaper alternative to animals (“Scientist”). Computer programs can also produce virtual cells, organs, and even whole organisms. Currently computer programs have recreated “pancreatic cells, various cells and tissues in the lung, kidney function, liver function, the musculoskeletal system, and neuronal systems” (Morelle). Synthetic skin can be used to show allergies and reactions of chemicals and products. These products are readily available, cheaper, and sometimes are more effective than using an animal.

Scientists however believe that there are limits to alternatives. Animals are the most reliable test subject because they are living and breathing beings and they have similar body functions and organs as humans.

Scientists who test on animals believe that human welfare is worth the animals that are killed in experiments (Kanter). The FDA says that “The use of animal tests by industry to establish the safety of regulated products is necessary to minimize the risks from such products to humans” (Thompson). Professor Chris Higgins from the Medical Research Council says that “animals are not perfect models, they are just the closest models we have at the moment” (Morelle). The research found from animal testing has greatly improved the quality of human life. If much of the knowledge found through animal testing had not been discovered, there is a great chance that many diseases would still be incurable (Andre). Scientists used animal testing to find vaccines to diseases such as smallpox, tetanus, polio, whooping cough, rubella, diphtheria, and influenza. Animal experimenting has allowed for the development of lifesaving drugs and has allowed the public to gain knowledge about many different illnesses (Parks 12). Mary Dollman, a researcher at the medical institute University of California San Francisco (UCSF), believes that it is highly unlikely to end animal testing because although computer programs can model organisms, there is a limit to what the programs can show. A computer program can only show what is programmed into it and does not know other possibilities (Morelle). Researchers must use animals because they wish to observe new reactions that are unexpected. Dollman is grateful and has respect for the animals that are used in tests because the results found in the tests have greatly benefited human safety (Dollman). However, Dollman feels that in our society humans are the “higher power” and human welfare is far more important than the animals used in the tests.

It is clear in our current world that humans are treated far more significantly than animals. Human welfare far outweighs the pain and suffering millions of animal suffer because it is believed that only humans have the capabilities to reason (Flintoff). Ironically, people allow for animals to be killed in labs daily while we adore and pamper our pets at home. It is important to know that animals, much like our pets, are used in animal testing labs. In fact, many animals that are not adopted from pounds and shelters are used in animal experiments (“Dogs”). The public is not aware and educated about these animals; it seems that we use animals only to our convenience, whether as a household friend or a test subject.

The human opinion of an animal’s moral worth has always been fairly low, but in reality animals are not that different from humans. They deserve the same amount of respect as humans. A large influence on the human mind is religion, which comes to play in the case of the morality of animal testing. In the book Speciesism, Joan Dunayer says that “[many] Christians believe that nonhumans exist for human use because the Bible says so.” These Christians say that “[they are] God’s ‘children,’ whereas other animals are merely His ‘creatures’” (11). Not until the time of Charles Darwin did people begin objecting the use of animals in science and realizing the significance of animals in society (Parks 86). Darwin believed that although animals do not have the ability to speak the human

178 language, they do have the power to make their own decisions: they have “excellent memories, fertile imaginations, and even moral emotions” (Beauchamp). He believed that there were no basic differences between animals and humans: DNA shows that humans are related to many animals by more than ninety-five percent. Being so closely related to humans, it is inexcusable for scientists to use animals in experiments.

Animal advocacy groups and activists argue that animal experimentation is immoral and that these creatures have the ability to feel pain, suffer, and reason. Groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) and the Humane Society of the United States actively fight against all inhumane experiments.

These groups believe that animals can suffer; they work unceasingly with the animal’s best interest in heart. PETA believes that there is no reason for animals to be used because they believe that there are alternatives that can produce better results than tests performed on animals. In addition, researchers know that animals suffer because they use animals in tests that involve the nervous system of the animal, giving them no right to say that animals can not suffer. Furthermore, it is obscene that many tests performed using animals are done out of curiosity and have no scientific merit (Andre). If animals are not used for legitimate reasons, there should be no reason to use them.

Animals are treated in horrendous ways in research facilities which has added to animal advocates disagreeing to animal testing. For more than thirty years, researcher George Billman from Ohio State University has “forced surgically manipulated dogs to run on a treadmill until they collapsed from a heart attack. The dogs were killed, and the damage to their heart tissue was studied” (“Dogs”). The result from his test was that exercise strengthens the heart: this knowledge has been known for decades. Out of the 768 dogs that Billman used in his tests, more than one third lost their lives through excruciating experiments. In one case, a hound, labeled “Dog #3017” was forced to suffer through three heart attacks and in the end she died alone in her cold steel and cement cage (“Live”). The results Billman found had been known for more than two decades. In University of Pennsylvania’s School of Veterinary Medicine, beagle puppies were bred with an eye disease which leads to blindness. At three weeks old, the puppies were killed after their eyes were cut out and used in dissection. In addition, the researcher Gerardo L. Peaz did not find the results he wanted from the experiments and decided to submit fabricated information in his reports. A common test practiced in many universities across the United States is the use of primates for brain experiments. “[M]onkeys have holes drilled into their skulls, metal restraint devices screwed into their heads, and electrodes inserted into their brains.” These experiments can injure parts of the monkey’s brain and can cripple the monkey for life. Furthermore, the monkeys are strapped down to chairs for long periods of time, and when the monkeys refuse to cooperate, they are deprived of the most basic need of water for twenty-four hours. And in the end, the animals do not have the liberty to be given a proper home, but are instead killed and their brains are used for dissection. For nine months, a PETA investigator worked undercover at Professional Laboratory and Research Service Inc. (PLRS). The company’s primary goal of testing toxicity levels in chemical on animals was only part of the pain the animals had to endure. The PETA investigator, who was able to capture video footage, found that the living conditions of the animals were repulsive: animals had to stay in cages covered in their own feces and the PLRS had decided to feed the animals less because the food that the animals needed to be fed was far too expensive. The problem of living conditions was only the beginning, the workers at PLRS “ yelled and cursed at cowering dogs and cats,” they “used pressure hoses to spray water—as well as bleach and other harsh chemicals—on [the animals]; and dragged dogs through the facility who were too frightened to walk.” Not only that, but in one instance, a worker “grabbed a cat and pushed him against a chain-link fence. When the cat fearfully clutched at the fencing with his claws, the worker jerked him off the fencing, saying she hoped that the cat's nails had been ripped out” (“Professional…Undercover”). Maltreatment of animals even extended to basic medical needs of the animals; the supervisor of the facility administered an anesthesia well past its expiration date to an ailing dog, then pulled out one of the dog’s teeth with pliers while the dog was showing obvious signs of struggle and pain (“Professional...Undercover”). If animals must be used in animal laboratories, they must be provided with at least the most basic necessities that all beings need. But for animals to be treated in the manner, as in the cases above, defeats all arguments that animals are cared for properly in laboratories.

Appalled by the maltreatment of laboratory animals, advocacy groups continually protest the use of animals in experiments. Although most animal advocacy groups and activists are peaceful when protesting for laboratory animals, there are extremist groups that take radical measures to fight for the freedom of animals (Hawthorne). One group is the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) which has supporters who “stalked and threatened researchers and their families, made harassing telephone calls, and stalked people in their homes. They have also issued death threats, bombed research laboratories, and set fires” (Parks 19). Their acts have caused more than one-hundred million dollars in damage. In recent years, animal rights “terrorism” has only increased; it is only a matter of time before a person is hurt in this fight (“Ecoterrorism”). Activists justify this saying that animals are equal to people and they need to be set free from their suffering. But the way these advocates act does not draw attention to the underlying

179 issue; instead it tarnishes the name of all animal activists. The best way to oppose animal testing is through peaceful, but loud and clear protests.

Peaceful protesting practiced by most animal advocacy groups, has lead to improvements in the lives of animals in laboratories, and in some cases the freedom of the animals. In December of 2010, after the pressure from supporters of PETA, NASA halted its testing on squirrel monkeys which could have exposed the animals to harmful doses of radiation (“NASA’s”). In September of the same year, PETA revealed the details found by their undercover investigator at Professional Laboratory and Research Services (PLRS); this forced the lab to release all its animals and ultimately close down (“Professional…Closes”). The government now requires that animal testing labs must treat their animals humanely. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) protects animals through the Animal Welfare Act (AWA), which applies to all companies that wish to have federal support. The act gives set guidelines to how a lab animal (not including mice, rats, birds, and cold-blooded animals) should be treated by setting standards for “housing, feeding and watering, cleanliness, ventilation, and medical needs” (Parks 15). The AWA has also been continuously changed so that laboratory animals can lead healthy physical and mental lives (Parks 15). In addition to the AWA, many labs promote the use of the “three R’s”: reducing, refining, and replacing (Beauchamp 183). In reducing, labs hope to use fewer animals to find results; this means no unnecessary testing. To refine, labs want to change and improve experiments so that animals used during testing will not suffer or will only suffer a little. The FDA believes that although animal testing is necessary, laboratories should use the least number of animals to achieve results. This means performing experiments correctly the first time, laboratories should not be continually making mistakes (Thompson). Lastly, replacing would involve finding new alternatives and replacing animals with alternatives when applicable. The ultimate goal is to slowly rid medical testing of all forms of animals testing.

Although many universities and companies insist that they treat their animals ethically, it is far from reality that they really do this. Animal testing is an important source of knowledge to medical research and currently, it is necessary because of there are no existing reliable alternatives. But if animal testing cannot be stopped, it is still the duty of the facilities to provide an adequate amount of the basic needs: food, a clean shelter, care for the physical and mental wellbeing of the animal and relief from pain. The suffering millions of animals must endure every year for medical research is not an excuse for animals to be treated inhumanely. After all, these animals that have passed away saved and continue to save millions of human lives because of the medicines and vaccines produced from tests involving the animals. We owe it to the animals to at least provide them with proper care, and hopefully to be able to totally rid animal testing in the future.

I would like to acknowledge Anna S, Eden A, Alec G, and Craig Butz for proofreading and editing my paper.

180 Bibliography Andre, Claire, Velasquez, Manuel. “Of Cures and Creatures Great and Small.” Santa Clara University. No date.

Web. 3 Jan. 2010.

Beauchamp, Tom L., F. Barbara Orlans, Rebecca Dresser, David B. Morton, John P. Gluck. The Human Use of Animals: Case Studies in Ethical Choice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

"Dogs in Laboratories." People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2011.

Dollman, Mary. Personal Interview. 29 Jan. 2011.

Dunayer, Joan. Speciesism. Maryland: Ryce Publishing, 2004. Print.

"Ecoterrorism: Extremism in the Animal Rights and Environmentalist Movements." Anti-Defamation League. n.d.

Web. 25 Jan. 2011.

Flintoff, John-Paul. "Do Animals Have Feelings?" The Sunday Times. 24 Aug. 2008. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.

Hawthorne, Mark. Striking At The Roots: A Practical Guide to Animal Activism. United Kingdom: O Books, 2008.

Print.

“Live Dogs Abused in Heart Attack Tests in OSU Laboratory.” People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. n.d.

Web. 25 Jan. 2011.

Morelle, Rebecca. "The road to an animal-free laboratory." BBC News. 24 Jun. 2006. Web. 4 Jan. 2011.

"NASA's Monkey Radiation Experiment Halted." People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Dec. 2010. Web. 23 Jan. 2011.

Parks, Peggy J. Animal Experimentation. San Diego: Reference Point Press, 2008. Print.

“Primates in Laboratories.” People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. n.d. Web. 1 Feb. 2011.

"Professional Laboratory and Research Services, Inc., Closes." People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Sep. 2010. Web. 23 Jan. 2011.

“Professional Laboratory and Research Services Undercover Investigation.” People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. n.d. Web. 1 Feb. 2011.

"Scientist attempt to make test-tube gut." BBC News. 1 Jun. 2010. Web.1 Jan. 2011.

Thompson, Richard C. "Reducing the Need of Animal Testing." FDA Consumer. 22.1 (Feb. 1988): 15+. Questia.

Web. 21 Dec. 2010.

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Research in the Community Volume 3 Issue 3 June 2011 The Bay School of San Francisco

182

183 Yani A Craig Butz Research in the Community—A-Block June 7, 2011 Homeopathy: A Counterintuitive Pseudoscience that Heals People all over the world swear by the healing power of homeopathic remedies, yet there is very little science behind this form of alternative medicine. Homeopathic remedies literally contain no measurable amount of the original substance from which the remedy was derived, but many people claim that homeopathy is an effective treatment. Scientists, doctors, and homeopaths alike are baffled by the counterintuitive phenomenon of homeopathy.

There are many theories as to why homeopathy works, including the idea that it is purely psychological, and the perceived improvement is just a result of the placebo effect. Skeptics are often angered by the use of homeopathic remedies because they consider it unethical to prescribe a drug that scientifically should never work. Dr. David Newman describes what he calls the “placebo paradox,” which states that “it may be unethical to use a placebo, but also unethical not to use something that heals” (Newman). Meanwhile, homeopaths stand by their practice; they claim that homeopathy is not merely the result of a placebo effect, but rather works by a mechanism that we do not yet understand. Despite the controversy, for some homeopathy does work, and at times perhaps better than conventional medications (Cummings). Therefore, in order to better advance the medical world, we need to look into exactly how homeopathy works, even if it is just the placebo effect, so that traditional doctors and homeopaths alike can better treat their patients.

Dr. Samuel Hahnemann was the pioneer of homeopathic medicine, and formulated the two fundamental principles of homeopathy. Hahnemann was a German doctor during the early 1790’s. During those times, medicine was of course not nearly as well developed or advanced as it is now. Doctors did not completely understand the mechanisms by which certain treatments worked; they were experimenting. Hahnemann felt disillusioned by the medical practices of his time, as treatment doses were high and the side effects often caused more harm than good.

One therapy that was working well for malaria was Cinchona bark. Hahnemann was interested in understanding the mechanisms by which it worked, so he took some Cinchona bark himself, despite the fact that he was completely healthy. As a result he developed similar symptoms as those caused by malaria: fevers, chills, and muscle soreness.

Thus Hahnemann came up with the first principle of homeopathy: The Law of Similars, or “like cures like.” He theorized that a substance which produces particular symptoms in a healthy person should treat a person experiencing those same symptoms(Hayes).

Hahnemann’s next step was to substantiate his theory, but this time with other substances. It was during this process that Hahnemann conceived the second principle of homeopathy: “Less is more.” After Hahnemann was satisfied that his theory was indeed correct, he set out to find the optimum doses for his remedies, so that his patients could reap the most benefit without experiencing dangerous side-effects. As Hahnemann tested different doses, he came to the conclusion that the lower the dose, the more potent the remedy. Soon Hahnemann had developed a new type of medicine that would continue on for over 200 years: homeopathy(Hayes).

Since Hahnemann’s contributions, homeopaths have perfected the techniques for preparing and selecting homeopathic remedies. The preparation process involves two steps, serial dilutions followed by succussions. One serial dilution entails adding one drop of the active ingredient to 99 drops of water. In between each dilution, the solution is banged repeatedly on a hard surface, such as a leather book or table (in the 1800’s), a process called succussion. After the solute is diluted to the required amount, it is absorbed by an inert pill. This process must be repeated for each remedy and for each dosage. In simple terms, making remedies required a great deal of patience.

Luckily, with the aid of modern machines, the preparation process is no longer as tedious (Hayes).

Most homeopaths do not actually prepare their own remedies, however they still have to go through the process of choosing the correct remedy from over 200 options. (Hayes). Over the years, homeopaths have created, added to, and edited various volumes of what is called, the Homeopathic Repertory: a book of all remedies listed by symptom. Similar to a dictionary, a Homeopathic Repertory aids homeopaths in finding just the right remedy.

However, unlike a dictionary, a homeopath may need to look through this text for every client, because the exact remedy depends on the combination of symptoms and the constitution of the person being treated. Granted, many homeopaths memorize many of the more commonly used remedies, and therefore can easily narrow down their options. Even so, to speed up the process, the Homeopathic Repertory has been entered into a database (Schieble).

Currently homeopaths, conventional physicians, scientists, and skeptics are all trying to prove or disprove the efficacy of homeopathy. Many studies have been done to try to figure out what exactly is going on, or what isn’t (Jonas). Homeopaths often argue that homeopathy is not purely a psychological treatment, but that the remedies are actively stimulating the body’s own mechanisms to heal itself (citation). If remedies truly are actively and chemically working on the body, how is this happening when no remnant of the original substance exists in the

184 prescribed end product? Another contradiction, is that homeopaths claim that their remedies contain active ingredients, or at least trigger the body’s natural immune system to respond, yet how come there are no drug interactions, no side-effects, and no possibility of overdose?

In 1988, one French scientist, Jacques Benveniste, claimed to have a solution. Benveniste performed an experiment in which he diluted histamine (a known allergen) to a point that there would be no molecule left of the original substance, a similar preparation for homeopathic remedies. According the Benveniste, when applied to live blood cells, the water that had originally held the histamine triggered the same reaction as it would had there been actual histamine molecules in the water. Benveniste claimed that this experiment proved that water had a memory, thus giving credibility to homeopathy (Singh). However, when trying to publish his article in the esteemed scientific journal, Nature, his ideas were met with much skepticism. The editor of Nature, John Maddox, allowed the article to be published under the condition that the experiment be repeated under observation by himself, Walter Stewart a chemist, and James Randi, a magician, both of whom had debunked similar, extraordinary claims in the past. The repeat of the experiment produced negative results, as did later attempts by other scientists (Singh). Though many scientists were satisfied with the results of the second try at the experiment—which, if it had had positive results would have contradicted the laws of science—homeopaths were angered by the way Nature had conducted the investigation. This reaction was probably due to the allegation that Maddox, Stewart and Randi, treated Benveniste like a quack from the start. But was Benveniste “self-deluded, extraordinarily credulous, and so ignorant of the scientific methods that he did not understand that small samples of anything will vary according to chance,”(Richmond) as Maddox later stated, or was he a man ahead of his time?

Despite Benveniste’s lack of success, his experiment prompted many others to look at the inner workings of homeopathy and retest the idea of water memory. For instance, many studies have been conducted using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to see if there is any detectable difference between pure water and a homeopathic remedy. NMR spectroscopy is often used to analyze the active ingredients in new drug. NMR can be used to determine the structure of certain compounds or molecules. However when testing the validity of homeopathy, NMR spectroscopy is used simply to see if there is any molecule of the original substance in the water, or if the water does have a “memory,” as Benveniste suggested, of its previous contents. Some tests have produced positive results. For NMR tests on substances diluted beyond Avagadro’s number that produced positive results, there are many hypotheses as to how a homeopathic remedy could possibly contain any active ingredient. One theory is that the succussion process creates stable nanobubbles, or bubbles dissolved in the water containing remnants of the original substance. Another possibility is that the phenomenon of epitaxy has occurred, in which the structure of a substance is transferred onto another substance without actually transferring any matter (Anick and Rao).

However despite these positive results and legitimate theories, there are many other studies which contradict such findings, producing negative results, thus providing no reliable data showing the difference, of homeopathic remedies and pure water (Ernest). Furthermore, some studies, when reviewed, turned out to be illconducted with data that was misinterpreted. Not only that, but there are other factors one must consider when reviewing these tests (Jonas). First of all, even if water does replicate structures of materials it once contained, how long do these structures last? What happens when homeopathic remedies are absorbed by a pill so that they can be taken in doses? Even if there is a molecule of the originals substance left, is that enough to trigger a reaction? Lastly, some remedies contain poisonous substances and other dangerous materials, so shouldn’t people get sick rather than be cured? There are many more questions which undermine the results of the NMR studies that did produce positive results. As the old saying goes, “for extraordinary claims, you need extraordinary evidence,” which in the case of homeopathy, is clearly lacking.

According to most clinical studies, homeopathic remedies are no more effective than a sugar pill (Jonas).

However, even an inert substance can have astonishing healing powers. Currently, the strongest argument of how homeopathy works is that it harnesses and utilizes the placebo effect (Ernest). If this is true, than the real question is: what is the placebo effect? By definition the placebo effect is when someone experiences improvement from the administration of an inert or inactive treatment. In clinical trials, a placebo is given to approximately a third of the control group, and the rest receive the active drug. Oftentimes patients who receive the placebo treatment report improvement. A drug is considered an effective treatment if people gain more benefit from it than placebo.

However for certain conditions, the placebo effect may work better. For instance, “in conditions where there's a high rate of response to placebo, for example anxiety… you really have to have a very powerful medicine for it to have a statistically significant benefit that's over and above the benefit…from the placebo” (Ammerman).

There are many factors which may cause a placebo to be more or less effective. One is credibility. For instance, if a doctor makes incredible claims, such as “this drug will get rid of all your pain for life,” then it is less likely that the patient will believe it, and therefore, may not receive as much benefit. Another factor may be the

185 appearance of the remedy. For example, in an interview on NPR with neurologist Dr. Joshua Ammerman, he stated that “…they do a lot of testing of what color a pill ought to be, for example, blue and green pills tend to be perceived more as tranquilizing and reducing of anxiety, and red and orange seem to be thought of as altering, activating” (Ammerman). Motivation is another important determinant; this concerns a person’s outlook. An optimist, for instance, may reap more benefit from a placebo than a pessimist. Also, someone may perceive the natural healing process as faster or easier simply because they believe that the drug they are receiving works, even though they may not actually be experiencing any physical benefit. Another phenomenon is the nocebo effect, where patients experience negative side-effects from an inert drug. In homeopathy, this may manifest in what is called an aggravation. Jackie Krammer a homeopath in Minneapolis, claimed that some of her patients had aggravated symptoms after taking the first dose of their remedy. The last and probably most important component, especially in the context of homeopathy, is how a patient is treated by the provider: the doctor patient relationship has a profound effect on the effectiveness of a drug, inert or otherwise (Ernest).

What is truly unique about homeopathy is the process of case-taking, where homeopaths spend up to two hours talking, and more importantly, listening to their client. What homeopathy lacks in scientific evidence, it makes up for in the provider patient relationships. A typical visit with a conventional doctor may last as short as 15 minutes. Doctors, who are frequently pressed for time, may come across as impersonal, as they rush to diagnose and treat the ailment in the same visit, rather than taking the time to really “treat” the entire person (Groopman).

Homeopathy however, is grounded in the principle that “homeopathy treats the whole person to improve immunity, vitality and increase a sense of well being” (Schieble). A typical visit with a homeopath can last up to two full hours and entails a detailed intake history. History, when discussed in conventional medical situations, means asking questions based on a person’s past personal and family medical experiences and illnesses, such as “Has anyone else in your family ever had heart problems?” or “How often do you exercise?” However, homeopaths ask much more than that. They ask about a person’s mood, his/her dreams and fears. They ask about sleep, diet and temperament.

They try to really understand the person as an individual with unique symptoms, rather than as a disease or condition that needs to be diagnosed. Jackie Krammer has had patients tell her “I have never felt more listened too” (Krammer). And Kathleen Scheible says that her clients often say that the felt as if they had just been psychoanalyzed. For many, just the process of seeing a homeopath is therapeutic. Sometimes having someone listen can be treatment in and of itself; it relieves anxiety and allows for catharsis. One could say that a homeopath is a psychiatrist without training.

In conventional medicine some doctors have forgotten the importance of listening, or are not given sufficient time with their patients to do so (Groopman). Homeopaths, on the contrary, have mastered the skill of listening. Doctors need to learn from homeopaths how to better listen to their patients. If doctors can maximize the placebo effect in day to day work, they will be able to give their patients fuller treatment without necessarily prescribing potent drugs. So whether homeopathy works by a mechanism we do not understand or is merely the placebo effect, we should appreciate this alternative form of medicine and learn from those who practice it.

Listening is a key aspect in being a good doctor. If we cannot listen then we cannot heal.

186 Works Cited Ammerman, Josh and Arthur Basky. Interview by Jennifer Ludden. “The Mysterious Healing Power of Placebos.”

Talk of the Nation. Host Jennifer Ludden. NPR. Washington, 1 May 2010. Radio.

Anick, J. D. "High Sensitivity 1H-NMR Spectroscopy of Homeopathic Remedies Made in Water." BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 4.15 (2004). PubMed. Web. 3 Apr. 2011.

Cummings, Stephen E. Everyone’s Guide to Homeopathic Medicines: Safe and Effective Remedies for You and Your Family. New York: Penguin Group Inc., 2004. Print.

Ernst, Edzard. "Homeopathy Is Not Effective Medicine." Medicine. Ed. Louise Gerdes. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2008. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.

Groopman, Jerome. How Doctors Think. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2008. Print.

Hayes, Deborah. Interview. 19 Apr. 2011.

Jonas, Wayne B., et al. “A Critical Overview of Homeopathy.” Annals of Internal Medicine.138.5 (2003): 393-399.

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Krammer, Jackie. Telephone interview. 19 Apr. 2011.

Newman, David H. Hippocrates’ Shadow: What Doctors Don’t Know, Don’t Tell You, and How Truth Can Repair the Patient-Doctor Breach. New York: Scribner, 2008. Print Rao, Manju Lata, Rustum Roy, and Richard Hooover. "The Defining Role of Structure (including Epitaxy) in the Plausibility of Homeopathy." British Homeopathic Journal. 96.3 (2007): 175-82. Science Direct. Web. 2 Apr. 2011.

Ullman, Robert and Judyth Reichenberg-Ullman. “Homeopathy Is Effective Medicine.” Medicine. (2008): Ed. Louise Gerdes. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2008. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Schieble, Kathleen. Interview. 19 Apr. 2011.

Singh, Simon. “Could Water Really Have a Memory?” BBC News. BBC. 25 July 2008. Web. 11 May 2011.

Smith, Kevin. “Homeopathy is ‘Dangerous and Wasteful,’ Bioethics Expert Argues.” ScienceDaily. iVillage Health Network. 9 May 2011. Web. 11 May 2011.

187 Kevin A Research in the Community Craig Butz 5/4/11 What Regulations Should Be Placed on Cargo Ships to Stop Invasive Species?

The San Francisco Bay is one of the most beautiful places in the world. The bay holds a large variety of flora and fauna, many of which rely on the Bay for either migration or as a nursery for their young. Sadly, Aquatic Nuisance Species threaten the very existence of many of the Bay’s unique flora and fauna. It is estimated that every fourteen weeks a new exotic species is introduced to the Bay Area. The situation with invasive species is so bad that the 240 exotic species comprise 97% of the total organisms that live in the Bay Area (Choksi). This is a serious problem because these invasive species will threaten, eat, and often wipe out native species. Many humans, animals, and plants depend on native species in the San Francisco Bay, whether it’s for food, pollination, or even as a place to nest. To ensure that these invasive organisms don’t enter the Bay Area, regulations have been placed on ships, but there are still more provisions that need to be put into place to prevent alien species.

One of the most common vectors used by aquatic nuisance species is invasion via ballast water. A vector is any mechanism by which an animal can be moved. A ship uses ballast water in order to keep it balanced. A ship can take in more water to drop lower in the water in order to prevent capsizing, or release water to prevent sinking.

When a large cargo ship takes in ballast water, it also takes in the larvae of organisms. The ship then makes a journey across the Pacific Ocean and comes into the San Francisco Bay. After arriving in the San Francisco Bay, the ship deposits its cargo and decreases in weight. In order to maintain its balance, the ship needs to take on ballast water (Ellis, Susan). As the ship intakes ballast water, because of the way the ship is designed, it also releases ballast water into the Bay. By releasing their ballast water into the Bay, they are releasing hundreds of types of organisms that can potentially damage the environment and the thousands of humans, plants, and animals, that live there (Stop Ballast Water Invasions).

Sea chests are the intake areas for ballast water on large cargo ships (“Sea Chest”). Sea chests have grates over them to prevent large animals from entering. While this prevents larger animals from getting in, smaller animals can still enter through holes in the grate. These smaller organisms feed on algae and other organisms that entered the sea chests until they are so enormous that they are unable to escape through the holes in the grate.

Animals that can enter the sea chest range from sea slugs, shell fish, crabs, and even fish (“Sea Chest”). When the cargo ship comes and docks in the San Francisco Bay, the grate over the sea chest is removed and cleaned. While the grate is being cleaned, the juvenile or adult animal can escape into the San Francisco Bay (Dobroski, Niccole and Takata, Lynn).

Another very common method for invasion that has been very problematic has been hull fouling. Hull fouling occurs when small organisms, such as mussels and larvae, attach to the cargo ship’s hull. In 2008, there was a worldwide recession and because of this, there was less foreign trade. With nowhere to go, many large cargo ships sat in harbors for months or even years (“Combating Bay Invaders”). During this time, the ships accumulated a large amount of shellfish, plants, larvae and other organisms on their hulls (Niccole, Dobroski and Lynn Takata).

As the world’s economy recovered, many of these ships came back into commission. Now, with their hulls covered in organisms, these large cargo ships moved into foreign waters, carrying up to hundreds of organisms. Upon reaching foreign waters, these organisms detach and begin to propagate within the San Francisco Bay (Stop Ballast Water Invasions).

Aquatic nuisance species have many ways of entering the San Francisco Bay, but once they do enter the bay, what effects do these animals have on the people, plants, and animals that live there? One animal that has a major impact on the San Francisco Bay’s ecosystem is the Asian Clam. The Asian Clam was introduced to the San Francisco Bay Area in the 1980’s via an unknown vector. Now they are so common that 2,000 of them can be found per square meter in the San Francisco Bay. Asian Clams have devastating effects on many of the animals in the San Francisco Bay. Asian Clams eat plankton that many animals rely on (Stop Ballast Water Invasions).

Asian clams can also pose a threat to the health of humans because they can be the carriers of cholera bacteria. Strangely, cholera bacteria can be contracted by three animals: humans, plankton, and shellfish. Asian clams and other species of clams are able to transfer cholera bacteria by hitching a ride on large cargo ships and enter the San Francisco Bay as an aquatic nuisance species (Ellis, Susan). Once in the San Francisco Bay, the disease can transfer to native populations of shellfish that fishermen regularly harvest. People who eat these shellfish risk the chance of contracting cholera. Not only do cholera bacteria harm humans, it also harms the shellfish industry. Cholera bacteria can kill off shellfish and greatly hamper the shellfish industry (Stop Ballast Water Invasions).

188 The Chinese Mitten Crab is a nuisance worldwide and has caused millions of dollars in damage to British waterways alone. The Chinese Mitten Crab was first introduced to the San Francisco Bay Area in 1992 (Hearn).

Since then it has done damage to waterways just as its counterparts did in England. Like the Asian Clams, Chinese Mitten Crabs carry a disease of their own, oriental lung fluke. Like Cholera, oriental lung fluke can be deadly to humans that contract it. Luckily, for unknown reasons, the Mitten Crab population in the Bay Area suddenly decreased several years ago and now Chinese Mitten Crabs are scarce and uncommon (Why We Should Care About Invasive Species).

The final aquatic nuisance species I will talk about is the Spartina plant. Spartina is a genus of marsh land plant that serves as homes and food for many marsh land animals. San Francisco Bay has its own native species of Spartina, but it is currently competing with a hybrid that is a crossbreed of the native Spartina and a Spartina from the East Coast. This new hybrid species of Spartina grows better in shallower parts of the marsh and has forced the native Spartina plant closer to the Bay. Birds that nest in the native Spartina dislike the hybrid because it has taller leaves. Due to this nesting preference, these birds decide to settle in the native Spartina plants, which are closer to the sea. As the tide comes in, the birds that nest in the native Spartina are swept out to sea. While the hybrid Spartina has no direct effect on humans, it is responsible for reducing bird populations and should be removed from the Bay Area (Niccole, Dobroski and Takata, Lynn).

Because aquatic nuisance species are such an issue in the San Francisco Bay Area, many provisions, reports, and enforcements have been but put into place in order to prevent aquatic nuisance species from entering the Bay. Ships are required to perform mid-ocean exchange with the intent of removing aquatic nuisance species from their ballast water. As ships come from countries such as China, they carry ballast water filled with a plethora of invasive organisms. Once in the Pacific Ocean, the ship will release its ballast water, along with all the organisms that inhabit the ballast water, and intake new water from the Pacific. Unable to survive in the middle of the Pacific Ocean because of the change in temperature and habitat, the invasive organisms die. The ship then moves into the San Francisco Bay and can now deposit its ballast water. Even though the ballast water might have organisms from the Pacific Ocean, because of the difference in temperature and habitat, the organisms will shortly die (Combating Bay Invaders).

Another provision that prevents aquatic nuisance species from entering the San Francisco Bay Area is a Ballast Management Plan. This is simply the need for a cargo ship to have a plan for ensuring that aquatic nuisance species don’t come to the Bay from foreign countries. A ballast management plan requires the ship’s owners to participate in a variety of commitments, from mid-ocean exchange, to ensuring that the most recent ballast water filtering equipment has been installed. Overall, the ballast management plan is nothing more than a plan to keep shipping companies on track and make sure they follow through with the necessary steps of confirming the safety of their ballast water (Stop Ballast Water Invasions).

Another important method for preventing aquatic nuisance species is having the cargo ships report in at each port they visit. The U.S. National Program and state programs in California, Oregon, and Washington all require ships carrying ballast water to report in while stopping in American ports. These same organizations also require large cargo ships to electronically submit a form with information that could be helpful in determining whether the ship was carrying invasive species such as last stops the ship made and the amount of ballast water that was taken in (Combating Bay Invaders).

Although there are already laws requiring large cargo ships to perform mid-ocean exchange, there are not many laws for keeping the hulls of ships clean. Shipping companies were more compliant when it came to keeping their hulls clean than when they were being told to perform mid-ocean exchange. This is because ships with smoother hulls move faster through the water. If the boat has hull fouling, the ship will move through the water more slowly and will cause the companies to use more fuel. Hoping to save on fuel cost, these companies carefully listened to California’s laws on cleaning hulls. Currently, large cargo ships are required to clean their hulls every five years in order to avoid hull fouling. This law was passed three years ago to help convince negligent vessel owners to clean their hulls. Good vessel owners cleaned their hulls at least once every five years, even before the law was passed. One reason that there are so little laws on hull fouling is because of the lack of research that has been invested in the cleanliness of hulls. No one knew how many invasive organisms attached to the hulls of ships.

Since the law was passed three years ago, the Smithsonian has done extra research on the alien species on cargo ship’s hulls. By using the Smithsonian’s research, the California State Lands Commission has concluded that new regulations need to be put into place to prevent alien species from attaching to the hull. The new law requires ships to clean the little nooks and crannies on the submerged parts of their boats. These little niches include areas such as the intake area for a pipe or the area where the propeller attaches to the boat. These areas are preferable for aquatic nuisance species because the water does not flow as fast through these areas. This causes more animals to attach in these niche areas. Another new law requires ships that stay put for over ninety days to have their hulls cleaned.

189 When cargo vessels sit around in harbors, they accumulate excessive amounts of plant and animal matter on their submerged hulls. If one of these ships wanted to come to California, they would be required to go through a thorough cleaning of their boat. Boats that were put out of commission during the recession are currently a major concern. A new law that requires these boats to perform a mandatory hull cleaning has not been put into place yet, but will be next year (Niccole, Dobroski and Lynn Takata).

Currently representatives from the California State Lands Commission are part of a group called the Technical Advisory Group. This group meets with representatives from the shipping industry and some environmental groups. The California State Lands Commission attempts to compromise with all the groups and review draft regulations in order to make laws that all groups can agree on. Through the Technical Advisory Group, the California State Lands Commission has passed many laws to prevent the introduction and spread of invasive species. However, many of these laws take a long time to take effect because it takes awhile for ships to get the new and up to date equipment (Niccole, Dobroski and Lynn Takata).

Although the California State Lands Commission has covered most methods for preventing alien species in ballast water and on hulls, there are other methods for preventing aquatic nuisance species. One method involves painting your ship with a coat of antifouling paint. This helps prevent invasive plants and animals from attaching to the ship’s hull. Anything on a ship that is often submerged should be washed on a regular basis. Anchors, propellers, and grates on the hull all deserve this treatment. Finally, ships should drain their livewells, bait tanks, and bilge water as the accumulation of invasive organisms in these areas can become a serious problem (Stop Ballast Water Invasions).

Although a cargo ship’s crew claims they have followed all necessary regulations, their word is not enough.

To ensure that shipping companies do not lie about the validity of their aquatic nuisance species prevention methods, the U.S. National Program and other environmental programs in the area will board the vessel to verify management compliance. Any large foreign vessel that does not meet California’s standards for ballast water will receive strict penalties such as a civil penalty or a felony charge. Refusing to report by sending in a electronic submission form or not cooperating with the inspectors on the boat can also result in penalties (Niccole, Dobroski and Lynn Takata).

Invasive species are a huge problem for the Bay Area because they can carry disease, causes millions of dollars in property damage, and can wipe out native species (Why We Should Care about Invasive Species). They can be transferred via ballast water, hull fouling, or even hiding within a sea chest. Every year 7,000 cargo ships enter the Bay Area, therefore it necessary for California and the Bay Area to have strict standards for cargo ships (Choksi). Although California adopted the “toughest” ballast standards in the country in 2006, they take effect in phases and won’t fully take effect until 2016 (Boxall). Therefore, it is necessary to use other methods such as painting your ship’s hull with cooper based antifouling paint or periodic hull cleanings to stop the introduction of invasive species to the Bay Area. By using these methods, we can avoid spending millions of dollars on the organism’s removal, prevent the spread of diseases, and ensure the safety of Bay’s native organisms for years to come.

Works Cited Bolton, Joyce. “New Invasivespeciesinfo.gov Navigation Helps Fight Invaders.” Invasivespeciesinfo.gov. National Agricultural Library, Feb 1, 2006. Web. Apr 4, 2011 Boxall, Bettina. “EPA agrees to strengthen ship ballast rules” latimesblogs.latimes.com. LA times, Mar 8, 2011.

Web. Apr 4, 2011 California Invasive Species Advisory Committee. “The California Invasive Species List” California Invasive Species Advisory Committee, Apr 21, 2010 Choksi, Sejal. "The Hostile Takeover of San Francisco Bay." BayKeeper.org. Bay Crossing, May 2009. Web. April 25, 2011.

Christopher, Deacutis and Richard, Ribb. “Ballast Water and Introduced Species: Management Options for Narragansett Bay and Rhode Island” Narragansett Bay Estuary Program, Jan 2002. Pdf. "Combating Bay Invaders." Quest. KQED.org. KQED, April 18, 2011. Radio. KQED Web. April 25, 2011.

Ellis, Susan. Personal interview. April 22, 2011.

Hearn, Josephine. “Stowaway Species Interactive” onearth.org. On Earth Magazine, Dec 2, 2009. Web. Apr 6, 2011.

Niccole, Dobroski and Lynn Takata. Personal interview. April 22, 2011.

“Sea Chest.” Groups.ucanr.org. 2009. Web. May 6, 2011.

Stop Ballast Water Invasions. West Coast Ballast Outreach Project: Publisher, February 2006. Print.

“Why We Should Care About Invasive Species”, alic.arid.arizona.edu. Feb 9, 2007. Web. Apr 6, 2011.

190 Charlotte B May 4, 2011 Research in the Community—E Block Craig Butz Stimulant Drug Abuse: A Growing Cause for Concern While stimulant drugs, more commonly known by their brand names: Adderall, Concerta, Ritalin, and Focalin, are very affective at treating symptoms of patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, the drugs are being abused by a range of people who do not have ADHD. When not taken correctly these drugs can be fatal, and cause other issues. There are laws which state that it is illegal to take stimulant drugs without a prescription, yet these laws are hardly ever enforced. Something must be done in order to prevent the abuse of stimulant drugs, and to educate people about the risks.

Part 1: Introduction—ADHD and Stimulant Drugs Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder that occurs commonly in children, and is usually outgrown as children mature. ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed childhood disorder; affecting nearly 9.5 percent of children ages 4-17 or 5.4 million children. Interestingly enough, from 2003 to 2007 there was a 22 percent increase in diagnosed cases of ADHD (“ADHD Statistics”; “Attention Deficit…”). People with ADHD experience symptoms such as difficulty paying attention and focusing, difficulties controlling their behavior, hyperactivity, difficulty following directions, and in some cases have difficulties sitting still, processing information quickly, keeping things organized, and staying motivated (“Clinical Practice Guidelines…”; “Attention Deficit…”).

There are three types of ADHD: the predominantly inattentive type of ADHD, the predominantly hyperactiveimpulsive type of ADHD, and a combined type of ADHD, which is characterized by both inattentiveness and hyperactivity.

The three most common ways to treat children with ADHD are with stimulant medications such as Concerta, Adderall, Focalin, and Ritalin; behavioral therapy; and with psychological help. Although behavior therapy and psychological help are common ways to treat people with ADHD, most children who have been diagnosed with ADHD are treated with stimulant drugs which can be prescribed by a pediatrician, doctor, or psychologist.

ADHD is caused by a difference in how the brain handles neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters, such are dopamine, serotonin, and adrenalin, are chemicals that are used in the brain for communication from cell to cell.

People with ADHD have lower levels of dopamine than people who are not affected with ADHD. Stimulant drugs— stimulants—work to help people with ADHD by releasing a chemical that mimics the neurotransmitter, dopamine (“Neurotransmitters”). Dopamine plays a very important part in emotional response, movement, and the way in which we experience pleasure and pain (“Understanding Addiction”).

Because these medications can so closely simulate the neurotransmitters which people with ADHD don’t have, stimulant drugs remain one of the most effective ways of treating ADHD and masking the symptoms. These stimulant drugs affect the brain in the same way as cocaine and amphetamines. Stimulant drugs increase focus, help children follow directions, improve social interactions, and decrease hyperactivity (“Clinical Practice Guidelines”, “Methylphenidate”). It is also a good option for treating people with ADHD because it is so readily available. But the same factor which makes it a good option for treating people for ADHD also is what makes it one of the most highly abused prescription drugs in high school and college aged adolescents (Rabiner).

Part 2: Stimulant Drugs—Abuse Potential and Laws When patients with ADHD take the correct dosages and use the medication as directed, there is no potential for abuse, but when the drug is taken incorrectly, or even worse, the patient doesn’t take the correct dosage there is a high abuse potential (“The Misuse…”). There are serious affects of overdosing on stimulant drugs, some which are fatal, such as hallucinations, agitation, increased body temperature (which eventually leads to death), and heart attacks (“Stimulant Overdose”). Stimulants are a Schedule II drugs; this means that stimulant drugs are highly addictive, and have high abuse potential. Despite the high risk of abuse, Schedule II drugs—Ritalin, oxycodone, morphine, cocaine, and dextroamphetamines—have medical purposes, such as that of stimulant drugs, and can be prescribed by doctors and psychiatrists (“Controlled Substance Act”).

Because any doctor or licensed psychiatrists can prescribe people Stimulant drugss stimulant drugs are becoming more readily available to the general public. One of the largest populations that abuses stimulant drugs are college students; one study done at Duke University found that since the beginning of college, 8.9 percent of students had engaged in nonmedical use of stimulant drugs (Rabiner). Another study found that 12.7 percent of students in public liberal arts colleges had engaged in nonmedical use of stimulant drugs (Babcock). Stimulant drugs are abused for many different reasons: to help focus, to stay awake, to get high, and in some cases to suppress appetite. In most of the instances of abuse, students said that they took the stimulant drugs to help with concentration

191 and to help study, but a shocking 30 percent of students surveyed said that they took the stimulant drug to get high.

Yet even more shocking, when asked how they obtained the drugs, 54 percent of the people who were surveyed said that they received the stimulant drugs from a friend with a prescription (Rabiner). With such compelling evidence of abuse, it leaves one to wonder why something hasn’t been done to prevent the abuse of stimulant drugs.

Regulations state that it is illegal for someone who is not licensed to prescribe stimulants, such as a doctor, to sell or give someone stimulant drugs, which is punishable by law; the minimum sentence for a first offense being up to 20 years in prison. The penalties get worse; in instances involving death or a serious injury the punishments range from 20 years in prison, to more than a lifetime sentence in prison, and fines up to 5 million dollars (“DEA, Federal Trafficking Penalties”). Yet despite such tough punishments, the nonmedical use of stimulant drugs is still a problem.

Part 3: Taking Action—Education and Enforcement Because there is so much evidence that stimulant drugs are being abused, some governments have stepped up to the problem, and have implemented new laws and regulations which make it very hard for people to sell and take stimulant drugs illegally. For instance, because of the high rates of abuse and the quantity of illegal trades, the Japanese government has implemented new regulations which limit the access civilians have to prescribe stimulant drugs containing methylphenidate (“Methylphenidate”). Another reason why the Japanese government is a role model for preventing stimulant abuse is because they recognized that there was a growing number of people abusing stimulant drugs, and they acted upon what they learned by implementing new laws which require people who are trying to become a registered physician to take an online course about Ritalin abuse. Since these new laws were implemented in 2008, sales of stimulant drugs have drastically decreased (Taked).

Leading by the Japan’s example, the US government should implement more strict regulations which pertain to stimulant drugs specifically, and educate people about the dangers of nonmedical use of stimulant drugs.

The first step would be to amend the Controlled Substance Act and create a new scheduling for stimulant drugs which would require physicians to get a special license in order to prescribe stimulant drugs. These licensed physicians would be educated on the abuse potential, side effects, and signs of abuse of stimulant drugs.

Additionally, in order to receive a prescription for stimulant drugs, one would have to have a documented need for the drugs; this means, that in order to receive stimulant drugs to treat symptoms of ADHD, one would need to be tested by a psychologist. Despite the fact that these new regulation would cause a big hassle for patients, they would cut down on stimulant abuse and would make it very hard for people who do not need the drugs to obtain them.

In addition to implementing new laws and regulations, the US government should implement a public campaign and programs in public schools that would educate people about the risks of stimulants, the signs of abuse, and how to prevent abuse. These programs would make a great impact and would teach people who have used abused stimulant drugs about the dangers of their habits and what could potentially happen is they were to overdose.

Potentially, these programs could stop people who are not addicts from abusing the drug, educate people who have never taken the drugs, and could provide assistance to people who have become addicted to stimulants. As of now, there are some programs which help with addicts such as Prescription Drugs Anonymous and other support groups, but there are no programs which educate people before there is actually a problem. These programs could educate people before they take the drugs, offer assistance to addicts, and provide people with strategies to help focus and stay on top of work, effectively preventing stimulant abuse.

Despite the advantages that these solutions would bring, there are many steps to be taken before these programs and new laws can be put in place. For instance, in order to amend the Controlled Substance Act one would need to start a campaign then make the cause known to a large population in order for it to get support and for the amendment to pass in congress. This would take endless hours of work and a large amount of funding, and in addition, many of the major drug companies who sell the stimulant drugs would lose a large margin of their sales if these laws were to be put in place. Additionally, in order to create and education program to implement in schools, one would need to get volunteers or hire people who are already educated about abuse of prescription drugs and even more specifically stimulant drugs. This is not to say that these solutions wouldn’t work; amending the Controlled Substance Act and creating programs would work, but in the short term there is not enough awareness or hype around stimulant abuse for the people with the capabilities to help to be aware of the cause.

Perhaps a more effective solution would be simply to crack down on the laws and regulations that have been put in place already. Vast majorities of the people who are abusing stimulant drugs are college students, so if universities and educational institutions were to crack down and punish the students who have been using stimulant drugs non-medically, they could perhaps stop the abuse of stimulant drugs all together. Although it would be hard to find these people and discipline them, disciplining just a small fraction of these people would make a difference because people would see what has been done and they wouldn’t abuse stimulant drugs because of fear of being disciplined.

192 Part 4: Conclusion—So What?

The abuse of stimulant drugs such as Concerta, Ritalin, Adderall, and Focalin is a major issue today. If not taken correctly and for the correct reasons stimulant drugs can be potentially fatal. But despite abuse, stimulant drugs remain one of the best ways to treat people with ADHD. Steps like creating programs, educating people, and enforcing new laws and regulations must be taken in order to stop and prevent people from abusing stimulant drugs.

I would like to acknowledge James W, Julia Y, Chloe D, Craig Butz, and Emily Bailinson for helping me edit my paper.

Works Cited Babcock, Q. "Student Perceptions of Methylphenidate Abuse at a Public Liberal Arts College." PubMed Central.

National Library of Medicine, Nov. 2000. Web. 07 Apr. 2011. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11125642>.

Bailinson, Charlotte D., Kai A. Nasser, and Rose S. C. ADHD/ADD and the Brain. 11 Nov. 2010. PPT. "Clinical Practice Guideline: Treatment of the School-Aged Child With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder."

Aappolicy.aappublications.org. American Academy of Pediatrics, Oct. 2001. Web. 25 Apr. 2011. <http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/pediatrics;108/4/1033.pdf>.

"Controlled Substances Act." U S Food and Drug Administration Home Page. Food and Drug Association. Web. 07 Apr. 2011. <http://www.fda.gov/regulatoryinformation/legislation/ucm148726.htm>.

Jasinski, Donald R., and Doug Faries. Abuse Liability Assessment of Atomoxetine in a Drug-abusing Populatio.

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"The Misuse and Abuse of Stimulant Medication: What Do We Know?" ADHDLibrary.org. 2004. Web. 07 Apr. 2011. <http://www.adhdlibrary.org/library/the-misuse-and-abuse-of-stimulant-medication-what-do-weknow/>.

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Rabiner, David. “College Students’ Nonmedical ADHD Medication Use: Are Students Treating Themselves for Attention Difficulties”. Duke University. PDF. "Ritalin." Drugs, Alcohol, and Tobacco: Learning about Addictive Behavior. Ed. Rosalyn Carson-DeWitt. Vol. 3.

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"Stimulant ADHD Medications: Methylphenidate and Amphetamines - InfoFacts - NIDA." The Science of Drug Abuse and Addiction. National Institute on Drug Abuse, June 2009. Web. 07 Apr. 2011. <http://drugabuse.gov/infofacts/ADHD.html>.

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193 Walker B Research in the Community Craig Butz 5/1/2011 Assessing the Risk of Cyber Terrorism Cyber space- It has redefined the way that we live and interact with each other. Today every aspect of the world around us is wired: our identities, our economy, our power grids, and our government. While this has huge benefits, this new era of a wired society also brings a new and evolving threat: cyber terrorism. Cyber space’s rapid developments have left its defenders always a few steps behind, leaving us vulnerable to the threat of cyber attack.

Time and time again our country’s top experts have warned that, as a country, we are massively unprotected from the threat of cyber attack, while around us the threat increases. We, as a country, must continue to take steps in order to protect ourselves from the ever-present threat of cyber terrorism.

Cyber terrorism is a new phenomenon and a by-product of the huge leaps that have been made in cyberspace. In a world where the internet is essential to our daily lives, the threat of a cyber attack grows exponentially. One of the first steps in understanding this newly created phenomenon is to understand that cyber terrorism as we know it is changing and evolving every day. Because of this, it is hard to define cyber terrorism for cyber terrorism is such a new phenomenon it rejects all labels (Denning). In addition, the definition between cyber terrorism, cyber war, and activism is somewhat fuzzy. Activities that one person might call “politically-motivated hacking” , describing for example the work of the well- known group, Anonymous, who recently made headlines for taking down MasterCard’s websites; another might call blatant cyber terrorism (Denning). It is important to recognize that cyber terrorism is the same as physical terrorism, except that computers would be used to make the attacks. An example of a theoretical cyber terror act would be to hack into air traffic control and crash two planes into each other, or use a piece of malware to target and shut down important functions in our stock market. While the fringe definitions of cyber terrorism may be debatable, the core idea and intention behind an attack identifies it immediately. The philosophy behind terrorism is present in any attack; the goal is always to cause damage, fear and pandemonium (Denning).

Understanding the how much of a threat cyber terrorism is, and to whom is our first goal. This is not an easily answered question, firstly, because of the very nature of the question. Secondly, there is much debate between experts in the field on the probability of a cyber terror threat and whether this idea is simply an overhyped media device. In order to understand this grave threat we need to understand that cyber crime and the threat of cyber terrorism are closely linked. Every person with a computer understands the constant risk of malware and identity theft, and these same risks are also faced by government workers’ computers, servers, and websites daily as well.

Another important part of understanding cyber terrorism as a whole is assessing the threat and who exactly is behind it. In addition, we must understand the appeal of cyber terrorism to terrorists. One of the most frightening facts about cyber terrorists is the vastness of the array of people, groups, and organizations that potentially threaten us. If we only were under attack from one front it would be far more manageable. Sadly this is not the case. We face a wide array of sophisticated hackers including people who are highly trained and experienced working for monetary gain. An example of this are those that are selling malware that can be bought by terrorism organizations and used to launch an attack. There is also the growing threat from sophisticated and well-funded hackers sponsored by terrorist organizations. We also face constant threat from “patriot hackers” who hack on behalf of their country.

We even suffer from a multitude of internal attacks with hackers attempting to cause mayhem and make a name for themselves in hacking communities based on the internet. Clearly we are under siege from all sides. It is evident that the threat of cyber terrorism is far broader than the average person assumes because we are not just under attack from one group. We face a diverse array of cyber terrorism threats from around the globe. It is no longer necessary to be physically present to cause injury.

Another aspect required to understand about cyber terrorist phenomenon is the allure and appeal of cyber terrorism and why this will continue to raise the popularity and focus on cyber terrorism. This brings us to my final point: while cyber terrorism is an isolated phenomenon, it is interconnected with all cyber threats. Why? Because at this time any person with a computer, and basic computational ability, can join the online Jihad (Wiemen). This ushers in a new era of terrorism, one that is far more accessible, easy, inexpensive, and safe. In the past, in order to “become a terrorist”, one had to have advanced combat skills, bomb making skills, etc. Now, in the era of cyberterror, anyone can become a terrorist. Minimal training is needed, anonymity is almost guaranteed, and the risk and cost is marginal in comparison to traditional terrorism (Wiemen). The appeal of cyber terrorism to a potential terrorist is considerable. Again, this type of terrorism is far cheaper than other types. Terrorists don’t need to buy expensive explosive materials and guns. Furthermore, the new cyber terrorism is far less risky. In fact, in many cases anonymity is almost guaranteed. In cyber security there are no borders or checkpoints. Thus, cyber terrorism

194 is almost completely removed from the physical world, negating almost all the physical risks. This, of course, makes it much easier for terrorist groups to recruit and retain followers (Wieman). Finally, the range of unprotected sources that terrorists could target is massive. Overall, cyber terrorism is by far the most appealing way to conduct terrorism and this will be a great factor in its increasing popularity. Another point is that we will see people who would not normally act as a terrorist, begin to, simply because it is so easy, and because one is physically removed.

This is not to say that there will be an impending onslaught of cyber jihadists. Rather, because of the attractiveness of cyber terrorism, the number of terrorists will likely grow (Wieman). Its popularity and usage will only increase as well as redefine what terrorism means. Cyber terrorism has created a new type of terrorism, one where anyone can participate. With little knowledge, and a bit of motivation, an ordinary citizen can become a terrorist. In addition, cyberspace has given terrorists a global presence from which they can communicate, fund, and recruit (Assessing the Threat).

It is also important to note that terrorists have begun to focus specifically on increasing their presence in cyber space. When people think of extremists, they often think of unsophisticated and unintelligent people. This is a dangerous misconception for extremists have a rapidly increasing understanding of cyberspace and how to exploit it (Wattanajantra). Furthermore, in recent years we have seen a massive upward trend in the focus on technology.

Experts have analyzed terrorist documents as well as pamphlets distributed to recruits. Within these, along with information on how-to make car bombs and explosives, there was information, describing how to communicate securely on-line, as well as explaining how to obfuscate and hide code, a technique that is often used in malware (Wattanajantra).At the RSA Conference in San Francisco, FBI Director Robert Mueller, said "Al-Qaeda's online presence has become as potent as its physical presence" (Nakashima). Osama bin Laden long ago identified cyberspace as "a means to damage both our economy and our psyche -- and countless extremists have taken this to heart."He goes on to say that terrorists have shown a “clear interest” in perusing hacking (Nakashima). Overall we are seeing a number of terrorist organizations focusing on cyberspace and, along with the rise in the incidents of attacks; this is yet another cause for alarm. In the upcoming years the focus on cyberspace, and thus cyber terrorism, by terrorists will likely increase exponentially.

Time and time again, our nation’s top experts and security advisors cite cyber terrorism as one of the gravest threats to our national security, as evidenced, in the report of the CSIS Commission on Cyber Security for the 44th President: “We begin with one central finding: The United States must treat cyber security as one of the most important national security challenges it faces…This is a strategic issue on par with weapons of mass destruction and global jihad, where the federal government bears primary responsibility.” (Lewis) This quote strikes down the most potent counter arguments -- that “the risk of cyber terrorism is just another media fear campaign designed to create panic and sell itself”-- for here we see top expert government advisors, without an agenda, clearly stating the massive risk of cyber terrorism. This disproves once and for all the speculation that the threat of cyber terrorism is just media hype.

Understanding the nature and focus of a potential attack is the final puzzle piece in understanding cyber terrorism. We can begin by looking at what is most commonly under attack and how this affects us. Cyber security experts agree that during an average year, any large utility company in the United States may experience around 1 million cyber intrusions (Wieman). And, while it is true that many of these are not specifically cyber terrorist based, it is certainly cause for alarm that would-be cyber terrorists could so easily hack a well protected facility such as an energy company. Furthermore, in the six months after the 9/11 attacks, companies in the energy industry suffered intrusions at twice the rate of other industries, with an average of 12.5 severe (meaning requiring immediate and swift intervention to prevent damage) per company (Wieman). A surprising number of these attacks can likely be attributed to groups that rallied behind the jihadist cause of 9/11. The thought that this is only a threat to our government is misguided at best.

Clearly, the United States government is not the only target for terrorists. U.S. companies are often just as open to threats as governments. With cyber space, we must understand that the optimal target rests in the private sector. Most experts agree that our energy sector is most at risk, for these systems have often been proven to be unprotected and susceptible to attack (Wieman). Furthermore, a cyber attack on our nation’s electrical grid would ripple through all aspects of our life, including financial, transportation and public safety. At this point, an act of cyber terrorism could very well bring the whole country to its knees.

History has indeed proven how susceptible to cyber attack we as a country are. Data has shown that a staggering amount of mini-cyber attacks occur against various facets of the government on a daily basis. Events also show us that the threat of a larger and more debilitating threat looms. The landmark events of 2008 are one such example which essentially kick-started our government’s understanding of the grave risk of cyber attack. In this instance, an infected flash drive was inserted into a U.S military laptop, uploading a piece of malware into our

195 military’s Central Command network (Stewart). This attack was so successful that the malware remained for 3 days, stealing enough classified data from U.S. Government agencies to fill the Library of Congress (Stewart). This attack marked the largest and most significant breach of U.S. classified data ever. While this attack cannot be directly attributed to any group, though there is much speculation on the matter (Stewart), it stands as an example of how unprotected our network is and how easily it can be manipulated by a sophisticated cyber attack. If this were only a singular incident, it would be more reassuring. But, unfortunately it is not. One of the most chilling realizations of how unprotected we as a country are was demonstrated by a war games scenario designed to illustrate our security. This exercise began when a group of 35 National Security Agency agents were told to play the part of North Korean intelligence agents attempting to hack U.S. national security systems (Wieman). The group’s primary target was the U.S. Pacific Command in Hawaii. These agents were told to use any means necessary to test the security and “hack” this command. The results of this exercise were chilling and disturbing. In no time at all, using commonly known hacking technique such as the “brute force” (which is used for decoding encrypted passwords), they achieved their goal. These NSA agents found that, with surprising ease, they were able to successfully gain access to dozens of high security Pentagon computers and servers. From here the hackers were able to steal data and add malware that enabled them to be able to spy on the network and even fully shut the systems down. Furthermore, they did this in a way that they were completely untraceable (Wieman). These results shocked American military officials. This war game had shown that it was very possible to hack into the U.S. Pacific Command and control and potentially cripple it. Secondarily, this information led to NSA officials determining that, using these same techniques, much of the U.S. private sector infrastructure could also be hacked into and abused (Wieman).

The most dangerous part of this equation is that we don’t know the types of technologies that our attackers may, or may not, have. It is almost impossible to understand and combat cyber attacks, because we do not understand them. An example of this is the piece of malware known as Stuxnet, which infiltrated Iran’s nuclear enrichment facility (Wattanajantra). A week before this malware was found deep inside Iran’s nuclear facility, top experts around the world would have said that this is an implausible impossibility. In a few short days, Stuxnet redefined the definitions of malware. Many experts cite Stuxnet as “ushering in a new era of malware.” This piece of malware made so many metaphorical “waves,” in the cyber-security community, because it is the most sophisticated and advanced piece of malware ever created (Wattanajantra). So far, no group has claimed responsibility for the creation of this incredibly advanced piece of software. The immediate concern was not Stuxnet itself, but that it could be used to attack American nuclear facilities (Wattanajantra). It is widely known that copies of Stuxnet are available if you dig deep enough into the corners of cyber space (Wattanajantra).

The fact of the matter is, for all the talk of the grave threat of cyber terrorism, America has not yet experienced a truly debilitating attack of cyber terrorism (Wieman). While this is true, we know that the brightest minds in the area of cyber security have warned us that the possibility of a cyber attack would wreak havoc on our government and infrastructure. In early February, Director of National Intelligence Denis Blair warned Congress that the nation’s computer networks were particularly vulnerable to cyber attack. He went on to say that: “Malicious cyber-activity is occurring on an unprecedented scale with increasing sophistication” (NPR). Over and over again, our systems have proven to be unprotected and the risk of a debilitating attack increases every day. In my opinion, hackers and would- be cyber terrorists prove everyday that they have the means and ability to cause a major cyber catastrophe. And just because this hasn’t yet happened does not mean we should dismiss or deny the threat. In fact we should be thankful that we have more time to attempt to secure our cyberspace. This being said, America must take immediate steps towards a safer and more secure cyberspace.

In conclusion, most experts agree that the risk of cyber terrorism is an ever increasing and very real threat to our national security, but, how do we protect ourselves? This is an exceedingly hard question because it is impossible to outline a detailed plan. There are, however, a number of basic steps that need to be taken. The largest challenge in combating cyber terrorism is the fact that it is a global threat, so, in order to combat it we must create a global initiative against cyber terrorism. Also important is strengthening bonds with countries allied against the war on terror, as well as creating new, mutually beneficial bonds, while working with global governmental organizations such as the UN and NATO when possible. Another important step towards protecting ourselves from the threat of cyber terrorism is reinventing the public/private partnership. This is one of the most important steps that must be taken. The government and the private sector must work together to combat the present threat of cyber terrorism.

Indeed, without the private sector’s expertise, and the government’s funding, neither could exist and function optimally. Their relationship must be an inter-dependent and mutually beneficial partnership (Lewis). Another critical step would be to modernize existing laws about cyber space, for many of the old laws are out of date. We must create new laws better equipped to target the modern threat of cyber terrorism. Furthermore, we must continue to build capabilities as well as fund cyber security research initiatives. This is another place where optimally the government and the private sector should work together. Because the U.S. government is faced with a plethora of

196 threats and difficult cyber security issues, it is critical that federal support as well as research and education be offered. Finally, the last and most obvious course of action is to continue to work within the government’s various agencies to create a comprehensive national security strategy for cyber space. This means using all the tools and agencies the government has at its disposal. The threat of cyber security is very large and in the end the most important lesson is that cooperation is paramount in protecting ourselves from cyber threats. Only when all the parts are communicating and working together will we be able to successfully combat the threat of cyber terrorism Cyber terrorism is easily compared to the phenomena of physical terrorism as we know it. Though terrorism has been a phenomenon for a very long time, with experts warning and talking about it, the threat was not actualized here in the U.S., until September 11th when a terrorist organization flew two planes into the world trade center. The same thing is true about cyber terrorism, except that we are still waiting for, this threat to be actualized.

As harsh as it is, if we continue for long without heightening security, a disastrous and crippling cyber attack seems inevitable. Time and time again history has shown that our government and private sector are vulnerable to a debilitating cyber attack. Furthermore the top experts warn about the impending threat. To ignore history and the warning of our nation’s experts is foolhardy. In order to prevent the impending cyber terror threat, swift action must be taken.

Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge and thank Tim Rohrbaugh, Craig Butz, Megan L as well as Mark and Kate Bockley for their invaluable help. Without you this would have been impossibility Works Cited “Assessing the Treat of Cyberterrorism.” Fresh Air. National Public Radio. NPR, February 2010. Radio. NPR. Web. April 24 2011.

Denning, Dorothy. “Activism, Hacktivism, and Cyberterrorism: The Internet as a Tool for Influencing Foreign Policy.” iwar.org/ Georgetown University, no date. Web. 17 April 2011.

Ellen, Nakashima. “FBI director warns of 'rapidly expanding' cyberterrorism threat.” The Washington Post , March 4 2010. Web. May 25 2011 Lewis, James A. “Assessing the Risks of Cyber Terrorism, cyber War and other International Studies.”Center for Strategic & International Studies. Center for Strategic & International Studies, 2002. 17 April 2011 Wattanajantra, Asavin. “Cyber jihadists could use stuxnet worm to attack the west” The Inquirer, April 22 2011.

Web. April 23 2011.

Weimann, Gabriel. “Cyberterrorism: how real is the threat?” United State Institute of Peace. United State Institute of Peace, 2004. 17 april 2011 Stewart, Phil.“Spies Behind 2008 cyber attack, U.S. Offical says” Reuters, Aug 26 2011.Web. May 23, 2011

197 Lee B Craig Butz Research in the Community, E block May 18, 2011 Horse Therapy's Effects on Children with Autism In the last few years the awareness of Autism has spread. What seems like millions of different types of therapies have been suggested and tested to find the best treatment if not cure. No cure has been found, but many therapies have successfully helped autists of all ages cope with their symptoms ("Equine Therapy for Children with Autism"). One such therapy is known as horse therapy. Horse therapy is open to people of all ages, but most commonly used on kids. There are three types or methods of horse therapy, hippotherapy, equine therapy, and the horse boy method. These three methods have improved the social skills, communication, fine and gross motor skills, focus, mood, and even scholastic education of many children with autism.

Autism is a developmental disorder that is a sub category of Pervasive Developmental Disorder. Pervasive Developmental Disorder (or PDD), is a group of disorders that delay the development of basic skills needed for social situations, communication and imagination, to name a few ("Pervasive Developmental Disorders").

Furthermore, coordination and muscle tone are affected by autism which often makes autists weak, clumsy, and floppy. Autists, particularly children, often exhibit repetitive behavior such asking to be sung the same song over and over, or flapping their arms (Isaacson). Autists also have difficulty with concentration and are uncomfortable with eye contact and light touch ("Equine Therapy for Autistic and Asperger's Syndrome Kids"). The only touch they seem to enjoy is deep pressure such as when an adult or parent hugs them tightly around the middle from behind. Autists often miss common social ques because they have difficulty reading nonverbal communication.

They often have quick mood swings and tantrums that can last for hours that render the autist almost impossible to sooth. Most autism therapies focus on behavior modification and improvement of said behavior. Some examples of therapies are speech, occupational, and physical therapies. Horse therapy is commonly used to help autistic children and adults improve their ability to understand and interact with the "normal" world through the use of horses.

Horses are a comfort to all types of people; however, they seem to bond particularly well with autists. In an interview, Temple Grandin, an autist famous for creating humane slaughter techniques and machines for slaughter houses, explained her belief of a possible reason: "'Animals think in pictures…So do I. So do many autists. It means we can't connect to other people, who think differently, in words or mental patterns. Because animals think the same way--visually- -autistic people often connect well with animals,'" (qtd in Isaacson). Temple Grandin goes on to explain that she believes "normal" people can connect to autistic people through horses and vice versa because horses are a creature that both types of people can relate to and interact with in the same or similar manner (Isaacson). This connection paired with the horse's ability to sense the emotions and disposition of a rider make horse therapy a successful therapy strategy for children with autism ("Therapeutic Horseback Riding as Autism Treatment"). It also enables the child to trust and form a relationship with the horse first and hopefully an adult later (Franklin). Because horses are accepting creatures and wont judge which in turn helps the child understand what a loving relationship is and how to create one. Furthermore all kinds of horse therapy require the child to follow directions ("Benefits") as well as communicate with the horse to choreograph the horse's movement to follow instructions and their own movement to follow the horse (Franklin).

Hippotherapy, as previously mentioned, is one type of horse therapy. It is a therapy the places the patient on a horse and has a therapist teach the child while they are riding. It often uses images set up around the arena with information for the child and different body positions to work on for different physical and mental qualities that the patient needs to improve. Hippotherapy involves a licensed physical, occupational or speech therapist setting, and helping, the patient reach specific tasks or goals ("Therapeutic Horseback Riding"). It is prescribed by physicians and is currently considered by physicians to be "…a helpful component to a total therapy package," (Horse Power).

Hippotherapy is most helpful for people with learning, and emotional or behavioral disabilities as well as people who have issues with muscle tone and speech or language production. In other words, autists, who have these disabilities, will get a great deal of good out of it (Boerder). Hippotherapy uses the walking movement of the horse to stimulate the patient's pelvis and hips and improve their sense of balance. Hippotherapy is more interesting than most autism therapies for kids and so they want to return or sometimes don’t even think of it as therapy ("Benefits of Horse Therapy for Kids with Autism"). The horses’ walking moves the patient’s hips and pelvis similar to walking and also stimulates the central nervous system (Boerder). Furthermore, hippotherapy helps strengthen the child because they are constantly adjusting to the horse’s movement. This need for movement atop the horse teaches the child where their body is in space ("Equine Therapy for Autistic and Asberger's Syndrome Kids"), and the steering of the horse improves coordination. Hippotherapy doesn’t only help children physically; it also helps emotionally

198 from the unconditional love of the horses regardless of the child's actions or physical and mental differences ("Benefits of Horse Therapy for Kids with Autism").

There must be a horse handler, at least one side walker and one of the above mentioned therapists in order to successfully conduct hippotherapy (Boereder). The therapist conducts the therapy while the side walkers help the child stay in the saddle as well as provide support. The horse handler helps to control the horse when the child is unable to and takes care of the horses' needs. The therapists have many different treatment strategies. For example, to help with school the therapist can teach the child while the child is on the horse and if the child tunes out the therapist can stop the horse until the child listens and responds. Once the therapist gets a response they can allow the child to walk again as a reward ("Benefits"). Another common treatment option is suggested in "Benefits of Horse Therapy for Kids with Autism:" "Therapists incorporate opportunities to coordinate position changes, such as facing backward. This helps the child with Autism to sequence motor steps and follow directions." The most common movement changes for this goal are lying forward, backward or sideways, and standing up in the stirrups without holding on. ("Horse Power"). There is no age limit for any of the methods in hippotherapy, for example children as young as 18 months have been known to gain the benefits of hippotherapy.

While hippotherapy is a safe and usually helpful therapy method for young autists, there are some cons. hippotherapists have had a difficult time convincing the medical world of the therapy’s validity. The initial skeptics accused hippotherapy of being too recreational, but others, such as the author of "Horse Power," disagree based on their observation: "It may appear to have recreational flavor, but hippotherapy holds an immense promise of therapeutic benefits for a variety of condition." Hippotherapy is considered a great tool by physicians and those who witness the success stories; however, people who have physical disabilities such as paralyzed legs or other disabilities that will keep them from being able to ride or control a horse cannot benefit from it. However, people with a type of disability for which they need help strengthening their muscles, particularly their core, it can be extremely helpful. Skeptics often question the safety of putting disabled people on horses, despite the fact that injury from horses to “normal” people is more likely due to the increased speed, and lack of side walkers. “Normal” people often don’t pay as close attention to the horse’s mood, the surrounding environment and tools to keep them safe such as helmets, because they don’t realize that they could be the ones hurt. For hippotherapy, the handlers, volunteers, and therapists all realize that the person on the horse can’t necessarily take care of themselves so they are hyperaware of all the possible dangers. The side walkers are there to ensure the child does not fall off. The horses are picked for their gentle nature and are trained specifically for special needs riders. The horse handlers and side walkers know how to control the horse and will if necessary; side walkers will often lead the horse if the patient is unable to steer. Also, the horses rarely move faster than a walk so the side walkers can always keep up and the child doesn’t have to be a particularly good rider to stay on. Despite the safety and observed results, skeptics complain of the lack of hard research proving the effectiveness of hippotherapy (Horse Power). The lack of hard research stems from the difficulty, yet not impossibility, of measuring the impact objectively due to the wide variety of cases and no single planned result. Each patient has different needs in different areas which often cause the therapist to tailor their goals and techniques to each particular case. However there are far more success stories than stories of failure (Boerder). Despite these cons, physicians often have patients start with hippotherapy and then progresses to other types of therapeutic riding such as equine therapy (Horse Power).

Equine therapy, or therapeutic riding, is similar to hippotherapy, but it doesn’t involve a therapist or need a physician’s recommendation ("Equine Therapy for Autistic and Asperger's Syndrome Kids"). This doesn’t mean that the disabled child is placed on a horse and expected to perform like a "normal" kid in a "normal" lesson. It’s more of a recreational, often group, version of hippotherapy, with similar effects. The child is placed on a horse by a riding instructor in the ring or on the trail with them. There are usually at least one or two volunteer side walkers next to the horse to ensure the child's safety. More volunteers, preferably the same ones designated for each day of the week, help to tack up the horses and get the kids ready ("Therapeutic Horseback Riding as Autism Treatment").

Horse therapy is effective because of the motion of the horse. A horse’s walk is rhythmic and moves a person's hips in the same way that they would move if the person was walking ("Equine Therapy for Children with Autism"). An autistic child focuses on the movement of the horse for long periods of time which, unbeknownst to the child, helps them get better at focusing for long periods of time. Equine therapy also helps with the patient's muscles similarly to hippotherapy. Andrew Dye, journalist for Reese News, explains that, "Horseback riding works a wide range of muscles in a unique way, which can be much easier on children's muscles than more common physical therapy methods" (Dye). Even though equine therapy is not as centered on a therapist telling a child to do something, the child still has to make the noises and movements to get the horse to go and turn. This helps the child to understand that when they make a certain noise the horse will react. The hope is that the recurring reaction helps the child understand that when they speak to someone that person will respond. In other words, it encourages

199 communication ("Gentle Horses Helps Rein in Autism in Kids"). Communication is further encouraged by stimulation of the child. They smell the horses and the fresh air; they feel the smooth leather of the saddle and soft hair of the horse and often want to remark on it or even just make a sound ("Equine Therapy for Children with Autism"). An important factor of Equine therapy is the horse-child relationship. Children with Autism often have difficulty forming relationships, but horses don’t judge or demand like humans which makes bonding easier. When children first arrive at the ranch some tantrum because all of the new stimuli that is much more jarring to them than to non-autists, but after a while, particularly once they are on the horse, they calm down and can begin to benefit from the experience. A bond with the horse helps calm the children down (“Equine Therapy for Autistic and Asperger's Syndrome Kids"). To encourage this bond some ranches even allow the horses to choose the child.

Finally, the groups setting of many of the equine therapy sessions help the children become accustomed to other kids their age and help them to learn how to speak and play with other kids (Equine Therapy for Children with Autism").

Most physicians believe that Equine therapy is good for children with Autism, but a few others believe that it only adds to the stimuli in the child's life and in turn can stress them out more. Because of this it is important to monitor the child and see if they seem to improve, get worse, or stay the same. More often than not children will improve; however, not all children are guaranteed to get any healing from horse therapy. Some children don’t like it. Similarly it is not good for all horses. Some are too flighty, others too large or small, and still others are a one-owner horse and can't be switched from kid to kid like equine therapy demands.

Unlike Hippotherapy and Equine therapy not all therapies need to be done at a special ranch with special equipment. The Horse Boy method of horse therapy was originally developed by Rupert Isaacson while he was hunting for something, anything, to heal his son. One of the only things that worked was horses. Isaacson created the method after a six month long horseback journey to Outer Mongolia, inspired by Rowan's love of a horse owned by Isaacson's neighbor. Soon after the trip he had created a ranch utilizing this method and before long it had spread across the country. There are four main techniques used in The Horse Boy Method: back riding, sensory work, academics, and tricks. The back riding technique is when an adult rides with the child sitting in the saddle in front of them. This method is the most effective for communication. Most autistic children are uncomfortable when spoken to face to face, but when back riding, the adult is behind the child and speaks directly into their ear. This is more comfortable for the child which makes them listen more. The adult also holds the child tightly around the middle to keep them steady which causes pleasurable deep pressure for the child. Per usual, the motion of the horse relaxes and fascinates the child which, when combined with the two other sensations, delights the child and makes them more open to absorb information ("The Horse Boy"). Sensory work is meant to stimulate the child’s senses to bring them into the real world and to inspire communication. This technique is best on small children because the child lies on the back of a horse. This works because the child feels the different textures of the horse, and the movement as it shifts. Two adults will stand on either side of the child to ensure their safety and another adult will hold the horse to keep them from walking. Another option for this method is having the child sit bareback on the horse as a leader walks them around. This is meant to get the same results as the other type of sensory work. For both types the child should be allowed to stay on the horse for as long as they want (“The Horse Boy”).

The next method is academics on horseback. Most therapies don’t involve academics so this is a unique way of incorporating horse therapy into the academic life of the child. In this method the adult will place photos of places, math problems, science and history around the arena. The adult will then back ride with the child. They will walk towards the pictures and as they walk toward each one the adult will explain the topic and ask the child questions related to the photo. This keeps the child engaged from the movement and the sensory experiences, and helps to open pathways of communication with the adult (“The Horse Boy”). The final method in the horse boy method is tricks. The adult will teach a horse do tricks, such as bowing, dancing, and other movements that are unusual for the rider. Once the horse can do these tricks from a one syllable command the adult can back ride with the child and encourage them to tell the horse to do a trick. This method teaches child social scripts, such as to always say thank you after the horse does the trick, and encourages communication. The horse boy method is a well rounded style of horse therapy that can be done by anyone who has a horse and understands the methods (“The Horse Boy”).

All three methods of horse therapy tackle different aspects of autism. Parents should try the methods and choose which ones work best for their child. There is no single method that outshines the others. Horse therapy is often more fun for children than their other therapies because it is recreational but that does not detract from its merit as a valid therapy. Horse therapy is a worthwhile therapy method and has changed the lives of hundreds of autists around the country.

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Works Cited Benefits of Horse Therapy for Kids With Autism" LIVESTRONG.COM - Lose Weight & Get Fit with Diet, Nutrition & Fitness Tools. Web. 01 Apr. 2011. <http://www.livestrong.com/article/85331-benefits-horse-therapy-kids-autism/>.

Broeder, Carol. "Healing with Horsepower." Willcox, Arizona Newspaper. 6 Apr. 2011. Web. 07 Apr.2011. <http://www.willcoxrangenews.com/articles/2011/04/06/news/news03.txt>.

Brown, Julie. "Horse Therapy- Changing Lives".INTL. Feb. 2005. Web. 1 Apr. 2001. http://www.wayofthehorse.org/Articles/horse-therapy.html Cabrera, Marc. "Equine Therapy: 8th-graders connect with horses." The Herald.com . Monterey County Herald, 21 Mar. 2011. Web. 29 Mar. 2011 http://www.montereyherald.com/local/ci_17663290?nclick_check=1 Dorotik, Claire. "Equine Therapy: What Every Treatment Center Needs To Know | Equine Therapy."Psych Central Blogs. Web. 07 Apr. 2011. <http://blogs.psychcentral.com/equinetherapy/2011/03/equine-therapy-what-every-treatment- center-needs-to-kno/>.

Dye, Andrew. "Horseback Program Provides Therapy for Special Needs Children" Reesenews | Your Link to Chapel Hill and the University of North Carolina. Web. 07 Apr. 2011. <http://reesenews.org/2011/04/07/healing-on-horseback/14138/> "Equine Therapy for Autistic and Asperger's Syndrome Kids". Aspen Educational Group.Aspen Education Group.2009.Web. 31 Mar. 2011. http://www.aspeneducation.com/article-equine-aspergers-autism.html "Equine Therapy for Children with Asperger's and Autism." Animal Assisted Therapy - Equine Therapy-Equine Assisted Psychotherapy. Web. 01 Apr. 2011. <http://www.equine-therapy- programs.com/aspergers.html>.

"Equine Therapy for Children with Autism". Autism PDA. Informer Technologies Inc. 11 Feb. 2010. Web. 1 Apr. 2011. http://www.autismpda.org/forum/viewtopic.php?id=26 Franklin Levinson's "Way of the Horse". Horsemen-United "Gentle Horses Help Rein in Autism in Kids." Womenshealth.gov. National Women's Health Information Center. 15 July. 2010. Web. 29 Mar. 2011. http://www.womenshealth.gov/news/english/640473.htm "Hippotherapy as a Treatment Strategy." American Hippotherapy Association. Wordpress, 2010.

Web. 29 Apr. 2011.<http://www.americanhippotherapyassociation.org/>.

"Horse Power: Hippotherapy Has Begun to Attract Attention from the Medical Community. One Physician Even Owns His Own Program." American Medical News (2002). Gale. Web. 3 May 2011 Horses in California. Web. 07Apr.2011 <http://www.horsesinca.com/thecause/parenttestimonials.html>.

Isaacson, Rupert. The Horse Boy: a Father's Quest to Heal His Son. New York: Little, Brown and, 2009. Print.

"Radical Horse Therapy Helps Autistic Children." Teesdale Mercury."N.p." 22 Mar. 2011. Web. 29 Mar. 2011. http://www.teesdalemercury.co.uk/teesdale-news/story,3240.html "Pervasive Development Disorders." WebMD - Better Information. Better Health. Web. 18 May 2011.<http://www.webmd.com/brain/autism/development-disorder>.

"Therapeutic Horseback Riding As Autism Treatment." Regarding Horses. "N.p." 11 Mar. 2008. Web. 29 Mar. 2011. http://www.regardinghorses.com/2008/03/11/therapeutic-horseback-riding-as-autism-treatment/ "The Horse Boy Method." The Horse Boy Foundation. Web. 29 Apr. 2011. <http://www.horseboyfoundation.org/horse_boy_method.php>.

Towne, Virginia, "Horse Therapy Program Benefits Children, Their Parents, and Volunteers". The Olympian. Other McClatchy Newspapers. 25 Mar. 2011. Web. 1 Apr. 2011. <http://www.theolympian.com/2011/03/25/1591998/horse-therapy-program-benefits.html>

201 Marissa B Craig Butz Research in the Community (B Block) 18 May 2011 Sexism in Advertising Advertising is a huge component of our society, and it is inevitable that we are affected by the images and ideas transmitted through it. One such idea that we see everywhere in the advertising world is the stereotype.

Whether it is race, class, occupation, appearance, or gender, stereotypes are everywhere. This research paper will examine gender stereotypes and sexism as it appears in photographic advertisements (particularly fashion advertisements). Although advertisers have made advances in censorship by passing laws against sexist ads and making images less stereotypical over the years, fashion advertising is still having a negative effect on society by depicting sexist gender roles and unequal power relations between men and women.

Before analyzing the changes to gender stereotypes in advertising, we must first look into the basics of advertising and how much it actually affects us. So just how big is the print fashion advertising industry exactly?

Roy F. Fox, author of an article on the hazards of advertising, says that advertising and consumerism is “our most powerful cultural force, shaping our attitudes, beliefs, values, and lifestyles" (Fox). According to the Association of Magazine Media, the combined revenue for “Toiletries & Cosmetics” and “Apparel & Accessories” in 2009 was nearly $3.9 billion and the number of advertising pages in the leading U.S. fashion magazines combined was close to 32,000 (“PIB: Full-Year 2009 Magazine Advertising”). As for our exposure to all these ads, the estimated number of advertisements that the average American encounters every day is around 3,000 (Killing Us Softly). With that many ads to be exposed to on a daily basis, it is no wonder advertising is so influential on our society.

But what makes an ad sexist? How exactly do these advertisements affect us and why is it bad?

Components that make an ad sexist or degrading to women range from things as simple as the posture, stance and attitude of a model to blatant, physically unequal power relations between a man and woman (an example of this is Dolce & Gabanna’s edgy advert depicting a vacant-faced woman being held down on the ground by a man in a suit).

As for the impact that these ads have on us, Eva-Britt Svensson, a Swedish MEP (Member of European Parliament), says, "When women and men are portrayed in a stereotypical way the consequence may be that it becomes difficult in other contexts to see women and men's resources and abilities in areas other than those of the traditional gender roles" (“Bye Boys; Sexist Ads Face Ban From E.U.”). The stereotypical portrayal of men and especially women impacts how they see themselves too. When women see advertising’s stereotypical idea of feminine “beauty,” it is inevitable that they will compare themselves to the impossible figures of women in ads (Killing Us Softly). When big advertisers are exposing us to thousands of ads that often contain “gender stereotypical” ideals and imagery, we cannot help but be influenced.

However, in recent years, the advertising industry and other groups have managed to make some improvements in the ads we are exposed to in attempts to make men and women more “equal.” One way they achieve this without losing too many sales is by switching the blatant gender roles in a humorous tone. Sean Poulter talks about exactly this in an article published in 2001 saying that “the prevailing view now appeared to be that it is fine to treat men as sex objects or fools, as this represents turning a stereotype on its head and is therefore ironic and funny” (Poulter). On the other hand, women are being more and more frequently portrayed in positions of power and control, especially with the increasing number of women in sports and athletics. Now, when you look through ads in a magazine, it is clear that advertisers are putting women in more dominant, authoritative roles, whereas men are also being shown in “traditionally female roles” such as caring for a baby or cooking (Carroll). But it is not just the advertisers themselves that are taking actions towards more egalitarian advertising. Groups have managed to pass laws for censorship against more blatantly sexist advertising. In 2008, the European Union took action against stereotypic advertising by banning overly skinny models, ads that show “a caricatured view of women’s and men’s lives”, and any sexist or degrading images of women (including nudity, housewives in kitchens, or even women being drawn to a men’s deodorant) (Salkeld). These attempts are definitely a start towards fewer stereotypical gender roles being shown in mainstream advertising.

But despite these few improvements in reducing sexism in advertisements, the problem is still there and very prominent. We may not recognize it at first glance because we are so used to it, but men and women are depicted in stereotypical roles everywhere (whether blatantly or subtly). The article “Gender Issues in Advertising Language”

by Nancy Artz, Jeanne Munger, and Warren Purdy argues that in fact no progress has been made against sexist advertising, but rather the opposite. The article says, After three decades of gradually weaning itself from naked objectification, advertising has apparently decided that the benefit of crudely impressing men trumps the disadvantages of

202 dishonoring women. It's as if Madison Avenue sneaked into the nation's psyche and absconded with 30 years of feminist awareness. So much for progress. (Artz, Munger & Purdy) Kristine Blair, author of multiple magazine articles on women in advertising, also speaks on the minimal progress saying that despite the few improvements away from sexist ads, “such discussions of image and spectatorship often overlook an arena in which there is still much analytical work to be done and political change to be made: the glossy world of print advertising " (Blaire). Print advertising is very different from TV advertising in how the advertisers’ goal is to grab your attention with a single image and get their message across in a split second. And what better way to grab attention to an ad than to have a radical, sexual, even controversial image associated with a product? Sex is probably the most effective and consistent attention-grabber in advertising, and often we don’t even realize it.

According to Jennell Carroll, author of the book Sexuality Now, “Many of these images are subtly or explicitly sexual. Barely clothed females and shirtless, athletic males are so common in ads that we scarcely notice them anymore” (Carroll). Sexuality in advertising is really so prevalent it is nearly invisible. So how exactly can advertisers portray stereotypical gender roles (sexualized or not) in a subtle way? The answer is quite simple: body language.

From blatant, physical unequal power relations to the tilt of a head or bend of a knee, gender stereotypes can be communicated through many ranges of body language. The documentary The Codes of Gender describes in detail how variations in body language for men and women show inequalities in power. Such “stereotypical” inequalities are specifically that women are weaker, less powerful and authoritative than men are. For a female model, the more prominent and obvious way that this inequality is shown through body language is when she is shown lying down. Lying down shows vulnerability, submission, and points to the fact she is not ready to act on her surroundings and essentially powerless. Women are also commonly shown holding themselves protectively and cradling their bodies, implying delicateness and passivity (The Codes of Gender).

A variation of this is what Erving Goffman, whose work is what The Codes of Gender documentary is largely based on, calls the “self-touch.” Women are very frequently shown with a hand or fingertip touching some part of their body (neck, shoulder, chest, any part of an arm, etc.).The “self-touch” is a body language signal that female models almost always utilize in advertising and it implies she is vulnerable, fragile, and self-concious of her body in comparison to the world around her (The Codes of Gender).

203

Another variation of the “self-touch” is the way women are very often shown with fingers in their mouths or on their lips, like children. This “infantilization” shows that the women depicted are timid, shy, nervous or unsure, or in a distant, thoughtful place and not “completely here.” A key aspect of “femininity” in advertising seems to be a sense of unbalance and insecurity. Another common pose for female models is to be tilted in some way, whether her head is tilted, her torso twisted or leaning out from the rest of her body, her legs crossed, or even balancing on one leg and reaching for her shoe, these body language signals indicate she is off-center, ungrounded, passive, and unprepared to react to her surroundings. Another of the more obvious signals of gender inequality in female body language is the submissive head-thrown-back pose. This animalistic position of defeat exposes the neck (one of our most vulnerable spots) and expresses complete surrender, submission and accepted helplessness (The Codes of Gender).

These images may not look particularly unusual or harmful to the female image, but when one imagines instead a man in such an exposed position with his head back, it has a completely different feel and would seem quite odd.

204 Erving Goffman states quite accurately that, “While occasionally we can see the reverse, what matters is that it is rare” (The Codes of Gender).

The portrayal of men in advertising is very different, if not opposite to that of women. This is especially clear when man and women are together in a picture. Men are almost always shown in a “power stance” characterized by a steady gaze, and grounded, controlling, authoritative, and even intimidating posture. They are frequently shown in a position of being ready to act (not lying down or reclining) and are incredibly aware of their surroundings and who is watching them. More often than not, their very presence in an image just speaks power (The Codes of Gender). From the observances I have made for this project, I noticed that ad campaigns for the line Dolce & Gabbana tend to be more extreme when it comes to characterizing men and women in their gender roles.

The models in Dolce & Gabbana adverts clearly and explicitly display what advertising media has deemed “masculine” and “feminine.” This picture (below) of all men in trim suits, and serious, sharp looks just speaks business, power and control, whereas the picture of all women illustrates the weaker, less powerful female stereotypes described before.

Inequalities in power relations between genders become especially clear when men and women are depicted together in the same image. Men usually appear to be in charge of the situation, as well as controlling and protective of the woman. Male models often seem to make up for the helplessness, vulnerability and “spaciness” of the female counterpart. Women are also frequently shown in complete infatuation of the man, relying on him for security and unaware of the surroundings besides the man (who is very aware of the environment and meets it with the “masculine” monitoring look) (The Codes of Gender).

205

It is in this way, through simple body language (obvious or not), that advertisements are able to transmit ideas of the “ideal” image and harmfully stereotypical gender roles to society, and the struggle against sexist advertising is far from over.

So what can we do about these ideas of “beauty,” “femininity,” and “masculinity” as portrayed by advertising media? Sociologists, psychologists, and many others have pondered this question and there is a lot of research already done on the subject. Suzanne Moore, a British journalist who wrote about women’s idea of perfection, says that “Rather than ban them, we need to understand their power and their limits” (Moore). Author Roy F. Fox proposes a solution in his article on the hazards of advertising that is to establish “ad-free” zones so that limit the influence advertisers have over people (especially younger generations). I believe that the actions against sexist advertisements really need to come from society, and the first step to that is making people aware of the harm that these images do to what we think is normal in men and women. There is still so much to be done about stereotypes and gender roles in advertising, but people need to wake up first from the numb and unaware sleep that the media and advertising world has lulled us into. As Erving Goffman puts it, “The worst thing we can say about these ads is that they do not look strange to us” (The Codes of Gender).

Works Cited Artz, Nancy, Jeanne Munger and Warren Purdy. "Gender Issues in Advertising Language." Women and Language.

22.2 (1999): 20. Questia. Web. 12 May 2011.

Blair, Kristine. "Selling the Self: Women and the Feminine Seduction of Advertising." Women and Language. 17.1 (1994): 20. Questia. Web. 12 May 2011.

"Bye Boys; SEXIST ADS FACE BAN FROM E.U." The Mirror. 5 Sep. 2008: 10. Questia. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.

Carroll, Jannell L. Sexuality Now: Embracing Diversity. Cengage Learning, 2009. Google Books. Web. 12 May 2011.

Fox, Roy F. "Warning Advertising May Be Hazardous to Your Health: Ads Pose a Threat to Physical, Emotional, Social, and Cultural Well-Being." USA Today. 130.2678 (Nov. 2001): 62. Questia. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.

Killing Us Softly 4: Advertising’s Image of Women. Media Education Foundation, 2010. DVD. Moore, Suzanne. "The Misery of Not Being Perfect ...THAT Is What We Really Need to Expose." The Mail on Sunday. 28 Feb. 2010: 33. Questia. Web. 24. Apr. 2011.

"PIB: Full-Year 2009 Magazine Advertising." The Association of Magazine Media (MPA). 12 Jan. 2010. Web. 12 May 2011.

Poulter, Sean. “It's Official: You're Allowed to Mock Men in Adverts. Just Don't Try Doing It to Women.” The Daily Mail. 20 May 2009: 11. Questia. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.

Salkeld, Luke. "Goodbye, Boys; (1) 1996 Stereotype? the Diet Coke Advert (2) 1994 Sexist? the Famous Wonderbra Advert with Eva Herzigova (3) 1983 Stereotype? the Oxo Mum Advert." The Daily Mail. 5 Sep. 2008: 13. Questia. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.

The Codes of Gender: Identity + Performance in Pop Culture. Sut Jhally, 2008. DVD.

206 Elizabeth C Research in the Community- Block Craig Butz 5/31/11 A Future for Urban Agriculture?

Urban agriculture is more than just the “cultivating, processing and distributing food in, or around (periurban), a village, town or city” (Bailkey). Farms and gardens in cities provide beautification, lower carbon emissions, encourage organic farming methods, make neighborhoods safer, promote public health, provide underprivileged individuals with more opportunities, and strengthen neighborhood communities (Twiss). Like any alternative process, urban agriculture has its drawbacks, including highs risk of dangerous toxins in the soil, scarce availability of sufficient water, a long and complex permit process, and insufficient funds (Schukoske). However, the benefits of urban agriculture are great and the challenges all have an ongoing list of potential solutions, so despite the limitations which come along with farming in an urban environment, urban agriculture should be further integrated into our food system in order to reduce carbon emissions, encourage organic farming methods, and better connect people to their food as well as each other.

Urban agriculture takes the form of anything from community gardens to gardens on roofs of sky scrapers.

Any time food is grown in city and remains there for consumption, it is an example of urban agriculture. Urban agriculture can be compared to our most widely accepted means of food production today which is industrial agriculture. Whereas industrial agriculture mostly occurs away from cities in the central United States where individual farms consist of hundreds of acres of harvestable land, urban agriculture operates in cities, usually on less than an acre of land in each establishment. Despite the difference in productivity urban farms versus industrial farms, urban agriculture is happening on quite a large scale, providing the U.S. without a third of its food (Smit).

This number may seem a little big, and that is because one must take into consideration the amount of food produced in industrial agriculture which is exported to other countries. In WWII for example, 20 million urban gardens in the U.S. were responsible for providing 40% of Americans with food. However, this was just to compensate for the even greater amount food from industrial production which had to be exported to support the war effort (Dixon). As the productivity of urban agriculture increases, there is no doubt that it plays a crucial role in supporting even the most developed of countries.

Perhaps the largest factor in deciding between products is quality, and so in order to gain popularity with all the restrictions that come with urban agriculture, it is crucial that the quality of the food be better than that of industrial agriculture. The only real threats to the quality of food urban agriculture are toxic soil due to chemical runoff and the risk of a contaminated water supply. However, both of these issues can be prevented. By conducting frequent soil tests and planting plants which will extract toxic substances from the soil, chemical runoff will not affect the food supply. By using proper sanitation methods, especially when dealing with waste water, the spread of disease through water should not be a problem (Smit, Mougeot). In terms of quality, the benefits far outweigh the drawbacks. Because the majority of work in community gardens and other urban farms is volunteer based, the very people who will eat the food are producing it. GMO’s and pesticides are not healthy natural processes of enhancing and protecting food, and so when working up close with their food, they are very rarely used in urban agriculture.

Raising awareness about the dangers of using GMO’s and pesticides encourages organic methods to spread through farming, including industrial agricultural production (Dixon, Mougeot). In addition to the treatment of food in urban agriculture, the food itself is healthier. Affluent diets which are mostly meat-based are actually not healthy in excess.

Plant-based diets, which are encouraged through urban agriculture, are actually far more sustainable and better for the consumer (Dixon). When it comes to health and quality, urban agriculture is definitely the way to go.

One of the biggest challenges which face urban agriculture is finding appropriate space. Cities are very crowded and free open space is often limited and expensive, which is why there are so many large farms in the middle of the United States in the first place. It is hard to imagine how community gardens can be sustainable when there space is so scarce and valuable, but vacant lots provide the ideal location for such endeavors. More than one fifth of land in U.S. cities is categorized as vacant, and most of these vacant lots actually detract from the neighborhood’s value if a new use is not found for them. In addition to accumulating trash and illegal waste which often contain toxins and house disease, vacant lots attract criminal behavior. This type of environment only further alienates lawful citizens from the neighborhood and lowers the value of the surrounding neighborhood (Schukoske, Schmelzkopf). Community gardens have the opposite effect, providing beautification, safe outdoor space, opportunities for interaction between very different groups within the community, and ultimately raising the value of the neighborhood (Twiss, Smit, Shinew).

The most important role community gardens play is in strengthening communities. A great advantage to interactions through community gardening is the lack of constraints which usually exist in other settings like the

207 work place for example (Shinew). Differences in age, language, race, academic achievement, or socioeconomic status do not prevent interaction between people when they are in a leisure setting like community garden (Schukoske). Simply put, “While community gardening provides an opportunity for residents to ‘bond’ with others of their own group, it is purported to also serve as a ‘bridge’ among diverse groups,” and this bridge can serve as a basis for discussing common issues and concerns within a community, further strengthening neighborhood relations (Shinew). Additionally, community gardens can be a great asset to less economically fortunate individuals including immigrants. For families living near the poverty line, community gardens don’t only help support them economically through providing them with free food; they also promote a sense of self-worth and civic pride (Shinew, Twiss). The largest impact that can be seen from urban agriculture is its consistent ability to give individual lives meaning and unite communities.

Education and food are the two forces which support the life and success of societies. Educating people, especially parents and young children, about how their food is produced and what makes it healthy is the simplest way to better public health. Through building gardens in schools and encouraging that neighbors participate in community gardening through establishing classes and events like family fun days, public awareness can be increased and people will realize the importance of eating healthy food. By engaging people in hands on activities like gardening, they will have a personal connection to their food, which will make them even more conscious of their decision surrounding food (Shinew, Gaynor, Krasny). Partnerships with educational institutions “enables gardens to educate their community on sustainable relevant topics such as composting, permaculture, food security, vegetable gardening, organic methods, recycling, or photovoltaics” (Gaynor). When the children who participated in school or community gardens grow up and have children, they will be sure to pass on what they know about food and even introduce their children to gardening. The process of educating through community gardens will ensure that future generations have the tools to raise healthy families (Shinew, Gaynor, Krasny).

From a global perspective, urban agriculture decreases crime rates, reduces carbon emissions, increases public health, and spreads organic methods to industrial agriculture. Establishing community gardens in place of vacant lots and incorporating them into other already existing facilities will create safer and more appealing places for people to hang out. Especially when these projects are undertaken in lower income neighborhoods, former hangouts for unlawful citizens will be eliminated, decreasing crime in the given area. Offering a healthy and safe environment like a community garden will also help put people on the right path towards being contributing members of society (Schuksoke). Introducing gardening and different ways of sustainable living will also increase public health. Organic food, when bought in stores, is usually very expensive and only afforded by upper class citizens. Community gardens give lower income citizens access to the same quality of food only at the price of their labor, which offers significant economic support for families (Shinew, Gaynor). These benefits will lead to widespread support for urban agriculture, and more importantly, organic methods. Knowledge about healthy food will lead people to make informed decisions about what to buy at the grocery store. If people know the dangers of pesticides and GMO’s, people won’t buy them. I f people don’t buy them, than stores won’t sell them. If stores don’t sell them, factories won’t manufacture them. Our food system is entirely controlled by consumers. The problem is that “by limiting participation in the food system to the act of purchasing and consuming nutrients, it does not engage consumers with their food supply” (Dixon). When consumers are better connected and informed about our food system, the switch to organic methods throughout agriculture around the world will happen. Lastly, a significant benefit of urban and permi-urban agriculture is its role in reducing carbon emissions. The affluent diets which mostly consist of -based foods, sweets, oils, snacks, and drinks are very energy intensive. In developed countries like the Unities States, 15%-20% of carbon emissions come from food production alone, not including transportation of food or waste disposal. The form of transportation also plays a big role in levels of carbon emissions. In the U.K. for example, 11% of the carbon emissions from food transport comes from airplanes, and only 1% of food is transported by plane (Dixon). If we are able to localize our means of food production and minimize the amount of food which is processed by factories, we can significantly reduce carbon emissions; we can create a healthy body and healthy planet.

The main challenges facing urban agriculture today are funds and available land. Leases sometimes do not last long enough to establish a successful garden and the process of getting a permit is often long and expensive. The government can play a role in helping its people and the planet by catering to the needs of groups hoping to establish community gardens on vacant lots. Offices like the Office of Community Gardens established in New York need to be introduced across the country to find land and other resources like funding as well as well as connect community gardens to each other and sponsors like schools and other institutions. In addition to an aid like this, new laws need to be constructed for community gardens which address their situation specifically. Things like length of lease, taxes, and insurance need to be considered because community gardens charitable organizations which benefit the community. They should not be put under the Department of Housing and Human Services and made to pay high

208 taxes and insurance; they should be offered as much support as the government can afford. After giving community gardens these initial benefits, they will have the resources to become completely self-sufficient and even help other gardens get started. They will give back to the community through public health, community strengthening, education, and so on, making all the effort worth it (Twiss, Dixon, Schukoske, Schmelzkopf). Urban agriculture has the ability to sustain the entire world through education, so the government should put faith in these gardens and give them a fair chance.

Works Cited Bailkey, M. and J. Nasr. “From Brownfields to Greenfields: Producing Food in North American Cities.” Community Food Security News. 2000. Web. 10 May. 2011.

Dixon, Jane, et al. “Functional foods and urban agriculture: two responses to climate change-related food insecurity.” CSIRO Publishing. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. 25 Feb. 2009. Web. 10 May. 2011.

Gaynor, Mitchell, Anne Goodall. “Growing Education: Community gardens building effective partnerships with education providers.” Community Gardens WA. Growing Communities WA. 2010. 10 May. 2011.

Krasny, Marianne, and Keith Tidball. “Community Gardens as Contexts for Science, Stewardship, and Civic Action Learning.” eScholarship at Boston College. Boston College. n.d. Web. 10 May 2011.

Mougeot, Luc J.A. “Urban Agriculture: Definition, Presence, Potentials and Risks.” McGill. McGill. 20 Jul. 2009.

Web. 10 May 2011.

Schmelzkopf, Karen. “Urban Community Gardens as Contested Space.” Geographical Review Vol. 85, No. 3 (Jul., 1995): pp. 364-381. JSTOR Web. 10 May 2011.

Schukoske, Jane. “Community Development through Gardening: State and Local Policies Transforming Urban Space.” American Community Garden Association. American Community Garden Association, n.d. Web. 8 May. 2011.

Shinew, Kimberley J., Troy D. Glover, and Diana C. Parry. “Leisure Spaces as Potential Sites for Interracial Interaction: Community Gardens in Urban Areas.” Journal of Leisure Research 36.3 (2004): 336+.

Questia. Web. 10 May 2011.

Smit, Jac, and Joe Nasr. “Urban agriculture for sustainable cities: using wastes and idle lands and water bodies as resources.” Environment and Urbanization Vol. 4 No. 2. (Oct. 1992): 141-152. Web. 10 May 2011.

Twiss, Joan, et al. “Community Gardens: Lessons Learned From California Healthy Cities and Communities.”

National Center for Biotechnology Information. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Sep. 2003.

Web. 8 May. 2011.

209 Rosie C Craig Butz Research in the Community 13 May 2011 Have You Ever Seen Rabbits Wear Mascara?

What is the price of beauty? Cosmetic animal testing has been a controversial topic since 1980’s and the controversy continues to rise in recent years due to the availability of new cosmetic animal testing alternatives. Over 20 million animals a year die from animal testing; almost three fourths of those deaths are related to cosmetic and household animal testing (Andre 1). The most tragic part of this statistic is cosmetic animal testing is avoidable with new cruelty free alternatives. Although cosmetic animal testing provides companies with a proven effective method to eliminate harmful chemicals and toxins from their products, new alternatives that mimic human chemical reactions are available which are a great humane alternative to cosmetic animal testing. While medical animal testing is required by law in the U.S., it is not required by the FDA that cosmetic companies test their products on animals. Without pre-marketing safety testing required by the FDA, these companies can save money by not testing.

When and if problems arise with safety post-marketing, cosmetic companies get pressured to test and improve their products. Animal testing is the easy, effective, and validated by the FDA option for most companies. These companies continue to test because the FDA makes is difficult for animal testing alternatives to be validated, the validation process involves endless paperwork and studies which most companies are not willing to do. Meanwhile, consumers have little to no idea how their money is really being spent by cosmetic manufacturers because they lie on their packages about animal testing in order to sustain sales. Boycotting cosmetic animal testing companies, buying cruelty free products, and educating consumers about animal testing, and its alternatives are ways to stop unnecessary animal cruelty.

Possibly the most controversial test is also a common one, the Draize eye irritancy test. Albino Rabbits are immobilized by stocks while the substance in question is dropped or injected into the rabbit’s eyes. Albino rabbits are used not because they have similar eyes to humans, but because their eyes are extremely sensitive and generally more susceptible to irritation which has prevented harm to humans. Over a period of anywhere from 72 hours to eighteen days, the rabbit’s eyes are observed for redness, swelling, cloudiness of the iris, corneal opacity, and how well the eye can repair itself from the damage done . This test is most commonly done on products used on the eye or around it, such as mascara, eyeliner, face wash, and fragrances (“Animals is Animal Testing”). In fact fragrances are the number one ranking cause of allergic and irritant reactions for humans (Stehlin 1). Every year thousands of rabbits are killed in the U.S. alone from the Draize test and 10% of those animals do not receive any anesthetics for pain (Andre 1). The Draize eye irritancy tests has is criticized for many reasons, mostly because people claim it is “out dated” (the test was introduced in the 1940’s) and does not prevent human injury from cosmetic products. “As an ophthalmologist and a scientist, it is my professional opinion that the Draize test has little, if any, relevance to human safety” says V.M.D. Nedim Buyukmihc who retired from U.C. Davis School of Veterinary Medicine in 2003. Later on in the article, he explains, that although rabbit eyes are more sensitive than ours the reactions still very because we have different anatomies (Buyukmihc 1). The cruelty and redundancy of this test has urged many people to push for more humane alternatives for testing the safety of eye products.

Since the 1980’s, two successful alternatives to the Draize test have been invented: EpiOcular and Bovine Cornea Opacity Test. The discoveries of these alternatives came as a shock for many. For example, toxicologist Sidney Green with the FDA’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition said in 1991, “Draize may be impossible to replace with a single alternative test because Draize test measures three different areas of the eye.

Replacing it would take a combination of alternatives. This combination has not yet been seen” (Stehlin 1).

EpiOcular was introduced by MatTek Corporation in 1995; it offers a human cornea like 3D tissue. EpiOcular consists of human-derived keratinocytes (a cell that produces keratin proteins, which is forms skin, hair, and nails in our bodies), which are grown in layers which forms a polycarbonate membrane. This forms a multi-layer epithelium (the thin, outer layer of tissue of a body’s surface), which is similar to the human cornea (“In Vitro Alternatives to Draize Test”). Leading companies like Avon, Colgate-Palmolive, and Procter & Gamble, who are often criticized for animal testing, started using EpiOcular to replace some of their traditional Draize tests. Although they have not replaced all of their Draize testing, some companies like Colgate are funding to continue research with EpiOcular.

The second most popular Draize eye testing alternative is the Bovine Cornea Opacity, introduced in 1994 by MB research labs. This test uses the eyes from cattle slaughtered for commercial reasons. Scientists place a chemical into the bovine cornea and then they use computers to test how much of the chemical caused the cornea to deteriorate. Because this test is not as sophisticated as EpiOcular, it can only really test for opacity after a chemical is injected into it. ("Animal Testing Alternative Welcomed.").

210 Skin irritancy tests are also common among cosmetic and household products to detect toxicity levels and allergies. The Lethal Does 50 percent (LD-50) test has been continuously criticized for its animal cruelty and fatality, so much so that is has even been outlawed in the United Kingdom and parts of the United States. LD-50 is used to determine what concentration of a substance will kill 50% of the animals participating in the test (“Animals in Product Testing”). The LD-50 test is also used to test more than skin irritancy in some cases. For example, when the substance is forced in the animal’s throats or pumped into their stomachs through a tube, it can also be applies in the animal’s eyes rectum, or vagina (Carbone 211). When testing for skin irritation, scientist usually applies a product on the shaven backs of animals and observes redness, swelling, and lacerations caused by the product. Once the animal dies, researchers will test the amount of chemicals that entered the animal’s body during the test (Meikle 1). The original LD-50 test was introduced in 1927 to measure the strength of certain drugs, but today these drug tests are rarely performed. Instead the LD-50 test has evolved to classify the hazards of industrial chemicals ("LD 50 Test On Animals”).

For years, cosmetic companies like L’Oreal and The Body Shop have been funding research to find alternatives to these animal tests, even though many of the tests have not been outlawed in the US. The leading alternative for skin irritancy testing is Episkin, discovered by L’Oreal in 2007, resulting in a huge media interest.

This synthetic human skin is grown by placing donor skin cells in a dish with a mixture of water, sugar, and amino acids. After three days or so a top layer of skin-like material will grown. Then after ten days, scientists shine an ultra violet light on the skin to age it. Once the synthetic skin is ages and reached 1.5 millimeters thick, it is ready for cosmetic testing. Episkin is so advanced that they can even add skin pigment cells to create a tan, so cosmetics can be tested for people with all skin types (MacRae 1). After 30 years of perfecting Episkin, the European Commission has estimated that it will save the lives of approximately 20,000 animals every year. Dr Margaret Clotworthy, science consultant at the anti-vivisection group Europeans for Medical Progress Trust, said "Human skin models have been stringently validated, unlike the animal models they replace” (“Skincredible: Exlusive”). Other alternatives for skin testing are to use animal tissue from slaughter houses instead of using live animals or only using chemicals that have been proven safe from previous animal tests (“Europe Set to Outlaw”). Not only are some of these alternatives just as affective, if not more effective as animal testing, but injury from cosmetics is not common.

John E. Baily, Ph.D. and director of FDA division of colors and cosmetics said “Serious injury from makeup is a pretty rare event” (Stehlin 1). The major down fall to these alternatives, when compared to the LD-50 test, is they do not test for toxicity levels, just for irritancy levels. From 1989-1991, before there was any advanced animal testing alternatives, there were no complaints to the FDA about cosmetic injury.

So if injury is rare, certain chemicals are proven safe, and these new alternatives have proven to test for irritancy, why do cosmetic companies continue to test on animals? The FDA’s lack of proactive policies and money saving strategies used by cosmetic companies are main contributors to why animal testing is still used in the cosmetic industry. The FDA website states, “However, the agency has consistently advised cosmetic manufacturers to employ whatever testing is appropriate and effective for substantiating the safety of their products. It remains the responsibility of the manufacturer to substantiate the safety of both ingredients and finished cosmetic products prior to marketing” (“Animal Testing”). The laziness of FDA policy for safety testing, results in post marketing safety problems for consumers. Once these problems arise, FDA immediately cracks down on cosmetic companies and demands for them to prove their product is safe. This policy delays the testing process, allowing companies to make more money and save time since they do not have to pay for testing until it is required by the FDA. If products are considered unsafe, manufacturers have two options: animal testing or alternative methods. Animal testing is often picked because it is proven, validated by the FDA, and cheaper than new technology (Stehlin 1).

Although the U.S. is making some progress to end animal testing, other countries have made more significant progress. The European legislation put an end to animal testing on mice and rabbits on March 2009 in the U.K. (“Skincredible; Exclusive Tissue Grown” 55). After a 25 year long campaign the law was finally passed because scientists announced that most experiments done on rabbits and mice can now be carried out using nonanimal alternatives This outlaw is estimated to save the lives of 20,000 rabbits and 240,000 mice per year (“Europe Sets to Outlaw” 27). After the ban was pasted there was a 40% cash increase, about 250,000 pounds (405,826 U.S. dollars), to fund research for more animal testing alternatives (Hardy 1). The ban was only the first step to European Commission policy to reduce, replace, and refine animal testing. Europe hopes to outlaw cosmetic testing on all animals by 2013 with new alternative technologies being produced with the funding money (“Europe Sets to Outlaw” 28). If the U.S. started taking some of these steps, we too could cruelty free.

Since the FDA, the U.S. government, and cosmetic companies are not taking steps towards reducing, replacing and refining animal testing it is up to the consumers to take these steps. In fact some cosmetic companies in the U.S. are taking steps backwards by lying to their consumers. To increase sales, companies put a label on the product saying “final product not tested on animals”, when really all their ingredients were tested on animals (Hardy

211 1). Instead of lying, companies should be required by law to state if any animal testing is done on their product so that consumers can make smart, cruelty free choices when they shop. A statement such as â&#x20AC;&#x153;no new animal testingâ&#x20AC;? would be appropriate for companies who only use ingredients pre-approved with animal testing to place on their labels (Stehlin 1).

In an industry like cosmetics, the consumers are the only ones who can influence a company and the FDA to change because their jobs revolve around customer satisfaction and safety. Without consumer support, major manufacturers like Procter and Gamble and Johnson and Johnson would be forced to employ new alternatives like EpiOcular or EpiSkin. In a poll n 1996, two thirds of people said they would boycott a product they knew was tested on animal testing (Hardy 1). With the advancements since 1996, cosmetic animal testing is unnecessary in the U.S. and around the world. Consumer education about animal testing and its alternatives is possibly the most important step towards removing cosmetic animal testing from the world.

212 Works Cited Andre, Claire, and Manuel Velasquez. "Animal Testing and Ethics." Santa Clara University - Welcome.

Web. 06 Apr. 2011. <http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/iie/v1n3/cures.html>.

"Animal Testing." FDA U.S Food and Drug Administration. FDA, 16 Nov 2010. Web. 29 Mar 2010.

"Animal Testing." U S Food and Drug Administration Home Page. 1 May 1991. Web. 22 May 2011. <http://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/ProductandIngredientSafety/ProductTesting/ucm07226.htm>.

"Animal Testing Alternative Welcomed." Coventry Evening Telegraph (England) 7 Mar. 2008: 12. Questia.Web. 26 Apr. 2011.

"Animals in Product Testing." The National Anit-Vivisection Society. Web. 1 May 2011. <http://www.navs.org/site/PageServer?pagename=ain_pt_animal_tests>.

Bren, Linda. "Animal Health and Consumer Protection." FDA Consumer Jan.-Feb. Questia. Web. 26 Apr. 2011.

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Daston, George P., and Pauline Mcnamee. "Alternatives to Toxicity Testing in Animals: Challenges and Opportunities." Environmental Health Perspectives 113.8-1 (2005): 6+. Questia. Web. 26 Apr. 2011.

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213

Chevalo D Research in the community Craig Butz May 7, 2011 Will there be enough money to support public safety?

Though the crime rates in Oakland have been lowered by 4 percent compared to last years, since Anthony Batts became police chief of Oakland, it is currently the fifth most dangerous city in the United States. Oakland also has multiple violent crimes and property crimes that occur on a day to day basis.(Harris and Harry, Neighbor).

Oakland’s crime rates per 100,000 people are 1,186 burglaries, 1,617 auto thefts of vehicles, 856 assault, and many other violations of the law (Oakland Crime Down February 2010). Last year alone there were 7,951 Burglaries, 6,270 motor theft of vehicles, 2,430 assaults and many other violations of the law (Net). A citizen said that, “One's chance of becoming a victim of either violent or property crime here is one in fourteen” (Neighbor). It is amazing how high of a chance there is for a citizen of Oakland to either become a victim of violent crime or property crime per year. For a city to have that high of a risk, there needs to be a change. Safety should be the cities top priority over all else. New York City has a population of 8,391,881 citizens. Its crime rates per 100,000 people are 12 times less of that of Oakland’s (New York and Population of). They have 1,339 burglaries, 127 auto theft, and 314 assaults for every 100,000 people. That isn’t at lot of crime for a population of 8 million. How is it that Oakland has one of the highest crime rates in the United States but it is not even one fourth the size of New York? What is the New York police department doing differently from today’s Oakland police officers?

Not only are the high crime rates a problem, but Oakland also has a very low budget. The city of Oakland currently doesn’t have enough funding due to the recession and low taxes given to them from the citizens. As a result, last year 80 officers were laid off last year by a vote made by the city counselors (Walter, Shoshana). This is a problem because there are around 350 police officers currently in Oakland, and there are around 400,000 citizens.

By reduce the number of police officers in Oakland is asking for crime to escalate. It is not possible for 350 police to protect a whole city with a population of 425,000. There are too many people for the 350 police to handle on their own. On average, there are 2 to 3 police officers per 1,000 people in cities around the United States (Local Police Department). Since Oakland has around 400,000 citizens there should be at least 800 police officers. They are down to half of what is expected for an average city. Anthony Batts, chief of police, expressed his concerns about these layoffs and the effects it will have on the city to the new mayor of Oakland Jean Quann. He also said that, “In order for the citizens to be safe she needs to not lay off police officers and give the Oakland police department more funding” (This Week: News Panel: The California budget and Oakland Police Chief Anthony Batts).

Since the city council has a variety of things to take care of in Oakland, they thought that the decision of laying off 80 police officers was necessary due to the low budget of Oakland. The city council’s function is to provide adequate safety for the public, protect and manage City’s resources, Foster sustainable economic growth, development for the benefit of Oakland residents and businesses, and to give the citizens a sustainable and healthy environment. (Jones, Nicole). The nine city council member’s priorities are as shown but there have been many arguments of whether or not their decision of laying off the police officers was the right decision to make. The city council members stated that they chose to reduce the number of police officers on the force because Oakland didn’t have the budget to sustain 430 police officers, this was the number of police officers before the layoffs in July 12th 2010. As is shown, the council members have to worry about a lot of things in Oakland. The city council must change their priorities in order to keep people safe. Since crime is so high, the council members could have voted to cut some other funding in Oakland rather than the number of police. The city needs as many officers on the job as possible due to high crime rates and a big population of citizens. The city council members and mayor Jean Quann need to change their priorities for the greater good of the people (“Mayor Jean Quan unveils 2011-2013 budget proposal”). When it comes down to how many people get harmed it is the cities job to take care of its people. Safety should be the cities top priority.

Oakland’s budget is low compared to previous years due to the recession. Oakland is currently getting around 9.5 million dollars per year. About 15 to 20 years ago, when there was no recession and very low crime rate, Oakland got around 25 million dollars per year (15). Since the year 2000, the crime rates have escalated drastically.

Is this because the criminals are getting desperate for more material items or is it because we are in a deficit and they are lacking the things a human needs to survive such as food, water, and shelter? This may be so we need to give the city proper funding.

If budget is an issue, where is the money the city needs going to come from? The money Oakland uses to keep the city moving comes from taxes. Since citizens all over California want low taxes, it is hard for not just

214 Oakland, but other cities as well, to run their cities the best they can because they don’t have a high enough budget for the 400,000 citizens in the city (“Mayor Jean Quan unveils 2011-2013 budget proposal.”). The big issue is balancing the public’s wants with the city’s needs, and if the public wants to cut taxes and at the same time have good living conditions some sacrifices need to be made. It is interesting to see the correlation between the taxes now compared to the taxes then and the crime rates now compared to the crime rates then. Is it because the citizens of Oakland are getting desperate for more material items, or is it because we are in a deficit and they are lacking the things a human needs to survive such as food, water, and shelter?

If there isn’t a change, local businesses threaten to leave because of these high crime rates. A spokes men at a city council meeting said, “The Association of Bay area Governments and the Metropolatian Transportation Commission are threatening to leave the city and take thousands of employees to other locales”(Batts).This is not good because the city also gets taxes from local businesses. If they leave it further reduces Oakland’s already low funding. Also, if the businesses start to leave Oakland, so will some citizens because there won’t be a great amount of jobs and it is not safe. In order for people to stay in one location the environment must meet all human needs. The people require jobs so they can provide food, clothing, and shelter to their families. They also require a safe environment. Once again, if cities don’t provide these things that humans have always needed they will act out against the government. They will not want to listen to the police because their environment is not safe (Batts).

Along with budgets being a problem in Oakland, the citizens don’t trust the police and they think that they are not doing their jobs properly. When Anthony Batts was appointed chief of police in October 2009 he said, “…the Oakland police department is nowhere near the standards that should be expected. The citizens don’t trust the police department and fear the police as well as the criminals” (Johnson; About Chief of Police Anthony W. Batts).

If the police don’t do what they are expected too it is understandable that the citizens will not trust them. There have also been multiple complaints about slow response times and neglect of lower level crimes (Walter, Shoshana). The more the police disregard the lower level crimes, the more criminals will continue to commit crimes such as vehicle theft or burglaries. Caring about little crimes is just as important as the higher rated crimes because over all, the lower crimes add up to have a greater impact on Oakland’s total crime rate. It is understandable that the police don’t respond right away to calls because there aren’t a lot of police on the force. It is difficult for them to cover 56.1 square miles of land and protect everyone in the city. The citizens need to understand that when they call the police do come, but there are only around 350 policemen on the force.

As a response to these complaints, Anthony Batts changed the way of policing completely. Anthony Batts was born in Oakland, giving him a distinct advantage because he knows a lot about the people (White). Johnson said in a newspaper article that, “If Batts can inspire partnerships and cooperative arrangements between his officers and citizens-groups in the city’s youngest neighborhoods, where the ‘no snitch’ rule, to the cops, is the law, he will have succeeded beyond any reasonable expectation” (Johnson). Along with knowing a lot about the citizens in Oakland, he also has multiple awards and commendations for heroism, crime reduction, community activism, as many well as others (“About Chief of Police Anthony W. Batts”). Because he was from the local area, many citizens chose to support him he has been thought of as a great leader because it seems that he has become one of the only men to really be committed to solving Oakland’s problems (Batts). He thought about different ways of bringing down the crime rates and came up with a new system called Beat patrol. It is also called “Hot-spot Policing” (Harris, Harry).

This new system is designed for officers to be assigned specific neighborhood beats where they are required to serve for at least one year (Johnson). Beats are geographic areas of a city broken down for patrol and statistical purposes (Beats).This new way of policing is more focused and targeted on the areas with the most crime (Oakland’s Crime Down February 2010). James Chips Stewart, a former police officer of Oakland, said, “…you are not putting cops on dots, waiting for something to happen. They are looking at specific times and places and putting their emphasis there”(Harris and Harry). So if there is an area in Oakland with a high rate of burglaries then there will be more police officers set at specific times to patrol that area, either by car or by foot. Once these police officers are assigned a location they must stay there for at least one year before moving to another location of the city (Johnson).

Similar projects in Oakland have taken place, but it was not until Anthony Batts came into office that they were really enforced. In order to find out where in Oakland crime occurs the most there is a group of people that report where crimes are. This group of people are known as the civilian analysts. Using computer data, area commanders, beat patrol officers, and members of specialized units help to identify problem areas. This new plan Batts has come up with is going to take time to make a full impact not just the crime rates, but the citizens as well (Batts). Johnson said in a news article that, “Batts plan is a long-term project that is going to require changes in the department’s internal culture and its public relationships with clients-citizens.” His overall goal of this project is to make Oakland one of the safest cities in the United States by the year 2015 (Johnson).

There are many benefits from this new Beat patrol, or “Hot-spot,” policing technique that has been created.

Not only has this new way of policing brought down Oakland’s crime rates but it is also helping the police to

215 prepare and know where and when possible violations of the law may occur so that they can adjust their forces to that specific area. Because of this, police officers are able to gather information on different gangs, such as leaders of these gangs, and it helps them prepare before something may happen. Gathering information helps to prevent these crimes from happening. Since information is gathered in a more efficient manner, the police have been doing their jobs better (Harris and Harry).

Though the police department and Anthony Batts have improved the way of policing completely, there still needs to be something done about the low number of police officers. Since this new way of policing is working efficiently, having more police officers on the force may further reduce the crime rates at a quicker rate. A local citizen in Oakland said, “…if we don’t get him resources and clear community support, problems will continue lime many decades before” (Batts). These are needs not just for Oakland but for other cities as well. In order for them to function properly and become the most effective they must get proper funding. In order to get more police officers there must be something done about the low budget. Since budget is a problem one of the big time solutions is to increase the taxes. Citizens must make some sacrifices in order to help the overall good of the city. Once the police have the proper budget, or the same amount of money from previous year before the stock market crash on Monday October 8th 2008, they will be a more efficient force against the crime peoples. Though when taxes are raised they should be raised on how high of a salary he or she has. If an individual is poor their taxes won’t be as high as a individual in the middle class or a individual that is in the upper class. A person that is poor and doesn’t have enough money pay taxes and is at the same time trying to provide shelter, food and water for their family. INorder for the crime rates to be lowered there must be more police officers on the force.

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Woodall, Angela. "One,dead, another injured by gunfire in East Oakland." The Oakland Tribune. The Oakland Tribune, 14 Apr. 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.

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Jones, Nicole. "Trauma experts meet in Oakland to share practices for youth violence prevention." Oakland North.

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Web. 7 May 2011. Mayor jean quann Roberts, Sam. “New York City’s Population Barely Rose in the Last Decade, the Census Finds.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 24 Mar. 2011. Web. 7 May 2011.

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216 Chloe D Research in the Community – E Block Craig Butz 9 May 2011 Living with the Burden: Children of Alcoholics Alcoholism in families affects millions of minors in the United States today. Children who live with an alcoholic parent walk the halls of many schools today, undergoing severe emotional discrepancy and struggle in their household, and no one would know that they are going through at home. With the emotional scars that are inevitable with alcoholism in families, the consequences of this issue follow them into adulthood, and affect their whole lives. Children with an alcoholic parent are at risk of common, but severe mental symptoms, such as relationship issues later in adulthood, and a strong likelihood of repeating the alcoholism cycle. Rather than pacifying children in alcoholic homes, it is important to become active, guide, and support them to break the cycle and overcome their struggles.

Section I: Alcoholism Overview Fourteen million people in the United States meet the diagnostic criteria for alcohol abuse or alcoholism, and suffer severe consequences from their issue (“Alcohol Statistics”). Alcoholism, the extreme urge or craving to consume alcohol, results in the loss of control to stop drinking. Alcohol abuse includes the physical dependency, so that if the alcoholic does stop drinking, the alcoholic will suffer from withdrawal symptoms, such as illness, sweating, shakiness, irritability, and anxiety. Alcoholics also build a high tolerance for alcohol, which means they can consume more alcohol with less of a tendency to get drunk, rather than a person who doesn’t drink as often. (“Alcoholism: Does History Make You at Risk?”). Alcoholism is a chronic disease, which can last a lifetime if not treated immediately, and can eventually lead to mental and physical health issues such as neurological impairment, cardiovascular disease, liver disease, pancreatic disease, gastritis, and ulcers (Carguilo, T). Alcoholics spend four times the amount of time in hospitals than non-drinkers, and ninety-five percent of alcoholics end up dying from their condition (“Alcohol Statistics”). However, alcoholism does not only seriously impair the alcoholic’s life and health, but it also poignantly affects their family’s lives forever.

Because 25% of children in the United States suffer serious short-term and long-term effects of living with an alcoholic parent, attending Al-Anon/Alateen confidential support meetings will aid the child or teen in the shortterm in order to prevent the long-term consequences of serious emotional issues.

Section II b: Living with an Alcoholic Parent: Short Term Effects More than six million minors live in an alcohol-dependent household (“Alcohol Statistics”). Children that live with alcoholic parents, especially sons, are four to nine times more likely to repeat the alcoholism cycle than a child living with sober parents. In a recent study, one hundred and twenty six adults rated their experiences: sixtyfive percent reported a negative effect, twenty-six percent reported a positive effect, and seven percent reported a neutral affect. Those who believed to have suffered from negative effects feel their experiences caused them serious trauma as a child, whereas those who feel they have, in some way, benefitted from their alcoholic parent feel they have become a stronger person (Amadeo, Maryann). Thus, children of alcoholics are prone to living a life of chronic depression, anxiety, irritability, confusion, guilt for their parent’s alcohol issue, and, in serious cases, suicide.

Children of alcoholics also often suffer from parental negligence from the recurring absence of their ill parent.

Alcoholics have the tendency to forget birthdays and other important events in the child’s life, which often leads the child to believe that no one loves or cares for them (“Alcoholism in Families: Impact on Children”). The teen’s symptoms depend on their personal experiences and the extent of their exposure to their parent’s alcoholism, and develop either a responsible lifestyle, or an irresponsible one, depending on their experiences. Children of alcoholics also tend to take different roles in their household as children living with sober parents, as they feel more of an obligation to step in, and are suffering from serious symptoms from their alcoholic parent.

Some get sick: headaches, upset stomachs, insomnia and depression are common medical symptoms. The role of "scapegoat" or "problem child" involves getting into trouble in school or developing a learning disability as a way to draw attention away from the alcoholic parent toward themselves. The "mascot" puts on a facade of being carefree and tries to minimize or deny problems at home by clowning and joking. The "hero" or "caretaker," often the oldest sibling, becomes a surrogate parent, supervising the other children and running the household. Often these "heroes" become super achievers, doing extremely well in school, jobs or athletics. There are many "heroes" on college campuses today. Still another role is the "lost child" who fades into the background, becoming withdrawn and isolated, first from the turmoil at home and later, fearful of people in general (“Adult Children of Alcoholics”).

As you can see, children who are living lives accustomed to alcoholism directly play a factor in their social and academic lives. Although some may become super achievers and seemingly succeed in their life, their emotional

217 state pushes them to work hard and often does not satisfy them, because they often seek their parents’ recognition, and with an alcoholic parent, they will often be disappointed.

Growing in to their teenage years, the symptoms are much more apparent as they face adolescence, and further their understanding of their family issue. An anonymous adult child of an alcoholic explained, “I didn’t understand why I wasn’t enough, enough to stop my father from drinking. It made him brutally honest, and some of the things he said were downright hurtful, of course, I was confused and hurt, I would cry at night. It affected my whole life. I’m thankful my mother divorced him while I was young.” A child or teen living in an alcohol dependent household commonly undergoes severe emotional pain from their parent’s issue, and are blatantly exposed to the issue at a young age.

Alcoholism in families not only disrupts a child emotionally, but in many cases, alcoholism also leads to violence, conflict, financial crises, and marital issues. Tormud Jorgen, an adult child of two alcoholic parents said, “Even if it was a different lifestyle in Germany, yes, pretty much everyone drank socially, but I knew my father was an alcoholic because he would come home late from the bar and beat me, and I knew my mother also had a problem, because she would join in, drunk. They even sent me to the liquor store at age nine to buy them alcohol.” Tormud’s parents later ended in a divorce, after years of severe arguments and fights. Violence and conflict are more likely to occur in alcohol dependent homes because of the clashing symptoms of the family members. In addition, alcoholism is often a catalyst for financial crises due to potential unemployment and amounts of money that contribute to the alcoholic’s addiction. Although alcoholics have instigated family problems, members of the family can also contribute to the issue, as the spouse often lets the heavy drinking continue, rather than addressing the family issue and looking for ways to solve them. The alcoholic also has periods of time when they stop drinking, which leads the family to believe there is a chance for their loved one; however, the alcoholic will often relapse and shatter their family member’s faith. This often leads to marital issues and conflict, which often later results in divorce (Parsons, Tetyana). As for Tormud and the anonymous female, their parent’s alcohol abuse led to their parents’ divorce, as it did for millions of other children living in an alcohol dependent home.

The short-term effects of living with an alcoholic parent result in severe emotional issues and sub conscious personality roles, while making the child subject to living in a conflict-prone, and potentially violent household.

Section II b: Birth and Inheritance Birth, on the other hand, also plays an immense role on a child of an alcoholic. For example, alcoholism can begin to affect a child as early as inside the fetus. In pregnant women, alcohol carries itself throughout all organs and tissues of the body, where it travels through the membrane and separates the maternal and fetal blood systems, while the alcohol concentration becomes equal to that of the child in the womb. When a woman takes the risk of alcohol consumption during pregnancy, they are also putting their child at risk of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), which is one of the three leading causes of birth defects. Each year, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome affects around fivethousand newborns, and, in mild cases, affects nearly thirty-five thousand newborn, innocent children (“Effects on Children of Alcohol Dependent Parents”). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome results in the child’s loss of birth weight, impaired performance, mutations in the skeleton and facial features, heart murmurs, and extremely low IQ levels (Dorris, Michael). Because an alcoholic mother is more likely to consume alcohol during pregnancy, the child is at an incredibly high risk at physical mutations caused by their parent’s alcohol abuse.

Alcoholism inheritance from an alcoholic parent also affects a child’s life. In 1974, a study made by Goodwin, compared the alcohol abuse tendency of adopted children: one group coming from alcohol-dependent biological families, and the other coming from non-alcohol-dependent biological families. The studies proved that although the children were adopted, their genetic background with alcohol history gave them a higher chance of being an alcoholic, even if their adoptive parents were not alcoholics. An adopted child who came from a family with no alcohol abuse, and their adoptive parents were alcoholics, would not have as much of a high risk as a child born with the alcohol history (“Effects on Children of Alcohol Dependent Parents”). Thus, we know that alcoholism does, in fact, run in the family.

Section III: Long-term effects of living with an alcoholic Although adult children of alcoholics (ACOA’s) may not be affiliated with their ill parent, they are still heavily affected by their parent’s alcoholism. In 1980, when the term ACOA was officially identified, many adults who had grown up in an alcohol dependent home was shocked, finally allowing their past to be revealed, after “They reported feeling, at times, like ‘children walking around in the bodies of grown ups’. Both scared and relieved they were admitting how much, after all these years, they still felt haunted by issues from their past. By growing up in families where alcohol had turned the homes they cherished into scary places and the parents they loved into scary people. The tears flowed as they realized that they weren't the only ones who avoided bringing friends home, hid when their parent was drunk and envied classmates with "normal"

218 families. A movement was born. Not a political movement but a movement based on a need to reveal and a desire to heal.” (Dayton, Tian).

As they reached adulthood, they often began to feel isolated or unsettled in social situations, commonly among authoritative figures. After a soul search for the cure of their dysfunctional family, many feel they have “lost themselves in the process”, and have lived a life with an overly developed perception of responsibility (“The Problem”).

Their experiences from their alcoholic parent gave them difficulty to trust in relationships, issues with intimacy, and the repeating factor of depression and anxiety. Not to mention, adult children of alcoholics are also very likely to repeat the alcoholism cycle or involve themselves with people who abuse alcohol as well, in some attempt to “save” them, as they had failed to do with their alcoholic parent. Many push themselves to work hard in order to be in control, or find compulsions in things such as food, gambling, work, sex, or sports (“Adult Children of Alcoholics”).

Although adult children of alcoholics may not live under their parent’s roof, their experiences as a child living in such a dysfunctional household follows them into adulthood and affects their perception of everything around them, from work ethic to personal relationships. Because many of the consequences lead to negative and poignant experiences, it is important to step in at an early age to prevent the scars later in adulthood.

Section IV: What can be done in the short-term to prevent the long term?

Because 25% of children in the United States suffer serious short-term and long-term effects of living with an alcoholic parent, attending Al-Anon/Alateen confidential support meetings will aid the child or teen in the shortterm in order to prevent the long-term consequences of serious emotional issues.

Al-Anon is a non-profit support group that offers confidential care for anyone who is dealing with the issues of an alcoholic loved one. Meetings are held at any location that is willing to participate and support the organization – commonly churches or available venues, such as admin households or offices. Alateen is another meeting branched off of Al-Anon, which is organized exclusively for teens living with an alcoholic parent, or a friend who is abusing alcohol, rather than inviting the entire family. In these meetings, the teens discuss their experiences and their parent or friend’s progress or regression. Other than the exclusivity for teens, these meetings are designed under the same twelve steps and traditions of Al-Anon family meetings.

Al-Anon organizations do not accept outside sources and does not share any personal information with the public. Through their twelve steps and traditions that involve forgiving the past and the ones who have hurt them, Al-Anon offers an open ear to the individual’s problems regarding the alcoholic. Without giving advice or opinions, they remind the person that they are innocent and have the power to change their future. Donna, who has been attending Al-Anon meetings for five years and is now an Al-Anon representative, says, “I was just about to give up on my husband, when I first went to these meetings. I wanted to give up on everything, but Al-Anon kept me fighting for my family and rather than escaping, I am learning to help the situation and make efforts to do something about it, rather than sitting around or giving up. It changed my entire life.” The meetings help these families understand that loving an alcoholic is okay, that they aren't alone in their struggle, they aren't just a statistic, and that their condition is a terminal illness, which seriously affects everyone in the family, and offers hope for a brighter future for their family and especially the alcoholic.

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220 Eva G Craig Butz Research in the Community E Block May 27, 2011 What the Frack is Going On?: Hydraulic Fracturing Revealed Natural gas is thought by many to be the key to decreasing our country’s carbon emissions and the ideal transition fuel to a renewable energy future. Until renewable energies, such as wind and solar, are ready to meet our country’s energy needs, clean-burning natural gas is considered a sustainable alternative fuel. However, our seemingly endless source of conventional natural gas has started to run dry, and companies have begun to seek out shale natural gas to satisfy our country’s demand for the fuel. The only method that has been successful extracting shale natural gas efficiently and cheaply is a process called hydraulic fracturing, or fracking. But this newfound process has come with a price: contamination of our surface and underground drinking water supplies. An alternative method of hydraulic fracturing that adheres to federal environmental protection laws would provide a safer and more sustainable way for obtaining the shale natural gas our country needs.

Natural Gas Natural gas provides the United States with almost one fifth of its domestic energy needs, including cooking, heating, and electricity, and that number is steadily rising. It is a combustible fossil fuel made up of primarily methane, along with a multitude of other hydrocarbons. Natural gas is considered the cleanest-burning fossil fuel, producing almost half as much carbon dioxide as the energy equivalent amount of coal (Marsa). In addition to being environmentally friendly, natural gas is abundant in the U.S. and requires little to no importation, decreasing our country’s dependency on foreign oil (Urbina “Regulation”). The extraction of natural gas used to be fairly easy: a company would simply drill a well into the ground until an inevitable pocket of natural gas was reached. After decades of drilling for natural gas, these easily accessible resources have started to run dry, and companies have begun to discover that they were only a fraction of the natural gas resources the U.S. possesses.

Thousands of feet underground there are compressed layers of decomposed organic matter, such as animals and plants, which over millions of years have formed a tight rock formation called shale. This compression process produces and traps gaseous hydrocarbons that expand and form pockets and fissures in the rock, otherwise known as shale natural gas (Marsa). There are thousands of shale formations, the largest being the Marcellus Shale stretching from Tennessee to New York. The discovery of shale natural gas created an instant boom in the industry and it became “the gold rush of the century—for natural gas” (Urbina “Regulation”). Yale professor, Daniel B. Botkin, predicts that our country’s natural gas needs will most likely be met with shale formations from now on. But the shale formation is compacted so tightly, that it must be broken to obtain the gas trapped inside (Gjelten). The only method that has been successful at extracting the hard-to-reach shale natural gas is a process called hydraulic fracturing, or fracking.

Hydraulic Fracturing Hydraulic fracturing has been in use since 1948, but its popularity has increased exponentially since the discovery of shale formations (Gjelten). The process involves injecting a mixture of water, sand and toxic chemicals called fracturing fluids into underground shale formations to blast open the rock and release the trapped natural gas.

Hydraulic fracturing, combined with vertical drilling, was adequate for obtaining the easy-to-reach natural gas deposits, but proved inefficient when it came to shale formations, which are wide but shallow.

Above: Differences between horizontal fracking (left) and vertical fracking (right). (“Horizontal vs. Vertical Fracking)

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Vertical drilling did not cover enough surface area to make the fracking process worthwhile. As hydraulic fracturing expert, Anthony Ingraffea explains: “If you can’t turn the well so it goes along the shale formation and a lot of the well is exposed to gas, you can’t get the gas out economically.” Consequently, a new drilling technique was developed in the 1990s called horizontal hydraulic fracturing, which allows the tapping of natural gas deposits that were previously inaccessible by vertical drilling (Marsa, “Hydraulic Fracturing FAQs”). The drilling method allowed gas companies to drill not only vertically, but horizontally in multiple directions, increasing production and the amount of shale natural gas accessible in one fracturing.

There were more than 493,000 active natural gas wells in 2009, and 20% of them used horizontal hydraulic fracturing (Urbina “Regulation”). First, a temporary drilling rig, or derrick, is constructed at the drilling pad. A motor is attached to the drill bit, which will allow it to turn 90° and drill horizontally for up to two miles (Marsa).

The derrick drills a vertical well several thousand feet underground until the target shale formation is reached, before turning and drilling horizontally. The drill is then removed and the derrick dismantled. At multiple points throughout the drilling process, steel casing is lowered into the well and cement is poured around it to form a protective shell, sealing the surrounding ground from fracking. A perforating gun is then lowered into the well and throughout the length of the well explosions pierce through the pipe and cement into the rock, forming miniscule cracks in the shale formation; this is referred to as “perfing.” The fracturing fluids are then injected into the well under extremely high pressure (“Extracting”).

Above: Perforations in shale formations. (“Extracting”).

Above: Fluid Penetrates fractures. (“Extracting”).

When the pressure becomes too great, the fluid penetrates the cracks in the shale formation, widening the perforations and creating new arteries. After the fracturing is complete, internal pressures force the fracturing fluids and natural gas out of the well and back to the surface. The sand in the fracturing fluids becomes lodged in the fractures, allowing them to remain open when the pressure is released so gas can continue to leak out (“Hydraulic Fracturing Background”). There is now a conductive path for the natural gas from the shale formation to the surface.

The gas is extracted in a liquid form and separated from the remaining fracturing fluids, or wastewater.

Above: Sand grains in fracture (“Extracting”).

222 Before the discovery of shale formations and horizontal hydraulic fracturing, the price of natural gas would fluctuate constantly. Trip Allen, the founder and president of Energy Anew Inc., recalls the 2004 Thanksgiving weekend where natural gas prices were five dollars on Friday afternoon and ten dollars on Sunday morning; the price doubled over the course of one weekend. Allen says, “All of a sudden, the total amount of natural gas that we had in available reserve and the available production capacity had become, for a period of time, extremely sensitive and tight. And to some extent that has been meliorated in the recent past by hydraulic fracturing.” The new found efficient extraction process is, in part, responsible for the decreased natural gas prices consumers are now enjoying.

The prices will most likely remain low and steady, as long as gas companies continue to utilize hydraulic fracturing to extract shale natural gas (Brady). But, if one looks past the economic benefits of fracking, they will begin to recognize its Achilles’ heel: the human health issues and environmental impacts that follow in its wake. The question arises: do the economic benefits of hydraulic fracturing outweigh the negative effects?

Maltreatment of Wastewater Geochemist, Tracy Bank, describes shale as “a garbage-bucket rock. The more organically rich the shale is, the more natural gas is present, but the more other stuff is in there too.” The other “stuff” Tracy is describing can be any of the following toxic metals: uranium, barium, chromium, zinc, radium, and arsenic, all radioactive and known to cause cancer. The metals are chemically bound to hydrocarbons in shale formations, therefore when fracked, some of the toxic metals will come to the surface with the fracturing fluid and liquid natural gas. Tracy believes that this wastewater must be treated like industrial waste thus the storage and cleaning of the toxic fluids must be unquestionably safe and thorough—but it is not certain that they are (Marsa; Swann). The wastewater can be disposed of in three ways: injected into underground wells, contained in evaporation pits, or run through drinking water treatment facilities before being dumped into waterways. Most of the states’ geology where fracking takes place does not allow easy access to underground wells to dispose of the wastewater, therefore it is supposedly either secured in wastewater pits or safely treated. However, investigations of the disposal methods used by natural gas companies have proved otherwise.

After the hydraulic fracturing process is complete and the natural gas is separated from the remaining fracturing fluids and toxic metals, the wastewater is almost always dumped into a large pit, either temporarily or for a longer period of time. These pits can sometimes be the size of a football field, and they often leak or fail (Urbina “Regulation”). Wastewater pit spills can be attributed to natural causes such as overflow due to heavy rain, but they are also often the result of negligent handling by natural gas companies that be avoided. The reported cause of most spills has been faulty pipes and liners, or the lack of a protective barrier between the wastewater and the surrounding earth (“Chemicals and Toxic”). An example of the dramatic effects of wastewater pit spills was the 2008 spill in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. The spill was so bad that local officials advised people to drink bottled water. A United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) representative described the incident as “one of the largest failures in U.S. history to supply clean drinking water to the public.” Natural gas companies are individually responsible for wastewater spills, instead of a government sponsored environmental agency like the EPA. (Urbina “Regulation”).

Since a natural gas company regulates reports of their own wastewater spills and cleanup efforts with little to no oversight, they have the option to not report the severity of a spill or not carry out all of the necessary steps to clean up the spill. This allows the company to protect itself from bad publicity and save money while blamelessly polluting our drinking water. There is currently little to no outside regulation and oversight of the natural gas industry by federal agencies.

A recent New York Times investigation found evidence that “sewage treatment plants processing wastewater are discharging radioactive fluid into public waterways”, often upstream from drinking water intake stations (Marsa). Natural gas companies are sending wastewater to treatment plants that are not designed to treat the toxicity laced water, which then discharge it into public waterways, irreversibly contaminating drinking water for humans and animals. In the Times study, 116 of 179 wells produced wastewater with levels of radioactive material 100 times higher than federal drinking water standards, while 15 wells had wastewater with 1000 times the acceptable amount. Even more shocking, it was discovered that 1.3 billion gallons of wastewater produced by Pennsylvania wells over three years were sent to treatments plants not equipped to remove the toxic metals, and then discharged into public waterways (Urbina “Regulation). Treatment plant operators are required to know what is in the waste they receive under federal law before treating it and discharging it, but several treatment plant owners claim that they are not sure what the wastewater is comprised of because drilling companies refuse to tell them (Urbina “Pressure”). John Hanger, secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection claims that “there are business pressures on companies to cut corners; it’s cheaper to dump wastewater than to treat it.”

Contamination of Groundwater Not only is surface drinking water being polluted by the toxic wastewater of fracking, the fracturing fluids used during the process may be contaminating the United States’ groundwater, as well as natural gas itself. Even

223 though the natural gas industry has refused to disclose what chemicals are used in their fracturing fluids, scientists have been able to identify traces of toxic, and oftentimes cancer causing, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (“Hydraulic Fracturing FAQs”). There is no concrete proof from a government funded investigation that hydraulic fracturing has contaminated groundwater sources, or underground aquifers, but the amount of evidence supporting this conclusion is overwhelming and convincing.

Gas has reportedly seeped into underground drinking-water supplies in at least five states, Colorado, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and West Virginia, all states where hydraulic fracturing has become popular and commonly used (Urbina “Regulation”). In 2008, a hydrologist found traces of benzene contamination in a Wyoming groundwater source, one of the VOCs in fracturing fluids (Gjelten). In Ohio, a couple's house, which was situated near a drilling pad for natural gas, blew up when gas from their well filled their basement. In Texas, a man named Steve Harris claims that his toilet and shower water developed a foul odor and left rashes on his son’s skin immediately after a natural gas well was constructed near his house. His horses would refuse to drink water from their trough; it had developed an oily film on top (Brady). In the documentary Gasland, which investigates potential fracking groundwater contamination, a woman’s tap water in Colorado had such high levels of gas in it that when she held a lighter too close, the water would ignite. In May, 2008, a couple, Craig and Julie Sautner, leased their mineral rights to Cabot Oil and Gas, who built a drilling pad 1000 feet from the Sautner’s well. By August, their tap water was undrinkable. The gas company would not admit fault, but they did install a water filtration system in the Sautner’s basement. A few months later, the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection conducted a test and found high levels of methane, the main component of natural gas, in the Sautner’s groundwater (Marsa).

The contamination of groundwater can be a result of poor construction of gas wells, or unnatural dissemination of the previously trapped natural gas caused by fracking in the surrounding rock. The degree of pressure used during hydraulic fracturing has put a strain on pipes that had never occurred in conventional drilling potentially increasing the level of risks. The well casing and cement that surround the pipe can crack or fail, allowing fracturing chemicals and natural gas to leak out into the surrounding ground, including underground aquifers (Galbraith). The perfing process in hydraulic fracturing can also cause potential contamination of groundwater. When the perf-gun fractures the shale, thousands of vertical joints in the surrounding rock can crack off of the one fracture due to the explosion. These cracks can form one long fracture leading to the surface, allowing natural gas and fracturing fluids access to underground aquifers (“Extraction”). The contamination of fracturing fluid chemicals and gas is virtually permanent and can cause irrevocable damage to groundwater drinking supplies.

In 2004, The U.S. EPA concluded that hydraulic fracturing posed “little to no threat to underground sources of drinking water” after completing an investigation of the process. However, the environmental agency is now reconsidering their conclusion, and is conducting another government sponsored, in depth investigation on hydraulic fracturing and its effects on groundwater (Marsa).

Liquefied Petroleum Gel The most dangerous and risky component of hydraulic fracturing is the chemical and sand laced water used during the process, which is seemingly necessary for the process to work. However, a gas company in Canada has made these fracturing fluids obsolete. Since 2006, GasFrac Energy Services Inc. has used a substance called liquefied petroleum gel (LPG) to frack shale formations in place of conventional fracturing fluids. LPG is a mixture of petroleum and natural gases compressed into a thick liquid. When compared to conventional fracturing fluids, LPG is miles ahead in sustainability and safety. LPG is a gel when it enters the well, but reverts back to a gas underground. The components of the gel naturally occur in shale rock and are highly soluble with the hydrocarbons in the formation; therefore the now gaseous LPG can be easily extracted from the well once fracking is complete.

LPG is 100% recoverable and safe to reuse, unlike conventional fracturing fluids where usually only 50% is recovered (“GasFrac”, Marsa). Most importantly the GasFrac method uses no freshwater tanks or wastewater disposal pits because using LPG negates the need for extreme amounts of water and chemicals, preventing catastrophic spills that could lead to drinking water contamination. GasFrac also avoids sending toxic materials to treatment facilities by using the recoverable and reusable LPG. By switching from conventional fracturing fluids to liquefied petroleum gel, natural gas companies could avoid the potential contamination of drinking water due to surface spills and the maltreatment of wastewater.

FRAC Act In 2005, the executive branch and Congress Federal Energy Appointment Bill removed the natural gas industry from the Clean Water Act, the Safe Drinking Act, the Clean Air Act, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, and stripped the EPA of its authority to regulate the hydraulic fracturing process (“Chemicals”). This exemption is commonly referred to as the “Halliburton loophole (Fox). It allows gas companies to avoid federal environmental laws concerning air pollution and drinking water. For example, when coal mine operators want to inject toxic wastewater into the ground they must get permission from the federal authorities,

224 but natural gas companies do not have to comply with the same rules when they want to inject chemical-laced water and sand into the ground during hydraulic fracturing (Urbina “Pressure”). After six years of exemption, three U.S. representatives, Dianna DeGette and Jared Polis of Colorado and Maurice Hinchey of NY, have decided to fight in Congress for the removal of the Halliburton loophole by creating the Fracturing Responsibility and Awareness of Chemicals Act (FRAC Act). If passed, the FRAC Act would remove the natural gas industry’s exemption from the numerous environmental laws it is currently exempt from, and would grant the EPA oversight of fracking (“DeGette”; Marsa). If drillers were to lose their exemption from federal environmental laws, they would be forced to clean up their fracking process and find ways to make it more sustainable and safe. This act would also require gas companies to disclose the chemicals they use in their fracturing fluids. Rep. Polis claims the bill will “restore a basic national safety net that will ensure transparency within the industry and safeguard our communities.” She also says that the FRAC Act is a simple way to see if hydraulic fracturing is truly nothing to worry about as the industry claims. By submitting to uniform environmental rules, the natural gas industry could lay the many safety fears to rest and show the public that they are not hiding anything. Rep. DeGette, a founding member of the FRAC Act says she “recognizes natural gas as an important economic driver and a critical bridge fuel,” but she also believes it is crucial to ensure that the process is done safely and responsibly.

People’s immediate reaction to hearing what is happening to surface and groundwater drinking supplies is usually shock and dismay; they may wonder how gas companies are able to continue utilizing hydraulic fracturing and why the government is not banning or regulating the extraction process. The cold, hard truth is that our country has become dependent upon cheap natural gas, and hydraulic fracturing is simply the most efficient way to obtain the fossil fuel at the prices consumers want and expect. Until renewable energies, such as wind and solar, are made affordable and accessible to the public, gas companies will continue to frack shale formations no matter the consequences. Trip Allen claims that most people will not protest this because “people can’t [live easily without natural gas], they don’t want to do that, they don’t want to get themselves into a situation where they’re living an inconvenient life.” There is no way our society cannot have natural gas readily available at this time due to our dependence upon it, therefore instead of fighting against hydraulic fracturing, we must fight to improve it. We must find alternative methods of fracking and demand that the process abides by basic environmental laws. The issue is not whether our country should be drilling for natural gas; it is whether the extraction process can be done safely.

225 Works Cited Brady, Jeff. “Face-Off Over ‘Fracking’: Water Battle Brews On Hill.” National Public Radio. NPR, 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Botkin, Daniel. “Natural Gas as Panacea: Dubious Path to a Green Future.” Yale Environment 360. Yale University, 2008-2001. Web. 28 Mar. 2011.

“Chemicals in Natural Gas Operations.” TEDX: The Endocrine Disruption Exchange. TEDX, 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2011.

“Chemicals and Toxic Materials That Come With Hydrofracking.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 1 Mar. 2011. Web. 2 May. 2011.

“DeGette DeGette, Hinchey, and Polis Introduce FRAC Act to Ensure Safe Drilling.” Chief Deputy Whip Diana DeGette. Chief Deputy Whip Diana DeGette, n.d. Web. 29 Mar. 2011.

“Extracting Natural Gas From Rock.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 26 Feb. 2011. Web. 2 May 2011.

Fox, Josh. Interview by Ira Flatow. National Public Radio. NPR, 18 Jun. 2011. Radio Galbraith, Katie. “Hydraulic Fracturing Bill Could Force Disclosure.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 24 Mar. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

“GASFRAC Energy Services Inc.” GasFrac. GasFrac Energy Services Inc., 2007. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Gjelten, Tom. “Water Contamination Concerns Linger For Shale Gas.” National Public Radio. NPR, 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

“Horizontal vs. Vertical Fracking.” Diagram. Alliance for Natural Health USA, 2011. Web. 27 May 2011.

“Hydraulic Fracturing Background Information.” EPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency. EPA, n.d.

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Rose, Joel. “Nuclear Woes Could Propel Quest For Natural Gas.” National Public Radio. NPR, 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Swann, Christopher. “Shale Gas Needs to Allay Environmental Doubts.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 6 Mar. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Urbina, Ian. “Pressure Limits Efforts to Police Drilling for Gas.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 3 Mar. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Urbina, Ian. “Regulation Lax as Gas Wells’ Tainted Water Hits Rivers.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 26 Feb. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

226 Summer J Craig Butz Research in the Community—E Block May 27, 2011 Do Diverse Learning Environments Provide a Better Learning Experience?

Today, school is a place where students from different backgrounds come together to form one educational community. It is arguable whether schools with students from varying backgrounds make a learning environment better. Since diversity is such a large aspect of our society, it impacts a student’s comfort and ability to learn at school. While many believe that teaching and learning in diverse classrooms can be more difficult as there can be a lack of opportunity for minority students and more chance of discrimination and inequality, it is more beneficial going to a school in which you can learn to respect and embrace a variety of people and ideas in an exciting way.

While diverse school environments require more time, money, and energy, and the social aspects might not always be the best, they can create open-minded students who are well-prepared for “real” life.

Drawbacks of Diversity The belief that diversity in the classroom can only bring good things is an exaggeration. Whether you are a student with a learning difference, a child with gay parents, or a teacher with strong religious beliefs, being different from the people around you can bring difficulty, as your beliefs and backgrounds can often be challenged or questioned. These difficulties require a lot of attention from parents and teachers. In a journal of nursing education, Hedi Bednarz, a professor at Wayne State University states her opinion that, “diverse students require too much time and too much energy” (Bednarz). Those adults who don’t have the energy or the opportunity to even get in close proximity with diverse communities will often never have to interact with people who different from them. Having interacted early during childhood can either be a good base or bad one. It is important to realize that schooling, especially independent schooling, is a privilege that many people take for granted. This is this issue with many private schools today: advantage and opportunity. “Any private school that says it’s not a place of privilege is lying” (Morris). It is a privilege to go to a private school, and not everyone can afford it, or have the academic ability to be able to attend independent and/or higher qualifying schools. With many different types of schools in many different neighborhoods, economic backgrounds, and levels of accessibility, educators believe that “The U.S. educational system is one of the most unequal in the industrialized world, and students routinely receive dramatically different learning opportunities based on their social status” (Gresson 67). Steve Morris, the head of school of a small independent school in San Francisco, says that the lucky ones, meaning the ones who know about the opportunities and the ones who stand out academically in school get into the system, and this is the downside of many independent schools.

The main objective of schools should be “ensuring that all students can receive a quality education wherever they choose to attend school.” If the standards for every school are the same, background will not matter (Stein). Not only racial diversity but “A shift to socioeconomic integration would be ‘just another way for school districts to attempt to gloss over the real [need for] quality neighborhood schools” says Stacy Khadaroo, a writer for the Christian Science Monitor. Quality over quantity is what some educators think schools should aim for. Rather than worrying just about the total number of minority students attending the school and searching for diversity for the sake of numbers, finding qualified minority applicants is more important and is fairer to students of the majority.

For example, a student expressed her concern about the fact that Lowell High School is lacking diversity. With Lowell’s large Asian and Caucasian population, today Asian and White students feel their chances of being admitted to the school are lower. They think that minority students with the same or sometimes lower grades and test scores are being admitted rather than more White and Asian students. Lowell has been recognized for its lack of diversity and it is a concern for many people that the school is engineering diversity in the wrong way. Where should Lowell draw the line?

Whether it is acquiring these students or accommodating them, diversity can be a touchy subject.

According to Heather MacDonald, a scholar at the Manhattan institute and a writer for City Journal, “businesses’ and universities’ obsession with creating racially diverse campuses and workplaces harms both minorities and society as a whole.” Some schools will do anything to get diversity, and this is diminishing the quality of some schools because they often have problems finding qualified applicants of different backgrounds, and therefore they settle for students with lower grades. This is a problem because admitting ill-prepared students into predominately white schools is “ensuring that nearly all would start out with a disadvantage” and the poorly qualified students then often drop out…or perform at a lower level” (Mac Donald).

One other issue involved with diversity recruiting is cost. Many schools spend hundreds of thousands of dollars a year on “diversity recruiting, diversity support groups, and diversity social functions” and this can take a financial toll on some schools (Mac Donald). The San Francisco School, an independent k-8 school in the Portola

227 District, spends about 18% of its budget for tuition assistance, which totals about 1,000,000 per year. The school has a population with a whopping 57% being students of color (“Strategic Plan”). Schools that can’t contribute this immense amount to financial aid, or don’t have sufficient funds tend to have populations with representation from few socio-economic backgrounds.

Another reason it is difficult for many schools to acquire minority applicants is because “There are a lot of parents who are waiting until there is a greater mass of students who are from the same background as their own student…It is hard to be the first white kid in a school…[or] the first black kid” (Abramson). The San Francisco School takes pride in its diversity and does a lot to recruit students of color, even though the head of school believes that “You can learn more with [diversity], but it’s not necessarily easier”.

Teachers have difficulty working in diverse environments. Many students experience preferential treatment in the classroom, racial intolerance, retention, and there is often a lack of effective mentoring of diverse students in schools with small minority student populations (Gresson 126). This is the opposite of what minority students should experience to be effective contributors to their school communities. Especially with foreign students, or those who are not familiar with “these [cultural] norms, or are outside of them, may not find the content they are earning to be meaningful to them” cannot relate or find the significance of what they are learning (Whitecotton). Not only can language become a major barrier between teacher and student (Bednarz), but some adults who teach in diverse communities “will often be misunderstood by the very people they seek to help” (Gresson 98). Misunderstanding of the material or not caring about what it is they are learning can result in failure. Difficulty arises when teachers must mold their teaching styles not to favor one group as well (GreatSchools).

With small numbers of them in a classroom, many minority students have trouble fitting in, and sometimes isolate themselves from their surroundings. They often, “…pull in like a turtle” (Jonas) if the school does not “offer a wide enough array of communities that students will be able to find one that relates to them as entering students” (Koolsbergen). Frequently, when students are thrown into schools where they are the minority, they feel unwelcome, like outsiders, and often feel like they are being discriminated against (Stein). In schools where there is a small minority population, minorities tend to group themselves by race, ability, or talents. This “birds of a feather flock together” mentality is what isolates many students from their classmates and creates pressure in the learning environment. Even in schools where people of color are the majority, a student a part of this majority may “resist achieving to their potential because of the peer group context…” (Gresson 88). I myself have attended a variety of schools in which I was the minority and the majority. Being African American and Puerto Rican and spending my younger years in predominately white schools, although I have not had trouble finding friends at all, I have not always ‘fit in’ with the populations I was in. Whether it was the color of my skin that made me stand out in a crowd, or the way I talked, dressed, and performed in school, there was often something that set me apart from the majority.

I’ve been accused of ‘acting white’ while being in a predominately Latino school and have been joked about and given negative attention for being black in a predominately white and Asian school (usually unintentionally offensive). This justifies to me that anywhere school you go to; you will find kids with different views. The social situations vary from school to school and can be both negative and positive in many ways. Whether you are a part of the racial minority, or are academically excelling in comparison to your peers, or have a special or unusual background, as long as you can find someone you can relate to, you can learn a lot from your experiences with different people.

Benefits of Diversity The San Francisco School, renowned as the most diverse independent school in the Bay Area is described by the head of school as “in a bubble…the real world is not like this” (Morris). Most schools are only a glimpse of what the people the world outside the fences will be like. When children aren’t able to have experiences themselves, they are forced to base opinions and prejudices on the media, their parents, and their peers. School and home are the places a child spends the most time, and gains the most information from. This is why school has a large impact on the formation of an individual’s viewpoints. Researchers from the University of Maryland showed picture cards to 138 six to nine year olds showing situations in school settings, such as a child stealing, cheating on a test, etc. and there were two versions of the picture which the students had to interpret. In one, the white child was the possible transgressor and in the other, the black child was. The interpretation of the students revealed that “…white children who attend primarily white schools are more likely to affix negative intentions to Black children than children enrolled in more diverse school settings” (“Lack of Diversity”). However, it is uncertain whether this information is valid because no previous research has been done to see the relationship between the ethnic diversity of children's social experiences and their intentions in situations like this, and also it is unclear specifically the school situation these children were in.

Being exposed to the “real” world early on can be perceived as a bad thing, as small children need to be sheltered from some explicit things in the media and with peers, however it has been proven by Childhood and

228 Family Education specialist, Barbara Biles that in the preschool years, “…children’s thinking is limited, distorted, and inconsistent... [and] it is easy for them to believe stereotypes and form prejudices”. This shows how early a child’s mindsets may begin to develop. School has a large role in the formation of these opinions. Although schooling for children that are all the same may be easier and more comfortable in the beginning, in the long run, students who come out of diverse schools will not experience as much culture shock. For many unexposed students, when first confronting a large variety people in life, one may be fearful, which can lead to homophobia, racism, and other types of prejudice. Aaron David Gresson, the author of Race and Education supports the idea of diversity in the classroom because, “given the rise in diversity, everyone may need to know how to deal with others, to get along and to make shifts in the ideas and behaviors”. Florestina Payton Stewart, a black parent who went to private African-American schools her whole life and then attended Tulane University felt a big culture shock to adjust to new surroundings and new people. Stewart says that she doesn’t "want my daughter to have to experience that" (Abramson). Being challenged, exposed, and influenced by a diverse environment will better prepare students for “real life” and for becoming citizens. Students who interact with diverse classmates will be more “motivated and be better able to participate in a heterogeneous and complex society” (Gurin). This is especially helpful in the business world as many “major American businesses have made it clear that the skills necessary in today’s increasingly global market-place can only be developed through exposure to widely diverse people, cultures, ideas, and viewpoints” (Glazer). Diversity in school prepares for the workplace, but it will prepare for non-academic interaction, positivity, and open minded values. “‘Diversity’ in its various forms has been linked to such outcomes as high minority student retention…greater cognitive development…increased openness to diversity and challenge…greater racial/ cultural knowledge and understanding…more positive academic and social self-concepts…complex civic-related attitudes and values, and greater involvement in civic and community service behaviors.” (Koolsbergen) Many things about diversity in a child’s classroom can be taken back to their community, if “positive sense of self and others is allowed to flourish, today’s children will become adults who accept and affirm differences, identify unfair situations…” and can really affect and influence others around them. It has even been proven that “kids in more racially diverse school are more accepting and more willing to remain friends with homosexuals in their school” (Poteat). Tolerance and reinforcement of equal and respectful behavior in society and the workplace is the reason “our nation’s economic and social cohesion depend on all children being well educated (Gresson 52).

Diversity can provide a more fruitful and exciting learning experience for all students. “A classroom that does not have a significant representation from members of different races produces and impoverished discussion” (Koolsbergen). Discussions are more stirring with diversity because of the notion that “Students can learn most from those who have very different life experiences from theirs” (“Schools and Businesses”). Michael Jonas, a Harvard political scientist, believes that inter-ethnic relationships can be “valuable and enriching” and that “by hanging out with people that are different than you, you’re more likely to get more insights. Eric Krieger, one half of the admissions team at The Bay School of San Francisco, believes that students with good grades and varying backgrounds contribute to the community and create an “expansive learning environment” (Krieger). If everyone in one class thinks the same way, there would be no need for discussion because everyone could just easily say, “Oh yeah, I agree with you!” and students would learn very little in class.

Diversity benefits all groups of people. “Diverse teams tend to be more productive” (Jonas). In addition to being more productive, students can become better thinkers. Studies by E.T. Pascarella, a teacher at University of Iowa, reveal that “students who had interacted with students from other racial and ethnic backgrounds, or who had attended workshops…were better critical thinkers and more open to challenge in their discussions” (“Schools and Businesses”). Many minority students excel in schools where they are the minority too though, especially students of lower- socioeconomic class or children who are a part of families that haven’t gone to college in the past.

Minority students who attend more affluent schools are “surrounded by peers who have big dreams, expect to go onto college, are academically engaged, less likely to cut class” (Kahlenberg). With the right attitude, these students can gain more academic motivation.

The amount of diversity as well as the curriculum can influence the way children act and feel once out of school and in the workforce. Gresson mentions that “…the nation is pluralistic, made up of diverse groups with multiple perspectives on reality and what is important; accordingly, schools should reflect these perspectives, particularly with respect to ancestry and cultural traditions”. Teaching respect and acceptance in the classroom will expose children to the realities of life. “Universities, colleges, and nursing programs specifically are beginning to focus on increasing diversity as they seek to effectively prepare nursing students to serve diverse clients and communities” (Bednarz). This is a reality in nursing, because a nurse will come into contact with all types of people, all who need help, and may lose their lives if faced with discrimination. Experiencing diversity at school is

229 important because, according to Barbara Biles, “Children develop their identity and attitudes through experiences with their bodies, social environments, and their cognitive developmental stages”, all things that students come into contact with at school, work, and in life (Biles). However, the educational process does not solely rely upon diversity. It is also noted that: “Where there was equality in status, existence of common goals, and intimacy of interaction if it was to have positive effects. Educators needed to create a racially integrated learning environment that went far beyond simply putting diverse students together in the same classroom.” (Gurin) Reinforcing the diversity with values and curriculum that supports the minority students will allow for more success in school. If education is “broad, inclusive, and permitted to enlarge and include expanding and evolving realities, it can be a force of personal and collective growth. If it tends toward a narrow, distorted, or ‘one size fits all’ attitude, it can conceal the contradictions that must be tackled in life” (Gresson 19). An extremely important point made by Gresson, the author of the book “Race and Education”, is that things are always evolving in a changing society and that no two students are the same. So the curriculum must change with the students, and must “inculcate politically correct attitudes rather than a substantive body of historical and cultural knowledge” (Greene).

How to make Diversity Work The attitude and actions of teachers, parents, and students themselves greatly impact whether or not a child will be successful in a diverse learning environment. For example, in the classroom, “…resilient students reported significantly higher levels of family and peer support, positive ties to school, [and] high levels of teacher feedback” (Gresson 101). To have that peer support, students must be committed to the diverse community and be accepting of people from all backgrounds. If not, many students will never feel included. The teachers and parents must also be very involved with the students learning and social experience. This is easier in private schools where class sizes are smaller, and more parents are flexible with time. All of these things partnered with work ethic will contribute to the student’s achievement. The education gap, or “the difference in achievement test scores or outcomes among different groups” (Gresson 21) has many explanations including uninvolved parents, under motivated students, teacher inexperience, cultural bias, and lack of caring attitude. Gresson disagrees with the fact that the education gap “is a matter of nature rather than nurture. That is, innate abilities rather than environmental influence are presumed to account for the observed differences”. For diversity to work, the staff’s has to believe in nurture over nature.

Thinking that one particular group, by nature has certain abilities is stereotyping, because people regardless of background, with the right school environment can excel. It is the administrators’ lack of creativity and unwillingness to challenge the status quo, and society’s mixed feelings about achieving educational equity that creates the education gap. The administrators must learn to grow and expand their schools by “…continually seeking input from learners, parents, and staff by creating a safe and accepting environment that allows for diversity of opinion without fear” (Whitecotton). This will allow all students to succeed.

In diverse school communities, discrimination will often cause great conflict among parents and students.

Working in a diverse school environment, Steve Morris knows that kids may sometimes say slurs. He does not condone slurs or other mean comments, but schools are places to learn, and if something like that is going to be said, he says he would rather have it happen inside the schools’ gates than outside, where if you say that to the wrong person, you may not be forgiven (Morris).

It is also important to offer a wide array of groups of teachers so that they can “… reflect the diversity of the communities they serve. Students will be more motivated and engaged, they argue, if they can connect to instructors who understand their roots and culture” (“Budget Cuts”). Misunderstandings may cause distrust in the environment and be detrimental to learning, the student-teacher relationship, and self- esteem of a child. Having teachers of color in a diverse community is also important because children need “to see successful adults who were black, Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian” (“Budget Cuts”) so that they can have role models and positive people to look up to. When there is more trust and respect in a school, there is more “civic well-being and therefore the community will be healthier” (Jonas).

The curriculum in a classroom, and its level of inclusiveness, is one of the largest factors in a minority student’s learning. This is why the curriculum must be formed around the class and the situation so that all students can feel included (Whitecotton). Koolsbergen says that activities such as “…engaging in dialogue, confronting, and grappling with our diverse personas” (Koolsbergen). Inclusive education is not an easy task though as it takes creativity and innovation to address the needs of a specific class, especially since “one size does not fit all”.

However, accommodating everyone is a difficult task that many schools don’t even have to deal with, or if they do, they deny the complexity of it. Neglecting diversity issues can be detrimental to a child’s learning as well. Many minority students need special attention because “treating everyone ‘the same’ could actually exclude rather than include many students.” For example, making assumptions that everyone in the classroom has access to a computer at home, or can afford a fieldtrip is “establishing homogenous expectations [which] can mean a top-down, external

230 approach, with little input from parents or students” and exclude many students from the curriculum and class activities (Whitecotton).

Conclusion Although it is public schools that are usually the most affected by an influx of diversity because of their accessibility, private schools in particular should make an effort to create an environment with a balance. Many students who attend private school are more privileged do not realize that many people do not have a choice other than to go to their neighborhood school. However, if independent schools will bring out their “tool belts” like financial aid, bus accessibility, and summer and after school programs for high-performing minorities will increase opportunities for diversity admission and interest in private school. Not only is White privilege in education a huge conflict, but minority privilege in admissions processes is as well. I believe it is important to base admissions decisions on standards that “value the whole person—not just the part of the person that performs well on standardized tests” (“Schools and Businesses”). In our society, “What is seen as wrong or unhealthy are hurtful attitudes that resist new information or alternative facts” (Gresson 143). Listening, gaining knowledge from others, and having an open-minded attitude in school will expand student’s ability to learn and prepare them for a rapidly growing and diversifying world.

Works Cited Abramson, Larry. "Parents push for Diversity in New Orleans Schools." National Public Radio, August 30, 2010.

Npr.org. Web. 31 Mar 2011.

Bednarz, Hedi, Stephanie Schim, and Ardith Doorenbos. "Cultural Diversity in Nursing Education: Perils, Pitfalls, and Pearls." Journal of Nursing Education 49.5 (2010): 253-260. Platinum ProQuest. Web. 31 Mar. 2011.

Biles, Barbara. “Activities that Promote Racial and Cultural Awareness”. PBS.org. N.p. Biles. Web. 21 Apr 2011.

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MacDonald, Heather. "Schools and Businesses Should Not Promote Diversity." Race Relations. Ed. James, D. Torr.

San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2005. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 3 May. 2011.

Greene, Elizabeth. "Most colleges require diversity education." The Chronicle of Higher Education 3 Nov. 2000: Platinum Periodicals, ProQuest. Web. 29 Mar. 2011.

Glazer, Nathan. "Diversity." New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Ed. Maryanne Cline Horowitz. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005. 590-593. Gale Student Resources In Context. Web. 2 May. 2011.

GreatSchools Staff. "How Important is Cultural Diversity at your School?" GreatSchools. Web. 3 Apr 2011.

Gresson, Aaron David III. Race and Education. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2008. Print Gurin, Patricia, B.A. Nagda, G. E. Lopez. “The Benefits of Diversity in Education for Democratic Citizenship.” umich.edu.. n.d. January, 2003. Web. 2 May 2011.

Jonas, Michael. “The downside of diversity”. The Boston Globe. N.p. .5 Aug 2007. Web. 20 Apr 2011.

Khadaroo, Stacy Teicher and Patrik Jonsson. "Schools grapple with how to integrate :[ALL Edition]. " The Christian Science Monitor 2 Jul 2007,US National Newspapers, ProQuest. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

Koolsbergen, William. "Approaching diversity: some classroom strategies for learning communities." Peer Review 3.4 (2001) Gale Student Resources In Context. Web. 29 Apr. 2011.

"Lack Of Diversity Fuels Racism In Early Childhood, Study." Jet 9 Oct. 2006: Platinum Periodicals, ProQuest.

Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

Richard Kahlenberg. "How Important Is Economic Diversity in Schools?" Host Michel Martin. National Public Radio, 18 Oct 2010. NPR.org. Web. 1 Apr 2011.

"Schools and Businesses should promote diversity" Race Relations. Ed. James D. Torr. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2005. Opposing Viewpoints.Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 21 Apr. 2011.

Stein, Letitia. "Diversity vs. quality education." St. Petersburg Times. 27 Aug. 2006. Gale Student Resources In Context. Web. 22 Apr. 2011.

“The San Francisco School Strategic Plan.”

Whitecotton, Chuck. "Collaboration & inclusive learning."Leadership Mar.-Apr. 2009: Gale Student Resources In Context. Web. 22 Apr. 2011

231 Lucas K Craig Butz Research in the Community May 26, 2011 Athletic Scholarships: Heavy Impact Since the first time an athletic scholarship was given to a student by the College Athletic Placement Service (C.A.P.S.) in 1971, it has been a tradition to reward the most talented and outstanding athletes by helping them pay for an education and giving them a chance to play at a prestigious college (CAPS). Scholarships encourage high school athletes to try harder in their respective sports, and also give them a chance to earn monetary support from their athletic talent. Many of these athletes go on to normal business careers, pursuing majors in any desirable subject and leaving athletics behind when they graduate. Others, however, will proceed to join the highest level of their sport, enter a draft, or even join a team in another country. Scholarships are important for these players, because they are pursuing a career in their respective sports, rather than just playing them casually to be able to get into a school, or just to remain active. On the other hand, playing sports for an academic opportunity can also be positive. Many people in modern America do not have enough money to pay for a good college, and a scholarship could allow them to do so. The problem here is that a scholarship nowadays gives a student much less money than most people expect. This, however, is only one of the many recent arguments against athletic scholarships. The most debatable topic is athlete academic focus. Do these scholarships allow unqualified and unintelligent people into prestigious colleges? Do they allow “jocks” to glide through school without effort? Do they cause students to be distracted from their academic lives? Although this may seem to be the case, there are thousands of student athletes who balance their academic and athletic lives well, and many times, scholarships are much more beneficial than they are detrimental.

Athletic Scholarships can be received for a multitude of different sports in college, the most popular being football, basketball and hockey. Low-profile sports such as swimming and golf can also earn scholarships, though these are not nearly as bountiful. In 2008, the average scholarship for all sports was $10, 409, much lower than one would think (Pennington), and also a small amount compared to the average cost of college tuition, which rests around $35,000 a year. For each sport, colleges are allowed by the NCAA to give a certain amount of full scholarships. Only a few athletes are awarded full scholarships, so most of the time scholarships are divided between multiple athletes, leading to many more scholarship athletes than actual full scholarships (Scholarships: Slicing the Pie). This lack of funding has lead many people to consider whether a scholarship is worth all the work that is put in to making a skilled athlete in any sport. One couple from Delaware noted that their daughter’s swimming scholarship barely outweighed the cost of classes and camps they had sent her to for training (Pennington). With an average scholarship of just over $8,000 a year for swimmers, these parents are not the only ones who are unpleasantly surprised by how small their child’s reward really is (Scholarships: Slicing the Pie).

The reason is that incoming freshman do not actually reap most of the benefits. A received scholarship only counts for one year, so the scholarships of second or third year athletes must also be refreshed, taking a large chunk out of the scholarship money for new students. With the money being spread so widely among returning athletes and new arrivals, the actual amount each athlete receives becomes increasingly low. The average scholarship for a baseball player is barely over $5,000, and with baseball being an extremely popular college sport (second most scholarships awarded, behind football), this means over 12,000 college athletes in America receiving less than 25% of the average yearly tuition at a private college (Pennington). For some players, this may not be much of a problem.

Wealthier families can usually afford a college education, so having an extra $10,000 worth paid by the college is merely a helpful gesture. However, to lower income families or families with multiple children to pay for, this $10,000 could be a deciding factor in the path of their child’s life.

Another thing to consider is that athletic scholarships really are only for those who prove themselves to be outstanding athletes. A 2010 statistic says that out of all high school senior boys who play basketball, just over 3% will even compete at the college level. For women, the statistic is not much better, at 3.5% (Newlin). In fact, in all sports, only 2% of athletes continue on to play in college (Pennington). This overwhelming statistic proves just how hard it is to make it to the next level of one’s sport, let alone get a scholarship. Myles Brand, president of the N.C.A.A., believes that “[i]n America’s colleges, there is a system of discounting for academic achievement. Most people with good academic records aren’t paying full sticker price. We don’t want people to stop playing sports; it’s good for them. But the best opportunity available is to try to improve one’s academic qualifications” (Pennington). It is much easier in today’s college system to receive a valuable scholarship with academic achievements rather than athletic performance. Mr. Brand’s opinion is that though college sports should continue giving out scholarships, it is important that students realize their chances, and attempt to improve academically rather than putting all of their focus into an athletic scholarship.

232 Though athletic scholarships are obviously scarce and hard to achieve, they have many positive effects.

Along with helping less wealthy students get a chance at a high-quality education, scholarships can also benefit the school that distributes them. Scholarship athletes are chosen by NCAA scouts all around America, and, as mentioned earlier, scholarships in each sport are only awarded to “about 2 percent of the 6.4 million athletes playing those sports in high school four years earlier” (Pennington). This statistic proves how talented these players must be, meaning they are likely to improve the college team they chose. Team improvement can have many positive effects on a college. People who watch college sports know that if a team improves, people will hear about it, and any increase in publicity increases the amount of donations a school receives (Giarratano). A good team can also improve the environment at a school. New arrivals on scholarship create social buzz, and can strengthen school spirit as well. If a team does well, going to games is much more enticing for students, and this increases ticket sales, again helping the school’s funding.

Contrary to popular belief, college sports are, on the whole, a money-losing investment. The Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), one of the two college football divisions, is composed of 119 teams. In 2006, only 19 out of those colleges “realized a net profit from athletics,” and only 16 of the others broke even (Denhart). For this reason, some think college sports should be dissolved altogether. Though some people believe the sports industry is a waste of money on the part of the schools, the truth is this: students enjoy sports (Denhart). They enjoy playing them, they enjoy watching their team, and at this time college sports should not be considered a business. The NBA, for example, is a profit industry. It manages to pull a large profit from gear, ticket sales, and television deals every year.

The college sports business is not designed for this purpose. It originated as an opportunity for players to develop their skills if they are planning to move on to a professional league, and for people to stay active. Having a good sports team or nice athletic facility is also an attractive attribute when students look for what school they would like to attend. Schools do not use their sports for profit; they use them to improve the school and their image. If athletic scholarships can improve college sports, then they can improve the colleges that support them. Since college sports were not created to draw revenue, the idea of team improvement is merely a bonus that can earn some of the money back that these colleges sacrifice for the good of their students every year.

A belief about athletic scholarships that many parents obsess about is that these scholarships can cause a student to stray from academic focus. The fairly well-known opinion that scholarship athletes are more likely to be distracted from their work than most other student athletes has become more and more of a worry. The fact is graduation rates for athletes are much poorer than for other students, and those on scholarship are at an even lower level (Denhart). Schools compete over graduation rates, and this means that picking up players with lower GPA’s on scholarship could potentially ruin a school’s image. According to John Gerdy, author of a popular book on the college athletic system, blames the coaches. “For many coaches, the scholarship has little to do with educational opportunity or financial need and everything to do with control. Athletic scholarships are a powerful means of keeping athletes focused upon athletic performance” (Gerdy). Since scholarships are only given for one year and can be taken away at any time, athletes are under a constant pressure to perform well and attend all practices, giving them less time to study and also leading to possible stress problems (Gerdy). Since a coach reserves the right to terminate a student athlete’s scholarship at any time for multiple reasons, players are constantly being judged, and this causes them to pay less attention to their classes. Coaches have also stopped caring about player’s school careers, because they are hired to win, so a student athlete’s academic interests do not make a difference to them. As stated by the president of the N.C.A.A. Myles Brand, it is better to keep athletics and academics separate (Denhart).

There are those students who can balance these two aspects of their lives perfectly, but many others are not able to do that. Multiple solutions to this problem have been considered, and almost all of them have a valid point.

There are arguments against scholarships, and arguments to keep them. Several ideas have been proposed as to how the current state of college athletics should be changed. Those who believe in the purification of academics think that it would be smarter to eliminate competitive college sports completely. This is, however, extremely unlikely. The motive for such a change is acceptable, and the initial effects have the potential to be positive. It is a great idea on paper, because students would focus only on academics instead of sports, and those who came to college only for sports would chose to go to an athletic program rather than go to college, or would join a developmental league, such as that of the NBA, allowing people of age 18 and up to participate (Denhart). The downside of this idea is that not only would students not be encouraged to be active, this would also eliminate the chance for students of lower income families to gain a scholarship through hard work and determination in a sport.

Another problem with this idea is that with all of the student athletes who are not invested in academics joining club teams or developmental leagues, the demand for spots in professional leagues would skyrocket, leaving many of the athletes who do not make it to a good sports career without an education and with little chance of getting a different job. It is important that playing college sports goes along with an education, because if these athletes fail to compete

233 at the higher level, they will be left with no direction, and will be forced either to go back to school or to find a job without an education.

A more reasonable solution, and one already being acted upon, is one that expects much less change in the big picture. Gordon Lee, chancellor at Vanderbilt University, has had a plan to reform college athletics for quite some time. He too is worried that the current standing of athletic programs at universities is causing students to miss out on many of the enjoyable parts of college. The plan would include basic, logical steps. Step one: make athletic scholarships a four-year guarantee. This way, student-athletes will no longer stress about losing their scholarships, and will be able to focus more on school. An important part of this change would be to include that falling below a certain academic standard could still cause a player to lose his scholarship (Lee). Step two would be to make the number of scholarships available to a school depend on their ability to graduate students. This would mean that if the graduation rate at a university drops from one year to the next, this school will not be allowed to give out as many scholarships as they could the previous year (Lee). This would cause the schools to work more on graduation rates, and it would also help relate these rates to the athletic department and therefore cause students and staff to think of the academic and athletic aspects of a college as a joint operation.

There are other solutions to the scholarship problems that have been offered, many of them simple but mostly unreasonable (such as adding more scholarships), and many of them long and complicated (such as decreasing the number of games played per year and decreasing the amount of money allowed for scholarships in every school) (Gerdy). Out of all possible changes, Gordon Lee’s solution is by far the most reasonable and potentially successful. This solution keeps the positive parts of athletic scholarships, such as giving students who would not normally attend college the chance to do so, yet also removes or improves some of the biggest problems, such as student-athlete lack of focus and separation of the athletic and academic branch of colleges (Lee).

The reason a solution to this problem is important and necessary is because over time there has been a constant increase in loss of scholarships due to small recruiting violations, disagreement with coaches, or other problems, and it is just too bad when an athlete has worked so hard to be where he or she is and then loses it all due to a minor infraction from a long list of scholarship dissolving rules (Travis). Hopefully universities can work together and change the structure of college athletics for the better. Because no matter how small the changes are, if they increase the chances for today’s young people to become successful adults, it will be worth it.

Works Cited Caps 1971. CAPS, 2010. Web. 4 May 2011.

Denhart, Matthew, Robert Villwock, Richard Vedder. "College Athletic Programs Undermine Academics." Student Life. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2011. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Gerdy, John R. "Athletic Scholarships Should Be Eliminated." Should College Athletes Be Paid? Ed. Geoff Griffin.

Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2008. At Issue. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Giarratano, Brenda. Personal interview. 25 Apr. 2011.

Goldfield, David. "College Entrance Requirements for Athletes Are Fair." Sports and Athletes. Ed. James D. Torr.

San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2005. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Lee, Gordon. “Vanderbilt Abolishes Athletic Program.” Athleticsholarships.net.Web. 6 May 2011.

“NCAA lists 5 major violations; IU AD 'profoundly disappointed'.” ESPN360.com. ESPN, 2008. Web. 4 Apr. 2011.

Newlin, Clint. NCAA.org. NCAA, 2010. Web. 10 May 2011.

Pennington, Bill. “Expectations Lose to Reality of Sports Scholarships.” New York Times. 10 Mar. 2008. Web. 1 May 2011.

“Scholarships: Slicing the Pie.” Chart. New York Times. Web. 5 May 2011.

Travis, Clay. “Lane Kiffin Commits Recruiting Violation on Twitter.” AOL.com. AOL, 20 May. 2009. Web. 4 Apr, 2011.

Zimmerman, Kevin. “Pay for Play?” Daily Wildcat. College Media Network, 5 Apr. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

234 Ilana L Craig Butz Research in the community May 11, 2011 Team Sports Within sports, athletes look for a way to enjoy their time playing a sport they love, and having a beneficial experience. Although team sports are often passed off as just another extracurricular activity, they can make a huge impact on one's life, teaching the meaning of unity, loyalty, responsibility, brother/sisterhood, and character. But for some athletes, who claim to have had bad experiences on team sports, that is because they focus too much on the negative short comings of playing on a team sport such as arguments, losses, and etc. as opposed to looking at the experience and appreciating its benefits.

Benefits During Game Time With many different sports around the world, beneficial relationships between players are formed by a team with a positive environment, where everyone is involved and are all set to work hard for a common goal. The key about team sports is that the players are not alone. Just as one of our earlier president Franklin D. Roosevelt once said, "people acting together as a group can accomplish things which no individual acting alone could ever hope to bring about"(qtd in Canfield and Hansen). On a team, having many people who support and encourage each and every athlete, that team then becomes capable of doing more than any individual. And with a team that contains that type of environment, the secret of a successful team lies within the relationships between the players, but the question is, how do good relationships with teammates benefit players during game time?

For a team to become successful, they must include many components. The most important of which is “team work”. The phrase holds more than just "there's no I in Team... this spelling lesson is, of course meaning to reinforce the virtues of teamwork, stressing the importance of unity"(Wertheim). Teams that thrive the most find that when the amount of dedication and passion each player dedicates is equal, that team then becomes unstoppable.

The only things that can restrict a team from success are the chemistry and abilities of the teammates. “That’s what I tell my players, take a look at yourself, take a look around and take a look at your teammates, because at the end of the day, our success will be determined by how much each and every one of you can look at each other with respect, and a shared acknowledgement that we all have an equal amount of commitment to our goals over time"(Hartzell).

Once team mates are equally passionate about their sport, the atmosphere in which they learn, practice, and socialize, then becomes the foundation of their experience. For athletes along the board it is important that they “have the environment in which every individual of the team feels attached, respected, and rewarded"(Hartzell). If this goal is accomplished, then the environment of the team is always positive, which the team benefits from. As once said by Michael T. Powers, the moments that are truly memorable are before the glory days, and simply during“...high school sports, where lessons of life are still being learned, and where athletes still compete for the love of the game and their teammates" (qtd in Canfield and Hansen).

Off Game Time The most beneficial aspect from the experience of playing a team sport is the camaraderie and brother/sisterhood that players develop. When playing a sport with a team, one tends to grow a sense of trust and responsibility within one another that accumulates as the players gradually open up. Jim Brown, tells a story of his childhood and early adult hood, as a football player. Football was like his personal world, in which he was in control of his own destiny, accompanied by brothers who had the same drive and passion as himself. As time went by, the brotherhood him and his teammates had built, out did their expectations. Jim learned that “when you need a friend, you can always count on your teammates” (qtd in Canfield and Hansen). Later on, Jim’s wife had a tragic accident, and he lost his wife in a car crash. When waiting in the hospital, Jim knew his teammates would come to his side to comfort him. Jim reflected, “Seeing them stand there, an eerie yet comforting and familiar feeling came over me.

For a moment I was back on the football field in Macon. I was facing a tough situation, but I had backup"(qtd in Canfield and Hansen). Those who were once his teammates now became lifelong friends.

Understanding the true meaning of brother/sisterhood, means knowing that it is not only about how your teammates have impacted your life, but, how you have impacted theirs. Throughout our lives, the impact that we have left in other’s lives is our mark in history. For athletes, becoming a legend is the ultimate goal. Team Sports“aren’t significant except for their impact on other lives"(Jackie Robinson). As a player on a team, one gets the experience of having an endless amount of support from other. William Ward wrote; "flatter me, and I may not believe you.

Criticize me, and I may not like you.

235 Ignore me, and I may not forgive you.

Encourage me, and I will not forget you" It is interesting to see how when looking back on one’s life, one remembers those who have encouraged them more than those who have criticized them. Though many incidents of criticism and harshness do occur in the environment of a team, every teammate must remember, "to build relationships, you must be not only open with others, but also open to them. If you want others to accept and support you, you must accept and support them. Acceptance of others does not mean approval of their every action…"(Martens).

Along with the benefits of learning how to interact with others, building lifelong relationships, and having a constant stream of encouragement, the most important to recognize is how team sports help reveal character deep within every single team member. At a young age, when children first start playing team sports, they begin to learn how to build their own character, and start building the fundamentals of who they will become. "Team sports builds character especially with younger players… but mostly it reveals character"(Hartzell). When athletes are still young, their coaches truly must recognize that “nothing is more important than helping athletes develop good character"(Martens). As young people grow as teammates and athletes, game time is when their character, which has been developing, is revealed. During game time, “you have the pressure of competitiveness, the expectations from your team mates, and even from yourself. This is when it shows who you are when you’re in those circumstances…

How do you react to adversity? How do you support other players. Are you a person who other people can rely on"(Hartzell). Even before the game, and though we might not take recognize it , but ”at its best, athletic competition can hold intrinsic value for our society. It is a symbol of a great ideal: pursuing victory with honor. The love of sports is deeply embedded in our national consciousness" (Martens). During game time is when all things parts come into play and your character must be revealed to help you sustain all the other factors. But at game time, on that Court, field, or even diamond, it is clear that you are “committed to something bigger than yourself" and that is when pride and joy truly fulfills an athlete (Hartzell).

The secret about team sports is that in the midst of a game athletes learn lessons that help build and develop ourselves as not only athletes, but as people. As Ellen E. Hyatt told her story about being a high school athlete, she spoke about how not being the greatest player on her team somehow never seemed to take drag her down, or impact her self esteem. And during one specific morning, after a difficult game, she explained “what each of us girls who won that morning, learned was a lesson to carry with us to our professions as well as to our day-to-day interactions.

We learned how to make others feel better by making them feel connected. And isn't that a game every one of us can win"(qtd in Canfield and Hansen). But as athletes begin to benefit from certain lessons on the court, they realize they are not only building themselves as athletes, but also themselves as people prepared for the future.

Although many believe that sports is only judged on your athletic ability, they are wrong, “that’s the great thing about team sports, is that you actually have the opportunity, to be in a competitive environment and with team sports you are also in a public environment… In front of fans, where you are really going to be judged about who and what you really are not only as an athlete but also as a teammate, and a person"(Hartzell). Sports allow athletes to develop more than just their athletic ability, but also their wellbeing and character. They are really preparing themselves for the real world and their future. Even though sports could show one the path for their life, as in becoming a professional athlete, that only occurs every so often. As for the rest, they take their experience on a team sport as “a chance to practice those better behaviors, and allow you to control those frustrations for something bigger than ourselves… for the bigger picture” (Hartzell). That is the key for the future, later in life comes a family, an even bigger picture. In both “working life and family life you run into times that are really confusing and disappointing. This is when those behaviors come back into play, and you are able to call on certain intellectual and psychological habits which you are familiar with, and which you practiced during your time on a team”(Hartzell).

Team sports really allow someone to have a once in a lifetime experience of athleticism, building character, making relationships, and lastly, preparing yourself for the future.

236 Bibliography Bachel, Beverly k. "Team thinking: working together benefits everyone." Current Health 2, a Weekly Reader Publication. April 2006. Gale Opposing Viewpoints in Context. 1 Apr. 2011. web.

Canfield, Jack and Hansen, Mark Victor. Chicken Soup for the Sports fan's Soul. Florida. Health Communications, Inc. 2000. Print.

Dupont, Jill and Michelle S.Hite. "Sports." Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-first Century. Ed. PaulFinkelman. Oxford African American Studies Center. Web. 4. May. 2011 Edery, David. "Team Players." Game Developer 18.4 (2011): 42. General Reference Center Gold. Web. 16 Apr. 2011. web.

Hartzell, Dennis. Personal Interview. 11 May 2011 Immen, Wallace."Anti-Teamwork in Action". Globe & Mail [Toronto, Canada]. 24 July, 2010. All Gale Databases. 1 Apr, 2011. web.

Jenkins, Rob. "Athletic Programs Enhance the College Experience". Chronicle of Higher Education, Vol. 52. March 24, 2006. All Gale Database. 1 Apr, 2010. web.

Wann, Daniel L and polk, Joshua. "the positive relationship between sport team identification and belief in the trustworthiness of others". North American Journal of Psychology. Web. 4. May. 2011 Wertheim, L. Jon. Scorecasting: the Hidden influences behind how sports are played and games are won.

New York. Crown Archetype, 2011. print.

Martens, Rainer. Successful Coaching 3rd edition. Print.

Canfield, Jack and Hansen, Mark Victor. Chicken Soup for the Sports fan's Soul. Florida. Health Communications, Inc. 2000. Print.

Wooden, John. Wooden: a lifetime of observations and reflections on and off the court. Chicago. Contemporary Books. 1997. Print.

237 Megan L Craig Butz Research in the Community-E Block May 4, 2011 Homework: Are we really Reading for Understanding?

Homework plays an important role in society: it educates the future of the world and affects everyone.

Although homework seems to be a necessity in the upbringing in the future of our society, there is a big controversy over the matter of how it is distributed. The argument is made up of two main sides: people who advocated for little or no reading assignments, and those who think larger amounts of readings are more efficient.

To primarily understand the controversy, the fundamentals of reading need to be taken into account and then the standards for what understanding material is. Reading, similar to anything else in life, improves through constant practice. This is due to the process the brain goes through when reading. Each aspect of reading: linguistics, fluency, and comprehension, uses a distinct part of your brain. These parts are the temporal lobe, the frontal lobe, or the angular gyrus. These are all connected through a series of neuropath ways which act as an interconnected network. When one part is being strengthened, the other ones are as well through the neuropath ways which make them more efficient, leading to improvement of reading skills (“The Reading Brain”). So in other words, the more reading that is given, the stronger the reading system in the brain will develop and lead to better reading and comprehension skills.

To show the improvement of these skills, teachers evaluate reading through a process that checks for initial understanding, interpretation development, personal reflection or response, and demonstration of a critical standpoint (“NAEP Assessment in Reading”). The demonstration four elements are crucial for full understanding of the material and gradual development towards more difficult class levels. Evaluations often take the form of exams, essays, discussions, debates, and other miscellaneous projects.

These teachers truly have a reason to give the large amounts of reading for better outcomes in evaluation: there is sufficient evidence to prove that reading does help literacy. First, in the classroom, larger amounts of reading is helpful when covering longer, more detailed topics like history, conceptual science, reviews, or foundation building (Krashen). The readings save class time because people read faster than they talk, and having a basic knowledge of the reading beforehand is a good idea for furthering the depth of the topic during class. Reading is also the best way to strengthen vocabulary and it thought to dramatically improve writing and comprehension which can show students that learning can take place outside of school as well (Harris, et al). This leads some researchers to believe that literacy and education can improve based on reading alone (Ivey, et al). In School District 102, Illinois, students were given a higher emphasis on reading homework one year than the previous one. When the year was completed, the school district took the standardized testing scores for reading and found that there was improvement from 85% of kids meeting or exceeding standards with 15% under average in the previous year and 93% meeting or exceeding with 7% below average the following year (O'Donnell).

Although it is true that reading will improve a student’s education, the readings must be substantially more sophisticated to get noticeable writing or vocabulary improvements (Krashen). Even above, there was only slight improvement in the 102 school district of about 8% (O’Donnell). Another more important drawback is the affect the homework gives a student’s educational experience. Critic of today’s test driven schools, Alfie Kohn, says, "It's one thing to say we are wasting kids' time and straining parent-kid [relationships, but] what's unforgivable is if homework is damaging our kids' interest in learning, undermining their curiosity" (Wallis). In other words, larger amounts of reading can both encourage learning or lead to an eventual lack of interest, affecting the students enthusiasm and motivation around the idea of homework and school. Although there are there are generally two outcomes, it is more likely for a student to lose interest with the intense amount of focus and stress being put on them as school work, rather than a subject that they may dive deeper into and want to learn more about.

It is evident that since 1980, the amounts of homework have been subtly rising, and the amounts of distributed homework is the key to this clash of teaching methods. Studies have been taken recently to show that from 1980 to 2002, sophomores across the country have overall been spending more time on homework (“Participation in Education”). The percentage of sophomores who have ten or more hours of homework per week has increased from 7% to 37%, students with less than five hours of homework decreased from 71% to 37%, and students with an hour or less of homework has decreased from 17% to 2% (“Participation in Education”).

Researchers who are studying this situation internationally, are comparing the homework load and test scores in the U.S. with other country’s statistics. These researchers, particularly Gerald TeLendre, found that in comparison, “American students appear to do as much homework as their peers overseas—if not more—but only still score around the international average” (Britt). In addition, documents from Penn State concluded that Japan, the Czech, and Denmark assign relatively little homework and score well while Thailand, Greece, and Iran give large amounts

238 of homework and score relatively low (Britt, Roy). To further support these observations, the U.S. Department of Education found that high school student’s reading results have improved since 2005 but are still below the level of 1992 (“Statement by the U.S. Secretary of Education”).

But the question is, will the education and comprehension of information simply increase by lowering student’s homework load? Not according to researcher Gerald LeTendre, the man mentioned before who conducted a four-year investigation in forty-seven different countries who examined how schools are run, what is taught, and what students comprehend, believes there is a twist to the controversy (“National Differences, Global Similarities”).

He says, “[To] undue focus on homework as a national quick-fix, rather than focus on the instructional quality and equity of access to opportunity to learn, may lead the country into wasted expenditures of time and energy” (Britt).

So, the fact that shortening a teacher’s ideal amount of reading may be a good idea, but students and parents need to take into account how the information they attain is being used and the quality of teachers at the school.

The idea of little or no homework has become increasingly popular across the country. The international study done by LeTendre and his partner Ted Baker that assessed the homework and test scores in forty-one nations backs up the claims that lower amounts of homework will lead to better results. Teachers that use the no homework method aim to decrease the amount of lecture time in the class and increase hands-on instruction time. That way, the students will become accustomed to doing homework in the presence of their teacher as a helpful resource, giving children more time to participate in activities outside of school (“No-Homework Policy”). The no-homework policy also believes that a child already goes through a sufficient amount of learning for about seven or eight hours already, and additional hours to that time is too much.

But while benefits seem nice, there are a few drawbacks involving transitions between schools, development of certain skills, and boredom at home (Arnst). As for transitional periods from a school without homework to one with considerably large amounts may prove to be difficult. Especially because the lack of homework could cause under developed time management skills needed to balance the workload (Arnst). They are also probably accustomed to relying on personal in-class help and studying, which is a false reality in higher level classes. There is also precious class time being replaced by homework time leaving students with time to spend afterschool. Most students can find a way to preoccupy themselves, but there may be some that are prone to boredom with the lack of assignments to do. This effect can also be seen throughout summer vacation when students only three days into their summer break complain about having nothing to do.

One of the biggest problems between both larger, more time-consuming assignments and ones that encourage little or no homework assignments have to stand trial to the parents of the student. Both worry parents, but short homework assignments cause more worry for parents than longer homework.

Parents with children who have larger assignments are generally fine with the workload, believing that this prepares them for advanced high school courses and college classes. In addition, students are learning the essential skills of time-management and other responsibility related skills. It seems difficult to have parents worry about too much homework, because parents even restrict their child from certain extracurricular activities if the load is too much, but they do worry when it involves the students health. When students stay up past midnight doing homework, that may be a red flag to parents. Pulling all-nighters are reasonable every once in a while, but staying up in the early hours in the morning is bad for a student’s health and will cause problems with productivity in the daytime.

The other side of the argument is too little homework, which worries parents because they may feel that their child isn’t getting a good enough education and many of the drawbacks listed before like responsibility skills, boredom, and transitions. But, this is unnecessary worry. Many parents primarily worry about the quality of education when seeing ten minutes of homework be done. But, this does not necessarily represent how well the student is doing in class and how much information the student is truly taking away (Arnst).

Homework is not a measure that has a relation to the progress a child is making. Parents need to be informed and learn the difference between their idea of what homework represents, and what homework truly is.

Although it may seem like a student is working very hard on homework, what if it’s value is actually absent? Then this would be wasted time. Students also need to be aware of their homework. They need to know when the material is relevant and will be used in class. The idea that a lot of homework is a direct relationship to the students progression can also be seen within the Bay Area with University, Lick-Wilmerding, and Lowell High School. All three of these schools are renown for having students that are academically excelling, but are also known to give hours and hours of homework. This said, people must reconsider their ideas of traditional homework and its effect on students in more ways just getting the A (Kohn).

There are also a variety of things a student can do to get the best of their education. Reading development and comprehension are key elements in the controversy over homework assignments, both of which are affected by

239 a variety of things, most being controlled by the student. Such causes that contribute to the productivity of a student is time management, study habits, and environment, two of which are developed by homework (Harris, et al).

Time management essential to a student. Not only does it help with homework, but is a skill that is used in college, work, and life in general. Students need to balance their work load and make smart decisions using common sense. For example, doing a long term project over a long period of time rather than the night before. This may seem like a trivial problem, but is actually a bigger than most people think. Procrastination is an increasing problem with the Internet.

Students also need to realize how long their attention can stay on one subject and develop a more focused study habit. Researchers found that the average teen has an attention span of 30-40 minutes (“Living with your Teen”). Particularly with this modern era filled with technology, this number is believed to getting shorter with email, instant messaging, and cell phones (Carey). With everything so immediate through technology, it is believed that attention span and patience is growing shorter (Elias). Through trial, error, and observation, the student should figure out how often they should take breaks or switch activities when doing homework to get it done quickly and more efficiently. They should take note that staying on one subject too long and changing subjects too frequently cause a lack of focus, so a fine balance needs to be found between the two (Hamilton). There is a transition period for the brain between subjects, and frequent changes will cause the brain not to adapt and intake the information as well and reading for longer periods of time causes a loss of interest, inhibiting the reader from taking more away from the reading.

Prioritizing is also a skill, crucial to teens now. They need to know what is most important to them and get it done without being distracted by other activities. This can also be seen on a smaller scale when teens stress about too many projects at a time and hop between different subjects, which is a form of multitasking and therefore slows down progress. Teens need to balance a variety of activities. Studies show that the average teen spends most of their time sleeping and taking part in educational activities. The second activity that consumes most of their time is sports, exercise, and leisure time. A mix of television, video games, social networking, travel, volunteering, working, reading, and more take up the rest of a teen’s day (Allard).

Time management is a big part of good study habits, but the student needs to learn what type of learner they are in order to maximize their comprehension. A common mistake made by teachers is forcing students to take notes or set a paper up a particular way. This makes all types of students learn one way, the way the teacher believes is most efficient, and although intentions are good, everyone is different, so outcomes will vary widely on learner type and adaptability (Carey). It is better to have students personally develop a type of study habit that suits their needs.

There are three senses that a student uses to learn, which also effect what type of learner a student is. These senses are hearing, moving, or observing. Researchers and educators commonly refer to them as auditory, kinesthetic, or visual (“Multiple Intelligence Theories”). A combination of these skills makes up each student, but one sense may be stronger than the other two. For example, an interactive study game is more effective on a kinesthetic learner while videos are better for visual learners and explanations for auditory learners. The auditory, kinesthetic, and visual attributes of a child are important to take into account because certain mediums or ways of presenting materials helps different types of learners. Mixes of these senses often result in learning patterns that have taken the name of show and tellers, verbal gymnasts, seer/feelers, wandering wonderers, leaders of the pack, and mover and groovers, or a mix of anything in between (Markova). Senses other than sight also help with reading homework because simultaneous development of cognitive skills strengthens auditory language and reading skills cannot be developed in isolation and requires the use of multiple senses (“The Reading Brain”). Overall, understanding how students learn is key to more successful intake of information.

Environment is also tied to study habits, but is important to address separately. Students need to know when they learn best and in what type of environment. There are many aspects of environment that comes into play when studying: technology based distractions, temperature, basic needs, who you are with, where you are, and many more.

Generally, students need to have a quiet, distraction free environment. Music is considered a distraction and makes reading particularly difficult because of the two linguistic tasks being processed at the same time, which is multitasking, making work not as efficient (Hamilton). Also, the student should consider keeping internet off unless necessary to avoid facebook, tumblr, twitter, and other social networks until they are done with their homework.

Cell phones should also be turned off and stored somewhere else (Roell).

Temperature, posture, and basic needs play a smaller role in study habits, unless the student lies down in warmer temperatures, causing drowsiness. The student should preferably be sitting upright and avoid a lack of basic needs, because these all pose small distractions for the student. Students should be especially wary of homework proficiency around other people like peers, family, stranger, or even alone (Roell). According to personality, having

240 or lacking company affects productivity. These are generally more picky requirements and the bottom line is to pose as little distraction as possible for the student.

Students also need to be aware of where they physically are: at school, home, the library, or a friendâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s house. Sometimes students find it especially difficult to work in their own room because they have access to more interesting things. Also, the idea of home may be leisure and not study, also making homework more difficult. In these situations, the student may learn that staying after school to study or going to even a different room in the house is easier. Overall, each aspect of the environmental solutions are very picky. Generally the student should create as little distractions as possible.

Each of the methods listed above are things that are student-influenced, but teachers play a part in the controversy and its solutions as well. Teachers have the difficult task of figuring out how much homework to give and how beneficial it may be to the student. The current controversy is between a more traditional outlook of giving larger amounts of reading homework versus the modern idea of giving little or no homework as all.

But is the Bay School giving too much homework? To answer this question, I went out and conducted a study at Bay. For my study, I took 20% of each grades population which is recommended statistic wise. To control the environment, time of day, and other factors, I wanted the study to take place during advisory. This meant roughly two advisories per grade would partake in the study. I had given each grade a different reading according to the average difficulty level of all the classes they could take. The reading difficulty level was found by using the Flesch-Kincaid readability test. With these numbers, I was able to find the average reading speed of each grade: freshmen were at 295 words per minute, sophomores at 320 words per minute, juniors at 255 words per minute, and seniors at 395 words per minute. Then I found the amount that each student reads per night by counting the words of the assignments given in each class every night. I took a two week snapshot of each class and found the averages from that information.

I found that the most reading homework a class gave was a maximum of 47 minutes total, which was Existentialism at an average 12,000 words per night. Although these numbers are probably warped in some way, Bay technically is giving the right amount of reading: about an hour. Realistically, students are reading more advanced pieces than the average difficulty of the class, and on top of that are annotating, which brings their reading speed much lower, so teachers should aim for no more than an hourâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s worth of reading, and with that hour, should add, if necessary, a maximum of thirty minutes to reflect on the reading and skills that were incorporated with that task. Also, in cases of undermining a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interest in school should probably be thought about more so for underclassmen than upperclassmen. When the students begin to choose classes they are interested in, their tolerance for larger reading assignments is better than for classes they are uninterested in. Of course, it is necessary for kids to take classes they dislike due to the fact that their knowledge cannot be specifically limited to what they enjoy learning about. So interest needs to be taken into account.

But as I stated before, the national quick fix for making the country more literate is not to give more or less homework, but is more affected by teaching method, student habits, and parental influences. Homework-wise I recommend about an hour every night and to find a balance between these two sides of giving hours of homework or no homework. These general rules may be affected by level of interest and other things of course. Some other general rule of thumbs for teachers are to maintain that hour, and to give a variety of different activities to take into account the diversity of student learning styles. Students should learn how they like receiving information in a certain media and how they best enjoy learning or studying according to their personality. They also need to be smart about their work environment and have as little distractions as possible. Finally, parents need to rethink their idea that lots of homework means that their child is getting a better education.

241 Bibliography Allard, Mary Dorinda. How High School Students use Time: A Visual Essay. Docs.google.com. November 2008.

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Arnst, Cathy. "'No' or 'Yes?'" www.businessweek.com. Bloomberg L.P. February 20, 2009. Web. May 11, 2011.

Baker, David and LeTende, Gerald. National Differences, Global Similarities. www.sup.org. Stanford University Press, 2005. Web. May 11, 2011.

Britt, Roy. “Too much Homework=Lower Test Scores.” www.livescience.com, June 2, 2005. Web. April 4, 2011.

Cooper, Harris. "A Review of the Literature." www.cehd.umn.edu. University of Minnesota, 2011. Web. May 11, 2011.

Elias, Marilyn. "So much Media, so Little Attention Span." www.usatoday.com, March 30, 2005. Web. April 4, 2011.

Hamilton, Jon. “Multitasking Teens.” www.npr.org. NPR, October 9, 2008. Web. May 11, 2011.

Harris, Cooper, et al. Homework: A Special Edition. Books.google.com. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001. Web. April 2, 2011.

Ivey, Gay and Fisher, Douglas. Creating Literacy-Rich Schools for Adolescents. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2006. Print.

Kohn, Alfie. "Rethinking Homework." www.alfiekohn.org. Alfie Cohn, February 2007. Web. May 11, 2011.

Krashen, Stephen D. The Power of Reading. Portsmouth, NH: Greenwood Publishing Inc, 2004. Print.

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O'Donnell, Joe. "More Reading, Focus on Technology." Lagrange.patch.com, March 11, 2011. Web. April 3, 2011.

Roell, Kelly. "How to Focus on Studying in 5 Steps." testprep.about.com. New York Times, 2011. Web. March 28, 2011.

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"The Reading Brain." Scilear. Scientific Learning Corp, 2011. Web. March 28, 2011 Wallis, Claudia. "The Myth about Homework." www.time.com. Time, August 29, 2009. Web. May 11, 2011.

242 Kathleen M Craig Butz Research in the Community—B block May 27, 2011 Prepared or Not? SF Plan for a Catastrophic Earthquake Throughout the year, there are about 70 to 75 damaging earthquakes around the world (American Red Cross 1). Although in recent years San Francisco has had no major earthquakes, people still need to think about preparing since the Bay Area is in close vicinity to the San Andreas and Hayward faults. Due to the great possibility of a major earthquake in San Francisco, the government needs to prepare the city thoroughly for a catastrophic earthquake.

Although an earthquake may be considered small, the American Red Cross warns that damage can still occur: “Earthquakes can collapse buildings and bridges; disrupt gas, electric, and telephone service; and sometimes trigger landslides, avalanches, flash floods, fires, and… tsunamis” (American Red Cross 2). This damage is what makes earthquakes such a big issue, and in San Francisco many of the likely “earthquake scenarios for the Bay Area will cause more damage than the Loma Prieta Earthquake” (United States Geological Survey 13). So if earthquakes are such a risk in San Francisco what is the plan? How has the city prepared San Francisco? What are the precautions that the city has taken? Is America prepared for a catastrophe equal to what is occurring in Japan right now (Bowman)? If we had an earthquake similar to the Tohoku Earthquake in Japan, would the US be able to handle all the repercussions? Many believe that the United States is not prepared enough to handle a major disaster due to budget cuts, politics, denial, and insufficient plans and resources. In the US, “preparing a secure future is a priority America has wholly devalued. Earthquake-proof schools, dams, and nuclear plants take a back seat to more immediate indulgences in the same way that the nation’s economic security is sacrificed to tax cuts and entitlement spending” (“Japanese earthquake”). Before 1906, there was a common attitude towards earthquakes that there was “[n]othing to worry about, because there [i]s nothing that [could] be done about it… [b]esides, a good shake is not half so bad as a twister or a hurricane” (Bronson 19). Today, although the attitude toward earthquakes may have changed, people still believe that an earthquake will not be that bad and think that there is no reason to worry about not having a plan. But in San Francisco, an area that is used to get big earthquakes with huge repercussions needs to be prepared and have a good plan. This is especially true when we have recently witnessed horrifically destructive earthquakes that have occurred in New Zealand (6.1), Chile (8.8), and just recently Japan (9.0). Though geologist understand of faults does not support this position, some think that since “there have been catastrophic events at three corners of the Pacific Plate” that the last fault line that should expect a major earthquake is the San Andreas Fault which underlines the city of San Francisco (Winchester). San Francisco without a good plan and resources to handle an earthquake, could suffer horrible events and deaths that could be avoidable; taking away thousands of grandparents, mothers, fathers, and children. Although earthquakes seem unlikely, there have been actions taken by the government to help improve the Bay Area’s earthquake preparedness, but due to budget cuts and politics there still needs to be a better long term plan that includes enough resources to cover the basic necessities of citizens after a catastrophic earthquake.

How do earthquakes occur? Under California, the Pacific and North American Plates grind against each other and result in the buildup of energy. When the plates separate, moving only a little bit apart, a big burst of energy is released letting off what we call an earthquake. Although in the Bay Area there are two close fault lines, the closer one to San Francisco is the San Andreas Fault which is the main boundary found between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. This fault line slices California in two, going from Cape Mendocino all the way to the Mexican Border (Lynch). The other fault is the Hayward fault which is closer to Oakland, and instead of separating two plates the fault breaks from the San Andreas Fault line, which can still affect San Francisco with high magnitude, damaging earthquakes. Along the San Andreas Fault line, there is a 67% probability of a major earthquake occurring before 2032 (Red Cross 9). A major earthquake can be seen as a magnitude 6.0 or higher, and with each one point increase on the Richter scale the shaking will be 30 times stronger; so even though an earthquake can be only 15 seconds, much damage can still result just like the Loma Prieta in San Francisco in 1989 (San Francisco Fire Department). Although the world knows about earthquakes, if one like the one in Japan hit the US there would be greater losses and “the pace of getting life back to normal would be slower, even on the West Coast where temblors are common and preparation for them is greatest,” says a writer from USA Today (“Japanese earthquake”). Japan is known for being well prepared for earthquakes because the country is located on a network of fault lines, so Japan is one of the most prepared countries for a major quake. However, as we have seen earthquakes are unexpected and sudden so even Japan was not ready for the recent 9.0 Tohoku earthquake of 2011 (“Magnitude 9.0”). Although the US knows the possibilities, “we seem unable to learn from the experience of others, and the

243 more quakes we experience, the more casual we become about precautions… we are unable to imagine the difference between a 6.0 and an 8.3” (Danielle). The fact is that if an earthquake hit San Francisco there would be catastrophic damages: one in five buildings in the city will be uninhabitable or destroyed (Applied Technology Council 9), $200 billion estimated losses US wide (Red Cross 1), damage that would not only exceed the annual City budget but would also result in the city’s economy shrinking by 2% which is nearly the equivalent of a recession (Applied Technology Council 32), 85,000 houses lost, 7000 injured, and 300 killed (Applied Technology Council 9). Although these numbers are already big, these are just possibilities to scenarios and most likely the numbers will be bigger and even worse. The numbers that are given are just estimates from geologists that can be pretty accurate, but at the same time the knowledge on earthquakes is limited. Geological events are sudden and “unexpected if not necessarily entirely unanticipated” since Geologist can’t exactly predict them; so by having a plan and preparing for the greatest possible scenario, there will be a better outcome for San Francisco and will most likely end up saving many people’s lives when a catastrophic earthquake occurs (Winchester).

Due to San Francisco’s close proximity to the San Andreas Fault and history of major destructive earthquakes, the city has put in place an all hazards plan and has taken steps to better prepare the city during and after an earthquake. Although there is conflict over whether the city is prepared enough or not, the San Francisco government has still tried to prepare the city. Recently the government has been adding and updating the original plan so that San Francisco will be better prepared. The city’s recent plan has reasonable recovery targets that they feel they will be able to put in place after an earthquake. The government feels that within 24 hours shelters will be set up in already determined locations, within 72 hours initial recovery and reconstruction will start, within 30 to 60 days 90% of businesses will reopen along the reconstruction of buildings, after 4 months all retail stores reopened along with 50% of offices reopened, and several years later the government expects all residents to be returned to permanent houses and all business operations to return to normal (Applied Technology Council 40). Along with these goals the San Francisco Emergency Office of Emergency Services has been working not only within the city to create this plan but also with other surrounding counties. In an earthquake, multiple cities and towns are affected so it is not a local problem, but a regional one. Along with San Francisco’s own plan, the city has also tried to talk to surrounding communities, like Oakland and Marin County, so that all are prepared and know how each place might need help in an earthquake (Canton). San Francisco and other counties want a good Emergency Response Plan because they all feel it is important. San Francesco feels that after an earthquake it is important that the city can recover quickly and safely so that the people are protected physically and economically. The government wants to be able to prepare San Francisco so that after an earthquake residents will be able to stay in homes, have enough care provided to all citizens, have no major collapses of downtown office buildings, an economy that quickly returns to a functioning state, and the city’s atmosphere to be persevered because the government feels that for a quick recovery these goals must be met (Applied Technology Council 38). The government has not only tried to come up with a plan for San Francisco, but other politicians have also started laws and political groups to help cities better prepare for an earthquake. An example of this is Barbara Boxer who has started the National Hazards Risk Reduction Act 2011, which is suppose to help improve preparedness for earthquakes in advance with new advanced warning systems and improved building codes to be enforced. Barbara feels that this “critical legislation will help safeguard our communities by developing new ways to monitor and prepare” and that the bill is important because it will “better equip states like California to withstand catastrophic natural disasters and implement modern building codes to protect lives and property” (“Boxer, Feinstein Introduces Bill”). Along with political actions like this, the Mayor, Gavin Newsom, is helping push forward retrofits and earthquake evaluations so San Francisco can quickly recover and return to a stable state (Applied Technology Council 6). In the Mayor’s budget for 2008 and 2009, he put $9 million toward earthquake preparedness strategies, $4.8 million to regional interoperability capacity (improving regional public safety, communication, and planning), and $1.1 million to improving emergency medical dispatch (Mayor’s Office of Public Policy and Finance 9). Along with this budget, $1.5 million was given to make plans to repair the Auxiliary Water Supply system in the city’s 10-Year Capital Plan (Mayor’s Office of Public Policy and Finance 241). The city is trying to better prepare San Francisco before an earthquake, and one way they are trying to do this is by enforcing building codes and requiring seismic retrofits of unreinforced masonry buildings so that the buildings are braced to the ground, hopefully reducing the number of casualties after an earthquake (Applied Technology Council 29). In San Francisco, building improvements have been moving along since 1989 and about 200 buildings have been retrofitted along with ordinances trying to be passed to make incentives for homeowners to retrofit their soft story structure, which are mostly apartment buildings built on top of garages (“Mayor Newsom Announces Executive Directive”). Currently, the city is trying to retrofit important buildings and water systems, which are two important resources after an earthquake. The city has put time and money into trying to prepare San Francisco for a major earthquake so to reduce the number of casualties and to decrease how long it will take for San Francisco to recover. Mayor Gavin Newsom thinks that the city’s updated earthquake plan is “one

244 of the most comprehensive plans that exist[s] in the United States,” and although the plan may be one of the best, due to the recession and slow pace of the government, many actions taken by the government to better prepare San Francisco are not enough to limit all horrible possible outcomes (Eslinger).

The risk of having a major earthquake in San Francisco is great which is why it is so important that the city has a plan, but even though recently our city has made revisions to the plan it is still not as good as it could be and the preparedness and resources that San Francisco has is not enough to handle the 6.7 earthquake we are predicted to have soon. During the day there are about 1.3 million people in San Francisco, and for all these people there are about 300 firefighters and 43 fire engines. After an earthquake, it is predicted that about 273 fire trucks are needed to handle these possible fires, and there are not enough trucks from here to Oregon to cover the amount of fire trucks that have been predicted to be needed (San Francisco Fire Department). In the US and in San Francisco, there is a lack of standards and misleading inconsistent opinions about what needs to be done, so open requirements are left for later and acting now is put off (Applied Technology Council 27). The city either needs to undertake measure to reduce losses and an impact of an earthquake, or San Francisco should expect dramatic losses and a painful recovery (Applied Technology Council 43). Earthquakes happen unexpectedly, so to be ready, actions to better prepare San Francisco need to happen now. “[T]ime is of the essence, hence the need to create an implementation plan…sooner rather than later” says the Mayor of San Francisco (“Mayor Newsom Announces Executive Directive”). The City of San Francisco as well as the United State government needs to think about better preparation now rather than later, because once an earthquake hits the event is ignorable. Although we are in a recession, budget cuts towards emergency preparedness are not a smart idea which is also backed up by Senator Mary Landrieu. The government looks at earthquakes as a possibility that will rarely occur, and with this attitude cities, like San Francisco, cannot prepare well enough. FEMA, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, since Katrina has improved and moved in the right direction, but the organization is moving at a slow pace and are not as prepared as they could be (Bowman). Not only is the FEMA moving at a snail’s pace, but the San Francisco government is as well. Although there have been steps taken to retrofit important buildings, many are moving slowly along or aren’t starting due to low funding. To improve building standards some funding has to come from the city (Applied Technology Council 10). In the 1906, most of the fire houses, hospitals, and other necessary buildings were mostly destroyed which further hindered the help given to the city’s citizens (Bronson 37). In an earthquake the most dangerous aspects can be a building collapsing. Stiff, brittle concrete buildings built before the 1980s are some of the most dangerous buildings in San Francisco (Applied Technology Council 30), and about 55% of earthquake injuries are caused by falling objects from a building (United States Geological Survey 20). Many buildings in San Francisco are seismically venerable and would most likely collapse or be severely damaged after an earthquake, resulting in recovery that would take years (Applied Technology Council 5). Part of the reason Japan is known for being well prepared for earthquakes is because their buildings are very stable and strictly built to building codes. In the US, buildings were built decades ago and most don’t meet earthquake retrofitting standards (“Japanese earthquake”).

Although in California building codes are some of the best in the world, many buildings haven’t been retrofitted to meet the new building codes since the buildings have hit triggers which forces owners to retrofit (United States Geological Survey 25). One great figure in earthquake preparedness named Dr. Irwin Redlener, who is the director of National Center for Disaster Preparedness at Columbia University, finds that “the biggest problem is failure to go so far as even Japan has to protect its citizens from natural disasters” (Scawartz). San Francisco’s new plan is the first update in a decade, which just shows the lack of planning in US governments (Eslinger). In US and in San Francisco, there is no ability or the willingness to change things right now. During the time of a recession where states face $145 billion dollars in deficits, the ability to be able to mobilize important resources and help that could improve disaster readiness is limited” (Schawatz). However the longer it takes to prepare, the more losses there will be, and the importance of now and of being prepared really needs to be seen as very important in the eyes of the San Francisco government so that after an earthquake there won’t be many deaths and damages so that citizens are further protected.

So how can San Francisco better prepare the city before an earthquake so the results are a better outcome?

One way to help make the city better prepared would be to enact and enforce up-to-date building codes (American Red Cross 2). Buildings that are unsafe need to be fixed, and although forcing building codes on owners may be to unrealistic due to the high expenses, there needs to be more push from the government to make building codes more important. There needs to be appeals to citizens so that they will want to retrofit. Such could include tax reductions or tax increases on companies and business that do not have secure buildings, or harder ways to avoid retrofitting a building meaning that when someone does any sort of construction they also have to retrofit at least that part of their house or most of their house. Consequences of future earthquakes could be worse or better, but depending on the policy and actions that the city agencies and building owners take now, the result could be pretty bad (Applied Technology Council 15). Due to the way building codes are set up in California, the decision to be retrofitted is left

245 up to the owner, but by not being prepared enough one is putting a gamble on other’s and their own lives. Many believe that it might be time to make retrofitting a requirement since many “seem uninterested in preparing for the self-sufficiency that will be necessary after the next huge temblor,” said Karen Bates a women who has experienced and seen the disasters after an earthquake (Bates). Although the state has made attempts to create mandatory deadlines for government organizations, emergency services, and for some businesses, there needs to be persistence and intervention with the government so that San Francisco’s earthquake resilience will be better (Applied Technology Council 26-27). By having citizens and businesses retrofit before an earthquake, the costs become a lot less than it could be after a major earthquake Applied Technology Council 16). Another way for the government to help San Franciscans is to create an earthquake fund. Every year the City of San Francisco would set a certain amount of money away to an account. This account would only be for aftermaths of earthquakes to help the city rebuild and return to a normal state, and would not be allowed to be touched until a major earthquake occurred.

Although the amount of money in the account probably would not cover all the cost of repair after an earthquake, hopefully, it would at help limit some of the amount of money needed and would help San Francisco quickly return to how it used to be so that the city can recover quickly. If the government can start to enforce and encourage citizens to retrofit buildings and start putting money away each year, it will help improve the city’s plan and help prepare citizens after an earthquake.

In San Francisco there is a great risk for a major earthquake, which is why the government and citizens need to be better prepared. The city will always have earthquakes in its future, and right now about eight faults in the Bay Area are capable of producing 6.7 or lager earthquakes (United States Geological Survey 3). However, if there is “foresight and effort the consequences of those earthquakes can be reduced so that the city can rebound quickly” (Applied Technology Council 19-20). The government needs to have an ongoing concern for the city and really try to better prepare San Francisco’s citizens. “Where earthquakes have occurred in the past, they will happen again,” say the Red Cross, which is why this is so important in San Francisco (American Red Cross 1). With the city trying to push citizens to retrofit buildings and put money away for after an earthquake, hopefully there will be fewer deaths, better recovery, and a resilient city that can be strong after a catastrophic earthquake occurs.

246 Bibliography: American Red Cross. “Earthquakes”. NP: NP, Mar. 2007. PDF file.

Applied Technology Council. Here Today- Here Tomorrow: The Road to Earthquake Resilience in San Francisco A community Action Plan for Seismic Safety. Redwood City: ATC, 2010. PDF file.

Bates, Karen Grigsby. "Preparedness isn't optional." Los Angeles Times26 Jan. 1994: B7. General OneFile. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.

“Boxer, Feinstein Introduce Bill to Improve Monitoring and Preparedness for Earthquakes.” States News Service 17 Mar. 2011. General OneFile. Web. 23 Apr. 2011.

Bowman, Michael. “US Disaster Preparedness Questioned.” Voice of America. VOA, 17 Mar. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Bronson, William. The Earth Shook the Sky Burned. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2006. Print.

City and County of San Francisco, California. Mayor’s Office of Public Policy and Finance. “Mayor’s Proposed Budget 2008-2009.” San Francisco: 2008-2009. PDF file.

City and County of San Francisco. Department of Emergency Management. Plans and Reports. DEM, 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2011.

City and County of San Francisco, Office of the Mayor. “Mayor Newsom Announces Executive Directive Establishing The Earthquake Safety Implementation Committee (ESIC)”. San Francisco: City and County of San Francisco, 7 Jan. 2011. Web. 3 Apr. 2011.

Danielle, Diane. “Now do you believe that it pays to be prepared?” PC Week 6.43 (1989): 71. General OneFile.

Web. 23 Apr. 2011.

Eslinger, Bonnie. “S.F. releases new quake plan.” The Examiner. The Examiner, 19 Oct. 2006. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.

"Japanese earthquake sends sobering message for USA." USA Today 14 Mar. 2011: 08A. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Lynch, David. “The San Andreas Fault.” Geology.com. Geology, 2011. Web. 9 May 2011.

“Magnitude 9.0-NEAR THE EAST COAST OF HONSHU, JAPAN.” USGS science for a changing world. U.S Geological Survey and U.S Department of the Interior, 11 Mar. 2011. Web. 18 May 2011.

San Francisco Fire Department. About SF NERT. City and County of San Francisco, 2011. Web. 3 Apr. 2011.

Schwartz, John. "The best-laid plans." New York Times, 13 Mar. 2011: 1(L). Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context.

Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

United States Geological Survey (USGS). Putting Down Roots in Earthquake County. Denver: United States Government Printing Office, May 2007. Print.

Winchester, Simon. “The Scariest Earthquake Is Yet to Come.” Newsweek. Newsweek/Daily Beast Company LLC, 13 Mar. 2011. Web. 9 May 2011.

247 Kai N Craig Butz Research in the Community June 6, 2011 Teenage Suicide Suicide is a tragic event that has a profound impact of family members, friends, teammates, neighbors, and even those who didn’t know the victim personally. It is common for these people to experience feelings of confusion, guilt, grief, and the thought that they could have done something to prevent it. It is important to understand what compels teens to commit suicide, so that one can recognize signs and help when a teen could be at risk. Every year tens of thousands of teenagers choose to take their own lives, leaving behind shocked friends and family to deal with the aftermath. Suicide prevention is possible if people take note of the potential causes and warning signs of suicide, so that it does not occur.

Causes One of the most common reasons why teenagers commit suicide is because of depression. In the United States, 15-20% of all teenagers between the ages of 14 and 18 are clinically depressed and over half of those teens go undiagnosed ("Causes of Teen Depression"). Because of these low diagnosis rates, many parents and friends do not know when their child or peer is depressed and because of this they are not able to see the warning signs of a suicidal teen. Depression in adults is very similar to that in teens; it shares many of the same symptoms and is often diagnosed with the same kind of medication, however, in teens it is almost twice as likely to result in suicide than in adults ("Suicide Causes"). It is important for parents to always be on the lookout for symptoms of depression in their teen.

Often times, the reason teens become depressed or suicidal is because of the pressures they face day to day in high school; the pressures most commonly linked to depression are the temptation to take drugs/alcohol and engage in sexual activity. In this day and age teens are constantly bombarded with a hail storm of images depicting what people in our culture view as "sexy" or "beautiful", and as a result the sexual pressure in high school is more harsh than ever. The high school years are a vulnerable period for most teens, as their bodies and minds develop they are more susceptible to these images, TV shows, and movies telling them what they should act like, look like, and be like. Because of this kind of exposure media, teens are becoming sexually active at much earlier ages. In many cases, both males and females admit to being pressured into their first time by peers who encouraged them to take this big step in their lives. In the media, sex is portrayed as a romantic, fun thing, with a gorgeous counterpart and it often ends up as just an innocent fling or leads to a happily ever after.

However, real life is nothing compared to Hollywood make-believe, after having sex teens are often the victims of vicious rumors and have confusing emotions and questions swirling around in their heads. Girls more commonly get called “slut” or “whore” because it will soon become known around school that they have had sex.

This combined with the feelings of worthlessness and having been used can cause a great deal of humiliation, confusion, and in some cases can result in depression which can unfortunately lead to suicide. Although teenagers do not often want to talk to their parents about sex, and want nothing more but to have them as far away from their personal and romantic relationships as possible, a parent may still watch for the signs that may indicate that a teenager has become sexually active. One of the first signs that may indicate that a teenager is sexually active is frequent public displays of affection. Although teens are normally very cautious about their behavior in front of adults or their parents, as the intimate relationship between the two teenagers becomes more and more serious it is common for them to become less aware of their actions (Sorvese). Other important signs to look out for are a teen’s sudden interest in a parent’s schedule, since teens that are having sex often times do not have a place to go; their own home will be commonly used when their parents are out or at work, and to look for clues such as birth control or condoms in their room (Sorvese).

As I mentioned before, teenagers are highly susceptible to the pressure the media puts on them. However, teenagers are more susceptible to the pressure put onto them by their own peers, which they experience every day.

While in high school, it is common for most teenagers to experiment with drugs and alcohol, in fact a recent poll determined that 72% of high school students will or have consumed alcohol by the end of their senior year and 6.7% of youths ages 12-17 have smoked marijuana and continue to ("SAAD Statistics"). When teens abuse drugs, there are both legal and mental ramifications. As brains develop, the chemical imbalance caused by drug and alcohol abuse can intensify feelings of sadness and depression ("Teen Drug Abuse"). This kind of imbalance can cause a perfectly normal teenager to become depressed, and in some cases suicidal. The kind of dependency on drugs and alcohol that teens may develop can lead to a feeling of emptiness and hopelessness when they do not have said drug or are not drinking alcohol.

248 It is important for parents to always look out for signs of drug and alcohol abuse in their child, as it is a destructive habit and the emotions caused by it can lead to serious ramifications such as suicide. Some of the warning signs that you teen may be mixed up with drugs and alcohol are new friends that are very different from their old ones, distancing themselves from their old friends and family, grades dropping, and increased sensitivity ("Teen Drug Abuse"). Drug abuse can more commonly caused depression when teens are also experiencing a lot of stress, a change in economic status, hazing or bullying at school, exposure to violence, loss of a loved one or if they are going through their parents getting divorced (M, Dr. Maisie). It is important for parents to remember that in high school there is a lot of pressure to be cool, that mixed with personal or home related problems, can often lead to depression which is one of the main reasons teenagers choose to end their own lives. It is crucial for parents to always pay attention to their children, and be on the lookout for destructive behavior before it is too late.

Every year hundreds of thousands of children are bullied either in school or online by a peer, and often times this bullying goes undetected. Children and teenagers can be bullied for a large variety of reasons, ranging from sexuality to looks to socio-economic status to even owning the same shirt as someone else. Bullying is a problem in almost every school in America, and because of it some children choose to change schools and have a constant feeling of isolation and loneliness. However, sometimes it doesn’t stop at this. Thousands of kids and teenagers choose to end their lives every year because of the torment they faced both in and out of school. Although living in an age of technology is often a benefit to our generation, it is also clear that bullying is very different than it was in the years before the internet and social-networking became so popular. When a child or teen was bullied in the 70’s or 80’s, it would end as soon as the child got home and their house was a sanctuary free of bullies.

However, we are truly the children of technology, always checking Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter looking to see what our peers have said every five minutes or so. Because of this gossip, rumors, and bullying are more vicious than ever, more public than ever, and spread faster than ever before. This kind of bullying is referred to as cyberbullying and it has been the cause of many suicides in America in the past five years.

Phoebe Prince was a fifteen year old freshman living in South Hadley, Massachusetts. She had just moved there with her family from Ireland and began attending South Hadley High School. Her parents had warned the principal at South Hadley High School that their daughter was susceptible to bullying and had been bullied at her old school in Ireland; however they were not taken nearly as seriously as they should have been (“Phoebe Prince Suicide Legacy”). Almost instantaneously after Phoebe began attending South Hadley she became the victim of some very serious bullying. She was constantly ridiculed, being called a “whore” and “Irish slut” on many social-networking sites by her peers; she was sent nasty text messages and a group of girls would throw things at her as she walked down the hallway in school (“Phoebe Prince”). After a few months, the stress and isolation caused by her constant torment caused by peers got to her, and on January 14, 2010 Phoebe Prince was found dead; she had hanged herself in her home after school. Unfortunately, her death was not the end of her cyber-bullying. A memorial page had been put up on Facebook, to honor and remember this young girl but soon after it was created hateful comments were posted on it that eventually led the page to be removed from Facebook (“Phoebe Prince”). This story may seem somewhat unreal, but every year this happens to thousands of children and teens, leaving families and friends shocked, and the bullies feeling guilty and in some cases suicidal themselves.

Every year an estimated two million students are harassed and bullied based solely on their perceived sexual orientation (Berlinger 229). And in some cases suicide seems like the only way out of the torment they face day to day. Another unforgettable case of suicide is that of Carl Joseph Walker-Hoover, an eleven year old who was constantly ridiculed for his assumed sexuality and eventually took his own life because of said ridicule. Carl had attended New Leadership Charter School, and there he was bullied daily often times being called “gay”, “girlie” or “fag”. A child so young he didn’t even know his sexuality was pushed to the limits by peers defining him in this negative way. Carl’s mother said that watching her son get bullied, seeing how these bullies were affecting him, was worse than the breast cancer she had gone through four years before (“When Words Can Kill”). She came home on April 6, 2009, to find her son hanging by an extension cord on the second floor of their home. Since the beginning of the school year Carl had been bullied by kids at his school and despite his mother’s countless phone calls to the principal, it was never stopped by any authoritative figures. After the death of her son, Mrs. Walker began speaking to groups of people. It started off with families and friends but from there it expanded. Her goal was to create awareness around the issue of homophobic behavior and stop the bullying that arises from it in schools.

It is important for parents to be on the lookout for warning signs of being bullied in their teens. Most teens are afraid to tell their parents when they are being bullied, as it may result in worse bullying if the parents were to notify the school. Although parents cannot be with their child all the time, making sure they feel safe and are not being bullied by their classmates, parents can always take note of any changes in their child’s behavior. Some of the warning signs of a teen being cyber-bullied are withdrawal from friends and activities, signs of emotional distress during and/or after using the internet, avoiding school or group gatherings, and a change in mood, behavior and

249 sleep patterns (“Cyberbullying”). Similar to those symptoms, the warning signs of a child being bullied at school are: appearing anxious, has low self esteem, loss of interest in school work, unexplained cuts, bruises or scratches, coming home with mission or damaged belongings (such as books and clothes), takes a longer non-practical route to and from school, appears to be upset, moody, or quiet when they come home from school, tries to get out of school as much as possible by faking an illness and having trouble sleeping or having night terrors (Gracia). It is important for parents to always pay attention to their teenager and their actions, as in some cases it can save their lives.

Teenagers live hectic lives; from relationships to break-ups, friend to enemies, pressure to succeed in school as well as have a social life, dealing with parents and siblings, and all the while going through puberty having their hormones run wild. It is a stressful experience to be a teenager and attend high school, and it is vital that parents know and understand that their child is fragile and at times will need a non-judgmental person to talk to, someone who cannot ground them for having sex or using drugs, but someone who will simply understand.

Although some parents are able to obtain that kind of relationship and open communication with their child, most cannot and it leaves a child feeling helpless in times of need, feeling alone because they do not have anyone to talk to. Although their peers and close friends can be there for this, they can still judge and maybe even ridicule one another. A parent should always let their child know that they are in fact there for them, and if they want to talk you are there for them no matter what and if they still are not comfortable with that you will find someone to be there for them. This kind of understanding can be the fine line between life and death for your child, and is key in preventing suicide.

Prevention Parents and friends of suicidal teens can have major roles in the prevention of suicide. Although friends and parents play very different roles in the lives of a teenager in trouble, the ultimate goal is always the same; to keep this teen from committing suicide.

Although most teenagers do not understand just how serious suicide is, if you know a friend of yours is in trouble it is important to let them know you are there for them. Teenagers often learn how to be there for a friend, by being there is somewhat trivial situations. A bad grade on a test, fight with another friend, and even a nasty break up can teach teens how to be supportive and understanding of one another and this is the training that will ultimately help teens if they are ever dealing with a suicidal friend. If you learn that a close friend of yours is having thoughts about suicide one of the most important things you can do is to make sure they know that you are there to listening.

Often times, suicidal teens feel that no one cares what they have to say and because of that they feel worthless or hopeless which will add on to the reasons why they feel suicide is the only way out. It is important for a friend to be non-judgmental, patient, calm and accepting. Your friend may be saying something that you think is completely ridiculous, but it is crucial to remember that you are there to listen to them and help them through this tough time.

Since sometimes friends are able to read their peers better than their parents may be able to, do not be afraid to ask, “are you having thoughts about suicide?” if they aren’t then the conversation can end right then and there, however, if they choose to be honest with you and tell you yes, your job is to let them know that you are there, no matter what (Schimelpfening). Letting a friend know that you really care and love them may just be the thing that keeps them from committing suicide.

It is critical that as a friend, you do not give advice unless you are asked for it. Even though you may be forming opinions on everything that your friend is saying, they are just venting and your opinion may hurt them if you just blatantly state it. One of the most important things you can do is keep them talking, this will allow them to reduce their own emotional burden that once blinded them and will allow them to see the situation more clearly (Schimelpfening). Even though friends are very helpful in the prevention process, if at any point you feel as though you cannot handle it, seek help. An adult such as a parent or trusted teacher may be able to give you advice on what to do (“Teenage Suicide Prevention”). Encouraging them to seek help, either professional or from a parent or adult friend, is also another good opportunity to help them (Schimelpfening).

If all your attempts fail, and you find your friend has committed suicide you must remember that this was not your fault. Blaming yourself will only add on to the pain you already feel after the loss of a friend. Even though you did try to help your friend, no matter how much you talk to them you will never know what the pain they felt was really like and because of that you do not know the real reasons why they did what they did.

A parent’s role in a child’s life is always vital, from birth to growing up to entering adolescence, parents are always there to take care of and love their child. The bond developed between a child and their parents is indescribable: it is based on love and trust and as children grow older and enter their teenage years, that bond can either strengthen or weaken. In most households, it seems as though the entire family is going through puberty and high school along with the teenager. The drama occurring in school often follows teens home, and can lead to tiffs and disputes between parents and children. Because of this, the relationship between parents and kids can often change drastically as the child goes through the motions that inevitably come with entering high school. And since

250 this so commonly happens, teens feel less and less comfortable going to their parents with their problems. Because of this teens can grow depressed and begin to show signs of suicidal tendencies. As I mentioned before, a parent’s role in a child’s life is vital and when it comes to suicidal teen’s parents can play major roles in the prevention of suicide.

After noticing warning signs that their teenager may be in trouble, parents should first asses just how serious the situation could be. It’s possible that the teenager in question could have just been having a rough week, and said something they didn’t mean or their change in behavior was caused by something other than thoughts of suicide (like a bad grade on a test or a fight with a close friend) (Norman 98). Even though it may seem uncomfortable, the first step a parent should take is to ask their teen straight up if they are having thoughts about suicide and if they are, ask what the reason for those thoughts is. Although some parents fear that asking such bold questions like this may put thoughts of suicide in their children’s head, it is the best way to get a clear answer (“Warning Signs of Teen Suicide”).

After assessing the severity of the situation, although it may seem invasive, it is highly recommended for parents to constantly check in, in their child’s life. Talking to coaches, parents of friends and teachers can help parents fully understand what the reasons for their teens suicidal thoughts may be (Norman 99). Listening to what other adults who see their child in different social situations can give parents a different way to look at their child’s life. Parents lead hectic lives and sometimes the smallest detail, with a big meaning, can be overlooked. By asking for these other prominent figures in a child’s life to lookout for them allows parents to really see what is going on in their teens life. The snooping does not need to stop there, although it may seem strange, searching through a teen’s room looking for drugs, weapons, or suicide letters can be signs that the teen in question is thinking about suicide in a major way (“Teenage Suicide Prevention”). Another important thing to look for is a diary or journal with entries about suicidal thoughts, even though it seems highly invasive and can cause a fight between parents and teens, reading their inner most thoughts can give parents the opportunity to look at things from the point of view of the teenager (Norman 100).

If through assessing and snooping, a parent finds their teenager is having extremely serious thoughts about ending their life, hesitation is no longer an option. Some parents tend to face serious denial when their teen is contemplating suicide, and because of that they hesitate to take action and sometimes it can lead to the worst. If a case of teenage depression is suspected, parents shouldn’t wait for their teen to be checked out by a physician. And if they are diagnosed with depression, it is crucial for the parents to be responsible for the distribution of the medication and to always make sure the teenager takes the medication as opposed to lying about it. Often times teenagers lie about taking their medication because they feel it causes them to “lose their sense of ‘them’” (Norman 105) and become someone else, when it is really just helping them with their illness. Other things parents can do to take action and help prevent suicide are removing anything dangerous (such as drugs and weapons) that could be used to commit suicide, talk about drugs, drinking, self-criticism as well as any family problems, and to look out for insomnia (Norman 120).

The final and most important thing parents and friends can do in the process of preventing suicide is to let the teen in trouble know that know that they have a loving family, and friends who truly care about them and would miss deeply if they were to kill themselves. Often times, suicidal teens do not take the time to look at the possible ramifications of their actions, they are selfish in the process of deciding what to do and leave families and friends shocked and confused. By letting a suicidal teen know that they would be leaving behind a good family and good friends, they are possibly able to see this situation from a different point of view and can see how their one action would set off a drastic chain reaction in their own community. This is key in the prevention of suicide because it allows teenagers to see how important they are to someone, whether it is a large group of people or one person; they become aware of the fact that they are in fact loved and significant.

251 Works Cited "Teen Suicide: A First-Person Message for Parents - FamilyEducation.com." Family Life, Child Development, Nutrition, Teen Health & School Safety - FamilyEducation.com. Web. 03 May 2011. <http://life.familyeducation.com/depression/teen/56453.html>.

Schimelpfening, Nancy. "What to Do When a Friend Is Suicidal." About Depression - Information and Support for Depression. Web. 03 May 2011. <http://depression.about.com/cs/suicideprevent/a/suicidal.htm>.

"Teenage Suicide Prevention - Teen Suicide." Teen Suicide - Adolescent Suicide Statistics and Prevention.

Web. 03 May 2011. <http://www.teensuicide.us/articles3.html>.

"Suicide Causes. Suicide.org. Suicide Causes. Suicide.org. Suicide Causes. Suicide.org."Suicide.org: Suicide Prevention, Suicide Awareness, Suicide Support - Suicide.org! Suicide.org! Suicide.org! Web. 03 May 2011. <http://www.suicide.org/suicide-causes.html>.

"Causes of Teen Depression - Teen Depression." Teen Depression - Statistics, Prevention, Facts on Teenage Depression. Web. 03 May 2011. <http://www.teendepression.org/info/causes-of-teen-depression/>.

M, Dr. Maisie. "Facts About Teen Suicide: Causes of Teenage Suicide." Buzzle Web Portal: Intelligent Life on the Web. Web. 03 May 2011. <http://www.buzzle.com/articles/facts-about-teen-suicide-causes-of-teenagesuicide.html>.

"Teen Suicide Warning Signs by MedicineNet.com." Web. 03 May 2011. <http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=55145>.

"Warning Signs of Teen Suicide - What to Look For HealthyPlace."HealthyPlace.com - Trusted Mental Health Information and Support - HealthyPlace. Web. 03 May 2011. <http://www.healthyplace.com/depression/suicide/warning-signs-of-teen-suicide-what-to-lookfor/menu-id-68/>.

"Teen Suicide Warning Signs - Teen Suicide." Teen Suicide - Adolescent Suicide Statistics and Prevention.

Web. 03 May 2011. <http://www.teensuicide.us/articles2.html>.

"SADD Statistics." Welcome to SADD. Web. 09 May 2011. <http://www.sadd.org/stats.htm>.

"Teen Drug Abuse - Teen Suicide." Teen Suicide - Adolescent Suicide Statistics and Prevention.

Web. 10 May 2011. <http://www.teensuicide.us/articles7.html>.

"Phoebe Prince, South Hadley High School's 'new Girl,' Driven to Suicide by Teenage Cyber Bullies - New York Daily News." Featured Articles From The New York Daily News. Web. 10 May 2011. <http://articles.nydailynews.com/2010-03-29/news/27060348_1_facebook-town-hall-meetings-schoollibrary>.

"Phoebe Prince Suicide Legacy: Turning the Tide in the Fight against Bullying | Masslive.com."Western Massachusetts Local News, Breaking News, Sports and Weather - MassLive.com. Web. 10 May 2011. <http://www.masslive.com/news/index.ssf/2011/05/phoebe_prince_suicide_legacy_t.html> Gracia, Vicky. "Signs That a Child or Teen Is Being Bullied: Know the Warning Signs." Staten Island Lawyers | Staten Island Accident Attorney | Injury Law | Decker, Decker, Dito & Internicola. 19 Oct. 2010.

Web. 12 May 2011. <http://www.dddilaw.com/blog/signs-that-a-child-or-teen-is-being-bullied-know-thewarning-signs.cfm>.

"Cyberbullying." KidsHealth - the Web's Most Visited Site about Children's Health. Web. 12 May 2011. <http://kidshealth.org/parent/emotions/feelings/cyberbullying.html>.

Sorvese, Mina. "How To Know If Your Teen Is Sexually Active | How To Do Things." How To Do Things Âť How To Articles & How To Videos. Web. 27 May 2011. <http://www.howtodothings.com/family-relationships/how-to-know-if-your-teen-is-sexually-active>.

252 Ian PK Research Craig Butz May 17, 2011 Stem Cell Research: Heavy Impact Throughout all medical pursuits, certain injuries and diseases have been considered dead ends or conditions that have no hope of being cured. However, recent discoveries in Stem Cell research have shown huge potential for a new start in the medical world. Things like spinal cord injuries, blood related diseases, and nerve and tissue disorders are no longer untreatable disorders. Now conditions such as these are subject to the many possibilities of reconstruction that new Stem Cell research has started to provided and continues to provide. However, certain controversy has made stem cell research an ill-informed subject.

The Oxford’s Dictionary definition of a stem cell is: “an undifferentiated cell that can be cultured and divide to produce some offspring cells that continue as stem cells”. When cultured, Stem cells can be modified into a variety of different cells such as blood cells, muscle cells, nerve cells, etc (Slack). This is what makes Stem Cells so unique. For example, say a man has suffered from stroke and now has lost certain nerve reaction in some area. Stem Cells can be cultured to create new, fully functional, nerve cells, which can help rebuild the lost nerve cells in this stroke patient and reinstate nerve reaction in the area where it was lost. Stem Cells can even go as far as reinventing paralyzed features.

In a broad sense, there are three major kinds of stem cells: adult stem cells, embryonic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells. Adult stem cells are stem cells that are fully functioning cells that have a decided factor. For example, a blood cell is an adult stem cell because it has been differentiated into a working cell with a purpose. An embryonic stem cell is taken from the early stages of an embryo, as the name suggests. These cells are undifferentiated and can be placed in a culture to differentiate what kind of cell it will become. A culture is simply a media in which a stem cell is most likely to grow into the cell which the culture promotes. It is obvious that embryonic stem cells are useful because they can become the cell needed in any situation but there is a problem facing this. In some cases such as blood, the human body will reject new cells that are not familiar to the body, which is why certain transfusions are not successful. The cells need to be of similar quality to the previous ones, thereby eradicating the problem and setting forth new, healthy cells. This is why induced pluripotent stem cells are so helpful. These stem cells are adult stem cells that have been re-cultured to create new cells.

However, stem cell research is still in its early stages and many of the world’s diseases and injuries still remain uncured. However, there is no reason for worry. Though no major event such as a cure for diseases like sickle cell anemia has occurred, there have been extreme strides in the research that point to a bright future in biomedical pursuits. Many individual cases have promoted the research, as it has proven to save the lives of many people across the world. There has been no previous medical research that proves to be as significant as the research done on stem cells. They cannot only rebuild, but reinvent. The variety of purposes stem cells have the potential to serve is on a massive scale, far larger than any other medicine or therapy. Cells are the smallest form of life; they are the base that I our bodies are created from. When they start to have problems the body does not supply cells that are more suitable. Stem cells will serve the purpose that your body can no longer do on its own.

One of the first examples of stem cell use was on a young girl named Molly Nash who used stem cells from her brother to correct Fanconi Anemia, a bone marrow disease. The problem with this disease is that it takes a toll on the blood stream and your body only accepts blood that is of the same blood type. Her doctor proposed a seemingly simple concept. To do a bone marrow transplant with already cultured blood stem cells. Since the blood had to be of the same type, he proposed that Molly’s mother and father have a new child and the blood from that child’s umbilical cord could be used to produce stem cells that would later be cultured into the new blood cells that molly so desperately needed. After a few trials the doctor selected the fetus that would best match Molly’s blood type. This new baby brother was born and the transfusion was a success (Furcht and Hoffman). Such instances such as this are setting new standards in the medical world. Stem cells are starting to redefine how devastating certain injuries and diseases can be, but those who oppose it sometimes only see the negative aspects of it instead of the miracles it can produce.

However, the main problem facing stem cell research is moral opposition. Though it does not physically impair the research as of now, some believe that it can pose a threat in future years as the research starts to get more and more intensified (Conklin). Since most Stem cells (Embryonic Stem Cells) are derived from the inner cell mass of a mammalian embryo at an early stage the embryo in turn dies as the stem cells are taken. This gives rise to moral opposition. However, many have misguided conceptions of what stem cell research is in the first place. Stem cell research does not directly play a part in the death of self-sustaining organisms. Some believe that stem cell research encourages abortion. Stem cell research, in the simplest terms, is an undifferentiated cell in a dish and that’s it

253 (Conklin). However, the stem cells that are used are already there. When taking the cells from the clinic where most cells come from, some are left and these cells die. Some see this as immoral because life is being wasted.

However, after hearing this there are still some who see the research as immoral. The main question which is then asked is, when does life truly begin (Conklin)? These cells are not self-sustaining. By many standards an organism or even cell that is not self –sustaining, and therefore is without consciousness, is not considered completely living. Whether this is right or wrong people tend to not realize what stem cell research is striving for.

They do not realize that efforts in stem cell research are efforts to supply life not take it away. Even the cells that are used successfully are not killed. In many cases they are reborn to serve a later purpose (Conklin). By manipulating the smallest form of life (a cell) on a minimal scale, stem cells can then create new life where it is needed.

The majority of this opposition is rooted in faith, culture, or a personal perception of what is morally sound (Furcht and Hoffman). However, certain groups based in religion and cultures are starting to realize the medical potential stem cell research has and are beginning to modify some of their previous positions on the matter. The reason why stem cell research is so complex to judge as moral or immoral is because it in itself is an extremely complex study. Buddhism, the prominent religion in the East where stem cell research is taking great strides, has started to look at the research in another light. Though all Buddhists still think of the human body as a sacred thing that should not be tampered with, stem cell research is favored by the majority because it does not involve the replacement or mutilation of the natural body like an organ transplant does. It simply rebuilds and heals injury, and therefore is supported by many Buddhists for its potential to increase the health of many who use them. Buddhism holds an important opinion concerning medicine in the East, where stem cell research is most thriving (Furcht and Hoffman). The reason why this is important is because if the majority of Buddhists did not agree with stem cell research it could have a large affect on the progression of the research.

Many believe that stem cell research will bring rise to dangerous theories. As it progresses some determine a potential for immunity in the age of bioterrorism which could spawn a variety of problems. Others think progression in stem cell research will bring rise to new major developments in weaponry. However, among these is the main point that brings rise to rebuttal against stem cell research. That is that the use of stem cells disrupts the cycle of life. This theory is mainly held by those who posses what they think is a seemingly sound opinion of morality, but these beliefs are not bound in factual evidence (Furcht and Hoffman). Many are reluctant to realize the fact that you never know where research is going to take us. We don’t yet know everything about stem cells and therefore we can’t predict what it can and can’t produce (Conklin). Any form of biomedical research is extremely complex. The fact that people have personal opinions about it is genuine but letting those opinions affect what have and could be revolutionary discoveries that will save people’s lives in years to come are actions that are themselves immoral.

In conclusion, there is only one logical answer at the time which proves to have most probability for success in the future. The doctors that use stem cells are in need of a source that, while remaining pure, gives stem cells without killing the embryo, the main source of controversy. Therefore, induced pluripotents are the answer.

Induced pluripotents give promise of a source that does not include killing an embryo and has little chance of rejection when re-emplaced because it has come from the person who needs it. Though the research done on Induced Pluripotents is recent, it gives hope for a cause that without it might have succumb to the controversy circling it and lose all that it had potential to give us.

254 Bibliography Furcht, Leo, Hoffman, William. The Stem Cell Dilemma. New York: Arcade Publishing, Inc. Print.

Slack, Jonathan. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 4 Apr. 2011.

“Rensselaer Professor Utilizing New York State Grant to Study Stem cells Deanna Thompson is Working to Develop New Treatments For Brain Injury and Illness.” Expanded Academic ASAP. States News Service, 8 Mar. 2011. Web. 4 Apr. 2011.

“December 6--a three-judge appellate panel hears arguments regarding the legality of federal funding for stem-cell research that uses cells from human embryos.(Brief article).” Expanded Academic ASAP. ResearchTechnology Management, March-April 2011. Web. 4 Apr. 2011.

“How Embryonic Stem Cell Lines are Made.” Dolan DNA Learning Center. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Web, 4 Apr. 2011.

O’Brien, Nancy. “The Catholic Church Must Oppose Embryonic Stem Cell Research.”Gale Opposing Viewpoints in Context. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

“Stem Cells Will Improve Cosmetic Surgery.” Gale Opposing Viewpoints in Context. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

“A Dictionary of Buddhism” Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press, 2003. Web. 2 May. 2011.

"Data on Stem Cell Research Published by S. Sarkar and Colleagues." Stem Cell Week (2011): Web. 2 May. 2011.

“Europe rules against stem-cell patents: work with human embryonic stem cells is 'contrary to ethics'.(EUROPEAN LAW)” Gale Expanded Academic ASAP. Nature, 2011. Web. 2 May. 2011.

255 Joe P Craig Butz Research in the Community April 29th 2011 Mavericks: Heavy Impact Despite the fact that jet skis are harmful to the environment and disturb the peace, a team of volunteer rescuers should be in place on high surf days. Mavericks is one of the most dangerous breaks in the world and, in some cases, it is simply impossible to surf Mavericks without a jet ski. Because of this, jet skis are sometimes an unfortunate necessity.

Surfing on its own is a sport different from any other. In Bruce Jenkin’s words, “the rush of excitement is completely unparalleled, it’s like nothing you can find on land” (Jenkins). Surfing is so different from other sports because it is one, performed in the water, and two, performed on a moving object. In a sport similar to surfing, such as skate boarding or snowboarding, you can look at the terrain you will cover and size it up. In surfing, the wave forms behind you, “there’s nothing quite like sitting there and having a wave approach you, sizing it up, using you knowledge, figuring out if its something you can ride, something that might kill you, something you have to run from, or something you can attack” (Jenkins). However, this applies to all kinds of surfing. And a regular surfer watching big wave surfers “is like a regular skier watching the Olympic downhill” (Jenkins).

Jeff Clark was the pioneer of Mavericks. He first paddled out to Mavericks in 1975 (Mavericks) Apart from Jeff Clark and a few of his friends, no big wave surfers believed in Mavericks. They thought that there was no Hawaii sized wave in California. This was the common belief until 1990 when a picture of Mavericks was published in Surfer magazine (Mavericks). In 1994 Mavericks was given credibility when famous Hawaiian surfers Mark Foo, Ken Bradshaw, Brock Little, Mike Parsons, and Evan Slater flew into California from Hawaii to surf at Mavericks (Mavericks). Mark Foo died that same day on an average wipeout on a midsized wave (Mavericks). This gave Mavericks its notorious reputation in the surf community (Riding Giants). There is a way to prevent deaths at Mavericks. Unfortunately, this salvation comes at a cost. Jet skis, while helping surfers, can damage ecosystems.

Although any motor vehicle can have an effect on an aquatic ecosystem, jet skis pose more of a problem than other motor boats. John Kelly, an Audubon Biologist stated that his "soon-to-be published data which destroy the myth that the impacts of PWC's are no worse than those of motor boats" (PCW in Monterey Bay). Sarah Allen says that with jet skis, “the combination of speed, getting in close [to the shore], and noise levels… disturbs wildlife” (Allen). The area around Mavericks is home to a number of different species of birds and aquatic mammals. Sarah Allen, a biologist who works with the Point Reyes national wilderness, says that, “birds foraging might be disturbed by jet skis going through the foraging area” (Allen). The combination of the dangers jet skis pose to the environment and the amount of wildlife at Mavericks make jet skis at Mavericks a major concern.

Despite the vast power of Mavericks, a large amount of wildlife still resides and forages there. Sarah Allen says that, “[she] would expect that [when animals are] there foraging, a large swell would not make a difference” (Allen). Many surfers believe that there are no animals in the vicinity of Mavericks, after all, what would want to go near such a destructive force. This, however, is incorrect. Sarah Allen says that, “seals and seabirds prefer to forage around areas that are complex and Mavericks is very complex” (Allen). Even though there may not appear to be animals on the surface, many are feeding out of sight on the bottom. Although there can be consequences for marine mammals and birds living and foraging around Mavericks, jet skis need to be legal to rescue surfers because of the many dangers present at Mavericks. Most surfers say that Mavericks is even more dangerous than its traditional Hawaiian counterparts (Riding Giants).

Big wave surfing at Mavericks is similar to Hawaiian big wave surfing in some ways, but is also much more dangerous. In both Hawaii and Mavericks the waves are massive and powerful. No matter where the wave is, “when you fall… the consequences are unbelievable” (Jenkins). However, there are several key differences between Mavericks and Hawaii that make Mavericks more dangerous. The first of these reasons is the water temperature. In Hawaii, “the water… is extremely warm, you can be out there in a pair of trunks and never get cold… as opposed to having to put on a wetsuit” (Jenkins). The frigid water of the Pacific Ocean numbs unprotected limbs. In order to avoid hypothermia, surfers wear wetsuits. While wetsuits keep the surfer warm, they can limit maneuverability. In addition, the cold water makes Mavericks a less inviting break than many Hawaiian ones.

A second, although minor danger, are sharks. In the words of Bruce Jenkin’s, a reporter at the SF Chronicle, “There’s also a heavy shark element… Its not like we’ve lost anyone to a shark attack but their have been some shark incidents there, I mean were living right in the middle of the red triangle” (Jenkins). While there have been no shark attacks at Mavericks, surfers have been attacked at other breaks which makes a shark attack a possibility.

256 Perhaps the most dangerous difference between Mavericks and Hawaii, is the light: “In Hawaii you can see where the lights coming from, you can see the whitewater… whereas if you go down at Mavericks you can’t see anything you don’t know where you are, it’s just complete utter blackness and freezing water” (Jenkins). When a surfer falls in Hawaii, it is dangerous. They can become disoriented when tumbling in the whitewater of a broken wave. This is the same at Mavericks. However at Mavericks, as opposed to Hawaii, surfers only have one thing to re-orient themselves with. In Hawaii, a surfer can simply open his eyes and he will know what direction to swim. At Mavericks, the surfer must rely on his leash, which is both his greatest friend and enemy.

While a leash (a cord that attaches the surfer to his board) can pull him toward the surface and orient him, it can also become trapped on the bottom and cause his demise (Riding Giants). When the first death at Mavericks occurred, it was because the surfer, Mark Foo’s, leash became trapped in the bottom, causing him to drown. This supports removing the leash from big wave surfing. But this would only cause more deaths. Many surfers have claimed that despite the leashes dangers, without them they would not have been able to tell which direction was up after being tumbled around in the whitewater. Without their leashes, they say they would have died. Jet skis can help negate all of these dangers by pulling people out of the water when they surface and prevent them from being forced back down.

In the history of Mavericks, only two people have died, “in more than twenty years only two lives have been lost and there would be a whole lot more without the assistance of jet skis” (Jenkins). These two surfers were Mark Foo, and Sion Milosky. Mark Foo was an accomplished Hawaiian big wave surfer working regaining big wave surfing’s former popularity died on his first day at Mavericks when his leash became trapped on the bottom (Riding Giants). Sion Milosky had already surfed big waves all over the world. He died in a routine crash at Mavericks when he was held down by the huge power of the waves.

There are both advantages and disadvantages to tow in surfing, a style of surfing designed for waves to big to traditionally paddle into that involves a surfer being pulled into waves on a jet ski. One advantage is that, “when your tow in surfing if you’re the rider and you go down, your partner, aboard a jet ski whose driving is automatically in position to go in and rescue you” (Jenkins). Tow in surfers always have someone nearby watching them so that if they fall they can get pulled out of the water fairly easily. But while tow in surfing is valuable for safety, it also has its disadvantages. One of these is people who tow in surf onto small waves (60 feet or less). Although tow in surfing makes it easy to catch waves, “it disrupts the tranquility, the silence, the sound of just the waves” (Jenkins).

Because of the noise, some big wave surfers strongly oppose tow in surfing in any situation, but most just oppose tow in surfing when it is not absolutely necessary. The ease of tow in surfing is another reason that some surfers are opposed to it. When tow in surfing you are pulled behind a jet ski, already standing up, and then released into the wave; “If you stand up on water skis at Tahoe you can get towed into an eighty foot wave” (Jenkins). At Mavericks, when one person is paddle in surfing no one can tow in surf. And when people are paddle in surfing, “jet skis in the channel are just invaluable” (Jenkins). However, the presence of jet skis should not encourage people to surf at Mavericks. Bruce Jenkins says that, “nobody should think that just because there are jet skis in the water you can go out there and try to perform in stuff that surpasses your limitations.” If you want to surf at Mavericks, you should feel confident surfing it without the aid of jet skis.

The Surfers believe that when the waves are big, safety should take priority over anything else. There are only about six to ten big surf days a year, but on those days Bruce Jenkins says, “that the safety factor overrides everything” (Jenkins). Despite the fact that there is a $500 fine for jet skis, some surfers go out on them just to save lives. Jeff Clark, the surfer that pioneered Mavericks; and Frank Queret, a big wave surfer that frequents mavericks, “like to go out and hang around in the channel and perform rescues” (Jenkins). This, however, is sometimes not enough. Bruce Jenkins says that, “[Sion Milosky] could have been saved if there had been jet skis in the channel specifically there to rescue people” (Jenkins).

Jet skis are illegal because of their affect on the wildlife around Mavericks, Bruce Jenkins says, “I just refuse to believe that wildlife is endangered in any kind of big wave circumstance because their just using their natural abilities to get out of there, they’re not hanging around in a cascading 70 foot wall of water” (Jenkins).

When Mavericks is breaking, animals tend to be absent. Frank Queret, a Mavericks surfer who sometimes goes out on a jet ski solely for the purpose of rescue, stated his position on whether jet skis should be allowed at Mavericks: “The PWC technology is getting cleaner and quieter everyday. The opponents have no argument but old outdated studies not conducted in the MBNMS. If there was any damage being done by PWC's the evidence would be obvious. Fish population, wildlife etc. The area is prospering with all of these things.

The fact is, there are only a handful of PWC's that operate in the Mavericks area and that's only in the winter time. That is a fact. With a little education and designated PWC zones this problem would be solved.

But for some reason we just can't get there” (PCW in Monterey BaY)

257 Jet skis should be legal for tow in and rescue purposes on high surf days. On these days, safety should take priority over everything. By allowing jet skis for all purposes the National Marine Sanctuary would both improve safety and promote Mavericks as a break. On high surf days, it is nearly impossible to surf Mavericks without the aid of a jet ski for tow in purposes. By allowing jet skis for this purpose, the marine sanctuary would not only enable surfers to surf Mavericks, but also aid with their safety. Jet skis should be legal for rescue purposes because it would save lives. Even though jet skis can be harmful to the environment, human lives should take priority.

Bibliography Stienstra, Tom. "PWC ban passed for Farallones." San Francisco Chronicle 16 Sept. 2001: B9. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Jenkins, Bruce. "Watercraft give Mavericks surfers false security." San Francisco Chronicle. SFGate, 2 Feb. 2011.

Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Dixon, Chris. " King of Big Waves Puts Attention Back on Paddle Surfing." New York Times. New York Times, 20 Jan. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Upton, John. "Illegal Craft Saves Surfer’s Life, Renewing the Attack on a Ban." The Bay Citizen. New York Times, 29 Jan. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Jenkins, Bruce. " Mavericks: Surfer Sion Milosky remembered." San Francisco Chronicle. SFGate, 18 Mar. 2011.

Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Jenkins, Bruce. " Surfing champ Kelly Slater returns to Maverick's." San Francisco Chronicle. SFGate, 1 Dec. 2010.

Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Riding Giants. Agi Orsi et al, 2004. DVD. “PCW in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary.” Surfrider. Surfrider. Web. 27, Mar. 2011.

“Mavericks.” Surfline. Surfline. Web. 7, Jun. 2011.

258 Jessica R Craig Butz Research in the community B Block 5/9/11 Twins: The struggle for Individuality During the years of adolescence, many teens are making the common decision of where to go to high school, and are on the verge of discovering their identities. Although this pertains to most individuals, twins are affected particularly. Because of their similarities, constant competition, and dependence on one another, twins are often struggling to achieve individuality. Therefore, they should develop their own identities by separating their education, and attending different high schools.

Every 1 in 80 births results in a set of twins (Pearlman). And like siblings, the relationship between twins is both a bond and a rivalry. Twins are extremely close and share a special bond, yet need to be their own person, establishing their identity. This is proven difficult because again like siblings, twins are compared by others.

However, the forms of contrasting are more severe. This is because twins are the same age, have similar characteristics, and are programmed to have a similar intellectual capacity. Yet despite their frequent labeling from others, twins share a special relationship; a permanent best friend (Parent & Child; Confirmed: A Sibling is a Plus).To each other, a twin is someone in which they can trust, and depend on, a friend who has been there from the start. Although many twin relationships are both a bond of friendship and a struggle for individuality, no sibling relationship is set, and the factors that define the relationship are shaped within the family, and by the environment and factors within their lives (The Joys and Complexities of Sibling Relationships).

Though it is often unaccounted for, the main conflict within the twin relationship is the struggle to create one’s identity. One of the reasons that twins lack individuality can be traced back to genetics. Having identical DNA, twins are programmed to have similar interests and likes. However, when too much time is spent together, both siblings become more and more alike, as they continue to keep each other company. This is because twins, already so similar, are influenced by their surroundings and environment (Sociology: The Basics). Being so alike, each twin is not able to create their own interests, or strive for individuality, which twins need. For instance, in talking about why she decided to live separately from her sister, an adult twin stated, “I think we're just so much alike that it is like losing a sense of self into this other person, and so you just have to sort of back up, because this person is - well we're just so much alike in so many ways" (Ainslie 83). Though some twins, already in adulthood, have the decision to be kept apart, many teen twins are unaware of the sociological effects of their constant company, which could lead to more serious issues later in life (The Joys and Complexities of Sibling Relationships.

While constantly keeping each other company and becoming more and more similar, twins begin to rely on one another in different situations. This is because spending more time together; they strengthen their already close bond, becoming extremely comfortable with one another (A; Confirmed: A Sibling Is a Plus). Dependence on one another can be especially apparent within social directions (Parent & Child). For example, When talking about starting a new school with her twin, Dianne said, “I think the most important thing to me in terms of dependency was Debbie’s presence in social situations, just for her to be there; and especially when we were kids, she was much more easily likeable with other people and I was kind of shy so that kind of took the pressure off of me, that I didn’t have to stand alone” (Ainslie 86). Though it appears to be minor, dependence of twins on one another defines a more serious issue. When twins rely on one another constantly, what is really happening is the two together are becoming one. The lack of independence and reliance on one another suggests that each twin is half a person, and needs the other to survive. However, this is not true, and weakens the identity of each twin. Just because another was there at birth, it does not mean that you cannot create your own identity, and be your own person.

The struggle for individuality as a twin is tough. However, the environment in which twins are placed in, play a key role to developing a lack of identity. This includes their family, friends, school mates, teachers, etc.

Having a twin within the community, many often view them as a set, a unit, rather than individuals. “People expect them to be the same,” Says Dr. Norman Epstein, an associate professor of family and community development at the university of Maryland and College Park. “They pay more attention to similarities than differences” (quoted In Kutner). With others pointing out the differences, the twins develop a label rather than an identity. This also creates pressure to be more alike. For instance, in an interview, in talking about her childhood and family life, one twin stated, “I remember when the family used to call me ‘dumb’. I keep referring back to this, I don’t know why” (Ainslie 97). Calling out the differences, both twins are pressured to act more similar, thus losing individuality.

Because identity for twins is not normally encouraged within the community, twins struggle to develop their own identity while attempting to please others and fit in.

The constant labeling of twins by others within the community can also create conflict within the special relationship that twins hold. Being called “The Smart Twin” or “The Popular Twin” puts immense pressure on the

259 twin labeled negatively. Being degraded, he or she must work their way up to fit the standards of their twin as well.

This creates tension within the relationship, for the unpopular twin could feel jealous, or negatively towards the other, thus creating a bridge of competition. Although those who point out differences are unaware of the instability it can cause the relationship and self esteem of each twin, comparing and pointing out the negative differences can cause twins to be shaky with other relationships, with the worrying thought of being labeled as inferior to the other.

For Instance, one twin stated, “I was very afraid of [twin sibling] getting another close friend because then I would feel like she was going to forget about me; so I would do these vicious things trying to steal her friends away” (Ainslie 87). Around the world, twins are portrayed and encouraged to look, and act identical. However, within the community, their differences are confronted in a negative way, damaging the individuality and morality of the twin relationship (Sociology: The Basics). Being a twin within the community is a struggle, it is the process of attempting to define one’s identity and fit in to the crowd. However, there is a solution.

In order to solve the struggles of competition and individuality, it comes to a conclusion that twins must be separated. Though this sounds harsh, there is a compromise. To separate, yet preserve the special bond held between twins, teen twins can attend separate high schools. Doing so, this will benefit twins in four ways.

Firstly, each twin will be in a different environment. Having similar DNA, each twin will be able to develop their own sets of interests, rather than becoming more similar with one another. Being around different people, places, and things can alter the lifestyle and development of each twin(Choosing a School: Considering Your Child’s Needs), which is beneficial because having different interests, friends, and values, will differentiate one twin from the other, allowing the twin some time to discover who he/she is, and develop his/her identity.

Secondly, separation will prevent each twin from depending on one another. Going to different schools, they will no longer be with their twin and will start to become independent (Ainslie). Taking classes, and making new friends, each twin will learn how to develop skills without depending on another. Furthermore, both siblings will no longer feel like half a person, who needs the other to survive, but a whole person their selves. This is especially important because as you grow older and into adulthood, you cannot always expect to depend on your sibling, which is why the teenage years are a beneficial time to make a change.

Thirdly, because the twins will not be together within the environment, people within the environment will not feel the urge to compare, or point out differences between the set of twins. In fact, some at school may not even have the knowledge that one has a twin sibling. This provides each twin a chance to start over, and create their own identity, without bearing the weight or fear that they will be judged for their mishaps.

Most importantly, both twins will be able to achieve their own identity. Beginning at a high school, each twin will soon develop their own set of friends, interests, take different classes, yet will still be able to share a friendship with their sibling. Attending different high school should provide a chance for teen twins to gain interests and confidence during the day, and spend time with one another after school and on weekends.

However, there are a few downsides to this possible solution. The most obvious would be the challenge of attending school separately. For example, the family with twins may not be able to fit driving to two different schools into their schedule. It is most important, that when choosing a school, the decision being made is suitable for both the child and parent. Depending on the child's interests, values, and personality, a school can be chosen from there. For example, if a child is quiet, they might do better in a smaller school, which will encourage them to socialize more. However, if they are artistic or sporty, it is good to choose a school that is strong in these areas (Choosing a School: Considering Your Child’s Needs; How to Choose a Good High School).

The psychological challenges may be tough at first for each twin to accustom to. Because they may not be used to being independent over their homework, classes, and social lives, some teen twins may be stressed out or struggle with dependency, which they will soon grow accustomed to. However when at school, some twins may feel as if they are misunderstood, because most are unaware of their being a twin. Though they may struggle from time to time, achieving independence, and developing an identity, is a process of growing up which not all twins have the opportunity to do within the community.

260 Bibliography Albrow, Martin. Sociology: the Basics. London, 1999. Questia. Web. 4 May 2011.

A, Jesse. Personal Interview. 5 May 2011.

Ainslie, Ricardo, The Psychology of Twinship. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985. Print.

“Choosing a School: Considering Your Child’s needs.” Greatschools. Armchair press, 10 May 2005. Web. 2 May 2011.

“Confirmed: a Sibling is a Plus.” The New York Times. 4 June 1992. Web. 5 May 2011.

H, James. Personal Interview. 5 May 2011.

“How to Choose a Good High School.” Dictionary M articles. 12 Feb. 2010. Web. 5 May 2011.

“PARENT & CHILD.”The New York Times. 11 July 1991. Web. 2 May 2011.

Pearlman, Eileen. Personal Interview. 11 May 2011.

“Rush hour: Sacred Heart twins spell double trouble.”Mainline Media News. 12 Jan. 2011. Web. 2 May 2011.

“Siblings: Growing Up and Closer.”The New York Times. 25 July 1991. Web. 5 May 2011.

“Sibling-Order Effects.”Sulloway. 2001. Web. 4 May 2011.

“The Joys and Complexities of Sibling Relationships.”Adoption.com. 23 Apr. 1997. Web. 7 May 2011.

261

Anna S Research in the Community Final Research Paper 5.31.2011 A Fight for Energy It is no secret that the United States’ energy consumption rates are exorbitant. We import 57.02 billion kilowatts of electricity and consume 3.873 trillion kilowatts. We lead the world in electricity consumption. Every day, we consume 18.69 million barrels of oil; no other country uses as much oil as we do (World). An even greater surge in energy consumption can be expected as other nations industrialize, in hopes of sharing the U.S’s world economic leadership. In addition to increased industrialization, the world population is expanding. In “1950, the world had 2.5 billion people; and in 2005, the world had 6.5 billion people. By 2050, this number could rise to more than 9 billion” (Population). As the world’s population grows, the demand for energy will only expand. The combination of growing worldwide industrial development, burgeoning world population, and increasing energy demand, is resulting in huge environmental problems, with global climate change the dominate one. These environmental problems are catastrophic. Greenhouse gasses, emitted from fossil fuels exploited to meet high energy demands, are the major contributor to this climate change problem. In the 1940’s, nuclear power, an alternate to fossil fuels, was developed in response to increasing energy demands.

Even though much fear surrounds the use of nuclear fission reactors, especially in response to the recent Fukishima reactor accident, one fact can’t be ignored. That is, that no greenhouse emissions result from the use of nuclear reactors. This power source is a remedy to climate change, will free world wide dependence on hydrocarbons, and can meet energy consumption standards. Until safe and sustainable energy sources are developed that can meet the ever increasing energy demands of our growing world, nuclear power is the best interim solution for the necessary transition away from use of fossil fuels toward more sustainable, renewable solutions.

A huge contributor to climate change is the exploitation of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels trap green house gases that upset the delicate chemical balance in our atmosphere. In fact, “over the length of [a 20 year] study, the ice caps have lost an average combined mass of 475 gigatons per year (1 gigaton = 1 billion metric tons). Over the course of the study, that number has risen by 36.3 gigatons for each consecutive year on average” (Gabel). “The resulting calculations find that sea levels could rise 12.6 inches by 2050” (Zelman). The effects might not be obvious every day, but “U.N. reports have predicted that because of climate change, the world will have 50 million environmental refugees by 2020. That’s less than 10 years from now” (Zelman). “About 25% of the global carbon dioxide released to the atmosphere is caused by electricity generation using fossil fuels” (Candu). Climate change needs to be addressed.

Nuclear power remedies our needs for clean air and high energy usage. The Prime Minister of France, Nikolas Sarkozy said, “For France, civil nuclear power is an essential component of our energy independence and the fight against green house gases” (International). Nuclear fights climate change because it does not “burn hydrocarbons when generating electricity, so [it does not] produce any greenhouse gases or combustion byproducts” (Institute). In fact, nuclear power plants prevent the amount of nitrogen oxide that 29 million cars would spew into the atmosphere every year (Institute). The USA’s clean air sources amount to more than a quarter of our energy consumption and nuclear power produces almost 70% of that energy (Institute). MIT conducted a study about nuclear power described as “the most comprehensive, interdisciplinary study ever conducted on the future of nuclear energy". The conclusion of that study was that “the nuclear option should be retained precisely because it is an important carbon-free source of power” (Deutch). Nuclear energy has been recognized scientifically and politically as a plausible, logical solution to the climate change. Nuclear power’s ability to provide clean energy is an impetus to move away from hydrocarbons.

Nuclear power is the most energy efficient fuel. Nuclear power surpasses coal’s energy capabilities. Energy density is very important when weighing one fuel against another. When a fuel is more energetically dense, it yields more units of energy per unit of mass; a very good thing. Nuclear fuel is a million times more powerful than hydrocarbons, meaning its energy density is much higher (A.J. Simon). This translates into fewer units of mass to extract the same amount of energy. For example, “The energy from one CANDU(certain type of reactor) fuel bundle would require 400 tons of coal or 270,000 liters of oil or 300 million liters of natural gas” (Candu). Because uranium can yield more energy than coal, the infrastructure needed to process and manage nuclear is smaller per unit energy than coal (A.J. Simon). In conclusion, the greater the energy density, the fewer roads, plants and general infrastructure a country would need to process the fuel to receive the same amount of energy.

The energy pay back for nuclear power (i.e., the ratio between the electricity produced and the energy used to generate this electricity) makes it a more plausible solution to our high energy demands than fossil fuels. A.J.

262 Simon, an Assistant Energy Analyst at the Lawrence Livermore National Lab says the energy pay back for nuclear is very high. The numbers do more than just support that statement. “For conventional coal-fired generation, the performance (from 2.5 to 5.1) is greatly affected by transportation of the coal, while nuclear has an energy pay back of 14 or 16” (Electricity). Nuclear power’s energy pay back isn’t just 14 or 16 times as great as the energy it consumes to produce that fuel, it also is more than three times as great as the energy pay back for coal. Uranium fuel’s first cycle through a reactor yields lots of energy, but even more can be extracted from waste.

Reprocessing waste is an efficient way of extracting more energy from fuel and is employed in other countries. In the reprocessing of fuel, uranium and plutonium are recovered (Processing). Reprocessing gains “25% more energy from the original uranium process” (Process). This process, used in France and Japan, yields 2-3 times as much energy as not reprocessing the fuel (A.J. Simon). To put that amount into perspective, the energy given from reprocessing “could conceivably run the US reactor fleet of about 100 [general watts] for almost 30 years without new uranium input”(Process). Also, CANDU reactors can run on reprocessed waste, and “fuel reprocessing is not needed, so costs, facilities and waste disposal associated with reprocessing are avoided” (CANDU).

Reprocessing fuel makes nuclear even more sustainable because it can prolong the use of a bundle of uranium rods.

With all these nuclear advances, we can still improve. A.J. Simon comments, “To some extent we are very inefficient…We only extract bout 1% of the available energy.” Imagine if we could extract even 5% of available energy. This is already becoming a more tangible reality with Fast Breeder reactors and Candu reactor technology.

Not only is nuclear power energy efficient, it is economically efficient. Nuclear cost efficiency doesn’t mean anything unless it is compared to how we are currently spending our money on energy. “External costs, evaluated as part of life cycle assessment, strongly favor nuclear over coal-fired generation” (Process). The cost of one nuclear power plant can reach 10 billion dollars, but “the economic penalties of America's oil dependence total $297.2 to $304.9 billion annually” (Real). We could be investing those billions of dollars spent on foreign oil into a domestic energy that would pay itself back, feeding our economy (Real). In addition to saving money over time, Candu reactors don’t need enriched uranium, so they cut costs there, and they can reprocess fuel from other reactors (Candu). Though nuclear power requires more money up front and requires a shift from coal to become economically plausible, in the long term it will pay itself off and remedy our need for more energy. Nuclear power is a much better fuel source because it is more energy dense, which means fewer infrastructures needed to produce the fuel; it has a huge energy pay back, and it is becoming more efficient through new technology and reprocessing.

Nuclear power is party so controversial because of safety and health concerns. These concerns are valid because nuclear energy can be very dangerous, but the question of safety is very complex. If we were to switch from coal to nuclear power, one of the reasons for that switch would be nuclear energy production is safer. Helen Caldicott, a Nobel Peace Prize winner and famous for her opposition to nuclear power said, “It’s an easy leap …to agreements about safety of nuclear energy compared to coal”, but she doesn’t think it’s a valid one. The burning of coal has many byproducts including soot that is trapped in our lungs, mercury and chlorine that poison our body, and a constant spew of radioactive particles that we breathe into our body every day and give us cancer (A.J. Simon). On the other hand, every couple of decades we have a nuclear disaster that spreads radioactive particles and gases across the world. In response to Ms. Caldicott, it’s not an easy decision between these two energy sources.

Ms. Caldicott also states that “nuclear power is neither clean nor sustainable, nor an alternative to fossil fuels” (Caldicott). However, after burning coal for 200 years and not containing the harmful byproducts, there is mounting evidence that poor air quality has contributed to glacier melt, increased cancer, asthma rates and other respiratory diseases. Nuclear power provides a partial solution. Nuclear energy does not spew mercury or chlorine or soot. Relying on nuclear power as a major source of energy requires companies to be more careful than they can afford to be with less energy dense fuels. As Paul Doherty, a nuclear engineer and esteemed teacher said, without accidents nuclear energy is much cleaner and more sustainable than other forms of energy. For a society to reap the huge health and safety benefits from nuclear power compared to hydrocarbons, potential accidents have to be reduced.

The science behind reactor technology is not the factor that causes meltdowns. There are many technologies that prevent the uranium rods from breaking and reaching a critical mass which causes an explosion.

The first precaution that is taken is protecting the plant from the environmental stresses. In California, scientists predict that we will have a maximum of an 8.3 quake, and our reactors are built to with stand that. In the event that the structural integrality of the reactor and plant are compromised the reactors must stop creating heat. One way is to stop the uranium from undergoing fission. This is done through a ‘scram’. A scram is a sudden reactor shutdown; “when a reactor is scrammed automatically due to seismic activity, or due to some malfunction, … the fission reaction generating the main heat stops” (Safety). Generation Four (and some G3s) reactors will do this. A scram takes no human to assess whether the reactors were too hot; the reactor would do it its self. The problem is that this safer containment is more expensive. In the horrific event of a nuclear meltdown were the scram did fail, and

263 dangerous amounts of hydrogen and radioactive particles increase, threating to explode, the hydrogen can be absorbed by a plutonium sponge. (Paul Doherty). Other safety measures are pebble bed reactors and ceramic casings. The ceramic melts at such a high temperature that if the coolant stopped flowing it would get very hot but not melt, unlike zirconium encasements. These technologies ensure that populations are protected from nuclear contaminates.

Currently, corporations, the owners of many plants in the United States, don’t employ these safe technologies as ubiquitously as they should. Safe equipment and designs simply cost money. By buying safer reactors and new renovations, corporations don’t get the money invested in the plant back as quickly.

Unfortunately, it is possible that the same people who are controlling the banks and mortgages are the same people who are controlling the nuclear power plants. (Paul Doherty).

The probability of having a devastating disaster increases with corporate utilities owning nuclear plants.

Paul Doherty notes that the problem is nuclear power is expense. Plants can cost up to 10 billion dollars (Facts).

Corporations want to do things as cheaply as they can; they don’t want to spend even more money on safer designs and competent engineers.

The Fukushima Diachii disaster is a prime example of short cuts that end up in disasters.

Again, Paul Doherty comments: Before the Fukushima Disaster, there were other problems with management, such as engineers mixing two types of uranium in the open bucket. The uranium in the bucket reached a critical mass and was very dangerous. That should have been a sign that there were big problems with management at that plant.

Maybe if these problems had been addressed, the damages and response to the disaster would have been lessened.

The good news is that in the USA has the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. This commission oversees the plants in USA and does a good job, and the NRC can force the owners of the plants to make it as safe as it needs to be.

Though for corporations can contribute to the severity of the disaster, governments bares the cost for disaster clean up. In the case of Japan, the government will have to pay 300 billion dollars in clean up costs (Lewis).

Even though, privately owned utilities don’t do enough to prevent costly disasters, the government must pay the reparations.

Waste is another controversial issue. In the USA, there is about 100,000 tons of waste. That sounds like a lot but compare to oil mined, then it sounds much smaller. We also contain the waste in a very safe way (A.J. Simon), unlike hydrocarbons. Many layers contain the radioactive waste; the logic behind controlling waste is “concentrate-and-contain, dilute-and-disperse, delay-and-decay” (Waste). Waste is contained in the following manner: “Immobilize waste in an insoluble matrix, eg borosilicate glass, Synroc (or leave them as uranium oxide fuel pellets - a ceramic). Seal inside a corrosion-resistant container, eg stainless steel. Surround containers with bentonite clay to inhibit any groundwater movement if the repository is likely to be wet. Locate deep underground in a stable rock structure” (Waste).

All of these protective barriers and precautions would have to broken or disabled and the level of radioactivity would have to be quite high, meaning that the waste was recently buried, to eradiate sounding environments and communities of people (Waste). Though there is a small chance of leakage, Candu reactors can reduce the amount of waste (CANDU).The bigger concern is the corporations owning the plants and disposing of the waste reasonably (Paul Doherty).

As touched upon before, the United States has the NRC to oversee the nuclear power plants. To prevent corporations from cutting costs, governments should subsidize safety precautions with help from NRC. These subsidies can be derived from a decreased financial dependence on oil. On a greater scale, an international organization of scientific specialists and governmental leaders should work with the UN to oversee nuclear power plants in all countries.

Another factor holding the US back from greater nuclear dependence is public perception. Public perception has been a problem regarding nuclear proliferation. This is due to politics and media. Paul Doherty says that the media is partly at fault for the discrepancy between public opinion and fact. The media is always looking to show the danger in something and, even though about 95% of scientists would say that nuclear is relatively safe, the news media is trained to take both sides and represent them equally (Paul Doherty). For example, Naoto Kan’s, the prime minister of Japan, reaction to the nuclear disaster was dictated by public perception. Mr. Kan first wanted to retreat from the use of nuclear power, but then changed his mind. Just a few weeks ago “Mr. Kan said Japan remained committed to nuclear power. [his previous] … pull back may be driven partly by public opinion which has significantly soured on nuclear power since the Fukushima accident” (Frackler). How can we expect governments to make the right and safe decisions when politics are solely at the whim of public opinion and not science? To fix the capacious nature of public opinion, the public must be more informed about the radioactivity and how nuclear plants

264 work. If international proliferation happens, the nuclear power’s advantages and dangers should be addressed in public schools and information should become more available to the public.

Nuclear terrorism is a legitimate, serious drawback to nuclear power, but it can be addressed. Though nuclear power plants are not synonymous with nuclear bombs, the chemical reaction in both are the same. The reaction happening inside a plant is much smaller than what is happening in a bomb. A uranium rod in a reactor is only about 2% uranium, and the reaction is controlled by coolant and control rods. The purpose of nuclear energy production for public use is for the energy generated to be controlled and absorbed into a useable power. The purpose of a bomb is the opposite. It is meant to be more devastative than anything a nuclear plant could be. They are very different technologies. But what is inside the bomb and the reactor can be very similar. Nuclear bombs can only use enriched uranium, and most nuclear reactors can only use enriched uranium as well. It is possible that countries could masquerade nuclear bomb production sites as nuclear power plants, and import enriched uranium without drawing international attention. But, with stronger UN presence and the use of Candu reactors that risk can be greatly reduced. Candu reactors require un-enriched uranium for fuel, and cannot be used as nuclear weapons (Candu). The UN must mandate that unstable or threatening countries can only use Candu reactor technology. This would encourage clean energy while keeping the international community safer. In addition, just by giving unstable countries nuclear technologies would not compromise the USA’s safety. We should replace our oil dependency with a cleaner reliance on nuclear because “over the last 30 years we have spent 7 trillion dollars on oil from countries that are politically unstable or on bad relations with the US” (Real). By funding these countries, we are putting ourselves in danger. We need to abandon oil and therefore, financially encourage untrustworthy nations to replace oil with Candu- technology reactors.

Though nuclear power presences dangers, with the correct legislation and international awareness nuclear can be very safe. Firstly, safe locations are critical when planning the construction of plants. They should not be within 10 miles of major cities (Paul Doherty), nor should they be on earthquake fault lines. Secondly, because large corporations cannot be trusted with buying essential safety technology, as the USA lowers its dependency on oil, that money can be used to subsidize safe technologies. Thirdly, the UN must take a strong stance on protecting the world community from nuclear terrorism and the unsafe, badly managed plants. The UN must hold international conferences with doctors, politicians and scientists, while Candu reactor technology is spread. Finally, education will end the discrepancies between public opinion and fact. Teaching energy production and advantages and dangers of modes of energy is crucial for a more informed generation. If implemented, these amendments can make nuclear very sustainable, safe solution to the world’s energy dilemma.

Nuclear is only an interim solution. No matter how safe and sustainable nuclear is, it still presences problems that renewable sources, like solar and wave powered energy, don’t. Nuclear provides enough power to make a realistic start converting to electric cars and to safely, economically reduce our energy consumptions.

Though solar and wave are safer and more sustainable than nuclear, they cannot produce enough energy to meet our high consumption standards. Until we lower those demands, we cannot make a complete switch to renewable.

Nuclear is the purgatory energy between fossil fuels and renewable. Most importantly, we must invest in find more, creative ways to produce energy.

In conclusion, Nuclear energy is our best solution to transition from hydrocarbons to clean renewable sources. We are past due for saving the planet, it has all ready been too damaged and its time the world community starts being more proactive. Nuclear power is a good start. Nuclear will never be as clean as solar, but it is cleaner than hydrocarbons. Nuclear is a strong temporary solution.

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266 Shawn S Craig Butz Research in the Community – B Block 5/11/11 Concussions: Heavy Impact The increase in concussions has been a major problem for the safety of the players in the NFL. More and more players at the professional level are receiving concussions and are forced to sit out. The NFL has tried to crack down on this problem by fining and suspending players who give heavy hits and cause someone to have a concussion. What people don’t know is that high school players are suffering the same problem with even more drawbacks than the professional players. The number of concussions in high school athletes is staggering. Around 43,000 to 67,000 high school football players suffer concussions each year (Medley) and the numbers continue to increase due to athletes getting bigger and stronger which results in higher forces in contact and more injuries (Saglimbeni). This statistic needs to go down. High school players need to be protected from getting concussions because it ultimately affects them later on in their life. And although football is an extremely physical sport and injuries, specifically concussions, are bound to happen, the increase of concussions indicates that there need to be adjustments made to try and prevent them.

Concussions are serious injuries that affect players not only in the short term, but ultimately in the long term as well. Concussions occur when the head accelerates rapidly and then stops, or is spun rapidly (“Head Injuries”). Some of the short term symptoms of concussions include: confusion, blurred vision, memory loss, nausea, and sometimes unconsciousness (“Head Injuries”). Although the short term effects are serious, it is the long term effects that have been proven to have an even bigger impact on the players’ lives. Players who have had concussions in their careers have shown signs that their past concussions affect them even after they’ve stopped playing. These long term symptoms include learning disorders, difficulty concentrating, depression, and chronic headaches (Saglimbeni). Dan Bunz, former San Francisco 49ers linebacker, is an example of these serious symptoms affecting the life of an athlete now. Just now realizing he had sustained several concussions in his career, he worries these previous concussions are affecting him now: “I’m nervous about it…It worries me, because I’m forgetting more things recently. I can remember what I did in high school and the NFL, but sometimes I can’t remember what I did yesterday or today” (qtd. in Kroichick). All around him, he hears of former players having brain damage or committing suicide, and it scares him. Bunz’s experience is one that many other players are also facing due to the long term effects of concussions. With the increasing number of concussions, high school players need to be better protected so these same symptoms don’t affect them in their future.

Although there has been an increase in concussions, players, coaches, and fans often don’t realize the effects concussions can have. High school players, unlike professional players, often play on despite head injuries, and that is a major problem when it comes to the player’s safety (Hamilton). Athletes need to realize how serious concussions are and the effects they can have. Many high school players don’t seem to understand the dangers of concussions, so they don’t report them. When researchers conducted a survey of high school athletes, 47% of the players who got a concussion continued to play without telling anyone. Why didn’t they report them? The majority of them either didn’t think the concussion was serious enough to report or they didn’t want to leave the game (“Keeping the Injuries”). Kelby Jasmon, a high school football player, was asked if he would tell a coach or trainer if he got a concussion, he replied, “No chance. It’s not dangerous to play with a concussion. You’ve got to sacrifice for the sake of the team. The only way I come out is on a stretcher” (“Silence On”). Another high school player continued to play until his vision blurred completely saying: “I couldn’t come out. You have to keep playing – until you can’t” (“Silence On”). These examples show how little these athletes know about concussions and how serious they can be. Athletes need to understand that by continuing to play through a concussion, they put themselves into a situation where even more harm can come to them. A recent study said that 4 of every 10 high school athletes who have concussions return to the field too early (Encina). This problem can be traced to the players who don’t realize how serious the injury is and to the coaches who let them return to play. Ultimately, the players, coaches, and even fans, need to be educated on how serious concussions can be.

However, although the concussion rates have increased, there are some who oppose the idea of changing anything to prevent concussions. The tough-it-out attitude in football has led many people to believe that nothing can be done or should be done to change the injuries that are happening. High school player Josh Bailey says, “Football, it’s all about contact – you kind of have to suck it up, because you’re going to feel pain. That’s what the game is about…” (“Silence On”). Another former player said, “You never think about all that when you’re playing.

Football is a contact sport. Getting hit is a part of it…” (Encina). Violence is a part of football and many people believe that changing anything would ruin the sport. Buzz Bissinger, columnist for the Daily Beast, says that if you talk to football players about violent hits, they would say that “[it’s] part of the game, this is an occupational

267 hazard…and this is the way we’re trained to play…and frankly, this is the way fans want football players to play” (“Op-Ed Accept Violence”). According to Bissinger and many others, cutting violence out of football isn’t an option. People need to accept it or abolish football altogether (“Op-Ed Accept Violence”). Like Bissinger, many believe that the tough mentality football players have can’t be changed and not much can be done to prevent injuries from happening because they are just a part of the game.

To prevent concussions in the future, changes can be made such as rules to prevent concussions, teaching better tackling techniques, improved equipment, and increasing awareness towards concussions and its problems.

Although there have been many steps towards preventing concussions, more still needs to be done to make sure athletes are properly taken care of. By doing these things, the number of concussions will decrease and protect the lives of high school athletes.

One of the ways that will help prevent concussions is changes in the rules and standards teams have of the injury. An example of this is in the NFL where just a couple years ago, players were allowed to return to the field after concussion symptoms subsided. The problem was that concussion symptoms would reappear later on. This finally changed in December 2009 when the NFL made a rule that any player who sustains a concussion has to sit out and can’t return that same day (“Head Injuries”). In addition, the state of Washington issued the Lystedt Law in 2009, which forced an athlete suspected of having a head injury to be taken out to prevent further damage to the brain (Hamilton). Although this is a good start, these types of rule changes need to be made for high school athletes everywhere. Dr. Omalu, a chief medical examiner in San Joaquin County, recommends that if a child sustains a concussion that the child should not play for at least 3 months to reduce the risks of any irreversible brain damage (Monkovic). By making these improvements, other leagues and teams will hopefully follow their lead and make rules of their own. Consequently, as more rules are changed and improved, it will help prevent concussions in the future.

In addition to making rule changes, coaches can help prevent concussions by stressing the use of proper techniques when tackling. In all levels of football, especially in high school, players tend to tackle leading with their head. Found often in high school, players often are willing to use their helmets as weapons (“Helmets pose a Danger”). This poses a major problem for the players’ safety. During a study on high school athletes, researchers said that their “biggest concern…involved impacts to the top of the helmet, which can lead to cervical injury” (Nagourney). By leading with their head, it creates a major risk for the both the player getting tackled and the player making the tackle. This head-first type of tackling needs to be stopped to help prevent concussions. Coaches need to work on proper tackling techniques by teaching players to keep their head up and avoid tackling with their head (Nagourney). By teaching the players the proper way of tackling, it will prevent players from using their head to tackle and lead to a decrease in the number of concussions.

Improving equipment and making sure the equipment is up to standards for high school athletes is another way to prevent concussions from happening. The problem is that at the high school level technology isn’t as good as the college or pro level (Encina). Because the focus is more on higher level sports, this leaves the high school players with insufficient equipment. This is a problem because studies have shown that high school players experience greater impacts when they collide with other players compared to players at higher levels (Nagourney).

Because of this, there needs to be an even greater focus on the safety of the players. More recently, however, there has been progress made by helmet manufacturers to try and better protect the players. While finding a fully concussion proof helmet may be impossible, helmets, such as the Xenith X1, have been proven to help prevent concussions (Sabin). The Xenith X1 provides a tighter fit, which helps disperse the impact better than the traditional helmets (Medley). With the increase in concussions, more and more of these safer helmets like the Xenith X1 are being made to help reduce the chance of an athlete getting a concussion. In addition to helmet manufacturers, committees who make the standards for equipment are making new rules to ensure that the quality of the equipment being sent out is safe for players to use. One of the new standards made is from the National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment (NOSCAE). The NOSCAE will pursue a standard test specifically for the youth and high school helmets (“Group to Phase”). This will increase the safety of the players and force manufacturers to produce helmets that specifically address the requirements that younger athletes need. Another committee, the National Athletic Equipment Reconditioning Association (NAERA) is also improving their standard on helmets. According to Alan Schwarz of the New York Times, “Football helmets more than 10 years old are worn by about 100,000 young players every fall, presenting what manufacturers and experts in the field have long considered an inappropriate safety risk…” (“Group to Phase”). To solve this issue, the NAERA is no longer going to refurbish helmets that are more than 10 years old. This forces football organizations to purchase new helmets, making the old helmets extinct (“Group to Phase”). These different committees are making strides to help prevent concussions and are the first steps to getting high school players around the country better equipment. Although

268 some may argue that injuries are unavoidable in football, equipment modifications need to be made to increase the safety of the players.

Finally, the last way concussions can be prevented is by increasing awareness and education towards how serious the injury can be. The lack of awareness towards the situation needs to be drastically improved so players don’t continue to play after sustaining a head injury. Experts say that many concussions and fatal head injuries can be prevented by simple awareness of and respect for their gravity (“Silence On”). The key is educating players, parents, and coaches on the importance of recognizing symptoms, making sure players are fully recovered before returning, and making sure the symptoms don’t return (Encina). Coaches, parents, or the players themselves can’t be the ones making the decision whether or not they are able to return. Although coaches and parents mean well, they have incomplete concussion information and they need experts to evaluate the players (Encina). Players need an expert who is qualified to make the medical judgment if the player can return or not (Hamilton). Players have to be stopped from returning to play too early because it only puts the player in further harm. People need to recognize the injury and wait until the injury is fully healed before letting the player return (“As Concussions Rise”). By educating coaches, players, and parents, it will prevent players from returning to play too early and it will help people understand how serious concussions are.

The rising number of concussions in football continues to cause major problems for athletes. Because football is extremely physical, improvements need to be made to make sure that a player is kept as safe as possible.

By making football as safe as it can, it will continue to be an enjoyable game played for many years to come.

Works Cited “As concussions rise, scant oversight for football helmet safety.” NPR, 21 Oct. 2010. Web. 22 Apr. 2011.

“Brain Injuries Haunt Football Players Years Later.” NPR, 20 Jan. 2011. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

Cherner, Reid. “Wouldn’t more games mean more concussions?” NPR, 21 Oct. 2010. Web. 22 Apr. 2011.

Encina, Eduardo A. “Head Injuries Still Hard To Track; Concussions statistics remain incomplete, and high school athletes often rush back too soon while opening the door for further damage.” NPR, 29 Jul. 2010. Web. 22, Apr. 2011.

Hamilton, Jon. “Doctors Throw Flags On High School Concussions.” NPR, 2 Feb. 2011. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

“Head Injuries in Football”. New York Times, 21 Oct. 2010. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

“Helmet Monitors Lead The Way To Fewer Brain Injuries In Football.” Medical News Today, 16 Apr. 2011. Web. 22 Apr. 2011.

“Helmets Pose A Danger, Too.” NPR, 24 Oct. 2010. Web. 22 Apr. 2011.

“High School Football’s Hidden Danger.” New York Times Videos. Web. 22 Apr. 2011.

“Keeping the Injuries to Themselves.” Chart. New York Times, 15 Sep. 2007. Web. 22 Apr. 2011.

Kroichick, Ron. "The impact of hard knocks; Former 49er Dan Bunz is worried about future." San Francisco Chronicle, 10 Mar. 2011. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Medley, Joe, Caitlin Bonner. "Way to use your head." Anniston Star, 24 Aug. 2010. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Monkovic, Toni. “New N.F.L. Standard for Assessing Players Suspected of Having Concussions.” New York Times, 26 Feb. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Nagourney, Eric. "Patterns: danger for high school football players." New York Times, 21 July. 2009. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

“Op-Ed: Accept Violence, Or Abolish Football.” NPR, 7 Feb. 2011. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

“Rodgers: Helmet prevented concussion.” Fox Sports News, 25 Jan. 2011. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

Sabin, Rainer. "Helmet manufacturers and coaches try to protect players with advanced technology.” Dallas Morning News, 13 Aug. 2010. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Schwarz, Alan. “Group to Phase Out Old Football Helmets.” New York Times, 10 Mar. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Schwarz, Alan. “Silence on Concussions Raises Risks on Injury.” New York Times, 15 Sep. 2011. Web. 22 Apr. 2011.

Schwarz, Alan. “Two Bills Put Focus on Equipment Safety for Children.” New York Times, 15 Mar. 2011. Web. 22 Apr. 2011.

269 Morgan T Craig Butz Research in the Community—E Block May 4, 2011 Calling All Nurses Stat Until a generation ago, most schools in America provided nurses to attend to the various health needs of their students. Now, many schools lack certified nurses and diabetic children attend schools under dangerous conditions, receiving virtually no medical supervision throughout the day. Due to lack of funding and awareness of diabetes, especially Type 1 Diabetes, families with a diabetic child face an uphill battle each day their student enters their campus.

There are two classifications of diabetes: Type 1 and the more commonly known Type 2. Type 2 Diabetes, usually a diet-based disease, does not include insulin. This diagnosis is caused by lack of a balance diet and exercise.

This research paper focuses on Type 1 diabetes, which is usually diagnosed in children and young adults, and was previously known as juvenile diabetes. For a Type 1 diabetic, their body does not produce insulin, which is a hormone required to convert sugar, starches and other food into energy needed for daily life. Type 1 diabetics must inject insulin after every meal, and also when their blood sugar (glucose) level becomes abnormally high. Injecting the correct amount of insulin requires one to check their glucose level before calculating the amount of insulin to inject. Injecting too much insulin can cause irreversible damage to the brain and other organs, or even death (Fouhy). Having too low of a blood sugar level can also cause a diabetic to go into a coma, an equally dangerous condition.

Historically, most schools in America employed nurses to respond to the needs of the student body. But life for a Type 1 diabetic was different back then. According to Jill Esser, who has been a Diabetic for forty years, “it was easier to control my diabetes at that time because I didn’t have to take multiple shots throughout the day." It was usually one in the morning and one at night. There were full-time nurses who worked at every school. But I did everything at home, so I never had a problem with lows or highs at school,” she said.

Presently, most schools cannot afford to hire a nurse of any kind. With the many cutbacks schools are facing, having a school nurse is an unaffordable luxury. “It’s all about funding, no matter where, public or private, as the funding gets more difficult, the nursing will go. We cannot afford to have nurses here,” says Mrs. Borelli who has been a principal and teacher for over forty years. Schools now have no staff to care for diabetic children who are too young to check their own blood sugar or calculate the required quantity of insulin to inject (Roth). Diabetic students, especially younger students, must receive supervision from qualified health professionals to enhance their self-care skills, such as checking their own blood sugar and injecting insulin (Chatterton). It is the school’s legal responsibility to provide appropriate training to school staff and diabetes training should be provided by the health care officials (American Diabetes Association). In fact, diabetes has been considered a disability, and could be considered discrimination if the appropriate environment is not provided to students with diabetes that will enable them to operate safely at school. It can be considered illegal for schools to discriminate against children with disabilities (American Diabetes Association). This can be a problem, because “many teacher organizations and school administrators cringe at taking responsibility, citing liability concerns and lack of medical training” (Fouhy).

Aaron Kovsky, a seven year old type 1 diabetic, “needed to prick his finger four times a day to test his blood sugar and give himself a shot of insulin when his sugar was up.” If Aaron’s blood sugar levels ever plummeted low and he lost consciousness, he would need an emergency shot of the hormone glucagon. Aaron’s father, Steve Kovsky, learned that there were no nurses in Aaron’s school or in any other elementary school in Moraga, a suburb in San Francisco. ‘We determined school was not a safe environment for Aaron,’ Kovsky said.”

The federal Americans with Disabilities Act, passed in 1990, require public schools to offer full access to education for children with special medical needs. But the mandate carries no funding, and many school systems struggle to comply. Because of this, Aaron stayed out of school for a week and a half until the district finally agreed to hire a certified diabetes educator that would train the principal and staff so they were able to give Aaron a glucagon shot if necessary (Fouhy).

In Connecticut and Virginia, complaints about the little attention from teachers were filed in federal court and were recently settled in parents’ favor. The districts were ordered to train staff to inject glucagon and to provide other services. In the Connecticut case, the parents of Katelyn Cross said school officials told them they could not allow the child to prick her finger, or to test her blood sugar level because other students might be offended by the sight (Groves). This is an example of discrimination towards the child, proving that the faculty was irresponsible and careless. In one recent case, school officials proved that they were non-compliant when a diabetic child in Downey, California, passed out at school. Rather than give him glucagon, school officials called 911 and waited for the paramedics to arrive. This action could endanger the child (Groves). In this case, the school was not properly

270 educated by the district on how to give glucagon shots when the student passed out. These needs can be difficult for children in cash-strapped schools that don’t have enough registered nurses on staff to manage diabetes care.

To achieve glycemic control (proper blood sugar level), a child must monitor blood glucose frequently, follow a meal plan and take medications or track the amount of physical activity and nutrition intake a child has (ADA). Parents and staff should provide recommendations for diabetic children in the school’s setting. An example would be to allow diabetics access to diabetes supplies or Diabetes Health Care Plans should include specific needs and instructions for teachers (ADA).

Common sense would lead one to consider teachers or school staff to assist diabetic students; but by law, teachers cannot provide assistance to monitor blood sugar levels (ADA). Most school personnel have an insufficient understanding of diabetes and many school officials have become leery of procedures that involve blood and syringes because of the spread of AIDS and hepatitis and the fear of liability (Groves). Mrs. Judith Borelli, a principal who has worked in both public and private schools does “not allow teachers at her school to administer insulin or even touch a needle.” She would want the parents to come in and administer the insulin since there are no school nurses at St. Thomas Apostle. “It is a drag for a parent to have to come in, but unless the teacher is trained and certified, it is simply illegal,” says Mrs. Borelli.

Besides the liability issues, schools cannot meet the unique needs of a child living with diabetes (“Living with Diabetes: Resolving Challenges”). Parents of diabetic children, aware of the complexities of monitoring blood glucose levels and giving insulin, generally lack confidence in school personnel to provide care to their children.

What could or should be done to overcome these challenges? One thing that is very dangerous to diabetic students is unlicensed staff and volunteers who are unable to administer insulin. They should have better knowledge of diabetes in case there is an emergency (ADA). “Teachers would have to be trained, and the parents should alert the issues that the kid has so we can strategize on how to keep their child safe,” concluded Mrs. Borelli.

Alternatively, children should be trained as young as possible to perform the basic tasks at school such as, monitoring glucose levels and administering insulin. Children at age eight should be able to perform their own finger stick blood glucose test and at age ten children can administer insulin with supervision (ADA).

Ironically, with more schools employing fewer full-time nurses, an increasing number of children are being diagnosed with Type 1 Diabetes. Therefore, diabetic students can benefit from a comprehensive approach for care that will include everyone from cafeteria workers, gym teachers and bus drivers to principals who should know about the student’s medical condition and what to do in case of emergency (Marcus). Many schools are successfully adapting to the needs of these kids, which the federal American Disabilities Act requires they do. Too many other schools are falling short; rerouting a child to another school, away from friends, because of a health condition is discrimination (Marcus).

The shortage of nurses is a chronic condition throughout California. School nurses have had such a big impact on schools that even the Supreme Court is looking into legal issues. And this “effect of school nurses is a cutback that gets very little attention” (Roth). With extra training, school nurses can offer emotional support to youngsters, allowing the children to deal with more difficult cases. However, the government and school district’s commitment to get nurses to work at school is not acted upon (Godson). Nurses are very involved in school programs and work with teachers to improve the science and promote healthy eating; they are also beneficial in helping people with diabetes as well as helping students with their academic life. The school nurse should arrange for training for all school staff (Groves).

There are federal laws which mandate that public schools accommodate children no matter their health needs (Phillips). However, some of the health issues in school now are more complex. Mrs. Borelli said, “When I worked in a public school a while back as a principal, it was a relief to know that somebody who had knowledge of health, was there to help, since teachers didn’t get the proper training.” That’s really no excuse. When you’re getting schools outside their comfort zone, schools tend to shy away. Districts should know that helping students with their diabetes and providing them with a safe and healthy learning environment is doable (Marcus). According to the 2007 National Center for Education Statistics, 30% of schools have part-time nurses and 25% of schools have none.

The government pledged in 2004 to put a full-time, qualified school nurse for every secondary school by 2010 (Godson). But this never happened, instead school’s face budget cuts that put not only their administration, but their students with disabilities at risk. State laws will determine the extent to which school nurses can delegate nursing tasks such as injecting insulin to other school personnel in the absence of the school nurse and school districts are responsible for providing policies that address the need of students with health conditions at school (Chatterton). Accommodations should be required within the usual school setting without disruption to the schools and child’s routine. An example is Alycia, a first grader, who has to prick her finger before lunch to test her blood sugar while a school aide watches her in the office (Groves).

271 Not all parents have to battle it out with their school systems to get their child’s needs (Marcus). According to Children’s Hospital of Orange County, parents of about 1,600 students in the country have made arrangements with school officials to monitor diabetes after filing claims that the schools are failing to meet children’s medical needs in violation of federal laws (Groves). Parents are pledging to provide schools with materials necessary for diabetes care, such as blood sugar equipment supplies to treat hypoglycemia, emergency phone numbers, and information about the student’s snacks (ADA). They work together with the health care teams to provide school systems with information necessary to allow children to get the full school experience, while also being safe and healthy.

Technical advances in medical devices have made it much easier to live with Type 1 diabetes, but the need for supervision of young students throughout the day is still essential. This is where American society is failing; Type 1 diabetics and their families because every student deserves the right to participate in school and receive an education. Financial constraints, lack of understanding about the disease, liability concerns and even politics are all contributing factors to the dilemma facing families of children with Type 1 diabetes. These are almost overwhelming factors that make it very difficult for Type 1 diabetic students to thrive at school, but with continued education of the public and school staff, creative solutions can be achieved to allow all students with difficulties to attend school without fear of becoming sick while there.

Altogether, teachers and staff in schools all across the United States could make a difference by providing support for diabetic students, where they will be surrounded in a safe and successful academic environment and school nurses can provide them with proper medical care. Principals need their staff to be educated so they are qualified to help their students with diabetes control.

Works Cited Chatterton, J.; Kaup, T.; and Swanson, M.; “Diabetes Management in the School Setting.” School Nursing: A Comprehensive textbook, Philadelphia. 2006. National Association of School Nurses. Web. 19 Apr. 2011.

“Care of Children with Diabetes in the School and Day Care Setting.” Diabetes Care. 2011. American Diabetes Association. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.

Dowshen, Steven M.D., “School and Diabetes: Talking to Teachers and School Staff about Diabetes.” TeensHealth.

Aug. 2010. KidsHealth. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.

Fouhy, Beth. “Crisis for Ill Pupils: Lack of School Nurses; Advocates Note Needs of Millions of Children with Diabetes, Other Chronic Ailments.” The Washington Post 15 Jun. 2003. Proquest. Web. 5 Apr. 2011.

Godson, Ros. “Why school nurses are vital to the welfare of our children.” The Times Educational Supplement: TES, p.28.

Groves, Martha and Kim L, Ann. “Education/Smart Resources for Students and Parents; A Diabetic’s Dilemma in the Classroom.” Los Angeles Times, p.6. 29 Mar. 2000. Proquest. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Groves, Martha and Kim L, Ann. “The Dilemma of Diabetes.” Los Angeles Times, p.2. 15 Mar. 2000. Proquest.

Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Kaufman, Francine M.D. and Silverstein, Janet M.D. “Helping the Student with Diabetes Succeed: A Guide for School Personnel.” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2010. California Department of Education. PDF. 24 Apr. 2011.

“Living with Diabetes: Resolving Challenges.” 2010. American Diabetes Association. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.

"Management of Diabetes for Children in School." HealthVermont. Vermont Department of Health. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.

Marcus, Brophy Mary. “More kids have diabetes, fewer schools have nurses; some schools adapt, while others fall short.” USA Today, p. D.4. 2 Nov. 2009. Proquest. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

Phillips, Kelly. “School Nurses Held in High Regard among Parents.” Nursezone 2011. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Roth, Tanya. “CA Sup Ct to Take Up School Insulin Injections.” Current Events, Drugs, Education, Findlaw 1 Oct. 2010. LawInfo. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

272 Amelia W Craig Butz Research in the Community May 18th, 2011 On New Years Day in 2009, a 22 year old butcher named Oscar Grant was shot and killed at the Fruitvale BART station by a BART policeman named Johannes Mehserle (Bulwa – Skeptical). Oscar Grant was innocent and thus his death caused a lot of tension in the Oakland community. Grant’s death angered many Oakland residents, who displayed their disapproval through public art, protests, and riots, demanding justice for Oscar Grant.

Although the murder of Oscar Grant was a shameful act, both the Oakland community and the city government need to reevaluate their reactions. Rioting only adds to the problem, citizens should instead focus on spreading awareness through acts such as painting murals and organizing protests to demonstrate their opinions. The city must take responsibility for what happened and recognize the murder’s significance and impact on the city of Oakland in order to help others learn from the mistakes that have been made.

The conflict began with Oscar and his friends messing around with some officers. It quickly escalated to the point where some of the men were being arrested after it became evident that the young men were under the influence of drugs and alcohol. More police were called on the group of young men. There were already BART policeman at the scene when Johannes Mehserle, the 27 year old officer who shot Grant, arrived at 2:00 am (Bulwa – Skeptical). Grant had been told that he was being arrested for resisting an officer’s requests (Bulwa – BART’s).

Upon hearing this, he attempted to leave and was then forced to the ground. Mehserle had Grant lying face down on the floor and he was no longer resisting when Mehserle pulled out his gun. He later claimed that he was trying to tase him, although even that would have been unnecessary. Another officer at the scene, Tony Pirone, said that Mehserle was afraid Grant was going for a gun. He quoted Mehserle: “I’m going to tase him. I can’t get his arms.

His hands are going for his waistband,” and after pulling the trigger he continued, “Tony, Tony, get away, back up” (Bulwa – Skeptical). Johannes was clearly overwhelmed at this point because it was later seen that Grant had both hands behind his back and was not reaching for his waistband at all. Almost immediately after pulling the trigger, Mehserle said “Tony, I thought he was going for a gun,” immediately defending his actions (Bulwa – Skeptical).

This later caused controversy because if he was actually going for his taser, he wouldn’t feel the need to defend himself for shooting Grant. Many protestors saw this as evidence that Mehserle was guilty and were upset when it didn’t pass in court.

Mehserle’s attorney argued that he meant to be reaching for his taser and pulled out his gun by mistake, and that his “error” was brought on by the high amount of stress he was under. The attorney continued by asking the Judge, Morris Jacobson, to put himself in the shoes of Johannes Mehserle.

Grant’s family’s attorney, John Burns, claimed that Grant was shot on purpose (Egelko).He argued that if Grant wasn’t resisting, there would be no need to even tase him. Therefore Mehserle’s excuse should be considered invalid (Harvey, Bulwa – BART’s). The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, or NAACP, president in California, Alice Hoffman, suggested that Mehserle may have been motivated by racial prejudice, a common belief amongst protestors and Oakland residents. Alemeda district attorney Tom Orloff, who filed a murder charge against Merhserle, did not suggest any racial prejudice, which if one were found guilty for could lead to the death penalty or life in prison without the possibility of parole. Orloff did, however, refer to “very valuable” footage that was not released to the public which clearly showed “unlawful and intentional killing, the textbook definition of murder” (Egelko). Upon hearing this, the public was outraged that there was footage being kept from them, but even more angry that this evidence was not enough to put Mehserle in jail for life.

BART made many mistakes while handling the situation. To start, they made no statement saying why Grant might have been tased in the situation, enraging many Grant supporters. Directly after the murder, none of the seven officers at the scene contacted any of the witnesses or any of the BART stations further down, which were about to receive a train full of passengers who had just witnessed a Oscar’s death (Bulwa – BART’s). Three weeks prior to the shooting, Mehserle had had six weeks of training on how to use his taser (Bulwa – Skeptical). A chief officer also said that all BART cops were told to carry their tasers on the opposite hip of their gun to avoid any confusion, making Mehserle’s excuse seem very unlikely (Egelko). Judge Jacobson accused Mehserle of being willing to “make something up that’s not true” in order to escape consequences. He said that Grant clearly posed no real threat to Mehserle and commented on his attorney’s contradictory excuses, calling them “a change in history” (Bulwa – Skeptical). Mehserle’s bail was set at $3 million and he was put in jail for involuntary manslaughter, or “a killing committed by grossly negligent acts that show a disregard for human life”. The sentence for involuntary manslaughter is for 2-4 years, and up to ten additional years can be added if a gun was involved (Bulwa – Skeptical,

273 Egelko). Despite the judge’s harsh words, Mehserle was sentenced to only two years in jail, the absolute minimum even though a gun was involved in Oscar’s death.

Recognized as “one of the most explosive criminal cases in Oakland’s history,” the death of Oscar Grant has stirred up a lot of controversy (Walter). A viral video of the shooting, taken on a cell phone by one of the witnesses, is available to everyone on YouTube, and was downloaded over 500,000 within the first four days it was posted (POLICE, Mills). Because this event was made public, citizens of Oakland have taken a strong stance. A man named Evan Shamer organized protests, wanting justice for Oscar Grant. In his opinion, the possible risk of violence was outweighed by the importance that the public make their point (Walter). Over one hundred people were arrested at the first riot (Mills). Angry demonstrators smashed store windows, set fire to cars, and “clashed” with officers equipped with riot gear and tear gas (Havrey). Many community leaders took the shooting as proof that racial tension still exists between law enforcement and black residents in Oakland.

Grant’s family was opposed to any violence that took place, referring to it as “an affront to his memory” (Mills). Although Grant’s mother, Wanda Johnson, believes that her son was murdered in cold blood, she knows that riots and violence are not the right way to demand justice for his death. After the verdict was announced and more riots broke out, Wanda called for calmness, not wanting anyone else to get hurt in this tragedy. Although it was more difficult for her than anyone else, she was able to remain calm, wise, and collected even after losing her son. In my opinion, her reaction was completely honorable and all citizens should have followed after her lead, demonstrating their disapproval through peaceful acts while still demanding justice.

The days after Oscar’s death, his name and face could be found all over the city whether it was sloppily spray painted on the side walk, in a detailed mural, or hung in a shop window. The graffiti demanding justice for Oscar Grant for the most part just looked ugly and did not help to change the city’s opinion in any way. There was no case where graffiti demanding justice proved to have any effect on Mehserle’s sentence, or was even taken into account by the court. This type of vandalism is a perfect example of the wrong way to approach a situation. Not only does it make the community look worse, it may cause onlookers to group all protestors as the kind of people who would vandalize and do not care about their community. Nicely painted murals, on the other hand, have the opposite effect. They represent a loving community that was able to come together in a hard time and create art to express their disapproval of Mehserle’s sentence and actions. I have found that most people who see these murals either approve of the message they are sending or, if they don’t know much about Oscar Grant’s death, they feel compelled to look into the case. Having more and more people interested in the events that took place leads to a larger support group. The larger the amount of protestors, the more likely they are to have an impact. Lastly, many shops hung posters of Oscar’s face in their windows during the days following the release of Mehserle’s sentence. In some cases, these photos were merely to show support. However, many shopkeepers felt the need to put up the photos in hopes of preventing their store from being broken into by protestors during the riots (Harshaw). Because rioters were harming innocent people, their actions were absolutely inexcusable. I agree with Wanda Johnson and all of Grant’s family when they say that no other person should be harmed because of what happened to their son.

Although the riots and reckless graffiti did not help the situation and in fact projected a negative image for peaceful protestors, the other methods for showing disapproval and demanding justice were completely appropriate and show citizens’ willingness to stand up for what they believe in, being motivated by the viral video showing Oscar Grant’s death. Since the protests and creations of murals, there have been no recent scandals involving police brutality, meaning they most likely had a positive impact on the community.

274 Bulwa, Demian. “BART’s shooting probe missteps.” San Francisco Chronicle. N.p. 2009. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

Bulwa, Demian. “Skeptical judge grants bail to former BART cop." San Francisco Chronicle. N.p. 2009. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

Egelko, Bob. “BART shooting draws Rodney King parallels.” San Francisco Chronicle. N.p. 2009. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

Harshaw, Tobin. "Weekend Opinionator: Oakland's Tragedy, and Black America's – NYTimes.com." Opinion Opinionator - NYTimes.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Harvey, Mike. “YouTube video fuels US riots over killing of Oscar Grant.” The Sunday Times. N.p. 2009. Web. 18 Apr. 2011.

Mills, Elinor. “Web videos of Oakland shooting fuel protests.” CNET News. N.p. 2009. Web. 12 Apr. 2011.

“Oscar Grant Trial: Officer Convicted of Involuntary Manslaughter.” Blogging Los Angeles. N.p. 2010. Web. 12 Apr. 2011.

“POLICE SHOOTING AT BART STATION – OSCAR GRANT.” YouTube. 2009. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

"Sampler: BART to Pay $1.5 Million in Grant Case."NYTimes.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

Tracy Manzer. "Family of man shot and killed by police in Belmont Shore joins forces with Oscar Grant coalition." Press - Telegram 4 Jan. 2011,California Newspapers, ProQuest.

Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Walter, Shoshana, and Jack Duane. "The Bay Citizen - With Verdict in Officerâs Trial Near, Oakland Braces for Violence - NYTimes.com." The New York Times - Breaking News, World News & Multimedia. N.p., n.d.

Web. 6 Apr. 2011.

275 James W Research in the Community Craig Butz June 6, 2011 Sports Media’s Decline: The Steroid Scandal Just how well did sports media perform when it covered the 2003 steroid crisis that rocked the foundations of Major League Baseball? Looking at the steroid scandal coverage it is clear there are both negative and positive aspects to it, raising the question of the adequacy of the coverage and how it compares to the responsibility the media has to the public. The numerous negative qualities of the coverage brings up many questions about the media’s performance and priorities, and inspires a more in-depth at the evolution of the media up to its current state.

Has the media lived up to its responsibilities? What are the essentials the media needs to provide when they cover sports and issues surrounding sports? The main goal of the sports media is to present all news in accurately with an un-tarnished point of view that allows the audience to make judgments for themselves; the media coverage of the MLB steroid crisis has fallen short of these standards due to the late response, lack of investigative reporting, and evolution of the media from a news to entertainment source.

The media has several responsibilities when covering sports; these goals include presenting all news in an unbiased and exact manner, attracting and entertaining an audience, and reporting to bring fans closer to their teams and players. While there are different types of reporting, such as game analysis and issue coverage, many of the responsibilities hold constant for both. There are many keys to effective reporting, starting with the journalistic requirement of staying objective when reporting. Objectivity is remaining neutral and covering news in an unbiased manner that subsequently allows the audience to make judgments for themselves, rather than having judgments imposed upon them by the journalist. Ryan Livingston, blogging on the New World Otter (a journalists blog), articulates “In all media, journalists are supposed to remain as objective as possible” (“The Journalist’s Responsibility”). This objectivity is essential so that journalists don’t impose opinions on the audience they cater to.

Failing to stay neutral can not only compromise the journalist, but the employer who pays them to write, says Jeff Carlisle, a writer for ESPN. It is very important that the journalist’s point of view is not offensive to the audience or harmful to their employers, for instance networks such as ESPN or MLB.com, which emphasizes the importance of objectivity in reporting. Ignoring this responsibility can lead to a conflict of interests, compromising both the career of the journalist and the integrity of the organization contracting the journalist.

One goal of every media program is to perpetuate their organization, so they need to be able to attract audience through both their coverage and entertainment factor. Another responsibility of the media is to attract an audience, so as to keep themselves economically viable, says Michael Bauman, a writer for MLB.com. In order to keep themselves going, their coverage needs to be both informative and entertaining. Informative and entertaining, so the media needs to provide a mixture of both hard analysis and opinionated perspectives. Bauman reiterates, “you need statistical analysis, game analysis, and some focus on the personalities on the individuals involved.” Once you have the information established, perspectives on the information can be provided—while this mostly pertains to game analysis rather than issue analysis, it is something the media has to improve upon. All these encompass the responsibility sports media has to the public, but the reciprocal relationship between media and public also demands that citizens have a responsibility to the media as well. In order to help the media do its job according to its goals, citizens need to provide advice and constructive criticism by reviewing several different news sources, which helps them gain correct information and perspectives. Jerry Cepos, a writer for Santa Clara University, reiterates this, “Read or listen to the news even if you don't agree with it. Give journalists feedback. Read or listen to the serious news“(Cepos). If there are any errors or omissions, or even a separate, unconsidered perspective, the citizen’s responsibility is to alert the media source, helping both the organization and general public.

Applying these responsibilities, the coverage of the steroid scandal in Major League Baseball clearly has both negative and positive aspects, the positive being the few journalists who chose to pursue the developing story in the 1990’s and utilizing investigative journalism, showing the perpetuation of news coverage rather than solely entertainment. These reporters were writing about the substance abuse and publishing it for the public to see. In an article about steroids publications (books, articles on the subject), the author states “Because honest stories were being written—and ignored. In the 1980s,Thomas Boswell of the Washington Post and others were already pointing fingers at the juicers. In 1995, Bob Nightengale, then with the Los Angeles Times, quoted general managers saying that steroids were becoming part of the game. In 1998, Steve Wilstein of the Associated Press wrote about observing a bottle of androstenedione in slugger Mark McGwire's locker” (Steroids).

Some journalists—albeit few—were doing their jobs, and indeed risking their jobs to write a bout the unconditional truth. As one of their responsibilities, this effort made their efforts one of the few positive aspects of the steroid

276 scandal coverage. The role of media is to report all news, and this includes the bad as well as the good, even if it is something as drastic and casts as bad a reflection on sports as the steroid scandal. Joanne Gerstner for the Detroit News touches on this importance as she writes about the mishandled coverage: “The media are doing their job when they report the bad with the good” (Gerstner). Reporters and media organizations have a duty to the public, but only a few of them fulfilled it in the early days of the steroid outrage.

Modern media has experienced various changes in recent decades, as changing culture has forced its evolution from a primary news source to focusing equally—if not more—on being an entertainment source; this is shown in the negative aspects of the steroid coverage, revolving around the general media’s denial of the existence of the steroid problem, and straying from their responsibilities to the public and goals as media providers. Modern culture revolves around keeping the American masses entertained, and the entertainment factor essential for media organizations in attracting an audience and perpetuating their program. Bauman states “In an attempt to remain economically viable, they have a responsibility to themselves to attract and retain an audience. Ideally then, they would be both informative and, whenever possible, entertaining.” Sports news coverage evolved, sacrificing some news essentials to become more entertaining and appealing to a larger pool of viewers, and therefore making more money off that larger pool. While the true news may have been why power hitters like Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa were suddenly so successful, that wasn’t entertainment. Entertainment to baseball fans was “Remember that moment when the St. Louis slugger with Popeye's forearms, Mark McGwire, andro'ed us out of a national depression over Bill's stain on Monica's blue dress? (Ah, for the dreamy days when McGwire, with Sammy Sosa close behind, was breaking Yankee interloper Roger Maris's record of 61 homers, and thus refurbishing the legend of Babe Ruth)” (Steroids! Scandal!) Entertainment was not tarnishing the view of MLB, it was promoting its resurgence; it was benefitting by the coverage of positive news, not negative news. An article on editorsweblog.org reinforces that, quoting source Larry Kilman “Is sports coverage news or entertainment? ‘Everyone in this room would say both’” (Redman). Sport’s media’s unique aspect of balanced entertainment and news is a delicate one, and one reason why it has received criticism is the inability to balance them effectively. Sports media places too much importance on the entertainment factor, perhaps too much to rely on them for truthful coverage. And the spectacle was what the public truly wanted, rather than news that would tarnish the view of Major League Baseball.

People would rather remain oblivious and enjoying their American Pastime than learn the truth and ruin their entertainment. Bauman describes the media atmosphere during the beginning of steroid use: “I think we were all transfixed by the home run race between McGwire and Sosa in 1998, because baseball had been suffering since the 1994 strike. This was excitement and a new story daily, fans were coming back to the game, and everybody jumped into it with great glee, without examining the phenomenon with enough critical judgment.” The media’s mistake was brought upon by the resurgence of baseball’s popularity, enough so that the core values surrounding sports coverage could be ignored for a while. In providing America its entertainment, however, the media strayed from its goals and its responsibilities to the public, no matter how devastating it is to sports society.

Tim Rutten, a writer for the Los Angeles Times, writes about the “disturbing questions about whether most of our sporting press has become too much a part of the sports/entertainment/industrial complex to give its readers and viewers an honest account of what transpires on our courts and playing fields” (Rutten). One of the few positives of the scandal were the few journalists who actually wrote about it, but these reports were nullified by scathing rebuke delivered by the vast majority of sports media whenever one appeared, despite its truth. The media was not ready to accept the existence of such serious substance abuse, and so it closed the subject from consideration. Tim Rutten accuses them and all who chose to ignore the signs, writing “We've all turned a blind eye to what was there for anyone with eyes to see for the sake of profit and an entertaining spectacle” (Rutten). Does this evolution to entertainment in sports media shown that we can’t completely trust the reporting of current events?

Many people think the evolution of the media is in large part due to constantly developing and changing culture. As people’s constant demand for information increases, media organization struggle to provide it while holding true to their responsibilities. The new insights into athletes and teams disregard privacy, driven by modern society’s desire to gain more inside knowledge. This also threatens the accuracy of reporting, as well as potentially violating the privacy of the media’s subjects. Chris Berman, an ESPN veteran, says “today's ‘24/7’ culture is blurring the line between immediate information and privacy. In their haste to break stories, Berman said, some members of the sports media don't worry enough about getting the facts straight” (Motel). The constant, ever-present demand for information is pressuring the media, and in their haste to fulfill those public needs they make mistakes.

One of the main concerns with this evolving media is that it has also become increasingly commercialized, controlled by their sponsors and corporations. These sponsors restrict the media that news organizations are allowed to post, raising questions of the media’s reliability and priorities when broadcasting and reporting. Elizabeth Redmond writes “Sports companies want to control news publishers' coverage of their events… limiting editorial and commercial freedom. In return for accreditation for journalists, sports organizations require strict contracts to be

277 signed. Conditions can include preventing a print publication from superimposing a headline over a photo of the event, in case it blocks the names of sponsors, and not allowing articles to be presented in a way that would damage the reputation of the club” (Redman). If information is being held back, journalists are not adhering to their responsibilities to the public, and this is what occurred in the steroid scandal; information was held back and when it finally came to light, the its criticism was worse because of the media’s inaction. Raymond Boyle, a professor at Stirling, comments on commercialized media “’In the increasingly overtly commercial world of media sport, largely anodyne interviews in the sports, features or magazine pages of the print media often appear to be adverts for a range of endorsed products’” (Downes). In an effort to promote and please sponsors, have media organizations lost sight of their goals and responsibilities to the public as a news provider? Commercialization and entertainment have become the priorities of the media, causing an overall decline in the quality of the coverage provided.

A final reason why sports media in general has been in decline is coverage it provides has also evolved, from providing a mixture of hard analysis and opinions to prioritizing the opinionated reporting. While this caters to the game analysis genre of reporting, the changes have still been evident as they challenge a reporter’s responsibility. Seth Motel, a journalist for Brown University, writes, “Members of the media sometimes get preoccupied giving their opinions and don't report on the facts of the games” (Motel). There has been too much of media members giving their opinions on sporting events, rather than providing core analysis and then perspectives based on that analysis. The media’s decline has been based on this evolution form core goals and responsibilities to predominately entertainment based and commercialized priorities that don’t provide the public with the true reporting they need, which is demonstrated through the botched steroid scandal coverage.

The consequences of both the misuse of steroids and mishandled coverage are clear in the sullied image of Major League Baseball; the trend of drug-users instigated by the early steroid users who were ignored by sports media; and the tarnished view of the media’s performance and motives, raising questions of its reliability in the future concerning similar issues. After early users such as Jose Canseco, Mark McGwire, and Sammy Sosa were ignored and indeed defended by members of the media, it opened up opportunities for other players to take the drug and enhance their performance. The trend gradually took hold of the league, continuing the chain effect as more and more players decided they could improve their games and therefore make more money, perpetuating the cycle of dishonestly and rule-violation. This trend has permanently tarnished the public’s view of Major League Baseball, as Joanne Gerstein of the Detroit News writes, “enjoy sports for sports... the joy of seeing your favorite team win, the perfection of a 90-yard chip backspinning into the hole and the happiness of sharing in a moment. He wants sports as his escape, uncontaminated by the outside world and negativity. It's a noble idea. However, there are some flaws” (Gerstein). These flaws are brought upon by the illegal activity that ruins the credibility of the players and reputation of media as it fails to provide coverage for such issues.

There are several things the media can do to bring themselves back to their core goals and responsibilities and improve both their credibility and reputation as a new provider, starting with removing the concept of pack journalism—following the majority’s opinion in controversial issues—from their habits, and exhibiting a deeper level of comprehension and critical judgment when reporting on controversial issues such as the steroid scandal in MLB baseball. The concept of pack journalism has permeated the sports media, so if the majority of reporters are staying away from an issue, it becomes essentially off limits to the rest of the media. What the media can do to avoid this habit is exhibit a deeper level of comprehension and examines these issues with more critical judgment, clearly looking at the different aspects of the potential problem and determining whether it actually is an issue, rather than ignoring it because it will tarnishes people’s view of MLB. In order to keep another coverage failure from occurring, sports media needs broadcast all news no matter how damaging, especially when it has factual evidence like the steroid scandal did, and as we learned a two decades late.

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278 Ceppos, Jerry. "Improving Public Dialogue: Media and Citizen Responsibilities." Santa Clara University. Santa Clara University. 23 October. 2003. Web. 6 April. 2011. <http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/ethicsoutlook/2003/ethical_journalists.html > Hazra, Pranab. "Responsibility of Journalist." The Online Journalism Review. Knight Digital Media Center. 13 February. 2009. Web. 6 April. 2011. <http://www.ojr.org/ojr/people/phazra57/200902/1647/> "Steroids! Scandal! And More Bad News Sports Books." Mother Jones. Mother Jones. 16 June. 2009. Web. 6 April.

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279 Claire W Craig Butz Research in the Community 27 May, 2011 Transplant Tourism: Hope for the Desperate Medical tourism, leaving the United States for medical procedures, is a growing business and listed as a major industry in over 50 countries (Medical Pages). A particular division of medical tourism is organ tourism, leaving the United States to obtain an organ in another country, avoiding having to wait on the transplant list in the US. Although organ tourism provides an easy solution to the sick and desperate waiting for a transplant, obtaining organs from other countries jeopardizes the human rights of the donating foreigners and should be outlawed by the United States.

UNOS (the United Network for Organ Sharing) is the non-profit organization that organizes and manages the organ transplant system with the help of the federal government (“About Us”). UNOS organizes the United States by eleven different regions and lists are created according to region. The Bay Area is in region five, ranging from central California to the Oregon border. When a patient gets listed for transplant, their position on the list is dependent upon not only when they get listed, but also how sick a patient is. Depending on the organ that needs to be replaced, different laboratory values are used to determine their medical status. For instance, for livers, Creatinine levels, reflecting kidney function, international normalized ratio, reflecting clotting time which is altered by the live (INR), and Bilirubin, a pigment found in bile, are used. If the patient has no insurance, no support system, or is noncompliant, they will not be listed (Davis). Then they wait until an organ is available. The next person on the transplant list who matches size, quality, and blood type gets the next available organ.

Getting a transplant is a very stressful process, putting strain on a person both physically, and emotionally.

Therefore, a large part of getting a transplant is the patient’s support system. “Nobody can get a transplant without support” says Marjorie Davis, the liver social worker at California Pacific Medical Center (Davis). The support systems provide assistance in both the pre- and post-transplant process. They often not only provide emotional support, but also provide transportation and other types of physical support because the patient’s movement is often limited. They also normally play a large role in organizing trips to the hospital and paper work (“Lean on Me”).

Because these people are so closely involved in the patient’s life, it is possible that the people that provide the most support also put pressure on the patients to choose organ tourism. This processes strains everyone involved in every way possible. For the family and support system of these patients, waiting for an organ is very difficult.

Financially, getting an organ is very taxing. Paying for medication, procedures, surgeries, as well as well as taking days off work for transportation and support on days of procedures and surgeries can be very expensive (Olbrisch).

About 100,000 people are waiting on a list for a kidney at any given time, almost 10 times the number of donors that die each year. This shows how skewed the ratio of donors to recipients is in the United States. There are many reasons that people choose not to become organ donors, the most popular of those being religious, squeamishness, or the misguided belief that doctors will not work their hardest to save them (Comparini).

Overtime, patients can also begin to get very frustrated. Ruth, a recent heart transplant recipient at CPMC explained that while waiting for a heart, she went through a period of time where she was very depressed and felt bad for herself; she said “it wears you out” (Anonymous). This frustration also will play a large role in the decision to wait no longer and take action, like organ tourism.

For some families waiting for an organ is not an option. Organ tourism is a faster, cheaper, alternative to waiting in the United States for an organ. This industry has become a major industrial asset for poorer countries such as Peru, South Africa, India, the Philippines, Iraq, China, Russia, and Turkey (Scheper-Hughes, Nancy). Essentially anyone can go to any one of these countries and receive an organ for up to 80% less than what one would pay in the United States (Medical Tourism Cooperation). Although Medicare does not normally cover these surgeries even without insurance, it is much cheaper than it would be in the United States (Moeller). Money is often a major factor in the decision to go abroad for an organ. Many times, one person needs an organ and their spouse cannot support the family and care for them without jeopardizing their job. In these instances, both financially and medically, many aspects of transplant tourism could be very appealing.

How is it that it is so expensive and takes so long here and yet, in other countries you can get organs upon demand and for much cheaper? The answer lies in where the organs come from. Depending on the organ, and where you go to get it, these organs are most likely coming from execution or penury. There are multiple ethical, legal, and medical risks associated with receiving organs from these people.

Marginalized people, such as thieves, the homeless, the destitute, smugglers, prostitutes, and refugees are often tricked, lured, or enticed into selling their organs for cash (Scheper- Hughes). There are many cases of impoverished people, mostly women, donating their organs to get out of debt, feed their families, or provide a roof

280 (Scheper-Hughes). Women like these take part in something called live donation. They donate their kidneys and occasionally lobes of their livers. However, there are multiple problems with this arrangement. The majority of people that donate their organs don’t even reach their financial goal and 81% spend all the money in as soon as 5 months (Budiani- Saberi). This is not surprising due to the fact that most don’t get what they were promised. One woman in India got less than one fifth of what she was promised, totaling in a profit of approximately 700 dollars for this woman (Inside the Body Trade).

In addition to the financial downfalls of the donating for money, there are also large medical and social risks. 91% percent of donors involved in transplant tourism experience social isolation and being shunned by their peers, family, and friends (Budiani-Saberi). One woman said that after donating her kidney, she faced shame “worse than prostitutes” (Schelper-Hughes). Because these people are often living in areas plagued with violence, poverty, disease and famine, donating an organ puts their health at even more a risk. Not only is extra stress put on the remaining kidney, but after-care is not always in the budget (Scheper- Hughes).

Another reason organs are often more available in foreign countries is the execution of prisoners. Every year, China executes more people than all other countries in the world combined, as many as 10,000 men and women a year, many of these for crimes considered minor offences in the United States (Inside the Body Trade).

Chinese officials have even admitted that medical staff stand by at executions to harvest organs. The prisoners were never informed that their organs would be removed and it is highly unlikely that they would volunteer. Chinese philosophy says that a person’s body must be in-tact after death so that the soul can have peace in heaven so the numbers of Chinese donors are very limited.

Yet another problem with organ tourism is that foreign countries don’t have enough organs for their own people. In China, 2 million people are waiting for an organ (Inside the Body Trade). By supplying organs to Americans, these countries are preventing their own people from getting the quality healthcare they deserve.

Views on transplant tourism vastly differ in the medical world. UNOS comments on transplant tourism saying “we recognize the desperation that leads some patients and families to consider transplant tourism as a solution to their personal need, but we cannot condone a practice that fundamentally violates human rights and exploits human vulnerability” (“UNOS Board Further Addresses Transplant Tourism). Each hospital individually decides how they are going to handle patients who do chose to travel abroad. Some doctors feel like treating a patient who has chosen organ tourism is a violation of the Hippocratic Oath to do no harm, some feel inclined to help everyone and anyone (Davis).

In the United States, transplant tourism is legal. Every year, thousands of people chose transplant tourism.

In 2007, China banned living donors with the exception of directed donation by family members. Instead of discouraging organ tourism as China had hoped, it “has driven a trade in illegal organ trafficking in the country” (“China considers financial incentives to promote organ donation”). Because the human rights at risk, the United States should make it illegal for people to leave or educate its people about the dangers and from where these organs come. In addition, more education should be provided about organ donation. People, especially young people, should be taught that giving an organ could save a life.

Organ tourism is becoming increasingly popular. As of now, 1 in 10 transplants are obtained overseas, each one putting another at risk (Inside the Body Trade). If something is not done immediately, these injustices will continue. Despite China’s attempts to discourage organ tourism, it still happens. It is up to the United States to make organ tourism illegal and eventually, improve UNOS and eliminate the need for organ tourism.

What can you do to help? Get registered as an organ donor. Nineteen people die each day while waiting for an organ. You can help. You could save eight lives just by donating. Organs will only be procured when one is officially brain dead, meaning that your organs are all functioning properly but your brain and there is no chance that your brain will recover (“Organ Donation: The Process”). Your organs could be a beacon of hope for someone who really needs a second chance at life.

281 Works Cited Abouna, G.M. “Organ Shortage Crisis: Problems and Possible Solutions.” Transplantation Proceedings 40.1 (2008): 34–38. Web. 04 Apr. 2011.

Anonymous Transplant Patient. Personal Interview. 12 Apr. 2011.

Bramstedt, K. A. and Jun Xu. “Checklist: Passport, Plane Ticket, Organ Transplant” American Journal of Transplantation 7 (2007): 1698–170. Medscape. Web. 04 Apr. 2011.

Budiani-Saberi, D. A. and F. L. Delmonic. “Organ Trafficking and Transplant Tourism: A Commentary on the Global Realities” American Journal of Transplantation 8 (2008): 925–929. Wiley Online Library. Web. 04 Apr. 2011.

Davis, Marjorie. Personal Interview. 12 Apr. 2011.

“Medical Tourism.” NCPA. 2 Nov. 2006. Web. 29 Mar. 2011.

Olbrisch, Mary Ellen, Sharon M. Benedic, Kristine Ashe, and James L. Levenson. “Psychological Assessment and Care of Organ Transplant Patients” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 70.3 (2002): 771-783. Wiley Online Library.

Web. 04 Apr. 2011.

Oziewicz, Stanley. "Shady World of Transplant Tourism in China Exposed." South China Morning Post. 05 Jun. 2001, ProQuest. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Postrel, Virginia. "Need transplant donors? Pay them." Los Angeles Times. 10 Jun 2006, ProQuest. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.

Repasky, Mark “A Cut Below: Americans Look Abroad for Health Care.” ABC News. 29 Aug. 2006. Web. 29 Mar. 2011.

Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. “Keeping an Eye on the Global Traffic in Human Organs.” The Lancet 361 (2003): 1645– 48. Web. 04 Apr. 2011.

Smith, Lewis. “Poll Sale of Human Organs Should be Legalised, Say Surgeons.”The Independent. The Independent, ProQuest. 5 Jan. 2011. Web. 29 Oct. 2009.

282 Julia Y Research in the Community Craig Butz May 13, 2011 The effects of extreme parenting on children The role a parent plays in a child’s development is crucial because its effects stay embedded in the child for the rest of his or her life. Every parent wants their child to lead successful lives, either in their careers, social lives, or everyday lives. However, the different ways each parent achieves success, for their child, is different. This leads to extreme parenting styles. In most cases of extreme parenting, the child struggles to make decision independently and lead their own life. Unfortunately, extreme parenting styles such as over-competitive parenting or slow parenting can have adverse affects on children later in life, such as when the child is either successful through work driven ideals or through independently creating their own ideas and life skills. While both over-competitive and slow parenting develops a child successful in one area, the child tends to be unsuccessful and unprepared in other areas. This is why a middle-ground is healthiest for the child.

There are dozens of examples of competitive-parenting, but each extreme is different. I decided to focus on 3 different extremes. The first is Tiger Parenting. Tiger parents are “notorious for putting intense pressures on their children to excel academically” (Guo). Tiger parents encourage their child to be academically successful, focusing on the child’s future career choices. Tiger parents are most commonly found in Asian families. Most parents are immigrants from china or first generation Americans, and tend to reuse the traditions and values they grew up around. Asian parents tend to place extreme pressure on their child to be the best and brightest student in every subject, no exceptions.

Asians can be stereotypically seen as straight-A students, and musical prodigies. What some do not understand is that this does not come naturally; it comes from hours of studying and repetition forced by unmerciful parents. In the book, Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother, Amy Chua tells her story of how she forced her daughters to “be the best”. At the beginning of the book she lists what she prohibited her daughters from doing, the list included: • Attending a sleepover • Having a play date • Beinging in a school play • Complaining about not being in a school play • Watching TC r play video games • Choosing their own extracurricular activies • Getting any grade less than an A • Not being the #1 student in every subject except gym and drama • Playing any instrument other than piano or violin • Not playing the violin (Chua).

Tiger parents are strict and unsympathetic. Chua explains multiple times throughout her book that she would force her youngest daughter, Lulu, to practice her violin, through midnight, until the piece she was working on was perfect. Tiger parents expect perfection out of their children. Most parents, like Chua, hold extreme expectations because they know their child can fulfill them. However, they set these high expectations because the parents believe they will always know what is right for their child (Chua). Tiger parents are never worried about whether or not their children is exactly fond of them at that moment, because they know that later, the child will appreciate the hard work they had to do. This creates an effective environment for the child to become eager to become the top student.

The second competitive parenting style is stage parenting, which can be most commonly found in mothers.

They are known to “push their children into the limelight against their will, seeking to glorify themselves through their children’s achievements” (Hanson 1). They believe that their daughters should be stars at every cost. Stage parent are likely found at dance recitals, school plays, and especially beauty pageants. All of these are gate ways to stardom, and mothers will force their child into them until the child can show that they are outstanding.

Pageantry, as stated before, is the easiest place to witness extreme stage mothers, in action. Mothers force their daughter to pile on make-up, get spray tans, have their legs waxed, wear self-exposing outfits, wear fake teeth, and even, as one mother, Kerry Campbell, admitted on ABC News, that she personally injects her 8 year-old pageant girl daughter, Britney, with Botox. Britney admits that she also wanted the procedure done because she began noticing wrinkles on her face, but explains how Botox causes severe pain which lasts for hours. Kerry explains that she and Britney are not the only two at pageants who partake in these procedures. She says that the

283 idea was given to her by multiple other pageant mothers. Kerry also admits that she has waxed Britney’s legs.

During an interview with both Britney and Kerry, Britney explains that she got her legs waxed because she believes that “it is not lady-like to have hair on one’s legs” (Pageant Mother). Even at the age of 8, Britney is being exposed to the ideology of women; that all women should be beautiful and flawless. This creates an unstable image of women in the child’s head, and they can become confused. Having to force children to experience some complete discomfort can also result in unstable mother-daughter relationship (Hanson, Kristin). However, stage mothers will still stop at nothing to have their child become famous on Broadway or become Miss America.

Stage mothers, like Tiger parents, focus on the child’s future career options, but they also expect social success from their daughters. Many social aspects are attached with pageantry and fame, and without it, the child lowers their chances of success.

The final type of competitive parenting is a style that the media has recently named “Helicopter parenting.”

According to Dr. Robyn Silverman, Helicopter parents are “ parents who hover around their child and swoop in whenever they see their child feeling any distress or discomfort or even having a little bit of a challenge” (Hill).

Helicopter parenting is a fairly new form or parenting. Scientists have seen an increase in helicopter parents of children born between 1980 and 2000. These parents tend to want their child to enjoy comfortable lives, and allow them to avoid worrying about school or other emotionally stimulating situations. As a result, some parents attempt to stay hovering over their child even when they begin college and start living away from home. Researchers note that even when the child has moved out, cell phones, e-mail, and other social networks allows the parents to stay in touch at all times (Shoup, Gonyea, Kuh).

Starting during grade school and high school, helicopter parents tend to step in whenever the child needs rescuing. Most parents tend to personally confront the school to deal with their child’s situation. For example, in many cases, the parents demand that their child be moved up a grade. On other occasions, the parents attempt to challenge the teacher’s assignments when the child complains about difficulty (Krache).

Although the parent-teacher relationship is straight forward and demanding, the parent-child relationship can be very confusing. For the child, the parent may act relaxed, towards the kid, when confronting the school, but then hover and force themselves into the child’s life, creating two unstable personalities for the child to accept.

Some researchers believe that over-protective parents act as they do, because they need to feel control in their child’s unpredictable life. Other studies show that once their child succeeds on their own, they will never need their parents as much as they once did (Silverman).

The effects of helicopter parenting on the child, tend to become present when the child goes to college.

Throughout middle school, kids are attempting to begin identifying themselves with other kids in their class.

However, having a parent constantly hovering over every aspect of their life makes it difficult for the child to connections (Krache). Other effects on the child include, “instilling fear of failure . . . lacking some of the knowledge to negotiate what they need . . . and inability to launch” (Silverman). Even as the child grows into a teenager, they are not able to develop the confidence to solve their issues without the help of their parent (Krache).

Helicopter parents want their child to be emotionally successful. Without other outside challenges, the child does not have to worrying about extra stress.

A new parenting style has been developing over recent months. It is called slow parenting. Slow parenting lets the child develop on their own with minimal guidance from the parent. According to Carl Honoré, the author of The Power of Slow: Finding Balance and Fulfillment Beyond the Cult of Speed, and Under Pressure: Rescuing Our Children from the Culture of Hyper-Parenting, slow parenting “allows kids to work out who they are, not who they should be” (What is). One reason this new method of parenting has emerged because of the recent recession.

Families have to cut back on what they buy, and this effects what the child can and cannot have. Not having video games ends up causing the child to spend more time outside or with family. The second reason is that adults are beginning to have children older and older. Usually, people who have children around 38 – 39 have already established a successful job, and they believe that when raising their child, they raise it in a similar way they have made their career, the child will be successful. Also, by having children later, someone can only have and parent 1 maybe 2 children and this creates fewer attempts to get it right (What is).

Psychologists have begun creating activities and tips to help families slow down. According to slowfamilyliving.com, a website dedicated to slow parenting families, being mindful and being present while being around your child helps slow down. Also, being outside, taking away pressure, and shortening after school activities all help to slow the family down. According to Carrie Contey, a co-runner of slowfamilyliving.com, in a recent interview on NBC, she says that “making a connection with your child early is crucial because most of your life you spend with your child as an adult” Comparing these two extremes I have come to the conclusion that neither competitive parenting nor slow parenting is healthier for the child. For each style, the parents wanted the child to become successful in a different

284 way. For Tiger Mothers, they wanted their child to be academically successful. In Stage Mothers we see mothers attempting to have their child be socially successful, and Helicopter parents want their child to be emotionally successful. For slow parents, they want their child to receive the best childhood. However, my research has drawn me to believe that none of these parenting styles lead to a completely successful child. Although each shows what the child gains from it, the negative effects on the child outweigh the positive. This is why I have come to the conclusion that neither extreme is correct for the child. However, a balance between the two will raise a completely successful child.

Every parent wants their child to be successful. The child can become very successful through employment, they become Miss America, or they become a stay-at-home mother, but each parenting style will inevitably lead to a successful child. However, to raise a perfectly successful child, the parents must accept a balance between all extremes.

Works Cited Belkin, Lisa. "What Is Slow-Parenting?" New York Times. 8 Apr. 2008. Web. 13 May 2011.

Carrie Contey. “Slow Down Your Family.” Interview. NBC Today Show. Web. 13 May 2011.

Chua, Amy. The Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother. New York, Penguin Press. May 13, 2011.

Hanson, Kristin. “Stage Mothers: Mother-Daughter Tropes in Twentieth-Century American Drama.” Diss.

Louisiana State University, 2000. PDF. Hill, Erica. "Eye on Parenting: 'Helicopter' Parents." CBS News. 18 Aug. 2010. Web. 29 April 2011.

Krache, Donna. "How to Ground a 'helicopter Parent'". CNN Articles. CNN, 13 Aug. 2008. Web. 1 May 2011.

Pageant Mom Gives Botox to 8-Year-Old. ABC news. 12 May 2011. ABC news. Web. 13 May 2011.

Silverman, Robyn. "(Over)Protective Parents: Helpful or Harmful?". 30 July 2008. Web. 1 May 2011.

Shoup, Rick. Gonyea, Robert. Kuh George. “Helicopter Parents: Examining the Impact of Highly Involved Parents on Student Engagement and Educational Outcomes”. Diss. Indiana University. 2009. PDF.